[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]








           Aquaculture Monitoring Program
           Maine Department of Marine Resources






















           July 19,90

               SH
               35
               .M2
               P37
               1990



















            Financial Assistance for preparation of this document was provided
            through the Maine Coastal Program and the Maine Department of
            Marine Resources with funding from the U.S. Department of Commerce,
            Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, Under the Coastal
            Zone Management Act of 1972






















                                            STATE OF MAINE


                                 AQUACULTURE MONITORING PROGRAM







                                               Prepared for

                                            STATE OF  MAINE
                                      Department of Marine Resources
                                           State House Station 21
                                           Augusta, Maine 04333





                                               Prepared by

                                           PARAMETRIX, INC.
                                            13020 Northup Way
                                        Bellevue, Washington 98005





                                                July 1990












                                                   TABLE OF CONTENTS





                 INTRODUC7ION         ..................................................                      1
                        Background on aquaculture industry       ...............................              1
                        Need for organized approach to environmental monitoring        ...............        2

                 THE COAST OF MAINE            ............................................                   3
                        Tides and currents   ......................                                           4
                        Stratification  .................................................                     5


                 AQUACULTURE REGULATIONS IN OTHER AREAS                         ....................          6
                        Maine    ......................................................                       6
                        Washington    .................................................                     11
                        British Columbia   .............................................                    15
                        Norway    .....................................             ; ...............       18

                 MONITORING PROGRAMS               ........................................                 21
                        Maine    .....................................................                      21
                        Washington    .................................................                     25
                        British Columbia   .............................................                    33
                        Scotland    ...................................................                     37
                        Ireland   .....................................................                     38


                 RECOMMENDATIONS             ............................................                   41
                        Lease of aquatic lands    .........................................                 41
                        Public notice & review    .........................................                 44
                        Siting guidelines  ..............................................                   44
                        Annual monitoring surveys     ......................................                46
                        Analytical protocols   ...........................................                  48

                 REFERENCES         ...................................................                     55



                 APPENDICES


                 A      Estimated costs for typical monitoring parameters

                 B      The potential for siting guidelines based on erosional current velocities














                                            LIST OF TABLES



                                                                                       Page


              Table 1.    Summary of monitoring requirements for farms sited under the
                          Washington State Interim Guidelines . ........................  26

              Table 2.    Water quality standards and. monitoring frequency required in fish
                          farming NPDES permit  ....................................      31

              Table 3.    Water quality criteria for maximum allowable difference between
                          stations  ................................................      50












                                                         INTRODUCTION



                   The recent rapid development of the fish farming industry in Maine, as well as in many
                   other parts of the world, has lead to an interest in how this activity may affect the aquatic
                   environment. This report identifies the types of regulatory program that are being used
                   throughout the world to manage salmon aquaculture, and the environmental monitoring
                   programs that have been developed to ensure that fish farming does not have a significant
                   effect on the environment.


                   BACKGROUND ON AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY

                   Efforts to artificially raise salmon have been undertaken since the late 1800s when
                   hatcheries were developed to increase salmon harvests. Hatcheries raised salmon from eggs
                   and then released them to the wild for the adult phase of their life cycle. As these fish
                   returned to spawn, some of the stock was harvested by the commercial fishing industry and
                   recreational anglers. The remaining fish escaped harvest and spawned to continue the run.

                   ne commercial culture of farmed salmon began in Puget Sound, Washington, in the early
                   1970s when researchers from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the
                   University of Washington (UW) developed techniques for holding salmon smolts in net
                   cages and feeding them until they reached a marketable size. Two private facilities began
                   shortly thereafter to apply the techniques developed by NMFS and UW in the commercial
                   culture of Pacific salmon.

                   Later, the Norwegian government saw salmon farming as a means of supplementing the
                   supply of salmon available to its citizens. Factors such as overharvesting by the commercial
                   fishing industry, hydroelectric development, and the effects of acid rain caused "wild!' runs
                   of Atlantic salmon to decline severely. Because many of the coastal areas depended on
                   commercial fishing as a viable economic activity, the Norwegian government also saw
                   salmon farming as a means of stimulating the economy of rural, coastal areas.
                   Consequently, a major effort was directed at developing salmon farming as a feasible
                   industry. The success of this effort has been well documented, and Norway is now
                   considered the leader in the field of commercial salmon farming.

                   This success, combined with growing consumer demand within the United States for salmon,
                   led to an increased interest in commercial salmon farms in the United States, including
                   Maine, in the mid-1980s. There are presently 41 finfish leases, 43 shellfish leases, and 8
                   combination finfish and shellfish leases in Maine. Fish farming is still conducted at a
                   relatively modest scale in Maine. Of the 41 leases for finfish, the 19 active fish farming sites
                   in Maine produced an estimated 1,990,000 pounds in 1989. These sites have produced an
                   estimated 1,900,000 pounds between January and June of 1990 (Churchill 1990, personal
                   communication). For contrast, in 1989, there were 13 farms in Washington producing
                   roughly 8 million pounds of fish per year.














                NEED FOR ORGANIZED APPROACH TO ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

                Together with the increased interest in commercial farms, there have been numerous
                questions raised about the environmental effects from floating fish farms. While the
                industry itself is still evolving and research in this field is relatively recent, there have been
                four prominent reviews of the potential effects of floating fish farms: Weston (1986),
                Rosenthal et al (1988), Nature Conservancy Council (1989), and Parametrix (1989). These
                studies suggest that, in general, the environmental impacts of fish farming are known,
                although our knowledge is incomplete. The consensus of international opinion is -that these
                effects are usually highly localized and limited in scope for all well-sited farms. To ensure
                that farms are sited in appropriate locations and that their effects on the environment are
                known, a system of permitting and monitoring fish farms is necessary.

































                                                                 2












                                                    THE COAST OF MAINE

                   Physical parameters that are important to evaluate when siting aquaculture operations
                   include: (1) current velocities, (2) depth, and (3) stratification of the water column.
                   Although each farm should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis using site-specific
                   conditions, this section discusses some of the -parameters that should be considered.

                   The coast of Maine has an exceptionally complex current regime. The interaction of the
                   world's strongest tides, upwelling, winds, and fresh-water runoffs that are large enough to
                   be a significant factor on the local continental shelf, combined with a convoluted bathymetry
                   make Maine's coastal environment one of the nation@s most distinctive.

                   A detailed knowledge of the inshore currents is necessary to accurately assess the potential
                   impact of aquaculture on the coastal marine environment. The coast of Maine has one of
                   the most complex physical environments of the nation. The coastline is rugged with many
                   estuaries having large river inputs. The nearshore coast is relatively shallow, with many
                   areas having depths less than 20 m up to two-to-three miles offshore and the bathymetry less
                   than 111 rn is very uneven. The northern coast has many islands while the southern end of
                   the state does not have any islands. Therefore, a concise classification of the inshore
                   currents by geographic regions is a difficult task.

                   Maine is one of the few eastern states whose continental shelf is not exposed to the deep
                   Atlantic. Its coast constitutes much of the western boundary of the Gulf of Maine. The
                   Gulf is virtually an inland sea because the 40 m deep George's Bank to the east effectively
                   isolates the Gulf from the Atlantic. Counterclockwise gyres have been. identified over the
                   major basins within the gulf. For example, the eastern Maine coastal current is part of the
                   Jordan Basin gyre. Tidally-mixed waters from the mouth of the Bay of Fundy flow
                   southward along the coast to recirculate over the Jordan Basin. A westward resultant drift
                   exists along the coast west of.Mt. Desert Island.

                   The range of the tide in Maine is unusually large. It varies between 3 m in the south to 6
                   in at the approaches to the St. Croix river in the north. Along the coast east- of Portland
                   the flood tide is much stronger than ebb. Tidal-current speeds generally decrease as one
                   moves southward. This means that the average tidal current at Portland is about 10 cm/s,
                   but can exceed 125 cm/s through the Grand Manan Channel (U.S. Coastal Pilot 1988).

                   Freshwater runoff is an important factor in the northern part of the Gulf. The spring
                   freshet, which occurs in April or May, has a pronounced effect on salinity along the Maine
                   coast. The freshwater inflow is sufficient to intensify the southward flowing current along
                   the coast by adding to the baroclinic pressure gradient of the coastal limb of the Jordan
                   Basin gyre. Fisherman refer to the intensification as the "Spring Current".

                   Later, during the summer, upwelling-favorable southwesterlies tend to prevail. In simple
                   terms, the winds drive surface waters offshore and draw deep nutrient-rich waters inshore.


                                                                3










               The upwelling circulation contributes to the formation of a temperature front (occasionally
               multiple fronts). Increasing solar heat flux helps to strengthen the front, as does freshwater
               runoff.


               TIDES AND CURRENTS


               Tides


               Tidal  driven currents are generally the greatest force that disperse wastes for fish farms.
               The tide along the Maine coast is a mixed, mainly semi-diumal type. Direction of flow
               changes continuously in a clockwise rotation with very little slack water. The strength of
               tidal currents off the coast of Maine can vary considerably from site to site. In general, the
               tidal currents are greater in the northern parts of the state than in the southern parts due
               to the larger tidal range.

               However, in areas with a moderate tidal range there can still be a large tidal current where
               small channels connect large embayments to the open Gulf of Maine. This strong tidal
               current is the effect of trying to move a large amount of water through a narrow opening.
               The tidal current through a channel connecting a basin with the open ocean is easy to
               approximately calculate. One multiplies the area of the basin by the range to obtain the
               volume of water that must pass through the channel. Dividing by the cross-sectional area
               of the channel then gives the average speed of the current over the flood or ebb portion of
               the tidal cycle.

               Despite large speeds, there are two reasons why it is difficult to predict whether tidal
               currents will be effective in the dispersion of fish farm wastes. First, tidal flushing may not
               be as effective as the steady current of similar speed that sweeps away material. The second
               reason is related to the interaction of tides and bathymetry. The flow patterns that are set
               up within the bays and among the islands of central and northern Maine. are extremely
               intricate. Because of bathymetric effects, deflection of the tide depends on the direction it
               is going; which in turn depends on the phase of the tide and the influence of any non-tidal
               currents. In addition, a pattern of small interconnecting gyres appears to be a normal
               consequence (Parker 1982).

               Non-tidal Currents

               Non-tidal currents will vary by season. Winds are generally westerly, but often take on a
               northerly component in winter and a southerly component in summer. Strongest winds are
               generated by lows and cold fronts in fall and winter, and by fronts and thunderstorms during
               spring and summer. Extratropical cyclones can bring 30-foot waves and hurricane-force
               winds to the Gulf of Maine. Forty-or-so extratropical systems move across or close to the
               Gulf each year. T"here are an average of 2-to-4 such storms per month, and a maximum of
               10 per month. The most intense storms happen September through April. River runoff is
               at a maximum in April or May every year.


                                                              4










                   Non-tidal mean currents of 2-to-6 cm/s have been estimated for Penobscot Bay (Humphreys
 Al                and Pearce 1981). A value of 10 cm/s for the typical mean current was used by Parker
                   (1982) in his work in the Casco Bay area. A mean current of order 10 cm/s probably
                   represents a good general approximation, because the nearshore coastal current is about of
  t                this magnitude (Townsend et al. 1985). A gross estimate for the nonsheltered maximum
                   wind driven currents to be used by mariners in coastal Maine (U.S. Coastal Pilot 1988) is
                   50 cm/s (1 knot).

                   STRATIFICATION

                   Stratification can alter the potential impact of aquaculture because current shear can result
                   and suppress vertical mixing of the water column. Seasonal evolution of the hydrographic
                   structure is determined by tidal stirring, seasonal heating, river runoff, and wind forcing
                   (including the creation of fronts by upwelling).

                   The impact of aquaculture on the levels of dissolved nitrogen in the surface layer will be
                   most pronounced in the summer when stratification is the strongest. River runoff will be
                   sufficient to help intensify stratification, but in many cases, will not be enough to cause a
                   significant mean current. The bays in Maine are complex so that sheltering from wind and
                   bathymetric steering of the tides will lead to some areas of weak currents. These areas will
                   be especially sensitive to impacts.

                   There is little stratification during the winter, which means that materials deposited on the
                   bottom can be stirred upward. In the present context this is very important because the bays
                   of Maine typically are very shallow with many depressions that are often isolated from
                   channels. These depressions could collect the deposition from aquaculture facilities. In the
                   winter, tidal stirring and storm-induced flows could then generate strong enough flows to
                   flush out the catchments.

                   The effectiveness of tide in verticial mixing can be described by what is termed the
                   destratification depth. A certain amount of friction is generated when the tide moves water
                   over the bottom. If the tidal current is swift, the amount of energy generated by friction can
                   cause sufficient turbulent mixing to overcome the potential energy    of stratification provided
                   that the depth is not so great that the frictional energy is dissipated.











                                                                  5











                                 AQUACULTURE REGULATIONS IN OTHER AREAS


               T'he aquaculture industry world-wide has shown a dramatic increase in activity over the last
               10 years. Governments have developed a wide range of techniques to manage the potential
               environmental effects of aquaculture. Some environmental programs were in place before
               the aquaculture industry existed, while other programs have been established specifically for
               aquaculture.    The salmon aquaculture industry is in the relatively early stages of
               development and these regulations continue to change as more information becomes
               available. This chapter describes regulatory approaches used in four major salmon
               aquaculture areas: (1) Maine, (2) Washington, (3) British Columbia, and (4) Norway.

               MAINE


               The State of Maine regulates fish farms through two primary mechanisms: (1) the Water
               Quality Certificate from the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), and (2) the
               lease for the use of State aquatic lands for aquaculture from the Department of Marine
               Resources (DMR).

               In addition to State requirements, fish farmers in Maine must also obtain a Section 10
               permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE), and a National Pollution Discharge
               Elimination System permit (NPDES) from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
               The Region I (New England) office of EPA is presently determining what will be required
               of fish farmers in Maine for the NPDES permit.

               Water Quality Certifleate

               A water quality certificate is required by the Department of Environmental Protection to
               ensure that discharges to State waters do not have a significant adverse effect on water
               quality. Estuarine and marine waters in Maine have been classified into three categories
               (SA, SB, and SC) based on their existing quality (38 M.S.R.A_ ï¿½ 465-B). Included in this
               categorization are standards that define suitable uses for the water, acceptable levels of
               dissolved oxygen and bacteria, and acceptable levels of discharge to State waters. Presently,
               fish farms are prohibited in Class SA waters and allowed in waters classified as SB or SC.

               To receive a lease from DMR, the DEP must certify that the farm will not have a significant
               adverse effect on water quality or violate the water quality standards of the receiving water.
               Farms that do not choose to seek a lease from DMR, are still required to obtain a Water
               Quality Certificate from DEP.

