National aquaculture development plan

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

United
Department of
Agricultsutraetes Nafional Aquaculkllle
United States
Department of Development Plan
Commerce

Uniled States
Department of
Ow Interior Volume I
September 1984 The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture of
the Federal Coordinatiny Council on
Science, Engineering an Technology

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SH34
.F4
1984

,,%AT Or
United States Department of the Interior

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
.3 WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240

Dear Si rs:

It is our pleasure to submit the National Aquaculture Development Plan as

required by the National Aquaculture Act of 1980, Public Law 96-362.

Sincerely,y@s'

Ja s G. Watt
Se etary of the Interior
Department of the Interior

Malcolm Baldrige
Secretary of Commerce
Department of Commerce

Uo n R. Block
S-ecretary of Agriculture
U. S. Department of Agriculture

Enclosure

The President
The President of the Senate
The Speaker of the House

LIBRARY
NOAA/CCEH
cx-_ 1990 HODSON AVE.
CL
CHAS. '@C 29408-2623

NATIONAL AQUACULTURE

DEVELOPMENT PLAN

VOLU14E I

Prepared By:

The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture
of the
.Federal Coordinating Council
on Science, Engineering, and Technology

Washington, D.C.

September, 1983

The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA) is
established within the Office of Science and
Technology Policy.

Members of the JSA include:

� The Secretary of the Department of Agriculture
� The Secretary of the Department of Commerce
� The Secretary of the Department of the Interior
� The Secretary of the Department of Health and Human
Services
� The Administrator of the Agency for International
Development
� The Chief of the Corps of Engineers
� The Secretary of the Department of Energy
� The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
� The Governor of the Farm Credit Administration
� The Director of the National Science Foundation
� The Administrator of the Small Business Administration
� The Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority

AQUACULTURE IS DEFINED AS THE
CONTROLLED CULTIVATION AND HARVEST
OF AQUATIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Final Editing Was Done By:

United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Commerce
United States Department of the Interior

Report Citation

Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture. 1983. National Aquaculture
Development Plan. Volume I, Washington, D.C., 67 pages.

Disclaimer

The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed
in this report are those of the many authors and contributors and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the Joint Subcommittee on
Aquaculture, nor does the mention of companies, trade names, or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use by the Federal government.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Chapter 1'. Status of Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
World Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
U.S. Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 2. Current Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Production Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Genetics and Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Nutrition and Diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Effluent Control and Water Availability . . . . . . . . 18
Control of Problem Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Processing and Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Chapter 3. Impediments to Aquaculture Development . . . . . . . . . 24
Inadequate Assessment of Current Status . . . . . . . . 24
Knowledge, Economic, and Legal Barriers . . . . . . . . 24
Inadequate Pilot-Scale Testing 'and Demonstration
Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Legal Constraints and High Start-Up Costs . . . . . . . 28
Inadequate Transfer of Information and Technical
Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Multiple-Use Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Jurisdictional Overlap and Inadequate Coordination . . 30
Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Shortage of Trained Aquaculture Workers . . . . . . . . 30

Chapter 4. Existing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 31
Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Department of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Agency for International Development . . . . . . . . . 38
Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Department of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Department of Health and Human Services . . . . . . . . 39
Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Farm Credit Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Small Business Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
State and Territorial Governments . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Universities and Other Organizations . . . . . . . . . 42

Chapter 5. Recommended Programs and Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Industry, State, and University Roles . . . . . . . . . 43
Federal Programs and Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Planned Program Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter 6. Anticipated Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Economic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Social Impacts of Aquaculture Development and
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

PREFACE

The National Aquaculture Developmen t Plan (NADP) is a two-volume
document prepared by the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA) in
response to P.L. 96-362, the National Aquaculture Act of 1980.
The plan has been developed over an extended period of time with
the assistance of numerous individuals. It's history, briefly, is
as follows; on May 2, 1977, a Subcommittee on Aquaculture, under
the auspices of the Interagency Committee on Marine Science and
Engineering, developed an outline for a preliminary National
Aquaculture Plan. On December 15, 1978, the JSA initiated work on
that plan which was completed in May, 1980. It consisted of two
parts: an overall plan and a collection of species plans. This
particular plan was not published. The extensive list of Federal,
State, academic, and private contributors to that plan is found in
Volume 11 of the NADP.

On March 13, 1981, an ad hoc National Plan Task Force was
established to develop from the unpublished plan the NADP to fully
satisfy the requirements of the Act. Task force participants
represented the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of
Commerce, and 'U.S. Department of the Interior.

This volume (1) describes technologies, problems, and opportunities
associated with aquaculture in the U.S. and its territories. It
recommends actions to solve problems and analyzes the social,
environmental, and economic impacts of growth in aquaculture.
Volume II contains in-depth discussions of important, selected
aquacultural species, an extensive bibliography and list of
contributors.

The JSA is a subcommittee of the Federal Coordinating Council on
Science, Engineering, and Technology. It was created to increase
the overall effectiveness and productivity of Federal aquaculture
programs by improving coordination and communication among Federal
agencies involved in these programs. The Act assigns various .
activities to be conducted by the JSA, including preparation of
this plan.

The JSA is made up of representatives of the following Federal
agencies: Department of Agriculture (USDA), Department of Commerce
(DOC), Department of the Interior (USDI), Department of Energy
(DOE), Department of Health and Human Services (DRUS),
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Corps of Engineers (COE),
Small Business Administration (SBA), Agency for International
Development (AID), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), National
Science Foundation (NSF), and the Farm Credit Administration (FCA).
The chairmanship and vice-chairmanship of the JSA rotates among
representatives of the Department's of Agriculture, Commerce and

Interior every two years. On February 1, 1983, the USDI
representative was appointed JSA chairman and the DOC
representative became vice-chairman.

The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 states that it is National
policy "to encourage the development of aquaculture in the United
States", and it further states that "the principal responsibility
for the development of aquaculture in the United States must rest
with the private sector". It recognizes U.S. aquaculture as a
viable approach to helping meet food needs and contributing to the
solution of world resource problems and that aquaculture
development will result from initiatives and actions taken within
the private sector. The general role of government is to provide
encouragement and support through programs and services that cannot
reasonably be expected from private sources..

The government will act as a catalyst for private sector
initiatives. Such action will help encourage the growth of a
vigorous, self-sustaining industry that will benefit the economy
and reduce or eventually reverse the trade deficit in fish and
fishery products.

The members of the JSA respectfully and affectionately dedicate the
NADP to the memory of David H. Wallace, late Director of the Office
of International Fisheries Affairs, National Marine Fisheries
Service, He was widely acknowledged as the principal advocate in
the Federal Government of an expanded aquaculture program. His
enthusiasm and skill were responsible for stimulating activity in
this area, not only in the DOC but in other agencies as well. He
was responsible for organizing the Joint Subcommittee on
Aquaculture and served as its chairmanuntil his death in January
1980.

Dave Wallace's encouragement and organizational skill contributed
significantly in the early stages of the preparation of the NADP.
It is particularly fitting that it be dedicated to him.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

World-wide aquaculture production is estimated to be as much as 21
billion pounds. Global production has increased significantly over
the past 15 years. Total U.S. production is now estimated to be
almost 400 million pounds, accounting for about 11 percent of the
total edible production of fish and shellfish in the U.S. This
figure iepresents a substantial increase in aquaculture production
since 1975, when it was estimated at about 130 million pounds.

In September 1980, the National Aquaculture Act (P.L. 96-362) was
signed into law. The Act states that National policy is "to
encourage the development of aquaculture in the United States."

It is important to note that much of the increased production
occurred prior to the passage of the National Aquaculture Act
because sufficient incentive and motivation in the private sector
existed for the aquaculture industry to expand. This expansion
occurred in a period of: 1) increasing per capita consumption of
fish and shellfish (10.3 pounds in 1960; 13.0 pounds in 1980); 2) a
general concensus that a limit to commercial fishing of traditional
species had been or shortly would be reached; and 3) increasing
negative annual trade deficits ($2_2 billion) in fish and fish
products.

But it is equally important to note that considerable support by
various Federal and State agencies and academic institutions have
directly and indirectly assisted this industry for many years.
That support came from research and education programs in both
Federal laboratories and State college a-ad university laboratories;
through extension education and technical assistance from Federal
and State workers in areas of aquaculture expansion; and from a
growing awareness and encouragement of industry activity by State
and Federal administrators and decision-makers. It is this last
point that was identified by the National Research Council (NRC,
1978, Aquaculture in the United States: Constraints and
Opportunities) when it observed that "Constraints on,orderly
development of aquaculture tend to be political and administrative,
rather than scientific and technological."

The JSA has noted that many impediments identified by the National
Research Council still persist. These include continued use of
wild animals that have not been genetically improved for culture,
poor understanding of nutrition and diets of culturable species,
continuing problems in preventing and controlling diseases, and
poor knowledge of water quality criteria in culture systems.
Coupled with a need for education, information, and technology
assistance efforts, and a need to understand markets and marketing
barriers for aquaculture, these constraints continue to present
obstacles to rapid and orderly expansion of aquaculture.

iii

Other barriers faced by some segments of industry include
multiple-use conflicts, legal constraints, and difficulty in
locating capital for entrepreneurial exploration. Finally, some
observers argue that jurisdictional overlap and inadequate
coordination at the Federal level has led to ineffective and
inefficient Federal support of the emerging aquaculture industries.
P.L. 96-362 formally recognized the JSA as the vehicle to provide
the necessary coordination in order to bring about improved Federal
support of aquaculture.

Although aquaculture is complex and diverse, certain common factors
exist that offer opportunities for enhancement by Federal action on
a National basis with the understanding that local and State
constraints must be dealt with at a local or State level, and that
industry must provide adequate support for aquaculture research and
development.

The recommended activities of the JSA are included in the following
summary. A more comprehensive discussion is presented in Chapter 5.

Joint Subcommittee on kquaculture

The JSA will provide broad coordination and monitoring of Federal
aquaculture programs including reviews, assessments, developing
policy recommendations, and reports on aquaculture activities.
Specific functions and responsibilities have been assigned to three
panels:

Panel on Science, Technology, and Engineering: The Panel will
annually update research needs, identify and report on ongoing
research efforts, and coordinate Federal research programs.

Panel on Economics: The panel will periodically review and report
on aspects that affect the economic feasibility of aquaculture;
initiate, monitor, and report on Federal actions to reduce
burdensome regulations, and publish and distribute a directory of
financial assistance programs.

Panel on Education and Technical Assistance: The panel will
provide for coordination and monitoring of education and
information dissemination activities of Federal agencies,
facilitate exchange of aquaculture information, and establish and
monitor a National Aquaculture Information System (NAIS).

Issues and concerns that the JSA will address include:

National Aquaculture Information System (NAIS): Federal data banks
containing information about aquaculture will be tied together
under the leadership of the National Agricultural Library of USDA.
Bibliographic files, translations of foreign articles, selected
directories, statistics, survey results and research projects will
be accessible at a single entry point.

International Activities: The JSA will coordinate the exchange of
information with foreign nations and monitor bilateral programs to
assure that the United States receives maximum benefit from
information derived from these programs.

Capital Requirements: Although lack of financing is not a
constraint to existing commercial aquaculture, it is for
entrepreneurs working-Rith innovative culture systems or untested
species on a commercial basis. Therefore, while the JSA does not
find adequate justification for creating new Federal financing
programs, an effort will be made to educate the financial community
about aquaculture and to inform prospective aquaculture borrowers
about current funding sources.

Regulatory Impacts: Several Federal regulatory program areas have
been identified by industry and the JSA as being of particular
importance. These include dredge and fill permits, National
pollutant discharge elimination system permits, drug and chemical
registration procedures, fish and shellfish health programs, and
restrictions on the movement of nonindigenous species. However, it
is clear that the bulk of regulations, permits, and licenses occur
at the State and local level.

Although it is unreasonable to expect aquaculture to receive
special exemptions from environmental and health regulations, it is
not unreasonable to expect that aquaculture be given equity with
competing activities.

The JSA will actively work with appropriate Federal regulatory
agencies to review problems associated with aquaculture, promote
public forums to conduct periodic assessments of progress in
achieving justifiable regulatory relief, and periodically make
available directories of Federal regulations affecting the
development and operation of commercial aquaculture.

Departmental Responsibilities: P.L. 96-362 assigns broad
responsibilities in aquaculture to the USDA, DOC, And USDI, working
with and through the JSA. The three Departments agreed to broad
responsibilities in scientific and technical research, pilot
testing and demonstration, economics, and information and
technology assistance within existing programs. Expenditures in
aquaculture by the three Departments (FY 1982) were: USDA--$9.5
million; DOC--$8.3 million; and USDI--$4.5 million.

Conclusions

Aquaculture is a dynamic and growing segment of the American
economy. Tremendous strides in yields have been seen in the past
15 years. Giant corporations have joined the aquaculture field -
Con Agra, Ralston Purina, British Petroleum, and Campbell Soup, to
name a few. The JSA believes that aquaculture can and will

become a significant source of aquatic products in this decade.
For some regions of the country, and for some species, this is
already the case.

Aquaculture also offers new jobs, increased farm income stability,
wholesome products, and opportunities to improve our balance of
trade. However, further progress will require a commitment to
reduce burdensome regulations, enhanced support for research and
education, and a well-coordinated partnership between Federal and
State agencies, universities, and private industry. The JSA
believes that the program input in this document will meet the
National policy to encourage the development of aquaculture in the
U.S.

CHAPTER 1
STATUS OF AQUACULTURE

The status of aquaculture in the world and in the U.S. is
summarized in this chapter. For details on the status of
individual species, see Volume II.

World Status

On a worldwide basis, at least 93 species of finfish (combining
fresh, brackish and marine species), 7 species of shrimp or prawns,
6 species of crawfish, many species of oysters, clams and other
shellfish, and a wide variety of freshwater and marine plants are
cultivated. Comprehensive and reliable a Iuaculture production
statistics are generally lacking. Ryther , combining various
years from 1971 to 1978 for different species and countries,
estimated world production at 5.6 million metric tons (12.3 billion
pounds). (See Table 1). This figure is less than that commonly
quoted because of a revised2estimate of production from the
People's Republic of China. Of the total production, finfish
account for 57 percent (12 percent from marine or brackish water
culture and 45 percent from freshwater), molluscs 24 percent,
seaweed 19 percent, and crustaceans less than 1 percent.

T.V.R. Pillay of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), in a presentation at the World Mariculture
Society meeting in Venice in September 1981, presented more recent
total production figures. World aquaculture production for 1979
was estimated to be 9.4 million metric tons (20.7 billion pounds).
His breakdown of total production was: finfish 37.1 percent,
molluscs 36.7 percent, seaweed 25.4 percent, and crustaceans less
than I percent.

Small operations produce most of the finfish and shrimp, while
oysters, mussels, and seaweed come from larger farms. Aquaculture
production constitutes roughly 10 percent of total world fish
consumption, with some 65 percent being cultured in Asia.

Some countries have been aggressive and successful in promoting
aquaculture development, and rely heavily on it for their supply of
fish. Half of the fish consumed in Israel, over 25 percent of that
consumed in China and India, and about 10 percent of that consumed
in Japan comes from aquaculture.

Ryther, J.H. 1981. Mariculture, ocean ranching, and other
culture-based fisheries. BioScience 31(3):223-230.
2 Anon. 1980. China changes the figures. Fish Farming
International 7(l):3.

Table 1. 1
World Aquaculture Production for 1971-1978

Production
Species groups Thousands of Millions ;_f Percent of
metric tons pounds total

Finfish
Marine
Milkfish (Philippines, 207 456 3.7
Indonesia, Taiwan;
1973-74)
Yellowtail (Japan; 1971) 52 115 0.9
Salmonid net cage culture
(1975) 100 220 1.8
Salmon ocean ranching
(USA, Japan, USSR;
1977-79) 200 441 3.6
Others (1978) 100 220 1.8
Subtotal 659 1452 11.8

Freshwater
Carp, tilapia, others
(1978) 2528 5573 44.9
Subtotal 2528 5573 44.9

Molluscs
Oysters (1975) 652 1437 11.6
Mussels (1975) 591 1303 10.5
Clams, scallops, cockles,
other molluscs (1975) 132 291 2.3
Subtotal 1375 3031 24.4

Crustaceans
Shrimp and prawns (1975) 16 35 0.3
Subtotal f-6 35 0.3

Seaweeds (1975) 1055 2326 18.7
Subtotal 1055 2326 18.7

Total 5633 12417 100.0

Excluding sport, bait, ornamental fish, and pearls.
Source: Ryther, J. H. 1981. Mariculture, ocean ranching and other
culture-based fisheries. BioScience 31(3):223-230.

