[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
A FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCE INVENTORY OF THE COOK INLET - KODIAK AREAS VOLUME II FISHERIES SH 327.5 .F57 1976 v.2 c..3 3q 231- ZO,`@E INFORMATION CENTER V410LIFE RESOUt@C, 0 @?4 A rl L , Ail. I+ 6 *Wags.-, 44, OA1 COOK 'INLET 1@001 VOLUME 2 FISHERIES US Department of Colnme=O NO.4,A Coastal Services Center Library 2234 South Hobson Avenue Charleston, SC 29405-2413 COMPILED BY THE ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME UNDER CONTRACT TO THE ALASKA COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM - DIVISION OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING VOLUME I I STUDY TEAM ROBERT F. McLEAN KEVIN J. DELmEy BEVERLY A, CROSS CARTOGRAPHIC STAFF SUSIE M. ELSNER PAMELA D. JOSEPH VIRGINIA A. FOSTER MAR Y Lu LARSON KAREN RusSELL 1976 I HIS EROJECT WAS SUPPORTED, IN PART, BY THE FEDERAL COASTAL ONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT FUNDS (P.L. 92-583, SEC- TION 306), GRANTED TO THE STATE OF ALASKA BY THE OFFICE OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT, NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC IbMINISTRATION, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. VOLUME II - FISHERIES TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ................... o.............................. I Cook Inlet Area Salmon Fisheries ......................... o.... 2 Introduction .............................................. 2 Commercial Fisheries ......................... o..o ........ 2 Escapement and Spawning oo ................................ 8 Status Related to Maximum Sustained Yield ......... o ...... 13 Management and Research .................................. 15 Cook Inlet Area Herring Fisheries .... 49 Commercial Fisheries ..... o............................... 49 Distribution and Life History ............................ 51 Management and Research .................................. 53 Cook Inlet Area Halibut Fisheries .... 59 Commercial Fisheries ..................................... 59 Distribution ...o ......................................... 59 Life History ............. :.....................o ......... 59 Abundance ....... o........................................ 60 Management and Research ................ oo ................ 60 Cook Inlet Area Groundfish Fisheries ................... oo ..... 61 Commercial Fisheries ......................... o ........... 61 Distribution ................. o ............................ 61 Life History ..... o o................................. 62 Abundance ..... o ....................... o .................. 62 Management and Research .................................. 62 Cook Inlet King Crab Fisheries .......... ................ 64 Commercial Fisheries ........... o ......................... 64 Distribution ......................... o................... 64 Life History 65 Abundance ................................................ 67 Management and Research ................................... 67 Cook Inlet Tanner Crab Fisheries .............................. 77 Commercial Fisheries ........... o ......................... 77 Distribution ............................................. 77 Life History ................ I ......................... o ... 78 Abundance ................................................ 78 Management and Research .................................. 79 Cook Inlet Dungeness Crab Fisheries ........................... 83 Commercial Fisheries ..................................... 83 Distribution 83 Life History ..... - ..................................... 84 Abundance ................................................ 85 Management and Research .................................. 85 Cook Inlet Shrimp Fisheries ..................................... 90 Commercial Fisheries ..q .................................. 90 Distribution ............................................. 91 Life History ..... o....................................... 91 Abundance ................................................ 92 Management and Research .................................. 92 Cook Inlet Scallop Fisheries .................................. 102 Commercial Fisheries ..................................... 102 Distribution ............ o .....o......... 0 ................ 102 Life History ........... o................................. 102 Abundance ...o ............................................. 103 Management and Research .....o ............................ 103 Cook Inlet Razor Clam Fisheries ......... o ..................... 104 Commercial Fisheries ..................................... 104 Distribution ...... o .................................... 0. 105 Life History ....... o.............................. 0...... 105 Abundance ................ o............................... 105 Management and Research ................................... 106 Cook Inlet Hardshell Clam Fisheries .................... o...... 107 Cook Inlet Area Subsistence Fisheries .... o ............ o....... 108 Description ... o .......... %............................... 108 Economic Conditions in the Area ... o...................... 108 Methods of Fishing ............ o.......................... 108 Problems ................................................. 109 Cook Inlet Area Sport Fisheries ............................... ill Introduction ............................................. ill Sport Fish Life History and Habitat ............. o....0 ... ill Productivity and Production .............................. 116 Sport Fisheries .......................................... 117 Economic Values ....................... 4 .................. 125 Management and Research .................................. 126- Kodiak Area Salmon Fisheries .......................... o....... 156 Introduction ...... o ............................... o...... 156 Commercial Fisheries ...... 0 .............................. 156 Escapement and Spawning .............. oo....o ........... o. 161 Status Related to Maximum Sustained Yield .- ............ 164 Management and Research o ................................ 165 Kodiak Area Herring Fisheries ................................. 196 Commercial Fisheries ............... o ....o ................ 196 Distribution and Life History ............................ 198 Management and Research .................................. 199 Kodiak Area Halibut Fisheries ................................. 203 Introduction oo ........ 0.................................. 203 Commercial Fisheries ...................................... 203 Distribution ........ o .................................. o. 205 Life History ............. o............................... 206 Management .............. o ..........o .................... o 206 Research .............. - ...... o.4 ................ o...... 206 Kodiak Area Groundfish Fisheries ............................... 208 Introduction ......... ! .................................. 208 Commercial Fisheries ..................................... 208 Species Profiles ..... o............... o..... o ............. 209 Kodiak King Crab Fisheries .................................... 213 Commercial Fisheries ....................... o........... o. 213 Distribution .................................. o .......... 214 Life History .......................................... o.. 217 Abundance ................................................ 217 Management ............................................... 217 Research ..................... o.............. o ............ 220 Kodiak Tanner Crab Fisheries o ........o....... o..... o .......... 230 Commercial Fisheries ...................................... 230 Distribution ....o ........................................ 232 Life History ............................................. 232 Abundance ................................... o ............ 232 Management ............................................... 234 Research ................................................. 235 Kodiak Dungeness Crab Fisheries ............................... 239 Commercial Fisheries ................... o ................. 239 Distribution ............................................. 240 Life History - ........................................... 240 Abundance ................ : ................................ 241 Management ............................................... 241 Research ...... ........................... o .............. 242 Kodiak Shrimp Fisheries ........................................ 247 Commercial Fisheries ............ o ..................... 247 Distribution ............ - ......................... o .... 250 Life History .............................................. 251 Abundance ..... o .......................................... 251 Management ............................................... 253 Research ................................................. 253 Kodiak Scallop Fisheries ............ o ......................... 259 Commercial Fisheries ....................... o ............. 259 Distribution and Life History ............................ -260 Abundance ................................................ 260 Management ...................................... o ........ 260 Kodiak Razor Clam Fisheries ............................ o ...... 264 Commercial Fisheries ................. o .....o ............. 264 Distribution .......................... o ................... 265 Life History ........... o................ o ................ 265 Abundance ..................... o .......................... 266 Management .......... o .................................... 267 Research .......I........... 0 ............................. 267 Kodiak Area Subsistence Fisheries ............................. 272 Description ............................... o .............. 272 Economic Conditions in the Area ................ o ......... 272 Methods of Fishing ....................................... 273 Problems ....................... o .............. o ........... 273 Kodiak Area Sport Fisheries ................................... 276 Introduction ............................................. 276 Sport Fish Life History and Habitat ...................... 276 Productivity and Production .............................. 279 Sport Fisheries .......................................... 281 Management and Research 285 Appendix - Life Histories ...................... o. ....... 300 King Salmon .............................................. 301 Sockeye Salmon ........................................... 305 Coho Salmon ......................................... o.... 310 Pink Salmon ......... - .................................. 314 Chum Salmon ........... o ................... o .............. 319 Pacific Herring ......................................... o 322 Halibut 326 Pacific Cod ...... oo .......................... - ......... 330 Lingcod ............................................ - ... 333 Rockfishes o........o ............................ o ........ 336 Sablefish 339 Flounder ............... o............................... oo 341 King Crab .............................................. o.. 344 Tanner Crab ........ o............ o ........................ 351 Dungeness Crab ........................................... 361 Shrimp ............... o ................................... 368 Weathervane Sea Scallop ..o.o ............................. 382 Clams 388 Rainbow Trout ......... 0 ................................... 404 Steelhead Trout ....................... oo .............. o.... 406 Cutthroat Trout ..o..o.*.o ................................ 408 Dolly Varden ..... 0 ...... 0................................ 411 Arctic Char ................... o ........................ o. 415 Lake Trout o............. I.o .................... o ... o..,.. 417 Eastern Brook Trout - ................................... 419 Whitefish ........................................... o..... 421 Sheefish ....... o................... o...o ...o ............. 425 Arctic Grayling .......... o ................. o ............. 427 Smelt .................................................... 429 Northern Pike - ................. o .................... o.. 431 Burbot ......... o........................... o..O .......... 433 VOLUME II - FISHERIES TABLE OF TABLES COOK INLET SALMON Table Page I Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974 . ......................... 16 2 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Northern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ... 20 3 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Central district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ... 22 4 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Southern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ... 24 5 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak _.district, by species, in ntimbers of fish, 1960-1974. ... 26 6 Commercial salme-a catch, Cook Inlet area, Outer district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ............. 28 7 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Eastern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ............. 31 8 Summary of commercial and vessel license registrations, Cook Inlet area, 1968-1974. ............................ 32 9 Summary of salmon gear registrations, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974. ....... - ................................... 33 10 Approximate value to the fishermen of commercial salmon, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974. ............................ o 34 11 Sockeye salmon escapements, Kenai and Kasilof Rivers, Cook Inlet area, 1968-1974. ............................ 35. 12 Sockeye salmon escapements, Russian River, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974. ....................................... 36 13 Sockeye salmon escapements, Fish Creek, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974. ............................ o................ 37 14 Estimated king salmon escapements, Cook Inlet area, Northern district, 1964--1974. ........................ 38 Table Page 15 Estimated pink salmon eac'apements, Cook Inlet area, Southern and Outer districts, in thousands of fish, 1962-1974. ............................................... 39 16 Estimated sockeye salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ................. o ............................. 40 17 Estimated pink salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ...... 41 18 Estimated chum salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ...... 43 19 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Northern district. -- ................................. 45 20 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Central district. ........................................ 46 21 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Southern district. ........ ............................... 47 22 General salmon timing information,.Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district. ..... .......................... 48 COOK INLET HERRING Table Page 23 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet area, Kachemak Bay, in numbers of fish, 1914-1928. ...................... 54 24 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet area, Day Harbor- Resurrection Bay, in tons of fish, 1939-1959. ............ 55 25 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet, by district, in tons of fish, 1969-1975. ......................... 56 26 Number of vessels participating in the herring fishery, Cook Inlet area, by district, by year, 1969-1975. ........ 57 27 Value of the commercial herring fishery to the fishermen, Cook Inlet area, in dollars, 1969-1974. ................. 58 -COOK INLET GROUNDFISH Table Page 28 Commercial miscellaneous fish catch, Cook Malet area, by species, in pounds of fish, 1970-1974. ....... o ........ 63 COOK INLET KING CRAB Table Page 29 Commercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1960-1974. ..................................... 69 30 Commercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1960-1974. .......................... 70 31 Commercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. ................................. o ... 71 32 Number of vessels actively fishing in the shellfish fisheries, Cook Inlet area, by type of fishery, 1960-1974. ........o ...................................... 73 33 Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Cook Inlet area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. ........... 75 COOK INLET TANNER CRAB Table Page 34 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1962-1974. .................................... 80 35 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. .......................... 81 36 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. ................ ................... 82 COOK INLET DUNGENESS CRAB Table Page 37 Commercial dungeness crab catch, cook Inlet area, In pounds, 1961-1974. ... o.............. o ... o...o ...... o.. 86 38 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1961-1974. .......................... 87 39 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1961-1974. .......................... 88 COOK INLET SHRIMP Table Page 40 Commercial shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1962-1974. .................................... 94 4 1 Commercial trawl shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds,1962-1974. ............................... o ..... 95 Table Page 42 Commercial trawl shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. .................................... 96 43 Commercial pot shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. .................................... 98 44 Commercial pot shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. .................................... 99 45 Shrimp population estimates, Cook Inlet area, Kachemak Bay, calculated from trawl surveys, in pounds, 1971-1975. .............................................. 101 COOK INLET SUBSISTENCE FISHERIES Table Page 46 Subsistence salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1962-1974. .......................... 110 COOK INLET SPORT FISHERIES Table Page 47 Distribution and abundance of sport fish species in the Cook Inlet region. .............................. 128 48 Cook Inlet sport caught king salmon catches based on punchcard returns, 1966-1975. ........................ 130 49 Lo wer Cook Inlet king salmon catch, 1960-1975. .......... 131 50 King salmon catches in upper Cook Inlet systems, 1961-1975. ............................................. 132 51 Lower Cook Inlet king salmon fishery effort (angler trips). .......................................... * ...... 133 52 Kachemak Bay sport finfish catch and effort. ............ 134 53 Razor clam creel census information collected at Clam Gulch, 1965-1975. ....................................... 135 54 Estimated recreational razor clam harvest and effort on all east side Kenai Peninsula beaches, 1969-1975. ....... 136 55 Sockeye salmon harvest, effort and success rates on Russian River, 1962-1974. ............................... 137 56 Russian River miscellaneous sport catch censured during the sockeye sport fishery, 1968-1974. ................... 138 Table Page 57 Anchor River sport fish catch and effort . ............... 139 58 Kenai Peninsula sport fishing areas. .................... 140 59 Anchorage area sport fishing locations. ................. 144 60 Sport catch and effort on Jewell, DeLong and Campbell Pt. Lakes, Anchorage area, from June 7 to September 3, 1972. ...................................... 145 60A Twenty-Mile River eulachon catch and effort, 1972-1974. .............................................. 145 61 Intensive use stocked lakes in the Anchorage area. ...... 146 62 Palmer area main sport fishing locations . ............... 147 .63 Total angler effort estimated for selected Susitna River tributaries in 1970 and 11972. .......................... 150 64 Managed lakes stocked on a regular basis in Matanuska- Susitna Valley, Palmer area . ............................. 151 65 Winter fishery estimated effort and coho catch from three Palmer lakes (11/24/68-3/31/69). .................. 153 66 Estimated angler mcpenditures on goods and services for four Cook Inlet region sport fisheries. ................. 153 67 West Cook Inlet sport fishing areas. .... ...... 154 KODIAK SALMON Table Page 68 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. ......... * ................... 167 69 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Afognak sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. .............. 171 70 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Chiniak and South Marmot Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ................................... o .......... 173 71 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, East side sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. o ............. 175 72 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Alitak sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. .............. 177 Table Page 73 Conmercial salmon catch,'Kodiak area, Red River sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ............. 179 74 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Uyak and Uganik Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ... 181 75 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Mainland sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ....... 183 76 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Karluk sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ............. 185 77 Summary of salmon gear registration, Kodiak area, 1960-1974. ............................................. 187 78 Summary of vessel license registration, Kodiak area, 1960-1974. ............................................. 188 79 Value of commercial salmon catch to the fishermen, Kodiak area, in dollars, 1960-1974. .................... 189 80 Estimated king salmon escapement, Kodiak area, Karluk and Red Rivers, by year, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ............................................. 190 81 Estimated coho salmon escapement, Kodiak Island area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1966-1974. ................... 191 82 Estimated sockeye salmon escapement, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. ......................... 192 83 Estimated pink salmon escapement for index streams, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish,. 1960-1974. ............................................. 193 84 General salmon run timing information, Kodiak area. 195 KODIAK HERRING Table Page 85 Commercial herring catch, Kodiak area, by year, in tons of fish, 1912-1974. ............................... 200 86 Commercial herring catch, Kodiak area, by geographical area, in tons of fish, li64-1974. ............. # ........ 202 KODIAK HALIBUT Table Page 87 Commercial halibut catch in the Gulf of Alaska, Halibut Commission area 3A, in pounds, 1960-1974. ...... 207 KODIAK GROUNDFI SH Table 88 Commercial groundfish catch, Kodiak area, by species, in pounds, 1972-1974. ......................... 212 KODIAK KING CRAB Table Page 89 Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. .................................. 221 90 Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by stock, in pounds, 1960-1974 . .................................. 223 91 Ko diak area king crab, number of vessels, 1960-1975. ... 225 92 Length frequencies of Kodiak king crab vessels that made landings, 1960-1974. ......................... 227 93 Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Kodiak area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. ......... 228 KODIAK TANNER CRAB Table Page 94 Commercial tanner crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1967-1974. ........................ 236 95 Commercial tanner crab catch, Kodiak area, by district, in pounds, 1972-1973 through 1974-1975 fishing seasons. ............................................... 237 96 Keel length frequencies of Kodiak tanner crab vessels which made deliveries, 1969-1974. ...................... 238 KODIAK DUNGENESS CRAB Table Page 97 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1975 . .......... o........... 243 98 Length frequencies of Kodiak area dungeness vessels which made deliveries, 1964-1974. ................. 245 99 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Kodiak area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. ................ o........... o ..... 246 KODIAK SHRIMP Table Page 100 Commercial shrimp catch, Kodiak area, by month, in thousands of pounds, 1964-1974. ............... 255 101 Commercial shrimp catch, Kodiak area, by district, in thousands of pounds, 1960-1974. ...................... 257 KODIAK SCALLOP Table Page 102 Commercial scallop catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, shucked weight, 1967-1974. ................... 262 103 Length frequencies of Kodiak area scallop vessels which made landings. ..................... & .................... 263 KODIAK RAZOR CLAMS Table Page 104 Commercial razor clam catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. ................................... 268 105 Kodiak area razor clam beaches. ......................... 270 KODIAK SUBSISTENCE FISHERIES Table Page 106 Subsistence salmon catch, Kodiak area, by Year, in numbers of fish, 1962-1974. ........................... 275 KODIAK SPORT FISHERIES Table Page 107 Kodiak region sport fish distribution-and .abundance. ............................. o........... o...o. 287 108 Stocked lakes around the Kodiak area. ................... 288 109 Pink, cbum, and sockeye salmon and Dolly Varden sport harvest estimated for selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1973-1974. .............................. 291 110 Some Kodiak region sport fisheries. ................... 292 111 Buskin Lake system sport fish catch and effort, 1965-1974.. 294 112 Karluk River sport fish catch and effort, 1965-1974. .... 295 Table Page 113 Coho salmon sport harvest estimated for selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1967-19.74. ....................... 296 114 Percent of sport caught coho salmon harvested from total estimated run in selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1967-1974. .............................................. 297 115 Pink, chum and sockeye salmon sport harvest as a percent of total estimated runs for selected northeast Kodiak systems, 1973-1974. ..................................... 298 116 Estimated total sport salmon and Dolly Varden harvest, northeast Kodiak Island, 1973-1974. ..................... 299 VOLUME'II - FISHERIES TABLE OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Cook Inlet Resurrection Bay Area Regulatory Dis t r ic t s q. . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Planktonic Occurrence of Crustacean Larvae, Cook Inlet Area, Kachemak Bay. ......................... 66 3 Cook Inlet Region with Kenai, Anchorage, Palmer, and West Cook Inlet Sport Fishing Areas. ............... 112 4 Kodiak Regulatory Districts. ........................... 157 5 Regulatory Areas of the International Pacific Halibut Commission. ..................................... 204 6 Kodiak Area King Crab Stocks. ........................... 216 7 Geographical Fishing Districts for Tanner Crab for the Kodiak Management Area . ......................... 231 8 Kodiak Area Shrimp Management Districts. ............... 248 9 Kodiak Shrimp Abundance Indices, 1971-1975. ............. 252 10 Kodiak Sport Fish Management Area. ..................... 277 INTRODUCTION This volume presents a compilation of existing commercial, sport,- and subsistence fishery information for the Cook Inlet - Kodiak Island area. The report is divided into two primary sections: a written narrative and a portfolio of mapped data. The written narrative includes character- izations of each fishery and tabularization of statistical data. Histor- ical catch, effort, economic value, and escapement statistics are included. The map section includes distribution mapping for all significant finfish and shellfish species. Major fishing areas are delineated for all com- mercial species. Critical salmon and shellfish spawning areas are indicated, by species, where known. Shellfish rearing areas, by species, have also been noted where known. Included on the salmon distribution maps is additional information showing the location of ADF&G adult and juvenile salmon enumeration sites, sampling sites, state and private hatcheries, rehabilitation sites, test fishing areas, and index streams. It is imperative that those who use this report recognize that fish populations are a dynamic, ever-changing resource. The information contained within this report is as up to date as possible, but changing land tenure, human use and development, and a multitude of natural factors require that data be continuously gathered and updated. Most of the information in this report was obtained from Alaska Department of Fish and Game biologists, much of it unpublished before now. Additional contributions were made by other staff members and from members of other resource agencies. These contributions are greatfully acknowledged. COOK INLET AREA SALMON FISHERIES INTRODUCTION The Cook Inlet area includes all waters draining into Cook Inlet and the Gulf of Alaska from Cape Fairfield in Blying Sound westward to Cape Douglas on the Alaska Peninsula (Figure 1). -Cook Inlet is characterized by exceedingly strong tidal currents and, on occasion, by strong winds. The area is bordered on three sides by mountains: the Aleutian Range and Alaska Range on the northwest, the Talkeetna. Mountains to the northeast and the Chugach and Kenai Mountains on the southeast. Glaciers are common throughout these mountain ranges and many of the stream's tributary to the Inlet carry heavy glacial sediment loads.' The largest and most extensive watershed is the Susitna River and its- tributaries. Other major drainage basins include the Kenai and Kasilof Rivers. Numerous smaller rivers and short, coastal streams also contribute significantly to the salmon production. The Cook Inlet area includes six salmon management districts: two in Cook Inlet north of Anchor Point, the Northern and Central districts; one in Kachemak Bay near Homer, the Southern district; one on the west side of the lower inlet, the Kamishak district; one Along the outer coast from Point Adam to Aialik Cape, the Outer district; and one south of Seward in the Resurrection Bay-Blying Sound area, the Eastern district (Figure 1). COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Description All five species of Pacific salmon are commercially harvested in Cook Inlet. Commercial salmon fishing began in this area in 1882 although 2 ALASKA DEPT. OF FISH & GAME DIVISION OF COMMERCIAL. FISHERIES COOK INLET-RESURRECTION BAY AREA NORTHERN REGULATORY DISTRICT DISTRICT ALASKA CENTRAL DISTRICT FIGURE 1. CA) SOUTHERN KAMISHAK BAY. DISTRICT ...... DISTRICT OUTER DISTRIC BAR IEN ISL. DISTRIC Tct-@,,, no records of catch are available until 1893 (Table 1). Sockeye salmon have been the dominant species historic ally, however, in the last 20 years the pink salmon catch has been the greatest. Since 1954 pink salmon have comprised 43% of the total Cook Inlet commercial catch, followed by sockeye (29%), chum (21%), coho (6%) and king (1%). The average annual salmon harvest in Cook Inlet from 1960-1974 is approxi- mately 3.4 million fish which represents 7% of the total statewide salmon harvest for the same period. In the Cook Inlet area, pink salmon exhibit an even-odd year cycle with the-greatest returns occurring during even years. Even year runs are also characterized by good returns of coho and chum salmon. S6ckeye salmon is the dominate species during odd year runs. The majority of sockeye salmon harvested in Cook Inlet are produced in the Susitna, Kerai and Kasilof River systems. Historically, king salmon were an important commercial species, but due to their decline from earlier years, runs have been protected by late opening dates since 1964. Nearly all the king salmon commercially harvested in Cook Inlet are produced in systems north of Anchor Point, in the Northern and Central districts. The Northern and Central districts in upper Cook Inlet are general- ly termed the gill net districts as gill nets are the only legal salmon gear. Furthermore, only set gill nets are allowed in the Northern district where mobile gear has not been used since 1953. In the Northern district primarily pink salmon are harvested, followed by sockeye, coho and chum salmon. Pink and sockeye salmon comprise the major portion of the Central district's catch and are taken in roughly equal proportions. Chum and coho salmon, in that order, represent a smaller percentage of the Central district's catch. 4 The Southern district primarily produces, pink salmon followed by chum and sockeye salmon. Set gill nets, beach seines and hand purse seines are the only legal salmon gear in this district. The Kamishak district is a difficult area to fish, and few fishermen are willing to venture into the area for salmon. Hand purse seines and beach seines are the only legal gear. Pink and chum salmon provide the bulk of the catch in roughly equal proportions. In the Outer district only beach and hand purse seines are allowed as legal gear. The catch is composed primarily of pink salmon, followed by chum salmon. In some years there is a small sockeye fishery in the Nuka Bay area. The Eastern district is the least important commercial salmon district in the Cook Inlet management area. There are fair pink salmon runs in some even years. The district has potential for sockeye produc- tion, however, the main producing system, Bear Lake, is presently being managed for coho salmon by the Sport Fish Division. Timing Timing of the commercial salmon fisheries in Cook Inlet varies by district and within districts by system. Fishing seasons in the Outer, Eastern, Kamishak and the seine gear season in the Southern district are opened and closed by emergency order. The Northern and Central districts fishing seasons and the set and drift gill net season in the Southern district are opened on fixed dates and closed by emergency order. Although all five species of salmon may be found in the districts simultaneously, each species has a normal period of abundance. In the Northern and Central districts early king salmon runs can be expected in late May with the peak of the run in mid-June. Sockeye salmon bound for 5 the Kasilof.and Kenai Rivers in the Central district appear in early June and run until the third week of that month. A later run of sockeye, passing through the Central district up to the Northern district, begins shortly after June 25 and reaches a peak between July 12 and 17. The early run of pink salmon which is bound for systems in the Northern district peak around July 12-17, while the later run, which is bound primarily for the Central district peaks from July 26 through August 6. Chum salmon run timing in the Northern and Central districts varies greatly from year to year, however runs usually peak from July 18-24, which corresponds to the peak abundance of coho salmon. In the Southern district sockeye salmon are the first species to appear in abundance with the run building during the first week of June and tapering off by mid-July. Pink salmon enter this district in late June or early July and usually peak by the last week of July or the .first week of August. The chum Salmon runs overlap the sockeye and pink runs and are caught incidentally by both fisheries. Coho runs begin building in the first week of August and usually.taper off by mid- or late August. There is a small sockeye fishery in the Outer district located around Nuka and Aialik Bays. The sockeye runs occur from late June until mid-July. Pinks and chums which are the most abundant species run from mid-July until mid-August. Timing of the fisheries in the Kamishak district is more difficult to generalize. Basically, salmon move into the southern portion of the district f irst and progress up the coast northward. There is an early run of sockeye to Mikfik River which occurs from early June to mid-July. Chums and pinks enter the southern portion of the -district in mid-July and progress up the coast. Pink and 'chum salmon aTe found in Bruin Bay 6 from the first week of August until mid-August; while they are most numerous in Rocky and Ursus Bays from mid-August until late August. In Cottonwood and Iniskin Bays there is A late run of chum salmon from late August until early September. Effort The average number of licensed commercial fishermen in Cook Inlet from 1960-1974 is 2,635. Resident licenses represent 79% and nonresident licenses 21% of the 15-year average (Table 8). The amount of registered salmon gear has steadily increased since 1960 with the number of drift gill nets increasing markedly (Table 9). Set gill net effort has also risen, but less dramatically while seine effort has fluctuated but has not shown an upward trend. The gear type averages from 1960-1974 are: 539 drift gill nets, 672 set gill nets, 86 hand purse seines, 10 beach seines, and 17 troll licenses. The proportion of catch has varied between gear types with drift and set net gear accounting for the majority of the salmon catch. Since 1960, drift gear has taken a slightly higher percentage of the catch than set net gear. Set net gear harvests a large portion of the king and coho, catch, while both drift and set net gear account for the bulk of the sockeye salmon catch. Purse seine harvests the bulk of the pink salmon catch. Economic Value The 15-year (1960-1974) average annual value to the fishermen of the Cook Inlet salmon fisheries is approximately 3.8 million dollars (Table 10). During this period sockeye salmon accounted for 50% of the total salmon value to the fishermen, while pink and chum salmon repre- sented 20% and 19% of the value, respectively. However, this average annual value is not truly representative of the fisheries economic value at today's prices. Figuring the' 15-year average annual salmon harvest with 1974 prices paid to the fishermen, the average annual value since 1960 is approximately 13.4 million dollars. ESCAPEMENT AND SPAWNING Introduction In the Cook Inlet area, salmon escapements are monitored by various methods, depending on the system and species involved. The following is a discussion of these methods by district. Northern and Central Districts In the Northern and Central districts escapement monitoring is conducted primarily on sockeye salmon. Although tower, weir and sonar sites operating in these districts monitor all species, emphasis is placed on enumerating sockeye salmon runs. A counting tower is used to monitor escapement on the Talachulitna River, which is a major salmon producing system in the Susitna Basin. In past years runs of.pink salmon have been estimated at one million and runs of sockeye have reached 50,000. Chum, coho, and king salmon also use this system extensively. In