               The certification process includes a number of criteria that the farmer must meet for
               issuance of the Water Quality Certificate. These criteria include:




                                                              6










                         lease area is in SB and/or SC waters
                         minimum current velocities midway between the bottom of the nets and the sea floor
                         are 0. 1 knots (5 cm/sec)
                         anti-foulant agents are registered for use by the Pesticide Control Board
                         fish feed is in pellet form
                         dead fish and viscera are not disposed in State waters
                         the facility can be inspected by DEP staff during working hours.

                  In addition to the criteria above, the farm must also maintain a minimum separation
                  distance between the bottom of the nets and the sea floor. The DEP has developed the
                  following formula based on Dr. Donald Weston's depth-current curves (SAIC 1986) to
                  determine the minimum separation distance based on the annual production of the farm.

                     Zmin = 0.0003 (P) - 0.425 (V) + 31

                     where:


                            P = production capacity in pounds per year
                            V = mean current velocity in cm/sec at mid-point between the bottom of the
                                    nets and the sea floor (measured through one tidal cycle).

                  Regardless of the farm's annual production, the minimum distance required between' the
                  bottom of the nets and the sea floor is 10 ft and the maximum is 60 ft.

                  In addition to meeting the criteria discussed above, existing farms are completing semi-
                  environmental monitoring of their farms in the spring and late summer. T'he types of data
                  being collected in these monitoring plans is described in Chapter 4.

                  Aguaculture Leases

                  The Department of Marine Resources has an established process whereby aquaculture
                  operations can lease State aquatic lands for their facilities (12 M.R.S.A ï¿½ 6072). Leases are
                  not  resently required for the use of State aquatic lands for aquaculture, however, fish
                  farmers benefit by obtaining a lease in gaining a vested interest in the site.

                  The regulations prescribing the procedures and substantive criteria governing the
                  consideration of aquaculture leases contain five major elements:

                         information supplied with the application
                         notice of lease and public hearing
                         site review
                         procedures for the lease hearing
                         decision by the Commissioner.



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               Information supplied with the application Applicants for an aquaculture lease must supply
               a variety of information to DMR as part of the application process. Some of the
               information required includes:

                       what species will be cultured at the site and the source of those orga
                       the environmental evaluation of the site that lead to the decision to seek a lease

                       the degree of exclusive use required by the project
                       a description of the navigational uses at the site

                       a description of commercial and recreational fishing occurring at and near the site
                       written permission from every riparian owner whose land will be used and a
                       description of riparian owner's use of the lease site for access to riparian owned land
                       the financial and technical capabilities of the applicant to successfully accomplish the
                       proposed project.

               The application is submitted to DNM with a non-refundable fee based upon the size of the
               proposed lease area.

               Notice of lease and public hearin . The lease regulations also include provisions for
               notifying relevant state and federal agencies, riparian owners, and the general public of the
               lease application and upcoming public hearing. At least 30 days prior to the date of the
               hearing, DMR must mail a copy of the hearing notice, lease application, and a chart
               describing the lease area to the groups listed above. In addition, DMR must publish
               information about the proposed aquaculture operation and the lease hearing at least twice
               in a newspaper that serves the area affected by the lease. The lease regulations also include
               provisions for individuals or groups who wish to apply for intervenor status in the
               adjudicatory process.

               Site review. Prior to the lease hearing, DNIR undertakes an inspection of the lease site and
               nearby area. A variety of information is collected and documented in a Site Review report
               for submittal to the Hearing Officer. A further discussion of the types of information
               collected in this pre-lease site review is included in Chapter 4.

               Lease hearing procedures.     The aquaculture lease regulations also include procedures for
               conducting the lease hearing. These procedures include regulations for the presiding
               officer's authority, general conduct of the hearing, the nature of admissible evidence, and
               public participation in the hearing process.

               Decision by the Commissioner. After the lease hearing is completed, the Hearing Officer
               prepares a report to the Commissioner which includes proposed findings of fact, conclusions
               of law, and recommendations. Within 120 days after the hearing, the Commissioner reviews
               the record and renders a written decision. In making a decision, the Commissioner
               considers a number of issues in relation to the statutory criteria. These issues include:




                                                              8










                        riparian owner ingress/egress
                        navigation
                        commercial/recreational fishing
                        other aquaculture uses
                        ability of the marine area to accommodate aquaculture without adverse effects
                        source of cultured organisms
                        interference with public facilities.

                 The aquaculture lease regulations also require a 2,000 ft separation between farms unless,
                 by mutual consent, both farms agree to have their leases closer than the 2,000 ft minimum.

                 Conditions that govern the use of the lease area and place limitations on the aquaculture
                 operation can be included with the lease, and the Commissioner may require that
                 environmental monitoring be conducted at the lease site. The types of monitoring that are
                 presently being completed at fish farms is discussed in Chapter 4. The Commissioner
                 conducts an annual review of each aquaculture lease and can revoke the lease if lease
                 conditions, terms of the lease, or any applicable law has been violated.

                 Section 10 permit

                 Under Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, the Army Corps of Engineers
                 (COE) requires fish farmers in Maine to apply for a permit to install and maintain floating
                 fish pens. The Section 10 permit establishes a federal permitting process whereby public
                 interests are considered. Factors that are considered include: fish and wildlife values,
                 recreation, navigation, economics, aesthetics, and general environmental concerns. Through
                 the Section 10 permitting process, the COE receives input from other relevant federal
                 agencies such as the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMYS), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                 Service (USF&WS), and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG).

                 Federal agencies have drafted guidelines for obtaining Section 10 permits. If a proposed
                 farm is within the guidelines, then the application will be approved without a requirement
                 for baseline or monitoring studies. Fanns that do not meet the guidelines may still be
                 approved. However, these applications will be conditioned to require the applicant to
                 provide adequate information and assessments to assure federal agencies that the farm will
                 not endanger the public interest. These farms would also be monitored to assess the
                 environmental effects of their operation and the need for remedial action. The present
                 draft guidelines (March 1990) include four primary elements:

                        application and general information
                        siting and operational guidelines
                        environmental description and impact assessment
                        monitoring




                                                              9










                 Application-and Leneral information The application guidelines provide the applicant with
                 the proper format for the application. Included in this section are guidelines for what has
                 to be shown on the drawings, drawing scale, confirmation that the reporting requirements
                 for incidental take of marine mammals have been met, and confirmation that adequate
                 information is available to determine the use of the area by threatened and endangered
                 species.

                 General information that should be supplied with the application include:

                        estimated annual production
                        estimate of employment opportunities created by the proposal
                        any local and state approvals secured by the applicant
                        a statement of technical ability in the field of aquaculture
                        a description of the anchoring system and how individual components will be secured                  it
                        to prevent loss during accidental breakup
                        confirmation that the farm will be marked and lighted in accordance with USCG
                        regulations
                        the amount and composition of fish wastes and how the wastes will be disposed
                        how effluents from bathrooms, showers, sinks, and medication tanks will be disposed
                        a detailed description of day-to-day operations
                        information on any upland facilities associated with the floating farm
                        the navigational use in the area
                        a description of structures within 2,000 ft
                        the present upland uses in the area

                 Siting and operational gmidelhies. If a proposal meets the following siting and operational
                 requirements, no baseline or monitoring of the site will be required:

                        No structure may extend into any area normally used for navigatior,4 federal
                        anchorage, or as a turning basin.         Structures should not be closer to these
                        navigational routes than 3 times the channel depth.

                        Farms should have a minimum separation distance between the bottom of the net
                        and the sea floor. The COE guidelines use a formula developed by DEP that is
                        based on annual production and mean current velocity to establish the minimum
                        distance requirements. The absolute minimum distance between the bottom of the
                        nets and the sea floor at mean low tide is 10 ft, and the minimum separation distance
                        increases with increasing water depth to a maximum separation of 60 ft.

                        Minimum mean current velocities halfway between the bottom of the pens and the
                        sea floor are 0.1 knots (5 cm/sec).

                        Applicants must identify the source of their seed stock or juveniles, and must confirm
                        that the fish or eggs they use will be from North American stocks from west of the


                                                                10.










                         Continental Divide. In addition, applicants must confirm that only eggs from North
                         American stocks will be used after 1995.

                         Farms may not be located within 1/4mile of any area named in acts of Congress or
                         Presidential proclamations as national parks, wilderness areas, recreational areas,
                         lakeshores, natural landmarks, or wildlife refuges.

                         Farms may not be located within 1/4 mile of any area designated as high-use or
                         critical habitat for any threatened or endangered species protected under federal or
                         State law. If protected species are present in the area of the proposed farm, the
                         applicant must document their location within a 1-mile radius of the site. T11e-
                         applicant must also provide a detailed analysis of the potential impacts of the project
                         on these species and propose monitoring measures.

                         Farms may not be sited near eelgrass beds, kelp beds, or other subtidal habitats that
                         provide important nursery habitat for fish and shellfish.

                         Farms may not be sited in areas supporting significant commercial or recreational
                         fishing or boating activities.

                  Environmental description and impact assessment. In this section, the applicant is required
                  to provide the COE with the environmental information necessary to evaluate the site. The
                  specific requirements are discussed further in Chapter 4.

                  Monitoring. If a Section 10 permit is issued to a farm that does not meet the guidelines
                  discussed above, then the applicant will be required to complete environmental monitoring
                  of the site. These specific monitoring requirements are also discussed in Chapter 4.

                  National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (N'PDES) permit

                  The NPDES permit system was created by Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollution
                  Control Act to ensure that point source discharges would not impair the nation's water
                  quality. In May 1989, EPA determined that floating fish farms should be required to obtain
                  NPDES permits. The first permits for fish farms were issued in the state of Washington in
                  April 1990 (see the Washington section of this chapter and Chapter 4 for a further
                  discussion of the NPDES requirements) and are currently under appeal. The Region I
                  (New England) office of EPA is currently in the process of determining what requirements
                  will be part of NPDES permits for fish farms in Maine.

                  WASHINGTON

                  The State of Washington uses a number of existing State and federal environmental
                  programs and regulatory mechanisms to manage the aquaculture industry. The primary
                  programs are the:


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                       State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA)
                       Shoreline Management Act (SMA)
                       Interim Guidelines for the Management of Salmon Net-Pen Culture in Puget Sound
                       Hydraulic Project Approval (HPA) permit
                       Aquatic Lands Act
                       Finfish/Import Transfer permit
                       National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit
                       U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Section 10 permit.

                Washingion State Environmental Policy Act of 1971

                'Me State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) was passed by the Washington State
                Legislature in 1971 to help everyone in the state make better environmental decisions.
                SEPA contains substantive policies and goals which apply to actions at aLl levels of
                government within the state. When agencies, local governments, or private developers
                initiate an action, SEPA!s provisions mandate that specific procedures be followed to ensure
                that appropriate consideration be given to environmental factors. Typically, the SEPA
                process is implemented at the local government level and the local governmental entity acts
                as the "lead agency" in administering the environmental review. State agencies can also
                serve as "lead agencies" for overseeing the environmental review.

                When someone submits a permit application for a private development such as a shopping
                center, or when an agency proposes some activity, plan, or policy; SEPA requires them to
                complete an environmental checklist. The purpose of the checklist is to identify potential
                impacts of the proposal and to help the lead agency determine if further environmental
                review is necessary. The checklist requires the applicant to supply basic information about
                the proposal in areas such as air and water resources, soils, plants and animals, land and
                shoreline use, aesthetics, environmental health, recreation, historic and cultural preservation,
                transportation, public services, and utilities. The checklist is distributed to state resource
                agencies for their comments on the potential environmental impacts. From the information
                supplied on the checklist and the comments received from agencies with environmental
                expertise, the lead agency makes a "threshold determination" whether a project may have
                probable significant adverse impacts on the environment.

                There are three possible threshold determinations that can be made under SEPA: (1) a
                determination of nonsignificance (DNS) (the project will not have a significant adverse
                impact on the environment), (2) a mitigated determination of nonsignificance (Mitigated
                DNS) (the project will not have significant adverse impacts if mitigation measures are
                incorporated into the proposal, and (3) a determination of significance (DS) (a proposal may
                have significant impacts and an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary to
                discuss the potential impacts and their significance). T'he threshold determination made by
                the lead agency is appealable.




                                                               12










                  If a proposal receives a DNS or the applicant agrees to,a Mitigated DNS, the project may
                  proceed with other permitting applications. If a proposal receives a DS, then an EIS must
                  be completed before any further approvals are granted. SEPA regulations include
                  provisions for limiting the scope of the EIS to focus only on those issues that are identified
                  as having a probable significant adverse impact on the environment. The EIS is initially
                  published as a Draft for public and agency review. After considering all comments
                  submitted on the Draft and making any necessary revisions, the EIS is issued as a Final EIS.
                  Adoption of the Final EIS by a lead agency is also appealable. Once a DNS, Mitigated
                  DNS, or a Final EIS is issued and all appeals resolved, the SEPA environmental review
                  process is over.

                  Shoreline Management Act of 1971

                  The Washington Shoreline Management Act (SMA) was implemented to assure appropriate
                  and orderly development of the State's shorelines, and provide for State shoreline
                  management by planning for and fostering all reasonable uses in a manner that enhances
                  the public interest, protects against environmental impacts, and preserves the natural
                  character of the shorelines.

                  'ne SMA was established as a cooperative management program between local
                  governments and the State. The SMA required cities and counties, with assistance from the
                  State, to complete three tasks: (1) inventory shoreline characteristics and resources, (2)
                  develop a shoreline master program in compliance with the SMA and State guidelines, but
                  tailored to local conditions, and (3) develop a permit system to *regulate substantial
                  development in the shoreline area.

                  Within State guidelines, each local jurisdiction is responsible for developing and
                  administering its own local shoreline master program with goals, policies, and regulations
                  adjusted to fit local conditions. Each local master program includes a categorization of the
                  shoreline into different environmental designations such as urban', rural, conservancy, or
                  natural. This system is designed to provide a uniform basis for applying policies and use
                  regulations within distinctively different shoreline areas. These categories are based on the
                  existing development pattern, the biophysical capabilities and limitations of the shoreline
                  being considered for development, and the goals and aspirations of local citizenry.

                  In addition to categorizing the shoreline area, the local master program includes regulations
                  for use activities that typically occur in shoreline- areas such as piers and marinas,
                  aquaculture, residential development, commercial development, forest management
                  practices, port and water-related uses, bulkheads and breakwaters, recreation, archaeological
                  and historical sites, dredging, and utility development.