More than one-third of the estimated production of cultured
products consists of,finfish raised by about a dozen countries in
Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Most of this production consists
of various species of carp and tilapla reared by low-technology
methods in freshwater ponds and species such as mullet and milkfish
raised in saltwater ponds along coastal areas.

In the U.S., aquatic plants are used primarily to produce extracts
used as emulsifiers and stabilizers for industrial purposes. In
Asia, aquatic plants are also of great importance as food. More
than 1 million metric tons are produced annually through
squaculture in Japan, China, and Korea; seaweeds are also grown
extensively in tropical waters around Singapore, the Philippines,
and elsewhere.

There has been a wolld wide expansion of aquaculture over the past
15 years. In 1966, a rough estimate of world aquaculture
production was given as I million metric tons. A partial estimate
based on 36 countries in 1972 showed a production of 2.6 million
metric tons, and about 6 million metric tons in 1975. The latest
estimate is over 9 million metric tons in 1979. These figures
probably reflect both incr Sased production and more complete
reporting methods. PillaX projected a fivefold increase by the
year 2000, whereas Brown, 'taking a more conservative approach,
predicted that output would increase 3 to 3.5 times by the turn of
the century.

U.S. Status

Except for a limited number of marine and freshwater species, rapid
development of private aquaculture in the U.S. and its territories
has not occurred as rapidly as some would like to see. Scientific
and technological obstacles remain, but the primary constraints to
the rapid expansion of aquaculture production are political,

I
U.S. President's Science Advisory Committee. Panel on
the World Food Supply. 1967, The world food: a report. Vol. 11.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
2 Pillay, T. V. R. 1972. Problems and priorities in
aquacultural development. Progress in Fishery and Food Science.
University of Washington Publication Fisheries (New Series)
5:203-208.

3 Pillay, T. V. R. 1976. The state of aquaculture 1976.
Paper presented at FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto,
Japan. 26 May-2 June 1976.
4 Brown, E.E. 1977. World fish farming: cultivation and
economics. The Avi Publishing Company, Inc., Westport,
Connecticut. 397 p.

administrative, and economic.1 The constraints include
competition for land and water areas and markets, regulations on
Federal, State, territorial, and local levels, inadequate transfer
of information and technical assistance, and uncertainty about
profitability. Coordinated and successful action to overcome these
barriers has been lacking. Major impediments are detailed in
Chapter 3 and the individual species plans presented in Volume II.

In spite of these barriers, private aquaculture accounts for a
significant@portion of the supply of some species in the U.S.
(Table 2). Private aquaculture produces over 40 percent of our
oysters, most of our catfish and crawfish, nearly all of our
rainbow trout, and small quantities of several other species.
Total harvest of edible fish and shellfish in 1982 was 1,500,000
metric tons (3.3 billion pounds), of which about 179,500 metric
tons (395 million pounds), or about 11 percent of the total, was
produced by aquaculture.

Emphasis in the U.S. private aquaculture sector has been on the
culture of high-value species, with little commercial activity on
the culture of low-cost fishes such as carp, buffalofish, tilapia,
or mullet. However, these species are of considerable interest to
the U.S. territories. Some experimental studies are being
conducted by Federal, State, university, and private concerns on
the culture of these and other species.

In addition to private aquaculture in the U.S., Federal and State
governments have extensive hatchery programs for the production and
stocking of fingerlings in lakes and streams. Benefits of these
programs are enjoyed by both commercial and recreational fishermen..
Species produced include Pacific salmon (pink, chum, sockeye, coho,
and chinook), Atlantic salmon, steelhead trout, several species of
sunfish, striped bass, channel catfish, largemouth and smallmouth
bass, northern pike, muskellunge, walleye, and eight species of
nonanadromous salmonids. Public releases involve massive
numbers of fry, fingerlings, and catchable-size fish from Federal
and State hatcheries. For example, 620 million small salmon and
steelhead trout were released on the Pacific Coast in 1982, 6
million largemouth bass fingerlings were released in ponds and
reservoirs in 1982, and 40 million striped bass fingerlings were
released in reservoirs and coastal rivers in 1982. The current

I National Research Council. Committee on Aquaculture.
1978. Aquaculture in the United States: constraints and
opportunities: a report of the Committee on Aquaculture, Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Commission on Natural
Resources, National Research Council. National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, DC. 123 p.

Table 2.
U. S. Private Aquaculture Product-ion I for 1980
and Preliminary Data for 1982

Value Metric Thousands Percent
Species groups (1000 dollars) tons of pounds of total
19@0 1982 1980 1982 1980 1982 1980 1982
Baitfish 44,000 100,000 10,000 15,000 22,046 33,069 2 10.7 8.4
Catfish 53,572 120,000 34,855 90,909 76,842 200,4192 37.2 50.7
Clams 10,398 12,000 1,777 2,045 3,917 4,508 1.9 1.1
Crawfish 12,951 27,000 10,849 25,000 23,917 55,115 11.6 13.9
Freshwater prawns 1,200 1,800 136 182 300 4002 0.1 (). I
Mussels NA 1,600 NA 773 NA 1,700 - 0.4
Oysters 37,085 34,000 10,775 9,878 23,755 21,777 11.5 5.5
Pacific salmon 3,400 3 4,000 3 3,455 11,587 7,616 4 25,544 4 3.7 6.5
Tropical fish NA 20,000 NA NA NA NA - -
Trout 37,474 48,000 21,836 21,818 48,141 48,100 23.3 12.2
Other species 5 NA 5,000 NA 2,273 NA -5,000 - -1.2
Total 200,080 373,400 93,683 179,465 206,533 395,632 100.0 100.0

Data shown are live weight harvests for consumption, except for oysters, clams and mussels which
are meat weight. Excluded are eggs, fingerlings, etc., which are an intermediate product level.
2 Projected estimated production for 1983.
3 Pen-rearing only; ocean ranching returns are currently used for broodstock.
4 Includes pen-reared and ocean ranched salmon.
5 Includes species such as sturgeon, paddlefish, carp, buffalo, tilapia, mullet, abalone,
etc.

contribution of public hatcheries to commercial and sport salmon
fisheries is estimated to be 40 percent for chinook, 45 percent for
coho, and 5 percent for chum. An evaluation of the recoveries and
returns for fall chinook salmon released from Columbia River
hatcheries in the yearT 1963 through 1969 showed a return of $4.20
for each dollar spent. A similar study on coho salmon releases 1
for 1967 and 1968 resulted in a benefit-to-cost ratio of 7 to 1.
The following represents a best-guess estimate by species of
commercial investment in aquaculture and production facilities:

Baitfish

In 197& a Soil Conservation Service survey of the United States
mainland found about 1,544 baitfish farms in operation on 17,576
hectares (43,940 acres). The average operation involved 17.6
hectares (44 acres) and produced 9,900 kilograms (21,780 pounds) of
baitfish per year. Total production in 1980 was estimated to be 22
million pounds. Preliminary 1983 data indicates production will be
33 million pounds valued at $100 million. It is estimated that
over $100 million is invested in baitfish enterprises.

Catfish

In a 1980 survey, farm-raised food size catfish production totalled
34,855 metric tons (76.8 million pounds). Fifteen leading States
surveyed in 1981 had 1,069 commercial operations with a total
production hectarage of 27,900 ha (68,941 acres). Total
investment in the U.S. catfish industry is estimated to be more
than $400million. Preliminary data for 1983 indicates a crop
value of $120 million and a total production of 200 million pounds.

Crawfish

Current estimates are that crawfish farmers operate on about
115,000 acres with an investment of over $100 million. In
addition, there are approximately 40 licensed processing plants in
the State of Louisiana. Crawfish farming is a rapidly expanding
industry in Louisiana and in other nearby States, particularly
Mississippi and Texas. In 1980 Oroduction was 23.9 million pounds.
It is anticipated that production will increase to 55 million
pounds in 1982, with a farm value of $27 million.

Freshwater prawns

A number of firms have locations and investments as follows: 20 in
Hawaii average $50,000 to $100,000 each, or a total of about $1.8

1 Columbia River Fisheries Development Program. 1981. U.S.
Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, DC.
34 pp.

million; 12 in Guam, $500,000 combined; one in California,
$600,000 and one in Puerto Rico. Pilot projects are underway in
several mainland States.

Hard Clams

Fifteen companies are engaged at present in hard clam culture.
Seven to eight companies raise clams along with other species.
Production of marketable-sized littleneck clams totals about 2
million, annually. Investment figures are unknown.

Largemouth bass

Most bass are produced by Federal and State hatcheries. For
example, Federal hatcheries produced over 6 million fingerlings in
1982. Investment data for commercial production of largemouth bass
are unavailable, but are estimated to be about $10 million.

Mussels

Less than 10 firms currently produce mussels in U.S. waters.
Nearly all are located in New England. Production in 1982 was
about 773 metric tons (1.7 million poundsy meat weight, and appears
to be expanding.

Oysters

Although the production of oysters through aquaculture is
significant (some 9,878 metric tons or 21.7 million pounds valued
at $34 million in 1982), little information is available on the
commercial investment by the industry. In a recent survey of the
Northeastern United States, some 257 shellfish businesses were
identified from Maine to Virginia. In the Gulf Coast area, some
1,424 individual lease tracts in Louisiana alone have been
identified covering some 93,389 ha (230,760 acres). The west coast
States #also support a very significant oyster culture industry
based on the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas . To add to the
complexity of the situation, there are approximately a dozen
hatcheries which produce both clam and oyster seed; some are
operational for self-sufficiency, others produce seed as a market
product.

Penaeid Shrimp

There are s'uccessful shrimp farms in Latin America due to ease of
obtaining,year-round supplies of larvae, coastal land
accessibility, and lack of stringent permitting and regulatory
requirements. Many of these farms are utilizing U.S. financing.
U.S. based companies, especially in Texas, appear to be on the
verge of commercial success. It is estimated that some $44 million
in U.S. funds has been spent on ponds and facilities both here and
abroad.

Pacific Salmon

There are over 25 active projects in commercial salmon culture,
including at least 7 in Oregon, 6 in Washington, 17 in Alaska, and
1 in California. One Oregon company has invested $15 million in
capital assets; several others have invested at least $4 million
combined. Projects operated by Native Americans in Washington and
Alaska represent at least $15 million in Federal funds. A firm in
the State of Washington has invested $5 million. Another company
in California has invested $400,000. Two Alaskan projects
represent $2.5 million, each. Interest in salmon culture in New
England is growing as rapidly as it is in Alaska. An active pink
and chum salmon ranching program exists in Maine. Preliminary data
for 1982 suggests total production of food size salmon will
approach 25.5 million pounds for pen reared and ocean ranched
salmon.

Striped bass

Culture of striped bass by State and National fish hatcheries
reached a production level of over 40 million in 1982. At least
three or four private efforts exist with more in the planning
stages. Current investmdnt figures are not available.

Trout

Few substantive data exist to indicate private sector investment in
trout culture. However, in 1961, about 250 private facilities in
14 surveyed States raised trout. These operations produced an
estimated 48 million pounds of food-sized fish. Facility costs
have been estimated at $3.30 to $22 per kilogram ($1.50 to $10 per
pound) of trout produced annually. Capital investment in the
production segment--public and private--is estimated to be between
$64 and $430 million. Preliminary production and crop value
figures for 1982 are reported to be 48 million pounds and $48
million, respectively.

Abalone

Three hatcheries in California and Hawaii have invested a total of
$4 to $10 million. Current research and development activities for
commercial production look promising.

Tropical aquarium fishes

A great demand exists for colorful fish and invertebrates for
aquariums. This trade, centered in Florida and including both
marine and freshwater fishes, grosses an estimated $200 million
annually at the retail level. In Florida alone, 220 to 250
tropical fish farms are producing about 100 species of ornamental
fish.

Unpredictable wild-stock supplies and future import restrictions
may stimulate rapid development of culture techniques for aquarium
fishes. Although detailed economic data on production are lacking,
the profitable freshwater segment of this industry apparently deals
effectively with its problems.. Culture of marine ornamentals still
faces difficulties, and as a result, 80 to 90 percent of the marine
tropical fish sold in the U.S. are imported. Potential exists for
further development of this type of culture.

CHAPTER 2
CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

This chapter contains an overview of technologies employed by
aquaculturists in the U.S. Subject areas include: production
methods, genetics and reproduction, nutrition and diets, water and
waste management, control of problem organisms, harvesting,
transportation, and processing and marketing. For greater detail
the reader should consult the individual species plans in Volume
II.

Production Methods

Pond Culture of Freshwater Finfish

In the U.S., ponds are the most commonly used facilities for fish
culture. The size, shape, and depth of ponds can vary
considerably. Regardless of these factors, it is desirable to have
ponds that are easy to harvest, drain, and refill rapidly and
completely.

Many species of fish lend themselves well to pond culture. Some
may be Coldwater species such as trout, char, or salmon; they may
be coolwater species such as walleye, perch, muskellunge, or
northern pike, or they may be warmwater species such as carp,
catfish, tilapia, and many others.

Most pond culture in the United States is monoculture-in
nature--one species of fish is reared in each pond. However, some
polyculture is also practiced--two or more species being reared in-
the same pond simultaneously. An example of this type of culture
is the rearing of tilapia or buffalofish with catfish. Catfish are
fed pelleted diets while the other species eat the wasted feed,
algae, and zooplankton.

Early p'ond culture was a form of extensive culture. Generally,
broodstock were placed in a pond and allowed to spawn naturally. A
minimum amount of supplemental feed was provided and a minimum
amount of fertAizer was added to the ponds to generate food for
the young. At the end of the growing season the pond was emptied
and the remaining fish, usually a modest amount, were harvested.

Intensive Culture requires that broodstock be held in separate
ponds, be spawned artificially, and the young, in large numbers, be
placed in special rearing ponds. They are fed to promote fast
growth and then are periodically harvested. A comparison of yields
is quite dramatic. Extensive pond culture production ranges from
1,684 to 2,245 kilograms per hectare (1500 to 2000 pounds per
acre). Under intensive methods, annual yields may be 5,600
kilograms per hectare (5000 pounds per acre) or higher.

Raceways, Silos, and Circular Pools

Raceways, silos, and circular pools constructed of cement,
fiberglass, or metal are examples of intensive cultural systems.
They are easy to clean, do not require large tracts of land, and
are not prone to heavy growth of aquatic vegetation.

Most trout and salmon in the U.S. are reared in raceways. Raceways
are usually rectangular in shape and longer than they are wide.
They are usually placed end-to-end in series with water flowing
from one into another. Circular pools are typically shallow and
have a center drain. Silos are very deep; circular pools are
constructed above ground or are partially buried in the ground.

Closed Systems

Intensive cultural systems require large amounts of water and are
usually open, flow-through systems. The water flows through each
pool one time only. It may flow through one or more successive
pools, but then it is discharged to a drainage ditch, creek, or
river following settling of sediments in a settling basin.

In a closed system, the water is reused after it is treated. It
must have all settleable solids and dissolved wastes removed, it
must be re-aerated, and in some instances disinfected.

Closed systems are costly and difficult to construct, operate, and
maintain. However, with water becoming a more valuable commodity
and with pumping costs increasing, it is becoming more popular to
investigate reuse of water. Refinements in reuse systems are
expected and it is anticipated their use will increase with time.

Cage and Pen Culture

Cage and pen culture are essentially the same. The basic
difference is in the size of the enclosure. Generally speaking,
cage culture is practiced in freshwater, whereas pen culture is
practiced in marine waters. Cages and pens lend themselves well to
bodies of water which cannot be drained or otherwise manipulated to
facilitate harvesting.

Cages are generally rafted two abreast and are worked from a boat.
Pens can be rafted four or more abreast. There are generally
walkways between rafts of pens and a serviceway the length of the
pens. Both cages and pens must be anchored in locations that allow
sufficient space between the bottom of the container and the bottom
of the stream, lake, or bay to allow wastes to settle out of the
enclosures.