addition to this station, aerial and ground surveys are conducted on the key sockeye spawning systems along the Susitna River. A sampling station, located just below the confluence of the Susitna and Yentna Rivers has been operated since 1969. The site was established to provide an index of salmon run timing, species composi- tion, and age-weight-length data. The Kenai and Kasilof River systems are the major spawning systems in the Central district being utilized by all salmon species except chums. The main streams of both the Kenai and the Kasilof Rivers are turbid and prior to 1968, escapement into these systems was derived by surveying the clear water spawning areas. In 1968 sonar counters were installed in the main stems of both systems. The sonar counter not only provide more accurate escapement information but they are also located close enough to the fishery so that the information can be used for in- season management. Species composition of the sonar counts is apportioned by fishwheel catches. In addition to sonar counts on the main rivers, escapement surveys are conducted on clear water spawning streams of the Kenai and Kasilof systems. A weir has been operated on the Russian River, a major spawning system of the Kenai River, since 1969. Refer to Tables 11-13 for the estimated sockeye salmon escapement by system in the Cook Inlet area. Escapement information prior to 1964 for king salmon is just about nonexistent. In 1964 a program was initiated to monitor escapements in key clear water spawning tributaries at the Kenai, Kasilof and Susitna River. It is not known how these counts compare to historical levels in these streams, or what proportion of the totalescapement they represent, since major glacial rivers may produce significant numbers. Table 14 presents estimated king salmon escapement by system. Coho escapement data is virtually non-existent in the Northern and Central districts except for a few systems monitored by the Sport Fish Division. Coho salmon are on the spawning grounds in strength in the fall during the rainy season when streams are swollen and silty, making accurate counts difficult. There is no reliable information available on historical pink salmon escapement in the Northern and Central districts. In some clear water systems aerial surveys and ground counts are conducted, however 9 this information is too fragmentary to be of value in assessing trends. Major pink salmon systems in these districts include: Deshka River,, Talachulitna River, Lake Creek, Kenai River and Kasilof River. There is very little information available regarding escapement of chum salmon in the Northern and Central districts. Chinitna Bay is the only area where chum escapement is monitored on a regular basis because the run is harvested relatively close to its spawning destination and must be managed closely. The timing of the majority of the chum salmon runs is too coincidental with sockeye salmon to allow separate management. The Susitna River is thought to account for approximately 80% of the chum salmon production in the Northern and Central districts. Southern, Outer, Kamishak and Eastern Districts Pink and chum salmon are the major species produced in the Southern, Outer and Kamishak districts. Aerial and ground surveys are conducted on the major spawning systems. There are nine pink salmon index streams in the Southern and Outer districts, these systems account for the majority of the production in the area. Table 15 presents the estimated pink salmon escapement for the index streams. The index streams are surveyed systematically by aerial and ground counts throughout the pink salmon run and total escapement estimates are derived. Forecast estimates of the number of pink salmon returning to the Southern and Outer districts have been calculated since 1566. Forecast predictions are based on the relationship between the density of pink salmon fry found in the gravel and subsequent return of adult salmon. Salmon production in the Eastern district is limited. In recent years, the management of Resurrection Bay has been directed toward sport fish utilization of coho salmon. The majority of information available 10 for Resurrection Bay salmon runs has been collected by the Sport Fish Division through their researc@ and rehabilitation projects conducted on the Bear Lake system. Habitat, Timing and Migration Spawning and rearing habitat preferences for salmon in the Cook Inlet area are essentially the same as outlined in the generalized life histories (Appendix). The majority of sockeye salmon in the area are produced in the Northern and Central districts. These stocks, for the most part, utilize the extensive lake systems of the Susitna, Kenai and Kasilof Rivers. Sockeye spawning has been observed in the mainstem as well as the tributaries and lake systems of these rivers. Several minor sockeye salmon runs, especially along the westside of the Inlet, spawn in systems without lakes and utilize sloughs and spring-fed areas for rearing. Sockeye salmon production for the entire Cook Inlet area does not exhibit a dominant cycle of abundance as demonstrated in the Bristol Bay area. Individual runs utilizing different systems do exhibit cycles, however because many systems contribute to the Cook Inlet sockeye production no dominant cycle is apparent for the entire area. The majority of sockeye salmon returning to the Cook Inlet area are five-year fish. The Susitna, Kenai, and Kasilof Rivers are the major king salmon producers in the Cook Inlet area. King salmon enter the Inlet in two separate runs: the early run which is the major run is bound for the Susitna Basin; the late run is bound primarily for the Kenai and Kasilof Rivers. Coho salmon in the Cook Inlet area are more evenly distributed than other species in both timing and area of occurrence. Coho runs are N spread over a longer period of time and occur in the majority of anad- romous streams. Coho salmon are predominately four-year fish and tend to run in greatest strength on even years. Pink and chum salmon are produced in the majority of short, coastal streams in the Cook Inlet area. They spawn extensively in intertidal areas as well as upstream. Pink and chum salmon runs exhibit a dominant even-year cycle. Timing of salmon spawning in the Cook Inlet area varies by species, system and season. Generalized timing information for salmon runs in the Cook'Inlet area is presented in Tables 19-22. Escapement Goals Desired escapement goals have been developed for pink salmon returning to the Southern and Outer districts and are presented below. The stated levels are obviously of a very general nature and may be refined or modified as new information is gathered concerning spawning distribution, escapement to alevin production and odd and even-year run differences. Southern District Humpy 22,500 - 30,000 Tutka 4,500 - 6,000 Seldovia 18,000 - 24,000 Pt. Graham 45,000 - 60,000 Sub-Total 90,000 -120,000 Outer District Windy Left 7,500 - 10,000 Windy Right 7,500 - 10,000 Rocky 37,500 - 50,000 Pt. Dick 22,500 - 30,000 Island 18,000 - 24,000 Sub-Total 93,000 -124,000 Total 183,000 -224,000 .12 Desired escapement goals have also been formulated for the sockeye salmon runs on-the Kenai and Kasilof Rivers. The present desired sockeye escapement ranges are 150,000-200,000 (mid-point 220,000) for the Kenai River and 80,000-150,000 (mid-point 110,000) for the Kasilof River. The desired escapement goals for the Russian River, which is the main spawning system in the Kenai River, are 8,500 sockeyes.for the early run and 30,000 sockeye salmon for the late run. No escapement goals have been formulated for the remaining salmon runs due to inadequate information concerning spawning magnitude and distribution. Escapement is regulated by monitoring commercial harvests and comparing them with the relationsfiips between past harvests and escapement indices. STATUS RELATED TO MAXIMUM SUSTAINED YIELD Current stock assessment and escapement information is not adequate to estimate maximum sustained yields (MSY) for the Cook Inlet fisheries. However, average commercial harvest by species for the entire area will be presented below. Commercial harvests have been averaged for different periods, the high 30 consecutive years of the commercial fisheries, and the 1960-1974 average annual harvests. These average harvests point out possible MSY's for the various fisheries, if-factors such as habitat degradation, gear selectivity, and environmental parameters have not changed significantly from past years. King salmon harvests have declined drastically compared to historical catches. The average annual harvest for the high 30 consecutive years of the king salmon fishery is approxiamtely 84,000, while the 1960-1974 average annual king salmon harvest is only 13,000 fish. .13 The commercial sockeye fishery in Cook Inlet has also declined markedly from past years. It is' believed that the advent of drift gill net gear into the Inlet in 1947 and subsequent catches through 1951 were a major factor to the following decline of sockeye stocks because the mobile gear exposed mixed stocks to longer periods of harvest. The high 30 consecutive years average annual harvest :@s approximately 1.6 million fish, while the 1960-1974 average annual harvest is 1.04 million fish. Historically, the coho catch has fluctuated radically. It is not known if these fluctuations were the result of economic sanctions, fluctuations in the coho population or lack of effort. The average annual coho harvest for the high 30 consecutive years' and the 1960'1974 average harvest is 230,000 fish annually. Pink salmon in the Cook Inlet area have a distinct even-year cycle. In even year s, pink salmon usually account for the largest portion of the total salmon catch. The average annual pink salmon harvest for the high 30 consecutive years is approximately 1.5 million pinks which is slightly greater than the 1960-1974 average annual harvest of 1.4 million fish. About 85% of the-chum salmon harvested in Coo]L,Inlet are taken from the gill net districts above Anchor Point. Chum salmon were considered economically unimportant until recently and.were only taken incidentally to other species. It wasn't until the advent of drift gill net gear in the Inlet that chum salmon took on any importance of their own. Today they are actively sought af ter as a supplement to the sockeye catch. The average annual chum harvest since 1960 is appraximately 703,000 .f ish. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH The Cook Inlet area has a broad spectrum of management problems, especially in upper Cook Inlet, north of Anchor Point, which is charac- terized generally by turbid water and heavy tide flow. Information is needed on the number and origin of salmon by species entering the upper Inlet, migrational routes, milling areas, timing of runs, and escapement by species entering the major systems. Of prime concern is the area southeast of Kalgin Island where sockeye, coho, pink and chum salmon may mill in large numbers and could be overharvested by the drift gill net fishery. A major problem which complicates salmon management in upper Cook Inlet is the lack of data concerning stock separation of salmon runs returning to the Inlet. The development of accurate methods for defining individual stocks would contribute directly towards delinea- ting stock segregation zones upon which district boundaries could be drawn. Additional escapement coverage is also necessary so that specific spawning areas can be delineated and numbers of spawning salmon by species e .numerated for each system. In the Southern and Outer districts, annual forecasts of returning pink salmon contribute significantly to fishery management. Increased accuracy in enumeration of pink salmon escapement and improvement in the formulation of optimum escapement for each system would assist manage- ment in balancing catch and escapement. Run timing of pink and chum salmon in the Southern, Outer, and Kamishak districts often overlap so closely that it is not possible to presently manage these runs separately. 15 Table 1 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974 l/. 2/ Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1893 234,000 30,000 170,000 34,000 1894 441,340 15,500 406,840 19,000 1895 349,476 25,199 324,277 -- -- 1896 393,339 18,076 309,863 27,600 37,800 1897 396,883 14,083 354,800 28,000 -- 1898 650,969 16,389 551,168 83,412 1899 630,521 17,102 558,529 54,890 1900 .631,992 26,683 585,309 20,000 -- 1901 531,283 34,319 .482,406 8,967 5,591 1902 893,403 49,013 710,280 54,864 79,246 1903 689,180 66,023 564,189 58,968 -- 1904 543,221 30,073 489,348 23,800 1905 113,215 17,668 95,547 -- -- 1906 405,511 22,420 225,506 93,485 64,100 1907 707,260 62,944 460,620 177.276 63,420 1908 l,i74,624 33,774 670,774 94,936 375,140 1909 734,276 59,624 582,562 885350 3,740 - 1910 1,187,901 49,028 840,187 79,702 217,666 1,318- 1911 1,464,322 55,845 1,249,154 87,909 70,665 749 1912 3,096,823 47,866 1,194,888 70,567 1,661,874 121,628 1913 1,536,071 63,652 1,369,196 81,484 10,926 10,813 continued 1) Source - INPFC, Historical Catch Statistics for Salmon of the North Pacific Ocean. 2nd Draft, July, 1974 and A.D.F.&G., Statewide Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) For 1893-97, catch figures include a mixture of coho and pink salmon. Table 1 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. Year Total King - Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1914 3,004,427 47,554 1,472,829 188,341 1,255,798 39,905 1915 2,113,646 83,793 1,860,684 122,028 19,308 27,833 1916 3,783,190 62,895 1,699,323 209,978 1,682,672 128,322 1917 1,918,936 65,499 1,659,907 60,776 54,286 78,468 1918 2,783,862 34,886 1,668,394 251,151 721,231 108,200 1919 -1,238,130 23,801 943,694 172,855 43,447 54,333 1920 2,199,897 39,563 1,314,916 302,353 445,524' 97,541 1921 1,065,216 13,946 983,625 20,519 4,717 42,409 1922 1,802,766 31,030 860,019 199,923 637,405 74,389 1923 1,334,929 29,911 1,099,465 142,926 39,146 23,481 1924 2,059,529 27,012 1,056,090 187,656 752,016 36,755 1925 1,786,932 51,033 1,510,861 198,146 11,828 15,064 1926 3,133,022 75,620 1,999,720 353,173 586,054 118,455 1927 2,245,464 87,404 1,459,068 387,746 251,866 59,380 1928 2,434,491 .69,885 1,172,959 522,509 568,052 101,086 1929 1,813,867 67,694 13,049,851 184,1858 376,863 134,601 1930 2,610,983 72,317 917,882 498,475 1,022,679 99,630 1931 1,720,071 51,402 805,526 328,294 472,221 62,628 1932 2,083,739 70,931 1,131,958 374,976 441,125 64,749 1933 1,758,820 59,281 1,336,135 187,972 118,187 57,245 1934 3,160,217 72,379 1,815,267 251,260 929,992 91,319 1935 2,193,264 75,075. 1,355,787 170,438 430,540 161,424 1936 -3,917,672 81,062 2,390,281 328,496 852,924 264,909 1937 2,519,426 85,982 1,581,183 215,700 487,692 148,869 continued 17 Table'l (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1.974. Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1938 3,736,781 57,663 2,425,253 213,804 848,733 191,328 1939 3,101,597 52,726 2,334,904 163,010 319,312 231,645 1940 5,075,130 63,016 1,648,952 478,096 2,604,235 280,831 1941 2,774,836 104,822 1,293,234 359,224 715,211 272 'AAC; 9 7- 1942 3,646,684 95,180 1,540,185 644,823 965,507 400,989 1943 3,618,572 111,381 19468,279 279,852 1,457,161 301,899 1944 4,356,044 85,210 1,939,932 256,621 1,815,441 258,840 1945 3,629,594 69,202 1,556,713 329,828 1,367,950 305,901 1946 3,842,422 64,281 1,474,473 581,374 1,338,731 383,563 1947 2,985,614 106,804 1,473,973 443,879 681,731 279,227 1948 4,648,842 105,996 2PO35,306 408,079 1,660,147 439,314 1949 3,215,844 111,281 2,153,213 279,701 433,303 238,646 1950 4,752,353 162,942 2,642,374 351,366 1,132,164 463,507 1951 3,663,352 187,513 2:1481,346 284,715 417,485 292,293 1952 4,546,084 74,500 1,510,214 .233,771 2,277,019 450,580 1953 2,893,816 89,430 1,490,062 22.7,612 550,073 536,639 1954 4,884,392 65,325 1,246,672 336,685 2,460,051 775,659 1955 2,894,140 46,499 1,064,128 180,452 1,286,008 317,053 1956 4,241,503 65,310 1,295,095 207,534 1,803,295 870,269 1957 2,355,356 42,767 670,629 127,199 306,841 1,207,920 1958 3,955,743 22,847 496,842 241,561 2,598,314 596,179 1959 1,328,172 32,783 634,313 112,664 137,255 411,157 1960 4,089,063 27,539 948,040 314,153 2,023,252 776,079 1961 2,066,869 19,778 1,185,0 79 119,397 337,394 405,221 1962 7,661,051 20,270 1,172,859 358,051 4,690,030 1,149,841 continued 18 Table I (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1963 1,939,198 17,632 958,101 203,876 234,052 525,537 1964 7,147,242 4,622 990,709 462,114 4,287,378 1,402,419 1965 2,074,666 9,751 1,426,352 154,481 139,561 344,521 1966 5,418,734 9,603 1,867,323 295,101 2,585,820 660,887 1967 2,387,595 8,035 1,409,106 180,455 407,717 382,282 1968 -5,737,965 4,600 1,200,146 475,333 2,863,638 1,194,248 1969 1,496,011 12,462 815,050 101,575 235,866 331,058 1970 3,429,641 8,455 753,526 280,156 1,388,179 999,325 1971 1,687,698 19-,838 658,537 105,197 428,495 475,631 1972 2,399,996 16,174 937,721 83,167 657,243 705,691 1973 2,227,767 53,339 699,234 106,521 633,587 783,086 1974 1,688,412 6,779 524,613 206,639 534,331 416,050 Table 2 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Northern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 8,218 148,247 144,377 442,185 117,739 860,766 1961 7,755 77,374 40,975 10,765 61,103 197,972 1962 9,785 133,545 172,883 280,433 144,033 740,679 1963 7,345 109,463 63,540 8,940 43,694 232,982 1964 168 160,264 167,928 586,386 126,958 1,041,704 C:) 1965 300 31,575 21,902 4,914 16,906 75,597 1966 1,422 131,105 80i568 372,667 35,637 621,399 1967 184 118,065 43,854 8,460 38,384 208,947 1968 471 140,575 156,648 534,839 58,454 890,987 1969 2,'904 38,065 20,425 7,620 11,836 80,850 1970 1,460 66,419 82,529 173,694 22,493 346,595 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches may not agree with total Cook Inlet salmon catch reported by INPFC. Table 2 (continued). Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Northern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total* 1971 9,598 40,533 22,094 8,423 16,603 97,251 1972 4,912 85,737 19,346 90,830 19,780 220,605 1973. 170 45,614 23,951 137,250 30,851 237,836 1974 169 41,563 47,038 42,876 36,490 168,136 'Table 3 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Central district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho -Pink Chum Total 1960 19,294 775,067 167,084 969,420 536,183 2,467,048. 1961 11,982 1,084,929 76,803 23,252 288,525 1,485,491 1962 10,425 1,013,993 177,036 2,422,505 826,549 4,450,508 1963 10,191 833,470 133,600 21,496 343,333 1,342,090 1964 4,363 809,723 284,726 2,646,041 952,126 4,696,979 1965 9,441 1,380,775 131,717 19,049 299,538 1,840,520 1966 .8,118 1,720,885 209,122 1,633,224 496,979 4,068,328 1967 7,675 1,261,997 133,875 23,769 258,453 1,685,769 1968 4,065 964,329 313,802 1,743,358 1,060,660 4,086,214 1969 9,494 654,189 80,527 25,802 258,019 1,028,031 1970 6,887 664,795 192,644 640,201 752,674 2,257,201 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statis tics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches may not agree with total Cook Inlet salmon catch reported by INPFC. Table 3 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Central district, by species, in numbers.of fish, 1960-1974. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 10,167 595,770 78,542 27,201 310,426 1,022,106 1972 11,174 794,087 61,587 537,750 610,368 2,014,966 1973 5,024 624,411 80,469 188,934 636,722 1,535,560 1974 6,427 455,622 153,087 440,854 360,350 1,416,340 Table 4 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Southern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 12 12,239 1,237 209,989 3,158 226,635 1961 39 10,104 1,149 191,867 2,916 206,075 1962 58 16,573 2,095 565,161 9,078 592,965 1963 88 13,142 4,020 99,820 .7,523 124,593 1964 84 17,283 8,90i 266,412 11,527 304,211 1965 10 11,185 733 90,260 2,458 .104,646 1966 60 12,176 4,529 164,403 14,570 195,738 1967 173 26,349 2,379 92,793 8,107 129,801 1968 61 18,716 4,660 154,033 4,403 181,873 1969 59 12,578 485 70,753 2,600 86,475 1970 90 12,120 3,544 208,066 7,873 231,693 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches, may not agree with total Cook Inlet salmon catch reported by INPFC. Table 4 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Southern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 41 18,403 3,151 50,059 2,857 74@'511 1972 69 31,345 1,283 9,126 4,931 46,759 1973 139 24,072 1,241 97,574 3,588 126,614 1974 182 27,029 3,054 48,875 2,725 81,865 Cil Table 5 Conmercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 11 768 28 11,563 44,328 56,698 1961 1 14 6,019 12,465 18,499 1962 38 100 6,519 43,404 50,061 1963 49 97 82,314 13,892 96,354 1964 5 1,979 ll@ 20,719 42,280 65,098 1965 808 122 3,452 3,175 7,557 1966 21 158 2,918 5,874 8,971 1967 1. 182 74 17,340 24,221 41,818' 1968 492 .101 198,253 49,461 248,307 1969 2 10,723 121 80,157 53,193 144,196 1970 2,846 218 22,500 95,841 121,405 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches may not agree with total Cook Inlet salmon ca" teh reported by INPFC. Table 5 (continued). Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by species, in numbers,.-of fish, 1960-1974.- Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 3 121 32,094 26,327 58,545 1972 47 31 342- 26,374 26,794 1973 1 28 12,568 35,584 48,181 1974 2,915 48 4,554 7,517 Table 6 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Outer district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 4 11,614 574 381,375 73,866 467,433 1961 2 12,671 456 105,491 40,212 158,832 1962 8,710 1,894 1,685,310 126,767 1,822,683 1963 6 1,976 369 21,471 117,095 140,917 1964 2 1,370 431 767,473 269,514 1,038,790 1965 2,009 7 21,886 22,444 46,346 00 19663) 1 2,710 357 398,751 87,620 489,439 1967 2 2,165 70 262,258 52,842 317,337 1968 1 1,550 106 191,691 20,398 213,746 1969 92 11 51,533 5,400 57,036 1970 5 4,177 243 302,759 118,749 425,933 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook'Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches, may not agree with total Cook Inlet palmon catch reported by INPFC. 3) Source - ADF&G,'1966 Cook Inlet Annual Management kepor t, Final IBM run not available. Table (continued). Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Outer district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 11 1,630 174 310,710 118,995 431,520 1972 7 26,423 17 1,005 43,490 70,942 1973 1 5,063 31 197,259 76,341 278,695 1974 1 399 28 1,678 11,931 14,037 Table 7 (continued).. Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Eastern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye -Coho Pink Chum Total 1967 348 203 3,097 275 3,923 3) 1968 2 74,-484 5 41,464 872 116,827 3) 1969 3 99,403 6 1 10 99,423 1970 11 1,755 691 40,226 633 43,316 1971 21 2,198 1,115 1 423 3,758 W 1972 12 82 903 18,190 743 19,930- C3 4) 1973 5 801 2 808 4) 1974 517 517 Table 7 Commercial salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, Eastern district, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 105 853 8,720 467 10,145 1961 Fishery Closed 1962 4,043 102 10 4,155 1963 1 2,250 11 2,262 1964 22 672 813 12 1,519 1965 Fishery Closed 1966 Fishery Closed continued 1) Source ADF&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) Totals of district catches may not agree with total Cook Inlet salmon catch reported by INPFC. 3) These abnormally high catches of sockeye salmon were a result of good returns from the 1964 brood year. In 1963 Bear Lake was rehabilitated and in 1964 survival conditions were close to ideal for the progeny. 4) Commercial salmon season not opened in the Eastern district; however, fish caught in the Annual Seward Derby then sold by the Derby are recorded as commercially caught salmon. Table 8 Summary of commercial and vessel license registration, Cook Inlet area, 1968-1974 l/. 2/ Commercial Licenses Vessel Licenses Year Resident Non-resident Total Resident Non-resident Total 1968 1,675 615 2,290 954 230 1,184 1969 1,750 597 2,347 986 236 1,222 1970 2,164 667 2,831 1,038 264 1,302 1971 2,090 484 2,574 1,122 223 1,345 1972 2,111 483 2,594 1,089 183 1,272 1973 2,379 481 2,860 1,188 181 1,369 1974 2,470 483 2,953 1,325 191 1,516 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Annual Management Reports. Data unavailable prior to 1968. 2) Includes dorries. Table 9 Summary of salmon gear registrations, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974 l/. Gear Residency 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Drift Resident 221 279 260 333 323 329 328 350 407 479 537 519 419 516 458 gill Non-res. 67 93 112 139 145 145 176 186 204 208 220 191 152 146 150 net Total 288 372 372 472 468 474 504 536 611 687 757 710 571 662 608 Set Resident 511 564 589 626 596 556 580 554 638 686 707 693 672 732 764 gill Non-res. 59 22 28 34 35 34 48 50 43 42 65 38 35 43 39 net Total 570 586 617 660 631 590 628 604 681 728 772 731 707 775 803 Hand Resident 86 85 84 102 102 66 72 53 85 72 86 80 71 78 103 purse Non-res. 9 4 7 10 6 6 5 5 6 3 3 1 1 1 1 seine Total 95 89 91 112 108 72 77 58 91 75 89 81 72 79. 104 Troll Resident 0 8 9 12 3 6 8 11 10 21 23 40 17 30 41 Non-res. 0 0 0 1 0 2 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 Total 0 8 9 13 3 8 12 13 11 23 25 41 18 31 44 Beach Resident NA 3 5 5 5 NA NA NA 4 19 18 17 13 12 11 Seine Non-res. NA - - .2 NA NA NA - - - - - - - Total NA 3 5 5 7 NA NA NA 4 19 18 17 13 12 11 Com- bined Resident 818 939 947 1,078 1,029 957 988 968 1,144 1,277 1,371 1,349 1,192 1,368 1,377 Gear Non-res. 135 119 147 184 188 187 233 243 254 255 290 231 189 191 193 Total Total 953 1,058 1,094 1,282 1,217 1,144 1,221 1,211 1,398 1,532 1,661 1,580 1,381 1,559 1,570 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Annual Management Reports. Table 10 Approximate.value to fishermen of commercial salmon, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974 l/ 2/. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 140,000 1,370,000 310,000 950,000 470,000 3,240,000 1961 100,000 1,720,000 120,000 160,000 240,000 2,340,000. 1962 100,000 1,720,000 350,000 2,330,000 690,000 5,190,000 1963 90,000 1,410,000 200,000 100,000 320,000 2,120,000 1964 20,000 1,460,000 460,000 1,500,000 840,000 4,280,000 1965 50,000 2,120,000 110,000 410,000 250,000 2,940,000 1966 50,000 2,750,000 300,000 1,060,000 420,000 4,580,00.0 1967 50,000 2,180,000 190,000 170,000 260,000 2,850,000 4bb 1968 30,000 1,910,000 520,000 1,520,000 900,000 4,880,000 1969 70,000 1,450,000 110,000 160,000 250,000 2,040,000 1970 50,000 1,170,000 360,000 660,000 960,000 3,200,000 1971 190,000 1,140,000 150,000 270,000 460,000 2,210,000 1972 180,000 2,110,000 230,000 500,000 1,360,000 4,380,000 1973 100,000 2,700,000 260,000 640,000 1,700,000 5,400,000 1974 198,801 3,270,175 953,308 1,054,769 1,660,289 7,137,342 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook'Inlet Stock Status Report (unpublished). 2) Values were calculated from fish tickets. An average weighted price per pound was derived from the actual catch in pounds by species by processor and the price per pound paid by each processor. All values have been rounded off. Table 11 Sockeye salmon escapements, Kenai and Kasilof Rivers, Cook Inlet area, 1968-1974*1/ 2/. Year Kenai River Kasilof River 1968 113,409 92,708 1969 53,625 45,588 1970 6 6,418 37,240 3/ 1971 170,000 90,000 1972 269,679 111,944 1973 368,369 40,189 1974 200,000 42,000 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Annual Management Reports. 2) Based on sonar eiat,.@aeration begun in 1968. Escapement data unavailable prior to 1968 due to water turbidity. 3) Estimates, sonar counters malfunctioned during 1971. 35 Table 12 So ckeye salmon es'capements, Russian River, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974 l/. Escapement 2/ 3/ Year Early Run Late Run Total 4/ 1966- 9,120 34,850 43,970 1961 7,790 18,680 26,470 1962 33,300 22,370 55,670 1963 14,380 51,120 65,500 1964 12,700 46,930 59,630 1965 21,510 21,820 43,330 1966 16,660 34,430 51,090 1967 13,710 49,480. 63,190 1968 9,200 48,880 58,080 1969@- 5, OOCF 28,920 33,920 1970 5,450 28,200 33,650 1971 2,650 54,430 57,080 1972 9,270 79,000 88,270 1973 13,120 24,970 38,090 1974 13,150 24,650 37,800 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Div. Sport Pish, Annual Report for Russian River Red Salmon Study, Study AFS-44-1. 2) Early run, through 7/15. .3) Late run, after 7/15. 4) Tower counts, 1960-1968. 5) Weir counts, 1969-1974. 6) Escapement determined by foot survey of upper Russian Creek. 36 Table 13 Sockeye salmon escapements, Fish Creek, Cook Inlet area, 1960-1974 l/. Year Weir Counts 1960 80,000 1961 40,000 1962 60,000 1963 105,000 1964 65,000 1965 16,544 1966 41,312 1967 22,624 1968 20,000 1969 6,233 1970 19,881 1971 31,470 1972 6,981 1973 2,500 1974 2,609 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Stock Status Report and Cook Inlet Annual Management Reports. 37 Table 14 Estimated king salmon escapements, Cook Inlet area, Northern District, 1964-1974 l/ 2/. 6/ 6/ Stream 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 197f 1974--- Deshka 2,422 2,749 933 1,535 3,318 4,836 4,441 1617- 1,780 NA NA Alexander 205 416 248 388 563 663 491 3/ 202 NA NA Lake Creek 305 172 147 723 653 770 189 119 920 NA NA Chunilna 319 8 300 3/ 1,000 375 58 5 91 245 236 Ship Creek 94 207 50 200 500 710 1,746 221 121 444 202 Campbell Creek 116 119 15 300 125 4/ 63 102 37 NA NA CO Willow Creek 51 35 103 24 125 290 640 165 370 1,074 402 Little Willow Creek 7 3 38 6 @12 150 45 3/ 99 233 109 6/ Montana Creek 75 57 100 2 5 1507 260 24 211 527 280 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Stock Status Report (unpublished). 2) Counts includes available data from ground and aerial surveys. 3) No count made due to poor water conditions. 4) No count available. 5) Count made on East Fork Deshka. 6) Source Kubik, Stan. 1975. Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Report. Volume 16, Job No. 6-I-D. Table 15 Estimated pink salmon escapements, Cook Inlet area, Southern and Outer Districts, in thousands of fish, 1962-1974 1/ 2/. Stream 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Humpy 56.0 34.7 18.5 28.0 30.0 25.0 24.7 5.4 55.2 45.0 13.8 36.9 17.4 Tutka 30.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 12.0 7.0, 7.9 6.5 6.5 16.7 1.5 6.5 2.6 Seldovia 50.0 15.0 60.0 30.0 86.0 55.0 53.2 60.0 23.0 31.1 5.8 14.5 13.7 Port Graham 50.0 2.0 16.0 1.5 24.0 2.0 24.4 4.0 16.6 13.2 2.4 7.0 2.8 Windy Left 12.5 4.5 7.7 10.0 7.0 6.0 6.9 23.0 13.0 35.4 .4 12.9 .1 C.4 cc Windy Right 12.5 4.9 6.2 2.0 7.0 6.0 2.8 3.2 2.1 13.0 .1 4.6 .1 Rocky 200.5 12.0 80.0 .3 44.0 1.0 43.1 1.0 32.0 1.6 8.1 2.0 1.5 3/ Port Dic@- 40.0 16.0 31.5 50.0 35.0 20.0 29.0 12.0 34.5 97.8 10.0 26.4 1.5 Island 15.0 3.6 30.0 .5 7.0 .5 4.3 .1 5.5 .1 1.7 .5 .5 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Annual Reports. 2) The total escapement estimates were determined by graphing the available daily counts of pink salmon in the streams by magnitude and day and calculating the area under the graph. This figure is then divided by the estimated time the pink salmon are present in the stream, which averages 2.5 weeks. 3) A weir has been located on Port Dick Creek from 1971-1974. Total escapement estimates are calculated from ground and aerial surveys of fish spawning below the weir, plus weir counts of fish upstream. Table 16 Estimated sockeye salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) Year Amakedori Chenik Mikfik 1960 1,500 1,000 1961 2,500 100 3,000 1962 3,000 1,000 3,000 1963 8,000 1964 1965 1966 3,500 1967 1968 1969 1970 1,000 1971 1,200 5,000 1972 1,000 300 15,000 1973 2,500 500 3,000 1974 1,500 15 1,500 1) Source A.D.F.&G., personal communication with Cook Inlet area biologists, estimates derived from recorded stream surveys and represent peak live counts. Those years with no estimates re- corded, surveys were incomplete, thus no estimates could be derived. 40 Table 17 Estimated pink salmon eacapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) Year Iniskin Bay North Head Cottonwood Bay Ursus Cove Browns Peak Rocky Cove 1960 800 1,500 1961 1962 1,000 1,500 25,000 5,000 1963 1,000 1,500 6,000 10,000 2,000 1964 20,000 1965 2 500 2/ 1966 25,000 4,500 11,5007 11,000 11,000 20,000 1967 1968 2/ 1969 17,500 1,000 2,000 4@b 1970 7,500 25,000 1971 3,000 5,000 6,500 8,000 43,000 1972 1,000 800 1,200 2,000 1973 1,000 530 3,200 5,000 1974 1,000 100 100 50 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., personal communication with Cook Inlet area biologists, estimates derived from recorded stream surveys and represent peak live counts. Those years where no estimates are recorded, surveys were incomplete, thus no estimates could be derived. 2) Species of counts questionable, normally this system produces mostly chum salmon. 3) Count represents pink and chum salmon. 4) Estimate derived from count recorded as pink and chum salmon, 100,000 fish apportioned as pink salmon. Table 17 (continued) Estimated pink salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year Bruin Bay Amakedori Little Kamishak Strike Big Kamishak 1960 18,000 60,000 1961 3/ 4/ 1962 300,000 80,000 100,0007 100,000-4/ 1963 25,000 20,000 4,000 100,000 1964 75,000 1965 1966 20,000 8,000 28,000 30,000 13,000 1967 1968 1969 500 1970 40,000 13,000 1971 22,000 1972 2,500 @00 1973 2,000 3,000 13,000 15,000 1974 600 1,000 1,000 Table 11 Estimated chum salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1.974. 1) Year Iniskin Bay North Head Cottonwood Bay Ursus Cove Browns Peak Rocky Cove 1960 9,000 20,000 1,000 1961 1962 40,000 20,000 600 1963 11,000 3,000 1,000 1964 11,000 1965 500 2,000 1966 1967 1968 5,000 1969 1970 1971 13,000 9,000 4N- 1972 10,000 900 4,000 1,600 1,000 2,000 1973 12,000 4,000 3,000 500 1,000 1974 7,000 2,500. 3,500 700 1,000 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., personal communication with Cook Inlet area biologists, estimates derived from recorded stream surveys and represent.peak live counts. 2) Count represents pink and chum salmon. 3) Estimate derived from count recorded as pink and chum salmon, 30,000 fish apportioned as chum salmon. Table 18 (continued) Estimated chum salmon escapement, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district, by system, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year Bruin Bay Amakedori McNeil Little Kamishak Strike Big Kamishak 1960 600 7,000 1961 2,000 35,000 2/ 3/ 1962 13,000 36,000 100,0007- 30,00073/ 1963 5,000 100,000 3,000 1,000 30,000 1964 90,000 25,000 1965 1966 500 5,000 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1,000 1972 1,000 1973 8,000 150 10,000 1,000 4,000 1974 3,000 100 1,500 500 100 7,000 Table 19 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Northern district. 1) Species King Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ..................... May 15-July 15 Actual Spawning ....................... June 20-Aug. 15 Juveniles Present Freshwater .............. April 15-July 15 Sockeye Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ..................... May 20-Aug. 15 Actual Spawning ...................... Aug. 1-Nov. 15 Juveniles Present Freshwater .............. April 15-Aug.. 1 Coho Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ..................... July 10-Nov. 1 Actual Spawning ......o ......... Aug. 1-Feb. 1 Juveniles Present Freshwater .............. April 15-July 15 Pink Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ..................... June 21-Aug. 15 Actual Spawning ...................... July 10-Sept. 1 Juveniles Present Freshwater ......... April 15-June 7 Chum Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ..................... July 1-Sept. 1 Actual Spawning ...................... Aug. 1-Oct. 1 Juveniles Present Freshwater .............. April 15-July 7 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Cook Inlet area staff, personal communications, 1976. 45 Table 20 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Central district. 1) Species King Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ......................... May 15-Sept. 10 Actual Spawning ........................... July 20-Sept. 10 Juveniles Present Freshwater .................. Out by mid July Eggs and Alevins Present ...................... July 30-July 15 Sockeye Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ......................... May 20-Aug. 15 Actual Spawning .- ...................... July 15-Nov. 10 Juveniles Present Freshwater .................. Out by July 1 Eggs and Alevins Present ...................... July 15-July 1 Coho Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ......................... July 25-Nov. 10 Actual Spawning -o .................. Sept. 10-Feb. 1 Juveniles Present Freshwater ...o .............. Out by mid July Eggs and Alevins Present ............. Sept. 15-July 15 Pink Salmon Adults - Odd Year Enter Freshwater .......................... July 14-Sept. 14 Actual Spawning .......................... August 1 - Sept. 30 Adults - Even Year Enter Freshwater ......................... July 20-Sept. 30 Actual Spawning ......................... Aug. 1-Sept.- 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater .................. Out by mid April Eggs and Alevins Present ...................... Aug. 1-April 15 Chum Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ......................... July 15-Sept. 15 Actual Spawning .......................... Aug. 15-Nov. 15 Juveniles Present Freshwater ....................... No data @Eggs and Alevins Present ......................... No data 1) Source - A.D.F.&.G, Cook Inlet area staff, personal communications, 1976. 46 Table 21 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Southern 4istrict. 1) Species King Salmon .................................. No data specific to this area. King runs minor. See generalized timing for other districts of Cook Inlet. Sockeye Salmon ........................ 0 ...... No data specific to this area. Sockeye runs minor. See generalized timing for other districts of Cook Inlet. Coho Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ................... Mid August-October Actual Spawning .................... Sept. I-Nov. 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater . ............ Out by mid July Pink Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ................... July 15-Aug. 30 Actual Spawning .................... July 25-Sept. 10 Juveniles Present Freshwater ............ Out by mid May Chum Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ................... July 10-Aug. 15 Actual Spawning .................... July 20-Sept. 1 Juveniles Present Freshwater ............ Out by April 10 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet area staff, personal communications, 1976. 47 Table 22 General salmon timing information, Cook Inlet area, Kamishak district. 1) Species King Salmon ................................ No data specific to this area-see generalized timing for other districts of Cook Inlet. Sockeye Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ................... June 10-Aug. 15 Actual Spawning ................... July 15-Aug. 