                  The SMA also required local governments to develop a permit system to regulate substantial
                  development in the shoreline area. With some exemptions, most development proposed for
                  the shoreline must receive a shoreline permit before construction. Permit applications

                                                                13










               receive public review and are evaluated against the existing goals, policies, and regulations
               contained in the local master program. Potential environmental impacts are reviewed under
               SEPA and are considered during the shoreline permit decisionmaking process.

               Interim Guidelines


               The Interim Guidelines were developed by Dr. Donald Weston for the State of Washington
               to provide a basis for a coordinated approach to the management of salmon farming in
               Puget Sound. The Guidelines also provide a mechanism for collecting environmental data
               to ensure that floating fish farms would not have a significant adverse impact on the
               environment. Included in the Guidelines are three major components:                (1) a site
               characterization survey, (2) a baseline survey, and (3) annual monitoring. The Guidelines
               categorize farms into three different size classes, and base the amount of necessary
               environmental data collection on the size of the farm. Because they have less effect on the
               environment, smaller farms have less requirements for environmental data collection and
               annual monitoring. The details of the Guidelines are contained in Chapter 4.

               JH
                @draulic Proiect Approval

               The Hydraulic Code of Washington establishes regulations to protect food fish, shellfish, and
               game fish species and their habitat from impacts of construction projects that use any of the
               marine or fresh waters of the State. The Hydraulic Project Approval (HPA) permit requires
               projects to demonstrate that they are designed to provide adequate protection to fish species
               and habitats. The HPA permit allows State fisheries agencies to review projects on a case-
               by-case basis to determine the potential impacts on fisheries resources.

               State Aguatic Lands Lease

               The State of Washington owns 1,300 miles of tidelands and all the submerged land below
               extreme low tide in the state. The Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
               acts as the proprietary manager for State-owned public lands. Uses of public aquatic lands
               such as commercial fish farms, docks, and marinas; require ground leases from DNR.
               Leases specify location, structural development, operational practices, lease terms,
               environmental monitoring, rent, and other requirements. In addition, all lessees must obtain
               all required local, state, and federal permits.

               Finfish ImportlTransfer Permit

               This permit is required by the Washington Department of Fisheries (Vv9DF) for anyone who
               wishes to import aquatic organisms into State waters for culture purposes,, or to transfer
               these organisms from one area to another within the State. The purpose of this permit is
               to assure that diseases, pests, or predators are not introduced into State waters. All
               introductions of new species are assessed for potential environmental impacts during the
               SEPA review process.


                                                             14










                  National Pollution Discharge Elimination System Permit (NPDES)

                  The NPDES program, under section 402 of the Clean Water Act, was established to control
                  point source discharges. Tle NPDES program allows the Environmental Protection Agency
                  (EPA) or delegated state agencies the ability to prescribe conditions to ensure that
                  discharges from point sources will comply with the requirements of the Clean Water Act.

                  In May 1989, EPA determined that some salmon farms in the state of Washington
                  constitute "concentrated aquatic animal production facilities" under 40 C.F.R. ï¿½122.24.
                  Presently, it appears that all fish farms are likely to be considered as concentrated aquatic
                  animal production facilities in the future. EPA and the Washington Department of Ecology
                  (WDOE) issued draft NPDES permits for three salmon farms in late December 1989. The
                  Draft permit included conditions and monitoring requirements based on the Interim
                  Guidelines. After public review and comment, WDOE issued Final NPDES permits for the
                  three farms in April 1990. These permits have been appealed to the state Pollution Control
                  Hearings Board. This appeal board will determine if the permit conditions and monitoring
                  requirements in the NPDES permits are adequate to protect the environment. See Chapter
                  4 for a detailed discussion of the requirements of the NPDES permit.

                  U.S. Amy CoEps of Engineers Section 10 Permit

                  The Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) reviews projects in State waters for their probable
                  impact on the public interest. Factors that are considered during their review inclu de such
                  areas as: fish and wildlife values, general environmental concerns, economics, conservation,
                  aesthetics, navigation, historic values, safety, and in general, the needs and welfare of the
                  people. During the Section 10 permit review process, other federal agencies such as the
                  National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USF&WS),
                  the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), and EPA also review the permit proposal for potential
                  environmental impacts.

                  In Washington, all farms must obtain a Section 10 permit. Because the substantive
                  environmental issues involving salmon farms have been identified and resolved through the
                  Shoreline permit and the SEPA review processes, the Section 10 permit is primarily a
                  formality. If federal issues such as navigation and endangered species are not adequately
                  covered through the State and local processes, then federal agencies can use the Section 10
                  permitting process to ensure their concerns are addressed.

                  BRITISH C   OLUMBIA


                  The provincial government of British Columbia is the primary entity responsible for siting
                  and regulating salmon farms in British Columbia. Although local governments have some
                  input over aesthetic issues along their shorelines, they do not have a framework such as the
                  Washington Shoreline Management Act for regulating activities off their shorelines. Ail
                  aquaculture activities in British Columbia must obtain a variety of provincial and federal










                permits and authorizations similar to those required in Washington. Examples of these
                permits include:

                       a lease from the provincial government to use provincial lands for aquaculture

                       an approval from the Coast Guard related to navigation issues

                       an approval from the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans that sensitive
                       fish habitats, wild stocks, and commercial, recreational, and Native food fisheries will
                       not be affected

                       demonstration of compliance with Municipal zoning requirements

                       an approved Fish Farm Development Plan

                       an insurance and performance bond

                       a Transplant Permit for moving eggs, smolts, or fish

                       an Import Permit for bringing Atlantic salmon into the province, if applicable

                       an annual production report detailing the amount of fish purchased and sold during
                       the year.


                The government of British Columbia has established locational. guidelines for siting farms,
                undertaken Coastal Resource Identification Studies (CRIS) in specific areas to identify and
                resolve use conflicts between farms and existing aquatic users, and has implemented an
                environmental monitoring program that is described in Chapter 4.

                Locational Guidelines

                The provincial government has established locational guidelines       for siting farms. These
                siting guidelines include requirements that fish farms may not be located:

                       within 3 km of an existing fish farm

                       within 1 km of a Park or Ecological Reserve

                       within 125 m of a commercial or recreational shellfish bed


                       near sensitive fish habitats


                       within 1 km of the mouth of a salmon-bearing stream


                                                              16














                  Coastal Resource Identiflcation Studv (CRIS)

                  In 1986, the government of British Columbia identified several areas of their coast that had
                  an expanding aquaculture industry and increasing conflicts with existing users of the marine
                  environment. `17he Ministry of Forests and Lands undertook studies in these areas to
                  evaluate the extent of the conflicts. T"he intent of the Coastal Resource Identification
                  Studies (CRIS) was to identify coastal waters of high value for a wide range of resource
                  interests, and use this information to direct aquaculture applications away from areas where
                  competing interests were high.

                  'ne Ministry of Forests and Lands consulted local, federal, and provincial agencies;
                  commercial fishing groups; environmental organizations; commercial and recreational
                  boating associations; and aquaculture groups. Each group was invited to participate by
                  identifying areas that were "critical" or "important" to its specific activities. Using this
                  information from all groups, the Ministry of Forests and Lands categorized the coastal
                  waters in the study area into one of three groups based on the anticipated level of conflicts:
                  (1) Conditional Opportunity Areas, (2) Limited Opportunity Areas, and (3) No Opportunity
                  Areas. Guidelines for each area are summarized below.

                  Conditional QpRortunfty Areas. Applications in these areas follow the normal application
                  procedures, but include a minimum spacing between farms of 3 km and a requirement for
                  public notice. Proponents must. notify adjacent landowners (within I km of site and 300 m
                  inland), publish a notice of application in a specified newspaper, place a notice of
                  application at the site, and provide their development plans to key federal and provincial
                  agencies and local governments for comment. In addition, the farmer may be requested to
                  supply selected interest groups with a copy of the development plans for their comments.

                  Limited ORnortunity Areas.        This classification is slightly more restrictive than the
                  Conditional Opportunity Area described above. 'ne Ministry of Forests and Lands will
                  consider aquaculture applications in these areas where relevant user group interests
                  identified by the CRIS can be reconciled or accommodated by the farmer. In addition to
                  the normal application procedures, farmers will be required to contact relevant public
                  groups with an interest in the area. Written evidence of the interest groups position on the
                  proposal must be submitted to the Ministry before a lease application is processed. Any
                  special siting requirements necessary to accommodate interest group concerns will be
                  incorporated into the lease document. Also, the public review time is expanded to 60 days
                  to provide extra time for interest group review.

                  No Opportunfty Areas. As the name implies, these areas are off-limits to any aquaculture
                  development because of the intensity of existing uses of the area.

                  This process provides a mechanism for groups who are currently using marine waters to
                  have a voice in siting aquaculture facilities. However, the system is weakened by the fact


  k                                                             17










               that groups with a vested interest in identifying the maximum amount of coastal area as
               "important" or "critical" were involved in helping determine which areas should be restricted
               to further aquaculture development. Some of the interest groups completed detailed,
               thoughtful maps of the areas that were important to them; while other groups identified all
               coastal waters as important. A significant amount of interpretation was required on the part
               of the Ministry. Only four areas have had CRIS studies completed. Aquaculture operations
               proposed in coastal waters outside of these four areas follow standard application
               procedures.

               NORWAY


               Detailed information on aquaculture management program in Norway has been limited due
               to distance and language barriers. However, one program that has received considerable
               attention is the LENKA program.

               LENKA


               LENKA was an intensive three-year coastal zone management program started in Norway
               in 1987 to establish an efficient and standardized tool for coastal zone planning. The intent
               of the Norwegian government was to have a planning tool to aid in the development of the
               aquaculture industry in such a way as to maintain high productivity while minimizing
               environmental effects and conflicts with fisheries, environmental groups, and recreational
               activities. The program cost approximately 6.5 million dollars (U.S.).

               The LENKA program has three primary components: (1) partitioning of the coast into
               manageable sections, (2) characterizing each geographic section,, and (3) developing a model
               for assessing the capacity of each area for aquaculture development. More information on
               these three components are given below.

               Partition Un. Norway's 57,000 km coastline -was divided into numerous sub-areas (called
               LENKA zones) of manageable size such that each major water body could be addressed
               indepe ndently. Tbus, the LENKA zones consist of archipelagos, fjords, large bays, and
               open-fjord basins.

               Characterizin      Each LENKA zone was characterized for four different groups of
               parameters: (1) marine environment, (2) existing exploitation, (3) infrastructure, and (4)
               special areas. The primary parameters evaluated in each category are:

                   Marine Environment

                      Pollution. Contamination of the environment effects the health or marketability of
                      fish raised in the water. 'nis parameter included evaluating toxins and organic
                      loadings as pollutants. Massive outlets from industry and agriculture were considered
                      most important.


                                                             18











                        Temperature. Temperatures     that are too low or too high can hinder aquaculture
                        development.     Areas with   regular long periods (greater than 6 weeks) of
                        temperatures below zero degrees centigrade were determined to be unsuitable for
                        aquaculture. Of special interest was the extreme temperatures occurring within a
                        time span of 5 to 6 years which LEINKA authorities defined as frequent.

                        Ice cover. Areas covered with ice at least every five years were of special interest.

                        Exposure. The parameter evaluated was wave height. Areas determined to be
                        suitable for aquaculture were those areas where wave heights did not exceed 2 m.

                        Depth. The general rule used in LENKA is that cages must be sited in waters at
                        least 20 rn deep. 'ney also leave open the.possibility of adjustments to this depth
                        criterion based upon local current velocities.
  all               Existing exploitation

                        This category evaluates the effect of potential aquaculture operations on ex@isting or
                        potential activities in the area. The following parameters were evaluated in this
                        category:

                              effects on settlement patterns
                              recreational activities
                              port development
                              fisheries
                              shipping traffic.

                    Infrastructure

                        This category deals with particular requirements which are necessary for an
                        aquaculture operation to succeed. In this category, the following parameters were
                        evaluated:


                              road development
                              distribution of manufactured feed
                              processing facilities
                              health service
                              waste disposal systems.

                   Special areas

                        This group of parameters details the potential conflicts that aquaculture facilities may
                        have on important biological habitats. Examples of the parameters include:



                                                           19











                              spawning habitat for important fisheries species
                              reserves for coastal birds and marine mammals.


                                                                                                               r
                aquaculture has two major aspects: (1) the evaluation of the capacity for organic loadings,
                Assessing LENKA zone capacity. 'Me assessment of the capacity of each LENKA zone fo

                and (2) the evaluation of available space in the water body. In addition, this component of
                the LENKA process takes into account the parameters described above.

                   Capacity for organic loading

                       Each LENKA zone is classified by topography. 'Mis reflects the water exchange
                       regime in the area and identifies areas that have significant water mixing problems
                       such as fjords with high sills. Areas are classified into one of three categories: A, B,
                       or C. Areas classified in the "A" category have the highest potential for aquaculture
                       production. 'Mough exact values have not yet been established, maximum annual
                       production will be limited to 1,000 metric tonnes (2.2 million pounds) within 16 kM2
                       areas. Annual production at individual sites (defined as I km2 areas) will also be
                       limited in size.    Class "B" sites have slightly lower capacity for aquaculture

                       special attention should be focused on oxygen depletion concerns. Aquaculture
                       development. Class "C" sites comprise areas such as basins and silled fjords where

                       development in Class "C" areas is not recommended unless sufficient data is
                       presented to ensure that impacts to the environment can be avoided.

                  Available space

                       A number of environmental parameters restrict the space available for aquaculture
                       development. Examples of these parameters include ice cover, exposed areas, cold
                       water, and shallow areas. In addition to environmental parameters, other uses of the
                       water restrict the available space. Examples of these include existing aquaculture
                       facilities, security zones for salmonids, areas for navigation, nature reserves, and
                       animal protection areas around bird and marine mammal habitat.

                       Subtracting all the areas that are restricted from the total area within a LENKA zone
                       gives a net areal capacity for aquaculture development. This area can then be
                       compared against the capacity of the LENKA zone for organic loading and the
                       smallest value will set the limit on future aquaculture development.










                                                             20













                                                    MONITORING PROGRAMS



                   Countries around the world with a salmon aquaculture industry have established a variety
                   of programs for monitoring the effects of fish farms on the environment. Some countries
                   such as Chile do very little monitoring of environmental effects, while other areas such as
                   the State of Washington have extensive monitoring programs. The goal of all of the
                   monitoring programs is to assess the effect of the farm on water quality and benthic
                   communities. This chapter describes the monitoring programs established in Maine,
                   Washington, British Columbia, Scotland, and Ireland. Appendix A presents an estimation
                   of the costs related to analyzing typical parameters common to many monitoring programs.

                   MMNE


                   The primary mechanisms for environmental monitoring of fish farms in Maine are through
                   the DNM's leasing program, and the requirements related to obtaining a Water Quality
                   Certificate from the DEP. In addition to the DMR and DEP requirements, monitoring may
                   also be required as part of the COE's Section 10 permit and EPA's NPDES permit.