Species reared using these techniques include catfish, trout,
salmon, and many others. In some instances, cages have been
double-cropped with catfish being reared during the warmer, summer

months and trout during the cooler fall and winter months. The
State of Arkansas has an arrangenent with commercial producers who
lease or rent space in public reservoirs for cage culture with the
agreement that a certain percentage of the fish be released within
the reservoirs. The pen culture of salmon on the Northwest Coast
of the U. S. is growing rapidly. Cage and pen culture will play an
increasingly large role in aquaculture.

Sea Ranching

Sea or ocean ranching involves the release of immature fish to the
wild and the recapture of the fish when they return as adults.
Currently, only anadromous species such as salmon and striped bass
are being used for sea ranching. Private individuals and
corporations culture salmon from the egg to the smoltification
stage (smoltification is a physiological process that young fish
undergo to prepare them for migration to the sea). At
smoltification, the young are released and migrate to sea where
they feed and grow to maturity. Maturation is the stimulus for the
adult fish to return to their release point, where they are then
harvested.

Usually less than 3 percent of all sea-ranched salmon are
recaptured by those who released them. Commercial and sport
fishermen catch many of them. One advantage to this method of
culture, however, is that the expense of long-term feeding is
avoided. Sea-ranching is legal in Oregon, California, Maine, and
Alaska, but not in Washington, with the exception of some Native
American activities.

Culture Systems for Shellfish

Most shellfish species have suffered dramatic population reductions
in the past 15 to 30 years because of environmental degradation
from toxic wastes, sedimentation, overharvesting, dredging, and
channelization. Shellfish cultivation is beginning to reverse this
trend. Long7term problems with hatchery production and artificial
rearing of larval molluscs appear to have been solved. Techniques
for the setting of oyster spat (young oysters) on suitable
substrate have been greatly improved. Certain States require that
shells from commercially harvested oysters be returned to the
marine environment. The shells serve as substrates on which spat
adhere and grow to a harvestable size..

Mussel culture in the U.S. on both the east and west coasts is
centered on the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). Most commercial
producers are using suspended culture systems (long lines suspended
from rafts).

-In California, juvenile abalone (Haliotis sp.) are either stocked
in natural habitats as part of an enhancement program or reared
commercially in tanks. The time required to reach,market size

ranges from 2 to 7 or more years, depending upon species, water
temperature, and feeding rates.

Hatchery techniques for clams are generally available for both
commercial production and for planting (enhancement) programs to
increase clam populations for recreational harvest. Grow out
systems for bay scallops in natural bodies of water using various
net and cage designs are approaching commercial stages. Off-bottom
culture techniques which eliminate most predators and enhance
growth, have only recently begun to be used in the U.S.

Crustaceans

Crawfish are reared commercially in extensive pond culture systems
either in conjunction with rice farming or separately. Crawfish
culture is rapidly expanding in Louisiana., Texas and Mississippi.
The States are implementing their own crawfish industries.

Culture of the giant freshwater Malaysian prawn (Macrobrachium
rosenbergii is an emerging industry that is developing quite
rapidly as well, especially in Hawaii. Most operations currently
use extensive techniques in ponds, but some are experimenting with
more intensive culture systems. The Malaysian prawn reproduces
readily in capitivity. The larvae require brackish waters while
the adults grow successfully in freshwater.

Commercial shrimp (Penaeus sp.) culture in the United States is
basically at the pilot project level. However, successes in Japan
and Latin America indicate that shrimp have good aquaculture
potential. Most shrimp are cultured in large earthern ponds, but
raceways are showing some promise. Major constraints for shrimp
culture in the United States include inadequate control of
reproduction and a short, growing season.

Culture Systems for Other Aquatic Organisms

There are many aquatic organisms that lend themselves to possible
commercial production or cultivation. Certain seaweeds possess
economic value as food items or as food additives. Many Asian
countries have farmed kelp and other aquatic plants as food items
for years. Large kelp beds grow naturally and are harvested off
the coast of California. Studies have shown that kelp can be
commercially produced by planting certain regenerative portions of
the plant and harvesting it when mature. Other studies are
exp-IDT-in-g the potential of growing marine and freshwater plants for
use as new material for biomass energy conversion.

Attempts are being made to culture some threatened or endangered
aquatic species. For example, the state of the art has progressed
to the point where artificially hatched and released sea turtles
are now returning to beaches as adults to lay eggs. After
alligators were placed on the endangered species list, methods of

cultivating them were developed. Now, commercial alligator farms
are supplying the market with meat and hides. As many as 13
alligator farms are producing about 1,000 animals per year.

Some progress has been made in bullfrog culture and a few
small-scale frog farms do exist in the southeastern States.
However, several cultural problems remain to be solved to make frog
rearing a reliable and lucrative endeavor.

Rotation with Arable Crops

Several combinations of rotating arable crops with aquatic crops
are now being practiced. As previously mentioned, crawfish in
Louisiana are reared in rotation with rice crops. Rice is sown,
grown, and harvested. Following harvest, the land is reflooded and
seeded with crawfish. The crawfish feed on the rice straw and
wastes and are harvested the following winter or early spring.

Catfish are sometimes combined with rice or soybeans on a rotation
program. Nitrogenous waste products produced during catfish
production serve as a source of fertilizer. Rotation can reduce
the need for fertilizers, resulting in increased profits.

Use of Geothermal Springs, Waste Heat, and Waste Water

Geothermal (hot) springs have been used for fish farming for
several years. A number of companies are experimenting with using
warm cooling water from pulp and paper mills, steam plants, and
atomic generating plants for aquaculture. The heated effluent can
be used directly or mixed with cooler water sources to obtain
optimum growth temperatures. Catfish, trout, salmon, carp.1
shellfish, tilapia, and other species have been successfully reared
using water from these sources.

One of the largest salmon hatcheries in the world (a private
hatchery located in Oregon), uses cooling water from a pulp and
paper mill to double the growth rate of young salmon for release in
a commercial ocean ranching program.

Using fish, shellfish, or aquatic plants to help remove organic or
inorganic pollutants from wastewater and then harvesting the
resulting crop is also practical in some areas. Effluent ponds of
wastewater from municipal, industrial, agricultural, and even
aqua,cultural sources can be high in nitrogen and phosphorous, two
of the primary elements in the plankton food chain. This type of
water develops excellent plankton blooms for filter feeding fish.
In some areas, walleye, northern pike, or muskellunge fry have been
stocked in effluent ponds for growth to a stockable size. Bait
minnows also show good promise for this type of culture.

Other Production Methods

Recently there has been a great deal of interest in home fish
farming for family consumption. The use of small ponds or plastic
swimming pools as fish rearing facilities for personal use is
becoming popular. With the development of effective and economical
filters to remove organic wastes from the water, home fish farming
may increase further in popularity. Small-scale mollusc culture
under piers and in salt and brackish water ponds at the edge of the
sea also has potential.

Genetics and Reproduction

Warmwater and Coolwater Finfish

Most warm and coolwater fish are produced by natural spawning in
ponds. With some species, the broodf:Esh are removed after spawning
to keep them from eating the fry, to facilitate handling small
fish, and to reduce competition. Channel catfish egg masses are
usually collected from spawning containers in a pond and then moved
to a hatchery incubation facility.

Hormone injection of broodfish to induce spawning is practical for
some species. Striped bass broodfish are usually captured from
rivers or lakes just prior to spawning, injected with hormones, and
artificially spawned in a hatchery. This technique has also been
successfully used to produce hybrid crosses of normally
incompatible species. Sex steroids and hybrid crosses are also
being evaluated for their potential to produce monosex or infertile
fish populations. These methods promote more rapid growth rates
and prevent animals that might escape to the wild from spawning and
overpopulating to the detriment of indigenous species.

Coldwater Finfish (Salmonids)

Nonanadromous salmonids, such as trout, have been cultured in this
country longer than has Any other aquaculture species and their
life histories are well understood. The rainbow trout is the most
important species reared for sport fishing purposes. Strains and
hybrids have been selectively developed for enhanced growth,
disease resistance, age and season of sexual maturity, body color,
and adaptation to hatchery conditions. Additional research will be
required to understand and control sexual maturity, to produce
monosex fish, and to develop methods for determining the sex of
young trout.

Genetic research on anadromous salmonids has been directed at
improving disease resistance, growth, and maximizing returns to
freshwater. Additional research is needed to characterize strain
differences, to assess the genetic composition of different
spawning runs, to insure identification and protection of wild
stocks, and to maintain a diverse genetic pool.

Marine Finfish

Spawning requirements have been determined in the U.S. for very few
marine tinfish. Anadromous and estuarine species are more
adaptable to the aquaculture environment. Most marine finfish
cultured today are captured from the wild and reared in coastal
saltwater ponds.

A successful sturgeon fishery has been established in the Soviet
Union by injecting hormones into broodfish that are captured during
their spawning migrations. Hybrid sturgeon with improved growth
rates have been produced. Research is now underway to culture
sturgeon in the U.S.

Mullet, rabbitfish, and milkfish, three of the most important
species for marine aquaculture in Asia, have only recently been
spawned in captivity in the U.S. Genetic information is sparse and
there are no established broodfish lines of marine finfish.
Pompano, black,and red drum, mahimahi (dolphin fish), and a few
other species have been captured from the wild and spawned by using
combinations of temperature and photoperiod control and hormone
injections.

Molluscs

Oysters and clams are the only molluscs for which significant
commercial hatchery techniques have been developed. Oysters can be
spawned.at any season of the year by manipulating temperature.
Limited selective breeding has been conducted to produce strains
with faster growth rates and increased disease resistance.
Additional research will be required to quantify the genetic
variation found in wild oyster populations and to assess their
potential for aquaculture. Clams and mussels have been spawned
using techniques similar to those used for oysters. A few hybrids
have been produced but our knowledge of genetics on these species
is very limited. Abalone and bay scallops are other molluscs which
have aquaculture potential. Breeding and culture techniques for
these species are being developed.

Crustaceans

Marine shrimp, freshwater prawns, and crawfish are currently of
greatest importance in crustacean aquaculture. They can be spawned
under hatchery conditions; however, there are few, if any,
commercial aquaculture operations which rear and maintain
genetically improved broodstock. Most broodstock consists of
captured wild animals. In the case of crawfish, reproduction
occurs naturally in ponds. Because of their relatively simple life
cycles, crawfish are more easily cultured than shrimp or prawns.

Photoperiod and temperature control plus endocrinological
manipulations have been used experimentally to induce sexual
maturation and spawning in crustaceans. These and other culture
techniques must be refined to produce seed stock reliably on
demand. Genetic research is needed to define strain
characteristics of cultured crustacean stocks, to improve growth
rates, increase disease resistance, and reduce aggression and
cannibalism. Lobsters and crabs are particularly aggressive and
cannibalistic, making viable commercial culture difficult. These
two valuable crustaceans are -not yet cultured economically.

Other Organisms

Additional species which have interested aquaculturists include
eels, frogs, alligators, marine baitworms, and aquatic plants. Bel
culture is still dependent upon the capture of elvers (juvenile
eels). Techniques to induce maturation and spawning have not yet
been developed. Frogs, alligators, and turtles are not
conventional aquaculture species, but are being cultured on a
limited basis under controlled conditions. Not all breeding and
rearing problems have been solved and essentially no work has been
done to characterize genetic traits which would be valuable to
aquaculturists. Culture techniques for marine baitworms have only
recently been developed and further-refinement would be expected
only if commercial production were to begin.

Several species of freshwater and marine aquatic plants are
cultured commercially in various parts of the world. Culture
techniques range from simply fertilizing and seeding tanks or ponds
with single cell algae or higher vascular plants, to the more
complex culture of red and brown marine algae. Marine algae may be
cultured on the seabed but more frequently are cultured on floating
or hanging support structures. Most breeding and culture
techniques in the U.S. are still rather primitive.

Nutrition and Diets

Natural Foods

Most aquatic animals require living organisms for food during some
stage of their life cycle and a few species require living
organisms throughout their entire life. Some species will feed
only on moving organisms, which indicates that the requirement for
living organisms in their diet is more behavioral than nutritional.

Natural foods include bacteria, algae, protozoans, zooplankton,
other macroinvertebrates, and larger forage animals. Fertilizers
are commonly used to,stimulate the production of these natural
or anisms. Howeve@K-,-the species composition of fish food organisms
9
is difficult to- n
":@*@rol, and physical influences, such as
temperature., diss,61ved oxygen, and light intensity may affect the
standing crop.-'@ Particular care must be taken to limit the growth

rate of some organisms since they may become too large to be
consumed by the cultured animals, may become predators on the
cultured animals, or may compete with them for other natural food
organisms.

Other unprocessed fish foods include organ meats such as liver,
kidney, and heart, cut fish, and various forms of organic detritus.
The latter, resulting from the culture of other aquatic organisms,
is the preferred feed for some fish species, molluscs, and
crustaceans. Organ meats and cut fish are fed generally to large
finfishes, but are expensive.

Formulated Feeds

Formulated feeds are widely used in intensive production systems
and are of two general types: complete and supplemental. Complete
feed formulations contain all the dietary nutrients needed for
growth and reproduction. They are used in raceways, circular
pools, silos, and high intensity production earthen ponds where
natural foods are not available, or are present in insufficient
amounts to meet the needs of the organisms.

Supplemental feeds are usually fed in low-intensity production
systems. They contain the most important growth nutrients in the
culture system--usually protein and energy. Natural foods are
relied upon to balance the diet.

Fish feed formulations can be manufactured into meals, flakes, and
sinking or floating pellets, or moist pellets. The type of
formulation fed depends on the size and the feeding behavior of the
aquatic animal being cultured. The efficiency of conversion of
feed protein into fish flesh depends on how closely the feed
formulation meets the nutritional requirement of the species being
cultured, the quality of the ingredients, their resistance to
leaching or disintegration in water, storage characteristics, and feeding
practices.

Considerable information exists on the nutritional requirements of
only a few aquatic animals. Research is needed on the individual
requirements of most aquatic animals in order to determine the
standard for a "healthy" animal and to increase profitability.

Effluent Control and Water Availability

Ponds

Ponds are normally built on level land by constructing earthen
dikes from the excavated bottom area. They are usually filled by
pumping water from wells or irrigation canals. Ponds in hilly
areas are formed by constructing earthen dams to contain water in
natural basins and are often filled by springs or rainfall run-off.

The source of inflow water greatly influences water quality.
Surface waters may contain wild fish, pathogens, and toxic
pollutants from agricultural run-off and industrial discharges.
Well water is usually low in oxygen and may contain undesirable
levels of nitrogen, ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfides, or
dissolved metals. However, it appears that maintaining an adequate
level of dissolved oxygen is usually the major water quality
problem in ponds.

Ponds require vastly different approaches to maintain water quality
and successfully manage the resultant effluents, depending upon
their size and the kind of aquatic animal being raised in them. In
smaller ponds, water quality may be quickly improved by draining
and re-filling with fresh water. In larger ponds it is sometimes
necessary to use various aeration devices. These devices agitate
the surface, spray water into the air, or otherwise increase the
transfer of oxygen from air to water.

In some cases, pond effluents may be of higher quality than
receiving waters since the majority of waste materials are retained
on the pond bottom. Because of the relatively good quality of
effluent from ponds, usually little or no treatment is required
before discharge into receiving waters.

Raceways and Intensive Culture Systems

For many intensively cultured species, water quality, not physical
space, limits the number of animals that can be reared in a raceway
or similar system. Water must be continuously added to flush away
wastes and to maintain a quality environment.

Water usually flows through raceways by gravity. However, in some
raceways, effluents from downstream sections are pumped back
upstream and reused. The effluent may first be improved by
aeration, filtration, sedimentation, ozonation, or a combination of
these and other processes before recycling. In single pass
raceways, where water is used only once before being discharged,
incoming water quality depends on the source.

Effluent quality from intensive systems is a function of the number
and size of fish or other organisms, the feeding rate, and water
flow rate.