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater .......... Out by July 15 Coho Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ................. Mid August-October Actual Spawning .................. Sept. 1-Nov. 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater .......... Out by mid July Pink Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater .................. July 20-Sept. 1 Actual Spawning .................. August 1-Sept. 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater ........ o.. April 1-May 30 Chum Salmon Adults Enter Freshwater ....... -.0 ...... Aug. 1-Sept. 15 Actual Spawning .... -.0 .......... Aug. 15-Sept, 30 Juveniles Present Freshwater April 1-May 30 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inelt area staff, personal communciations, 1976. 48 COOK INLET AREA HERRING FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Commercial herring fishing started in the Cook Inlet area in 1914 as a gill net fishery in the Halibut Cove area of Kachemak Bay. All herring were supplied to a local saltery. The minimum sized allowed for salting was 10.5 inches. The industry expanded rapidly and by 1925 there were a total of eight salteries in Cook Inlet. Gill netting remained the chief method of harvesting herring until 1923 when purse seining was introduced. In 1927 catches began to decline.as the larger size herring became harder to find. By 1931 stocks were apparently depleted and it became uneconomical to fish the area. During the three highest years of pro- duction in Kachemak Bay, 1924-1926, the annual harvest averaged 8,000 tons of herring. The average annual herring catch throughout the span of the active fishery, 1914-1928, was 2,850 tons (Table 23). The next major herring fishery to occur in the Cook Inlet area was a purse seine operation for reduction purposes in the Resurrection Bay- Day Harbor area. The fishery was active from 1939 through 1959. The annual harvest during the three highest years of production, 1944-1946, averaged around 16,500 tons while the average for all years of operation was 3,500 tons of herring (Table 24). The present herring fishery in the Cook Inlet area began in 1969. It was initiated primarily to supply herring roe to the Japanese market. The herring fishery occurs immediately prior to spawning when the roe is at its highest development. The roe fishery usually occurs from May through.mid-June. 49 The herring catch peaked in 1970 when 4,800 tons were taken from the Southern and Eastern distric'ts. In 1972, the herring harvest declined drastically and only 96 tons were landed. This large reduction in catch appears to be due to a combination of late, cold springs, plus the possibility that the Eastern and Southern districts may have been over- fished in 1970 and stocks were reduced. Market problems also played a role in keeping the 1972 catch low. Herring catches have steadily increased since 1972 and the 1975 Cook Inlet herring harvest totaled 4,149 tons. Table 25 outlines the Cook Inlet area herring harvest by district from 1969-1975. Until recently, herring fishing effort in Cook Inlet has been concentrated in Resurrection Bay in the Eastern district and Kachemak Bay in the Southern district. Since 1972, fishing effort has shifted to other areas, including the Kamishak, Outer, and Central districts. The shift in fishing effort resulted from a decline in herring catches in Resurrection and Kachemak Bays, and the increased prices paid to the fishermen which allowed fishermen to locate good concentrations of herring in other areas. Hand purse seining is the primary means of harvesting herring in Cook Inlet. In addition, set nets are used in the Central district. Table 26 outlines the number of purse seine vess-els and set nets partici- pating in the Cook Inlet herring fishery by district and year from 1969- 1975. Many purse seine vessels fish several districts during a season, consequently the total number of different purse seines fishing for herring in Cook Inlet will not agree with the sum of the districts' totals. The total number of purse seine vessels fishing for herring in Cook Inlet increased from 11 boats in 1969 to 23 boats in 1971. In 1972 effort decreased markedly and only 6 vessels fished the entire area. 50 As fishing expanded into other areas in 1973, effort increased. In 1975 a total of 44 purse seine vessels and 1 set net participated in the Cook Inlet commercial herring fishery. As reflected by the catch, the bulk of the fishing effort took place in the Kamishak district where 39 purse seine vessels fished. The economic value to the fishermen of the Cook Inlet herring fishery has fluctuated markedly during the past six years as the result of different catch levels and increased prices. Table 27 lists the value of the herring fishery to the fishermen by year. The average annual value from 1969-1974 is approximately $170,000. However,.ehis average value is not truly representative of the fishery's value at today's prices. In 1973, the price paid to the fishermen increased from 2 to 8 cents per pound. In 1974 the average price was 9 cents per pound. Using the average annual herring harvest (1969-1974) with the 1974 prices the average annual value to the fishermen is approximately $346,000. DISTRIBUTION AND LIFE HISTORY Very little is known about the offshore marine life or the migra- tory habits of herring in the Cook Inlet area. It is not presently known whether Cook Inlet herring are a distinct population separate from other Alaskan herring. The degree of separation or intermingling of stocks within the area is also not known. Aerial surveys are conducted each year by A.D.F.&.G. to locate concentrations of feeding and spawning herring. Herring are sporadically distributed throughout the Cook Inlet area, with the greatent concentra- tions occurring in the Kamisha'k, Southern, Outer and Eastern districts. Herring are found throughout the Kamishak district. Spawning has been observed in Oil Bay, Dry Bay, Ursus Cove, Bruin Bay, off Augustine Island, and along reefs located in the southern portion of Kamishak Bay. It appears that herring also spawn in deep water areas along the southern portion of Kamishak Bay. Herring spawn has been repeatedly found on tanner crab pots fished in the area. However, the extent of deep water spawning is not known. In the Southern district herring schools have been noted in several bays and spawning has been observed in Mallard Bay, Bear Cove and along the Homer Spit. Herring spawning occurs intermittently throughout the Outer district. Concentrations have been observed in Aialik, Harris, Two Arm, Nuka, Tonsina, West Arm of Port Dick and Rocky Bays. In the Eastern district heavy concentrations of spawning herring .occur in the Seward small boat harbor, Thumbs Cove, and off Fourth of July Creek in Resurrection Bay. Spawning also occurs in Safety Cove and Killer Bay in Day Harbor. Refer to the Cook Inlet maps. included in the map portion of this report for specific areas of herring spawning and feeding. Herring spawning in the Cook Inlet area generally occurs from May through mid-June, however the peak of spawning varies.from year to year and between geographical areas. Water temperatures appear to be one of the main factors influencing the time of spawning. It has been noted (pers. comm., Dave Daisy, A.D.F.&.G., 1976) that in the Cook Inlet area, herring spawning is not necessarily triggered by specific water temper- atures. Instead, herring appear to spawn at a range of temperatures, averaging 38*-40' F., and are influenced by the length of time these temperatures are maintained. Spawning may occur at lower temperatures, 52 such as 380F., if they are maintained for an.extended period, and con- versely warmer temperatures, such as 40*F., appear to trigger spawning more rapidly. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH The basic herring management philosophy in the Cook Inlet area is to keep fishing effort off stocks that appear to be low in numbers. This will probably result in little or no herring fishing in the Eastern, Outer and possibly the Southern districts in the near future. Because of the good quality and plentiful numbers of herring in the Kamishak district, it appears as though the bulk of the commercial catch will continue to come from this area. There is no closed season for herring fishing in Cook Inlet. However, present regulations state that from March 1 through June 30 the commercial herring season is closed shall be 4,000 tons of herring are taken. The present quota may be modified in the future as additional stock assessment information is collected. Samples are taken annually from each district's commercial herring harvest to determine weight, length, and sex data. Contribution by age class is determined for each fishing district. Data has been collected from the Eastern district since 1970 and from the Outer) Southern, Kamishak and Central districts since 1973. 53 Table 23 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet area, Kachemak Bay, in tons of fish, 1914-1928. 1) 2) Year Catch in tons 1914 150 1915 15 1916 50 1917 950 1918 2,000 1919 2,650 1920 950 1921 2,600 1922 500 1923 3,800 1924 7,050 1925 9,600 1926 7,150 1927 3,600 1928 2,150 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Reports to the Board of Fish and Game, Cook Inlet Herring Report, December, 1975. 2) The first herring fishery in the Cook Inlet area began in 1914 as a gill net fishery in Kachemak Bay and was active until 1928. 54 Table 24 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet area, Day Harbor- Resurrection-Bay, in tons of fish, 1939-1959. 1) 2) Year Catch in tons 1939 100 1940 1941 1,600 1942 200 1943 2,600 1944 15,450 1945 14,600 1946 18,750 1947 600 1948 6,100 1949 1950 3,850 .1951 2,150 1952 400 1953 150 1954 200 1955 7,450 1956 1,650 1957 2,250 1958 1959 50 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Reports to the Board of Fish and Game, Cook Inlet Herring Report, December 1975. 2) A purse seine herring fishery operated in the Resurrection Bay- Day Harbor area from 1939-1959. 55 Table 25 Commercial herring catch, Cook Inlet, by district, in tons of fish, 1969-1975. 1) 2) Year Central Southern Kamishak Outer Eastern Total 1969 551.5 38.0 757.9 1,347.4 1970 2,708.7 2,100.2 4,808.9 1971 12.5 974.0 986.5 1972 1.0 95.0 96.0 1973 14.0 203.8 243.1 300.5 830.8 1,592.2 al 1974 36.6 110.2 2,108.0 390.1 47.4 2,692.3 1975 6.0 24.0 4,115.0 4,149.0 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Reports to the Board of Fish and Game, Cook Inlet Herring Report, December 1975. 2) The present herring fishery for sac roe in the Cook Inlet area began in 1969. Table 26 Number of vessels participating in the herring fishery, Cook Inlet area, by district, by year, 1969-1975. 1) 2). 3) .4) Year Central Southern Kamishak Outer Eastern Total 1969 5 1 7 11 1970 11 11 18 1971 3 20 23 1972 1 5 6 1973 6 12 9 7 22 30(6 set net) 1974 12 7 26 22 10 42(12 set net) 1975 1 5 39 44(l set net) 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Reports to the Board of Fish and Game, Cook Inlet Herring Report, December 1975. 2) Numbers represent purse seine vessels, unless noted otherwise. 3) Numbers represent set nets. 4) Purse seine vessels may fish several districts during a season, consequently the total numbers of different vessels fishing the entire Cook Inlet area will not agree with the sum of the districts totals. Table 27 Value of the commercial herring fishery to the fishermen, Cook Inlet area, in dollars, 1969-1974. 1) Year Value in dollars 1969 53,899 1970 192,359 1971 39,461 1972 3,842 1973 238,822 1974 484,614 1) Values were computed from catch totals from the Cook Inlet Herring Report to the Board which were multiplied by the price per pound paid to'the fishermen. 58 COOK INLET AREA HALIBUT FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The halibut fishery is regulated by the International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC). Each halibut management area overlaps and includes several state management areas. Catch records from discrete state management areas (Cook Inlet, Kodiak, etc.) are not available. IPHC statistical area 3A overlaps and includes the Cook Inlet area. Historical catch statistics for this area, since 1960, are presented in Table 87'. Since much of the Cook Inlet catch is landed by fishermen outside of the Cook Inlet area, no estimates of economic value to the fishermen are available. DISTRIBUTION Halibut are caught in every district of Cook Inlet south of Anchor Point, including the Outer and Eastern districts. A minor number of halibut have also been reported as far north as the forelands, although no commercial catches have been made above Kalgin Island. Halibut are seasonally distributed in Cook Inlet and are generally present from May through August. Based on exploratory cruises by the National Marine Fisheries Service, the highest concentration of halibut appears to be in Kachemak Bay. LIFE HISTORY Life history information specific to the Cook Inlet area is not available. A generalized life history may be found in the Appendix. ABUNDANCE Estimates of abundance are' only available for IPHC Area 3A. No estimates are available for the Cook Inlet area alone. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH As mentioned earlier, the halibut fishery is managed jointly by Canada and the United States under the auspices of the International Pacific Halibut Commission. The fishing season presently,extends from May 1 till September 6, unless closed earlier by emergency order. The quota for IPHC Area 3A in 1975 was 12 million pounds. IPHC undertakes annual trawl surveys in the Gulf of Alaska to assess stock size and recruitment. Halibut catch quotas are developed using this data. Presently, few surveys are conducted in lower Cook Inlet. 60 COOK INLET AREA GROUNDFISH FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Various groundfish species comprise a small but important part of Cook Inlet commercial fishing activity. Although the present commercial fishery is minor, the resource potential.of these species is large and will become more important as markets develop and demand increases. The primary producing areas at present are the Eastern and Outer districts and adjacent Gulf of Alaska waters In 1974, over 100,000 pounds of various groundfish species were recorded as being landed. Catch statistics, by species, for the years 1970 to 1974, are presented in Table 28 . Most of this catch is presently utilized as bait. No estimates of economic value to the fishermen are available for recent years. However, the 1971 groundfish catch was valued at nearly 15 thousand dollars to the fishermen. DISTRIBUTION Groundfish species are distributed in all districts of Cook Inlet south of Anchor Point, including the Outer and Eastern districts. Small numbers are also found seasonally in the Central district south of Kaligan Island. Specific distribution, by species, is not presently known. Refer to the generalized distributions outlined in the Kodiak Area Groundfish section and in the -eneralized life histories found in the Appendix. 61 LIFE HISTORY Life history information specific to the Cook Inlet area is not presently documented. Refer to the generalized life histories outlined in the Kodiak Area Groundfish section and in the generalized life histories found in the Appendix. ABUNDANCE No assessments of groundfish abundance for the Cook Inlet area have been made. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH There is currently no closed season on the Cook Inlet groundfish fishery. Groundfish may be taken by trawl and longlines in all districts and by pots in all districts except parts of Kachemak and Resurrection Bays. There is presently-no research activity on.the groundfish resources, outside of exploratory trawl surveys conducted periodically by the National Marine Fishery Service. 62 Table 28 Commercial miscellaneous fish catch, Cook Inlet area, by species, in pounds of fish, 1970-1974. 1) Year True Cod Flounder Ling Cod Rockfish/Red Snapper Dolly Varden Sablefish 1970 36,034 10,338 1971 58,630 1,697 3,557 4,650 688 1972 397 1,210 112 132 797 14,749 1973 48,733 705 10,502 1974 7,188 2,091 87,902 2,651 363 277 W 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Catch Statistics, Cook Inlet area, final IBM run. COOK INLET KING CRAB FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The king crab fishery began in Cook Inlet on a commercial basis in 1951 and developed through 1959. By 1960, 60 boats were engaged in the king crab fishery. Effort dropped off after the 1964 earthquake to a low of 23 boats in 1965, but gradually increased to a high of 76 boats in 1974 (Table 32 ). In the earlier years of the fishery, pots, trawls, and tangle-nets were used but have since been replaced by regulation with pots. Since 1960 the fishery has remained relatively stable, although the peak harvests prior to the 1964 earthquake were offset by a low level of effort and a resulting low harvest in the years immediately following the earthquake. The average harvest for the years 1960 to 1974 is 4.6 million pounds (Table 29 ). Prior to 1961, nearly all of the Cook Inlet king crab catch came from Kachemak Bay in the Southern district. Since then, effort has shifted heavily to Kamishak Bay, which now rivals the Southern district as the major king crab producer. Smaller fisheries also occur in the Barren Islands, Outer, and occasionally Eastern districts. The king crab fishery is a high value fishery with a 15 year average value (1960- 1974) to the fishermen of slightly over 1 million dollars. The value of the 1974 catch to the fishermen was 2.2 million dollars (Table 33 DISTRIBUTION King crab are distributed in all districts of Cook Inlet south of Anchor Point. Stocks are also present in the Outer district and to a lesser extent in the Eastern district. King crabs are distributed to depths of 200 fathoms, although the commercial fishery is generally confined to depths less than 100 fathoms. The favored bottom habitat 64 appears to be mud or sand. Based on exploratory fishing cruise data by the National Marine Fishery Service, king crab appear to be most abundant in the deepwater region midway between Augustine Island and the Barren Islands. Juveniles are more frequently encountered in nearshore, shallow waters. However, at this point, little is known of juvenile king crab distribution at greater depths. Juvenile king crab off Kodiak Island have been documented to depths of 58 fathoms. LIFE HISTORY King crab life history information is described in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. For information specific to Kachemak Bay, reference should also be make to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Protection Section's recent publication, "Kacheniak Bay - A Status Report." The following discussion summarizes some of the highlights of Cook Inlet king crab life history. Figure 2 depicts the general larval biology and timing of Kachemak Bay king crab. Larvae are present in the plankton from mid-February to late June. The larvae remain planktonic for approximately 30 to 40 days. The first demersal-benthic settling generally occurs from mid- April to late August, but is heaviest during July-August. Kachemak Bay king crab begin spawning in February with a peak in April. Kamishak Bay king crab may be slightly later. Cook Inlet king crab undergo a seasonal migration consisting of an inshore movement in spring and summer and an offshore movement to deeper waters in fall and winter. In Kachemak Bay, the inshore spawning migra- tion begins in late December.and extends through May. Peak movement is in early March. Females may be slightly later. The average depth at 65 MONTHS F M A M i i A S 0 N D KING CRAB TANNER.CRAB' DUNGENESS CRAB.' PANDALID SHRIMP CRUSTACEAN LARVAL BIOLOGY LARVAE IN PLANKTON 4 FIRST DEMERSAL-BENTHIC SETTLING PEAK SPAWNING PERIODS - KACHEMAK BAY FIGURE 2. PLANKTONIC OCCURENCE. OF CRUSTACEAN LARVAE, COOK INLET AREA. KACHEMAK BAY. the end of this migration is 20 fathoms. Molting and spawning occur at this time. The offshore movement, sometimes termed the feeding migration, begins in September and extends through November. This movement is a .slow, foraging one, rather than a direct movement to deeper water. ABUNDANCE Total population estimates for Cook Inlet king crab are not presently available. However, a population index program for Kachemak and Kamishak Bays indicates that the populations are fairly strong. A strong year class is expected to enter the commercial fishery in 1979. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH The commercial king crab season currently extends from August 1 to March 15 for all districts in Cook Inlet, unless closed by emergency order. The guideline harvest level for the Cook Inlet area is 5 million pounds, with a breakdown by district as follows: Southern district Aug. 1-Dec. 31 1.0 million pounds Jan. 1-Mar. 15 .5 million pounds TOTAL 2.5 million pounds Kamishak district 3.0 million pounds Outer and Eastern districts .5 million pounds COOK INLET TOTAL 5.0 million pounds Research activities consist primarily of tagging and a population index program for both Kachemak and Kamishak Bays. The tagging program 67 is designed to provide distribution, timing, migration, growth, and fishing mortality information. The index program is based on a catch/ pot relationship and is designed to provide relative index of abundance, a measure of year class strength, and a measure of female ovigerity. During the summer of 1976, experimental use of an underwater still camera censusing technique will begin in Kaclfemak Bay. If successful, this technique will provide population estimates. .68 Table 29 Commercial 'king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds 1960-1974. 1) Year Catch 1960 4,287,970 1961 .4,324,118 1962 6,851,621 1963 8,386,983 1964 6,905,094 1965 2,814,465 1966 3,897,589 1967 3,117,430 1968 4,008,488 1969 2,855,534 1970 3,888,331 1971 4,157,633 1972 4,607,876 1973 4,384,651 1974 4,601,793 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 69 Table 30 Co=ercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Year Southern Kamishak Barren Islands Outer Eastern Total 1960 4,239,775 48,195 4,287,970 2/ 1961 3,032,416 1,215,766 75,93@- 4,324,118 2/ 1962 1,968,980 4,305,444 577,197 6,851,621 1963. 2,490,529 5,720,920 175,534 8,386,983 1964 2,032,920 4,852,176 19,998 6,905,094 1965- 1,879,953 934,512 2,814,465 CD 1966 1,910,364 1,949,569 16,395 21,261 3,897,589 1967 1,279,708 .1,552,552 268,719 16,451 3,117,430 2/ 1968 996,520 2,815,731 154,975 41,2627 4,008,488 1969 1,302,554 1,349,222, 83,080 120,678 2,855,534 1970 1,501,288 1,899,224 447,134 40,685 3,888,331 1971 1,251,142 2,302,583 586,374 17,534 4,157,633 2/ 1972 1,900,006 2,445,805 260,101 1,9667- 4,607,876 1973 2,114,841 1,918,932 347,140 3,738 4,384,651 1974 1,565,493 2,720,702 309,886 3,910 1,802 4,601,793 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. 2) Includes Eastern district catches. Table 31 Commercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Month 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 January 342,981 238,064 185,601 207,605 171,043 149,128 51,935 February 997,617 545,372 432,172 935,606 278,521 52,243 279,538 March 475,197 279,203 696,827 626,082 649,497 626,306 334,914 April 425,820 274,641 1,004,055 451,993 773,607 372,276 548,010 May 648,515 608,417 579,656 866,363 228,770 220,572 502,257 June 298,768 1,133,679 1,363,082 1,852,829 985,278 253,135 646,018 July 545,863 794,449 9191365 1,854,746 2.,256,991 508,967 652,339 August 440,635 285,848 .1,022,945 779,245 982,117 526,153 514,224 September 35,049 74,878 1702901 5622805 316,037 77,943 226,607 October 18,644. 37,380 182,187 129,075 184,262 694 14,746 November 2,481 20,037 51,965 31,756 22,318 9,137 55,978 December 56,400 32,150 242,865 88,878 56,653 17,911 71,023 TOTAL 4,287,970 4,324,118 6,851,621 8,3862983 6,905,094 2,814,465 3,897,589 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 31 (continued) Commercial king crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Month 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 20,456 38,095 88,025 168,305 158,725 359,169 127,602 155,387 February 142,780 369,255 160,177 452,071 149,864 365,750 315,871 163,925 March 324,234 935,011 88,933 388,167 216,430 143,710 April 508,271 364,262 25,815 May 72,713 z 6 3 June 5,682 July 922,390 August 788,405 1,163,756 1,171,892 1,586,575 1,583,654 1,350,600 2,251,849 2,975,034 September 247,824 642,104 1,042,398 756,080 1,078,204 981,939 571,509 932,087 October 69,179 325,920 2922852 478,644 369,318 224,161 284,968 51,653 November 112788 109,899 8,045 328,209 5792556 3852751 4322590 51,707 December 9,390 59,623 922145 118,447 149,379 546,657 183,832 102,475 TOTAL 3,117,430 4,008,488 2,855,534 3,888,331 4,157,633 42607,876 4,384,651 4,601,793 Table 32 Number of vessels actively fishing in the shellfish fisheries, Cook Inlet area, by type of fishery, 1960-1974. 1) Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Trawl Shrimp Pot Shrimp 1960 60 2) 3) 3) 3) 1961 71 2) 3) 3) 3) 1962 70 1 3) 3) 3) 1963 50 2) 3) 3) 3) 1964 46 2) 3) 3) 3) 1965 23 2) 3) 3) 3) 1966 33 2) 3) 3) 3) 1967 34 2) 3) 3) 3) 1968 44 25 3) 3) 3) 1969 29 24 3) 2 3) 1970 41 25 9 3 8 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Cook Inlet Annual Management Reports. 2) No fishery. 3) Not available. Table 32 (continued). Number of vessels actively fishing in the shellfish fisheries, Cook Inlet area, by type of fishery, 1960-1974. Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Trawl Shrimp Pot Shrimp 1971 54 40 21 4 11 1972 48 43 23 9 17 1973 63 80 51 10 41 1974 76 83 37 10 46 Ab Table 33 Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Cook Inlet area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. 1) Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Shrimp Razor Clam Total 1960 422,000 35,000 457,000 1961 419,000 52,000 471,000 1962 685,000 27,000 712,000 1963 838,000 95,000 933,000 1964 677,000 30,000 707,000 CA 1965 278,000 4,000 282,000 1966 390,000 15,000 405,000 1967 322,000 37,000 359,000 1968 1,000,000 16,000 1,000 1,017,000 1969 700,000 148,000 83,000 931,000 1970 1,000,000 136,000 29,200 258,000 1,423,200 1971 1,164,000 169,000 17,500 286,000 3,300 1,639,800 continued 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Stock Status Report, unpublished 2) Preliminary, estimated value. Table '33 (continued) Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Cook Inlet area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. 1) Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Shrimp Razor Clam Total 1972 1,540,000 728,000 15,200 320,000 5,300 2,608,500 2/ 2/ 1973 3,700,000 1,447,351 186,029-- 479,000 13,766- 5,826,146 1974 2,162,843 1,532,179 396,684 1,437,230 5,528,936 COOK INLET TANNER CRAB FISHERIES CONMERCIAL FISHERIES The commercial tanner crab fishery started on a sustained basis in Cook Inlet in 1968 after a brief attempt in 1962. In 1968, 25 boats landed approximately 151,000 pounds. Catches rose rapidly and in 1972 exceeded 4.8 million pounds. A record harvest of 8.5 million pounds was landed in 1973. In 1974, the harvest dropped slightly but remained high at 7.7 million pounds (Table 34). The rapid expansion in this fishery resulted from improved market conditions and a growing interest on the part of king crab fishermen to diversify. The number of boats engaged in the fishery increased from 25 in 1968 to 80 in 1973 (Table 32). The value of the tanner crab Qatch to the fishermen has risen rapidly as the fishery has expanded. In 1968 the catch was worth $16,000 to the fishermen, while in 1974 the value had risen to $1,532,179 (Table 33). DISTRIBUTION Tanner crab. Chionoecetes bairdi, are distributed in all districts of Cook Inlet south of Anchor Point. Stocks are also present in the Eastern and Outer districts. C. bairdi is found from the littoral zone to depths of 300 fathoms. Based on exploratory fishing cruise data by the National Marine Fishery Service, tanner crab appear to be most abundant in the deep water region midway between Augustine Island and the Barren Islands. Juveniles are frequently encountered in the nearshore, shallow waters. Concentrations of mature male and female tanner crab appear to school separately from each other except when mating. 77 LIFE HISTORY Tanner crab life history information is described in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. For information specific to Kachemak Bay, reference should also be made to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Protection Section's recent publication "Kachemak Bay-A Status Report." The following discussion.summarizes some of the high- lights of Cook Inlet tanner crab life history. Migratory information for Cook Inlet tanner crab populations is largely unavailable. Tanner crab appear to migrate seasonally, moving into deeper water in the fall and winter and into shallower water, for molt and spawning, with the onset of spring and summer. Within Kachemak Bay, tanner crab larvae are most abundant from late May through mid June, with the band of greatest abundance extending due east to Homer Spit from a point due south of Anchor Point. Inner Kachemak Bay does not appear to be a major nursery area. Currently little is known of larval distribution in the remainder of Cook Inlet. Figure 2 depicts the general larval biology and timing of Kachemak Bay tanner crab. Larvae are present in the plankton from mid-January to mid-July. The larvae remain planktonic for approximately 60 days. The first dermersal benthic settling generally occurs from mid-March to mid- September. Spawning appears to begin in January, peaking in mid-April in Kachemak Bay and approximately mid-May in Kamishak Bay. ABUNDANCE Total population estimates for Cook Inlet tanner crab are not presently available. However, as an indicator of population trends, the 1975 index for Kachemak Bay derived through a catch per unit effort (CPUE) sampling program, was higher than the 1974 estimate, which was the 78 lowest since the inception of the fishery. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH The commercial tanner crab season currently runs from December 1 to April 30 in the Southern, Outer, and Eastern districts. The Kamishak district season runs from December 1 to May 31. Guideline harvest levels for tanner crab are as follows: Southern district 3 million pounds Kamishak and Barren Islands districts 4.5 million pounds Outer and Eastern districts 3.5 million pounds TOTAL 11.0 million pounds Research activities consist primarily of tagging, trawl surveys, SCUBA surveys, and an index program. The tagging program is designed to provide distribution, timing, migration, and fishing mortality infor- mation. Trawl surveys were first tried in Kachemak Bay and have now been extended to Kamishak Bay. These surveys are designed to provide a sample of the entire population, whereas sampling of the commercial catch is biased toward commercial sized crab. SCUBA surveys are conducted to provide information on molt timing, breeding timing, and on growth per molt. The index program is conducted in both Kachemak and Kamishak Bays and is based on a catch/pot relationship. It is designed to provide a relative index of abundance, a measure of size class strength, and a measure of female ovigerity. During the summer of 1976, experimental use of an underwater still camera censusing technique will begin in Kachemak Bay. If successful, this technique will provide population estimates. 79 Table 34 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) 2) Year Catch 1962 3,404 1968 150-9949 1969 1,455,269 1970 1,328,694 1971 2,116,849 1972 4,807,843 1973 8,513,829 1974 7,660,895 1) Source A.D.F.&G, Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. @2) No commercial catch reported prior to 1962 or between 1963-1967. 80 Table 35 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) 2) Year Southern Kamishak Barren Islands Outer Eastern Total 1962 3,404 3,404 1968 146,491 2,969 1,489 150,949 1969 1,436,680 14,987 2,786 816 1,455,269 1970 1,152,609 68,167 1,985 1,824 104,109 1,328,694 1971 1,186,488 804,572 4,626 1,258 119,905 2,116,849 1972 2,942,082 1,158,468 676 174,531 532,086 4,807,843 00 1973 3,763,060 3,451,574 35,664 578,290 685,241 8,513,829 1974 1,129,099 3,863,059 776,054 1,285,013 606,008 7,660,895 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. 2) No commercial catch reported prior to 1962 or between 1963-1967. Table 36 Commercial tanner crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) 2) Month 1962 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 38,993 61,394 29,561 169,088 236,609 372,253 February 6,284 128,610 161,180 113,116 163,554 881,302 596,653 March 8,647 298,678 289,044 228,196 1,053,548 1,536,267 1,327,762 April 35,565 474,234 414,261 365,900 732,614 1,774,137 3,757,034 May 3,404 80,375 161,753 363,055 406,973 1,019,085 1,554,901 1,508,687 June 5,420 288,752 21,824 431,472 911,797 1,284,060 69,229 July 41,950 271,949 172,460 48,527 August 608 1,688 September 490 728 3,226 60 October 1,570 10,51.6 1,304 930 25,852 November 1,514 835 75,027 258,585 861,777 December 10,476 11,783 15,797 192,997 296,346 336,189 29,277 TOTAL 3,404 150,949 1,455,269 1,328,694 2,116,849 4,807,843 8,513,829 7,660,895 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. 2) No commercial fish catch reported prior to 1962 or between 1963-1967. COOK INLET DUNGENESS CRAB FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The dungeness crab commercial fishery started on a sustained basis in Cook Inlet in 1961 after some sporadic attempts in the 1950's. Ten boats fished out of Seldovia and Homer in 1961 and landed approximately 194 thousand pounds. Catches rose rapidly and in 1963 peaked at 1.7 million pounds. Following the loss of processing facilities from the 1964 earthquake and a generally declining market, catches fell off drastically in the mid 1960's. In recent years, the catch has continued -to fluctuate sporadically and is largely attributable to.West Coast market conditions which dictate the demand for Alaskan dungeness crab. Good dungeness crab landings in Washington, Oregon and California make it economically infeasible for Alaska caught dungeness to compete for the major markets of the West Coast. The 1974 catch, which was a good year for the Alaska dungeness fishery, was approximately 721,000 pounds (Table 37 The average value of the 1970-1974 catch to the fishermen is $129,000.. The 1974 catch was worth 097,000 to the fishermen (Table 33 DISTRIBUTION Cook Inlet dungeness crab are distributed in the shallow nearshore waters of the Inlet south of Anchor Point and in the Outer and Eastern districts. Although dungeness crab are known to be distributed in Kamishak district, their extent and range here is presently unknown. Dungeness crab inhabit bays, estuaries, and open ocean near the coast from the intertidal zone to depths of 50 fathoms. Favored substrate is a sand or safid-mixed bottom, although dungeness may be found on almost .83 any bottom substrate. Juveniles are commonly associated with stands of' eelgrass or masses of detached aliae. A major concentration of large ocean dungeness crab exists off the Bluff Point area at the entrance to Kachemak Bay. The larger size and better quality of this stock of crab makes them competitive with the West Coast dungeness crab fishery. LIFE HISTORY Dungeness crab life history information is described in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. The following discussion pertains only to specifics of Kachemak Bay dungeness crab. Migration of dungeness crab within Kachemak Bay appears to be somew hat limited. Based on summer tagging operations, dungeness crab released just northeast of Homer Spit moved up the bay while crab released southwest of the spit (Barabara Point, Seldovia Bay) moved in a southwesterly direction. The majority of the returns were located at release points indicating no movement. This data, however, is limited and not conclusive. There also appears to be a seasonal movement of the Bluff Point stock, With crab moving from south to north into the shallow waters off Bluff Point in spring and summer for molting and mating; then south into deeper waters in fall and winter. Isolated bay stocks of dungeness crab appear to be relatively station- ary, apparently not migrating out of the bays. Most of these bays, in cross sectional profile, contain both a shallow shelf along the shoreline and a deep basin. The entire seasonal migration appears to occur within the bays, between the deep and shallow areas. In shallow bays, without deep-basins for overwintering, it has been documented that some dungeness crab burrow into the bottom mud and overwinter in that fashion. 84 Figure 2 depicts the general larval biology and timing of Kachemak Bay dungenes s crab. Larvae are present in the plankton from mid-May to mid-December. The larvae remain planktonic for approximately 60 days. The first demersal-benthic settling generally occurs from mid-July to mid-February. Spawning timing for Kachemak Bay dungeness crab is not presently known, however, based on the observation of soft-shelled crabs, spawning appears to occur from May to October. ABUNDANCE Total population estimates for Cook Inlet dungeness crab are not presently available. However, a research program, utilizing an under- water still camera censusing technique, is proposed for the Bluff Point area in 1976 and may provide total population estimates for that area. As an indicator of population trends, the 1975 catch per unit effort (CPUE) was approximately half of the 1974 peak year CPUE. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH There is currently no closed season on the commercial harvest of dungeness crab for'most of the Cook Inlet area. However, from May 1 Ahrough August 31, dungeness crab may not be taken in Kachemak Bay northeast of a line extending from Coal Point to the northeast tip of Glacier Spit. There is presently no guideline harvest level for the dungeness fishery. Research activities primarily consist of a tagging program which is designed to provide distribution, migration, timing and fishing mortality information. In addition', an underwater still camera censusing technique is experimentally being used in the Bluff Point area during the summer of 1976. If successful, this technique will provide total population estimates. 85 Table 37 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1961-*1974. 1) Year Catch 1961 193,683 1962 530,770 1963 1,677,204 1964 423,041 1965 74,211 1966 129,560 1967 7,168 1968 487,859 1969 49,894 1970 209,819 1971 97,161 1972 38,930 1973 310,048 1974 721,243 Table -38 @omercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1961-1974. 1) Year Southern Kamishak Barren Island Outer Total 1961 193,683 193,683 1962 530,770 530,770 1963 1,665,599 11,605 1,677,204 1964 417,005 6,036 423,041 1965 74,211 74,211 1966 12,523 117,037 129,560 CO 1967 7,168 7,168 1968 484,452. 3,407 487,859 1969 49,894 49,894 1970 209,819 209,819 1971 97,161 97,161 1972 38,930 38,930 1973 308,777 57 260 954 310,048 1974 718,729 60 2,454 721,243 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 39 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1961-1974. 