                   Leasing program

                   The State of Maine does not currently require a lease for the use of state aquatic lands for
                   aquaculture. However, if a fish farmer obtains a lease, they secure a vested interest in the
                   aquatic area of their farm. As part of the leasing process, DMR staff conduct a preliminary
                   survey of the proposed site. 'nis preliminary survey contains four elements: (1) a diver
                   survey, (2) biological and water quality data collection, (3) water circulation data collection,
                   and (4) other associated information.

                   After the site of the proposed farm is located and marked, DMR staff examine the site by
                   SCUBA diving under where the pens will be. Qualitative observations are made of the
                   relative abundance of fauna at the site. The relative number of different species observed
                   on the dive are characterized as abundant, common, or occasional. In addition, the diver
                   notes the general bottom topography and substrate type.

                   While at the site, DN4R staff collect a variety of biological and water quality data. Included
                   in the series of data collected are:

                         Water samples (5 L) are taken at the surface, midwater depth, and near the bottom
                         to collect phytoplankton, zooplankton, and larval fish data. Samples are passed
                         through a 38ju sieve and resuspended in 50 ml of seawater. Species in these screened
                         samples are then identified and enumerated.





                                                                21











                      Water quality data is collected throughout the water column as a profile. Parameters
                      that are measured during the preliminary survey include: temperature, dissolved
                      oxygen, pH, and conductivity.

               Surface current velocity and direction are measured throughout a complete tidal cycle by
               an electronic meter placed at the center of the site. Subsurface currents are measured using
               a "window shade" drogue. Ile drogue is set so that the center of the window shade is 20
               ft below the surface of the water. The drogue is released from the center of the site and
               the direction and time required to travel a specific distance from the center of the site is
               recorded.


               In addition to the data collected at the site, DMR staff also collect other information
               relevant to the site. This information includes:

                      commercial fishing activity observed near the site
                      any available long-term current and temperature data relevant for the lease site
                      records of ice build-up in the area
                      the location of shellfish beds near the lease site
                      historical fishing areas near the site
                      location of moorings and areas used for navigation
                      location of critical habitats and any threatened and endangered species in the area
                      distances to other nearby aquaculture leases.

               This information is presented to the Hearing Officer as part of the lease hearing process
               described in Chapter 3. As a condition of obtaining a lease from DMR, fish farms must also
               obtain a water quality certification from DER

               Water gualijj certiricate

               Some existing farms are submitting environmental monitoring reports in the spring and late
               summer to support their Water Quality Certificate. Tlese reports consist of four elements:
               (1) establishing a set of sampling stations, (2) completing a diver survey, (3) collecting
               sediment samples for benthic analysis, and (4) discussing the results of the analyses.

               Establishing sampling stations. T"he placement and number of stations established for a
               particular farm varies from site to site. Factors that affect station placement include the
               type of pen (square or circular), configuration of the pens (rectangular or square), the
               distance between the pens, and the direction of the prevailing currents. Sampling stations
               are usually established below the perimeter of the pens, and at distances of 50 to 150 ft
               away from the pens.

               Diver sunLey. The diver survey includes observations of any organic accumulation under the
               pens, Beggiatoa bacteria mats, feed pellets, epifauna near the pens, and the consistency and
               composition of bottom sediments.


                                                          22










                  Benthic sampling. During the dive under the pens, divers use a 6 in diameter, 10 in long
                  piece of thin-walled PVC pipe to collect sediment samples at each station for the benthic
                  analysis. Sediment samples are washed through a 860 gm sieve and all material retained
                  on the screen is preserved in Formalin. The samples are sorted to separate organisms from
                  sediment and detritus, and then enumerated to the species level.

                  Results. The monitoring report discusses the qualitative observations made while diving
                  under the pens and the results of the benthic sampling. For each sampling station, the
                  benthic results are reported as the total number of species, number of capitellids
                  (opportunistic polychaete worm indicative of organic, enrichment), and a value indicating the
                  relative ecological diversity.

                  The monitoring reports also compare the present results to information from previous
                  monitoring reports. The difference between past and current data are discussed in a
                  qualitative manner and are not statistically evaluated. Nevertheless, the reports identify
                  whether the layer of organic material at each station below the pens is decreasing or
                  increasing over time.

                  Section 10 permit

                  The Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with other          federal agencies, have drafted
                  guidelines for what is required as part of the Section 10 permit application. The following
                  baseline information is presently required as part of the fish farm. application:

                         Sensitive habitats. 'ne applicant must identify any known locations of sensitive
                         habitats such as protected species, shellfish beds, eelgrass beds, kelp beds, and known
                         spawning or nursery areas.

                         Bottom characteristics. Required information includes bathymetry and seafloor
                         topography; and sediment type, composition, chemistry, and grain size. Using these
                         characteristics, farmers are required to identify the depositional character of the area,
                         the sediment deposition rate, and the degree to which the sediments are oxygenated.

                         Water currents. The required information includes current velocity and direction,
                         direction of the ebb and flood tides, direction of the prevailing current, depositional
                         or dispersive nature of the currents, flushing rate of nearshore or embayment areas,
                         and site wave characteristics and their prevailing direction. Applicants are further
                         required to use this information to hypothesize about the fate of wastes discharged
                         from the pens. The potential effects of storms on the pens are also to be evaluated.

                         Water chemistry. Information required for the Section 10 permit includes: dissolved
                         oxygen, salinity, total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand, total organic
                         carbon, sulfide, nitrate/nitrite, urea and ammonium, salinity and temperature
                         profiles, and turbidity levels.


                                                                23











                      Biota. The current COE guidelines for Section 10 permits require the applicant to
                      provide information on species composition, distribution and relative abundance, and
                      community structure of benthic invertebrates; occurrence of shellfish habitats; and
                      occurrence and relative abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation, fish, mararnals,
                      and birds.


                      Socio-economic factors. Section 10 permit applicants must provide information on
                      the type, duration, and frequency of all other existing activities and uses of the site
                      and surrounding area. The application must discuss participation, employment, and
                      socio-economic value of these uses and activities. This discussion must also evaluate
                      the degree to which the proposed project would exclude or otherwise affect these
                      activities or uses.


              If a Section 10 permit is granted for a site that does-not meet the COE guidelines discussed
                                        M
              iia Chapter 3, then the applicant may be required to provide monitoring data. T'he
              monitoring program includes 3 major elements: (1) a benthic survey, (2) collection of water
              quality data, and (3) a hydrographic survey.

              Benthic surv        This survey should document benthic habitat quality, invertebrate
              community structure, abundance, and species diversity, and the accumulation of any solids
              on the sea floor, their depth and lateral extent, and the nature of the accumulation. Divers
              should use cameras to record benthic habitat conditions under and near the pens in the
              control area.

              Benthic samples should be taken under the pens and in the surrounding area within 1,000
              ft from the farm perimeter. Transects for sampling stations should be selected based upon
              prevailing currents, and the anticipated net drift of waste material. Additional stations
              should be established in: (1) previously identified depositional areas of fine-grained
              sediments where farm waste are expected to accumulate, (2) sensitive habitat areas, and (3)
              appropriate reference areas.

              Samples should be taken monthly between July and September, and in alternate months
              during the rest of the year. Sediment samples should be analyzed for the following factors-

                     grain size
                     pH
                     redox potential
                     sediment BOD
                     total organic carbon
                     seabed oxygen consumption
                     sedimentation rate.






                                                           24










                  Water guality data. 'ne water quality variables required to be measured for the COE
                  monitoring plan include:

                          pH
                          dissolved oxygen
                          salinity
                          temperature
                          sulfide
                          nutrients
                          turbidity.


                  Water samples should be taken at 0.1 and 1.0 m above the sediment and at the bottom of
                  the nets. Five stations are required:

                          one up-current of the pens
                          one directly within the pens
                          three down-current of the pen's in the direction of the prevailing current.

                  The frequency of sampling should be the same as that for the benthic survey. The time and
                  tide conditions should be standardized, preferably at low tide and early in the morning.

                  Hydrography survey. The applicant must provide monitoring information to document
                  current velocity and direction both up- and down-current of the farm, the maximum and
                  minimum currents, and the prevailing current direction.

                  WASHINGTON


                  Presently, the State of Washington uses two different monitoring programs for the salmon
                  farming industry. The existing salmon farms in Washington (13 farms) are monitoring the
                  environment near the pens using the Interim Guidelines, and three new farms that are' not
                  yet developed will be required to follow the new NPDES monitoring requirements.

                  Interim Guidelines


                  The monitoring program contained in the Interim Guidelines was developed by Dr. Donald
                  Weston for the State of Washington to provide a mechanism for collecting environmental
                  data to ensure that floating fish farms would not have a significant adverse impact on the
                  environment. The monitoring program uses a three-tiered approach based on the amount
                  of fish produced over one year. Class I farms produce less than 20,000 lbs per year, Class
                  II farms produce between 20,000 and 100,000 lbs per year, and Class III farms raise more
                  than 100,000 lbs in a year. This classification system recognizes that smaller farms will have
                  less effect on the environment than large farms (over 100,000 lbs annual production) and


                                                               25











                should be subject to less extensive monitoring requirements. A summary of monitoring
                requirements for each size category is listed in Table 1.


                Table 1. Summary of monitoring requirements for farms sited under the Washington State
                          Interim Guidelines.




                                  Site Characterization           Baseline                  Annual
                                          Survey                   Survey                 Monitoring

                CLASSI              Prior consultation              None                     None
                FACILITIES            with agencies

                                   Bathymetric survey

                                  Hydrographic survey
                                    Current velocity
                                      and direction

                                      Diver survey


                CLASS 11            Same as Class I                None                Benthic survey
                FAC11=S                                                                  Diver survey


                CLASS III        Same as Class I and II     Sediment chemistry          Benthic survey
                FACM=S            with the addition of           sampling               Diver survey
                                                                                     Sediment chemistry
                                    Drogue tracking           Benthic infauna          Benthic infauna
                                  and vertical profiles          sampling
                                                                                        Water Quality
                                                                                          sampling

                                                                                     Current velocity &
                                                                                          direction



              The monitoring program in the Inteiim Guidelbies comprises three different environmental
              surveys: (1) site characterization, (2) baseline survey, and (3) annual monitoring. As can be
              seen in Table 1, all farms are not required to complete all three surveys.

              Site Characterization. This survey provides initial information to enable regulatory agencies
              to determine the potential extent of environmental effects at a particular site. It also

                                                            26










                    provides valuable- information to the prospective     fish farmer on the suitability of the site.'
                    The four elements of the site characterization survey are: (1) consultation with resource
                    agencies, (2) a bat hymetric survey, ( 3) a hydrographic survey, and (4) a diver survey.

                    Consultation with resource agend    .es. Prior to initiating any field work, the fish farmer is
                    encouraged to contact resource agencies and local, government. This initial contact allows
                    the agencies to identify any specific problems with a particular site such as nearby bald eagle
                    nests, chronic poor water quality, marine mammal haulout areas, or important fisheries
                    spawning areas. Local government can identify any potential conflicts with existing user
                    groups.

                    Bathyrnetric survey. The bathymetric survey should identify water depths where the pens will
                    be located out to a point 300 ft away from the farm perimeter. This survey should be done
                    along two perpendicular transects at a density and spacing to adequately characterize bottom
                    features such as depressions.

                    Hydrographic survey. The hydrographic survey comprises three components: (1) current
                    velocity and direction, (2) drogue tracking, and (3) vertical profiles of temperature, salinity,
                    and dissolved oxygen. Farms with annual production amounts of less than 100,000 lbs (Class
                    I and H) are not required to perform the drogue tracking and vertical hydrographic profiles.

                           Current velocity and direction. At the center of the potential farm site, current
                           velocity and direction should be monitored at a depth of 6 ft and mid-way between
                           the bottom of the pens and the sea floor. Current velocity and direction should be
                           monitored throughout one tidal cycle with a minimum of 10 measurements evenly
                           spaced throughout the cycle. Measurements should be made during "average" tides,
                           and should not be representative of either extreme neap or extreme spring tides.

                           Drogue tracidng. To estimate the potential fate of particulate material, drogue
                           tracking should be performed. This allows the identification of any potential eddies
                           that would recirculate suspended material back into the same area. Two drogues
                           should be released from the center of the potential farm and tracked for a minimum
                           of 8 hours. The drogues should be set at depths of 6 ft and mid-way between the
                           bottom of the proposed pens and the sea floor.

                           Temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen profiles. Vertical profiles may be used
                           to evaluate the intensity of. water column stratification. Measurements should be
                           taken at depths of 1, 10, 20, 30 ft, and at 30 ft intervals thereafter. the deepest
                           measurement should be made 3 ft above the sea floor.

                  Diver survey. The primary purpose of the diver survey is to identify any habitats of special
                  significance. The survey should cover the area below the proposed pens out to a point 300
                  ft from the farm perimeter. In waters greater than 75 ft in depth, the diver survey is not
                  required. Diver observations should include:


                                                                  27










                          substrate type
                          presence/absence of Beggiatoa mats
                          density of important flora and fauna such as crabs, shellfish, eelgrass, geoducks,
                          demersal fish, and other large invertebrates
                          geoduck and hardshell clam density should be estimated by counts along the
                          transects, and the abundance of other invertebrates and fishes should be
                          described in general terms such as "rare" or "common."

                Baseline- Surva. 'Me baseline survey is only required of Class       Ell farms (greater than
                100,000 lbs annual production) and is intended to characterize the sediment- chemistry and
                benthic community below the pens. This survey should be completed after the pens are in
                the water (to ensure their precise location), but before the pens are stocked with fish.

                Stations should be establish  ed along a transect on the "downcurrent" side of the pens
                beginning at the perimeter of the pens and extending away from the pens at distances of 20,
                50, 100, and 200 ft in the direction of prevailing currents. Each station should sampled by
                three replicate diver cores, or three gab or box corer samples. Each replicate should be
                analyzed for the following parameters:

                       total organic carbon
                       total Kjeldahl nitrogen
                       grain size distribution (median phi, percent gravel, sand, silt/clay)

                Transparent cores should be used so that the redox potential discontinuity (RPD) can be
                recorded.

                Benthic samples should be collected by either a diver using a core sam   pler (minimum area
                of 0.01 m2), or by a grab or box corer (minimum area of 0.1 m). The same grab/box corer
                samples used for sediment chemistry should be used for benthic analysis provided no more
                than one-quarter of the surface of each sample has been removed for sediment chemistry.
                The same stations used for sediment chemistry should be used for the benthic samples.
                Three replicates should be collected at each sampling station. Each benthic sample should
                be sieved on a 0.5 mm screen or nested 1.0 and 0.5 mm screens. All macrofauna retained
                on the screen should be identified to the lowest practical taxonomic level, generally species.