Cages and Pens

Aquatic organisms may be confined at very high densities in cages
or pens placed in ponds, lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Mollusc
cages may be suspended from piers, long lines, or rafts. Water
quality within cages and pens depends primarily upon both the
quality of water in the surrounding area and the rate of exchange
by circulation through these aquaculture units. Cages and other
devices placed in estuarine areas with tidal flows are flushed by

tidal action. In lakes and ponds the swimming and feeding activity
of fish cultured in the cages, and of wild fish around the cages,
can generate sufficient water movement to permit water exchange in
cages. Wind-generated waves also help to circulate and exchange
water around cages and pens placed in ponds and lakes with little
or no natural current.

Cages placed-in rivers or industrial effluents take advantage of
the flowing water to remove wastes. It is usually not necessary
for water quality to be further manipulated; however, cages, rafts,
and other off-bottom systems may be moved from one site to another
to take advantage of better environmental conditions. For example,
caged fish cultured in the intake canal of a power plant during the
spring and summer may be moved to the discharge canal to take
advantage of the thermal effluent during the fall and winter..

Factors which may seasonally alter water quality--for example,
nitrogen gas supersaturation in thermal effluents, agricultural
run-off, industrial discharges, and reservoir drawdown for
irrigation or flood control--must be understood by the
aquaculturist prior to placing cages or pens in a body of water.

Other Systems

Silos or deep cylindrical tanks are similar in operation to
horizontal raceways. Water is exchanged at a rapid rate to
maintain adequate oxygen levels and to remove waste products.
Water quality in silos is usually no better than that of the
incoming water; however, dissolved oxygen may be increased by
aeration and agitation, or in some units by the addition of gaseous
or liquid oxygen. Silos may be constructed with sediment basins to
remove solid waste before water is discharged.

In polyculture systems the waste produced from one cultured species
may be used as a food source by another species. Aquaculture
systems may be further integrated with both aquatic and terrestrial
animals and plants. For example, wastes discharged from
aquaculture production units or sediment basins may be applied to
agricultural cropland, or used to support the hydroponic culture of
high-value terrestrial plants. Wastes from agricultural operations
may serve as food supplements in certain aquaculture systems.

Hatchery systems for the production of fry and larvae or other
seedstock may use elaborate processes including aeration,
filtration, treatments with ultraviolet light and ozone to maintain
or adjust water quality. Discharges from these systems are
frequently of higher quality than the receiving waters. Water
quality can be more easily and economically manipulated in small
systems used for fry production than in larger systems used for
production of food fish. Equipment failure and system
mismanagement are two of the greater risks encountered in intensive
culture and water reuse systems.

Control of Problem Organisms

Infectious Diseases and Parasites

All animal populations are affected to some degree by infectious
organisms and parasites. The incidence of infection is increased
by high concentrations of fish in intensive production monoculture
systems and the stresses resulting from water quality
deterioration. High fish populations and high feeding levels bring
about a decline in water quality which, in turn, result in animal
stress and the incidence of diseases and parasites which would be
only minimally or moderately troublesome in natural or
@semi-intensive production systems.

The preferred method of controlling disease is to prevent it by
simple sanitation and disinfection of equipment and culture
facilities and reduction of stress on the animals by maintenance of
good water quality, provision of adequate feeds, and use of
non-stressful handling, holding, and transportation techniques.
Acceptable techniques are generally available but improvements are
needed.

Occasionally, infectious diseases and parasites do become a problem
and an appropriate chemical or drug treatment must be applied.
Some disease organisms are easily and economically controlled or
eliminated, but others are impossible to control with current
techniques.

Aquatic Vegetation

Aquatic vegetation includes submerged, emergent, rooted, and
free-floating forms, and constitutes many hundreds of species.
Some forms of vegetation may be beneficial to aquatic animals for
spawning media, protection, or food. However, the same species of
plant can adversely affect the growth of aquatic animals through
competition. Aquatic vegetation can be controlled by chemical,
mechanical, or biological methods. The selection of the
appropriate method is based on the characteristics of the
production system, the characteristics of the undesirable plant,
economic considerations, and environmental constraints.

In aquaculture, the preferred methods of controlling vegetation is
to construct the facility to inhibit plant growth or to maintain
plant-eating animals. Chemical -control is the only practical
method of vegetation control in some production systems. However,
relatively few chemicals are registered for aquatic use.
Mechanical control is employed only in exceptional cases, due to
labor costs and limited benefit.

Competitors and Predators

Competitors are not uncommon in culture systems and include
microorganisms and higher forms'of plants and animals. However, a
plant or animal that may be a competitor for one cultured species
could be a beneficial source of food or protection for another.
Predators, on the other hand, are generally more easily identified,
and include some zooplankton, insects, crustaceans, fishes,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. Some animals may be predatory on a
cultured species for only a portion of the life cycle -- for
example, during juvenile stages.

Effective and economical techniques exist for controlling some
predators. However, for others it is difficult to control or
eliminate the predator without harming the cultured organism.

Harvesting

Ponds

Harvesting techniques employed in ponds depend on the size range of
the animals, the intensity of production, and species cultured.
Technology exists for harvesting most cultured aquatic animals.
Some harvest systems, such as those used in intensive catfish pond
culture, are well developed and modern. For other species,
harvesting equipment and techniques need to be improved. Animals
reared for recreational fishing have special handling and
transporting requirements which are not readily adaptable to
mechanized harvesting methods and thus will remain labor-intensive
and expensive.

Raceways

Harvesting techniques for raceways are generally well developed.
Some of this technology is not being used by the commercial
industry or governmental agencies because of the cost of
redesigning the present facilities to install various equipment
items. The high labor costs of nonmechanized harvesting will
encourage the inclusion of mechanized methods in future facility
construction.

Cages and Pens

Harvesting is a major problem in cage and pen culture. Cages or
pens are usually located away from land and access is provided by
boat or barge. Pond and raceway harvesting techniques are
unworkable in this setting. At present, most cage- and pen-reared
fish must be dipped by hand and placed in containers--a
labor-intensive operation. Another disadvantage is that net pens
or cages do not permit partial or selective harvest.

Transportation

Transportation of aquatic animals serves several purposes:
distribution to production systems for further growth, movement to
processing plants to be prepared into food and by-products, or for
stocking public waters or private fee-fishing waters. The
techniques and equipment used depend on the purpose of the
transport, the number of animals, their size and species, and the
distance and transport time involved. Support systems for
transporting live aquatic animals may be either open or closed.
The simplest open system is a water-filled tank in which dissolved
oxygen is maintained by compressed air, pure oxygen, or by
agitators. These systems are further modified by adding water
chillers (or heaters) and filters. Various chemicals, salts, and
drugs may be added to maintain water quality and reduce stress on the
animals.

The closed system is simply a plastic bag or other container filled
with water and pure oxygen. The proper ratio of water to oxygen to
fish load has been studied and is used successfully in practice.
Salts, drugs, and other chemicals are also used to improve fish
handling in transport. This system is usually used to transport
relatively high-value animals over long distances.

Some species such as molluscs and crustaceans do not need water
during transport and may be shipped merely by keeping them in a
refrigerated environment.

Processing and Marketing

The processing and marketing of aquaculture products varies widely
depending on the species and, to a lesser extent, on the geographic
area. The infrastructure for processing and marketing is not well
established for most species. Producers of cultured aquatic
species often use standard commercial fisheries facilities and
distribution networks.

CHAPTER 3
IMPEDIMENTS TO AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The general constraints to aquaculture, detailed on the following
pages,may significantly affect the development and culture of any
species. Specific constraints and recommended actions for
particular species are addressed in individual species plans
(Volume II).

Inadequate Assessment of Current Status

Adequate data on the size and production levels of operations for
various species would be helpful in improving production efficiency
and in estimating the amount of funds necessary for initiation of a
commercial venture. This information would also be useful for
predicting how much the industry could expand, based on present and
projected market demands.

Information on current aquaculture research efforts by various
governmental, academic, and industry groups would make it easier to
direct resources to areas where they are most needed.

Aquaculture is one of the few food-producing industries where
cultured animals may be in direct market competition with wild
animals of the same species. Insufficient production and marketing
information may create seasonal overabundances or erratic prices in
the market.

To date, with.the exception of Hawaii, no wide-scale, detailed
assessment exists of land or water resources potentially available
for aquaculture.

Knowledge, Economic and Legal Barriers

Life History and General Biology

For some species, lack of knowledge in this area limits an accurate
assessment of their aquacultural potential. This deficiency
restricts the producer's ability to control or manipulate factors
(breeding, environment, nutrition, maturation, and metamorphosis)
crucial to the success of large-scale culture.

Genetics and Reproduction

Without development of strains adapted to intensive culture, the
potential productivity of a species may never be realized.
Knowledge of how altered genetics affect indigenous stock and the
genetic diversity of a species also needs to be gained.

In the culture of some species (for example, crawfish), operators
harvest faster-growing individuals first, holding over the

slower-growing animals to serve as broodstock. If differential
growth is hereditary, this practice will produce smaller animals
and result in lower production levels.

Knowledge of the genetic characteristics associated with economic
traits is essential. Without knowledge of how to control and
manipulate reproductive activities, year-round production of seed
stock or fingerlings is difficult. Gene pool maintenance is also
essential, if further advances in breeding are to be made.

Growth and Behavior

Growth rates and behavior largely determine the potential for
culture and the manner of rearing a particular species.
Information is needed about factors such as metamorphosis, optimal
growth conditions, feeding behavior, and feed conversion
efficiency.

The aggressive and cannibalistic character of some species, such as
the American lobster (Homarus americanus) necessitates use of
individual grow-out containers. The extra cost associated with
maintaining animals individually represents a major drawback to the
economic culture of animals with these behavioral characteristics.

Nutrition and Diets

Clinical techniques used in various fields of animal science for
determining nutritional status have not been developed for
important fish. Although data on nutrient requirements for
salmonids have been used to formulate diets for other species of
fish with reasonable success, there is a need to develop complete
and inexpensive diets that meet the specific nutritional
requirements of each species and to determine proper feeding
levels. To complicate matters, nutritional requirements and diets
vary for specific species during different stages of their life and,
reproductive cycles. Lack of a suitable diet to maintain larvae
until they can eat processed foods is a serious drawback to the
culture of several species. Agricultural and fisheries by-products
also need to be examined for their feed value in aquacultural
production.

Environmental Requirements

Minimal information is available about the environmental
requirements (for example, oxygen, salinity, space, and
temperature) of certain species at different stages in their life
history. Such information must be obtained before the species can
be raised commercially.

Facility Engineering, Construction, and Operation

Insufficient knowledge of fish stress tolerance, water chemistry,
water quality and temperature control, optimal harvesting and

processing techniques, and control of aquatic vegetation hampers
the engineering, construction, and operation of new facilities.
Costs associated with all phases of construction and maintenance
are high.

State, territorial, and Federal laws regulate the discharge from
aquaculture facilities. The industry considers the costs involved
in meeting the requirements of these laws prohibitive and has urged
the Environmental Protection Agency and State agencies to
re-examine standards for aquaculture operations.

Control of Disease and Parasites

Trained personnel are lacking and scientific and technical
knowledge are insufficient to adequately address disease detection,
prevention, and treatment needs. Private aquaculturists often must
rely on handbooks or leaflets to diagnose and treat disease
problems and no diagnosis or a faulty diagnosis can easily lead to
loss of the entire crop. Specialists are particularly lacking for
molluscan and crustacean culture.

Disease detection is especially important when health certification
is required for transportation (required by law in some States).
Another problem is often the lack of on-site record-keeping or
documentation of circumstances surrounding a disease problem.

One of the greatest hindrances to disease control is the lack of
registered therapeutic compounds. Some drugs have been banned
because of potential harmful side effects to humans or because they
have not gone through the lengthy and expensive process of
registration for aquaculture use. Pharmaceutical companies are
unwilling to spend the funds required to register therapeutics,
because their generic nature precludes patent protection and the
aquaculture industry is a comparatively small market for their
products.

At present, no effective registered drug treatments exist for viral
diseases, many bacterial diseases, several internal protozoans, and,
some fungi. Immunization is not available against most pathogens.
Operators often must rely for control on stock eradication,
isolation, and facility disinfection for control of parasites and
diseases.

Production of Seed Stock

A common practice in laboratory studies and small-scale production
is to obtain seed stock or fingerlings by spawning wild, gravid
females. This is impractical for large-scale commercial ventures
or for those located at a considerable distance from sources of
wild broodstock.

Location and capture of suitable wild broodstock frequently is
difficult and expensive. Legal restrictions in many cases prevent
commercial fish farmers from capturing broodstock. In other cases,
permits or licenses are required. The aquaculturist usually has
little expertise in the use of hormones or manipulation of
temperature and light for controlled reproduction. The techniques
of seed production for some species are known, but a supply of seed
or broodstock may be unavailable. Ideally, domesticated broodstock
should be available for each cultured species. In addition, a
major problem in some species is the lack of immunological and
other procedures to prevent disease during the fry-to-fingerling
rearing period. Another problem is the cost and availability of
natural foods for those finfish that produce eggs and larvae for
which no adequate formulated feed exists. Solutions to these
problems are needed, since a dependable supply of seed and
fingerlings is vital to the operation of the industry.

Predation and Mortality

Predation is an especially serious problem in the culture of
various marine molluscs and some freshwater species. Lack of
suitable techniques for the control of predators represents a major
constraint to production.

Mortality is also directly related to other factors such as poor
water quality, disease, and the lack of appropriate food,
particularly in larval stages. Water contaminated by various
chemicals and pesticides can also be a cause of death.

Harvesting, Processing, and Distribution

Technical knowledge in these areas is lacking for some species.
Even for some successfully cultured species, mechanized harvesting
methods have not been developed. Also, differential growth
necessitates harvesting larger animals without injuring the smaller
ones being kept for further growth.

Technological advances must be made to improve water quality,
oxygen supply, water cooling, and waste removal in long-haul
trucks, ships, and planes, for the live-market trade. Also, there
is a need for improved flash-freezing and storage techniques to
lengthen shelf life.

Product Quality Control

Growing organisms in wastewater effluents and using nonregistered
drugs for disease control may contaminate the final product with
chemicals or harmful pathogens,

Off-flavor is sometimes a problem with cultured products. This can
be caused by poorly formulated feeds, substandard water quality,

blue-green algae blooms, pollution, and poor product storage
techniques. To ensure the public of a high-quality product,
grading standards are needed.

Introduction of Nonindigenous Species

A number of successful imports of nonindigenous aquatic animals
into the U.S has occured in connection with aquaculture. For
example, culture of the imported Malaysian prawn has developed
rapidly in Hawaii and Guam and shows promise for expansion in other
warm areas of the U.S. and its territories.

Another example has been large-scale development of the Pacific
oyster (Crassostrea gigas),in the estuarine waters of Washington,
Oregon, California, and to a lesser extent, Alaska.

However, uncontrolled movement of nonindigenous species from one
area to another can transmit exotic disease and parasites to
indigenous populations or cultured organisms. Introduction of the
new species for aquaculture could impact the environment.

Disease organisms carried by transplanted aquatic species have
included viruseg'-s'--bacteria, and protozoans. Examples of accidental
introduction of adverse species include the walking catfish, oyster
drills, and the water hyacinth. Nevertheless, the record shows
that under controlled conditions, certain species can be introduced
to expand and develop aquaculture. Rules for control should be
based on sound biological and ecological considerations.

Inadequate Pilot-Scale Testing and Demonstration Facilities

A deterrent to successful development of some aquaculture species
is the lack of pilot testing and demonstration facilities to
accomplish an orderly transition from laboratory research to
commercial production. Such facilities are one of the most
effective ways to transfer technology.

Limited research projects and demonstration facilities particularly
hinder the commercialization of many marine species. In addition,
some segments of aquaculture will be hampered unless prototype
production systems can be tested for technical and economic
feasibility.

Legal Constraints and High Start-Up Costs

A significant amount of U.S. effort in aquaculture is still in the
research and early development stage. However, financial data are
sufficiently available on scaled-up systems to be helpful in
pinpointing some economic problems. ,

Few laws or regulations are designed specifically to promote or
protect aquaculture. Many existing land-use restrictions and
environmental regulations reduce economic incentives to aquaculture

by creating lengthy and uncertain permit processes, adding to costs
and delaying operations. For example, a report on the regulatory
process in California indicated that up to 42 Federal, State, and
local agency permits and licenses would be involved in the
activities of a single aquaculture venture. Although many of these
restrictions may be necessary, they need to be examined critically
to avoid economically unjustified costs being imposed on aquaculture
enterprises.