1) Month 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 January 699 3,379 1,492 February 10,090 609 170 March 37,240 1,984 .April 290 37,810 3,004 May 664 1,963 231,725 17,672 466 2,836 1,776- 00 June 442 11,502 262,645 66,979 11,029 7,651 1,776 co July 30,167 296,061 62,587 13,389 August 67,811 247,915 77,623 7,607 48,345 September 165,407 271,376 120,929 27,192 69,875 90 October 54,965 188,317 258,822 64,346 9,318 3,831 November 136,623 21,868 24,665 6,255 4,008 853 December 6,645 4,957 1,202 TOTAL 193,683 530,770 1,677,204 423,041 74,211 129,560 7,168 continued 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 39 (continued). Commercial dungeness crab catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1961-1974. Month 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 488 60 3,727 4,609 February 25 1,620 703 975 March 335 115 36 158 3,227 April 1,346 4,032 468 May 137 1,833 1,745 11,429 5,674 June 3,987 7,889 11,271 1,715 13,696 16,185 00 July 84,480 13,898 15,009 21,818 5,336 7,861 114,779 August 182,393 14,876 37,597 17,049 3,568 8,224 217,570 September 123,510 13,106 95,571 20,287 5,085 @6,069 201,958 October 66,841 52,265 15,951 4,517 147,502 98,803 November 30,482 1,373 7,221 7,031 68,243 52,803 December 16 1,819 9,962 8,404 4,192 TOTAL 487,859 49,894 209,819 97,161 38,930 310,048 721,243 COOK INLET SHRIMP FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The shrimp fisheries in the Cook Inlet area are based on several species of pandalid shrimp. The trawl fishery, exploiting primarily pink and humpy shrimp, began in 1958 and has.grown rapidly. The 1963 harvest of 1.9 million pounds represented the peak of the fishery prior to the 1964 earthquake, when processing facilities in Seldovia and Seward were destroyed. Five years elapsed before significant effort in this fishery resumed in 1969. Catches averaged 5.2 million pounds between 1970 and 1974 (Table 41 ). -Nearly all trawl catches are made in Kachemak Bay, although in recent years a minor trawl fishery has developed in the Outer district. During recent years trawl effort has been basically limited to three boats fishing the entire season, although more vessels fish part of the season. A small shrimp pot fishery, harvesting primarily coonstripe and some sidestripe shrimp, has existed since early statehood but did not start up on a significant basis until 1971 when approximately 56 thou- sand pounds were landed. This fishery has expanded and in 1974 landed a record catch of approximately 677 thousand pounds (Table 43 ). Nearly all pot catches are made in Kachemak Bay in the Southern district, although in recent years a minor pot fishery has developed in the Outer district. The number of vessels participating in the fishery has increased from 11 in 1971 to 46 in 1974 (Table 32 ). The value of all shrimp fisheries to the fishermen has risen rapidly as the fisheries have expanded. The value of the 1974 catch to the fishermen was in excess of 1.4 million dollars (Table 33 .90 DISTRIBUTION Pandalid Ghrimp are distributed in all districts of Cook Inlet south of Anchor Point. Stocks are also present in the Eastern and Outer districts. Major concentrations are present in Kachemak Bay and in the deep waters off of Cape Douglas. Habitat and depth preferences for each of the commercially sought pandalid shrimp species is presented in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. Within Kachemak Bay there are over 75 square miles of habitat with commercial quantities of pandalid shrimp. Shrimp are distributed through- out the'area but.are found in quantity in waters deeper than 10 fathoms. A migrational movement within Kachemdk Bay occurs, with shrimp moving into a deep water hole, 80 fathoms deep, off Yukon Island in February and March. They remain here until March and April, while the females drop their eggs, and then disperse throughout the bay. LIFE HISTORY Life history information for all of the commercially exploited pandalid shrimp species in Cook Inlet is described in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. For information specific to Kachemak Bay, reference should also be made to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Protection Section's recent publication, "Kachemak Bay-A Status Report.11 The following discussion summarizes some of the specifics of Kachemak Bay shrimp life history. Figure 2 depicts the general larval biology and timing of Kachemak Bay shrimp. Larvae are present in the plankton from mid January to mid July. The larvae remain planktonic for approximately 60 days. The first demersal benthic settling generally occurs from mid March to mid September. Spawning occurs from late September through mid October. .91 Egg bearing females begin dropping their eggs in late March and April. ABUNDANCE The present trawl fishery is utilizing a healthy shrimp stock. Biological data indicates the population should maintain at least the present harvest level. Since 1969, a log book program has been main- tained on the Kachemak Bay shrimp trawl fishery. Data from this program during recent years has shown a general increase in the catch per unit effort (CPUE), indicating a healthy stock. Comparative CPUE data for the Kachemak Bay shrimp pot fishery is not available. However, recent investigations indicate the population is healthy and should be able to maintain the current harvest guideline of 600,000 pounds. Population estimates for Kachemak Bay shrimp, primarily pink and humpy, for 1971 to 1975 are presented in Table 45 MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH The commercial shrimp trawl fishery runs from June 1 through March 31, unless closed earlier by emergency order. There is no closed season for the shrimp pot fishery. Guideline harvest levels have been established only for Kachemak Bay inside a line from Point Pogibshi to Anchor Point. For the pot fishery, the harvest guidelines are 100,000 pounds between June 1 and September 30 and 50,000 pounds between October 1 and May 31. The harvest guidelines for the trawl fishery are 2,500,000 pounds between June 1 and October 31 and 2,500,000 pounds between November 1 and March 31. Commercial catch sampling is conducted in all districts where landings are made. Catch sampling is designed to provide species composition, age, .92 and fecundity information. Other research activities are limited to Kachemak Bay and include a population index program for trawl caught shrimp. The index program provides population estimates, species abundance, and age class abundance of trawl caught shrimp. 93 Table 40 Commercial shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) 2) Year Catch 1962 403,108 1963 1,897,624 1964 601,411 1965 61,708 1966 309,676 1967 741,438 1968 26,448 1969 1,849,710 1970 5,817,633 1971 5,451,340 1972 5,548,567 1973 4,876,804 1974 5,748,919 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. 2) Includes pot and trawl shrimp catches. 94 Table 41 Commercial trawl shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Year Southern Kamishak Outer Eastern Total 1962 344,251 57,760 720 402,731 1963 1,896,097 1,483 1,897,580 1964 566,917 32,748 599,665 1965 61,004 61,004 1966 285,976 285,976 1967 732,888 732,888 1968 25,237 25,237 1969 1,849,579 1,849,579 1970 5,808,160 5,808,160 1971 5,382,426 13,024 5,395,450 1972 5,284,557 75,654 16,970 5,377,181 1973 4,385,375 164,429 4,549,804 1974 4,692,000 25,846 264,976 80,892 5,063,714 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 42 Commercial trawl shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Month 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 January 220,815 17,830 118,890 February 9,611 200,193 March 112,781 4,427 53,555 April 207,073 64,735 107,160 May 27,910 499,529 295,974 June 90,870 294,521 136,959 33,885 co July 49,256 417,907 208,985 August 47,055 144,954 101,997 September 16,917 3,811 10,220 October 6,419 32,553 November 35,893 119,145 December 170,723 14,881 102,410 TOTAL 402,731 1,897,580 599,665 61,004 285,976 732,888 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 42 (continued) Commercial trawl shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by months, in pounds, 1962-1974. Month 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 1,130 215,036 102,836 4059730 450,873 1,209,366 February 3,272 448,856 446,136 641,653 443,266 156,524 March 1,870 494,894 979,136 170,868 102,614 328,332 April 11,927 550,731 466,265 77,133 49,625 May 11,335 4,661 338,599 160,617 77,318 June 1,31.0 103,895 665,715 434,045 539,482 615,078 437,331 July 158,178 852,132 484,362 544,454 1,086,344 613,168 August 252,434 766,600 590,902 569,364 727,595 478,953 September 345,296 603,117 624,807 471,921 73,137 790,173 October 10,478 432,848 324,360 488,492 651,547 193,139 November 1,970 219,791 386,352 457,822 618,781 431,023 431,827 December 144 314,277 161,768 160,030 608,930 570,249 424,901 TOTAL 25,237 1,849,579 5,808,160 5,395,450 5,377,181 4,549,804 5,063,714 Table 43 Commercial pot shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Year Southern Outer Eastern Total 1962 377 377 1963 44 44 1964 1,746 1,746 1965 704 704 1966 23,700 23,700 1967 8,550 8,550 1968 793 418 1,211 1969 131 131 1970 7,108 2,365 9,473 1971 55,665 225 55,890 1972 165,941 5,297 148 171,386 1973 324,111 2,889 327,000 1974 676,978 8,227 685,205 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Cook.Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 44 Commercial pot shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Month 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 January February March April 72 May 167 June 424 418 131 co July 8,550 August 276 September 1,046 216 October 169 44 424 699 244 November 5 11,757 189 December 208 11,280 144 TOTAL 377 44 1,746 704 23,700 8,550 1,211 131 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Catch Statistics, Final IBM Run. Table 44 (continued) Commercial pot shrimp catch, Cook Inlet area, by vonth, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Month 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 120 1,494 13,883 61,213 February 860 1,463 35,585 48,290 March 1,024 14,879 18,964 203,161 April 361 960 7,879 32,780 259,209 May 540 3,680 7,994 22,818 29,992 June 401 2,872 23,211 20,239 17,813 July 1,706. 260 24,191 11,946 17,217 C3 C:) August 1,115 4,945 11,752 20,036 8,955 September 384 759 16,241 11,417 5,210 October 2,471 1@,476 3,242 34,088 8,067 November 491 26,720 29,288 66,864 10,898 December 2,218 29,752 39,380 15,180 TOTAL 9,473 55,890 171,386 327,000 685,205 Table 45 Shrimp population estimates, Cook Inlet area, Kachemak Bay, calculated from trawl surveys, in pounds, 1971-1975. 1) Year Mean Catch Pop. Est. -Range-Mill. of lbs. % Error 2) 1971 118.34 3,370,411.1 2.639 4.102 21.7% 2) 1972 271.17 7,723,260.6 .4.982 10.465 35.5% 2) 1973 602.29 17,153,972.1 12.334 21.974 28.1% 2) 1974 435.9 12,414,976.9 9.485 15.345 23.6% 3) 1975 1,149.5 16,369,598.4 12.032 20.708 26.5% 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., File Data, Homer. 2 2) 66" Nordby net 75 mi , 50% net efficiency, 32' width. 2. 3) 61' High opening net 75 mi 100% net efficiency, 32' width. 10 1 COOK INLET SCALLOP FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES There is no commercial scallop fishery in the Cook Inlet area at the present. Commercial fishing for scallops is not allowed in most of the area, including Kachemak and Kamishak Bays and the inshore waters of the Outer district. The only historical fishery was in 1969, when 240 pounds were harvested in the Kamishak district. DISTRIBUTION Weathervane sea scallops, the desired commercial scallop species in the Gulf of Alaska, occur throughout the Cook Inlet area south of Anchor Point and in the Outer district. Exploratory surveys in Cook Inlet indicate that the greatest abundance is in the Kamishak district between Augustine Island and the Barren Islands. Weathervane sea scallops are most abundant in depths of thirty to seventy fathoms. Gravel and sand, with some mud, is typical of commercially exploited Alaska scallop beds. Little is known of the distribution and abundance of scallops in more rocky areas, due to the difficulty of trawling in such areas. LIFE HISTORY Life history information specific to the Cook Inlet area is not available. However, studies conducted in the Yakutat and Kodiak areas indicate that weathervane sea scallops spawn only once annually, with spawning occurring during June and early July. Scallops do not move to special areas for breeding. Most weathervane sea scallops attain sexual maturity at age three, with all mature by age four. 102 Additional life history information is.detailed in the generalized life history found in the Appen'dix. ABUNDANCE Present data suggests that Cook Inlet weathervane sea scallops are not abundant and may not be available in commercial quantities. A scallop fishery, if proposed, would probably support only a few vessels. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Present management restricts the commercial harvest of scallops in Cook Inlet north of a line from Cape Douglas to Point Adams. In addition, fishing is restricted in the inshore waters of the Outer district. These closures are designed to prevent possible conflicts with the crab fisheries. Research priorities include: 1) further identification of commercial scallop beds within the Cook Inlet area, 2) estimates of abundance, 3) determination of sustainable harvest levels if commercial quantities of scallops are available, and 4) investigation of potential scallop gear conflicts with the crab fisheries. 103 COOK INLET RAZOR CLAM FISHERIES MMERCIAL FISHERIES Commercial exploitation of razor clams within the Cook Inlet area has been sporadic since early in this century. A peak was reached in 1922 when slightly over 1 million pounds were canned, largely from 1.5 square miles of beach on the western side of the Inlet between Chisik Island and Harriet Point. Sporadic catches continued through 1962, with a harvest of approximately 171 thousand pounds that year. In 1963, the Alaska Department of Health and Welfare declared all beaches in Alaska suspect of containing poisonous shellfish, and commercial utilization of clams, mussels, and similar shellfish species was strictly forbidden unless the harvest areas were appxoved and certified by that department. During the following seven years all clam growing areas in Alaska remained technically closed and unapproved for commercial utilization due to insufficient funds, equipment, personnel, and testing facilities essential for the establishment of a proper shellfish sanitation program. In 1970 the Polly Creek area was again certified for commercial utilization. Currently, a small commercial operator has harvested razor clams in the Polly Creek vicinity since 1971. The reported harvest for 1971 was 15,151 pounds. No catch was reported in 1974. The value of the 1972 harvest to the fishermen was $3,300. The 1973 harvest was valued at $5,300 to the fishermen (Table 33 There is presently no closed season on the commercial harvest of razor clams. However, almost all of the annual harvest is normally made from May through July, prior to July-August spawning. Polly Creek on the westside of Cook Inlet is the only legal beach. Although both 104 mechanical and hydraulic harvest equipment is allowed, most clams are taken by hand operated shovels.' DISTRIBUTION Razor clams occur along the eastern beaches of Cook Inlet between Kenai River and Homer Spit with greatest abundance in the Glam Gulch and Deep Creek-Stariski Creek areas. On the western side of the Inlet they are scattered along various sandy beaches from Harriet Point southward. Heavy concentrations occur at Polly Creek and the northeast side of Chinitna Bay. Razor clams are found intertidally to several fathoms in depth on sandy, surfswept beaches that are low in gravel and clay. They require exposure to the open ocean, and are not found in water of low salinity or high temperature. LIFE HISTORY Razor clam life history information is describedin the generalized life history found in the Appendix. Cook Inlet razor clams, however, differ from this generalized outline in at least two respects. First, spawning appears to occur from mid-July through mid-September, rather than July-August. Secondly, Cook Inlet razor clams appear to grow much faster than those of Prince William Sound or Kodiak. Cook Inlet razor clams reach sexual maturity in their third year, as opposed to five and six years for Kodiak and Prince William Sound clams, respectively. 'ABUNDANCE No estimates of total population are available for the Polly Creek commercial razor clam beds. However, based on subjective observations, 105 the razor clam resource could probably sustain a much higher level of exploitation. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH There are presently no seasons or harvest limits imposed upon the razor clam commercial fishery. No regulation is required due to low levels of effort and a healthy razor clam resource. If market conditions improve and effort increases, direct management may be necessary. 106 COOK INLET HARDSHELL CLAM FISHERIES A one family operated cannery at Kasitna Bay, near McDonald spit in the Southern district, has been canning butter clams under "grandfather'S*" rights and has a history of Alaska Department of Health and Social Services monitored production. Annual production records are not currently available. Hardshell clams are distributed throughout Cook Inlet from the Kenai River south. Specific distributions vary by species. Generalized life history and distribution information for butter clams and cockles is presented in the Appendix. 107 COOK INLET AREA SUBSISTENCETISHERIES DESCRIPTION All five species of Pacific salmon are utilized in the Cook Inlet area for subsistence purposes. Since statehood, all subsistence salmon fishing has been in conformance with commercial regulations and, there- fore, the areas open and methods used have been identical to those in the commercial fishery. Reported subsistence catches in this area for the years 1962-1974 are given in Table 46. King crab, tanner crab, dun- geness crab, shrimp, smelt, herring, bottom fish, and clams are also utilized. However, records are not available on the degree of utiliza- tion. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE AREA No figures are available on the average income of those applying for subsistence permits in the Cook Inlet area. It is the personal opinion.of the area management biologist that less than 5 or 10% of the subsistence fishing in the area is carried out by persons in such finan- cial positions that they actually have a legitimate need of the resource harvested in order to subsist. The type of subsistence fishing found in the Cook Inlet area could more appropriately be classified as recrea- tional or supplemental fishing. Many people regard it as a form of sport fishing in which they not only derive recreational benefits but at the same time supplement their food stocks. METHODS OF FISHING A variety of subsistence fishing methods are used in the Cook Inlet area, as it is a multi-species utilization area. Currently set nets, 108 seines and drift nets are used for harvesting salmon with set nets accounting for about 95% of the'effort. Prior to statehood, much of the subsistence fishing took place in salmon spawning streams with gear ranging from hook and line to gill nets. Snagging was one of the more popular methods. Both gill nets and dip nets have been used in the Cook Inlet area for taking smelt, however, in 1972 dip nets became illegal gear for taking smelt in the waters of the Kenai Peninsula. A limited amount of hook and line snagging for smelt also exists. The gear most commonly utilized for freshwater species is small mesh gill nets and seines. In the past, fishwheels and dip nets have also been used in freshwater. PROBLEMS As in other areas of the state, the subsistence fishing in Cook Inlet is more recognized as a recreational fishery than as a subsistence fishery. However, it is the personal opinion of the area biologist that a need exists for subsistence fishing in Cook Inlet and that it should continue, perhaps with some modifications. The 5 or 10% of the people who actually have a legitimate need to subsistence fish should not be denied this right just because the fishery has became.recreationally oriented. A subsistence permit or licensing system has been proposed to elim- inate some of those who are participating more for recreation than need. It has been estimated that this type of measure would probably reduce subsistence fishing by 75% in the Cook Inlet area and subsistence fishing .would again conform with the true meaning,of subsistence. 10-9 Table 46 Subsistence salmon catch, Cook Inlet area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1962-1974 1/2/. Permits Permits Year Issued Returned King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 3/ 1962 192 179 45 770 3,574 417 391 5,197 1963 229 216 29 859 2,510 447 424 4,269 1964 191 183 -- 393 2,463 368 207 3,431 1965 190 162 -- 484 2,109 49 285 2,927 1966 330 301 8 1,656 3,533 598 356 6,151 1967 375 333 4 863 3,105 73 213 4,258 CD 1968 386 332 10 1,009 4,201 1,170 236 6,626 1969 447 395 -- 1,518 2,011 68 94 3,691 .1970 449 407 3 1,218 3,371 438 152 5,182 1971 168 133 2 23 1,697 44 7 1,773 1972 170 136 1 29 1,030 75 84 1,219 1973 266 221 -- 53 1,636 96 77 1,862 1974 256 199 i 30 .667 60 79 837 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Cook Inlet Management Area Subsistence Fishery Report, Report to the Board of Fish and Game, April, 1973 and Annual Management Reports. 2) These represent actual figures and have not been extrapolated to reflect a "real" subsistence catch value. 3) Subsistence catch and effort data not available prior to 1962. COOK INLET AREA SPORT FISHERIES INTRODUCTION Description of the Region The Cook Inlet area covers all freshwater drainages and marine waters within Cook Inlet from Point Adam and Cape Douglas north to the Susitna River drainage below Devil's Canyon (Figure 3). The area is distinguished by mountainous bays in its exposed south, while most of north Cook Inlet is comprised of swampy forelands and floodplains. Lowland lakes and ponds are numerous. Streams are generally low gradient and less than 50 miles long. The coastline is fairly regular but is cut by several large bays or arms. These are Kachemak Bay, Turnagain and Knik Arms, and Kamishak Bay. The climate is maritime, with mild winters and summers. Precipitation is light, averaging 20-25 inches annually. Distribution of Fish Species Cook Inlet area's sport fish distribution and relative abundance are listed in Table 47. The area has the most varied representation of sport fish species in Alaska. Known distribution is marked on the maps. SPORT FISH LIFE HISTORY AND HABITAT Life history information specific to sport fish is limited, however, the information in the Appendix is generally applicable. Documented habitat and life history information specific to the region is discussed below by species. DEVIL'S CANY N TALKEETN PALMER AREA WILLOW WEST COOK INLET AREA PALMER ANCHORAGE AREA ANCHORAGE KENAI KENAI AREA T TUMENA L. HOME KACHEMAK BAY KAMISHAK DAY POINT ADAM CAPE DOUGLAS FIGURE 3. COOK INLET REGION WITH KENAI, ANCHORAGE. PALMER, AND, WEST COOK INLET SPORT FISHING AREA @N) 112 Dolly Varden Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma) distribution is uneven over Cook Inlet with anadromous populations found on the Kenai Peninsula and in some west side streams. The upper Kenai River and lower Susitna River drainages contain stunted resident Dolly Varden. These fish have earned the nickname "goldenfins" because of their unique coloring. Resident fish are found in all Susitna River tributaries below Montana Creek, and a number of streams above, but no anadromous populations are found anywhere in upper Cook Inlet. The timing of migratory movements for Kenai Peninsula anadromous Dolly Varden has been studied at Anchor River. Large, mature fish enter Anchor River beginning in early July, followed by progressively smaller mature, then immature fish. The early arriving mature and immature fish move into the upper stream sections from late July into September. Very small fish are just entering the river in September. Spawning occurs in September. Beginning in late September, the mature Dolly Varden are believed to.migrate downstream, eventually entering Cook Inlet. Whether the fish complete the migration to sea in the fall or overwinter in the lower river is unknown. Arctic Char Resident Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) are in a number of deeper lakes in the Swanson River drainage of the Kenai Peninsula and in Big Lake near Wasilla. They are essentially lake dwellers and have not been reported in surrounding streams. Char vertical distribution in lakes appears to be temperature dependent. Char are found in midwater and bottom depths, perferring temperatures lower than 55*F. Rainbow Trout Observations at Fire Lake near Anchorage and on the Swanson River and Moose Creek (Kenai Peninsula) indicate that Cook Inlet rainbow (Salmo gairdneri) spawn in May. The fish utilize lake, inlet or outlet streams for spawning. Steelhead Trout Steelhead (Salmo gairdneri) are found in several lower Kenai Peninsula streams. These are fall run fish whose immigration begins in late July and continues through October. The run usually peaks in September. Steelhead overwinter in the streams and spawn in March and April. Post spawning outmigration takes place in May and June. Repeat spawners are rare. Juveniles rear 2-3 years in.freshwater, migrate out as smolts in June and July and stay @-4 years in saltwater before returning to spawn. Age 3.2 and 3.3 fish are dominent. Gra ling Grayling (Thymallus arcticus) life history studies at Cresent Lake (upper Kenai River drainage) indicated that spawning occurs between April and June. Entry onto the spawning grounds may begin in late March. Adults spawn in the outlet stream for a short distance immediately below the lake in depths of 1/2 to 2 1/2 feet with water temperatures of 38*- 420F. Spawning terminates with ice breakup.on the lake. Adults, after completion of spawning, return to the lake to reside the rest of the year. Juvenile grayling move into Cresent Creek with the adults, but are mostly segregated from them. The juveniles remained in the outlet to rear and feed throughout the sunmier before returning to the lake in the fall. 114 Fish distribution and migration studies on the Susitna River indicate that grayling bverwinter in the'mainstem slough areas when the waters are relatively clear. Grayling move into clear tributaries in the spring and summer months to feed or spawn, returning to the mainstem again in the fall. Whitefish Several whitefish species occur in Cook Inlet area. Round whitefish (Prosopium williamsori) and the common whitefish (Coregonus clupeioformes) are found in the-Susitna, Kenai and Kasilof River drainages while the Arctic cisco (Coregonus autumnalis) inhabit the Matanuska and Knik Rivers. The mainstem Susitna provides the primary overwintering area for Susitna fish as well as summer.habitat. Whitefish also reside in tributary streams in the summer. An upstream migration occurs in the fall. Whitefish are believed to overwinter in Skilak and Kenai Lakes on the Kenai system and in Tustemena Lake on the Kasilof system. Burbot Burbot (Lota lota) are found in the mainstem lower Susitna River all year and in some of the larger lakes such as Nancy and Redshirt Lakes near Wasilla. Razor Clams Life history information for Cook Inlet razor clams (Siliqua patula) stocks is present in the Appendix. Data to date indicate razor clams enter the fishery at about four years of age. Age structure analysis of the population shows clams in their 10+ year also mre harvested. A total of at least five age classes contribute to the fishery. Failure of a year class would not have a serious effect on the fishery. 115 PRODUCTIVITY AND PRODUCTION Productivity Information on lake productivity is available for many lakes in the Anchorage-Palmer area and for a few on the Kenai Peninsula and west Cook Inlet. Some of the most eutrophic lakes in Alaska are found near Palmer in the Matanuska-Knik River delta area and are associated with the richest farmland. Nutrient levels are very high compared with other lakes in the state. Farm practices have contributed some by increased use of fertilizers. As a result, fish production is excellent and angler use is high. In many small land-locked lakes, winter fish kill may result from oxygen depletion due to decomposition. Biological oxygen demand is heaviest in the richer lakes. Fish stocking programs are necessary to perpetuate these fisheries. Productivity decreases for lakes away from the Palmer area as lake fertility drops. Productivity levels drop with.increase in elevation because of colder waters and shorter growing seasons. Susitna River delta lakes are quite unproductive compared to lakes closer to Palmer, but are more productive than those further upstream. On the Kenai Peninsula, the most productive lakes lie north of the Kenai River on the lowlands. Production Estimates of fish production in the Cook Inlet area are limited to population estimates in several grayling lakes and relative measures of fish production in stocked lakes. In 1972 the Cresent Lake adult grayling spawning population was estimated to be 1,756 fish, with a range of 1,547 to 2,031 fish. In 1974 the Cresent Lake adult grayling spawning population was estimated to be '1,756 fish, with a range of 1,547 to 2,031 fish. In 1974 the Bench Lake adult grayling spawning population was estimated to be 1,931 fish. Many lakes in the Palmer, Anchorage and Kenai-Soldotna areas have been stocked with rainbow and coho to benefit intensive sport fisheries. The lakes are checked frequently to assess growth and survival. The most productive lakes are the Kepler-Bradley Lake system, Knik, Finger, and Seymour lakes near Palmer. These lakes have produced the most fish poundage per surface acre and receive some of the highest angler use in the area. SPORT FISHERIES Cook Inlet area receives the heaviest sport fishing pressure in the state. Effort is concentrated on freshwater stream and lake systems, with only a few saltwater boat or beach fisheries of any consequence. In freshwater, king, coho, sockeye, and pink salmon draw the most interest when and where they are available, but rainbow, grayling and Dolly Varden also are widely sought. Lake trout, chum salmon, burbot, whitefish and smelt are also taken in small numbers. In saltwater, halibut, salmon, and Dolly Varden attract primary interest but flounders, cod and greenling are also taken. A substantial beach fishery for razor clams exists in the eastern Cook Inlet. The sport fishing seasons extend year round. In the spring, king .salmon and razor clams receive the bulk of sport effort. Salmon, trout and grayling are fished throughout the summer and early fall. After freeze-up in October, many lakes in the Palmer, Anchorage and Kenai 117 areas support light to intensive ice fisheries for rainbow and land- locked coho salmon. King salmon catch and effort information has been collected on a continuous basis since 1960. Comprehensive data has also been collected for specific sockeye systems and stocked lakes. Creel surveys have been conducted at many locations, but generally give only a very minimal estimate of catch and effort. In 1974 an estimated total effort of 419,500 angler days for the Kenai Peninsual and 221,500 angler days for upper Cook Inlet. The Cook Inlet king salmon fishery will be described separately. Other fisheries will be described by geographical area and system. Cook Inlet sport fisheries occur in four main areas; Kenai Peninsula, Anchorage, Palmer and west Cook Inlet. Significant saltwater sport fisheries occur in Kachemak Bay and on the clam beaches of eastern Cook Inlet. King Salmon Fisheries Cook Inlet king salmon sport fisheries are divided into lower and upper Cook Inlet. In lower Cook Inlet, kings are taken in the Kenai, Ninilchik and Anchor Rivers, and Deep Creek. A saltwater troll fishery occurs off the Deep Creek-Anchor River area. In upper Cook Inlet, the fishery has been closed since 1973. The majority of fish were previously taken from the Deshka River (Kroto Creek) and Alexander Creek, tributaries to the lower Susitna River. Chunilna and Little Susitna Rivers, Lake Creek, and Willow Creek (all tributaries to the Susitna) and Ship Creek (Anchorage) provide the remainder of the catch. Management of king salmon sport fisheries has varied greatly since statehood. Prior to 1964, most streams were open to king salmon fishing from May through July on a continuous basis. Declining runs forced the closure of all king salmon fisheries in Cook Inlet in 1964 and 1965. Sport fisheries were reopened on a quota basis for selected streams in 1966. A harvest of 250 fish was allowed for upper Cook Inlet and 500 fish for the Kenai streams. The fisheries were opened only on two or three weekends in late May or June and anglers were required to carry special harvest punch cards. The quotas were removed in 1971, but the other restrictions remained in force. The upper Cook Inlet area was closed again in 1973. The Kenai fisheries have remained open and they appear to be in good shape. Total Cook Inlet catches have averaged 1,767 fish for all streams since 1966 and the saltwater catch has averaged 1,186 fish since 1970 (Table 48). The Kenai River fishery has become the heaviest producer in the last few years since anglers discovered the proper fishing technique (boats instead of shore angling). Catches from the Kenai River were negligible in the late 1960's but increased to 4,910 fish in 1974 (Table 49). Lower Kenai Peninsula streams average several hundred kings apiece. The Deshka River produced the largest catches (around 350 fish) for upper Cook Inlet before the fishery closure (Table 50). The Kenai River.king salmon fishery receives the greatest amount of fishing pressure, averaging about 24,000 angler days a season (Table 51). The three lower Kenai Peninsula streams receive about 7,500 angler days apiece, and the saltwater fishery receives about 6,000-8,000 angler days. In 1970 and 1971, the Ship Creek (in Anchorage), king salmon fishery was also opened several weekends in June. An estimated 5,000 fishermen caught about 50 kings the first season, and 1,000 caught 14 king slamon the following year. The fishery has been closed since then. Kenai Fisheries The Kenai Peninsula sport*fisheries are the most heavily utilized sport fisheries in the Cook Inlet area and anywhere else in the State of Alaska. Both freshwater and saltwater fisheries draw anglers to this area. Extremely popular systems include Kachemak Bay, Anchor River, Deep Creek, Ninilchik River, Kenai River, Russian River and the Swanson-Moose River canoe system. Saltwater Kachemak Bay is a major saltwater sport fishery in the area and one of the largest recreational fisheries in the state. Most effort is directed toward pink and coho salmon, Dolly Varden, halibut, flounder and cod. Within the bay, the Homer Spit shore fishery has the highest use. In 1973 over 25,000 angler trips were make on the Spit between June and September (Table 52). Cod and flatfish are the primary target species. Effort is also directed toward Dolly Varden in June, pink salmon in July and coho salmon in August and September. A privately owned boat fishery is developing within Kachemak Bay. Fishing is concentrated north of Homer Spit and across the bay around Tutka Lagoon. Halibut and pink salmon comprise the bulk of the boat catches. A significant charter boat fishery has also developed. No estimates of total effort are available for either of these fisheries. Available Kachemak Bay sport finfish catch and effort data are present in Table 52. The east side Kenai Peninsula razor clam sport fishery has become the largest saltwater sport fishery in the Cook Inlet area. Razor clams are found along eastside Kenai Peninsula beaches from the Kasilof River south to Anchor Point. The highest population densities are found along 120 the seven miles of beach at Clam Gulch. Catch, effort and total estimated harvest data has been collected'for the Clam Gulch beach from 1965-1975 (Table 53). Management personnel pay close attention to both the clams per digger per trip and the average size of clams in the catch. Analysis of the catch data reveals an increase in CPUE since 1970. Size frequency data collected since 1966 shows an increase in average length from 4 1/2 to 5 inches. These two factors suggest the stocks are mountaining at a high level. Harvest and effort has continued to increase in 1976. If digger effort continues at the present ratio, it is estimated that harvest for all eastside beaches will exceed one million razor clams. Effort is expected to approximate 32,000 man days. Table 54 shows estimated effort and harvest for all eastside- Kenai Peninsula beaches. Freshwater Important freshwater fisheries other than king salmon include Dolly Varden, sockeye salmon, pink salmon, coho salmon, grayling, rainbow and steelhead trout. Catch-effort data is limited and sporatic for these species but timing is fairly well documented. Dolly Varden and rainbow trout fisheries peak in June, sockeye salmon in July, pink salmon in July and August. Both the coho and steelhead fisheries take place in the autumn, peaking in September and October respectively. The Russian River, a tributary of the Kenai River, receives a large amount of sport fishing effort concentrated upon iu sockeye salmon runs. This fishery is closely monitered to allow pToper escapement. Emergency order closures are enacted when conditions warrant. Comprehen- sive data including catch, effort and timing have been collected for this system (Table 55). 121 Russian River red salmon stocks are comprised of two distinct runs which extend from June through August. The early run typically lasts from June 15 to the first week of July, the late run from July 15 to August 15. To allow for maximum resource utilization, Russian River sockeye anglers are restricted to single hooked, artificial flies. Dolly Varden, rainbow trout, cohos, pinks, whitefish and grayling are also caught in the Russian River (Table 56). The Kenai, Anchor, and Ninilchik Rivers and Deep Creek all provide pink salmon, coho, Dolly Varden or steelhead trout fisheries into Octo- ber. Combined with the Russian River these systems receive the bulk of angler effort. Aside from the major river systesm, numerous lakes and streams along the Sterling and Seward Highways provide good fishing for rainbow, Dolly Varden and grayling (Table 58). Anchorage Area The most significant freshwater fisheries in the Anchorage area are the Ship Creek salmon fishery, stocked lakes and the Twenty Mile River eulachon fishery (Table 59). Available creel census data is presented in Tables 60 and 60A. Ship Creek supports a coho salmon fishery during years with good runs. This fishery takes place after,the king salmon have reached the spawning grounds. Table 61 lists Anchorage area stocked lakes. Since 1972 angler usage of these stocked lakes has increased but current estimates are not available. The Twenty Mile River provides a popular eulachon dipnet fishery in May and June. Catches vary greatly between years (Table 60A). The Placer River also supports a eulachon fishery but production in recent years has declined. 