                A,nnual Monitorin . The annual monitoring recommended under the Interim Guidelines
                comprises four elements:      (1) a benthic survey, (2) water quality sampling, (3) a
                hydrographic survey, and (4) operational practices. Class.I facilities (less than 20,000 lbs
                annual production) are not required to complete annual monitoring, and Class H farms
                (between 20,000 and 100,000 lbs) are only required to conduct a diver survey.

                Benthic survey. The annual benthic monitoring survey consists of diver observations and
                sampling of sediment chemistry and benthic infauna. Transects, (minimum of 200 ft in
                length) should extend out from the perimeter of the farm on both axes. The transects


                                                             28









                   should be extended if sedimentation is visible beyond 200 ft from the pens. The same 75
                   ft depth limitation for diver safety is also in effect for annual monitoring.

                   The diver should estimate the depth of accumulation at 20 ft intervals along each transect
                   and note the greatest distance from the pens that the accumulation is present. In addition,
                   the diver should estimate the densities of demersal fish, crabs, and other invertebrates, and
                   should note the presence/absence of Begagiatoa mats.

                   Class M operations should collect sediment chemistry and benthic infauna samples. The
                   station location and sampling protocol should be exactly as described in the baseline benthic
                   survey.

                   Water quality survey. This survey should be conduc ted between July and September. Within
                   one hour of slack tide, three stations should be sampled: (1) 100 ft upcurrent of the pens,
                   (2) 20 ft downcurrent, and (3) 100 ft downcurrent. The precise location of the stations
                   should be located to monitor the water passing through the greatest possible number of
                   pens. Three replicates should be taken at each station at a depth mid-way between the
                   water surface and the bottom of the pens. Samples should be analyzed for the parameters
                   listed below.


                          dissolved oxygen
                          temperature
                          pH
                          aminonia
                          nitrite/nitrate (separate or combined)
                          concentration of un-ionized ammonia should be calculated.

                   Hydrographic survey. Current velocity and direction should be measured at the depth at
                   which the water quality samples are taken. A single measurement should be made 20 ft
                   downcurrent of the pens concurrently with collection of the water quality sample taken at
                   this station. Loading estimates (g/kg fish/day) should be calculated for ammonia and
                   nitrite/nitrate based on:

                          the net increase in concentration between the upeurrent station and the 20 ft
                          downcurrent station


                          the current velocity 20 ft downcurrent

                          the cross-sectional area of the farm

                          the weight of fish on hand at the time of the water quality survey.




                                                                29










                Operational practices. In addition to the raw data collected for the annual monitoring report
                and a description of the methods of data analysis and interpretation, the annual report
                should include the following information.

                       General description of the facility (species cult ured, size fish will be marketed)

                       Size, number, and configuration of pens at time of sampling

                       Annual production (Ibs)

                       Estimated weight of fish in pens during survey (lbs)

                       Stocking density (average and range) (lbs/ft)

                       Type of feed used and method of feeding

                       Type of antibiotics used and frequency of usage over the past year

                       Interactions with birds and marine m:;minals and summary of types and frequency
                       of predator control measures used

                       Types of antifoulants employed and frequency of net treatment.

                National Pollution Discharge Elimination PerTnit (NPDES)

                In May 1989, EPA determined that some salmon farms in the state of Washington may
                constitute "concentrated aquatic animal production facilities" under 40 C.F.R. ï¿½122.24. EPA
                delegates their authority for implementing the Clean Water Act to the Washington
                Department of Ecology (Ecology). After numerous public hearings, Ecology issued NPDES
                permits in late April 1990, to three new farms. These three permits 'represent the first
                NPDES permits ever issued for salmon farming facilities in the United States. Presently,
                the provisions of these NPDES permits are under appeal to a Washington State appeal
                board. The requirements included in the permit may change in the future based upon the
                outcome of the appeal process.

                The NPDES permit in its current form contains three major elemen        'ts: (1) water quality
                limitations and monitoring requirements, (2) an operations plan and best management
                practices, and (3) an environmental monitoring program.

                Water Qualft Limitations and Monitoring Requirements. This section of the NPDES
                permit allows fish farmers to discharge wastes provided they monitor certain parameters and
                do not exceed established water quality standards. Table 2 identifies the parameter,
                standard, and frequency of monitoring.



                                                             30










                  In addition to the water quality requirements, the NPDES permit includes a number of
                  conditions related to protecting water quality. These conditions require the permittee not
                  to discharge waste such as floating solids, soaps or detergents, or oily wastes. The permit
                  also does not allow the use or discharge of toxic chemicals to control the fouling of nets.
                  Other effluent conditions require the farmer to retrieve any floating debris that originates
                  from the farm, and requires the farmer to recover any large debris which enters the water
                  and sinks to a depth of less than 100 ft.

                  Table 2. Water quality standards and monitoring frequency required in fish farming
                             NPDES permit.


                   Water Quality Parameter        Standard                       Monitoring Frequency
                   Dissolved Oxygen               Minimum of 7.0 mg/L;           Three times per week
                                                  if less than 7.0 mg/l, no
                                                  decrease below ambient of
                                                  more than 0.2 mg/L
                   Turbidity                      No increase of more than 5     Once a week in February,
                                                  Nephelometric Turbidity        May, August, and
                                                  Units (NTU)                    November during net
                                                                                 cleaning
                   Settleable Solids              Annual accumulation            Monthly
                                                  limited to amounts which
                                                  do not result in the
                                                  establishment of anoxic

                                                  zones



                  Operating Conditions and Best Management Practices. This section of the NPDES permit
                  requires the farmer to develop a planof operations and best management practices (BMPs)
                  that minimizes the release of pollutants. Each of these elements has conditions that the
                  farmer must comply with; although many of these measures are already implemented by the
                  fish farming industry in general as techniques of good animal husbandry. Elements of a
                  plan of operations and best management practices include:

                         feeding operations
                         application of disease control medication
                         handling of fish mortalities
                         control and cleaning of net foulants
                         sanitary and solid wastes
                         spill control plan.



                                                               31










               Environmental Monitoring Progmm The format of the NPDES annual monitoring program
               is similar to the Interim Guidelines. This program has three major components: (1) water
               quality monitoring, (2) benthic monitoring, and (3) underwater photographic survey.

               Water   Quality Monitoring. The sampling stations are required in the NPDES permit are the
               same as those required in the Interim Guidelines:

                       100 ft upcurrent of the pens
                       100 ft downcurrent of the pens
                       20 ft downcurrent of the pens.

               The NPDES permit requires the following parameters to be measured:

                       temperature
                       salinity
                       pH
                       dissolved oxygen
                       turbidity
                       total dissolved nitrogen (ammonia and nitrite/nitrates)
                       (replicate samples for dissolved nitrogen must be collected from 20 ft downcurrent
                       station).

               Monitoring mu t be performed prior to the introduction of fish during the summer months
               if possible. Subsequent monitoring must be performed annually when the fish poundage
               exceeds 100,000 lbs.

               Sampling shall be taken at each station at three depths:

                       at the surface
                       mid-way between the surface and the bottom of the nets
                       mid-wa. y between the bottom of the nets and the sea floor

               Samples should be taken within three hours of slack tide. Directional current flow should
               be established and quantified during the time of sampling.

               Benthic monitoring. During the first year of the permit, the farmer must undertake benthic
               and sediment chemistry monitoring prior to the introduction of fish. In subsequent         years,
               monitoring must be completed whenever the amount of fish in the farm exceeds 100,000 lbs.
               In addition, monitoring for antibiotic resistance mu t be performed during annual
               monitoring when feed containing antibiotics exceed 2 percent of the total feed administered,
               or when the quantity of antibiotics exceeds 200 lbs total active ingredient in the previous 12
               months.





                                                              32











                   Transects must be established along the medial line of the long axis at stations of 0, 50, 100,
                   and 300 ft distance from the perimeter of the pens in the direction of the dominant current.
                   Stations at 0 and 100 ft distance in the opposite direction must be monitored. In addition,
                   a reference station with similar physical and chemical characteristics as the farm area must
                   me sampled and characterized with each sampling effort.
                   At each station, three replicate Van Veen grab (0.1 m2) samples must be taken. Sediment
                   depth must be at least 5 cm, and the redox discontinuity depth must be recorded. As with
                   the Interim Guidelines, replicate samples must be analyzed for total organic carbon, total
                   nitrogen, and grain size distribution.

                   Tle monitoring of benthic macroinvertebrates takes place at the same stations as specified
                   for sediment chemistry analysis. At each station, five replicate Van Veen grab samples must
                   be collected and sieved on a 1.0 mTn screen. Two of the replicates are archived and the
                   remaining three replicates are analyzed for the following information:

                          number of species and individuals
                          distributional information on the numerically dominant species
                          (mean, standard deviation, and range of numerical density)
                          similarity in groupings
                          species diversity.

                   Species diversity shall be calculated according to the Shannon-Weiner index or other
                   appropriate method.

                   Underwater photographic survey. This final section of the monitoring program requires the
                   farmer to conduct a photographic survey of the established benthic monitoring stations in
                   years when benthic monitoring is required. Using SCUBA divers or remotely controlled
                   underwater cameras, the farmer must photograph the benthos at each station from a
                   distance of 3 to 6 ft. The format can be either 4 to 5 still photos, or 15 to 30 seconds of
                   motion photography at each station. Photographic documentation shall clearly portray the
                   appearance of the seafloor within a circle of 30 ft diameter centered on each station. These
                   photographs must be taken within two weeks following the collection of the benthic samples.

                   BRITISH COLUMBIA

                   The environmental monitoring program established in British Columbia is a three-tiered
                   program based on the weight of feed used in the farming operation over a year converted
                   to a dry weight (i.e. if a farm uses 100 tonnes of feed with 10% moisture content, then the
                   amount of dry feed would 100 - 10%, or 90 tonnes). The three size categories are:

                          Schedule C, greater than 630 metric tonnes (1,386,000 lbs)

                          Schedule B, between 120 and 630 metric tonnes (between 264,000 and 1,386,000 lbs)


                                                                 33










                      Schedule A, less than 120 metric tonnes (264,000 lbs).

               All sizes of farms are required to submit information on a quarterly basis on materials
               accounting, fish production, and waste handling. These requirements are discussed below.

               All farms are required to provide information such as longitude and latitude, and average
               depth of pens. Once a year, on the third quarter report, farms must project their feed usage
               for the upcoming year to determine the appropriate monitoring requirements. Farms are
               also required to provide quarterly information on all materials used in the operation that
               could directly or indirectly enter the water such as feed types and amounts, percent moisture
               in the feed and their corresponding dry weights, pigments, anesthetics, antifoulants,
               disinfectants, or cleansers. The information required includes the name of the material, the
               amount used during the quarter, a description of how the material was applied, and the
               methods of disposal.

               In addition to the information on materials used at the farm, all farms must estimate the
               total weight ("biomass") of all live fish on the farm site at the end of each quarter. Farms
               must also estimate the total weight of all fish that died during the quarter.

               In remote areas of British Columbia, disposal of wastes is a significant concern. All farms
               must indicate the method used for disposing of dead fish and human waste, and if fish are
               bled on the farm site, what method was used to dispose of the effluent.

               The specific monitoring requirements for each of the three classes are described below.

               Schedule C farms (over 630 metric tonnesl

               In addition to the information discussed above, Schedule C farms must monitor
               environmental conditions in the following areas: (1) water quality, (2) current speed and
               direction, and (3) sediment accumulation and benthos. Each area varies in the frequency
               of data collection and the specific requirements are discussed below in greater detail.

               Water gRaLity. Once a month all Schedule C farms must undertake monitoring of
               temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen, and Secchi disk readings. These profiles are
               taken once a month and submitted to Niinistry of Environment on a quarterly basis. Profiles
               of temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen are to be taken within two hours of sunrise.
               In addition, about 12 hours after the morning profiles a profile of dissolved oxygen should
               be taken. During both sampling times, proffies should be taken at a site on the upstream
               side of the netcage array, and on the downstream side of the array. Water temperature,
               salinity, and dissolved oxygen must be measured at both sites at depths of 1, 5, 10, 20, and
               30 m (if possible), and 1 rn above the bottom.

               Schedule C farms must also conduct regular monitoring of ammonia and nitrite plus nitrate
               concentrations. These profiles are to be taken on the same day as the temperature, salinity,


                                                            34










                   and dissolved oxygen profiles. However, these profiles are only required for one sampling
                   site and at only one time during each monthly sampling session. Collection of these samples
                   should be timed to coincide with slack water. Sample depths are the same as for
                   temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen.

                   Current speed and direction. Schedule C farms must characterize the current regime at the
                   farm site for a period of one month only. Current speed and direction have to be recorded
                   at a minimum frequency of once per hour during the 30 day period. The Current meter
                   should be. placed so that nets do not dampen the current velocity. Typically, the meter is
                   moored about 30 m from the offshore side of the cages and suspended from a surface float
                   at a depth of 15 m.

                   Sediment accumulation and benthos All Schedule C farms are required to conduct an
                   annual underwater survey to determine organic sediment accumulation and impact on the
                   benthic community. The survey should be conducted during a period of good visibility in
                   September or October.

                   To monitor sediment accumulation under the cages, Schedule C farms must establish.two
                   transect lines. Two transects, marked every 10 n-4 are established under the farm. The
                   transects are positioned at right angles to each other and cross under the center of the cage
                   array. The length of each transect line should extend 30 m beyond the outside perimet        .er
                   of the cages. In the interest of diver safety, transect lines do not need to extend into depths
                   greater than 30 m. Once the transect lines have been arranged, reference marks are
                   established at 10 m intervals along the transect line. These reference marks can be sections
                   of "rebar", metal bars in concrete anchors, or marks on the transect line itself. If the farm
                   is in waters greater than 30 m in depth, sediment traps may be used for sediment
                   accumulation information.

                   During the annual survey, divers proceed along each transect measuring the following
                   parameters at each 10 m marker.

                          Depth of sediment accumulation relative t    o the reference mark
                          Five most dominant macrophytes and their corresponding density
                          Five most dominant invertebrates and their corresponding density.

                   The following information is also required as part of the.annual survey:

                          A map showing existing cages, walkways, and buildings
                          Depths at the farm site using 10 m contours
                          Approximate areas of silt, sand, gravel, or rock substrate within lease area
                          Presence or absence of sediment accumulation with depth estimate
                          Distribution of bacterial "mats" of Begagiato sp. if present.