Fluctuating resource costs for land, water, and energy are periodic
barriers to the development of aquaculture. It is hard to
generalize how these costs will affect this industry as compared
with their impact on other protein sources.

Naturally, the early stages of any industry will have higher costs
than later stages, when the industry begins to adopt more efficient
processes. With regard to aquaculture, this indicates the
importance of government investment in aquaculture research, with
its potential high-value, long-term payoff.

Inadequate Transfer of Information and Technical Assistance

Much of the technical information on aquaculture is potentially
available to established or potential fish farmers from National
and international sources and State and university advisory and
Cooperative Extension Services. However, many who need this
information and assistance are not aware of its existence or how it
may be obtained. Proven educational and technical assistance
delivery systems are in place, but their effectiveness could be
significantly expanded by employment of more trained aqua-
culturists.

Workshops, short courses, clinics, demonstrations, publications,
and on-site technical assistance are proven ways to get technical
information to those who need it. Improvement and expansion of
existing education and technical assistance delivery systems are
needed to insure the orderly establishment and growth of successful
aquaculture enterprises.

Multiple-Use Conflicts

Many activities and uses have already established claims to areas
where aquaculture might develop. The competing activities are
particularly acute in coastal areas and include fisheries,
coastline residential and industrial development, aquatic
recreation, and water-borne commerce. These uses interfere with
the development of aquaculture by creating pressures to prevent the
introduction of structures such as dikes, nets, pens, rafts, lines,
and buoys.

Jurisdictional Overlap and Inadequate Coordination

Many Federal agencies and numerous State and local agencies have
direct or indirect responsibility for U.S. aquaculture. The JSA
will continue to make progress in coordinating these multiple
activities.

Marketing

Preferences and biases exist for aquatic foods as they do for all
other foods. A fish species considered to be a delicacy in one
area may be regarded as undesirable in another.

Market development efforts may help to overcome some of these
preferences. Consumer research in domestic and internal markets
may help to identify high demand locations for a variety of
species.

Shortage of Trained Aquaculture Workers

A major factor limiting the expansion of the aquaculture industry
for certain species is the shortage of trained workers at the
technical level. Professionals in aquaculture are needed at both
undergraduate and graduate levels to teach, provide technical
assistance, to conduct extension educational programs, and to work
in all phases of the management of aquacultural enterprises.
Academic programs should be multidisciplinary to prepare
aquaculture professionals to be knowledgeable in such diverse areas
as marketing, bioengineering, economics, business, and food
processing.

There is also a shortage of trained aquacultural technicians
because few vocational schools currently offer a curriculum in
aquaculture. Such programs need to be developed with a strong
emphasis on hands-on field training.

CHAPTER 4
EXISTING PROGRAMS

This chapter discusses existing Federal, State, territory, and
university programs related to aquaculture. The functions
currently performed by the various agencies are described.

Department of Agriculture

The following are FY 1982 USDA expenditures in support of
aquaculture:

Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) $173,000
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) 269,000
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) 230,000
Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) 2,150,000*
Economic Research Service (ERS) 35,000
Extension Service (ES) 976,000**
Farmers Rome Administration (FHA) 1,500,000***
Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIQ 55,000
Foreign Agriculture Service (FAS) 10,000
National Agriculture Library (NAL) 60,000
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) 1,325,000
Statistical Reporting Service (SRS) 150,000
Aquaculture nutrition program purchases(AMS amd FNS) 22500,000
General Coordination 100,000
Total $9,533,000

Federal funds only (States contribute an additional $4.8
million)
Federal funds only (States contribute an additional $1.5
million)
***Management costs only; does not include loans

Agricultural Marketing Service

The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) cooperates with State
Departments of Agriculture by providing matching grants to States.
Grants are generally used to conduct marketing assessments and to
identify solutions to marketing barriers.

Agricultural Research Service

Studies on waste byproduct utilization and genetics in catfish are
being carried out at the Southern Regional Res -earch Center in New
Orleans. A new treatment has been developed to convert catfish
processing waste into a useful oil and the bone-free residue can be
dried to produce a nutritious feed supplement for animals. A
catfish breeding and genetics research project at Auburn University
is also funded by the Agricultural Research Service.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

APHIS performs veterinary, plant protection, and quarantine
services. Veterinary activities in aquaculture include: (a)
providing diagnoses of infections and toxicological conditions of
fish; (b) providing consultation by field veterinary
epidemiologists to local officials and individual fish producers;
and (c) administering the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act of 1973 which
pertains to biological products developed for fish.

Cooperative State Research Service

CSRS supports aquaculture research at State agricultural experiment
stations at land-grant colleges through formula funding. CSRS also
maintains a special grant program for aquaculture. Research is
directed to solve problems of local, regional, and National
importance.

Economic Research Service

The ERS conducted supply, demand, and price analysis of the
aquaculture industry (with emphasis on freshwater species) and
published a semi-annual Aquaculture Outlook and Situation report.

Extension Service

ES provides educational programs through the State Cooperative
Extension offices nationwide. Extension interprets new aquaculture
research, adapts the technology to local needs, and makes the
information available to all users. It informs scientists of
research needs as identified by aquaculturists at the local level.
Ongoing extension educational programs in aquaculture include:
economics; water management; stocking; feeding; disease
identification, prevention, and control; weed control; predator
control; hatchery, pond, and reservoir management; harvesting;
transportation; marketing and processing; on-site pilot testing and
demonstrations; workshops and in-service training of professional and
technical aquaculturists; and consumer education on the nutritional
value of aquaculture products.

Farmers Home Administration

FRA extends credit to aquaculture operators. Direct or guaranteed
loans for aquacultural purposes may be used for production of
aquatic organisms under controlled conditions. This involves
feeding, tending, harvesting, and other activities necessary to
raise and market the products. Economic emergency loans are also
available.

Federal Crop Insurance Corporation

FCIC is'developing an all-risk crop insurance program for fish
farmers.

Foreign Agricultural Servic6

Cooperates with aquaculture associations to promote the export of
farm-raised fish through sponsorship of trade development teams and
trade shows.

National Agricultural Library

NAL programs include provision of referral bibliographic services
to inquirers in the U.S.; photocopies of foreign and U.S.
literature, including JSA-sponsored translations; compilation of a
limited bibliographic database on aquaculture as a part of
AGRICOLA. The Library initiated the National Aquaculture
Information System on behalf of the JSA.

Directories are compiled when needed and published for wide use in
the aquaculture community. Two major efforts were completed in
1983: a listing of primary contacts at Federal, State and county
levels for assistance and information on programs for
aquaculturists and a directory of major informational resources
with inquiry, literature, and datafile holdings or capabilities
within the U.S. Work is in progress on an aquaculture
bibliography, as well as a comprehensive directory of major
aquaculture associations, education, and research resources in the
U.S.

Soil Conservation Service

Through local soil and water conservation districts SCS provides
technical assistance to potential and established aquaculture
producers. SCS assists would-be-aquaculturists in conducting
resource assessments for aquaculture production. These assessments
include detailed analyses of soils and site, water quantity and
quality, and facility (ponds, reservoirs, raceways, waste disposal,
water supply systems, and related facilities) design and layout.
The assessments also include a general review of potential
production levels and cost-return information within the context of
soil and water resource potentials. Similar technical assistance
plus basic biological information pertaining to stocking, feeding,
water quality management, and waste disposal is provided to
established producers.

SCS refers to other agencies and institutions requests for
assistance in the following activities: parasite and disease
control (treatment), detailed economic (cost-return) analyses,
harvesting and processing techniques, and marketing studies and
analyses.

SCS technical services are available to persons interested in
commercial, recreational, or home-use aquaculture. About 60
percent of SCS's current aquaculture assistance goes to land users
engaged in recreational or home-use aquaculture. The Fiscal Year
1982 funding figures are for commercial aquaculture, only.

Statistical Reporting Service

SRS conducted surveys on aquaculture production of catfish and
trout. The agency publishes the monthly Catfish Processors report.

Aquaculture Nutrition Program Purchases (AMS and FNS)

The Agriculture Marketing Service and the Food and Nutrition
Service may purchase aquaculture commodities for distribution to
institutions during periods of temporary and unanticipated
overproduction. .

Department of the Interior

The bulk of USDI aquaculture-related programs are conducted by the
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The Bureau of Indian Affairs
(BIA) does not have a line item budget for aquaculture, but
frequently funds Indian aquaculture projects. The Office of
Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA) does -not directly fund
aquaculture activities but does represent constituents who are
involved in aquaculture in American Samoa, Guam, the Northern
Marianas, and the Virgin Islands.

Fish and Wildlife Service

The Service has a comprehensive program of research, development.,
extension, and training in many areas of freshwater fish
production. Most funding is appropriated by Congress with the
ultimate objective being the enhancement of sport fishing.
However, many of the activities and research results are applicable
to commercial aquaculture. The Service has strong programs in fish
health and nutrition and many other areas of importance to
aquaculture.

FWS aquaculture and related research is conducted at the National
Fisheries Center (Leetown, West Virginia), eight laboratories and
field stations, and five fish cultural development centers. Major
subjects under study include: fish disease control methods,
production of fish biologics, nutrition and diet, registration of
fishery drugs and chemicals, improvement of cultural methods,
genetics and breeding, reuse and treatment of wastewater, and
evaluation of nonindigenous species for aquaculture.

All of the 25 Cooperative Fishery Research Units have the
capability to conduct aquaculture research in cooperation with
their host universities and State agencies. Currently, 11 of the
units are conducting 16 aquaculture research projects. Much of
their other research produces information that can also be used by
aquaculturists.

National Fish Hatcheries produce and distribute five species of
freshwater trout, seven species of anadromous salmonids, and
several species of warmwateT and coolwater fishes. In FY 1982,

2,046,068 kg (4,501,350 lb.) of trout, 647,718 kg (1,424,980 lb.)
of salmon, 4115 kg (9,054 lb.) of other anadromous fishes, and
128,523 kg (282,750 lb.) of pondfishes were distributed. Total
distribution was 2,826,425 kg (6,218,135 lb). The Service has 16
hatchery biologists at 12 locations who provide fish disease
diagnostic services, disease inspections, and certification
inspections to Federal, State, Indian and private hatcheries.

The Service is currently expanding efforts to transfer applicable
information from its large information base to the aquaculture
community. Techniques include the use of Service facilities as
demonstration sites and the use of Service personnel to provide
technical assistance to local fish farmers and other interested
parties. Many Service publications are distributed to users in
cooperation with the Extension Service.

The FWS operates a Fisheries Academy at Leetown, West Virginia,
that provides training in fish hatchery management, fish disease
diagnosis and control, and a variety of other aquaculture topics
tailored to user needs. To comply with the National Aquaculture
Act of 1980, the academy increased its capabilities to train
aquaculture workers and to serve as a clearinghouse for information
concerning the availability of aquaculture training.

Rainbow trout seed stocks held by the Service at Leetown, and
identified by industry as being of potential use to them, are
presently available to commercial producers. Through cooperative
agreements, selected strains of trout are being tested under
industry conditions. If results are favorable, breeding stock will
be provided to the industry.

Expenditures for Fiscal Year 1982 are shown in the following table.

Fish and Wildlife Service
Aquaculture Expenditures in FY 1982
Expenses that directly suppo@t public and private aquaculture.

1982
R&D and Information Dissemination $3,632,000
Aquaculture Research by Coop. Units 275,000
Fish Cultural Development Centers 570,000
Inter-and Intra- Agency Coordination 50,000
Total $4,527,000

Hatchery-related expenses in support of recreational and commercial
fisheries that have "spin-off" value to public and private
aquaculture.

1982
Hatchery Fish Production $18,675,000
Hatchery Biologists 559,000
Training for Hatchery Personnel 368,000
Total $19,602,000

Bureau of Indian Affairs

BIA provides funding for the construction of Indian tribal
hatcheries and other aquaculture related projects. Tribal
aquaculture activities include the operation of iapproximately 13
salmon hatcheries and commercial aquaculture pilot projects. Most
of the Indian aquaculture projects are in the Pacific Northwest.
The Lummi College of Fisheries in Washington has a 2-year program
leading to an associate degree in aquaculture.

Office of Territorial and International Affairs

OTIA represents interests of the various territories. The Pacific
Island Territories have aquaculture programs and their governors
have expressed an interest in the development of aquaculture.
American Samoa and Guam,.for example, have aquaculture projects for
tuna baitfish, food finfish, and prawns.

Department of Commerce

Aquaculture research and development activities have been supported
1-1 . ..........,
by the DOC through the Economic Development Administration (EDA)
and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
EDA has provided funds for aquaculture primarily as a means toward
job creation and to generate or preserve income. These programs
have provided various Native American groups with almost $8.0
million for aquaculture development during the past 14 years.

NOAA conducts aquaculture research and development through the
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the Office of Sea
Grant (OSG). Research supported, by NMFS is conducted primarily by
utilizing inhouse scientific expertise at NMFS centers,
laboratories, and field stations. OSG supports research through
grants to universities and other entities. The technology gained
from this research is utilized by private industry for commercial
purposes and by public agencies for augmenting natural stocks through
enhancement programs.

In FY 1982, NMFS conducted research programs at 6 laboratories and
field stations. These programs included research on development of
salmon diets utilizing fish by-products as feed ingredients in
diets and improved broodstock fecundity through dietary control
(Seattle, Washington); monitoring smoltification enzyme activities
for determination of best procedures for conditioning hatchery
produced salmon for their migration into the sea, identifying
diseases in salmon and developing control measures, developing
biochemical and genetic techniques to identify stocks of hatchery
and wild salmonids, and improved husbandry techniques for Atlantic
salmon broodstock and subsequent egg production for stocking New
England streams (Manchester, Washington); development of
high-quality salmon fry and smolts for release into the ocean, and
bio-environmental estuarine and marine studies to determinethe
causes of fluctuations in juvenile-to-adult stage survival of both
hatchery and wild salmon stocks (Auke Bay, Alaska); maturation and
spawning of marine shrimp indigenous to the Gulf of Mexico, and
head-start techniques for marine turtles (Galveston, Texas);
diagnosis of diseases of shellfish (Oxford, Maryland); and a
variety of molluscan studies on natural diets, genetics, culture
methods, disinfection techniques for contaminated hatchery water
for oysters, and the development of methodology for the culture of
bay scallops and surf clams (Milford, Connecticut).

Total program funding in FY 1982 for the marine aquaculture program
was $5.3 million. NMFS also provided about $750,000 to the States
on a cost sharing basis for marine aquaculture research and
development activities under the Commercial Fisheries Research and
Development Act of 1964 (Public Law 88-309) and the Anadromous Fish
Conservation Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-304).

In addition, the N14FS Columbia River Fisheries Development Program
provides funds for production of anadromous salmonids through the
use of hatcheries. Program funds are provided to State agencies in
the Pacific Northwest as well as to the FWS to rear and release
salmon and steelhead trout.

In 1982, expenditures totalled $6.4 million for the operation of 24
hatcheries and rearing facilities operated by the cooperating
fisheries agencies, resulting in the release of approximately 115
million migrant anadromous salmonids. Other activities of this
program include studies on the quality of hatchery produced fish,
habitat improvement, and fish passage devices, totalling another
$2.5 million.

During FY 1982, 100 aquaculture projects were conducted involving
$3.0 million in Federal Sea Grant funds by scientists in 30
academic institutions. Major centers of Sea Grant-sponsored work
on aquaculture exist in all coastal and Great Lakes regions of the
United States with the research generally focused on one or two
species. These centers are: University of Hawaii (Malaysian
prawn, Macrobrachium, and seaweeds), University of Alaska

(salmon), University of Washington (salmon, bivalve molluscs, and
seaweeds), Oregon State University (salmon and oysters), University
of California (abalone, shrimp, lobster, and seaweeds), Texas A&M
University (shrimp), South Carolina Marine Science Consortium
(Macrobrachium), North Carolina (finfish), Virginia Graduate Marine
Science Consortium (oysters), University of Delaware (oysters),
State University of New York (finfish and bivalve molluscs), Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution (bivalve molluscs), University of
New Hampshire (seaweeds), and University of Wisconsin (finfish).
In addition, OSG expends major funding for aquaculture education,
training, advisory/extension services, and planning activities.