122 Palmer Area The most popular fisheries' in the Palmer area are the Willow- Talkeetna highway salmon fisheries, the Knik-Palmer road salmon fisheries, and the managed lakes. Significant fishing areas are listed in Table 62. The primary salmon streams on the Willow-Talkeetna section are Willow, Little Willow, Sheep, Sunshine, Kashwitna, Goose and Montana Creeks. They all receive heavy use (July-September), primarily for coho and pink salmon, but also for chum salmon in good run years. Rainbow trout and grayling are fished heavily in May and June before the salmon arrive. The stream mouths are utilized most heavily. No total catch estimates are available for any of these systems. Spot creel survey checks were made, during the 1960's.% but the information is of minimal value. Estimates of total effort in 1970 and 1972 indicated that about 21,000 anglers utilized the Willow-Talkeetna area streams during the mid-July to mid-August period (Table 63). Anglers were prim- arily after coho and pink salmon. Willow Creek received the greatest amount of effort, between 8,500 and 9,500 anglers. On the Knik-Palmer Road, Wasilla Creek (Rabbit-Slough), Cottonwood Creek, and Fish Creek are heavily fished for salmon, primarily coho, sockeye, and pink salmon. The sockeye fishery occurs earliest, from mid-June to early July. The coho and pink fisheries extend from mid- July through August. The fisheries are restricted to weekends only, single hooks and the lower stream sections. No total catch or effort information is available. The runs have apparently declined in size over the last six or seven years, and effort has declined because of this and stringent angling Testrictions. 123 The numerous lakes between Palmer and Talkeetna are utilized exten- sively by anglers seeking rainbows, Dolly Varden, Arctic char, grayling, coho salmon, and burbot. About 25 lakes are consistently stocked with rainbows, coho salmon, and grayling (Table 64). Between 400,000 and 700,000 fish are stocked annually. The lakes provide year-round fisheries, with heaviest effort in May and June before the salmon runs in nearby streams. The effort may pick up again in the fall and a fairly intensive ice fishery develops on many lakes in the early and late winter months. Some lakes are managed primarily as winter fisheries and are planted with land locked coho salmon, which bite well in winter months. Catch and effort information is limited to some partial creel censuses, which do not give total estimates. the Kepler-Bradley Lake complex (Table 64) has the most intensive use in the area. Other high use stocked areas include Finger and Seymour Lakes. High use nonstocked lakes include Big Lake, the Wasilla-Cottonwood Lake group, Redshirt, and Nancy Lakes. The biggest winter fisheries are on Finger, Echo,- Lucille, and Victor lakes. Estimated total angler effort and coho salmon catch information for several lakes is available for 1968-1969 (Table 65). Finger Lake yielded over 4,800 fish for 1,450 angler trips. Winter burbot fishing is also gaining in popularity. Redshirt Lake near Willow has the best fishery, but Nancy and Cow Lakes are also fished. West Cook Inlet Popular sport fisheries on the west side of Cook Inlet are the Deshka River (Kroto and Moose Creeks), Alexander Creek, Lake Creek, Talchulitna River, Peters Creek, and the Chuitna River (Table 67). The Deshka is the highest use system in the area, with most effort directed 124 to salmon, primarily coho and pink, although.good rainbow and grayling fishing is available. The Talchulitna River is the top rainbow fishery in the area and receives heavy effort from fishermen who fly in and float the river. Most systems in this area are accessible only by airplane or riverboat. Float trips are a popular means of fishing. No estimates are available for total.catch and effort for systems in the area. Effort is moderate, estimated at just over 1,000 angler days of use a year. Most fishing effort is concentrated on systems in the lower Susitna and its tributaries. Very little fishing is done below the Chuitna River. ECONOMIC VALUES Information on economic value.for Cook Inlet area sport fisheries is limited to economic surveys of the three lower Kenai Peninsula king salmon fisheries, the Russian River sockeye fishery, and the Willow- Talkeetna area salmon fishery. Economic value was measured only in terms of expenditures for goods and services incurred in the fishing trips. Average expenditures per angler were highest for the lower Kenai Peninsula king salmon fisheries and lowest for the Willow area fisheries. The bulk of the fishermen in each fishery originate in the Anchorage area, so travel expenses are an important factor in determining fishing trip costs. An average of $8.12 was spent per angler day ($22.74 per angler trip) in the Kenai king fishery in 1971 (Table 66), while the average cost per angler day for the Willow salmon fisheries was $3.20 in 1970 and $5.47 in 1972 ($6.30 and $12.06, respectively, per angler trip). The Russian River sockeye fis hery costs fell between the other two fisheries. Total estimated expenditures were $100,000 for the Kenai 2 5, king fishery (1971), $105,000 for the Russian River sockeye fishery (1971), and averaged $195,000 for the Willow salmon fisheries (1970,1972). MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Sport fish management and research activities in Cook Inlet area include catalog and inventory, creel census,'habitat protection, public access acquisition, life history studies, and enhancement work. Catalog and inventory, creel census, enhancement, and access acquisition work have been primary activities. For catalog-and inventory work, most of the streams around the highways as well as the readily accessible lakes around Palmer, Anchorage and the northern Kenai Peninsuala have been surveyed for fish distribution and abundance. The popular fly-in-systems on the west side of Cook Inlet have also been surveyed. Creel census work has concentrated on collecting information on the king salmon fisheries and the Russian River sockeye system. As time permits, data is collected on Anchorage area lakes and in upper Cook Inlet. Lake fish stocking has been greatly emphasized, particularly in heavy use recreaction areas. Self sustaining fish populations have been established in many lakes, but most are stocked with hatchery reared, catchable-size fish for "put and take" fisheries. In these lakes, total harvest of the stock is desirable. Overharvest is not a problem and these lakes can su stain much heavier pressure than they presently receive. Often fishing has improved, or a successful sport fishery has been created where none existed before, through stocking and/or lake rehabil- itation. Much of the stocking work now is focused upon improving growth and survival by determining proper stocking rates and improving strains of fish by hybridization. 126 Acquiring public access to streams and lakes has been very important in the area. Recreational fishing demand is already heavy on Cook Inlet area sport fisheries, and private land development is rapidly restricting access to existing and potential sport fishing areas. In some locations in the Palmer and Anchorage area, the situation has become acute. Future expansion of the sport fisheries could be severely hampered, with increased access restrictions. Habitat protection also has been important. Urban development has severely damaged or destroyed fish habitat in several streams by stream diversion, channeling, dredging, filling, and blocking. These activ- ities affect fish populations by removing or damaging spawning and rearing habitat or by blocking migration. Instances of this are most common in the Anchorage area. Dumping toxic pollutants has also killed fish in several urban or suburban area streams. Private recreational developments around Anchorage and the Matanuska Valley have also caused problems with improper domestic effluent disposal. Phosphate levels and organic material increases in nearby lakes have caused destructive drops in oxygen levels for overwintering fish populations. Life history work has included a study on Cresent and Bench Lake grayling populations, and a long-term study of the Russian River sockeye runs. The Russian River study is conducted from a seasonal station and weir site on the river. In addition, escapement counts for coho and king salmon have been gathered for important tributaries on the Susitna drainage and for lower Kenai Peninsula king salmon systems. 127 Table 47 Distribution and abundance of sport fish species -in the Cook Inlet region. Forms Species Resident Anadromous Abundance Remarks Dolly Varden Char X X Moderate Not found in all anadromous streams, particularly on west side. Resident forms found in headwater tributaries, lakes. Arctic Char X Low Found in several lakes and streams on upper Kenai Penin. May be Dolly Varden. Rainbow Trout X High Found in clearwater streams and lakes throughout area. Highest concentration on Kenai Penin. Planted extensively around Palmer, Anchorage,.and Kenai areas. 4PSteelhead Trout X Low Found in Anchor, Ninilchik, Kasilof Rivers, Deep Cr. on lower Kenai Penin. Lake Trout X Low Found in a few deep lakes on Kenai Penin., west Cook Inlet, and near Cantwell. Kokanee X Low Found in a few lakes on Kenai Penin., lower end of Susitna, Matanuska Rivers. . Land-locked X Low Planted in some lakes near Palmer, Anchorage, Kenai for winter Silver Salmon ice fisheries. Grayling X Moderate Planted stocks in'Kenai River headwaters, natural stocks in Susitna tributaries. Whitefish X Low Found in Kenai, Kasilof, Matanuska, Susitna & Beluga River drainages. Smelt X Low Eulachon in Kenai, 20-Mile Rivers, Placer Creek, Matanuska and Susitna Rivers. May be locally abundant. continued Table 47 (continued). Distribution.and abundance of sport fish species in the Cook Inlet region. Forms Species Resident Anadromous Abundance Remarks Northern Pike x Low Found in Susitna River drainage in a few lakes. Burbot x Low Found in Susitna River drainage. Sturgeon x Negligible Green sturgeon reported rarely in Susitna River. Table '48 Cook Inlet sport caught king salmon catches based on punchcard returns, 1966-1975 l/. Upper Kenai Stream Kenai Inlet Year----.--Cook Inlet Peninsula Total Saltwater Total 1966 263 563 826 1967 315 544 859 1968 398 614 1,012 1969 339 273 612 1970 871 742 1,613 1971 479 782 1,261 1972 461 801 1,262 2,250 1,512 1973 -- 770 770 1,010 1,780 1974 5,996 5,996 600 6,596 1975 -- 3,455 3,455 885 4,340 Mean 447 1,454 1,767 1,186 4,057 1) Source; Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1967-1975. Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration,Ann. Progress Reports. Vol.7-16. 130 Table 49 Lower Cook Inlet king salmon catch, 1960-197@- Deep Cr. Year Anchor R. Deep Cr. Ninilchik R. Kenai R. Saltwater Total 1960 1,150 1961 1,012 1962 502 1963 1,158 1964 FISHERY CLOSED 1965 FISHERY CLOSED 1966 286 48 218 .11 563 .1967 236 183 118 7 544 1968 247 157 206 4 614 1969 84 40 '131 18 273 1970 170 60 275 237 742 1971 58 42 137 545 782 1972 167 137 156 341 2,250 3,051 1973 330 142 298 N/A 1,010 1,780 1974 443 290 353 4,910 600 6,596 1975 210 100 540 2,605 885 4,340 Mean 220 110 240 964 .1,186 1,919 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1961-1975. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol.2-16. 131 Table 50 King salmon catches in upper Cook Inlet systems, 1961-197@- Little 2/ Deshka Alexander Chunilna Susitna Willow Lake Ship Year River Creek Creek River Creek Creek Creek Total 1961 91 15 9 21 136 1962 142 33 3 44 222 1963 758 47 1 23 51 880 1964 FISHERY CLOSED 1965 FISHERY CLOSED 1966 205 28 4 26 263 1967 234 20 1 60 315 1968 324 71 -- 3 398 1969 310 21 -- 8 339 1970 579 286 5 -- -- 1 871 1971 434 1-5 14 7 0 2 7 479 1972 275 79 43 23 16 14 11 461 1973 'PISHERY CLOSED 1974 FISHERY CLOSED 1975 FISHERY CLOSED 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1962-1975.-Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Prog. Reports. Vol.3-16. 2) 1961-1963 catches reported in creel census - not total estimates. 196671972 catches according to punch card returns. 13 2 Table 51 Lower Cook Inlet king salmon fishery effort (angler-trips) Sub Deep Cr. Year Anchor R. Deep Cr. Ninilchik Total Kenai Saltwater Total 1960 5,300 1961 6,165 1962 2,325 1963 5,747 1964 FISHERY CLOSED 1965 FISHERY CLOSED 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 15,900 1972 13,520 3,610 1973 7,010 8,150 8,940 24,100 8,040 1974 6,850 8,460 5,690 21,000 23,610 5,090 1975 19,600 23,820 8,050 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1961-1975. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol. 2-16. 133 Table 52 Kachemak Bay sport finfish catch and effort7 Angler- Survey Survey Type of -Year Trips KS SS PS CS DV Hal. Fld. Cod RKF Others Totals Data Period FisherX Remarks 1966 714 43 102 391 242 70 45 893 Censused 6/24-9/5 shore,boat,pier partial census 1972 890 2 3 93 1 28 220 36 6 36 56 481 Censused 7/3-8/7 mainly boat partial census 1973 25,257 676 4,000 952 20,314 22,623 124 48, 689 Expanded 6/1-9/2 Homer spit, includes Mud Bay shore SS fishery 663 78' 59 49 46 43 7 282 Censused 7/8-9/2 private boats 846 212 Salmon 715 357 1,284 Censused 6/1-9/2 charter boats data from log book 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Came. 1967,1973,1974. Anadromous fish studies: southwestern Kenai Peninsula and Kachema k Bay. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol.7,14,15. Table 53 Razor clam creel census information collected at Clam Gulch, 1965-1975. 1) No. Diggers Total Clams tstimated Year Interviewed Enumerated Clams/Digger Harvest 1965 unknown unknown 35.2 32,500* 1966 91 3,790 41,6 39,000* 1967 987 32,455 32.9 45,800* 1968 997 27,334 27.4 84,700* 1969 2,998 93,836 31.3 279,480 1970 2,964 87,650 29.6 .226,150 1971 1,465 43,201 29.5 126,260 1972 3,624 109,528 30.2 259,560 1973 4,054 145,489 35.9 392,140 1974 4,733 163,906 34.6 596,110 1975 4,056 154,527 38.1 607,850 Clam harvest figures for 1965-1968 are minimum estimates. 1) Source David Nelson, A.D.F.&.G., Sport Fish biologist, Soldotna. Table 54 Estimated recreational razor clam harvest and effort on all east side Kenai Peninsual Beaches. 1969-1975. 1) Total Estimated Effort Estimated Razor Year (Man-Days) Clam Harvest 1969 129200 375,800 1970 11,100 306,450 1971 6,800 187,760 1972 15,400 437,530 1973 23,770 682,600 1 974 27,410 872,450 1975 24,260 896,080 1) Source David Nelson, A.D.F.&.G., Sport Fish biologist, Soldotna. Table 55 Sockeye salmon harvest, effort and success rates on Russian River, 1962-1974 l/. Harvest Effort Catch/ Census Year Early Run Late Run TotTl Angler-trips Hour Period 1962 3,410 1,290 4,700 6,600 0.220 6/15-V12 1963 3,670 1,390 5,060 7,880 0.190 6/8-8/15 1964 3,550 2,450 6,000 5,330 0.321 6/20-8/16 1965 10,030 2,160 12,190 9,730 0.265 6/15-8/15 1966 14,950 7,290 22,240 18,280 0.242 6/15-8/15 .1967 7,240 5,720 12,960 0.141 6110-8/15 1968 6,920 5,820 12,740 17,270 0.134 6/10-8/15 1969 5,870 1,150 7,020 14,930 0.094 6/7-8/15 1970 5,750 600 6,350 10,700 0.124 6/1.1-7/27* 1971 2,810 10,730 13,540 15,120 0.192 6/17-8/20** 1972 5,040 16,050 21,090 25,700 0.195 6/17-8/21 1973 6,740 8,930 15,670 30,590 0.102 6/9-8/19*** 1974 6,440 8,500 14,940 21,120 0.131 6/8-7/30**** 1962- 1973 Avg. 6,332 5,298 11,630 14,924 0.185 Census active from June 11 through'July 3 and from July 24 through July 27. Census active from June 17 through July 7 and from July 31 through August 20. Census active from June 9 through July 4 and from July 15 through August 19. Census active from June 8 through June 30 and from July 6 through July 31. 1) Source: Nelson, David c. 1975. Russian River red salmon study. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Report of Progress, Project F-9-7. 16:41pp. 137 Table -56 .- Russian River miscellaneous sport catch censused during the sockeye sport fishery, 1968-1974 1/. .Year SS PS RB DV WF GR .1968 40 55 450 800 6 3 1969 55 2 140 634 10 2 1970 2 37 175 12 2 1971 42 72 284 8 4 1972 385 42 382 589 14 1973 1974 1 171 1,446 57 Mean 88 33 209 414 18 3 A% 1) Sources: Engel, L.J., 1967-1972. Studies on the Russian River red salmon sport fishery. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol.10-13. Nelson, D.C., 1973-1975. Studies on the Russian River red salmon sport fishery. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol.14-16. 138 Table 57 . Anchor River sport fish catch and effort Angler- Coho Pink Year Trips Salmon Salmon Dolly Varden Steelhead Census Period 2/ .196E@_ 3,045 1,150 350 4,352 102 7/6-10/19 1969 3/ 19707 2,050 166 36 5 8/20-9/13 1) Sources: McHenry, E.T., 1969. Anadromous fish studies - southwestern Kenai Peninsula and Kachemak Bay areas. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report. Project F-9-1, 10:151-178. Nelson, D.C., 1972. Anadromous fish studies - southwestern Kenai Peninsula and Kachemak Bay. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report. Project F-9-4, 13:13-30. 2) Expanded estimates. 3) Angler-trips expanded, catch reported as censused. 139 Table 58 . Kenai Peninsula sport fishing areas 2/ 3/ System Location Species Present Remarks Homer Spit Homer SS,PS,DV,H, Heavy summer use. bottomfish Mud Bay Homer Ss Moderate use fall fishery. Anchor R. STH KS,SS,PS,DV,SH,RT Heavy summer, fall use. Species sought. Stariski Cr. STH KS,SS,PS,DV,SH Moderate summer, fall fisheries: Deep Cr. STH KS,SS,PS,DV,SH Heavy summer, fall use. RS snag fishery off mouth in July. Ninilchik.R. STH KS,SS,PS,DV,SH,RT Heavy summer, fall use. Crooked Cr. STH KS,SS,RS.,DV,RT,WF Light summer, fall fishery. Johnson L. STH RT Year-round fishery. Stocked. TustemenA L. STH SS,RS,DV,LT,WF Light fishery spring for LT, fall for SS, dangerous boat conditions. Centennial L. STH SS Light year-round fishery, stocked Mackay Lakes STH SS,RT Moderate year-round fishery, stocked. Kenai R. Soldotna KS,SS,RS,CS,PS,DV, Intense KS summer, SS fall RT,GR,WF,EU fisheries. DV,RT caught incidental. EU netted by Kenai in May. Sport L. Soldotna RT Stocked. Beaver Cr. Kenai SS,RT,DV Summer, fall fishery. Cabin L. N.Kenai Rd. RT Stocked. Bishop Cr. N.Kenai Rd. SS,RT Summer, fall fishery. Stormy L. N.Kenai Rd. AC,RT Year-round fishery. continued 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1975. Alaska sport fishing guide. Sport Fish Division, Juneau, Ak. 96 p. 2) STH = Sterling Highway. SWH = Seward Highway. 3) Underlined species are most heavily sought. 140 Table 58 (continued). Kenai Peninsula sport fishing areas. System Location Species Present Remarks Longmare L. Soldotna RT Year-round fishery, stocked. Scout L. STH SS Year-round fishery, stocked. Sunken Is. Swanson R.Rd. SS Year-round fishery, stocked. Lake Forest Lakes Swanson R.Rd. RT Summer, fall fishery, stocked. Dolly Varden Swanson R.Rd. RT,AC Year-round fishery. Lake Rainbow Swanson R.Rd. RT,AC Year-round fishery, stocked. Trout Lake Swanson R. Swanson R.Rd. SS,RS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery, moderate use. Swan Lakes Swanson R.Rd. RT,AC Summer, fall fishery, moderate use, canoe-portage system. Swanson Swanson R.Rd. SS,RT,AC Summer, fall fishery, moderate Lakes use. Canoe-portage system. Moose R. Naptowne KS,SS,RS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery, moderate use. E.Fork STH RT Summer, fall fishery, moderate Moose R. use. Watson L. STH RT summer, fall fishery. Kelly, Peterson STH RT Summer, fall fishery. Lakes Upper Jean L. STH SS Year-round fishery, moderate use. Jean L. STH RT,DV Year-round fishery, moderate to heavy use. Skilak L. Skilak Lp.Rd. KS,SS,RS,PS,DV, Summer, fall fishery. RT,LT,WF Ohmer Lakes Skilak Lp.Rd. RT,DV Summer, fall fishery, moderate use. Rock L. Skilak Lp.Rd. SS Summer, fall fishery. continued 141 Table 58 (continued). Kenai Peninsula sport fishing areas. System Location Species Present Remarks Hidden L. Skilak Lp.Rd. DV,RT,LT,Kok Year-round fishery, moderate to heavy use. Excellent winter, LT,Kok fishery, spring LT fishery. South STH GR Spring, summer, fall fishery, Fuller L. trail access. Russian R. Cooper Landing KS,SS,RS,PS,DV Summer, fall fishery - ve ry RT,GR,WF intense use. Top Kenai fishery. Mainly RS. Russian Lakes Cooper Landing RT,DV Summer, fall fisheries. Trail access. Swan L. STH RS,DV,RT,LT Summer fishery, trail access. Juneau L. STH RT,LT,WF Summer fishery. trail access, light hiker use. Trout L. STH RT,WF Summer fishery, trail access. Quartz Cr. STH SS,RS,DV,RT,GR,WF Summer, fall fishery. Cresent Cr. STH GR Simmer, fall fishery, moderate use. Cresent STH GR Summer, fall fishery, moderate use. Large fish-unique stock for Kenai Penin. Trail access. Jerome L. SWH RT,DV Year-round fishery, stocked. Trail L.,R. SWH DV,RT,LT,WF Summer, fall fishery. Granite Cr. SWH GR Summer, fall fishery. Ptarmigan Cr. SWH RT,DV Summer, fall fishery. Stunted DV called "golden-fins." Kenai L. SWH SS,RS,DV,LT,GR,WF Summer, fall fishery. Light effort. Grayling, SWH GR Year-round fishery, light use. Meridian L Trail access. Paradise Lakes SWH GR,RT Summer fishery, light use. Fly-in access. continued 142 Table 58 (continued). Kenai 1@eninsula sport fishing areas. System Location Species Present Remarks Summit Lakes SWH DV__ Year-round fishery. Bench L. SWH CR Summer, fall fishery. Trail access. Resurrection Cr. Hope PS,DV Summer fishery, light use. Granite Cr. SWH DV Summer fishery. Ingram Cr. SWH PS,DV Summer fishery. A#V& 143 Table 59 Anchorage area sport fishing locations (also see Table 61 stocked lakes) l/. System Location Species Present Remarks Placer Cr. SWH PS,DV,EU May dipnet fishery, light to heavy use. Portage Cr. SWH SS,DV Summer, fall fishery, very light use. 20-Mile R. SWR SS,EU May dipnet fishery, moderate to heavy.use. Bird Cr. SWH SS,PS,DV Summer fishery, light to moderate use. Campbell Cr. Anchorage KS,SS,PS,RS,DV,RT Summer fishery. Light to moderate use, mainly children. Closed to salmon fishing. Ship Cr. Anchorage KS,SS,PS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery. Light to heavy use, depending on SS run. Eagle R. GH PS,DV Summer fishery, light use. Knik R. GH EU May dipnet fishery. 1) Sources: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1975. Alaska sport fishing guide. Sport Fish Division, Juneau, Ak. 96p. Pers. comm., 1976. Stanley Kubik, Alaska Dept. of F ish and Game, Anchorage, Ak. 144 Table -60 Sport catch and effort on Jewell, DeLong and Campbell Pt. Lakes, Anchorage area, from June 7 to September 3, 1972 l/. 2/ Catch. Lake Species- Angler-Hours Catch Per Hour Campbell Pt. RT 6,363 3,308 0.52 Delong RT 4,788 2,011, 0.42 Jewell RT 17,925 7,170 0.40 1) Source: Trent, T.W., 1973. Catalog and Inventory of the Lower Susitna River.and central Cook Inlet. A.D.F.&G., Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report, F- 14:53-73. -2) RT Rainbow Trout. Table 60A Twenty-Mile River eulachon catch and effort, 1972-1974 Census Catch Year Period Angler-Hours Catch Per Hour 1972 5/25-6/4 1,759 15,870 9.02 1973 5/16-6/12 3,514 72,950 20.76 1974 5/16-6/12 2,100 630 0.3 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1973-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters of the lower Susitna and central Cook Inlet drainages. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports. Vol. 14-16. 145 Table 61 Intensive use stocked lakes in the Anchorage area Stocking Lake Location Species Rate(1975) Remarks Beach Anchorage RT 4,000 Campbell Pt. Anchorage RT 5"000 Delong Anchorage RT 5,100 Jewell Anchorage RT 14,600 Heaviest civilian use fishery. Sand Anchorage RT 5,300 Fish Elmendorf AFB RT 2,300 Hilberg Elmendorf AFB RT 8,100. Old Cooling Pond Elmendorf AFB RT 300 Used for kids derby. Triangle- Elmendorf AFB RT 3,500 Clunie Ft. Richardson RT 10,000 Derby Pond Ft. Richardson RT 600 Used for kids derby. Gwen Ft. Richardson RT 4,000 Otter Ft. Richardson RT 10,500 Thompson Ft. Richardson' RT 5,000 Lower Fire Peters Creek RT 6,300 Mirror Eklutna GR 20,000 1) Source: Kubik, S.W., 1976. Catalog and inventory of sport fish and sport fish waters in the upper Susitna River and central Cook Inlet drainages. Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Prog. Report. Study G-1 (in press), vol.17. 146 Table 62 Palmer area main sport fishing locations (also see stocked lakes, Table 64 ) l/. System Location Species Present Remarks Moose Cr. GH DV,RT Summer, fall fishery, light use. 17-Mile L. Sutton GR Year-round fishery, excellent summer fishery. ChickaLn R. GH SS,DV,RT,GR Summer, fall fishery, light use.' Caribou Cr. GH RT,GR Summer, fall fishery, light use. Wasila Cr. Palmer SS,PS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery. Very heavy SS fishery limited weekend openings. Light trout fishery. Cottonwood Cr. Wasila SS,RS,PS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery, very heavy SS fishery, limited weekend openings, light trout fishery. Wasila L. Wasila RT Year-round fishery, moderate use. Fish Cr. Knik SS,RT,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery, very heavy SS fishery, limited veekend openings, light trout fishery. Big L. Big L.Rd. SS,RS,DV,AC, 'Year-round fishery, top non- RT,BB stocked lake fishery in area. Rest DV,AC,BB fishery in winter, best SS,RT in summer. Horseshoe L. Big L.Rd. SS,RT Summer, fall fishery. Barbara L. Big L.Rd. SS,RS,RT,BB Year-round fishery. Excellent U fishery in winter. Little AFH KS,SS,PS,CS,DV "Summer, fall fishery. Lower Susitna R. RT,,GR,WF zreek below bridge heavy salmon fishery. Good float trip. Upper o=eek have stunted DV, light fishery. Nancy L. AFH SS,RS,DV,RT,WF,BB 'Year-round fishery. Heavy use ,W,RT summer, winter BB fishery _Tpod. continued 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game 1975. AUaska sport fishing guide. Sport Fish Division, Juneau, Ak. 96p. 2) GH = Glenn Highway; AFH = Anchorage-Fairbanks Haighway 147 3) Underlined species are most heavily sought. Table 62 (continued) Palmer area main sport fishing locations (also see stocked lakes, Table 64 System Location Species Present Remarks Red Shirt L. Nancy L.Rd. SS,RS,DV,RT,WF,BB Year-round fishery, moderate use. DV,RT summer, winter BB fishery good. Lower AFH KS,SS,PS,CS,DV,- Summer, fall fishery. Very heavy Willow Cr. RT,W,-GR,TB summer salmon fishery. Moderate DV,RT,GR fishery early summer. Light BB fishery, winter. Upper Fishhook Rd. DV Summer, fall fishery. Stunted Willow Cr. DV. Light fishery. Deception Cr. Fishhook Rd. SS,PS,CS,DV,RT,WF July-Aug. fishery, moderate- heavy for salmon. Light for trout Little AFH KS,SS,PS,DV,RT,WF, Summer, fall fishery. Heavy Willow Cr. GR salmon fishery, light for RT,GR. Kashwitna Cr. AFH SS,2VRT,GR,WF Summer, fall fishery. Poor salmon fishery. Moderate fishery. Caswell Cr. AFH SS,PS,CS,DV,RT,GR Summer, fall fishery. Moderate- heavy salmon fishery. Sheep Cr. AFH KS,SS,PS,CS,DV,RT Summer, fall fishery. Very GR,W heavy salmon fishery, light RT,GR fishery. Goose Cr. AFH SS,PS,CS,RT,GR,WF Heavy use summer, fall fishery. Montana Cr. AFH KS,SS,PS,CS,DV RT Very heavy summer salmon fishery, GR,WF fall RT, GR fishery. Birch Cr. AFH SS,RS,RT,GR,WF Poor salmon fishery, summer, fall RT,GR fishery. Chulina Cr. Talkeetna Rd. KS,SS,PS,CS,DV,RT, Spring, summer GR fishery. GR,W Moderate use. Riverboat, airplane access. Prairie Cr. Talkeetna Rd. RT,GR Summer, fall fishery. Excellent RT fishery. Moderate fly-in fishery. Troublesome Cr. AFH SS,PS,CS,RT,GR,WF Summer, fall fishery salmon, RT, GR light to moderate use. Byers L. AFH LT,GR,BB Year-round fishery. Light BB BB effort in winter, moderate LT, GR spring, fall effort. 14 continued Table (Continued) Palmer area main sport fishing locations (also see stocked lakes, Table 64. System Location Species Present Remarks .Spink L. near Byers L. RT Summer, fall fly-in fishery. Very light to light use. Excellent fishery. Lucy L. Eldridge Gl. LT,GR Summer fly-in fishery..Very light to light use. Coal Cr. Lucy L. SS,PS,CS,RT,GR,WF Summer fishery. Riverboat, fly-in use. Indian R. Chulitna SS,PS,RT,GR Summer fishery. Railroad access. Light fishery.. Portage Cr. Susitna R. KS,SS,RT,GR Summer, fall fishery. Excellent below Devil's potential, very light use. Canyon Riverboat or fly-in access. 149 Table 63 Total angler effort estimated for selected Susitna River tributaries in 1970.and 1972 1/. )4nglers 3/ Stream 19 7 CE-11 1972' Willow Creek 8,612 9,533 Montana Creek 6,179 5,636 Sheep Creek 2,083 2,629 Sunshine Creek 1,482 1,241 Little Willow Creek 1,090 847 Caswell Creek 1,120 613 Kashwitna River 477 308 Iron Creek 270 -- Goose Creek 169 225 Birch Creek 121 Total 21,482 21,153 1) Sources: Kubik, S.W., 1973. Anadromous fish population studies: Matanuska Valley and east side tributaries of the Susitna River and tributaries of. the Chulitna River, Alaska Dept. of Fish and Came, Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report. Project F-9-5, Study G-IV, 14:45-59. Watsjold, D.A., 1971. Creel census studies of the sport fish and sport fish waters of the Cook Inlet drainage, Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report. Project F-9-3, Study G-IV, 12:19-29. 2) Period of coverage: 7/22-8/26. 3) Period of coverage: 7/20-8/28. 150 Table 64. Managed lakes stocked on a regular basis in Matanuska Susitna valley, Palmer area.1/ Location Stocking Lake IRS RNG SEC Species Rates (1,000's) Remarks Florence 19N 5W 23 RT 21.0 Knik 16N 3W 9 RT 20.0-37.5 Very productive, popular fishery. Rocky 17N 3W 16,21 kT 12.0-33.0 Low productivity. Loon 18N 3W 36 SS 16.2 center Low productivity. Prator 18N 3W 25 SS 15.1 center Low productivity Seymour 18N 2W 32 RT 2,57.6 center Very productive, heavy use. Lucille 17N 1W 8,9 SS 55.5 Good winter fishery. Meirs 17N 1E 18 GR 5.0-10.2 Fair productivity, light-moderate use. Kepler-Bradley Complex Very productive lakes, year round fishing. Matanuska .17N 1E 23 RT 21. 2-92.0 Excellent fishery. Kepler 17N 1E 24 RT 10.0-102.5 Excellent for small fish. Bradley 17N IE 24 RT 10.0-102.5 Good fishery for small fish. Echo 17N 1E 24 -SS 6.9-9.2 Fair to good, winter fishery largest. Harriet 17N 1E 25 GR 5.0-16.4 Good fishery,, summer-fall. Victor 17N 1E 14 SS 2.7-10.4 Fair to good, mainly winter fishery. Canoe 17N 1E 13 RT %.7-8.5 Poor due to winter die-off. Irene 17N 1E 13 RT 5.6-8.4 Fair fishery. (continued) Table 64. (continued). Location Stocking Lake INS RNG SEC Species Rates (1,000's) Remarks Long (A) 17N 1E 14,13 RT 52.8 Good fishery. Gooding 18N 1E 22,23 GR 10.0 Finger 18N 1E 33,84 SS 108.6 Most population winter fishery,very productive. Reed 18N 1E 8 RT .3.4-4.5 Fair productivity Wishbone 19N 1E 24 RT 7.5-33.5 Lower Bonnie 20N 6E 19,20 GR,RT 12.2 RT Moderate-heavy use all year. Ravine 20N 6E 19 RT 8.7 Long (B) 20N 7E 20,21 GR 40:0 Moderate use, year round fishery. Cil Weiner 20N 7E 22 RT 10.0 Heavy use, fair productivity l/ Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and-Game 1961-1975. Catalog and Inventory of sport fish and sport fish waters in Upper Cook Inlet. Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Prog. Reports, Study G-I. Table 65 Winter fishery estimated effort and coho catch from three Palmer lakes (11/24/68 - 3/31/69) l/. Lake Angler-trips Catch Catch/Hour Finger 1,447 4,810 1.02 Matanuska 158 302 0.78 Reed 210 384 1.10 1) Source: Redick, R.R. 1969. Inventory and cataloging of the sport fish and sport fish waters in the Cook Inlet drainage. Fed. Aid to Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report, Project F-9-1, 10:243. Table 66 Estimated angler expenditures on goods and services for four Cook Inlet region sport fisheries l/. Avg./Cost Avg./Cost Avg./Cost Total Fishery Year Period Angler-Day Angler-Trip Fish Expenditur, Lower Kenai king streams 1971 5/264/12 $8.12 @22.74 $461.00 $100,050 Russian R. sockeye 1971 6/1-8/31 6.18 16.76 7.84 105,500 Willow area salmon fisheries 1970 7/20-8/28 3.20 6.30 135,259 Willow area salmon fisheries 1972 7/22-8/26 5.97 1-2.06 255,092 1) Sources: Engle, L.J. and D.C. Nelson, 1972. An economic survey of the king salmon sport fishery on three lower Kenai Peninsula streams and the Russian River red salmon fishery, 1971. Unpub. Report, Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game on file in Anchorage office: 26pp. Watsjold, 1971. Creel census of sport fish and sport fish waters of the Cook Inlet drainage. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progress Report. Project. F-9-3, study G-IV, 12:19-29. Kubik, S.W., 1973. Anadromous fish population studies: Matanuska Valley and east side tributaries of the Susitna River and tributaries of the Chulitna River. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Fed. Aid to Fish. Restoration, Ann. Progess Report, Project F-9-5, Study G-II, 14:45-59. 153 Table .67. West Cook Inlet sport fishing areas.l/ Location 2/ System RNG SEC Species Presentz- Remarks Deshka R. Petersville Rd. KS,SS,PS,CS,DV, Summer-fall fishery, top salmon fishery in area (Kroto-Moose Cr.) RT,@_R also receives heavy pressure for RT,GR. popular float. Road access. Peters Cr. Petersville Rd. SS,PS,DV,RT,GR Summer, fall fishery. Moderate to heavy use. Road access. Chelatna L. 27N 12W 1,2 LT,GR,WF Summer fishery. Light to moderate use,fly-in lake. Hewitt L. 22N 12W 11,12 RT,WF Summer fishery, moderate use, fly-in lake, good RT fishery. Whiskey L. 22N 13V 13,24 RT,WF,BB Summer fishery, moderate use, fly-in lake, good RT fishery. Fish Cr. 21N 9W 8 SS,RS,PS,RT Summer fishery, light to moderate use. Cil Lake Cr. 21N 9W 15 KS,SS,PS,CS,RT, Summer, fall fishery. Very heavy use. Fly-in, riverboat access. Canyon Cr. 21N 12W 19 SS,PS,CS,DV RT,GR Summer fishery. Light to moderate use.Fly-in access. Talchulitna. R. 21N 12W 35 KS,SS,RS,PS,CS Summer,fall fishery. Top RT producer in region. DV,RT,GR Heavy use for RT. popular float trip, fly-in access. Judd L. 17N .13W 13 SS,RS,@V,RT, Summer, fall fishery, DU main species, light to GR,WF,BB moderate use. Fly-in access. Alexander Cr. 15N 7W 6 DS,SS,RS,PS, Summer, fall fishery, very heavy use. Popular C S 15T, RT , float. Fly-in riverboat access. Lewis R. 13N 9W 12 SS,PS,CSDV,RT Summer fishery, light use, fly-in or boat access. Theodore R. 13N 9W 11 SS,PS,CS,DV,RT Summer fishery, light use, fly-in or boat access. (continued) Table 67. West Cook Inlet sport fishing areas.