                                                                 35









               In addition to reporting results from the transect survey, a qualitative summary should be
               included to provide a characterization and comparison of the following three habitats:

                      The benthic community directly effected by farm deposition
                      The benthic community adjacent to the deposition area within the lease area
                      A control area beyond the influence of the farm.

               Schedule B farms (between 120 and 630    Metric tonnes)

               Schedule B farms are required to supply information on materials accounting, fish.
               production, and waste handling as previously described.

               Water gma Wi. All Schedule B farms are required to provide monthly temperature and
               salinity profiles for a period of one year. On an annual basis, Schedule B farms musi
               monitor temperature and dissolved oxygen during the summer months (April to September).
               The number and location of sampling stations for Schedule B farms is the same as discussed
               for Schedule C farms. Water quality samples should be taken once during the day within
               two hours of sunrise. Sampling depths for Schedule B farms are the same as for Schedule
               C sites.

               Current speed and direction. The Schedule B requirements are the same as for Schedule
               C.

               Sediment accumulation and benthic survey. Schedule B farms are required to conduct an
               annual underwater survey to provide an assessment of the extent of farm derived organic
               sedimentation and the effect on the benthic community. This survey can be done by diver,
               or by remotely operated vehicle if the water depth is greater than 30 m. The following
               information is required as part of the annual survey:

                      A map showing existing cages, walkways, and buildings
                      Depths at the farm site using 10 m contours
                      Approximate areas of silt, sand, gravel, or rock substrate within lease area
                      Presence or absence of sediment accumulation with depth estimate
                      Distribution of bacterial "mats" of Beggiatoa sp. if present.

               The benthic survey requires a brief assessment which qualitatively describes the major
               organisms and plants of the benthic community. The survey should characterize and
               compare the following three habitats:

                      Benthic community directly impacted by farm deposition
                      Benthic community adjacent to the deposition area within the lease area
                      A control area beyond the influence of the farm with similar substrate, depth, and
                      exposure to currents.



                                                          36












                  Schedule A farms (less than 120 metric tonnes)

                  The only monitoring requirements for Schedule A farms is to provide information on
                  materials accounting, fish production, and waste handling as previously described.

                  SCOTLAND

                  In Scotland, similar to British Columbia and Washington State, the amount of environmental
                  monitoring is based on the amount of fish at the farm. There are three size classifications
                  that determine the type and amount of monitoring:

                         greater than 500 metric tonnes peak biomass (1.1 million lbs)
                         between 250 and 500 metric tonnes peak biomass (550,000 to 1,100,000 lbs)
                         less than 250 metric tonnes peak biomass (550,000 lbs).

                  In addition to the basic monitoring requirements, additional information may be required
                  for specific sites. The Scottish program also allows flexibility to increase or decrease
                  monitoring requirements according. to the sensitivity of the site, results of previous
                  monitoring, or changes'in the farming operations. Basic monitoring requirements of the
                  three classifications are discussed below.


                  Fanns with a peak biomass Ueater than 500 metric tonnes

                  Currents. Current measurements should be taken at three depths: (1) 2 m below the
                  surface, (2) halfway between the surface and the bottom, and (3) 2 m above the bottom.
                  Recordings should be taken at 30 minute intervals over six hour periods covering the neap
                  flood and ebb tides, and the spring flood and neap tides. Comprehensive records of wind
                  speed and direction should be kept during current speed monitoring surveys.

                  SamiDles. Sampling sites should be on two axes perpendicular to each other with one of the
                  axes. parallel to any prevailing current. One sampling station should be at the center of the
                  farm, one station at the edge of each side of the farm, and one station 25 m away from the
                  farm along the axis formed by the central station and the station at the edge of the farm.
                  In addition, one reference station should be selected at least 500 m away from any
                  development that resembles the farm site in terms of depth, exposure, and current speeds.
                  Where clusters of cages are more than 50 m apart, then each group should be treated
                  separately with its own set of 9 sampling stations.

                  At each station, the following samples should be collected every year.

                  Water samples. Water samples should     be collected twice a year during August/September
                  and January/February at three depths (surface, mid-depth, and 2 m above the bottom) and
                  analyzed for:



                                                                37










                          Dissolved oxygen
                          Temperature
                          Salinity
                          Ammonia
                          pH

                In addition, each station should be assessed for water transparency using a standard Secchi
                disc.

                Sediment samples. In August/September, four samples should be collected at each station
                using a 0.025 ml grab. Three samples should be analyzed for benthic fauna and the fourth
                should be used for measuring the redox potential. A small subsample of sediment is used
                to measure organic carbon. Qualitative notes should be kept describing the appearance of
                the sediment. Biological data should be reported as a species by station matrix and diversity
                indices (including Shannon Weiner) and evenness (J) index.

                Farms with a peak biomass between 250 and 500 metric tonnes

                The number of sampling stations and the amount of current measurements required for this
                class farm is the same as farms over 500 tonnes. Sampling for water quality is not required
                for this size farm. Sediment sampling in August/September is required using the same
                number of replicates as described for farms over 500 metric tonnes.

                Fanns with a peak biomass less than 250 metric tonnes

                There are no existing monitoring requirements for farms below 250 metric tonnes.
                Environmental samples may be required if there is any evidence of an effect on the
                environment resulting from the farm's discharge, a major change in the stocking density or
                farming operations, or if the site is considered very sensitive.

                Additional reguirem nts

                Besides the basic monitoring requirements, the government may ask for additional
                information on a case-by-case basis. The types of information that may be requested include
                actual variation of biomass on a monthly basis and a forecast of biomass into the future, and
                details of the types and quantities of chemicals used at the farm site.

                IRELAND

                Ireland requires an environmental statement prior to commencing with fish farming
                activities at a site. This statement includes baseline information in five categories: (1)
                hydrography, (2) physical characteristics, (3) chemical characteristics, (4) biological
                characteristics, and (5) other considerations. In addition, a monitoring program has been
                established. Parameters included in each category of the baseline survey are listed below.


                                                             38













                Baseline environmental statement


                Hydrography

                       Water exchange/flushing characteristics including current speed and direction
                       Bathymetry of the area.

                Physical characteristics

                       Temperature profiles
                       Salinity profiles
                       Water transparency - secchi disc.

                Chemical characteristics

                       Oxygen
                       Ammonia (total)
                       Nitrate
                       Nitrite
                       Total N
                       Total P
                       Silicate
                       Particulate organic carbon and nitrogen

                Biological characteristics

                       Phytoplankton
                       Chlorophyll
                       Zooplankton
                       Benthic fauna


                Other considerations


                       Number and type of cages
                       Quantity of fish
                       Type of food (wet, moist, or dry pellets)
                       Proposed chemical treatment of fish
                       Use of anti-fouling paints

                Continuous monitoring

                After the introduction of fish to a site, monthly monitoring of salmon farms is required
                during the winter and,every two weeks during the summer. The following parameters are
                included in this monitoring program.


                                                          39











                       Temperature/salinity profiles

                       secchi disk readings

                       oxygen and pH

                       ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite

                       total N, total P, and silicate

                       zooplankton, phytoplankton, and chlorophyll

                       particulate organic carbon and nitrogen

                In addition to the monitoring parameters listed above, the Irish government also requires
                that sediment traps-and the benthos be examined every three to six months. There is no
                information available on the details of the monitoring program such as the number and
                array of sampling stations, whether replicates at each station are required, the protocols for
                sample collection, or the degree of precision in reporting the data.



























                                                              40












                                                     RECOMMENDATIONS



                  The State of Maine needs an organized framework for managing the aquaculture industry.
                  That framework must include a mechanism to provide State agencies with the environmental
                  information necessary to ensure that this new industry will not have an adverse effect on the
                  environment. This process must also be designed to be efficient for the aquaculturist so
                  they are not unduly burdened with expensive, overlapping, and time-consuming requirements
                  of various resource agencies.

                  Ideally, the review process should be broad enough at      the outset to identify any potential
                  conflicts at a specific site. The monitoring program should be designed to collect an
                  adequate amount of environmental data for impact assessment, yet be sensitive to the size
                  of the aquaculture operation and the relative amount of effect it can have on the
                  environment. Therefore, a "tiered" approach to the monitoring requirements should be
                  established that recognizes that larger farms will have a greater effect on the environment
                  than smaller farms. This "tiered" approach has been implemented in Washington State,
                  British Columbia, and Scotland. We recommend following the classification developed by
                  Dr. Don Weston for the State of Washington's Interim Guidelines:

                      Class I    - annual production of less than 20,000 pounds

                      Class H - annual production between 20,000 and 100,000 pounds

                      Class M - annual production of greater than 100,000 pounds

                  Some of the recommendations made in this chapter are already being done to a certain
                  extent in Maine. To assist the reader where necessary in understanding the difference
                  between what is being proposed versus what is already being done, a short description of
                  what is being done in Maine will follow the major recommendations in italics.. More
                  detailed information is available in the sections on Maine in the Aquaculture Regulations
                  and Monitoring Programs chapters.

                  LEASE OF AQUATIC LANDS

                  The State of Maine should revise their existing statutes to require that all aquaculture
                  operations obtain a lease to use State lands. By requiring a lease for all facilities, the State
                  will have a mechanism to implement the collection of monitoring data and ensure that farms
                  are adequately sited.

                  The State of Maine currently gives the farmer the option of applying for an aquatic lease.




                                                                 41












                 ADDlication information

                 The information submitted as part of the required aquaculture lease should be sufficient for
                 reviewing agencies to determine the proposal's probability of causing any significant adverse
                 impact to the environment. In addition to the existing lease information requirements, the
                 following information should be included as part of the lease application package for all
                 farming proposals:

                        development and maintenance schedule
                        size, number, and configuration of pens (during first year of operation and complete
                        level of development)
                        size, number, and placement of anchoring system
                        annual production in pounds (during first year of operation and complete lev        el of
                        development)
                        stocking density (average & maximum) (lbs/ft3)
                        proposed method of harvesting
                        type and amount of feed to be used and method of feeding
                        predator control measures
                        method for cleaning nets
                        waste management program (how dead fish and human wastes from the farm will be
                        disposed, and if the fish are bled at the site, how will the blood be disposed of)
                        use of antibiotics and antifoulants
                        location and description of all activities within a 2,000 ft radius of the farm
                        site characterization report.

                 If a farmer applies for a lease, Maine has an established set of information they require as part
                 of the lease application. In addition, the DEP also requires this type of information for their
                 water quality certificate. Informally, DMR is expanding the amount of information they request
                 from farmers.

                 Site Characterization

                 Characterizing the site provides reviewing agencies with the background environmental
                 information necessary to determine the potential extent of environmental effects. Different
                 size farms would have different requirements for completing the site characterization. Site
                 characterization comprises three surveys: (1) bathymetry, (2) hydrography, and (3) diver.

                 Bathymg=. A survey of bottom features should be performed to identify any bathymetric
                 features that may affect the accumulation of excess feed and feces. Transects should be
                 established with a density and spacing so as to adequately characterize the bathymetry under
                 the pens and within 300 ft of the farm perimeter. Typical spacing of transects will vary with
                 the configuration of the pens, but transects should be established for each axis and stations
                 along each axis should be no more than 50 ft apart.



                                                                42











                  Maine completes a diver survey as part of its lease program. ne survey is qualitative and no
                  set transects are used.

                  Hydrography. Characterizing the current velocities and directions is necessary for applying
                  depth/current siting guidelines and predicting the dilution and dispersion of excess feed and
                  fecal material. At the center of the farm, measurements should be made 6 ft below the
                  surface and 3 ft above the bottom. Ten evenly spaced measurements should be taken
                  throughout one complete tidal cycle during a period of "average" tides (neither neap nor
                  spring).

                  Class III[ farms should collect drogue tracking data to estimate the fate of particulate matter
                  and the potential for excess feed and feces to get caught in an eddy. Drogues set at a depth
                  of 6 ft and mid-way between the bottom of the pens and the sea floor should be released
                  from the center of the proposed site. The longer period of time that the trajectory of these
                  drogues are tracked, the better the information on the circulation patterns will be.
                  However, the trajectories of the drogues should be recorded long enough to include at least
                  one complete tidal change. It is recommended that the drogues be t:racked for at least 8
                  hours. If the drogues are transported beyond a practical tracking range, they may be reset
                  at the center of the site during the 8 hour period.

                  Class HI.farms should also complete vertical profiles of salinity, temperature, and dissolved
                  oxygen at the site during the summer months to assess the intensity of water column
                  stratification. Measurements should be made at depths of 1, 10, 20, 30 ft, and at 30 ft
                  intervals thereafter. In addition, the lease applicant should provide any available site-
                  specific information collected during previous studies.

                  DMR currently collects this type of hydrographic data as part of its leasing program.

                  Diver. The purpose of the diver.survey is to identify any potentially significant habitats
                  under and near the proposed farm site. The design of the survey (number and spacing of
                  transects) should be done by the Department of Marine Resources based upon information
                  available on the site. A diver should note the presence or absence of Beggiatoa, substrate
                  type, and densities of species such as lobster, scallops, dernersal fish, clams, eelgrass, and
                  other species identified by the Department of Marine Resources. The abundance of other
                  invertebrates and fishes should be classified as "common", "rare", etc.

                  DMR completes a diver survey of all farms applying for a lease.

                  Completion of the site characterization with the other required lease information should
                  give regulatory agencies sufficient background information to determine the potential effects
                  of the proposal on the environment.





                                                                43













                PUBLIC NOTICE & REVIEW

                In addition to the public notification presently included in the regulations, the lease
                application package should be distributed for comments to all resource agencies with
                relevant expertise such as the Department of Environmental Protection and U.S. Coast
                Guard. In addition, groups with a potential interest in the application such as the Maine
                Lobsterman's Association and- the Scallop Draggers, should be contacted early for their
                comments. This review and comment phase early in the siting process would allow potential
                issues to be considered in an organized framework.

                Maine requires some public notijication of aquaculture leases. 7his recommendation expands
                the list of groups to provide input to the siting process.

                SITING GUIDELINES


                Until site-specific information is gathered from Maine farms through lease reports, we
                recommend using the depth-current guidelines developed by Dr. Weston for the State of
                Washington as a conservative approach to siting farms.

                All available information was analyzed and synthesized in development of the Washington
                Guidelines. A graphical approach incorporating the pertinent variables of water depth,
                current velocity, and production was used to simplify application of the Guidelines. The
                positions of the oblique lines defining the boundary between -permissible and non-
                permissible sites were fixed based upon information from studies of net-pens throughout the
                world and observations of the Puget Sound fish culture industry.