Agency for International Development

AID serves as the principal foreign assistance arm of the 'U.S.
Government. Technical assistance with agriculture and food
production includes fishery development. The Fisheries staff of
AID's Science and Technology Bureau handles development of both
commercial fisheries and aquaculture activities.

AID's objectives are to increase food production, employment,
income, and nutrition of the rural poor; and to promote resource
management and environmental protection in developing countries.
AID's aquaculture activities involve small-scale enterprises
raising low-priced species and species for local consumption.
Emphasis is placed on relatively simple production units that can
be operated by small landholders with limited resources.

The regional bureaus of AID support a variety of aquaculture
development projects. Most of these involve pond culture of
freshwater fishes, such as carp and tilapia, in areas where human
protein supplies are inadequate. The Agency's usual inputs include
technical assistance, education and training, capital for public
facilities such as hatcheries, and specialized equipment.

The Fisheries staff provides technical assistance to the regional
bureaus. It also manages a few centrally funded aquaculture
projects, including ongoing support for the International Center
for Aquaculture at Auburn University and a collaborative research
support program in aquaculture pond dynamics. Present funding for
centrally funded aquaculture development projects is about $900,000
per year.

Corps of Engineers

The Corps' involvement in aquaculture includes meeting its
regulatory responsibilities, which are to protect the navigability
and quality of the Nation's waters. With passage during the last
10 years of considerable environmental legislation and the
rendering of many associated judicial decisions, this task has
grown in both size and complexity.

Department of Energy

DOE does not conduct any major activities in aquaculture. DOE's
few aquaculture studies have been done from points of view other
than food production. For example, research has identified
aquaculture as an activity that could use waste heat from power
stations. The DOE biomass program also includes aquaculture as it
relates to the production of matter that could be used for energy
conversion.

Department of Health and Human Services

The Public Health Service (PHS) has responsibilities and activities
concerning the safety of food for human consumption and
environmentally related diseases and disorders. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) of the PHS performs research and provides
technical assistance in aquaculture. Research areas include
determination of bioavailability of cadmium and lead in oysters.
FDA regional offices and the National Shellfish Sanitation Program
give technical assistance to the States. The National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences of the National Institute of Health has
research interests in absorption and metabolism of toxic chemicals
by marine organisms.

Environmental Protection Agency

Some aquaculture systems may create waste products that are subject
to regulation and control under the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES). Effluent guidelines for the
aquaculture industry have not been fully promulgated.

The Water Management Branch of EPA (Ada, Oklahoma) studies the use
of aquatic plants, wetlands, invertebrates, and finfish to produce
clean water. Municipal waste treatment systems incorporating
aquaculture processes can potentially qualify to receive 85 percent
desigr@ and construction grants and 100 percent replacement or
modification grants. The Municipal Construction Grants Program is
developing design criteria for systems eligible for these grants.
Past research funding has promoted the use of thermal effluents for
aquaculture.

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
administered by EPA requires registration of pesticides used in
aquaculture to protect the environment, the product, the
applicator, and the consumer.

Farm Credit Administration

FCA supervises and examines the banks and associations that make up
the Farm Credit System. These FCA institutions make loans on
commercial terms to farmers, ranchers, producers, and harvesters of
aquatic products, and to their cooperatives.

Aquatic loans are defined as those supporting the production or
harvesting of species under controlled conditions, primarily the
fisheries industry. FCA considers aquaculture under controlled
conditions to be a form of agriculture. Since banks and
associations do not segregate loans for aquaculture from
agricultural loans in their financial reports, it is currently
difficult to determine what proportion of the loans are made to
those engaged'in aquaculture. However, it is known that loans have
been made to catfish farmers in Arkansas, Mississippi, and other
Southern States. Several small oyster and clam operations have
also been financed in the Northwest and the Middle Atlantic coastal

areas.

Based on observations made from'the system's exposure to aquatic
lending, increased demand and a potentially small supply of capture
fishery products are causing increased prices at the consumer
level. The Farm Credit System will make funds available to
deserving aquacultural production applicants on the same basis as
agricultural and marine fishery (vessel) loans.

National Science Foundation

NSF supports a limited number of projects directly related to
aquaculture through its basic science programs and its Small
Business Innovation Research Program. Total funds for these
projects were estimated to be about $250,000 in FY 1982. In
addition to the activities directly related to aquaculture, NSF
also supports a number of basic research projects on marine and
freshwater species which provide an important contribution for
aquaculture research and development.

Small Business Administration

SBA makes guaranteed, immediate participation, and direct loans to
aquaculture operators. SBA loans may be used for purchase and
improvement of land or buildings, construction, machinery and
equipment, operating expenses, and refinancing of debts. SBA also
provides disaster loans in authorized areas. Since SBA does -not
separate its loan funds according to enterprise, there are no means
to assess current levels of aquaculture loans.

Tennessee Valley Authority

In 1979, TVA initiated a 5-year aquaculture plan involving the use
of waste heat from the Gallatin Steam Plant in Gallatin, Tennessee.
The Fisheries and Aquatic Ecology Branch, Office of Natural
Resources, has responsibility for this project, but coordination
with other TVA divisions provides the expertise necessary to solve
problems that arise as work progresses.

The Fisheries and Aquatic Ecology Branch also handles TVA's
aquaculture technical assistance program. This program involves
disease diagnosis and recommended treatment., advice on developing

water resources for aquaculture production, improvement of present
facilities, and techniques to achieve maximum production. Channel
catfish, bait minnows, and rainbow trout are the species most
commonly cultured for profit, but information is provided for other
species as well.

TVA's Office of Agricultural and Chemical Development (OACD) has
responsibility for developing aquaculture methods which are
compatible with organic fertilization practices. Several systems
are being developed to treat organic wastes from confined livestock
facilities, fuel alcohol plants, and heavily fed fish culture
ponds. OACD is conducting basic and applied research related to
propagating fish and plant species which perform well in
organically fertilized systems. Fishery stocks being evaluated
include tilapia (five species), Asiatic carps (three species), and
the giant Malaysian prawn. A tilapia overwintering facility
(100,000 fingerling capacity) is in operation at TVA's waste heat
research station located in northern Alabama. Warm condenser
cooling water from the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant is used to
maintain fingerlings and broodstock tilapia during winter months.
In the spring, this facility doubles as a hatchery and nursery for
producing straight-line and hybrid tilapia stocks which are sent to
cooperating universities for yield trial evaluations. OACD also
maintains several stocks of the Chinese water chestnut, an emergent
aquatic plant, which is under evaluation as an aquatic crop for
reclaiming nutrients from municipal and agricultural wastes.

Long-range objectives are to increase aquaculture production within
the Tennessee Valley by encouraging individuals to use available
water resources. TVA funding for aquaculture programs was
approximately $275,000 in FY 1982.

State and Territorial Governments

Many States and territories are involved in support of aquaculture
either directly or indirectly through one or more of their agencies
or through the college and university system. Activities include
basic and applied research, extension and advisory services,
assessment of markets and potential economic benefits, issuance of
permits and leases, demonstration facilities, stocking for
enhancement purposes, and cultured product inspection.

Realizing the potential of aquaculture, a number of States and
territories have developed or are in the process of developing
aquaculture plans (e.g.; California, Guam, Hawaii, Louisiana,
Maine, Missouri, Rhode Island, and Texas). Some States are
drafting legislation and establishing policy to expedite
development, ease regulatory constraints, and reduce and simplify
the mass of red tape involved in tbe permit process. Hawaii has
increased the availability of loan capital which is contributing
significantly to the establishment of.a successful prawn farming
industry.

State efforts in aquaculture are usually coordinated with Federal
efforts. The land-grant and sea-grant programs interact very
closely with the State college and university system. Legislation
such as the Intergovernmental Cooperation Act of 1968 (P.L.
90-577), and the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583)
are additional means for coordination of activities.

Universities and Other Organizations

Universities and nonprofit laboratories represent a significant
part of the continuing effort to expand aquaculture in the U.S.,
the territories, and in developing nations. These institutions
conduct research and development, education and training, and
extension education and advisory services. In many instances, they
possess or have access to relatively large-scale culture facilities
such as ponds, tanks, and hatcheries. Near production-scale
research programs take place in these facilities. Some of the best
equipped and staffed laboratories in the world perform the
research. More than 50 academic institutions and nonprofit
laboratories are involved in aquaculture activities.

CHAPTER 5
RECOMMENDED PROGRAMS AND ACTIONS

The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 requires that the development
plan include actions for both the public and private sectors to
take in implementing the plan. Industry, State, and university
roles are discussed. Federal actions discussed in this chapter are
based on existing programs and activities.

Industry, State, And University Roles

The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 states that the principal
responsibility for the development of commercial aquaculture in the
United States must rest with the private sector. The United States
aquaculture industry is represented by 1,100 catfish farms; 250
trout farms; 400 crawfish farms; 25 commercial salmon farms; over
500 oyster culture firms; 30 firms culturing clams, mussels, and
abalone; 15 U.S.-owned shrimp farming firms operating in Latin
America and the United States; 20 freshwater prawn firms
concentrated in Hawaii; and a number of individuals and firms who
have developed or are developing the culture of many new species.
Their role as commercial entrepreneurs is to apply available
aquaculture science and technology to the real-world problems of
operating commercially viable aquaculture ventures. Through their
practical orientation and business acumen they carry research and
prototype aquaculture concepts through optimization and
cost-reduction processes in order to maximize their margin of
profit.

Motivated by the needs and activities of the developing aquaculture
industry over the past decade, many States and universities have
established extensive research, extension, and teaching programs in
aquaculture. The total effort has resulted in significant
impro47ement in our understanding of all aspects of aquaculture.

Some States, territories and Indian tribes, have active programs in
aquaculture development. Aquaculture extension programs are
provided as part of an existing agricultural Cooperative Extension
network. Research and development groups exist in a number of
States. -In addition, aquaculture plans are included in the overall
water and land use policy planning of several States. In some
cases, a diversity of State agencies address issues of public
health, disease and pest control, aquatic animal imports and
exports, and the ecological aspects of aquaculture.

The role of the academic community in the development of
aquacultur-e is to conduct programs in aquaculture science,
technology, and education in concert with State and Federal
laboratories. The academic community should be involved in
innovative approaches to aquaculture development through the
creation and dissemination of knowledge. Academia's role is to solve

problems of a generic nature that further the improved commercial
status of aquaculture.

States, territories, and universities should be encouraged to
develop aquaculture programs of their own. Some have already
.developed adequate laws and regulations concerning aquaculture,
others have not. Consequently, all States and territories should
be encouraged to re:examine legislation and enforcement mechanisms
now in effect. Where necessary and appropriate, these laws,
regulations, and enforcement procedures should be modified or new
ones developed. Aquaculture extension and advisory services
provided by States, territories and universities should continue.
National aquaculture programs should continue to make use of
expertise existing in nonfederal groups to conduct the needed
research and development, planning, and related activities.

Federal Programs and Actions

Coordination of National activities regarding aquaculture will be
conducted by the JSA of the Federal Coordinating Council on
Science, Engineering and Technology. The Joint Subcommittee is
composed of (1) the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior,
Energy, and Health and Human Services; (2) the Administrators of
the Environmental Protection Agency, the Small Business
Administration, and the Agency for International Development; (3)
the Chief of Engineers of the U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers; (4) the
Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority; (5) the Director of the
National Science Foundation; (6) the Governor of the Farm Credit
Administration; and (7) other Federal agencies as appropriate.

The Subcommittee will:

� Provide leadership within the Executive branch for the
encouragement of aqua.culture

� Review National aquaculture research, information transfer,
and assistance needs

� Assess, with the help of the private sector, the
effectiveness and adequacy of Federal efforts to meet those
needs

� Undertake planning, coordination, and communication among
Federal agencies engaged in the science, engineering, and
technology of aquaculture

� Collect, compile, and disseminate information

� Encourage joint programs among Federal agencies in areas of
mutual interest

� Relate specific policy recommendations to appropriate
agency policy officials for implementation, and

� Recommend to sponsoring committees and,the Federal Council
specific action on issues, problems, plans, and programs in
aquaculture, including seeking relief from burdensome
regulations when appropriate.

Panel Functions

In 1981, three panels were established by the JSA. They include:
the Panel on Science, Technology, and Engineering; the Panel on
Economics; and the Panel on Education and Technical Assistance.
The panels are important operating, coordinating, and monitoring
units of the JSA. New panels or subpanels may be established, as
appropriate or necessary, to carry out certain functions as
Assigned by the JSA or the Secretaries. Panels will present formal
annual reports to the JSA chairman.

The following material describes the primary areas of
responsibilities for the panels.

Panel on Science, Technology, and Engineering

The panel will periodically seek advice from industry, State,
university and government professionals to identify research needs
and to establish research priorities.

The panel will formulate and annually update a roster of current
aquaculture research activities. Each agency represented on the
JSA will be asked to complete a current research questionnaire on
an annual basis.

Drawing upon information collected, the panel, assisted by liaison
groups representing States, territories, universities, and the
private sector, will be able to advise Federal agencies of areas of
research needs and areas where additional coordination is needed.

The panel will present reports of its activities to the JSA
consisting of the following parts:

o A listing and brief description of research needs and
priorities as well as a description of the methods and
sources used to obtain the information

o A roster of current research activities, which will include
the name and location of the research organization,
principal investigator(s), title of the project, funding
level, beginning date and target completion date, and
publications to date if any. A description of the methods
and sources used to obtain the information will be provided

� A description of coordination activities by the panel as
well as other known efforts of coordination by Federal,
State, territorial, or private entities

� An evaluation of the effectiveness and adequacy of
Federally sponsored or conducted research

� A list of foreign aquaculture articles recommended for
translation

Panel on Economics

The Panel on Economics of the JSA has the responsibility for
providing oversight, coordination, review, and planning for Federal
activities related to the development of commercially successful
aquaculture in the U.S.

This panel will:

� Conduct periodic reviews and make recommendation on laws,
regulations, insurance, financial and marketing assistance,
and other aspects that affect the economic feasibility of
aquaculture operations

� Monitor and report on the effectiveness of Federal actions
to reduce unduly burdensome regulations

� Publish and distribute a directory of financial assistance
programs

� Coordinate U.S. activities relating to international
exchange programs in aquaculture

Panel on Education and Technical Assistance

This panel will be responsible for providing overall coordination
and for monitoring information dissemination activities of the
Federal agencies. The panel will:

o Coordinate agency activities in aquaculture technology
transfer to user groups

o Facilitate the exchange of aquaculture information
materials between agencies and the distribution of
appropriate materials produced by agencies lacking strong
information delivery systems

o Provide translation services based on recommendations of
the Panel on Science, Technology, and Engineering

o Establish operating procedures and monitor activities of
the National Aquaculture Information System

o Publish and update biannually, a directory of aquaculture
assistance. This publication will list major libraries
and sources of information and technical assistance. It
will include Federal, State, university and other sources
by subject matter and species

Liaison Groups

On a continuing basis, the JSA will seek to obtain input from a
wide variety of aquaculture interests. This will include private
aquaculturists and their trade organizations, States, territories,
Indian tribes, universities, private and nonprofit institutions,
and others.

Workshops may be held to assist the JSA in deliberations of
interest to special groups, such as in determining research needs
and priorities, selecting drugs for FDA clearance, identifying
nonindigenous species for evaluation, planning educational and
technology transfer activities, and other efforts. The continuity
of effective communication with the private sector is essential for
the successful execution of this plan.

National Aquaculture Information System

A National Aquaculture Information System (NAIS) will be
established under the auspices of the JSA. The National
Agricultural Library (NAL) of USDA will have the lead
responsibility for the system. The Departments of Agriculture,
Commerce, Interior, and others will inform NAL of the aquaculture
research information and related literature in their data banks.
NAL will be responsible for providing access by all user groups to
aquaculture information maintained in these agency data systems.
It is anticipated that aquaculturists seeking information will
first contact local or regional information sources. However, if
the infbrmation is not available at these sources, then they may
contact the NAL for further assistance.