-L/ (continued) Location 2/ System RNG SEC Species Present- Remarks Felts L. 14N 11W 31,32 DV,RT Summer fishery, light use, fly-in access. Coal Cr. 15N 13W 12 SS,RSDV,RT,GR Summer fishery, light to moderate use. Chuitna 12N 11W 30 SS,PS,CS@)V,RT Summer fishery, heavy use for SS, PS, good DU, RT fishery. l/ Source: Alaska Dept. Fish and Game. 1975. Alaska sport fishing guide. Sport Fish Division. Juneau, AK. 26 p. pers. Comm. 1976. Stanley Kubik, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Anchorage, AK. 2/ Underlined species are most heavily sought. Cn Cil KODIAK AREA SALMON FISHERIES INTRODUCTION The Kodiak management area includes all waters from the southern entrance of Imuya Bay near Kilokak Rocks to Cape Douglas, including Kodiak, Afognak, Trinity and adjacent islands (Figure 4 ). The Kodiak Island group is formed by the Kodiak Mountains which are a structural, southwest continuation of the Kenai-Chugach Mountains. The area is characterized by rugged mountains and an extremely irregular coastline with many fiords and islands. Streams are short and swift, lakes are small, and small ponds are widely scattered over the glacially sculptured topography. The Karluk and Red Rivers, each about 25 miles long, drain much of southwestern Kodiak Island. The Karluk River, including Karluk Lake, and Dog Salmon River, including Frazer Lake, are among the most important river systems. The Kodiak area is divided into nine salmon management districts which are: the Alitak, Red River, Sturgeon River, Karluk, Uyak Bay, Uganik Bay, Afognak, General and Mainland districts (Figure 4 COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Description Commercial salmon fishing in the Kodiak area dates back to the late 1800's although catch figures are only available since 1893 (Table 68). The first cannery was built in 1882 at Karluk and shortly thereafter the' salmon fishery extended to the Red River district and Moser-Olga Bays in the Alitak district. Sockeye salmon were the principle species harvested for the first 30 years. Few king, coho and pink salmon were taken prior to 1912. When sockeye salmon catches began to decline as stocks 156 FIGURE 4. ALASKA DEPT. OF FISH & GAME ALASKA DIVISION OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES KODIAK REGULATORY DISTRICTS 6 REGULATORY DISTRICTS 4 1. ALITAK KILOKAK ROCKS .3 2. RED RIVER 3. STURGEON RIVER 2 4 KARLUK 5. UYAK BAY 6. UGANIK BAY 7.AFOGNAK 8. GENERAL 9. MAINLAND were depleted, effort was shifted to other species. Since 1924, pink salmon have dominated the commer'cial sa lmon catch. In recent years chum salmon have been second followed by sockeye salmon. There are more than 30 sockeye salmon systems in the Kodiak area, but only three of these, the Karluk, Red River and Upper Station systems, are today considered to be of major economicAmportance. Sockeye salmon were introduced into the Frazer Lake system in 1951 and presently the run is building at a rapid rate. The Akalura Lake system was historically an important sockeye producer but stocks declined drastically in the mid-1906's. The.1974 sockeye escapement, however, was over 35,000 fish and is the largest since 1948. There are approximately 240 streams in the Kodiak area that produce pink salmon. However, 60% to 85% of the total pink salmon escapement is usually cont ained in 31 of the major river systems. The major pink salmon producers are listed in Table 83 which gives the pink salmon escapements for the index streams in Kodiak. In recent years, chum salmon have become an important commercial species in the Kodiak area. Chum salmon are taken incidental to the pink and sockeye fisheries, but during late summer, chums aie the main species harvested, particularly on the north mainland and on the eastside of Kodiak Island. Coho salmon catches are incidental to other species. Catches have fluctuated with the level of effort for other species, especially effort directed at fall runs of sockeye and chum salmon. Many Kodiak streams have runs of cohos, but the bulk of the fish arrive fairly late and little directed effort exists. Coho salmon stocks are considered to be in good condition and generally under-utilized. Very few king salmon are harvested in the Kodiak area and those caught are all incidental to other fisheries. The Karluk and Red Rivers have the only natural king salmon runs. Kings have been recently intro- duced into the Dog Salmon River-Frazer Lake complex and appear to be established. The average annual salmon harvest in the Kodiak area from 1960-1974 is approximately 7.9 million fish which represents 17% of the total statewide salmon harvest for the same period. Since 1960, pink salmon have comprised 84% of the total Kodiak area commercial salmon catch, followed by chum (9%) and sockeye (6%). There are approximately 10 large processors in or near the city of Kodiak. In addition, there are processors located at Uganik Bay, Uyak Bay, Alitak, Port Williams, Port Wakefield, Larsen Bay,.Port Bailey and Moser Bay. Most salmon are canned, however, some are frozen, smoke- cured or sold fresh. Timing Sockeye salmon are the first species available to the commercial fishery. When available in sufficient numbers, a fishery in June occurs in the Red River district. Sockeye salmon bound for the Chignik River system are harvested in June from the capes near the southern boundary of the Mainland district along the Alaska Peninsula. Sockeye salmon remain in the fishery throughout the summer and are taken incidental to the pink salmon fishery. Sockeye salmon continue to enter some systems as late as October, particularly in the Karluk River and in the Upper Station system. Pink salmon are usually available to the fishery in early July. These early runs are generally harvested from the Capes and consist 159 primarily of migrating fish bound for the bays of adjacent districts. As the season progresses, bay fisheries develop. The pink salmon fishery normally peaks from the last week of July through the first week of August, although variations from this pattern occur. Chum and coho salmon are primarily harvested by purse seines after the pink fishery, or taken incidentally during the pink fishery. The few king salmon harvested are taken primarily from the westside pink salmon fisheries. Effort Salmon may be taken by purse seines, hand purse seines and beach seines in all districts of the Kodiak area except Olga and Moser Bays, where only set gill nets are permitted. Set gill nets are permitted in those bays and a few other locations on the westside of the island. The distinction between purse seines and hand purse seines is not clear, sometimes only a few rings are used on a modified purse seine. The fishing regulations and licenses make no distinction between the two. Purse seines account for the majority of the salmon catch in the Kodiak area and have averaged 232 licensed nets annually since statehood (1960- 1974). Beach seines have averaged 27 licensed nets annually for the same period, while set nets have averaged 181 licensed nets. Economic Values The 15-year (1960-1974) average annual value to the fishermen of the Kodiak salmon fisheries is approximately 4.6 million dollars (Table 79). However, this average annual value is not truly representative of the fisheries economic value at today's prices. Figuring the 15-year average annual salmon harvest at 1974 prices, the average annual value 160 to the fishermen is approximately 14 million dollars. ESCAPEMENT AND SPAWNING 1ntroduction The Department operates counting weirs on the major sockeye salmon systems in the Kodiak area. The Commercial Fisheries Division operates weirs at Karluk, Red River and Upper Station while weirs at Frazer Lake and Akalura Lake are run by the Division of Fisheries Rehabilitation and Enhancement (FRED). Sockeye escapement counts on these systems represent total numbers of spawning sockeye salmon. Escapements of king salmon into the three Kodiak systems, Karluk, Red River and Frazer Lake, are monitored by aerial surveys and weir counts. Coho salmon escapements are not closely monitored due to their late appearance, and the difficulty in surveying these systems. Escapement counts of pink and chum salmon are made by aerial and grpimd surveys. These counts represent indices of spawner magnitude and are not total escapement numbers. Very few king salmon are produced in the Kodiak area. The Karluk and Red River have the only natural king salmon runs with recent five- year average escapements of 2,500 and 1,300, respectively. Kings have been recently introduced into the Dog Salmon River-Frazer Lake complex and appear to be established. Table 80 presents estimated king salm on escapment for the Karluk and Red Rivers. Many Kodiak streams have runs of coho salmon, but due to the lateness of the runs escapement figures are incomplete. Coho salmon stocks are considered to be in good condition and generally under-utilized. Estimated coho escapements on a few selected streams are presented in Table 81 Very little escapement information for chum salmon in the Kodiak area is available. Many of the early and mid-season runs of chum salmon 161 are difficult to manage because pink and sockeye fisheries are also harvesting chums. The fisheries on the early run of chum at Sturgeon River and the late runs on the north.mainland and the eastside of the Island are managed with the aid of aerial surveys. Chum salmon utilize many of the same streams as pink salmon for spawning. Sockeye salmon stocks in the Kodiak area have declined drastically from earlier years. The present strategy used in managing the sockeye salmon fishery is to try to gradually build the escapement levels in the major systems such as Karluk, Red River and Upper Station. Some supplemental production from spawning channels, incubation devices and hatcheries, including adult transplants, will be.required to bring all former Kodiak producers of sockeye salmon back up to earlier production levels. Table 82 presents the estimated sockeye salmon escapement for the major systems in the Kodiak area. Pink salmon pre-emergent fry data has been collected from the Kodiak area since 1963. The data is used to estimate pink salmon returns with varying degrees of success. The method does not take ocean mortality into account, but forecasts based on fry abundance do help identify strong and weak portions of the expected returns. -Table 83 presents the peak escapement counts of pink salmon for the Kodiak area since 1960. From 1934 to 1959 the odd-year cycle dominated the fishery. In 1960 the even-year cycle began to improve and the odd-year cycle declined slowly. Presently the majority of pink salmon runs in the Kodiak area are characterized by an even-year cycle of abundance. The 1971 and 1972 low pink salmon returns are believed to have resulted from the extreme streambed scouring and high stream temperatures in the late summer,and early fall of 1969 and the severe winter of 1970-1971 and low estuarine temperatures. 162 Habitat, Migration and Timing Salmon spawning and rearing habita t in the Kodiak area is essentially the same as outlined in the generalized life histories (Appendix). Several minor sockeye salmon runs are produced in systems without lakes and rear in side sloughs, spring-fed areas, or deep holes. Many coho salmon runs are also found rearing in the same habitat. In the Kodiak area, pink salmon exhibit a dominant even-year cycle. As mentioned earlier, 60% to 85% of the total pink salmon escapement is usually contained in 31 of the major systems which comprise the Kodiak area's index streams. These major streams are cyclic with large runs occurring during even years. Odd-year production is greatly reduced. A major portion of the pink salmon stocks in the Kodiak area, and to a lesser extent chum salmon stocks, utilize intertidal areas for spawning. Timing of salmon spawning in the Kodiak area differs by species, systems, and season. Generalized timing information is presented by species for the entire Kodiak area in Table 84. Escapement Goals Optimum escapement figures are not defined for each pink salmon system, but desired escapement levels for many major producers have been determined. Properly distributed, the desired pink salmon escapement goal for the entire Kodiak area is 2.5-3 million fish during even years and 0.8-1.3 million fish during odd years. Desired escapement goals for sockeye salmon are not as clearly defined. Escapement goals have been forumlated for sockeye salmon runs on the Karluk, Upper Station, Red and Frazer Rivers. However, these escapement goals are based on the available spawning ground, rearing potential and historic production. Presently sockeye production is at a 163 very low level. Although these runs are increasing, the following escapement goals may be revised'according to future responses of the runs. Desired sockeye escapement goals for future production are: 800,000-1,000,000 for the Karluk River, 180,000 for Upper Station, 200,000 for Red River, and 385,000 for the Frazer River. Escapement goals for king, coho and chum salmon have not been defined. These fisheries are managed by comparison of past catch and escapement information. STATUS RELATED TO MAXIMUM SUSTAINED YIELD Current stock assessment and escapement information is not adequate to estimate maximum sustained yields (MSY) for the Kodiak area's fisheries. However, average commercial harvests by species for the entire area is presented below. Comparisons of catches from past years indicate possible estimates for maximum sustained yields of the Kodiak fisheries. Very few king salmon are harvested in the Kodiak area and those caught are taken incidentally to other fisheries. No estimates of MSY have been formulated. There are no estimates of MSY for sockeye stocks in the Kodiak area. The average annual sockeye harvest since 1934 is approximately 905,000, compared to the last 10-year average annual harvest of 484,000 fish. A better indication of sockeye salmon potential might be the comparison of the 12-year average catch from 1934 to 1945 of 1,826,000 fish with the average catch since 1945 of. 549,000 fish. Comparison of catches from past years indicate that present production in all systems is far below the MSY. Coho salmon stocks in the Kodiak area are considered to be in good condition and generally under-utilized. It is suspected that coho runs 164 could sustain catches from 100,000-200,000 fish annually. The pink salmon fishery in'the Kodiak area is very cyclic. Pink salmon harvests since 1934 have varied from a low of 188,000 in 1967 to a high of 14,114,000 fish in 1962. The average annual harvest from 1934-1974 of 7,081,000 fish is probably close to an estimated MSY for pink salmon in the Kodiak area. Chum salmon have become an important commercial species in the Kodiak area. The average annual chum salmon harvest from 1935-1974 of 660,000 fish probably comes fairly close to the MSY level. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Management problems in the Kodiak area center around segregation of stocks in the fishery and the depressed state of the sockeye salmon runs. Some form of nonregulatory rehabilitation will be required to rebuild the Karluk sockeye salmon run to former levels. Frazer Lake was originally opened to sockeye runs through use of a fishway in 1963 and � subsequent program of fry and adult stocking was undertaken to establish � sockeye run. This system is now building on its own and annual es- capements are increasing. It is desirable to afford this stock continued protection through at least one more cycle until it has increased to the spawning and rearing capacity of the system. Statewide programs to develop new methods of stock identification will have particular application to the problems of rebuilding and maintaining Kodiak sockeye salmon stocks. These techniques will also allow more precise management of individual pink and chum salmon stocks. Optimum escapement estimates for major pink and chum systems will be improved through analysis of new and existing data, expanded escapement 6 coverage, and work within the systems on spawning capacity and measures of annual variability in survival conditions. Pink salmon run strength assessment will be improved through the application of marine survival estimation techniques to upgrade pre-season forecasts.. This, coupled with stock identification, would give the manager the tools to increase or decrease fishing pressure by stock in response to annual fluctuations in stock abundance and spawning requirements. 166 Table 68 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974 l/. 2/ Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1893 3,244,609 3,244,609 1894 3,830,336 3,830,336 -- 1895 2,255,287 2,246,966 8,321 1896 3,328,846 3,328,846 -- 1897 2,787,015 2,785,515 1,500 1898 2,052,269 -- 2,033,094 19,175 1899 1,968,350 1,104 1,934,771 32,475 1900 3,487,557 4,838 3,450,480 32,239 -- 1901 4,831,012 3,838 4,826,159 -- 2,015 1902 3,906,005 2,932 3,868,101 34,972 -- 1903 1,956,891 1,187 1,8 26,163 119,541 10,000 1904 2,986,624 3,190 2,875,118 103,136 5,180 1905 2,231,776 2,496 2,142,367 86,913 -- 1906 4,007,840 3,640 3,980,462 23,738 1907 4,274,528 4,105 4,232,454 38,059 -- 1908 2,851,039 3,208 2$487,848 73,789 286,374 1909 2$124,232 3,907 1,915$230 51s500 153,595 1910 2$215s988 1,598 1,954,717 44,291 215,382 1911 2$944,551 689 2,685s949 21,,870 229s551 6,492 1912 2s836s4O3 686 2,246,467 17,491 547,171 24,588 1913 2,285,740 1,082 1,663,163 27s634 590sO39 3,822 1914 3,028,341 1,,329 1,255$444 32$063 1,726,411 13,094 1915 1$989,588 939 1,664,426 51s819 252sO73 20s331 continued 1) Source - iNPFC, Historical Catch Statistics for Salmon of the North Pacific Ocean. 2nd Draft, July, 1974 and A.D.F.&G., Statewide Catch Statistics, Final IBM run. 2) For 1893-97, catch figures inli 7 a mixture of coho and pink salmon. Table 68 @continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1916 6,634,628 1,038 3,373,055 49,683 3,181,890 28,962 1917 3,919,152 1,457 3,645,914 30,485 225,335 15,961 1918 4,523,680 2,021 1,894,466 78,169 2,467,325 81,699 1919 2,067,982 1,831 1,619,101 104,233 282,715 60,102 1920 4,080,839 1,637 1,957,636 88,970 1,977,421 55,175 1921 2,966,813 660 2,857,922 45,764 67,688 24,779 1922 4,208,013 703 1,097,359 119,724 2,766,257 223,970 1923 2,136,749 1,915 1,090,117 77,554 928,510 38,653 1924 7,082,187 1,002 1,407,525 120,686 5,435,091 117,883 1925 4,674,095 1,911 1,693,057 92,960 2,673,675 212,492 1926 8,121,837 596 3,015,366 174,475 4,606,694 324,706 1927 7,026,369 4,358 1,155,202 151,548 5,297,305 417,956 1928 4,146,987 2,546 1,592,003 290,645 1,535,313 726,480 1929 8,025,616 3,200 712,126 144,226 6,108,402 1,057,662 1930 2,770,609 4,991 466,409 298,800 1,651,398 419,011 1931 8,378,333 1,541 1,183,074 170,075 6,839,906 183,737 1932 6,069,473 1,873 1,058,446 52,192 4,719,939 237,023 1933 8,631,536 1,140 1,428,373 91,428 6,573,660 536,935 1934 10,223,073 1,300 1,828,953 89,588 7,641,891 661,341 1935 12$854,126 1,393 1,613,519 76,849 10,780,612 381,753 1936 8,819,590 2,548 2,657,195 183,903 5,647,726 328,218 1937 19,180,851 1,257 1,881,304 164,902 16,787,150 346,238 1938 11,160,234 1,232 1,965,943 154,959 8,397,981 640,119 1939 14,283,799 2,272 1,786,445 112,171 11,741,218 641,693 1940 12,138,646 1,2.33 1,318,233 149,016 9,997,899 673,265 continued Table 68 .(continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1941 9,978,339 2,571 1,730,201 199,515 7,601,531 444,521 1942 8,047,173 1,329 1,281,529 106,865 6,092,526 564,924 1943 14,985,164 1,133 1,990,557 59,661 12,479,608 454,205 1944 7,332,275 668 1,817,875 51,675 4,955,354 506,703 1945 11,707,109 2,021 2,041,090 60,122 9,044,544 559,332 1946 10,739,774 129 838,863 56,425 9,545,871 298,486 1947 10,220,907 99 993,394 76,230 8,856,666 294,518 1948 7,593,512 1,401 1,260,465 32,364 5,968,487 330,795 1949 6,574,251 851 892,336 53,737 4,927,779 699,548 1950 6,953,475 2,127 920,885 40,653 5,304,701 685,109 1951 3,102,503 2,402 467,875 48,792 2,100,377 483,057 1952 6,476,278 1,081 603,677 51,567 4,576,726 1,243,227 1953 6,084,041 2,991 317,150 41,681 5,174,645 547,574 1954 10,082,593 942 325,157 66,430 8,439,231 1,250,833 1955 11,478,081 2,428 164,482 34,582 10,794,164 482,425 1956 4,349,104 1,123 271,249 52,844 31318,841 705,047 1957 6,195,232 1,030 234,253 34,995 4,716,482 1,208,472 1958 5,280,147 1,942 288,014 20,555 4,038,938 930,698 1959 3,047,278 1,837 330,087 14,51@ 1,967,058 733,784 1960 8,456,274 1,238 362,525 54,308 6,737,817 1,300,386 1961 4,882,380 864 407,979 28,579 3,926,023 518,935 1962 15,748,920 1,095 784,664 54,583 14,113,851 '794,727 1963 6,249,556 286 407,040 57,011 5,480,158 305,061 1964 13,713,833 1,306 498,488 35,535 12,044,341 1,134,163 1965 3,691,866 786 346,237 26,672 2,886,831 431,340 continued 169 Table 68 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1893-1974. Year Total King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum 1966 12,218,293 599 631,646 67,700 10,755,582 762,766 1967 735,357 1,753 308,756 10,354 187,813 226,681 1968 10,337,508 1,936 760,393. 56,629 8,768,122 750,428 1969 13,678,465 2,469 591,481 48,759 12,500,823 534,933 1970 13,941,130 1,089 917,047 66,424 12,036,598 919,972 1971 6,378,179 920 478,479 22,844 4,334,492 1,541,444 1972 3,883,197 1,300 222,800 16,588 2,478,737 1,163,772 1973 1,001,343 800 i67,341 3,573 511,708 317,921 1974 3,329,475 545 418,761 13,631 2,647,244 249,294 170 Table 69 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Afognak sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 73 22,146 21,683 699,866 16,581 760,349 1961 78 56,959 13,372a 163,386 5,893 239,688 1962 180 38,322 26,664 1,190,890 41,840 1,297,896 1963 48 20,841 11,778 283,656 9,984 326,307 1964 92 13,584 5,012 694,459 26,979 740,126 -4 1965 1 1,252 3,985 31,009 1,845 38,092 1966 146 24,257 14,561 2,132,838 29,064 2,200,866 1967 ill 8,309 2 1,328 2,017 11,767 1968 727 23,640 14,659 983,170 44,612 1,066,808 1969 636 32,381 1,004 32,724 3,594 70,339 1970 163 28,318 8,891 855,986 29,481 922,839 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 69 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Afognak sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1). 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 7 74 1,029 388 1,498 1972 439 14,979 2,866 311,100 25,277 354,661 1973 23 5,428 892 53,414 6,423 66,180 1974 30 7,619 6,016 71,367 3,857 88,889 -4 Table 70 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Chiniak and South Marmot Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 31 5,365 7,691 468,258 70,910 552,255 1961 72 4,854 2,099 293,700 32,861 333,586 1962 80 15,702 12,515 1,243,596 81,327 1,353,220 1963 29 7,857 6,144 551,184 48,811 614,025 1964 71 10,340 6,880 1,105,879 143,808 1,266,978 1965 13 1,313 684 75,274 75,418 152,702 1966 .67 17,596 6,362 1,573,000 132,456 1,729,481 1967 51 3,996 1,212 30,165 20,183 55,607 1968 250 18,915 5,833 648,370 78,706 752,083 1969 915 22,659 843 1,532,652 112,740 1,677,397 1970 187 23,035 10,477 1,582,520 115,112 1,731,331 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do riot match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table @O (continued). Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Chiniak and South Marmot Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 181 4,312 4,001 552,370 161,006 721,870 1972 82 6,926 1,934 252,899 65,918 327,759 1973 39 3,120 51 39,630 6,985 49,825 1974 154 1,249 1,309 18,386 23,129 344,227 Ab Table 71 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Eastside sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 96 3,209 5,939 795,257 125,268 929,769 1961 77 15,788 .5,984 896,216 160,946 1,079,011 1962 41 24,902 5,760 2,772,831 149,720 2,953,254 1963 75 47,181 10,059 2,203,836 117,238 2,378,389 1964 359 13,718 9,150 ls685,480 205,880 1,914,587 4 CA 1965 50 7,179 5,702 880,119 140,336 1,033,386 1966 29 2,356 5,459 1,334,291 99,928 1,442,063 1967 686 41,842 20,657 63,185 1968 105 3,417- 3,475 2,266,237 167,916 2,441,150 1969 184 14,799 12,844 6,224,847 243,636 6,496,310 1970 98 14,710 6,423 5,136,400 281,063 5,438,725 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 71 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Eastside sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye__ Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 495 28,926 8,237 1,556,439 680,296 2,274,393 1972 221 14,873 4,415 1,173,185 600,602 1,793,296 1973 704 3,212 977 93,395 143,611 241,899 1974 102 4,744. 1,754 962,097 107,454 1,076,151 C) Table 72 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Alitak sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total - 1960 29 67,527 2,156 1,561,476 102,415 1,733,603 1961 23 145,827 1,590,4,,27 60,653 1,471 1,798,401 1962 5 124,497 1,793 1,886,832 54,124 2,067,251 1963 30 54,999 1,203 1,526,720 42,896 1,625,848 1964 29 50,185 736 1,419,475 37,051 1,507,476 1965 16 68,809 693 20,804 1,226,263 1966 2 70,526 585 429,204 33,201 533,518 1967 8 14,693 57 85,042 16,397 116,197 1968 16 40,662 3,701 1,046,221 29,450 1,120,050 1969 27 98,699 7,240 3,770,604 45,134 3,921,804 1970 8 81,544 4,540 949,871 93,320 1,129,283 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 72 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Alitak. sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 33 124,480 2,261 1,066,180 191,437 1,384,391 1972 15 22,134 1,290 188,829 95,181 307,449 1973 4 10,338 125 49,932 24,408 84,807 1974 19 67,743 1,284 355,154 23,938 448,138 -4 'CO Table 73 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Red River sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 13 12,043 528 577,793 10,463 600,840 1961 105 53,071 8,877 1,765 25 63,843 1962 270 188,659 735 2,833,912 11,335 3,034,911 1963 23,459 856 7,462 280 32,057 1964 169 58,379 2,1.71 2,399,854 17,521 2,478,094 1965 107 26,567 312 2,221 482 29,689 r-O 1966 146 155,751 2,794 307,556 .2,678 468,925 1967 716 94,528 95 2,487 4,775 102,601 1968 541 .286,407 11,021 1,203,093 10,331 1,511,393 1969 50 69,780 1 6,669 348 76,848 1970 45 40,816 2,468 834,771 3,748 881,848 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports., 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs-. Table 73 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Red River sub area, by speciest in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 Closed - No fishery 1972 197 63,333 118 119,780 4,437 187,865 1973 79 44,109 2 3,688 439 48,317 1974 24 53,718 107 215,790 2,115 271,754 C:) Table 74 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Uyak and Uganik Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 482 88,433 4,882 3,187,758 10,463 3,688,832 1961 126 80,259 3,196 930,119 193,665 1,207,365 1962 137 223,493 5,064 1,728,335 191,043 2,148,072 -1963 43 104,926 260,901 663,658 385,282 1,414,810 1964 228 143,711 4,797 2,657,403 266,632 3,072,771 CO 1965 108 105,489 5,372 682,774 147,699 941,442 1966 101 179,147 31,170 4,207,851 323,339 4,741,608 1967 60 46,969 1,155 22,431 16,992 87,607 1968 170 134,434 4,993 1,951,276 1M,785 2,269,658 1969 270 1535,820 3,865 6461,566 33,880 838,401 1970 238 98,290 1,985,355 - 118,276 2,209,942 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual MAnagement Reports. 2) Totals to not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 74 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Uyak and Uganik Bay sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1971 87 54,888 4,603 777,008 133,983 970,583 1972 342 42,691 3,934 376,106 177,914 600,987 1973 53 24,862 1,217 253,704 46,236 326,072 1974 .165 45,473 1,713 566,231 30,103 643,685 CO IMIJ Table 75 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Mainland sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. 1) 2) Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 57 4,483 2,272 347,925 407,277 892,375 1961 1 2,580 34,102 61,464 344 98,491 1962 8 4,020 445 1,187,829 259,828 1,452,130 1963 150 1,624 4,706 8,428 14,908 1964 10 24,435 937 604,879 203,203 833,464 1965 8 16,561 513 64,827 83,836 165,745 1966 10 23,945 945 301,418 133,449 459,767 1967 232 29,321 563 940 114,892. 145,948 1968 24 179,052 4,115 377,956 237,811 798',953 1969 142 103,133 1,014 65,562 94,349 264,200 1970 32 545,472 1,764 283,630 271,272 1,102,170 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 75 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Mainland sub area, by species, in numbers of fish,- 1960-1974i 1) Year King Sockeyg Coho Pink. Chum lotal 2) 1971 110 251,572 2,477 379,657 373,979 1,007,795 1972 3 49,,096 1,935 45,162 192,990 289,186 .1973 84 72,845 315 24,356 90,651 188,251 1974 40 156,879 820 23,762 56,719 238,220 00 43b Table 76 Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Karluk sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 2) 1960 452 157,580 8,308 788,970 29,293 984,608 1961 380 48,433 6,'404 2,044 2,081 59,342 1962 282 171,869 1,816 1,155,797 6,415 1,336,179 1963 51 147,627 20,402 13,979 528 182,587 1964 433 163,585 4,884 1,293,076 31,129 1,493,107 00 cn 1965 473 119,048 9,435 16,307 2,953 148,216 1966 100 155,678 1,469 464,292 8,654 630,193 1967 577 111,406 6,591 6,854 30,788 156,216 1968 103 7310866 8,832 291,799 2,817 377,417 1969 226 95,988 14,372 16,510 1,187 128,283 1970 318 84,872 24,080 417,053 7,034 553,357 continued 1) Source ADF&G, Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Totals do not match with INPFC totals due to errors in IBM runs. Table 76 (continued) Commercial salmon catch, Kodiak area, Karluk sub area, by species, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 2) 1971 14,010 1,191 311 -138 15,650 1972 1 7,572 T54 18,741 2,207 28,675 1973 2 3,903 573 57 4,535 1974 8 77,811 326 133,300 564 212,009 GO Table 77 Summary of salmon gear registration, Kodiak area, 1960-1974 l/. Purse Seine Beach Seine Set Net Year Resident Non-Res. Total Resident Non-Res. Total Resident Non-Res. Total Grand Total 1960 228 97 325 20 2 22 99 50 149 496 1961 248 ill 359 14 1 15 126 36 162 536 1962 223 103 326 7 0 7 118 36 154 487 1963 180 95 275 9 3q 12 109 42 151 438 1964 198 98 296 9 3 12 112 44 156 464 1965 208 84 292 20 3 23 133 46 179 494 1966 203 93 296 23 5 28 142 50 192 516 CO -4 1967 189 66 255 20 3 23 125 35 160 438 1968 241 89 330 22 3 25 150 35 185 540 1969 219 88 307 22 4 26 153 44 197 530 1970 253 109 362 34 3 37 166 60 226 625 1971 265 98 363 32 5 37 138 48 186 586 1972 272 113 385 46 4 50 168 51 219 654 1973 272 101 373 48 6 54 55 219 646 1974 NA NA 303 NA NA 32 NA NA 170 505 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Kodiak Annual Management Reports and unpublished file data, Limited Entry Commission. Table 78 Summary of vessel license registration, Kodiak area, 1960-1974 Vessel Licenses Year Resident Non-resident Total 1960 404 216 620 1961 441 341 782 1962 565 257 822 1963 360 196 556 1964 524 195 719 1965 518 198 716 1966 600 .240 840 1967 581 182 763 1968 626 182 808 1969 654 183 837 1970 475 174 649 1971 1,024 343 1,367 1972 464 166 630 1973 465 146 611 1974 451 124 575 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Kodiak Annual Management Reports and unpublished file data, Limited Entry Commission. 188 Table 79 Value of commercial salmon catch to the fishermen, Kodiak area, in dollars, 1960-1974 l/. 2/ Value to the Fishermen Year King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 1960 3,251 342,273 45,539 2,807,615 595,041 3,793,719 1961 2,359 385,541 24,006 1,727,459 295,793 2,435,158 1962 3,011 761,124 6,976 6,422,704 476,830 7,670,645 1963 798 394,829 49,030 2,411,270 183,037 3,038,964 1964 3,644 483,533 30,560 4,215,519 680,498 5,413,754 1965 2,193 363,549 22,938 1,096,996 258,804 1,744,480 1966 2,139 8941416 77,765 5,3 43,158 583,325 6,900,803 1967 6,813 418,672 13,510 92,635 174,643 706,273 1968 5,728 1,076,712 67,103 3,786,074 645,365 5,580,982 1969 6,527 780,754 50,025 6,150,403 333,794. 7,321,503 1970 2,982 1,677,213 125,982 5,371,343 697,690 7,865,210 1971 2,626 829,206 27,975 2,612,180 1,500,962 4,972,949 1972 3,669 427,220 25,444 1,710,154 1,742,452 3,908,939 1973 5,326 610,231 5,055 591,078 882,046 2,093,736 1974 3,794 1,151,702 29,249 3,007,827 615,748 4,808,320 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Kodiak Annual Manage ment Reports. 21) Based on the average weight/fish times the average price/lb. 189 Table 80 Estimated king salmon escapement, Kodiak area, Karluk and Red Rivers, by year, in numbers of fish, 1965-1974 1/. 2/ 3/ Year Karluk River Red River 1965 978 1966 8,000 1967 1,500 1968 700 1969 1,750 1970 1971 4,500 1972 3,000. 851 1973 3,000-4,000 1,261 1974 1,000 1,644 1) Source A.D.F.&G., 1966-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters. Federal Aid in Fish Restoration, Annual Progesss Reports, Vol.7-16. 2) Karluk River king salmon escapement estimates are approximations based on post-spawning surveys, harvest trends and personal observations of the fisheries by area biologists. 3) Red River king salmon escapement estimates represent weir counts. 190 Table 81 Estimated coho salmon escapement, Kodiak Island area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1966-1974. l/ 2/. 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 American River 350 300 700 450 250 140 50 300 Buskin Lake 250 2,200 2,100 850 1,200 1,000 675 1,250 500 Kalsin River 150 150 25 50 73 75 Lake Rose Tead 1,600 2,600 3,500 2,000 1,000 1,050 2,800 2,350 Miarn Lake 350 800 300 500 3,000 700 460 11,500 Olds River 250 750 275 275 275 50 252 50 Pillar Creek 50 35 25 4 Roslyn River 80 60 250 300 30 100 Solonie Creek 250 600 700 450 500 100 37 75 300 Saltery Creek 1,000 400 240 600 1) Source - A. D. F. & G., 1966-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters. Federal Aid in Fish Restoration, Annual Progress Reports, Vol. 7-16. 2) Escapement estimates are approximates based on post-spawning surveys, harvests trends, and personal observations of the fisheries. Table 82 Estimated sockeye salmon escapement, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974 1/ 2/. 4/ Year Red River Karluk River Upper Station Lake Frazer Lake Akalura Lake 1960 34,546 348,693 45,193 440 1961 205,493 295,801 73,884 273 1962 278,954 561,740 39,531 1,290 1963 63,563 397,020 30,270 2,357 1964 36,342 484,075 37,249 8,166 1965 72,356 347,486 22,603 5,074 1966 66,057 455,112 44,931 11,728 1967 227,089 372,464 88,980 14,500 1968 212,794 34,940 40,5 31 16,708 44@ 5/ 3/ 5/ 1969 71,097 318,860 95,006- 13,976 3607- 3/ 1970 28,395 313,552 53,00i- 24,081 3,563 1971 109,199 142,265 104,809 55,366 3,618 1972 113,733 210,087 96,577 65,777 8,491 1973 119,993 237,464 87,633 56,255 5,769 1974 181,630 333,086 286,665 82,609 35,908 1) Source - A.D.F.&G., Kodiak Stock Status Report (unpublished) and Annual Management Reports. 2) Data obtained from weir counts. 3) Weir count plus estimated escapement before and after weir operated during weir washouts. 4) Akalura weir not operated between 1958-1968. 5) Weir removed before September-October portion of run. 192 J/ Table 83. Estimated pink salmon escapement for index streams Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1960-19747 . Stream 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965: 1966 1967 .1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974_ Portage Lake 28,000 5,000 27,300 37,000 10,000 20,000 3,000 6tOOO 25,000 15,000 25,000 12,000 11,000 6,000 2 Paramanoff 18,000 13,000 20,000 23,000 18,000 2,20 17,M.-s 200 27,000 2,900 15,000 1,300 15,600 1,000 7,000 2 1 Yalina 34,000 60,000 35,000 20 19,000 13,000 1,000 31,000 100 2,030 3,800 8,300 Afognak 14,000 3.,000 75,000 2,000 45,000 900 26,000 1,000 10,000 12,000 25,000 3,400 29tOOO 9,500 15,250 Marka 20,000 65,000 12,000 22,000 5,500 35,000 2,500 15,000 12,000 120,000 12,500 31,000 38,000 Danger 17,000 8,000 50,000 300 11,000 5,000 ' 25,000 5,6100 15,000 7,600 45,000 5,800 20,600 3,000 14,000 to W Bauman's 17,000 800 8,000 1,800 9,000 4,200 6,000 7,000 7,000 6,000 1,300 3,000 4,000 Terror 32,000 22,000 45,000 79,000 . 40,000 17,280 85,000 35.,000 45,000 55,000 40,000 40,000 25,000 14,000 39,000 Uganik 91,000. 24,00 0 100,000 29,000 75,000 12,000 80,000 .-40,000 21,000 60,000 80,000 37,000 60,000 50,000 95,000 Little 31,000 45,000 50,000 65,000 45,000 75,000- 14,000 2,000 16,000 Zachar 40,000 10,000 25,000 31,000 24,000 12,600 16,000 2,700 15,000 17,000 30,000 14,000 45,000 9,000 92,000 Brown's 62,000 2,000 96,000 65,000 3007 24,000 300 35,000 2,600 37,000 400 8,00.0 500 8,000 Uyak 36,000 15,000 65,000 30,000 100,000 60,000 40,000 75,000 35,000 95,000 69,000 65,000 34,000 50,000 12,500 Karluk 336,000 350,000 20,000 525,000 225,000 140,000 210,0-00 36,000 57 212,000 Sturgeon 52,000 35,800 140,000 90,000 30,000 48tOOO 4,000 13,000 13,000 Red River 205,000 100,000 425,000 175,000 300,000 800,000 100,344 1,500 612,712 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Kodiak Area Office files, summarized from annual aerial surveys and represent peak live counts of spawning pink salmon. 2) FRI aerial peaK counts. Table'83 (continued). Estimated pink salmon escapement for index streams,'Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1960-1974. Stream 1960 1961 1962 1963 '1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974- Dog Salmon 173,000 47,000 83,000 100,000 50,000 36,000 21,OOG 11,000 12,000 45,000 25,000 63,000 38,000 22,000 27,000 Narrows .18,000 18,000 4,500 4,200 2,500 600 3,500 2,800 6,000 3,000 5,000 1,000 2,600 Deadman 38,000 3 000 25,000 35,000 18,000 30,000 12,000 70,000 20,000 65,000 65,000 100,000 44,000 40,000 4.3,000 Humpy 85,000 89,000 300,000 160,000 80,000 175,000 36,000 60,.000 120,000 55,000 110,000 122,000 45,000 -45,000 72,000 GO Seven Rivers 135,000 20,000 128,000 72,000 10,000 104,270 40,000 47,000 100,000- 33,000 100,000 54,000 12,000 20,000 15,500 Kaiugnak 10,000 34,000 24,500 10,000 8,500 10,000 8,000 10,000 4,000 29,000 3,000 17,000 1,000 @'000 Barling 28,000 28,000 40,000 9,600 60,000 7,454 20,000 12,000 28,000 20,000 48,000 23,000 13,000 23,000 32,000 Kiliuda 11,000 10,000 18,700 12,000 17,000 2,200 9,000 1,700 5,000 2,000 8,000 2,5-00 15,000 1,500 14,500 Saltery 22,000 75,000 70,000 68,000 28,000 20,000 17,000 36,000 5,000 50,000 15,000 57,000 19,000 25,000 22,000 Miam 37,000 22,000 42,000. @7,000 3,000 20,000 1,000 55,000 Hurst 20,000 16,000 3,000 27,000 8,000 Sid Olds 70,000 3,000 30,000 6,000 35,000 19,000 55,000 36,000 63,000 40,000 17,000 12,000 36,000 American 21,000 24,000 25,000 9,000 24,000 14,000 25,000 70,000 84,000 18,900 48,000 10,500 17,000 Buskin 19,000 7,200 109,000 7,250 93,000 25,500 20,000 28,000 42,000 66,500 44,250 7,900 26,350 10,000 45,815 Sharatin 10,200 12,000 15,000 11,000 3,200 13,000 11,000 11,000 9,000 10,000 6,400 28,000 3,000 17,000 Table 84 General salmon run timing information, Kodiak area Present Present Peak of Species Bays and Estuaries Freshwater Spawning King Salmon Mar. 15-July 1 June 15-Sept. 1 Aug. 10-Sept. 1 Sockeye Salmon May 1-Sept. 15 May 15-Nov. 15 Aug. 1-Oct. 1 Coho Salmon July 1-Oct. 1 Aug. 15-Dec. 15 Oct. 15-Nov. 15 Pink Salmon June 1-Sept. 1 June 15-Oct. 1 Aug. 1-Sept. 15 Chum Salmon June 15-Sept. 1- Aug. 15-Oct. 1 Aug. 15-Oct. 1 1) Source A.D.F.&G., Kodiak area staff, personal communication, 1976. 195 KODIAK AREA HERRING FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The first recorded commercial harvest of herring occurred in the Kodiak area during the 1912 season. A sustained annual herring harvest commenced in 1916 and developed to a large scale fishery by the early 1930's which continued through the 1950's. During the early years of the fishery, small herring operations were prevalent for salting and halibut bait. As the fishery expanded, large herring reduction plants developed. During the height of the fishery (1930's, 1040's), herring were utilized for meal, oil, pickling, dry salted and halibut bait. Market conditions for meal and oil became nonprofitable and no herring were processed between 1960 and 1,963. The average commercial herring harvest in the Kodiak area from 1916 to 1933 was 1,860 tons annually while the average annual harvest from 1934-1950 was 401000 tons. The peak harvest occurred in 1934 when 120,797 tons of herring were harvested (Table 85 During the years of intensive herring fishery, 1934-1950, large seine vessels were utilized along with limited use of gillnets and herring pounds. Herring fishing effort was spread throughout the entire Kodiak area. As the herring fishery declined in the late 1950's, many of the large seine vessels were converted to crab boats as the king crab fishery developed. The Kodiak herring fishery remained idle fron 1960-1963. The advent of the Japanese market for herring sac roe, combined with the meal by-product, sparked new interest and a limited fishery began in 1964."Presently the herring fishery in Kodiak is directed at sac roe, with one plant processing the carcasses for meal znd oil and others for 196 crab and halibut bait. The average annual herring harvest from 1964- 1974 is 1,034 tons with a peak 'harvest in 1966 of 2,769 tons (Table 85). Herring harvest for sac roe depends on the availability of herring in pre-spawn condition for roe removal. During the past five years herring have not been available in sufficient numbers in pre-spawn condition, so only a limited amount of the herring harvest has been processed for sac roe. The herring sac roe fishery normally occurs from May through early June prior to the spawning period. From July through August herring are taken for bait and reduction purposes. The Zachar Bay reduction plant in Kodiak has been processing a lesser amount of herring for meal over the past few years. At present, the meal operation seems to be a break-even business. Since 1964, herring fishing effort has been concentrated on the west side of Kodiak Island, primarily in Zachar and Uyak Bays. Refer to Table 86 for the breakdown by geographical area of the Kodiak commercial herring harvest from 1964-1974. Herring recently harvested in the Kodiak area have mostly been taken by small salmon seine vessels. The use of pounds to trap and hold herring until the roe has been removed-has also been utilized by small independent operators. Comparative effort data by year for the Kodiak herring fishery is incomplete. However, the number of purse seine vessels participating in the herring fishery was 5 in 1967, 21 vessels in 1969 and 11 vessels in 1973. The annual value to the fishermen of the Kodiak herring fishery has fluctuated markedly since the inception of the sac roe fishery in 1964. Fluctuations in the value resulted from: different catch levels, market conditions which influence prices paid to the fishermen, and the quality of the herring for sac roe. The 1974 Kodiak herring harvest was worth approximately $169,600 to the fishermen. 197 DISTRIBUTION AND LIFE HISTORY The offshore marine existence and the migratory habits of herring in the Kodiak area have not been documented, consequently this portion of herring life history is poorly understood. Currently, research conducted on herring in the area is carried out during the summer months when herring are distributed inshore. The degree of separation or intermingling of herring stocks within the area is not known. Aerial surveys are conducted annually to establish areas of spawning and spawning intensity. Surveys have had limited success since herring spawning in the Kodiak area occurs over a very wide period of time as well as physical area, thus making it difficult to cover the right area at the right time. Herring spawning behavior in the Kodiak area has been erratic for the past five years. Large concentrations of prespawn herring have been unavailable to the sac roe fishery, however, high numbers of herring have been observed throughout the Kodiak area after the spawning period. Areas of herring spawning as well as timing of spawning has varied greatly during recent years. The Kodiak herring map included in the map portion of this report outlines areas in which herring spawning and feeding have been observed. In the Kodiak area, herring do not always utilize the same spawning areas each year. Also, the amount of deep water spawning occurring in the area is not known. Therefore, it should be noted that the spawning areas outlined on the map are not all inclusive and that these spawning areas may not be consistent from year to year. Large concentrations of spawning herring have been observed on the westside of Kodiak Island throughout Uyak, Uganik, and Viekoda Bays. Spawning herring have also been observed on the eastside in Port Hobrom and on the mainland in Kukak Bay. 198 Herring spawning in the Kodiak area generally occurs from May through mid-Jun'e, however, the peak of spawning varies greatly from year to year and between geographical area s. Water temperatures appear to play an important role in the timing of herring spawning. Generally water temperatures of 39'-400F. are considered minimum. However, tempera- ture requirements for herring spawning in the-Kodiak area may be more dependent on degree days rather than absolute temperatures. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Present herring management activities in the Kodiak area include biological sampling from the fishery as well as limited gillnet sampling from known spawning areas. The sampling program began on a limited basis in Zachar Bay in 1967 and now includes most areas where commercial herring fishing occurs. Data is collected on age, length, weight, and roe weight and condition. Water temperature is also taken. Age composi- tion of herring stocks has been utilized as a method to interpret the general condition of the stocks. A stable distribution of age classes indicates a relatively stable population dynamics. The Kodiak herring fishery is monitored with the aid of the vessel the M/V Smolt as well as through aerial surveys and processor and fishermen contacts. There is no closed season for herring fishing in the Kodiak area, however, present regulations state that from March 1 through June 30 the commercial herring season will be closed when 3,400 tons of herring have been taken. Present herring regulations restrict the commercial herring fishery in bays closed to salmon fishing from June 1 through October 31. Permits"are required f.or use of enclosures for retaining live herring and for the taking of herring spawn. Table 85 Commercial herring catch, Kodiak area, by year, in tons of fish, 1912-1974. 1) Year Catch in tons Year Catch in tons 1912 20.0 1935 No data 1913 No harvest 1936 24,748.0 1914 No harvest 1937 27,659.3 1915 No harvest 1938 24,522.0 1916 70.0 1939 38,600.5 1917 137.9 1940 22,677.0 1918 118.4 1941 40,083.5 1919 259.7 1942 16,791.0 1920 45.9 1943 35,352.0 1921 944.9 1944 26,835.0 1922 1,482.6 1945. 31,114.0 1923 321.5 1946 47,505.9 1924 4,823.0 1947 50,7434 1925 9,997.0 1948 46,428.0 1926 2,680.9 1949 No harvest 1927 2,592.9 1950 44,132.5 1928 625.0 1951 4,299.0 1929 No data 1952 1,389.0 1930 622.0 1953 725.0 1931 1,000.0 1954 No harvest 1932 3,594.0 1955 No harvest 1933 2,312.5 1956 13,524.0 1934 120,797.0 1957 21,818.5 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&G., 1974 Kodiak Annual Management Report. 200 Table 85 (continued) Commercial herring catch, Kodiak.area, by year, in tons of fish, 1512-1974. Year Catch in tons Year Catch in tons 1958 1,711.0 1967 1,662.4 1959 3,831.0 1968 2,000.6 1960 No harvest 1969 1,130.0 1961 No harvest 1970 341.6 1962 No harvest 1971 284.3 1963 No harvest 1972 215.0 1964 567.8 1973 867.4 1965 657.2 1974 877.9 1966 2,769.3 201 Table 86 Commercial herring catch, Kodiak area, by geographical area, in tons of fish, 1964-1974. 1) 2) Chiniak & Year Afognak South Marmot Bay Eastside Uganik Bay Uyak Bay Sturgeon R. Total 1964 309.78 258.00 567.78 1965 44.82 612.38 657.20 1966 36.38 144.92 67.00 1,746.35 774.63 2,769.28 1967 1,642.98 19.38 1,662.36 1968 15.00 1,985.63 2,000.63 1969 22.69 163.12 163.61 780.50 1,129.92 1970 17.67 26.04 27.00 270.91 341.62 1971 44.36 6.92 25.00 .02 208.00 284.30 1972 10.31 41.90 162.88 215.09 1973 139.41 248.51 9.67 70.12 399.68 867.39 1974 372.84 88.14 198.71 218.20 877.89 1) Source A.D.F.& G., Kodiak Annual Management Reports. 2) No herring were commercially harvested in Kodiak from 1960-1963; the sac roe fishery began in 1964. KODIAK AREA HALIBUT FISHERIES INTRODUCTION The Kodiak Island halibut fishery is unique in comparison to all other developed fisheries in the area. Management and research con- cerning this fishery is in the hands of the International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC), based in Seattle, Washington. As implied by the name of the managing agency, this is an international fishery with Canadian and American fishermen operating simultaneously on the same fishing grounds. Kodiak Island waters are included in the IPHC management area 3A which extends from Cape Spencdr to Kupreanoff Point (Figure 5 COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The commercial halibut fishery around Kodiak Island began in the early 1900's as Seattle based vessels expanded efforts in search of un- tapped stocks. The eastside of Kodiak Island, particularly on Portlock Banks and around Chirikof Island, proved to be extremely productive areas. The development of the halibut fishery in terms of pounds landed for catch area 3A can be seen in Table 87. The halibut fishery consists of two segments. The majority of the commercial catch comes from larger vessels capable of fishing far offshore grounds. Along with the offshore fishery, a substantial small boat fishery works inshore areas. These smaller vessels typically fish halibut as a supplement to salmon. Historically, the halibut fishery has consisted of schooner type vessles roughly 80 feet in length. Most of these vessels were comissioned in the early 1900's and originally powered by a combination of motor 203 ALASKA BERING SEA 4D CAPE SPENCER Ilk 3A .4 D c1'>,t5 %KUPREANOF. PT. 14A %%% 4 B % % 3 B 3 C NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN Figure 5 Regulatory areas of the International.Pacific Halibut commiss power and sails. All vessels still operating have been updated to utilize diesel engines and incoiporate the latest electronic equipment. Few new vessels have been entered into the fishery. Halibut are fished by means of a setline type gear referred to as a t1skate." Larger vessels carry ice to preserve caught halibut in their holds. Trips vary in length but large vessles commonly fish over 20 days before delivery loads of up to 65,000 pounds of fish. Smaller vessels usually deliver on a day by day basis although some are capable of icing down their catch and therefore making longer trips. All other means of harvesting halibut are illegal. In addition, all halibut taken incidentally in any other fishery must be returned unharmed to the water. The current halibut regulations provide for a season opening May 1 and closing by emergency order dependent upon catch but not later than September 6. The spring 1976 price of $1.29 per pound makes halibut the most valuable fish product per pound in the Kodiak area. It is impossible to determine exactly the economic value of halibut to Kodiak because landing of Kodiak halibut may take place as far away as Seattle. DISTRIBUTION Data collected by IPHC, NMFS and ADF&G fairly well define the distribution of halibut on the Kodiak shelf. Major stocks lie east and south of Kodiak with particular population densities near PortlockBanks and off Chirikof Island. IPHC has designated the 150 to 200 fathom area east of Chirikof Island as an important spawning area. 205 LIFE HISTORY Halibut life history is described in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. Information specific to the Kodiak area is largely unavailable. MANAGEMENT The halibut fishery of the entire Pacific Ocean has been managed jointly by Canada and the United States during the past forty years under the International Pacific Halibut Commission. The sole objective has been'to provide a sustained maximum yield. Major problems involved with the*management of halibut stocks'come from the incidental catch and subsequent mortality subjected to halibut by other fisheries. Halibut are commonly caught in both shrimp trawls and crab pots. No clear solution to this problem is available at this time. RESEARCH The IPHC undertakes annual trawl surveys in the Gulf of Alaska. Most waters east of Kodiak receive some sample effort. Data"from this work is used to assess stock size and recruitment. Halibut catch quotas are developed using this data. 206 Table 87 Commercial halibut catch in the Gulf of Alaska, Halibut Commission area 3A, in pounds, 1960-1974 l/. 6 Year Catch in Pounds (xlO 1960 30.0 1961 33.9 1962 34.6 1963 32.9 1964 33.1 1965 33.7 1966 34.4 1967 30.9 1968 27.1 1969 .30.3 1970 30.3 1971 26.1 2/ 1972 25.9 1973 17.3 1974 9.6 Average 28.7 1) Source International Pacific Halibut Commission Annual Reports. 2) Catch reported as a total for both area 3A and 3B. Area 3B production is small, generally less than 12% of the total area 3A catch. 207 KODIAK AREA GROUNDFISH FISHERIES INTRODUCTION Kodiak groundfish stocks must be discussed in a totally different context than other contemporary fisheries for three reasons: 1) groundfish are a major resource inhabiting the continental shelf of the United States that are exploited almost entirely by foreign fishing fleets, 2) although grouped under the catch-all term "groundfish," this is actually a multi-species fishery including pollock, Pacific cod, lingcod, blackcod, Pacific Ocean perch, assorted rockfish, sculpins and all flatfish excluding halibut, and 3) comprehensive research describing the range and abundance exclusively for these species has not been carried out. COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The majority of ail commercial fishing activity for groundfish stocks along the Kodiak shelf is carried out by Japanese and Russian fleets. These foreign fishing fleets initially entered the area in the early 1960's. Effort has increased steadily since that time with vessels operating both singularly and in groups including factory ships. Specific data involving foreign fishing activity is beyond the scope of this report. The remainder of this discussion will be concerned with domestic activity and species profiles. Groundfish stocks in the Kodiak management area support a minor domestic fishery at this time. The majority of the groundfish catch is marketed locally as bait for the king and tanner crab fisheries. Alaska Department of Fish and Game has catch statistics dating back to 1972 when 55,600 pounds of Pacific cod and pollock were landed (Table 88). Catches are increasing but until a market develops the 203 domestic fishery should not expand significantly. In 1974, 715,101 pounds of groundfish were marketed in Kodiak. Most of the 1974 catch was Pacific cod and assorted flatfish. No data is currently available concerning fleet size or effort dynamics. Most groundfish landings come from shrimp vessels. However, a few crab fishing vessles are rigged to trawl for their own bait. The economic value of groundfish in the current Kodiak bait market is $.20 per pound. This figure makes the 1974 catch worth.$143,020.00 to the fishermen. Because of the undeveloped nature of this fishery any discussion of potential value would be speculation. Although interest in a domestic groundfish fishery has been growing, no plans to market the product for human consumption are likely to mature this year. A Kodiak based group of fishermen have formed a corporation and purchased a processing vessel. Their ultimate intent is to market groundfish products from the Kodiak shelf but initially they will process shellfish and salmon. SPECIES PROFILES Pollock (Theragra halcogranmus) Exploratory fishing drags of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) indicate a major concentration of pollock south and east of Kodiak along Albatross Banks. The International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC) trawl data indicates catches of pollock from the gully and canyon areas of the continental shelf. Concentrations of pollock have been documented at depths from 50 to 150 fathoms. Life history of pollock has not been studied in the Western Gulf. In other North Pacific areas pollock form dense schools in the spring. These schools of pollock migrate to shallower inshore waters to spawn. Females contain between 209 .2 and'1.5 million eggs each. After spawning and fertilization the eggs are planktonic. Hatching occurs in the upper portion of the water column where temperatures range from 6 to 7'C. As juveniles develop, they progressively become more bottom dwelling in habitat. Pollock mature at three to four years of age and may live as long as fifteen years. Pollock prefer planktonic crustaceans and small fish as food. Daily vertical movements of both juvenile and adult pollock are probably related to feeding habits. Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus Exploratory fishing by both NMFS and IPHC has located scattered concentrations of Pacific cod on the Kodiak shelf in depths between 45 and 90 fathoms. Pacific cod have well defined seasonal movements which appear to be controlled by water temperature. They migrate to shallower water in spring and summer. Spawning takes place during late winter and spring. Females each contain between 1.4 and 6.4 million eggs. Hatching occurs at the bottom in 4*C water. Maturity is reached in about three years in the Gulf of Alaska. Individuals may live eight to ten years. Pacific cod feed on other fish and crustaceans, particularly shrimp and tanner crab. Blackcod (Anoplopoma fimbria) Blackcod are uncommon along most of the Kodiak shelf. The only documented concentrations are found east of Kodiak in 180 to 275 fathoms. A life history synopsis is presented in the Appendix. 210 Pacific Ocean Perch (Sebastes alutus) Large quantities of this species have been recorded east of Kodiak over the outer continental shelf and,slope. Scattered concentrations have been recorded in the Shelikof Straits. Ocean Perch appear most commonly between 80 and 125 fathoms. A life history synopsis is presented in the Appendix. Flatfish (excluding Halibut) Flatfish typically make up over half of any exploratory trawls made on the Kodiak shelf. Thirteen species are commonly found. These include turbot, mottled sand dab, sand sole, starry flounder, Alaska plaice, English sole, Dover sole, slender sole, yellowfin sole, rock sole, butter sole, flathead sole and rex sole. Distribution of species is related to depth. Concentrations can be found in depths from 30 to 150 fathoms. Flatfish reproduction and life cycles are not well known. Spawning is believed to occur in spring along the coastal shallows. Size at maturity and life spans vary among species. Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus There is no data available defining lingcod distribution. A life history sketch is presented in the Appendix. Sculpins and Irish Lords Incidental catch reports from both shrimp and crab research fishing indicates that sculpins and Irish lords are abundant throughout the Kodiak shelf. No life history work has been conducted on these species around Kodiak. 2 Table 88 Commercial groundfish catch, Kodiak area, by species, in pounds, 1972-1974. 1) Year True Cod Flounder Sablefish Red Sna2per-Rockfish Ling Cod Bullhead Pollock 1972 50,295 5,305 1973 13,093 111,064 37,603 6,050 1,096 53,116 1974 156,630 418,433 1,705 15,241 58,761 64,331 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Annual Management Report. KODIAK KING CRAB FISHERIES COMERCIAL FISHERIES The Kodiak Island king crab fishery ranks as one of the most important shellfish fisheries in the world. Exploitation of king crab in the Kodiak area began around 1936. Commercial catch records date back to 1950. This report will be concerned with data collected since 1960. The king crab fishery was pioneered by salmon fishermen, utilizing small boats during the off-season fall and winter months. The gear types included tanglenets, otter trawls and light weight pots. Pots gradually became the exclusive gear; tanglenets were too difficult to fish and trawls were outlawed in 1960 for damaging incidentally caught females and under- sized males. Commercial harvests increased rapidly during the 1960's as markets and technology developed. Yearly harvests rose from 16.8 million pounds in 1960 to a record high of 90.5 million pounds in 1966 (Table 89). The large harvests of the mid 1960's constituted overfishing. The fleet continued to expand operations to more distant grounds but the annual catch dropped steadily to a low of 12 million pounds by 1970. Since 1970 stocks have slowly been staging a comeback. The 1974 harvest of 23 million pounds was the largest in seven years. Salmon vessels continued to dominate through the early 1960's. In 1963 larger vessels, specifically designed for crab, began entering the fishery. In 1964 fifteen vessels larger than 80 feet fished Kodiak king crab for the first time. Total number of vessels participating rose from 143 in 1960 to a high of 227 in 1967 (Table 91). Since that time, reduced seasons and harvest levels have caused the number of participating 213 vessels to drop to a low of 88 in 1972. Currently'the Kodiak king crab fleet consists-of about 200 vessels, 20 percent of which are greater than 80 feet in length (Table 92). The economic value of king crab to Kodiak fishermen has varied a great amount over the years due to variability in catches and market conditions. Sale price per pound paid to fishermen varies depending upon location of the buyer and the interval during the season when the sale occurs. Accurate records of these variables have not been maintained. Generally speaking prices held steady through the 1960's ranging from eight to twenty-five cents per pound. Prices rose with the decreased harvests of the early 1970's to the aVerage 1973 price of fifty-five cents per pound. Poor market conditions in 1974 caused a drop in price to forty cents per pound. Average.economic value is usually calculated by taking the current price times the average harvest for the last five years. This calculation does not give a clear picture of worth for the Kodiak king crab fishery. More applicable is taking the current price per pound times the current harvest since stocks are rebuilding. Using that method the current economic value to the fishermen is nearly 10 million dollars (Table 93). Kodiak king crab harvests are improving and if prices do not decline, 10 million dollars could be a conservative estimate of value. DISTRIBUTION King crab (Paralithodes camtschatica) are distributed throughout the entire Kodiak area out to a depth of 200 fathoms. Crabs are not distributed uniformly throughout the area, but congregate in schools. Conseqtfently, crab are abundant in some locations and absent from others. 214 Crab distribution varies between months as the crabs migrate for food and mating. Migratory'patterns of male king crab in the Kodiak area have been extensively studied and are well documented. Movements of sixty to seventy miles during one year's time are common. Males not molting tend to move further and have a greater tendency to move into bays and shallow locations than molting crab. The most complete migratory studies have been carried out on stocks inhabiting the southeast side of Kodiak. Typical travel exhibited by these crab includes northward movement from the Tugidak Island grounds to Sitkinak grounds -and northward movement out of the deep grounds east of the Geese Islands up into Sitkalikak Straits. Further analysis of migratory patterns has enabled biologists to define six distinct stocks of crab within the Kodiak management area. Data suggests that little or no interaction between stocks exists. Stock I comprises the area northeast of Kodiak including Portlock Banks. Stock II lies southeast of the island. Stock III is adjacent to Stock II on the southwest side of the island. Stocks IV through VI are of minor importance. They are located within the Shelikof Straits between Kodiak and the Alaskan Peninsula (Figure 6 Spawning and rearing areas are widely distributed off Kodiak Island. The inshore and nearshore areas are the most critical spawning areas. Offshore regions such as Marmot Flats, Portlock Banks and Albatross Banks also make important contributions. The shallow area surrounding Chirikof Island north to the Trinity Islands is particularly vital for both spawning and rearing king crab. Research fishing since 1971 has consistently located concentrations of immature crab in this area. Small numbers of blue crab (Paralithodes plat -ypu _) and brown king crab (Lithodes platypus) are harvested from Kodiak waters simultaneously 215 VT AFOGNAK ISLAND 'TRINITY ISLANDS CHIRIKOF G U L F OF AL ISLAND FIGURE 6. KODIAK AREA KING CRAB STOCKS. with red king crab (P. camtschatica). The catch of these incidental species is minimal. LIFE HISTORY Around Kodiak, king crab begin a yearly mating migration to shallow water in December and January. This migration continues into the spring months. The majority of males that will molt do so during this migratory movement. Females reach the mating grounds in pre-molt condition. Peak mating periods are April and May. Females mate immediately following ecdysis (molting). Eggs are incubated for twelve months with the egg hatch preceeding the females annual molt. Following the mating season king crab gradually move back into deeper water. Research conducted in July typically finds mature king crab back in 50 to 80 fathoms. A complete life history profile for king crab is presented in the Appendix. ABUNDANCE Population estimates, by stock, by year, are being formulated using the Petersen single census method with king crab tag data. These estimates are not available for this report. MANAGEMENT Kodiak king crab management philosophy has developed steadily through the years in response to fishery research, evolution of gear and improved technology. The goals toward which king crab fishery management has strived are to obtain a maximum sustainable yield and reduce severe fluctuations in catch. 217 Kodiak king crab fishery has had a males only harvest since its inception. The-first important effort to manage crab stocks was a 6 1/2" size limit imposed in 1949. Trawls, as a means of harvesting crab, were made illegal in 1960 because of their damaging effect upon under- size and female crab. In 1963 the size limit was raised again, this time to 7 inches because studies revealed that weight increases due to growth were exceeding mortality loses for crab this size. The commercial fishery expanded in the early 1960's. By 1965 the large modern fleet, fishing year round, was capable of harvesting crab far in excess of what the stock could replace through recruitment and growth. Resulting from this period of overfishing was a decline in standing stock. Catch sampling in 1971 showed that the fishery was totally dependent upon only the recruit age class. Optimally at least three age classes of crab would support the fishery. The incidence of urunated females, which was once a very rare occurrance, was rising steadily, indicating an insufficient number of breeding males. Management philosophy changed as overfishing occurred. A mating season closure was adopted in 1969 but thi s alone was not adequate to rebuild stocks. The Kodiak area could not be managed intelligently as one unit. Management by individual stock and often just portions of stocks was begun. The Alaska Board of Fish and Game adopted a 14 million pound quota for the 1970-1971 season. The division of the harvest between stocks was left to the discretion of Kodiak staff. The 14 million pound quota proved to be too high. During the six month fishing season a fleet of 115 vessels was able to land only 12.2 million pounds. Consequently the quota was reduced to 10 and 12.5 million pounds respectively for 1971- 1972 and 1972-1973 fishing seasons. Concurrent with the restrictive catch quotas was the initiation of the king crab population indexing research charters. This indexing program was proposed as a ten year study. It encompasses as much of the Kodiak crab habitat as is economically feasible. Research biologists fish randomly selected stations with pots capable of retaining pre-recruit and smaller crab. This study takes place annually dur;Lng mid summer after the molting and mating season. Crab captured are counted, measured and classified by shell condition. Legal size male crab are tagged in proportion to their availability and released. Mature females are checked for egg clutch content.. Data collected is analyzed by*computer systems and printouts are available to management personnel prior to the August 15 opening of commercial crab fishing. This data is essential in determining the strength of age classes entering the fishery. Tag recovery is facilitated by the commercial fleet. Tag recovery data continues to serve varied research goals. Migratory movements, growth, mortality (both fishing and natural) and population size are all being estimated through the tagging program. As mentioned before, crab management strives to create a multi-age class harvest. Kodiak king crab management programs accomplish this by outlining the harvest such that one third.of all recruit crab are harvested annually. Of those post recruits in the fishery for the second year a harvest of one half is called for. For crab surviving past their second year a 100% harvest is desired. Since 1971, management efforts have resulted in increased harvests. Today the Kodiak area is divided up into four major fishing districts, Northeast, Portlock Southern and Shelikof. Each of these districts contain several subareas that are regulated during each season. The Department 219 utilizes flexible harvest guidelines set each year by the Alaska Board of Fisheries at the request of research and management staffs. This concept enables the management staff,to maximize the harvest within each fishing district based on crab abundance estimates gathered from the population indexing program. The present king crab season opens August 15 and closes when the desired harvest level is reached. An eight inch season usually takes place in November or December to assure a more complete harvest of older crab. If the desired level is not reached the season will close no later than January 15. RESEARCH King crab research continues to be centered around the annual population indexing program. Statistical analysis of the sampling and tagging scheme followed by necessary improvements have established the program as a valuable tool in estimating total population, recruit class strength, and fishing mortality. Refinement and update of these estimates provide management with necessary data. Another ongoing research effort is the refinement of the data analysis systems. Computer time is being reduced for existing programs and additional programs are being examined. 220 Table 89 Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Month 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1�66 January 2,859,931 3,377,821 5,331,595 5,378,414 6,031,312 5,991,722 15,827,776 February 3,782,857 6,577,186 3,987,906 6,632,833 4,110,648 7,241,286 14,765,106 March 3,581,478 2,339,638 4,187,869 3,210,892 1,161,482 7,112,165 9,141,789 April 40,187 217,890 434,097 165,848 1,120,319 2,524,603 2,166,806 May 24,480 935,066 215,539 569,727 193,019 646,122 32,354 June 77,143 1,576,868 635,817 2,004,861 640,115 889,014 91,080 July 525,037 1,468,972 4,216,237 5,383,428 1,165,932 2,241,719 2,837,315 August 629,540 2,270,749 3,320,908 4,129,022 1,983,899 6,428,575 7,308,417 September 981,142 2,241,257 2,760,691 3,999,988 3,650,912 9,047,305 10,928,378 October 1,264,096 .2,423,545 3,545,094 4,408,893 3,396,365 10,364,728 6,316,926 November 930,541 3,096,422 2,824,033 2,712,544 3,039,496 12,330,530 7,751,325 December 2,110,500 2,732,263 2,410,939 2,103,528 4,148,139 11,824,164 13,360,076 TOTAL 16,806,932 29,257,677 33,870,725 40,699,978 29,641,538 76,641,933 90,527,348 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Season closed. Table 89 (continued) Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. Month 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 10,069,175 2,477,773 1,503,469 1,285,374 935,842 2) 2) 2) February 5,701,469 1,775,617 492,842 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) March 7,108,878 886,405 28,666 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) April 1,413,738 113,525 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) May 741,556 236,700 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) June 161,796 277,099 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) July 9,400,180 23,838 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) August 10,121,138 6,165,281 1,715,458 1,688,22.7 1,781,625 7,600,357 10,570,808 7,071,543 September 6,349,113 3,881,905 4,591,930 3,692,455 5,657,591 6,555,850 1,702,709 13,782,400 October 5,183,060 3,020,140 2,724,621 2,465,456 3,444,936 648,478 2,123,770 849,823 November 3,746,248 1,946,381 627,734 1,723,207 2) 491,456 2) 1,127,545 December 2,897,669 1,313,117 1,255,454 1,214,783 2) 1 83,775 2) 200,062 TOTAL 62,894,020 22,097,781 12,940,174 12,069,502 11,819,994 15,479,916 14,397,287 23,031,373 Table 90 Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by stock, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Fishing Year Stock I Stock II Stock III Stock IV-VI Total 1960-1961 2,165,810 7,222,186 7,465,905 2,214,182 19,068,083 1961-1962 4,715,761 8,831,367 9,698,995 6,966,160 30,212,283 1962-1963 9,225,745 11,868,151 10,790,854 3,949,855 35,834,605 1963-1964 17,316,680 12,300,269 5,780,145 4,071,828 39,468,922 1964-1965 13,523,880 21,162,531 3,452,449 2,817,291 40,956,151 1965-1966 23,340,867 58,567,160 12,095,984 1,769,045 95,773,056 1966-1967 14,932,618 39,229,139 15,555,808 3,361,190 73,078,755 1967-1968 9,932,530 8,377,550 21,131,988 4,424,755 43,866,823 1968-1969 5,087,077 4,162,539 6,728,071 2,628,085 18,605,722 1969-1970 2,921,083 3,464,744 3,120,577 2,644,744 12,151,148 1970-1971 3,142,881 4,216,123 1,998,344 2,370,462 11,727,810 1971-1972 658,749 4,579,149 5,128,154 518,100 10,884,152 continued 1) Source - A.D.F.&..G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Source - A.D.F.&.G., Report to Board of Fisheries, 1976. Table 90 (continued). Commercial king crab catch, Kodiak area, by stock, in pounds, 1960-1974. Fishing Year Stock I Stock II Stock III Stock IV-VI Total 1972-1973 1,039,847 6,600,988 6,844,092 994,989 15,479,916 1973-1974 1,648,990 7,896,548 4,092,729 759,020 14,397,287 2) 1974-1975 4,623,233 8,072,710 9,079,311 1,191,066 22,966,320 Table 91. Kodiak area king crab, number of vessels, 1960-1975. 1) Number of Number of % of Registered Vessels Fishing Year Vessels Fishing Vessels Registered Resident Non Resident 1960-1961 2) 143 81% 19% 1961-1962 2) 148 68% 32% 1962-1963 2) 195 73% 27% 1963-1964 2) 181 70% 30% 1964-1965 2) 190 71% 29% 1965-1966 2) 175 70% 30% CA 1966-1967 2) 213 70% 30% 1967-1968 2) 227 83% 17% 1968-1969 2) 178 82% 18% 1969-1970 2) 154 90% 10% continued 1) Source Kodiak Shellfish Management Registration Files. 2) No data. Table 91 (continued). Kodiak area king crab, number of vessels, 1960-1975. Number of Number of % of Registered Vessels Fishing Year Vessels Fishing Vessels Registered Resident Non Resident 1970-1971 115 144 81% 19% 1971-1972 89 106 91% 9% 1972-1973 88 115 83% 17% 1973-1974 129 170 77% 23% 1974-1975 158 182 82% 18% rQ Table 92 Length frequencies of Kodiak king crab vessels that made landings, 1960-1974. 1) 1960 1961 1962 1963 1 964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 0-29 16 14 28 22 27 17 16 15 2 4 5 1 - 1 5 30-39 92 82 83 59 61 38 55 51 31 39 20 16 15 24 37 40-49 19 28 34 30 29 33 28 29 37 34 20 18 10 22 26 50-59 3 13 14 12 9 14 26 36 16 13 15 8 15 13 16 60-69 7 5 16 17 21 23 22 24 25 18 16 11 14 20 19 70-79 5 5 14 20 21 30 36. 36 30 16 12 12 12 18 24 80-89 1 1 3 10 10 10 17 22 21 18 19 16 18 19 19 90-99 - - 1 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 3 2 1 4 4 100-119 1 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 2 3 1 4 3 120-149 1 4 4 3 3 2 3 2 - 1 - 1 2 150-170 - - - - - - 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 TOTAL 143 148 195 181 189 175 213 227 178 154 115 89 88 129 158 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., 1976 Report to the Board of Fisheries. Table 93 Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Kodiak area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. 1) Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Shrimp Scallops Razor Clams Total 1960 1,259,807 135,160 44,275 1,439,242 1961 2,486,902 443,340 40,205 2,970,447 1962 3,217,719 171,401 506,172 31,315 3,926,607 1963 4,069,998 223,876 354,148 36,466 4,684,488 1964 2,964,164 374,596 177,611 3,516,371 1965 7,664,193 397,389 621,473 5,000 8,688,055 N) CO 1966 11,586,103 184,103 1,084,370 6,192 12,860,768 1967 6,951,552 7,767 866,277. 1,548,924 545 862 9,375,927 1968 5,833,814 256,069 956,069 1,378,749 618,057 2,554 9,045,312 1969 3,308,296 750,474 930,186 1,649,742 1,012,860 4,812 7,656,370 1970 3,379,460 847,888 803,801 2,487,248 1,417,612 52,904 8,930,543 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. Table 93 (continued). Value of commercial shellfish catch to the fishermen, Kodiak area, by species, in dollars, 1960-1974. Year King Crab Tanner Crab Dungeness Crab Shrimp Scallops Razor Clams Total 1971 3,549,998 815,188 260,256 3,286,149 883,271 57,118 8,828,269 1972 6,037,167 1,547,852 823,814 3,064,320 1,194,612 53,240 12,720,029 1973 7,918,508 5,358,407 1,000,263 5,640,918 1,122,846 66,113 21,515,457 1974 10,260,342 5,095,927 354,718 4,339,424 192,329 99,191 20,341,931 KODIAK TANNER CRAB FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The Kodiak tanner crab fishery has been in existence since 1967. .During the years from 1967 to 1972 the fishery played a minor role. Typically, 50 to 80 vessels utilized tanner crab as a supplemental resource. February through May were the most productive months, primarily because of the king crab season closure. Through the year 1972 the commercial harvest never exceeded 12 million pounds (Table 94). In 1973 a major expansion of the fishery took place. Calendar year 1973 ended with 31.5 million pounds harvested by a fleet of 130 vessels. Favorable and established markets, a very short king crab season, better price and large untapped stocks of tanner crab all contributed to make this a dominant fishery during the winter and spring months. Fishing effort for tanner crab has been evenly split between four geographic regions (Table 95). The northeast, east, and Shelikof Straits areas receive the bulk of the winter effort. The southend and far offshore eastside become more heavily utilized in March and April as winter storms subside. The Kodiak tanner crab fleet currently consists of around 125 vessels, one fourth of which are at least 80 feet long (Table 96). A trend to increased vessel size has opened the previously unfished offshore grounds to exploitation by this winter fishery. The Kodiak tanner crab fishery developed slowly from 1967 to 1972. Much of the reason for this was unstable markets and low prices. Tanner crab fishermen were paid an average of only 11 cents per pound prior to 1973. The price of live crab went to 20 cents per pound in 1973 and 230 AFOGNAK IS. c24- . . . . . . . 0 CA) A L A G U L F 0 F TRINITY. ISLANDS ACHIRIKOF IS. 1. NORT 2. EAST 3. SOUT 4. SOUT 5. WEST 6. NORT FIGURE 7. GEOGRAPHICAL FISHING DISTRICTS FOR TANNER CRAB. FOR THE KODIAK MANAGEMEN7 AREA. with the exception of 1974-75 season has held at that point. With harvest guidelines set at up to'25 million pounds, tanner crab currently brings 5 million dollars to Kodiak fishermen each season (Table 93). DISTRIBUTION Tanner crab (Chionoecetes bairdi are known to inhabit the entire Kodiak shelf to a depth of over 200 fathoms. Alaska Department of Fish and Game research charters have shown that the largest concentrations are found deeper than 75 fathoms, with a preference for mud bottoms. In general, the bathymetric and spacial distribution of tanner crab'with regard to season, sex or age is not well documented. Both sexes are known to occupy the same depths at times but segregation by age and sex is suspected. A large amount of commercial fishing effort is concentrated in areas where bottom drop-offs occur. Such edge areas as Chiniak Gully, Two Headed Island, the southwest edge called the "Compass Rose" and Ugak Bay produce a major portion of the catch. Tagging studies to document migration have not uncovered widespread movement by tanner crab. Typical distance difference between release and recapture stations for one year is fifteen miles. No regular movement with regard to depth can be seen. LIFE HISTORY Specific life history information for Kodiak tanner crab stocks has only recently been made available. The yearly cycle begins in.April and May with the majority of eggs hatching at that time. This is immediately followed by the deposition of new egg clutches. Once hatching occurs the larvae become free swimming in the water column. During this free swimming phase their appearance is more shrimp 23Z like and they are less than 3 mm. in width. Tanner crab settle out of the water column at approximatel'y 3.4 mm. and molt 10 to 12 times before reaching sexual maturity at five to six years of age. The average male reaches maturity at 111 mm. The size at which 50% of the female crab are mature is 84 mm. The natural life span of tanner crab is 8 to 12 years. A close association exists between molting and mating in tanner crab. Female crab exhibit morphological changes in the abdomen and structure of the pleopods during the molt to maturity. Immediately after this molt the female may mate with a male who has grasped her before and during this molting period. Mating for primiparous (first time) spawners is accomplished while the female is still soft shell. After mating, ovulation occurs. This molt to maturity is the last molt for a female except in extremely rare cases. It is unknown at this time to what extent hardshell females participate in mating. Females are able to fertilize successive egg clutches from stored sperm and therefore may mate less often than annually, possibly only once, at the molt to maturity. Once fertilized, eggs are attached to the pleopods and held by the female for about twelve months. The reproductive season, in total, is composed of three significant events: 1) molt to maturity and mating of primiparous spawners from January through early June, 2) peak of egg hatch in April and May and 3) deposition of new egg clutches by multiparous (one plus spawners) crab in April and May. If hardshell females mate that too must take place during April and May. Therefore, it appears that the early egg deposition to the late egg hatch extends from January to July with April and May the most critical months. 