                Preferring a formula to the original graphical approach, the Maine Department of
                Environmental Protection has developed a regression which closely approximates the
                original Guidelines. By knowing the anticipated production (P) and the mean current
                velocity (V) the applicant can calculate the depth of water required under the pens (Z,,i,,)
                as:

                          Zmin = 0.0003 (P) - 0.425 (V) + 31

                The principal difference between the formula and the graphical approach is that production
                is a continuous function in the formula, but was grouped into three discrete categories in
                the graphical approach (Class I - less than 20,000 lb/yr; Class H - 20,000 to 100,000 lb/yr;
                Class III - greater than 100,000 lb/yr). The change from a discrete to a continuous
                production variable results in a slight relaxation of depth requirements for farms with a
                production under 50,000 lb/yr and more stringent requirements for larger farms.

                The regression equation appears to be a reasonable alternative to the graphical approach,
                because the depths required under the two systems are very close. One advantage of the
                regression equation is that organic loading is indeed a continuous function of production as


                                                             44










                   is implied in the equation. A disadvantage is that users may ascribe some special status to
                   the constants in the equation, without recognizing they were empirically derived to
                   approximate the original graphical guidelines. We are concerned that these constants could
                   take on "a life of their own" without any real basis.

                   Current velocity in the Washington Guidelines is measured 6 ft below the surface and
                   halfway between the bottom of the pens and the seafloor to give some idea of the current
                   regime to which the settling particle would be exposed. Additional requirements for
                   multiple measurements at several depths were considered to place excessive demands on the
                   applicant.

                   We believe it would be preferable to measure velocity three ft above the sea bottom instead
                   of mid-way between the bottom of the pens and the seafloor. This near bottom parameter,
                   known as uloo, is a standard measurement in studies of erosion and deposition, and would
                   be a valuable measurement should erosion-based guidelines be adopted at a later date.
                   Because northern Maine has such a large tidal range, there may be an opportunity with
                   further research to establish a minimum velocity that would erode all excess feed and fecal
                   material from a farm. Appendix B describes the concept and the kno        wn limitations.

                   In addition to the depth-current guidelines, farms should not be sited where their presence
                   will adversely affect ecologically important areas, or disrupt traditional uses. Farms should
                   be sited:


                             at least 1,000 ft from all public parks

                             at least 1/4mile from wildlife refuges and habitats of threatened and endangered
                             species

                             at least 500 ft from all habitats determined by the Department of Marine
                             Resources to be of significance. 'nese areas could include eelgrass beds and
                             important feeding and spawning habitats for lobsters, scallops, salmon, shellfish,
                             and other important indigenous species

                             at least 1/2mile from other existing fish farms unless there is a mutual agreement
                             between farms to be closer.

                   The Army Corps of Engineers Section 10 permit requires farms in Maine to be at least 114 fi-om
                   federally designated areas such as national parky, wilderness areas, or wildlife refuges. This
                   recommendation is broader in scope and is intended to include state and local recreation areas.
                   Lease regulations in Maine require a 2, 000 ft separation between farms.





                                                                 45













               ANNUAL MONITORING SURVEYS


               Because the aquaculture industry is new and little information exists on the effects of farms
               in the Maine coastal environment, annual environmental surveys should be conducted.
               These surveys should provide adequate information to regulatory agencies to determine if
               adjustments to operating practices are warranted. Also, after a few years of data collection
               this information can be used to determine if ftirther monitoring of a site is necessary, and
               whether the depth-current guidelines should be revised to reflect the specific environmental
               conditions in Maine.


               After reviewing the monitoring programs in British Columbia, Scotland, Ireland, and
               Washington (Guidelines and NPDES); we recommend using the surveys established for the
               Washington Guidelines. These Guidelines represent an adequate balance between sufficient
               data collection and reasonable annual costs for monitoring. The monitoring requirements
               will again be based on the annual production of the farm. T"he monitoring program for
               Maine should have two components: (1) a baseline survey, and (2) annual monitoring.

               Baseline survey

               Class IEII farms should be required to complete a baseline survey. The baseline survey
               provides information in addition to the site characterization completed for the lease
               application. The baseline survey should be undertaken once the pens are in place, but
               before fish are added to the pens. If the diver survey completed for the site characterization
               shows potential areas of concern near the proposed site, DMR should require that the
               baseline survey include a diver survey to be completed once the pens are in place as a
               position reference.

               Six stations should be established for the baseline survey. Five of these stations should be
               located at distances of 0, 20, 50, 100, and 200 ft from the perimeter of the pens in the
               downcurrent direction as determined by the prevailing currents measured during the site
               characterization. Because environmental changes unrelated to aquaculture can occur over
               a large area, a sixth station should be selected as a reference station. This station should
               be at least 500 ft from the pens and should have similar biological and physical
               characteristics as the area under the pens.

               The baseline survey comprises two elements: (1) sediment chemistry analysis, and (2)
               benthic infauna sampling.

               Sediment chemistry. At each station, three replicate samples should be collected. These
               samples can be collected by a diver core, or by taldng a subsample from a grab or box corer.
               Cores must be inserted at least two inches into the sediment. Each replicate must be
               analyzed as a distinct sample and should be analyzed for:




                                                             46










                            total organic carbon
                            total nitrogen
                            grain size distribution (median phi, percent gravel, sand, silt/clay).
                            a                                            0                   1

                  In addition, transparent cores should be used to note and record the redox potential
                  discontinuity depth (change in sediment color from brown to black).

                  The Section 10 permit requires new farms to collect this type of baseline data

                  Benthic infauna. Three replicate samples should be collected at each of the six stations.
                  Samples can be collected by a diver using a core sampler having an area of at least 0.01 M2,
                  or by a grab or box corer having an area of at least 0.1 M2.  If subsamples are taken from
                  a grab or box corer for the sediment chemistry analysis, then the remaining sample should
                  be used for benthic analysis; provided no more than one-quarter of the surface of each
                  sample has been removed for the sediment chemistry analysis. Each benthic sample should
                  be sieved on a 0.5 mm. screen or nested 1.0 and 0.5 mm screens. All macrofaunal organisms
                  retained on the screen(s) should be identified to the lowest practical taxonomic level. A
                  discussion of analysis follows later in this chapter.

                  Annual monitorin

                  The purposes of annual monitoring are to identify    any effects of farms on sediment and
                  water quality, and to provide data in which to review the depth-current guidelines for
                  possible mod ification in the future. Annual monitoring should be required by the State of
                  Maine as part of its lease requirements until the Department of Marine Resources
                  determines on a case-by-case basis that a specific farm at a speciBc site is not having an
                  adverse effect on the environment. Ile annual monitoring program should consist of two
                  components: (1) a benthic survey, and (2) water quality sampling. Class I facilities should
                  be exempted from annual monitoring requirements, and Class H farms should be required
                  to conduct only a diver survey (included in the benthic survey for Class III farms).

                  Benthic survey. This survey is intended to assess the extent of solids accumulation under
                  the pens and the biological effect of this accumulation. Benthic surveys for Class III farms
                  includes three elements: (1) diver observations, (2) sediment chemistry, and (3) benthic
                  sampling. As previously mentioned, Class 11 benthic surveys should only require diver
                  observations.


                  Divers should follow the same transects as established for the site characterization effort.
                  If accumulation is visible beyond the 200 ft transect. limit, then the transect should be
                  extended. The diver should estimate the depth of feed and feces accumulation at 20 ft
                  intervals along each transect, and should note the distance at which the accumulation is no
                  longer visible. In addition, the diver should survey the area for the same organisms as
                  surveyed in the site characterization (i.e. Beggiatoa, lobsters, and demersal fish).



                                                             47










               As part of the annual monitoring requirements for Class 111 farms, sediment chemistry and
               benthic infauna. samples should be collected and analyzed. The stat        ion locations and
               protocols should be the same as those described under the baseline benthic survey.

               Presently, some farms in Maine are submitting annual monitoring reports to DEP in support of
               their water quality certiflcate. These reports include a diver survey and benthic sampling.
               However, the location and number of the sarnpling stations varies from site to site, replicate
               samples are not taken at each station, and sediment chemistry analyses are not done.

               If a farm does not meet Army Corps of Engineers siting guidelines, they may be required to
               supply annual monitoring informatiort. The recommendations presented here are similar to
               what is required by the Corps.

               Water qualiq sury . Class III farms should complete water quality sampling on an annual
               basis. The survey should be conducted during the summer months when dissolved oxygen
               and nutrient enrichment are of greatest concern.

               Three stations should be sampled at a depth mid-way between the surface and the bottom
               of the pens: (1) 100 ft upcurrent of the pens, (2) 20 ft downcurrent, and (3) 100 ft
               downcurrent of the pens. The stations should be located-so that the sample represents
               water passing through the greatest number of pens. Sampling should take place within one
               hour of slack tide. Samples should be analyzed for the following. parameters:

                        dissolved oxygen
                        temperature
                        PH
                        ammonia
                        nitrite/nitrate (separate or combined)
                        concentration of un-ionized ammonia should be calculated.

               Water quality data is not presently collected as part of the DEP annual survey. As discussed
               above for the benthic survey, the Army Corps of Engineers may require this type of information
               for its Section 10 permit.

               ANALYTICAL PROTOCOLS

               The intent of baseline data collection and an annual monitoring program is to determine
               if a significant environmental change is occurring. The focus of all environmental
               monitoring programs related to salmon aquaculture throughout the world is on the potential
               changes to water quality and benthic communities. Both of these areas are dynamic in
               nature and are constantly in a state of flux. Water quality parameters such as dissolved
               oxygen vary naturally through the year because of a variety of influences, and the number
               and type of species in benthic communities change due to factors such as the interaction
               between species.


                                                           48










                   This section describes the approach we recommend for evaluating the potential effect of
                   farms.    Water quality data can be compared against general standards for selected
                   parameters. Annual monitoring data that varies significantly from the standard would be
                   a cause for concern. Standard ecological indices are available to assist in evaluating whether
                   annual monitoring data indicates a change is occurring in benthic communities as a result
                   of a farm. However, caution is necessary in using these formulas. There are no clear
                   thresholds for determining what constitutes a significant benthic impact. These indices are
                   suggested as a starting point for evaluation, but they should be interpreted by a qualified
                   marine ecologist familiar with indigenous benthic community dynamics.

                   Water gu&ft

                   Water quality data analysis should be done for all parameters measured. The data analysis
                   should compare data between the stations and should compare annual data to the baseline
                   data. Comparison between the 100 ft upcurrent and 100 ft downcurrent stations is made
                   for temperature, DO, and pH. A direct comparison should use the average of the three
                   replicates at each station.

                   In evaluating data from annual monitoring reports, a standard is needed for comparison.
                   Some states such as Washington have established a system of classifying the water quality
                   of all water bodies based on commonly measured parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH,
                   and temperature. Based upon an ambient water quality monitoring program, this system
                   provides a means of determining baseline conditions in an area, and whether or not an
                   activity is having an impact on the environment. The State of Maine's water quality
                   classification system (SA, SB, and SC) uses two quantifiable criteria: (1) the percent
                   saturation of dissolved oxygen, and (2) number of enterococcus bacteria of human origin.

                   The suggested water quality limits in Table 3 are taken from typical water quality standards
                   for marine waters and from estimates of reasonable effluent characteristics found in the
                   literature.

                   Based on the water quality criteria given in Table 3, no comparison between stations is
                   necessary if the upper limit is exceeded at both stations, or if both stations are less than the
                   lower limit. If one station is outside the allowable limit, then the maximum difference
                   between stations is given by the increase or decrease limit.

                   There is no specific limit for nitrogen. The recommendation is to locate farms in areas that
                   will not be subject to substantial increases in algae (micro- and macro-) from the additional
                   nitrogen. The objective is to locate fish farms in areas where the additional nitrogen is
                   small compared to the natural flux of nitrogen. In areas of high flushing that have a high
                   degree of exchange with the open sea, nitrogen inputs from fish farms are not likely to have
                   a measurable effect on algal production. Enclosed embayments would be most susceptible
                   to increased algal production from fish farms. In these areas, water quality models could



                                                                49











                  be used to estimate the effect of the farms on nitrogen concentrations or phytoplankton
                  biomass.


                  One approach used in Washington to assess the potential effect of farms on phytoplankton
                  production is to estimate the tidal flux of nitrogen. The tidal flux of nitrogen is computed
                  as the product of the tidal volume and the nitrogen concentration in the tidal waters. This
                  is a conservative estimate because it ignores any nitrogen input from tributaries and
                  sediments. The nitrogen contribution from the fish farm can be estimated using standard
                  literature values for ammonia and urea excretion from salmon culture. If the nitrogen flux
                  from the farm is less than 1 percent of the natural nitrogen flux, no significant algal blooms
                  would be expected from the farming operation. Although an acceptable level of increase
                  in the nitrogen concentration is not known, the I percent figure is considered conservative.

                  Table 3. Water quality criteria for maximum allowable difference between stations.



                  Parameter                                                                               Condition



                  Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
                    lower limit                                                                           6.0
                    decrease limit'                                                                       0.2

                  Temperature (* C)
                    upper limit                                                                             16
                    increase limit'                                                                       0.3
                  pH
                    range limit                                                                           7.0-
                    inc./dec. limit'                                                                      8.5
                                                                                                          +/
                                                                                                          -0.5
                     decrease limit if either station less than 6.0 mg/L
                     incre@Lse limit if either station greater than 16 *C
                    c increase or decrease if either station outside of range


                The monitoring results should also be compared to the baseline survey using a simple t-test.
                The mean at each station is compared to the mean from the baseline survey. The test
                hypothesis is that the baseline sampling mean and the mean at each station are statistically
                equal. The recommended level of significance is 0.05.

                Finally, the monitoring results should be compared to previous monitoring results to observe
                trends in the water quality parameters tested. T"his can be as simple as plotting the annual

                                                                  50










                   monitoring results and looking for increasing or decreasing trends to the data. A trend
                   analysis is useful to project future conditions and to l6ok for potential adverse effects. If
                   the water quality trends show a continual adverse trend, it may be necessary to do a more
                   detailed study of the bay or inlet to identify sources of the problem.

                   Benthic analysis

                   Interpreting results from benthic data collected in a monitoring program should be done by
                   a person knowledgeable in local benthic community dynamics. Relative populations of
                   benthic organisms will vary from site to site, and changes in those benthic populations over
                   time can also occur naturally. The following standard ecological indices are recommended
                   as analytical tools, however, the results should be interpreted by a person familiar with local
                   benthic communities. Definitive threshold numbers for the indices that could be universally
                   applied to all sites on the coast of Maine to determine whether fish farms are having an
                   impact on the environment cannot be derived.