It is envisioned that, initially, NAIS will provide three basic
services. It will: (1) keep bibliographic files; (2) translate
important foreign scientific papers and store them in the system;
(3) make available the results of surveys and statistics and
selected aquaculture directories. Materials to be translated and
stored in the system will be cleared by the JSA Panel on Science,
Technology, and Engineering. Dissemination of information will be
conducted through existing delivery systems and commercial trade
magazines. Coordination of the overall effort will be the
responsibility of the Panel on Education and Technical Assistance.

It will be the continuing responsibility of NAL and the Panel on
Education and Technical Assistance to consult with and coordinate
its efforts with ongoing information services available in many
States, especially those in Cooperative Extension, sea-grant and
land-grant institutions.

International Activities

The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 calls for arrangements with
foreign nations for the exchange of information on aquaculture and
the support of a translation service. The latter function has been
provided since 1979 by the JSA. The former responsibility has been
met in the past through bilateral aquaculture programs between one
or more Federal agencies and their foreign government counterparts.
The JSA will obtain and provide more complete dissemination of
information on such bilateral programs, and coordinate the
activities to assure that the United States receives maximum
benefit from information derived from these programs. The Panel
on Education and Technical Assistance will be responsible for
coordinating these activities.

Capital Requirements

A key element in recent public and private debates concerning the
need for government support of tne aquaculture industry is the
question of whether sufficient financing is available in the
private sector to develop the industry or, if not, whether
additional government financial support is necessary. Of
particular importance is the question of whether or not aquaculture
is treated equitably by private and public financial institutions.

In order to determine if new or specialized financial support for
aquaculture would be appropriate at the Federal level, the JSA
initiated a comprehensive and indepth examination of the capital
requirements of the U.S. aquaculture industry. This study involved
contacts with private banks, Federal Land Banks, insurance
companies, production credit associations, investment bankers,
private investors, investment banks, corporations involved in
aquaculture, and venture capitalists. In addition, aquaculture
experts, producers, university and government researchers and
consultants were contacted.

The conclusion of this examination was:
"Financing new ventures is always a difficult proposition and
one that raises a good deal of controversy. The promise of
aquaculture is so vast that it would be unfortunate indeed if
the capital markets proved to be a true constraint on its
development. The research conducted by the Wharton Applied
Research Center has indicated that the major obstacles to
growth in the culture of the four species which have reached a
stage where financing can be a significant issue are not
financial in nature. This should not be taken to imply that
all worthy aquaculture projects are funded, that all loans are
closed, or that at a time when the credit markets are in great
flux, financing hurdles are not severe problems for some
enterprises. Rather, this conclusion indicates that the
aquaculture industries, taken in general, face other
constraints to growth than the lack of financing. Policy

analysis therefore should probably turn its attention to these
other types of programs and, at least for the present, not
attempt to alter the financing systeag-for aquaculture."

In general, if the technology to produce a species exists and
markets are available to return a reasonable profit, it appears
that financing is not currently a constraint. Consequently, the
JSA does not find adequate justification for recommending the
creation of new Federal financing programs. Aquaculturists (and
potential aquaculturists) can and do compete in the financial
markets for capital. It should be pointed out also, that
Federal tax and other policy changes that stimulate the formation
and nurturing of high-technology, high-risk businesses can be
expected to similarly effect the establishment and growth of new
aquaculture ventures pioneering new species.

However, entrepreneurs who cannot raise enough capital and must
borrow funds may find that lenders have little experience with
aquacultural enterprises. Although the usual financial cha'n'nels
are open to aquaculturists, they may not be open to the extent that
they are to, for example, producers of soybeans, beef cattle, or
swine. This is especially true of entrepreneurs who are culturing
species that have not become established in the marketplace. At
the same time, many potential aquaculturists may not be aware of
private and public sources of financing.

The JSA and the Panel on Economics will seek to develop the
public's awareness of financing opportunities by:

� Developing and disseminating a directory of funding sources
to assist would-be aquaculturists

� Providing educational materials about aquaculture that may
be useful to financing institutions not now familiar with
aquaculture

� Encouraging research on the relationship between potential
aquaculture products and the land, labor,-capital and
operating inputs required to produce the species

Regulatory Impacts

The JSA authorized a comprehensive investigation of the impacts of
Federal and State regulations on the development of aquaculture in
the 'U.S. The objectives of the study were to identify Federal and
selected State laws and regulations which could potentially affect
the initiation and operation of aquaculture enterprises and to
define the practical effects of these laws and regulations.

The issue of regulatory impacts is complex. A regulation may be
viewed by one individual as a constraint and by another as a
benefit. Regulations are presumably developed to meet a public

-need. Aquaculturists have cited certain regulations, such as
health and sanitation, which are essential to their enterprises and
should be kept stringent. Conversely, regulatory inconsistencies,
overlaps, unnecessarily restrictive applications, and the sheer
magnitude and complexity of regulations all combine to create real
or perceived barriers to commercial aquaculture ventures.

Often, it is not the regulations themselves which constitute a
major hindrance to aquaculture development but rather the time
required for the permit or certification process, the undefined or
indistinct jurisdictional roles of regulatory agencies, and
inadequate information on what regulations apply in specific
situations.

After case studies were completed on 12 aquaculture operations, the
following Federal regulatory program areas were identified as being
most commonly encountered:

� Federal environmental regulations
-Permits for dredging, filling, and using offshore structures
-NPDES permits

o Drug and chemical registration procedures

� Fish and shellfish health programs

� Regulations concerning the importation and interstate
shipment of plants and animals

The JSA will undertake the following activities to help solve these
problems:

� Make available the following documents:
A literature review of the regulatory constraints on
aquaculture
A directory of Federal regulations affecting the
development and operation of commercial aquaculture
A directory of State regulations affecting the
development and operation of commercial aquaculture (32
States)
Case studies of 12 commercial aquaculture operations

� Work with industry and appropriate regulatory agencies to
identify and review problems associated with particular
regulations and to eliminate the hindrance or to streamline
the regulatory process

� Publish and disseminate Federal permit compliance guides
specifically tailored to the needs of aquaculturists

� Promote multiagency workshops and discussions to devise new
strategies for more efficient drug registration efforts

o Encourage professional certification and training programs
with States to increase the availability of fish and
shellfish disease diagnostic services in areas of need

o Assist States in identifying promising nonindigenous
aquaculture species and encourage studies relative to any
potential impacts of accidental release into the
environment

o Monitor the effectiveness of the above actions on reducing
burdensome regulations, continue to assess and to define
regulatory constraints, and make public the results of this
continuing effort through periodic reports

Planned Program Activities

In view of the numerous and complex impediments to commercial and
recreational aquaculture identified in Chapter 3, the JSA
recognizes the following areas where actions are needed. These
actions are, in general, continuations or extensions of on-going
activities.

Assessment of Current Status

Statistical surveys describing the status of aquaculture in the
United States, including such factors as production, value,
employment and acreage, should be conducted frequently enough to be
of value to aquaculturists.

Scientific and Technical Knowledge

Research and development efforts would be directed toward solution
of problems inhibiting the full development of those species or
strains now produced for commercial and recreational use or with
the gXeatest potential for future utilization. However, some
exploratory and developmental research would be included to assure
that other species-types are evaluated to determine their
potential.

Life history

Research would be conducted to improve understanding of important
species for aquaculture application. An understanding of basic
biological aspects of organisms is necessary to make their culture
feasible, including such factors as life cycle, behavior,
smoltification, and the causes of variability in growth rate.

Genetics and reproduction

It is important to understand the production of quality gametes and
the basic genetic characteristics of species of interest to
determine which may be improved for culture systems and how

specialized techniques needed for such improvement programs may be
developed. Research would be initiated on the genetics of
cultured species so that strains possessing desired characteristics
may be developed; emphasis would be on increased survival rate,
rate of gain, efficiency of gain and disease resistance. Research
would include development of special procedures to maintain genetic
integrity of intermixed wild and hatchery-produced stocks. Work is
required to:

� Establish registers describing the characteristics of
important strains of major aquaculture species

� Establish broodstock selection programs to develop improved
strains

� Prepare manuals and courses on genetic management of
broodstocks

� Develop the capacity to test strains through centralized
evaluation of broodstock

� Investigate the application of hybridization to the
development of improved broodstock

� Investigate gamete preservation methods and other
techniques to provide a continuous source of fertilized
eggs throughout the year

� Develop improved technology for assessment of resistance to
specific fish diseases

Nutrition and diets

The nutritional requirements of cultured species throughout their
life cycles would be determined. Improved nutrition and diet
formulation for cultured species, including increased feed
utilization and the development of least cost diets is needed.
Specifically, research is needed to:

� Define the basic nutritional requirements of cultured
species

� Develop least-cost feeds based on commonly available
ingredients for various sizes and ages of cultured species

� Define feeding techniques for efficient and effective
production of various sizes and ages of cultured species

� Identify man-made and natural toxins, growth inhibitors,
and contaminants in feed ingredients, and develop
techniques for their prevention, removal, or detoxification

� Define the relationship between fish health and nutrition

Environmental requirements

Studies are needed on interactions between cultured organisms and
their environment. Knowledge about the effects of chronic exposure
to metabolic wastes, intensive culture stress caused by
intraspecies interactions, carrying capacity of natural and
artificial environments, and comparisons of various configurations
of culture facilities such as ponds, raceways, and suspended
culture is needed. Research would help to:

� Develop methods for predicting and correcting water quality
deterioration in fish production systems

� Develop methods and techniques (management, mechanical,
chemical, biological) to control the production of
undesirable aquatic plants and animal in culture systems

� Design equipment and evaluate techniques such as aeration,
filtration, recirculation, water exchange, and chemicals to
improve water quality and fish production

� Improve culture systems and equipment with particular
reference to hatching technology and bioengineering

Facility engineering, construction, and operation

Culture systems and equipment would be improved with particular
reference to hatchery technology and bioengineering and to
mechanization and automation of closed and semi-closed, and other
culture systems. Emphasis would be placed on research to:

o Analyze hydraulic, aeration, energy use, filtration, and
water quality factors in raceways, silos, water-reuse
systems, and ponds for culture

o Develop reliable automatic and demand feeders for
small-particle and moist feeds

o Develop practical and reliable degassers and oxygenation
devices for large-scale aquaculture systems

o Test the performance and operational reliability of ozone
and ultraviolet filters for pathogen and parasite control
in large-scale aquaculture systems

Effluent controls

Develop innovative and economic techniques to reduce or prevent
pollution by recycling organic wastes, preventing water runoff, and
studying alternative wastewater utilization practices for grow-out
systems for species in all stages of development. Work is needed
to:

� Develop biological, mechanical, and chemical methods to
remove natural and man-made contaminants from water
supplies for culture systems

� Compare aquaculture production systems having
self-contained filtraton systems, which do not require an
effluent discharge, for use in aquaculture production

Control of disease and parasites

Basic research would be expanded on characteristics and modes of
infection of diseases, and their prevention and control. Improve
knowledge of disease organisms and develop appropriate control
techniques.

Research programs would be expanded to determine methods needed to
control disease and parasites responsible for mortalities or
conditions detrimental to growth of cultured organisms. The
research would include understanding the life histories of disease
organisms, development of curative and prophylactic treatments, and
providing assistance to States for the development of seed stock
certification programs. Action would be taken to:

� Identify and describe life cycles of important parasites
and diseases

� Improve diagnostic methodology for pathogens

� Develop specific pathogen free stocks to provide to the
commercial freshwater finfish industry

� Define the relationship between fish health and nutrition

� Conduct a literature survey to identify pathogens
associated with nonindigenous species which have potential
use in domestic production

� Establish a central data storage and retrieval capability
for monitoring regional and National health problems in
aquatic species

� Intensify research on immunology and development of
vaccines and vaccine delivery systems in order to control
pathogens

Production of seed

Research would be conducted to improve understanding of mass
culture in order to increase control of behavioral and reproductive
processes so that the necessary stocks of seed and juvenile
organisms can be developed. Efforts would include initiatives to:

� Identify, with public and industry assistance, currently
unavailable species that have aquaculture potential

� Acquire and maintain broodstocks of candidate species and
develop methods and equipment for breeding and rearing

� Provide the mechanism to distribute these new stocks to
appropriate user groups

Predation

Research would be enhanced to improve knowledge of predation and t.o
develop appropriate prevention or control techniques. Research is
needed to identify and develop approaches for controlling
predators, competitors, and other nondisease causes of mortality in
culture systems including chemical, biological,and management
techniques to eliminate or control serious predators.

Harvesting and transportation

Harvesting, fish handling, and transportation technology for
commercially cultured species would be improved. New techniques
are needed for harvesting and grading of selected culture species
associated with experimental or new concepts in grow-out systems.
Research would help to:

� Develop methods for selective harvesting from ponds and
raceways

� Develop improved methods and equipment for transferring
animals from capture devices to transportation units

� Develop practical methods to eliminate or neutralize those
limiting factors that restrict transportation

Production quality control

Research would be initiated to improve processing and marketing
practices, including processing technology and new product
development. Research is needed to develop methods for
identifying, preventing, or controlling deterioration of products,
including improvements in processing and packaging techniques, and
in depuration systems.

Introduction of nonindigenous species

The use of nonindigenous organisms showing culture potential should
be evaluated, as should the identification of the ecological impact
of these introduced species toindigenous populations. In
addition, control procedures would be developed for nonindigenous
diseases, predators and parasites to indigenous stocks. Work would
include efforts to:

� Develop and evaluate techniques for production of monosex
and sterile species

� Conduct literature surveys to identify pathogens associated
with nonindigenous fishes which have potential use in
domestic production

� Establish a quarantine procedure for monitoring the health
of newly imported species

� Develop improved methods to breed and rear beneficial
nonindigenous species

Drug and chemical registration

Data on efficacy of drugs and other chemicals for aquaculture would
be developed. Activities would include efforts to:

� Intensify negotiation with the FDA on clarifying and
streamlining registration requirements for needed drugs and
chemicals

� Register antibacterial compounds to combat strains of
bacteria

� Identify new artiprotozoan compounds for parasites

� Identify new antifungal compounds for fungus control

� Conduct mammalian safety studies for registration of
high-priority drugs and chemicals

Pilot Testing and Demonstration Facilities

The development and demonstration of techniques and systems on a
pilot scale would be supported in order to:

� Demonstrate all major aspects of aquaculture technology

� Present special demonstrations of new technology

� Distribute a directory describing what technologies,
equipment, and species culture can be observed at various
locations

� Support a pilot-testing program for species, equipment and,
methodologies

Economics

Economic data

Research and reporting would be accelerated on the relationship
between aquacultural products and the land, labor, capital, and
operating inputs required for production, including the
relationship between-scale of operation and input requirements.
The ability to determine economic feasibility of culture operations
and to identify major cost factors in those operations would be
improved. The awareness of the industry concerning sources and
availability of investment capital through extension and technical
assistance efforts should be increased.

Market development

Markets for aquaculture products, including identification of
market barriers and opportunities would be examined and studies
expanded on marketing economics and new products development where
lack of markets and market barriers are restricting the industry.

Information and Technical Assistance

Extension education and information

Improved information exchange would be enhanced by providing
increased extension activities. Other special emphasis would be
directed towards efforts to:

o Gather, synthesize, and index all aquaculture materials of
research and education agencies on a continuing basis into
an on-line data base

o Rewrite highly scientific and technical publications, as
applicable into publications that are readable by and
useful to aquaculturists at all levels

o Produce bibliographies on various aspects of species
involved in aquaculture

Technical assistance

Rapid expansion of commercial aquaculture has resulted in large
demands for technical services. Appropriate staff will be provided
specialized training to keep pace with advances in technology.

National Aquaculture Information System (NAIS)

The NAL will provide leadership in establishing the NAIS in
cooperation with other Federal data systems. Initial efforts will
focus on the development of bibliographic files, translation
services, and selected directories.

Resolution of multiple-use conflicts and legal constraints

Multiple-use conflicts and legal constraints would be identified.
Strategies for addressing these barriers through JSA and other
governmental entities would be developed and implemented.

Coordination

Coordinate activities within the government and with nonfederal
entities.