                   Sample Replication. To ensure the validity of the analyses, sample replicates need to be
                   taken from the same community or benthic organism assemblage (Hurlburt 1984).
                   Replication can be determined using the Bray Curtis index with an arbitrary value of the
                   index used to -determine replication. Sample comparisons should be based on species-
                   sample matrices from individual station replicates. The analysis can be run on that matrix
                   using any appropriate clustering algorithm. Results are best displayed as optimally rotated
                   dendrograms.

                   Individual sample replicates with low similarity values to. all other replicates of the same
                   sample should be examined, and if necessary, treated separately. The aberrant replicates
                   are assumed to be sampling different, but adjacent patches of organisms, and thus unsuitable
                   as replicates (Hurlburt 1984).

                   Egolo catAnalyLes. Once replication has been confirmed, or the lack thereof adjusted for,
                   benthic infaunal. community structure analysis begins. This requires the comparison of
                   station by station species abundance patterns. The basic data set is a species-abundance list
                   for each station, detailing the taxa, and giving the mean abundances. Often the total species
                   list includes a number of rare taxa unnecessary to characterize the community. For the
                   purpose of describing the sample, all species that account for greater than I percent of the
                   individuals at any station should be included. All index calculations, however, need to be
                   done with the complete data set.

                   In addition, it is often useful to compare the taxa found with a list of known pollution
                   tolerant organisms. Changes in the abundances of these indicator taxa is often indicative
                   of drastic changes in the benthos (Pearson and Rosenberg 1978).




                                                                51










               Sample comparisons should be based on species-sample matrices from pooled station
               replicates. The analysis can'be run on that matrix using any appropriate clustering
               algorithm. Results are displayed as optimally rotated dendrograms.

               Comparison of the basic species lists is the first step in the analysis of potential changes.
               Subsequent evaluations of the Bray-Curtis index quantify any changes. Comparisons
               utilizing this index give direct, quantitative, measures of change. The values generated with
               the index can be used to focus specific examination of samp@e data. For example, if there
               is low similarity between subsequent samples from the same area, this will be noticeable in
               examination of the B-C index values, and the specific data can be examined for the changes.

               Analyses of the taxonomic data requires the use of basic data such as abundances and
               dominance, but also ecological indices. Concurrently, three indices are used in the analyses.
               These are the Shannon-Wiener Index, Simpson's Index, and the Evenness Index (Poole
               1974). All three give somewhat different information about the organism distributions. The
               information from each index is complementary to the others, thus all three are used in
               analyses.

               Upon receipt of taxonomic information from the various specialists, these data are
               summari ed by station and site. Descriptive parameters such as-abundance, station diversity
               (using both the Shannon-Wiener Index, and Simpson's Index), and evenness (the J index)
               are determined (Poole 1974). From this information, mean values and error estimates for
               each parameter are derived.

               To determine ecological change, there are several useful indices. The first index is the
               Bray-Curtis Index of (Dis)similarity. This index has many other names in the literature, but
               is listed most frequently as the Bray-Curtis Index of (Dis)similarity, Czekanowski's Index,
               or Proportional Similarity.

               Bray- Curtis Index


                                                      Z I Pij Pkj
               The Bray-Curtis index = D = 1 -          (Pij + Pkj)
               Where: pij              the proportion of taxon "j" in sample "i", and
                         Pkj           the proportion of taxon J" in sample "k".

               The Bray-Curtis index (values range from 0 to 1) measures         proportional abundances
               between stations, and is relatively independent of sample size. As formulated here, 0
               indicates complete similarity, and 1 complete dissimilarity. The index can be also be
               formulated without the initial 1 in the formula. In those cases, 0 indicates complete
               dissimilarity and 1 indicates complete similarity. Both formulations are commonly used in


                                                            52









                  the literature. Over the range of total numbers of organisms collected here, this index
                  provides replicable and reliable indications of proportional dissimilarity among stations
                  (Bloom 1981).

                  The ecological diversity of the samples are compared using three indices, the Shannon-
                  Wiener index, the Evenness index, and Simpson's index (Poole 1974).

                  Shannon- Weiner Index

                  T'he Shannon-Wiener index = H'                    piln pi ,


                  where:    pi             proportion of taxon 'T' in the sample, and
                            s              the total number of species in the sample.

                  T'he Shannon-Wiener index ranges upward from 0, and gives a measure of the amount of
                  new information contained in each individual specimen collected. Where the sample is
                  dominated by a few taxa, the amount of new information likely to be gained by noting any
                  given specimen is small. Where the sample is diverse, new information is more likely to be
                  gained since each new specimen might be a representative of a previously unsampled
                  species. Consequently, relatively high values for H' indicate diverse (i.e. normal, natural,
                  communities) and low values indicate stressed or polluted communities.

                  Evenness Index


                  The evenness index      J          ff
                                                    In(s).



                  The evenness index is a measure of the amount of distribution of the individuals in a sample
                  related to the number of taxa in that sample. Evenness is calculated by dividing the
                  Shannon-Wiener index by the natural logarithm of the number of taxa. The maximum
                  amount of diversity of a sample of size "s" is found if each species is represented only by one
                  individual. The evenness index ranges from 0 to 1, and would be 0 if all individuals were
                  found in only one species, and would be 1 if each species was represented by only one
                  individual.

                  Thus, J measures the amount that the sample deviates from a totally even distribution.
                  Diverse natural communities have J values of 0.5 or higher.             Polluted or stressed
                  communities can have values from 0.3 or lower.







                                                               53










               Simpson's Index


                                              S      ni (n@- - 1)
               Simpson's index    C           E
                                             i=i    N(N-1)

               where:   n@-           the number of individuals in species "i", and
                        N             the total number of individuals in the sample.

               Simpson's index ranges from 0 to 1, and measures the degree the sample is numerically
               dominated by one or a few taxa. Values near 0 indicate a diverse array, while those near
               I reflect dominance by one taxon.

               Simpson's index is biased reflecting dominance while the Evenness index reflects dominance
               and the total number of taxa. The Shannon-Wiener index measures diversity in a strictly
               comparable, information theory format. Thus they all address somewhat different aspects
               of the same question.

               Relating changes in organism distributions to environmental changes is relatively straight
               forward. The most important environmental changes are substrate related changes such as
               changes in sediment par-ticle size distributions.

               Comparisons of abundances, biomasses, or other data are made using the appropriate
               statistical procedure, primarily analysis of variance (ANOVA), as presented by any standard
               statistical software package such as STATGRAPHICS (STSC 1986-1989). The ecological
               indices can easily be written in Lotus 1-2-3 as macros using the station species abundance
               data as the basis. Alternatively, they can be calculated using the Community Analysis
               System of programs (this is presently undergoing testing, but can be purchased from
               Ecological Data Consultants, P. 0. Box 760, Archer, FL 32618).















                                                          54













                                                         REFERENCES

                 Bloom, S. A. 1981. Similarity indices in community studies: potential pitfalls. Marine
                    Ecology Progess Series. 5: 11-5-128.

                 Churchill, L 1990. Personal communication. Maine Department of Marine Resources,
                    West Boothbay Harbor, Maine.

                 Humphreys, A.C. and B.R. Pearce. 1981. Currents in Penobscot Bay, Maine. Oceans '81
                    Conference Record, September 16-18, 1981, Boston, Massachusetts.

                 Hurlburt, S. H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments..
                    Ecological Monographs. 54:187-211.

                 Nature Conservancy Council. 1989. Fishfarming and the safeguard of the natural marine
                    environment of Scotland. Nature Conservancy Council. Edinburgh, Scotland.

                 Parametrix, Inc. 1989. Fish culture in floating net pens: Draft programmatic environmental
                    impact statement. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, Washington.

                 Parker, C. 1982. The currents of Casco Bay and the prediction of oil spill trajectories.
                    Bigelow Laboratory Technical Report No. 82-28. West Boothbay Harbor, Maine.

                 Poole, R. W. 1974. An introduction to quantitative ecology. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
                    New York. 532 pp.

                 Pearson, T. H. and R. Rosenberg. 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic
                    enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanography and Marine Ebmj
                    Annual Reviews. 16:229-311.

                 Rosenthal, H., D. Weston, R. Gowen, and E. Black. 1988. Environmental impact of
                    mariculture. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Copenhagen,
                    Denmark.

                 STSC, Inc. 1986, 1987, 1988. STATGRAPHICS'. Statistical Graphics Corporation.
                    Rockville, Maryland.

                 Townsend, D.W, D.K Stevenson, D.M. Dunn, and J.J. Graham. 1985. Current meter data
                    tor the eastern coastal Gulf of Maine. Bigelow Technical Report No. 85-58. West
                    Boothbay Harbor, Maine.

                 U.S. Coastal Pilot. 1988. Atlantic Coast: Eastport to Cape Cod, 1988 (24    1h ) edition. U.S.
                    Department of Commerce, NOAA, Washington, D.C.



                                                              55











               Weston, D. 1986. The environmental effects of floating mariculture in Puget Sound.
                 Washington Departments of Fisheries and Ecology. Olympia, Washington.

              Yentsch, C.S. and N. Garfield. 1981. Principal areas of vertical mixing in the waters of the
                 Gulf of Maine, with reference to the total productivity of the sea. In: Oceanography from
                 Space, Plenum Publishing Corporation.








































                                                        56



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                                    APPENDICES
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                                                          APPENDIX A


                           ESTIMATED COSTS FOR TYPICAL MONITORING PARAMETERS

                In reviewing the requirements for Washington, British Columbia, Scotland, and Ireland; a
                number of parameters are common to many monitoring programs. Table A-1 lists the
                common parameters and an estimated cost for analyzing them. Costs in Table A-1 do not
                include the costs associated with collecting the samples, analyzing the data, or preparing an
                organized report.

                Table A-1.        Environmental parameters commonly evaluated for salmon farming
                                  operations and their associated analytical costs (1990).

                Parameter                  Range   of costs per sample        Hy                  a
                                                                                 pothetical Far


                Water Quality
                    Dissolved oxygen                   $5 -8                        $45-72
                    pH                                $5-8                          $45-72
                    Salinity                         $16-20                       $144- 180
                    Ammonia                          $10-13                        S90- 117
                    Nitrite/Nitrate                  $10   -13                     S90-  117
                    Un-ionized ammonia                $5-8                         $45 -72
                                                                                  $459 -630


                Sediment Chemistry
                    Total organic carbon             $40-50                       $600 -750
                    Kjeldahl nitrogen                $20-25                       $300 -375
                    Grain size                       S90- 110                    $1,350 - 1,650
                                                                                 $2,250 - 2,775

                Benthic Samples (diver core)
                    Screen and sort                  $70-90                      $1,050 - 1,350
                    Taxonomy                         $80- 100                    $1,200 - 1,500
                                                                                 $2,250 - 2,850

                Benthic samples (Van Veen grab)      b
                    Screen and sort                $300 -400                     $4,500 - 6,000
                    Taxonomy                       $110- 120                     1,650 - 1,800
                                                                                 $6,150 - 7,800


                a   3 stations, 3 replicates for water quality
                    5 stations, 3 replicates for benthos and sediment quality
                b   Benthic costs are proportional to the volume of the sample. A Van Veen grab sample
                    is larger than a diver core sample.












                                                            APPENDIX B


                                  THE POTENTIAL FOR SITING GUIDELINES BASED ON
                                              EROSIONAL CURRENT VELOCITIES

                  The Washington Guidelines were based upon the maximization of horizontal dispersion of
                  solid wastes during settling. In addition to siting farms based on the depth under the pens
                  and existing currents, another approach to siting farms would be to allow farms to be sited
                  regardless of depth under the pens if near-bottom current velocities were adequate to erode
                  feed and fecal matter on a frequent basis.

                  Defining these conditions, however, is difficult for several reasons. It is not clear if
                  attainment of erosive velocities in every tidal cycle is necessary, or how long velocities of this
                  magnitude must persist to avoid no net deposition. It is also difficult to model the erosion
                  of fish fecal material, and the necessary velocities are likely to depend upon the "tent of
                  bacterial adhesion among the particles. As an approximation, however, "back-of-the-
                  envelope" calculations can be made to predict the velocities necessary to erode feed pellets.
                  Since pellets are much larger and denser than fecal matter, feces should be eroded at
                  considerably lower velocities, and the approach should be very conservative.

                  The current velocity needed to erode a feed pellet, as measured 1 ni above the substrate
                  (uloo), can be calculated using a Shield's plot and the following equations:



                                                         D    (P,-p) g D   3
                                                                    PY

                                                         TC_-r.(p,-p) g D
                                                                  @2
                                                            11100-      C
                                                                      CD



                 where       p   =  density of water (1 g/cc)
                             PS  =  density of feed pellet
                             g   =  acceleration due to gravity (980 cm/sec)
                             D   =  diameter of feed pellet
                             y   =  viscosity of water (0.01 cS)
                             C,j =  drag coefficient. A generic value of 0.003
                                    based on a survey of Puget Sound sediments has
                                    been used (Sternberg 1972)











                 The above calculations require the knowledge of feed pellet diameter and density. The size
                 of the feed pellet provided will vary depending upon the life stage of the fish, but is likely
                 to vary between 3 and 10 mm. Feed density will vary depending upon the feed type used
                 since dry feed has a moisture content of less than 20 percent and moist pellets have water
                 contents between 20 and 50 percent. No specific information could be found on pellet
                 density and given the variation among feed types, precise quantification is unwarranted, so
                 it assumed that density is likely to be in the range of 1.3 to 1.7 g/cc. Given this range of
                 density and pellet size, Table B-1 shows the velocity needed to erode feed pellets.

                 Table B-1.       Calculated current velocity (cm/sec) 1 m above the bottom (u,00)
                                  necessary to erode feed pellets of different sizes.



                 Pellet                                 Pellet size (mm)
                 density    (g/cc)               3             6              10


                 1.3                             54            76             106
                 1.7                             77            121            160




                 It is apparent that a velocity of about 100 cm/sec (roughly 2 knots), measured 1 m above
                 the bottom would erode all but the largest feed pellets, and that fecal material is likely to
                 be removed at a considerably lower velocity. For comparative purposes, a uloo of 94 cm/sec
                 will erode coarse sand (less than 2 mm diameter). Therefore, in areas where sand has been
                 eroded, such as pebble, cobble and boulder substrates, there is unlikely to be accumulation
                 of feed except in depressions.

                 It may be possible to use erosion calculations such as these in siting decisions, but several
                 difficulties exist. As discussed, there is considerable uncertainty involved in calculating the
                 velocities required for erosion of feed and especially for feces.          The conservative
                 approximations done here would probably be adequately protective, but many areas would
                 lack the required 100 cm/sec flow. There are also many questions regarding the frequency
                 at which erosive velocities must occur and how long they should persist. Without further
                 research, it would seem more prudent to use a dispersion-based siting approach rather than
                 to permit deposition beneath the farm on the presumption of erosion at a later time.



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