Aquaculture training

Education and training programs to serve identified needs of public
and private aquaculture industry and its supporting services sector
would be enhanced.

CHAPTER 6
ANTICIPATED IMPACTS

The JSA recognizes the difficulty in accurately forecasting and
quantifying changes which would be brought about by the activities
and actions set forth in the NADP if it were implemented.
Variables related to the expansion of aquaculture are many and
highly complex. However, it is possible to explore potential
economic, environmental, and sociocultural changes based on past
trends and knowledge about developments that may affect the future.

Economic Impacts

Primary Impacts

Basic supply, demand, and price data needed to assess and quantify
the impacts of the aquaculture plan are limited. The problem of
determining economic impacts is exacerbated by the diversity of
operations, cultural practices, and nature of final demand for
aquaculture products. A final obstacle is the current environment
of uncertainty that surrounds economic activity. However, this
holds true for many industries in the U.S.

The primary effects of this plan on the aquaculture industry would
be to improve production technology and to disseminate
technological advances to existing and potential commercial
producers. The plan's programs, by contributing to the commercial
viability of technology and by providing trained aquacultural
personnel for management, research, and extension activities would
decrease the risks of entering this relatively young and developing
industry. This, in turn, might encourage the establishment of
new operations. These effects would make it possible for
aquaculturists to produce a given quantity at a lower cost per
unit, thus increasing the supply of fish and shellfish products and
lowering the cost for consumers.

This outward shift in the industry's supply curve would presumably
bring about a net gain in U.S. economic welfare. The exact
magnitude of the.welfare change is difficult to estimate. In
general, though, the rate of return to investment in agricultural
research in the United StateT has been estimated to range between
35 percent and 171 percent.

More readily apparent effects of this supply shift would include
additional stability and diversification of American agriculture
and agribusiness in some areas by providing employment on fish

Griliches, Z. 1964. Research expenditures, education,
and the aggregate agricultural function. American Economic Review
54(6):961-974.

farms, feed mills, processing.plants, and other supporting
industries. Moreover, aquacultural development would be an
attractive supplementary enterprise for many farmers, enabling them
to maximize the income potential of land, labor, and other
resources.

In the longer term, aquaculture could improve the net fish trade
deficit of the U.S. for edible fishery products (at least $2.2
billion in 1982), both through decreased imports and larger
exports. During 1982, shrimp imports valued at $980 million
represented 31 percent of the total edible fish import bill.
Meanwhile, salmon exports generally accounted for 48 percent of the
value of edible fishery products exported in 1982.

However, a supply shift through technological advances or
innovations does not create its own demand. A net economic welfare
gain to society because of programs under this plan, will result
only if consumers are able and willing to purchase aquaculture
products. To that end, some of the production technologies
resulting from the plan's research programs would make aquaculture
products more attractive to consumers by meeting size, quality, and
seasonal demands. Advances in post-harvest technology relating to
product quality control, help ensure customer satisfaction, while
others introduce cost-efficiencies in processing and distribution,
providing a more competitively priced product.

The following are other factors that will influence the demand for
aquaculture products in the coming years, which in turn will affect
the economic impacts of this plan:

o Increases in per capita consumption of fish and seafood in
the U.S. Per capita consumption has climbed upward since
1960 to a little over 12 pounds in 1982. However, even if
per capita consumption should remain the same, the
expanding population will increase overall demand. This
trend should make it more viable for private industry to
continue to expand and develop aquaculture in the 'U.S.

o Economic growth, and hence, larger per capita disposable
income have been the primary forces causing a 25 percent
increase in per capita consumption of red meats, poultry,
and fish since 1960 (the share of fish and seafood consumed
relative to the total has been steady, at or near 6
percent.) Also, economic conditions affect consumption of
food away from home,l"where about two-thirds of fish and
seafood sales occur

o The ability of the U.S. commercial fishing industry and/or
imports to meet future demand for fish and seafood

o The price of aquaculture products relative to competing
protein sources--red meats, poultry, and noncultured fish

The more cost efficient production of aquaculture products likely
to result from implementation of the NADP would enhance the
competitiveness of cultured fish in the market.

Secondary Impacts

Programs of this plan would have spillover effects. Some effects
would benefit society, while others might impose social costs.

For example, since aquaculture generates additional economic
activity by augmenting fish stocks for commercial and sport
fisheries, the programs of this plan would tend to increase the
positive economic benefit to society. On the other hand, impacts
on land and water use could either enhance or detract from such
things as habitat and environmental esthetics or groundwater and
surface water quality and quantity. Likewise, the introduction of
nonindigenous organisms, genetic changes@,and possible human
nutritional factors could have positive or negative economic
effects. An important secondary impact of this plan would be on
the commercial fisheries. For some species like catfish or trout,
there would likely be few economic effects. Almost all trout sold
commercially in the U.S. is farm-raised with the remainder
imported. The farm-raised catfish industry now dwarfs the wild
catfish fishery. Farm-raised catfish production sold to processors
totaled,200 million pounds in 1982, while 8.2 million pounds of
wild catfish was processed i-n 1981.

Culture of oysters and hard clams would also likely have little
impact on their respective fisheries. U.S. production has declined
over the past two decades, primarily because of pollution, loss of
habitat, and disease. Also, like farm-raised catfish, cultured
oysters and hard clams are considered superior products.

On'the other hand, cultured shrimp and ocean-ranched salmon will
compete directly with shrimp and salmon from the commercial
fisheries. Cultured shrimp will also compete with imports. Shrimp
and salmon are the United States' most valuable fisheries, which
emphasizes potential benefits to be gained from shrimp and salmon
aquaculture. In short, the source that can meet consumer's
quantity and-quality demands at the lowest price would likely gain
market share at the expense of the other sources.

Salmon cultured by net-pen rearing are only I pound when harvested
and are sold as fresh or frozen pan-sized fish, competing directly
with rainbow trout.

Pond-raised and wild-harvested crawfish also compete with each
other. Since most crawfish are marketed fresh, because they cannot
be stored,-available supply will dictate prices. Thus, if
production of pond-raised crawfish increases, the major affect will
be to dampen price swings, both from year-to-year and within the
November-June harvest season.

Environmental Impacts

This section discusses general impacts of an expanding aquaculture
industry.

Changes in Land Use

One of the strongest impacts of an expanding aquaculture industry
will be the changes in land use and resultant changes in habitat
for various terrestrial, wetland dependent, or aquatic organisms.
Generally, the net value to wildlife would increase at upland
sites, but decrease at wetland sites. The various forms of
aquaculture also have different impacts on land use. Intensive
culture systems use'less space than extensive systems to produce
equal numbers of fish.

Upland areas

The conversion of upland areas into aquaculture facilities could
result in some wildlife and esthetic losses. The most detrimental
losses would be of forests or old fields and their attendant fauna
and flora. Few forested areas are converted to aquaculture because
of high costs and physical problems associated with making the
conversion. Old,fields are more likely to be converted. However,
the conversion of monoculture croplands to earthen ponds would
create habitat for a variety of water dependent wildlife.

Wetland areas

Aquaculture facilities sited in the highly productive coastal
wetlands could be destructive to natural ecosystems. Many species
of fish and crustaceans use the estuarine nursery zone during
juvenile stages of their life cycles. Fish and wildlife agencies
generally oppose aquaculture programs for the coastal wetlands
because of this loss of valuable habitat. Inland swamps and
marshes also furnish valuable habitat for wildlife. Present local,
State, and Federal regulations make it difficult to convert
wetlands to other uses.

Open-water areas

The nature of the aquaculture facility determines to a great extent
whether or not it displaces natural aquatic habitat. The exclusive
use of an area for cultured species would eliminate its value as a
nursery for wild species. On the other hand, the use of a portion
of the bottom or water column for oysters or other shellfish may
enhance the natural fisheries.

Net enclosures for salmon have been observed to degrade the bottom
immediately underneath the nets but not to adversely affect
adjacent bottom areas.

If State and Federal permit requirements are met, serious problems
are not foreseen with displacement of habitat by open-water
aquaculture operations.

Changes in Water Use

Aquaculture, particularly in more arid areas, may compete with
other uses for groundwater and surface water. Except for closed
systems, aquaculture uses large quantities of water. A dramatic
increase in inland aquaculture facilities in concentrated areas
could reduce the initial. availability of groundwater for various
other uses. However, in many regions of the country, water
captured in ponds provides opportunities to conserve water and
extend the availability of water for other purposes.

Effluent Discharge

Generally, effluent from aquaculture facilities poses only a
limited threat to the aquatic environment. Potential impacts
include high biological oxygen demands and eutrophication resulting
from the discharge of organic materials, algae or other secondary
growths, and nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus.

In most instances, the use of available treatment techniques and
subsequent dilution in the receiving waters renders hatchery and
grow out facility discharges harmless. However, in the absence of
good management practices, an aquaculture facility could overload a
small stream, lake, or lagoon.

Although concerns have been expressed about raceway facilities,
because of the large volume of water utilized, the effluent is
actually very dilute when compared.with municipal effluent. Fish
hatcheries have been responsible for water quality degradation in
some instances, but the overall impact created by these discharges
has generally been limited. In several studies it was demonstrated
that hatchery effluent treatment, beyond simple settling of solids
resulting from cleaning opexations, should not be required. In
closed systems concerns over discharges are practically eliminated,
as these facilities discharge little or no effluent.

Physical and Biological Barriers

Certain types of aquaculture facilities situated in coastal waters
may form barriers which hamper the migration of aquatic organisms,
such as fish or shellfish, retard the movement of water (currents
and tides), or hinder navigation. Nets or other structures placed
across water courses may block or alter the movements of animals or
people. Careful siting and attention to Federal, State, and local
permit requirements should prevent significant problems.

Sport Fisheries

Aquaculture benefits sport fisheries by producing fish and
shellfish to be taken from small impoundments and public waters.
In fact, in many urban areas, much of the available fishery is
supplied by cultured fish stocked in "fee fishing" lakes. In
coastal waters, sea-ranching holds the potential to replenish
stocks of depleted sport and commercial fish such as salmon,
sturgeon, and striped bass (see Chapter 2).

Esthetics and Recreation

Impacts on esthetics and recreational use of waters is an important
consideration for facility siting in the U.S.. Overall, inland
aquaculture facilities are considered an asset, but facilities
constructed in coastal environments may blend in poorly with the
landscape and may thus be visually unacceptable to some segments of
the public unless carefully planTied. Large-scale development of
coastal areas should proceed with caution, as such development
creates conflicts with environmeiital groups, recreational groups,
and adjacent landowners.

Recreation

There is a long tradition -in the U.S. of using hatcheries to
enhance fisheries and provide commercial and recreational fish
stocks.

Public trout and salmon hatcheries are found in many States.
Private aquaculture operations are akin to these public hatchery
systems and may provide additional opportunities for stock
enhancement in nearby waters or provide onsite recreation.
Recreational enhancement may provide a useful mitigating point in
cases where adverse sociocultural impacts have been predicted or
observed.

Impacts on Wildlife

Because of the uniqueness of most aquaculture facilities, it is not
possible to list specific positive or negative impacts on wildlife
that would be representative of all operations.

Technologies concerned with facility siting and effluent management
are such that the impacts of an aquaculture operation can be
reduced to a minimum. Positive benefits can be gained through the
development of additional aquatic environments which provide
habitat for a variety of animals.

Impacts of Escaped or Released Nonindigenous Organisms

Nonindigenous'organisms introduced for culture or other purposes
may pose a threat to the environment. Adverse experiences with
some species such as the common carp and water hyacinth have

engendered caution. Approximately 40 species of nonindigenous
finfish have become established in the U.S. The long term
ecological implication of most of these species is not known. An
example of a beneficial introduction is the striped bass which was
introduced to the Pacific coast in the late 1800's and has since
produced a valuable fishery. Aquaculture, like agriculture, stands
to be improved by culturing productive nonindigenous species and by
breeding with improved strains.

Oysters have been widely transplanted with both beneficial and
detrimental effects on cultured and wild@oysters. The most widely
introduced oyster is the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. This
species now furnishes much of the world's oyster supply, but may
have adversely affected or replaced indigenous species.

There are numerous instances in which the nonindigenous organism
has been a host to invertebrates that have become severe pests on
wild indigenous and locally cultured species. Examples include the
Japanese oyster drill, Ocenebra japonica, the flatworm,
Pseudostylochus ostreophagus and possibly the copepod parasite,
Mytilicola orientalis. All were introduced to North America with
the Pacific oyster.

Parasites and Diseases

Imported organisms are often accompanied by diseases and parasites,
sometimes with catastrophic impacts on cultured organisms and
occasionally on wild populations. Scientists estimate that 48
species of freshwater fish parasites have become established on
other continents through the transfer of infected live and frozen
tish. Almost all of the spread of freshwater fish parasites have
been as a result of man's activities. At least,five of these
parasites have caused severe problems. The best example is
whirling disease of trout, caused by the organism, Myxosoma
cerebralis. This parasite has caused large economic losses in
rainbow trout culture on three continents.

Careful screening, certification, and quarantine could prevent the
establishment of most parasites and diseases.

Genetics

The release of large numbers of cult'ured species to coastal waters,
"sea.ranching," has raised questions about the potential impact on
the genetic integrity of wild stocks. Interbreeding between
domestic and wild stocks could result in genetic degradation of
wild stocks. Each wild stock has a harmonious gene combination
suited to its particular environment.

Changes in the genetic makeup may affect the stock's ability to
survive. Potential problems of mixing domestic and wild stocks
could be prevented through proper research and management.

Treatment of Wastewater

i
Aquaculture has the potential of becoming a useful tool in removing
pollutants from wastewater. The greatest potential is probably in
the removal of organic wastes from municipal sewage effluent or
food processing effluents. A potential byproduct of the treatment
process is food or fiber for plant, animal, or human use.
Aquaculture provides a viable alternative to the traditional
expensive mechanical and chemical waste treatment systems.

Planktonic algae, water hyacinths, duckweed, and other aquatic
plants have been shown to remove solids, nutrients, and metal salts
from water. The effluent from a facility containing aqiiatic plants
can be of much better quality than the effluent from conventional
stabilization ponds. In some instances the plants may be harvested
or processed for soil conditioners, paper, cattle feed, or for
production of methane or alcohol for energy. Fish have not proven
to be as efficient as plants in the removal of pollutants but have
shown some potential advantages over traditional secondary and
tertiary treatment methods. Detritus-feeding molluscs show some
promise in this area. However, public health concerns and the
difficulty of meeting modern effluent standards, while
stimultaneously maximizing aquaculture yields, do not favor
immediate widespread use of fish for wastewater treatment.

Social Impacts of Aquaculture Development and Implementation

Supply of Protein

The latest per capita consumption figures for fishery products for
the U.S. is a little over 12 pounds. Aquaculture can provide a
stable supply. In local areas, it can provide a significant
contribution in the protein budget by making fresh fish more
readily available.

Employment

Some aquaculture systems are vertically integrated organizations;
the fish are grbwn, harvested, processed, and marketed by the same
concern. This pattern is not normally found in other commercial
fishing operations in the U.S. Aquaculture operations will
increase the number of available jobs, especially in rural and
insular areas, and will provide for a stability of employment and
increased revenues.

Sociocultural Issues

Social and cultural impacts occur whenever there are Changes in
established practices. Managers and officials concerned with
aquaculture will have an opportunity-to solve possible social and
cultural conflicts before they arise by using sociological data in
the planning process.

Many land and water areas have a social value and an existing use
and changes would affect the social and cultural values of the
local population. -Local inhabitants may find they must share their
clam flats with a commercial operation, or recreational fishermen
might lose a popular length of river. Although the economic
benefits of using the space for aquaculture@may be clear, the
social benefits may not be as obvious.

Cultural values placed on fish and their processing and harvesting
are reflected in consumer attitudes towards fish; in the U.S., less
than a dozen marine species command a high degree of popular ,
acceptance and demand. Operations involving other species may
encounter situations in which cultural values impair acceptance of
the product.

Research has shown that aquaculture development is ultimately
dependent upon acceptance by local communities as being socially
and culturally appropriate. The development may be economically
and technically feasible, but may not flourish without the support
of local and regional populations.

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1984 0-420-932/OGPA-2189 67

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