233 ABUNDANCE Abundance'estimates for Kodiak tanner crab stocks have not yet been completed. Shellfish management, however, moniters such indices of abundance as catch per pot and size frequency. Due to the fact that new areas have been exploited each year as the fishery developed no conclusive data is available to indicate a change in stock size. MANAGEMENT Management strategy for Kodiak tanner crab stocks has been ad- justing rapidly since 1973. Prior to that time, the only regulation .called for a male only harvest. Comprehensive commercial catch sampling and research advances have prompted development of season definition, size limits, and harvest guideline&. The Alaska Board of Fisheries established the first guideline for management in 1973. A season opening Nov. 1 and closing June 30 was set with a quota not to exceed 30 million pounds. Recently the Board updated these efforts by adopting three major revisions: 1) a harvest guideline level was set at 15-25 million pounds for established fishing grounds, 2) in response to research, a 5 1/2" mininum size limit was set to allow the average male at least one chance to participate in mating before entering the fishery, and 3) a January 1 through April 30 season to reduce conflict with the king crab fishery and provide protection during the peak of the mating and egg hatch cycle. Current management problems are mainly centered around accurate estimation of fishing mortality and recruitment. 234 RESEARCH Research dealing with tanner crab in Kodiak has been limited in the past but in recent years programs have been expanded. The Kodiak tanner crab research program is presently involved in studies to supplement life history knowledge, improve upon the mark recapture program and index population trends. Research efforts in the area of life history are centered on establish@ ing a size-age model. This information will allow.biologists to examine both the commercial and research catches in terms of individual year classes. Year class breakdown will enable a more accurate estimation of recruit class strength.. Additional emphasis is also being placed on determining reproductive potential of female crab. The number of actual matings, if more than one, and also the total number of egg clutches an average female will produce in her life span are the objects of this research. A mark-recapture program was initiated in 1973 but emphasis on growth had precluded statistical evaluation of the program. Attempts are being made to develop a tagging scheme that will enable researchers to accurately estimate population size, differentiate individual stocks and assess fishing mortality. Annual research charters have been set up to index king and tanner crab populations since 1971. Indicators of general population strength such as relative abundance and the incidence on non-ovigerous(barren) females show up in the data collected. 235 Table 94 Commercial tanner crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1967-1974. 1) Month 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 3) 59,447 182,054 705,490 273,647 457,230 1,714,562 4,632,198 February 3) 103,233 172,459 1,208,112 744,696 824,237 2,523,044 4,351,677 March 9,900 131,514 1,182,569 2,726,522 1,373,148 1,096,515 5,306,645 7,214,709 April 3) 348,175 2,177,392 1,700,150 1,331,674 2,084,305 10,249,098 8,961,449 May 20,300 653,672 1,390,753 760,464 1,804,407 2,549,301 5,743,278 .319,684 June 3) 393,052 589,765 183,724 792,975 1,374,056 1,642,236 2) July 3) 309,443 504,665 144,156 354,068 693,662 2) 2) August 3) 120,357 50,329 2) 21,981 43,419 2) .2) September 6,600 102,401 48,565 14,002 8,854 36,947 2) 2) October 9,900 162,275 304,840 14,476 17,634 133,750 2) 2) November 32,800 86,108 78,636 118,058 201,176 1,128,444 1,739,041 3) December 31,600 91,010 145,285 132,924 486,545 1,484,692 2,602,141 3) TOTAL 111,100 2,560,687 6,827,312 7,708,058 7,410,805 11,906,558 31,520,045 25,479,717 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Season closed. 3) No catch reported. Table 95 Commercial tanner crab catch, Kodiak area, by district, in pounds, 1972-73 through 1974-75 fishing seasons. 1) District 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 Northeast 4,431,357 6,152,046 2,764,127 Eastside 5,936,085 6,920,373 2,855,975 Southend 9,711,116 7,981,834 4,130,145 N. Mainland 6,732,774 7,009,117 3,536,872 S. Mainland 120,124 50,419 191,554 Westside 2,860,544 1,722,389 171,293 TOTAL 29,792,000 29,836,178 13,649,966 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Report to the Board of Fisheries, 1976. 237 Table 96 Keel length frequencies of Kodiak tanner crab vessels which made deliveries, 1969-1974. 1) Vessel length 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 0-20 - 2 - - - - 20-29 1 1 - - 1 3 30-39 11 10 8 13 29 23 40-49 25 18 17 11 25 23 50-59 7 13 6 13 11 11 60-69 13 11 5 7 18 14 70-79 11 5 5 9 20 19 80-89 11 15 12 10 19 18. 90-99 2 3 - - 4 4 100-119 3 2 1 1 5 120-149 - - - 1 0 Over 150 1 1 1 3 TOTAL 85 81 53 64 130 123 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Report to the Board of Fisheries, 1976. 238 KODIAK DUNGENESS CRAB FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES A fishery for dungeness crab has existed in Kodiak since 1962. Since its origin the fishery has experienced considerable variation in catch and market conditions. Landings have varied from 6.8 million pounds in the late 1960's to a low of 0.75 million pounds in 1974 (Table 97). Since 1962 the number of vessels participating in the dungeness fishery has varied from 12 in 1966 to a maximum of 43 in 1968. The fleet consisted primarily of small vessels (40-60 ft.) until 1968. At that time, declining catches in Oregon, Washington and California forced larger, nonresident vessels into the Kodiak fishery (Table 98). With the increase in vessels, the catch remained high during 1969 and 1970, with landings of 5.7 an'd 5.8 million pounds respectively. Following the 1970 season both the total harvest and the number of vessels dropped off drastically. In 1974 only 750,000 pounds of crab were landed by 23 vessels. Major fishing areas for dungeness crab in the Kodiak area have shifted as fishing grounds were exploited. In the initial years (1962- 1963) more than 50 percent of the catch was harvested between Kukak tay and Cape Douglas on the Alaskan Peninsula. In 1964 fishing effort began shifting to Kodiak's eastside and south of Trinity Islands. Present fishing effort is concentrated in westward bays and south of the Trinity Islands (Table 99). Present economic value to the fishermen based on the 1974 price of 47 cents per pound on a harvest of 750,057 pounds is $354,718. However, when this price per pound is computed with the last five year average 239 catch of 2.4 million pounds the value to fishermen is 1.13 million dollars. With proper management efforts the Kodiak dungeness crab fishery could continue to be a 1 million dollar fishery. DISTRIBUTION Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) inhabit all bottom areas above 50 fathoms with distinct preference for sand or sand-mixed substrate. The life history profile, contained in the Appendix, outlines documented distribution of the species along the Pacific Coast of North America. With specific regard to Kodiak, those coastal areas presently supporting a commercial catch can be considered areas of population density. Distribution of dungeness larvae and early juvenile stages is not docu- mented. A tagging study to document migrations was initiated in 1970 but dropped again in 1971 because of funding cuts. LIFE HISTORY Timing of the yearly life cycle of dungeness crab is highly temper- ature dependent. Kodiak stocks are believed to behave similarly to the generalized outline found in the Appendix but with slight adjustment of dates. Around Kodiak, mating occurs from July to September with the peak period usually in August. The egg hatch takes place in the spring, April and May being the most critical months. After hatching, larvae -remain in the water column for up to three months. Both sexes of dungeness crab reach sexual maturity at age three. Males are larger at maturity than females. At age three, males have typically reached 140mm carapace width, females 100mm. Both sexes molt .annually after reaching maturity. The minimum legal size for male crab is 178mm (7 in.) in carapace width. There is no fishery on females. 240 This allows the average male crab two years for mating before entering the fishery. Similar to other West Coast stocks, 5 year old crab dominate the commercial catch. This means that the strength of a year's fishery depends almost entirely upon a single year class of crab. ABUNDANCE No population estimates exist for Kodiak dungeness crab stocks. Indices of abundance are arrived at from catch and effort data. All current indications suggest a decline in stock abundance. Since 1969 catch per pot has fallen from 12 crab to 3 crab in 1974. Average weight per crab has decreased by 0.5 pound since 1970. No explanation for these ovservations are available. MANAGEMENT Dungeness crab management in Kodiak-centers on information gathered through the dockside sampling program and fish tickets. The dockside program includes an interview with the vessel operator to determine location of fishing and a size frequency sample of the catch. Fish ticket data includes total catch in pounds, average weight of crab and number of pots pulled. Analysis of this data has indicated a decrease in both average size and catch per pot in recent years suggesting a .decline in population. The Alaska Board of Fisheries recently'set the Kodiak dungeness crab season to open May 1 and close December 31. This closure was enacted to assure removal of gear from fishing grounds. No harvest guidelines are set at this time. If deemed necessary, seasons may be closed by emergency order. 241 RESEARCH No research is currently @eing conducted. Management biologists feel that in light of low population levels extensive indexing and tagging programs may be the only means of regaining stock levels common in the late 1960's. 242 Table 97 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1975. 1) Month 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 January 0 0 0 105 0 13,352 0 February 0 0 0 974 15,841 5,335 92 March 0 0 0 3,411 0 9,811 3,323 April 0 0 0 56,626 0 1,450 41,536 May 47,550 48,490 51,146 46,230 29,150 414,967 3423"335 June 573,175 361,505 468,461 52@,728 218,248 1,220,028 1,321,935 July 415,787 921,853 812,083 861,424 170,242 2,021,921 1,974,251 August 456,061 1,335,928 977,179 350,981 1,332,017 1,384,323 September 397,605 357,305 997,450 655,072 264,142 903,094 822,707 October 14,389 60,359 373,113 128,453 49,743 527,542 676,828 November 0 47,059 111,953 54,677 42,748 195,233 214,831 December 0 11,755 12,048 692 7,505 18,918 46,900 TOTAL 1,904,567 2,487,512 4,162,182 3,311,571 1,148,600 6,663,668 6,829,061 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Report to Board of Fisheries, April 1976. Table 97 (continued). Commercial dungeness crab catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1962-1975. Month 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 14,955 3,789 9,110 7,380 427 12,718 February 813 0 0 23@814 15,265 2,530 March 460 0 52,109 0 1,960 4,750 April 6,895 0 0 0 35,464 2,110 5,278 May 104,708 156,352 9,834 148,867 23,929 June 422,329 732,837 44,289 155,165 277,312 157,075 4bb 4" July 1,983,621 1,906,177 188,333 536,335 552,192 202,143 August 1,765,757 1,512,963 304,714 558,635 377,665 88,647 September 999,113 779,188 368,498 445,349 328,189 82,695 October 352,060 550,753 424,158 190,250 112,974 113,757 November 146,870 126,798 44,595 85,702 111,335 43,324 December 37,047 22,581 4,780 68,072 38,876 16,379 TOTAL 5,834,628 5,741,438 1,445,864 2,059,536 2,000,526 750,057 Table 98 Length frequencies of Kodiak area dungeness vessels which made deliveries, 1964-1974. 1) Vessel 2) 2) 2) length 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 0-20 - - - - I - 1 1 1 10 - 20-29 - - .3 2 3 4 1 3 - 30-39 - - 5 7 5 5 3 9 11 7 40-49 - 5 11 11 8 6 7 12 7 50-59 - 3 -8 6 5 2 6 4 2 60-69 - - - 3 4 1 2 4 4 5 1 70-79 - - - - 3 2 4 1 2 4 5 80-89 - - - 2 3 1 5 2 4 2 - 90-99 - - - 3 1 - - - - - 100-119 - - - - - 1 120-149 - - - - - - - - TOTAL 29 26 12 18 43 29 33 24 34 42 22 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Report to the Board of Fisheries. 2) No data available. 2 45 Table 99 Commercial dungeness crab catch, Kodiak area, by district, in pounds, 1962-1974. 1) Year Northeast Eastside Southend No. Mainland So. Mainland Westside Total 1962 495,187 1,085,603 304,731 1,904,567 1963 174,126 49,750 199,001 1,741,258 323,377 2,487,512 ik 1964 166,487 790,815 1,082,167 1,581,629 541,084 4,162,182 1965 165,579 827,892 927,240 894,124 99,347 397,389 3,311,571 1966 57,430 493,898 229,720 195,262 114,860 57,430 1,148,600 1967 66,637 1,332,734 4,664,567 333,183 266,547 6,663,668 1968 273,162 956,069 .4,234,018 819,487 546,325 6,829,061 1969 233,385 933,540 3,967,548 6411809 58,346 5,834,628 1970 114,829 1,205,702 3,272,620 918,630 229,657 5,741,438 1971 28,917 404,842 549,428 245,797 14,459 202,421 1,445,864 1972 185,358 617,861 720,838 288,335 247,144 2,059,536 1973 102,929 729,930 303,619 274,045 42,196 547,807 2,000,526 1974 30,125 331,156 42,741 29,418 116,341 200,276 750,057 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. KODIAK SHRIMP FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The Kodiak Island management area has developed into the leading west coast shrimp fishery. Exploratory trawl fishing in 1957 discovered concentrations of commercial shrimp species off Kodiak. Processing commenced in 1959 with an annual harvest of 2.9 million pounds. Annual harvest increased sharply during the late 1960's to a high of 82.2 million pounds in 1971 (Table 100). The decline in catch since 1971 is a result of more conservative quotas imposed to assure a biological surplus and equalize annual harvests. The shrimp fleet increased from 11 vessels in 1960 to 26 in 1970 and 79 in 1974. Along with the number, the efficiency of vessels increased tremendously. Prior to 1971 the Kodiak shrimp fleet was composed of 50 to 70 foot single rigged' otter trawl vessels The first Gulf of Mexico style double-rigged vessels began fishing in 1971. During the 1973-1974 season, half of the 30 otter trawl vessels in the fleet were double rigged. Modern double rigged vessels are typically constructed.of steel and range in keel length from 80 to 100 feet. Most are capable of carrying 200,000 to 300,000 pounds of shrimp when fully loaded. The beam trawl fishery for shrimp has existed since 1970. The fleet, comprised of 25 to 40 foot seine type vessels, has increased from '2 vessels in 1970 to 16 in 1974. Three basic gear types are used. Along with the previously mentioned otter and beam trawls, a relatively minor fishery utilizing pots exists. Many of the larger otter trawl vessels are equipped to participate in .crab fisheries. Beam trawls are utilized by smaller vessels attempting to supplement their normal income from salmon fishing. 247 Irricr T-Zmvot rV Mstrict 9 z 2. U r,- ak P;.-.)y District. 2A. L"1101, Ugik aay Section it It 12 23. Oater 9 A Ydliuda Piy Dlztriclv 4. Two llcadcd 131cmd Diotrict 10 At 100 11A. Inncr T,@.o Headed Island Section 11 611 4B. outer % 14 5. Southcr District %% 7A I 5A. 1--iner Alitak Pay Section 73 61 5B. 0-iter It it A ISA 6. Uyak Zay District 03 ay Section ri 6A. L-Lner Uyak BL 6A j C., -I @- 6B. Out; e r " I 1 11 4- V% K 0 D I A K ISO k D, Jr Ci 7. UGani, ay D tr-c'- 7A. inner Uganik Bay Section ISLAND 7B. Dater if if 11 West Afogiak District 2A 3 8A. innor W. AfoGriak Section co 11 11 8B. ou .,-, Cr 20 9. Northern DiL;tvict 0A. 1iincr North Afor 4A it ,7mk Section OB. . 0-iter 10. Xulkalc !j'('1y DI'strict 10A. innor Kukak Bay Section 10B. Out,2,- it 11 It 11. South i,;alnland District 12. Partlock DistrJot 13. K'aisLn Pzy District ILI - iYiai-mot Dis@rict 4 G, 15. Q-Ani,-@< Bay District 15A. 1rincr Chiiiiak Bay Section 15A.. Outer 16. Spruce Island Dist ict vr FIGURE 8. KODIAK AREA SHRIMP MANAGEMENT DISTRICTS. A.D.F..&G.. 1976. Simultaneous with the change from small, single rigged to large double rigged otter trawl vessels has been an evo lution of the trawl itself. Prior to 1970 the fleet used west coast manufactured trawls ranging from 60 to 100 feet (foot rope length). Double rigged vessels in 1971 and 1972 utilized Gulf of Mexico manufactured trawls which appeared to be more efficient. This evolution of gear type continued in 1973 when most btter trawl vessels changed to a newly designed high opening trawl. Many fishermen now use trawls custom designed to their own specifications. Single rigged vessles use trawls with ground lines from 70 to 125 feet in length, while double rigged vessels use 70 to 100 foot trawls. Accompanying this trawl improvement has been improvements in electronic gear such as fathometers and radar. These factors combined account for a tremendous boost in fishing efficiency. Since the first processing began in i959, Kodiak shrimp grounds have expanded but major productive areas were soon defined. The primary areas fished from 1959 through 1970 were Kiliuda Bay, Ugak Bay and Twoheaded Island. A shift in fishing effort from Ugak Bay to Marmot Bay occurred in 1971 and 1972. (Table 101). This shift, which was-due to reduced catches in Ugak and imposition of catch quotas in other areas, caused fishermen to expend more effort in the offshore Marmot area.* The principal catch areas today are Kiluida Bay, Twoheaded Island and Ma rmot Bay. The commercial shrimp fishery has provided Kodiak with a tremendous economic boost. In recent years, the annual value to fishermen has been 5 million dollars. Fishermen receive between 8 and 9 cents per pound Jor raw shrimp. In many instances other services, such as fuel, ice and food are provided by the canneries in addition to the price paid for product. Table 93 shows the economic value to fishermen since 1960. 249 The stable nature of this fishery, illustrated by the figures in Table 100, accentuates the economic value to the community. DISTRIBUTION Shrimp are known to inhabit the entire Kodiak continental shelf out to a depth of over 100 fathoms. Concentrations of shrimp inhabit specific areas around Kodiak and these have been well documented. Major concentra- tions of shrimp are found in Kodiak's eastside bays and nearshore areas. Less abundant stocks are found in all westside bays and along the Alaskan Peninsula. Emphasis is placed on bay areas as being particularly critical spawning and rearing habitat. Offshore gullies, particularly those east of Kiliuda Bay and Twoheaded Island, also contribute extensively as spawning and rearing areas. It is not known to what extent, if any, shrimp migrate along the Kodiak shelf. Since no migration to "mating grounds" is documented, all areas inhabited by shrimp should be considered as contributing to spawning and rearing. The Kodiak area shrimp fishery is a multispecies fishery. Northern shrimp, Pandalus borealis, most commonly referred to as pink shrimp, comprise at least 85 percent of all trawl caught shrimps. Other pandalid species, namely Pandalus hypsinotus (coon stripe), Pandalus goniurus (humpy) and Pandalopsis dispar (side stripe) are most often taken incidental 'to the fishery for P. borealis. The latter two species are at times dominant in trawl catches from specific areas and occasionally support small fisheries. Pandalus platyceros (spot or prawn) supports a small pot fishery. Further information concerning distribution of Pandalus sp. is available in the Appendix. 250 LIFE HISTORY Life history descriptions for Kodiak shrimp species closely correspond to the general outline presented in the Appendix. Mating takes place in September. The fertilized eggs are carried by the females until the following March and April when hatching takes place. The Kodiak commercial harvest consists primarily of two and three year old shrimp. Because of their size, the three year old age class is the most sought after. ABUNDANCE Stock assessment surveys are conducted around Kodiak Island. Data from these surveys is used to calculate population estimates and the confidence intervals around the estimates. During 1975-1976 season the most extensive surveys to date took place. Bays on the west side were surveyed once. Results of that indicated relatively small areas of trawlable grounds. Population estimates for Uganik and Uyak Bays were 1.2 and 1.9 million pounds, respectively. No shrimp were found in Viekoda Bay. Also surveyed was the Marmot system. The inner bay indicated 19.3 million pounds while the outer portion had 26.4 million pounds. Population estimates for Kiliuda and Twoheaded stocks were collected throughout 1975. Kiluida estimates ranged from 5 to 12 million pounds. Twoheaded estimates range from 12 to 21 million pounds. Estimates were also made for Alitak and Ugak Bays, with 12 and 3 million pounds respectively. These estimates are subject to extreme variation due to commercial catch and seasonal fluctuation and should be considered indices of population size rather than actual pounds of shrimp. Population abundance estimates for selected systems from 197.1 to 1975 are shown in Figure 9 251 FISHING DISTRICTS ----TWO HEADED SAY @o KILUDA BAY ALLITAK BAY UGAK BAY 25 x w Q 20 z Lu z (A z 10 5 8/71 12/71 4/72 8/72 12/72 4/73 8/73 12/73 4/74 8/74 12/74 4/75 8/75 12;75 TIME FRAME FIGURE 9. KODIAK SHRIMP ABUNDANCE INDICES; 1971 1975. SOURCE A.D.F.&G., 1976, REPORT TO BOARD OF FISHERIES. MANAGEMENT Alaska Department of Fish 'and Game management policy toward Kodiak shrimp was initiated in 1969 with the adoption of a March-April closure in certain bay and nearshore areas. This closure provided protection to egg hatching females in those closed areas. In 1970 the Alaska Board of Fish and Game designated twelve geographic catch areas. These were expanded in 1971 to a total of eighteen. Quarterly catch quotas were set for ten districts; the remaining eight were defined as nonquota districts. In 1973 the March-April egg hatch closure was expanded to include the entire Kodiak management area. Added to this was the adoption of a 55 million pound quota. The season was further divided with a summer beam trawl opening prior to the regular season. Individual districts were managed on a harvest level concept with no set quotas. The Department exercised emergency order power to close districts as cone.itions warranted. For purposed of shrimp management, Kodiak area is presently divided into 16 districts (Figure 8). Quotas have been replaced by a harvest guideline range of 45 to 71 million pounds. The distribution of catch is designed to provide maximum benefit to the community by: 1) poten- tially allowing a more even flow of harvest, 2) avoid opening major bay systems during "green head" condition, 3) reduce the harvest season overlap with other species, and 4) allow for inshore fishing during the winter while encouraging offshore fishing in milder months. RESEARCH Shrimp research by theAlaska Department of Fish and Came was initiated in 1967 around Kodiak. Management strategies are currently determined by results of this research. The objectives of the current 253 research program are: 1) to determine the distribution and abundance of major exploited shrimp stocks, 2) to determine the effects of fishing on major shrimp stocks, 3) to determine'optimum harvest levels and seasons, 4) to provide management personnel with essential data, 5) to evaluate trawl surveys as a tool for establishing abundance indices, 6) to test and refine current program sampling design and 7) to develop a valid population model for the major exploited shrimp stocks. Catch per unit effort (pounds caught per hour of trawling) data has traditionally been vital to shrimp stock management. Kodiak research staff have conducted a logbook program to moniter effor t since 1967. As previously described, the size and efficiency of shrimp vessels has increased dramatically. An increase in efficiency is able to mask declines in stock abundance when effort data alone is used as an index. A primary concern of research is to standardize the CPUE data from past years with current data. A valid comparison can then be made. In addition to analysis of CPUE data, Kodiak shrimp research is concerned with comparing strength of successive year classes of pink shrimp. This is accomplished by monthly sampling of commercial catches from each district. Subsamples of these are measured and sexed by the Department biologists. 254 Table 100 Commercial shrimp catch, Kodiak area, by month, in thousands of pounds, 1964-1974. 1) Month 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 January 357,148 422,803 2,285,259 1,681,424 2,985,722 February 691,245 2,669,128 2,405,073 1,775,495 3,140,290 March 41,000 327,585 817,474 3,294,218 2,922,150 3,823,140 A ril 286,750 1-255,970 2-658,198 3,225,900 2,733,412 3,246,913 .P May 350,279 1,451,138 2,990,511 3,527,674 1,903,386 2,789,940 June 660,890 963,304 2,111@,087 5,013,775 4,718,613 3,834,163 July 939,820 1,029,158 3,166,922 4,887,364 3,923,232 4,071,038 August 229,685 1,690,384 2,302,613 4,729,599 4,018,709 4,198,001 September 624,821 1,839,267 1,611,314 2,675,237 3,452,640 4,129,684 October 706,180 1,301,008 1,963,983 3,318,636 3,357,756 2,865,645 November 382,089 1,778,887 2,255,739 1,893,049 2,195,279 3,767,514 December 117,600 1,138,865 1,127,369 1,012,072 1,786,617 2,496,661 TOTAL 4,339,114 13,823,959 -',24,097,141 38,267,856 34,468,713 41,348,711 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports.@ 2) Season closed. Table 100 (continued). Co'mmercial shrimp catch, Kodiak area, by month, in thousands of pounds, 1964-1974. Month 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 4,792,225 4,720,469 5,443,042 8,272,387 1,893,571 February 4,149,937 5,641,777 2,362,990 8,421,843 493,174 March .4,532,288 5,915,418 1,425,671 2) 119,984 April 4,989,570 941,240 338,256 2) 2) May 2,474,784 6,588,420 585,677 518,231 565,883 June 6,090,921 9,112,040 7,758,627 1,664,986 719,060 July 8,482,388 10,950,762 14,940,751 50,807 718,844 August 7,801,186 10,824,986 7,577,000 12,546,19.3 9,411,166 September 5,679,848 8,039,530 1,130,142 12,125,260 6,684,842 October 5,258,860 6,525,843 9,227,500 9,424,761 11,353,284 November 4,404,249 7,868,900 4,926,906 9,404,814 10,114,335 December 3,524,948 5,024,339 2,635,757 8,082,195 6,697,232 TOTAL 62,181,204 82,153,724 58,352,319 70,511,477 48,771,375 Table 101 Commercial shrimp catch) Kodiak area, by district, in thousands of pounds, 1960-1974. 1) 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 N. Afognak 96.2 56.7 621.1 1,385-1 Marmot Bay 701.2 894.1 1,218.5 759.0 636.7 2,814.4 2,675.7 Chiniak Bay . 4.4 1.9 122.5 62.1 15.9 584.1 870.3 Ugak Bay 351.0 41.4 1,347.1 1,559.7 557.9 652.7 3,399.0 9,575.2 Sitkalidak Str. 1,529.1 9,902.5 10,019.2 7,138.3 3,221.0 10,993.1 15,910.3 19,939.0 Kiluda Bay 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) Twoheaded Gully 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) Albatross Bank 178.7 Alitak Bay 568.2 64.9 50.0 105.9 1,001.0 162.0 580.3 Uyak Bay 3) 2,072.2 Kukak Bay 128.9 19.5 386.*3 454.4 606.2 389.6 Malina Bay 152.7 -4 Sitkinak Bay North Shelikof South Shelikof Central Shelikof Portlock Bank continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Report, 1969, and Report to the Board of Fisheries, 1975. 2) Sitkalidak Str. area divided into Kiluda Bay and Twoheaded Gully 1968. 3) Includes catches from Viekoda and Uganik Bays. Table 101 (continued). Commercial shrimp catch, Kodiak area, by district, in thousands of pounds, 1960-1974. 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 N. Afognak 210.5 576.0 1,568.9 4,565.3 1,496.7 2,129.4 3,086.7 Marmot Bay 3,356.5 2,168.4 2,629.0 273,547.1 18,671.9 19,081.3 13,276.0 Chiniak Bay 270.0 20.6 475.8 1,356.3 1,539.8 206.9 1,791.1 Ugak Bay 12,242.9 8,846.7 14,925.9 6,711.2 3,494.4 2.2 63.2 Sitkalidak Str. 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) Kiluda Bay 7,424.4 6,387.9 8,032.6 125,028.8 6,987.8 5,982.1 7,935.4 Twoheaded Gully 6,220.5 17,197.9 29,764.2 23,847.8 18,872.7 14,768.2 12,909.1 Albatross Bank 17.2 Alitak Bay 102.1 79.3 963.6 2,003.9 3,661.4 1,406.9 5,015.4 Uyak Bay 3) 2,930.0 1,906.8 914.7 1,373.7 1,576.4 2,067.7 2,221.3 Kukak Bay 896.6 3,183.5 lpl79.4 288.8 102.2 1,400.5 489.2 01 Malina Bay 815.2 672.0 1,269.4 153.3 559.2 878.5 CD Sitkinak Bay 172.3 111.5 82.5 North Shelikof 166.4 369.9 1,296.4 South Shelikof 252.8 7,194.5 Central Shelikof 17.0 163.0 116.4 Portlock Bank 2,075.5 1,052.7 593.8 567.6 KODIAK SCALLOP FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Weathervane scallops are harvested primarily in two management areas in the Gulf of Alaska. The commercial fishery continually moves between Kodiak and Yakutat. Of the major production areas, Kodiak has been the most important. The first exploratory scallop fishing occurred in 1967. During the early years catch expanded rapidly (Table 102). Peak catch years were 1968 and 1969 each with 1.8 million pounds landed. More recently the commercial harvest has averaged 1 million pounds of shucked meat. The decline in scallop harvests during the 1970's has resulted from various causes including area and seasonal restrictions, limited stocks available and the entry of scallop vessels into more lucrative fisheries. Without the discovery of major new scallop beds this fishery should remain static at 1974 levels. The scallop fishery is typically a bottom dredge operation composed of vessels from the east coast. The number of vessels participating in the fishery has varied from a high of 7 in 1969 to 3 vessels-at present (Table 103). Dredges are generally 11 to 13 feet in width utilizing 4 inch rings in the drag gear. The first scallop stocks exploited were those northeast of Kodiak Island on Marmot Flats and Portlock Banks. Fishing effort expanded south along Kodiak's eastside and exploration began to the west and southwest. Present area restrictions have limited expansion of this fishery. Current scallop harvests come primarily from the eastside, north to Portlock Banks, with minor fisheries on the westside. 259 The present economic value to the fishermen based on the 1974 catch of 148 thousand pounds and price of $1.40 per pound is $207,200. The value for the average catch over the last five years based on 1974 price is over $900,000. DISTRIBUTION AND LIFE HISTORY Distribution and life history information is contained in the Appendix. The literature used as reference for the life history profile was prepared from data collected in Kodiak. ABUNDANCE No conclusive data concerning abundance of weathervane scallops is available for the Kodiak area. MANAGEMENT Kodiak scallop management is based on data collected through commercial catch sampling. Prior to 1972 analysis of the age compo- sition revealed 75 percent of all scallops captured were 7 years of age or older. As older age classes were harvested, younger age scallops began to appear more frequently in the catch. This shift in age composi- tion occurs in most fisheries being exploited for the first time and should not necessarily be interpreted as a sign of over fishing. Scallops less than age 6 comprise a small portion of the catch. Since the age at maturity is 3 years, it is felt by management biologists that adequate brood stocks remain. Management of the scallop fishery is complicated by the incidence of king_and tanner crab caught during scallop dredging. Research done by Kodiak shellfish staff in 1972 documented an average of 9 king crab 260 and 26 tanner crab captured in each tow. Because of this conflict, areas of known scallop abundance have been closed to commercial fishing. Current regulations state that scallops may be taken from June 1 through March 31 in the Pacific Ocean waters north of 57* 37'07" N. lat., and east of 152009'01" W. long. (Cape Chiniak light) and the waters of the Shelikof Straits north of 57017'20" N. lat. (the latitude of Cape Ikolik). In the waters south of the latitude of Cape Chiniak light and waters east of the longitude of Cape Barnabas, excluding those waters northwest of a line from Cape Barnabas to Narrow Cape, scallops may be taken from July 15 through March 31. 61- Table 102 Commercial scallop catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, shucked weight 1967-1974. 1) Month 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 3) 107,352 36,016 3) 3) 19,660 3) 3) February 3) 16,569 47,898 19,462 40,689 50,444 53,124 6,662 16,625(4) March 3) 14,552 . 61,128 65,278 35,253 52,915 33,098 22,582 30,160(4) April 3) 10,442 69,491 76,481 3) 43,890 33,350 2) May 3) 8,914 89,636 154,749 3) 15,266 2) 2) June 3) 4,108 51,980 175,464 138,727 207,525 88,803 2) July 3) 2,026 148,792 353,171 113,267 202,241 226,013 2) 4) August 206 3) 157,268 239,598 189,132 157,671 170,121 11,860 September 3) 164,398 161,685 188,631 97,769 140,795 138,308 41,007 October 3) 299,792 82,666 73,245 168,999 64,126 129,017 18,948 4) November 2,903 86,632 63,007 47,273 35,654 47,483 39,902 28,427 4) December 4,679 111,236 43,293 24,260 21,721 36,777 23,967 18,459 4) TOTAL 7,788 718,671 1;012,860 1,417,612 841,211 1,038,793 935,705 147,945 154,137(4) 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Season closed. 3) No catch reported. 4) Unshucked weight. Table 103 Length frequencies of Kodiak area scallop vessels which made landings. 1) Vessel .length 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 0-20 20-29 30-39 40-49 1 50-59 60-69 2 2 70-79 2 2 1 1 1 80-89 2 3 4 4 4 2 3 90-99 100-119 120-149 Over 150 TOTAL 7 7 5 5 4 3 3 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Report to the Board of Fisheries, 1976. 263 KODIAK RAZOR CLAM FISHERIES COMMERCIAL FISHERIES The Kodiak razor clam fishery dates back to the mid 1920's, making it the oldest shellfish fishery in the area. Recorded catch statistics exist from 1929 to the present. Major fluctuations in catch and market conditions have occurred, prompted by both economic and environmental influences. The scope of this report will include only data from 1960 to 1974. The'razor clam fishery for human consumption was carried out between 1960 and 1964. One processing plant accepted raw clams for processing. Hydraulic dredge systems were being tested to determine economic feasibil- ity. Operations were discontinued in 1964 following the total destruction of processing facilities by the Alaska earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Facilities capable of processing razor clams for human use have never reopened. Some clams have been marketed fresh locally. Government regulations presently require clam beaches to be certified safe before commercial harvesting for human consumption. This was prompted due to the risk of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). A description of this condition is presented in the generalized life history (Appendix). Since the mid 1960's, razor clams have been harvested primarily for dungeness crab bait. Harvests remained nominal after the earthquake until 1970 when, once again, well over 100,000 pounds were taken by commercial diggers (Table 104). Small operations, most utilizing aircraft delivery, have attempted to market fresh clams with moderate success. During the 1974 digging season diggers were paid an average of 50 cents per pound (unshucked). Based on the 1974 harvest of 198,400 264 pounds, the current return to diggers is $99,200. The 1974 market was primarily a bait market. It is'not presently known what influence a human comsumption market would have on the value of the fishery. Because of this and the fact that only a small portion of the available commercial clam grounds are utilized, the potential value of the Kodiak razor clam fishery is incalcuable. DISTRIBUTION Pacific razor clams (Siliqua patula are found on surf-swept, sand beaches on the Kodiak-Alaskan Peninsula coast. Early exploration exposed high densities of razor clams in three Alaska Peninsula Bays, Kukay Bay, Hallo Bay and Swikshak Bay. Since that time known distribution of razor clams has been expanded to include twenty-one beaches within the Kodiak management area. Fourteen of these beaches have at one time supported some degree of commercial harvest (Table 105). Presently Swikshak Beach is the only Kodiak area beach certified safe for human consumption. Efforts to certify additional beaches are being made. More information concerning distribution of the species is available in the generalized life history found in the Appendix. LIFE HISTORY Kodiak razor clam life history closely parallels that described in the generalized life history. Egg development within the ovary begins in May and June. During this time the clams are referred to as "fat." This is the most desirable time of year for commercial harvest. Ovulation and fertilization take place in July and August. The duration of the mating period is approximately two tide cycles. Timing is highly dependent upon temperature. Because razor clam reproduction takes place in such 265 close proximity to shore, any onshore or nearshore disturbance could be highly destructive to razor claw stocks at this time. Razor clam larvae settle out of'the water column in September. The larval distribution of razor clams in the Kodiak area is not presently known. Subtidal populations of razor clams exist off some Kodiak beaches.. The influence these populations have on the total reproductive capability of an area is not known. Some researchers believe that these subtidal populations act as a buffer against over harvest by providing a brood stock below commercial digging levels. Another theory is that these subtidal clams do not reproduce due to unfavorable temperature conditions prevailing in deeper water. If this is true, then the subtidal clams are, in fact, a product of the intertidal population and would not serve to replenish over harvested intertidal stocks. ABUNDANCE Population estimates have been developed for two Kodiak area beaches, Swikshak and Big River. Estimates are arrived at by determining mean average density of clams larger than 115 mm in length per sqbare yard, and multiplying that figure times the total square yardage of beach. Swikshak Beach was found to have an average.density of 38 clams per square yard in 1974, giving it a total population of 1.4 million clams. Big River Beach contained an average 1.59 clams per square yard and a total population of 1.3 million. Data from these studies suggests that the highest densities of razor clams on Kodiak area beaches lie between the minus one and plus one tide levels. MANAGEMENT Management philosophy for razor clam stocks has remained fairly constant since 1941. A 4 1/2" size limit to protect immature clams was adopted at that time, along with a harvest quota of 400,000 pounds. In 1946, a Kodiak season from Sept. 15 to July 15 was established. This remained in effect until 1962, when the closure was eliminated by the Board of Fish and Game. Present management-includes monitering size frequency of the catch and collection of catch per unit effort data. RESEARCH. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game is presently conductinga razor clam habitat assessment survey in the Kodiak area. Specific objectives of this study are: 1) Investigate all beaches where razor clams are known to occur and map each location with regard to the extent of the species existance and density, 2) Collect clams at each beach to assess density along with length and age composition of population by tide level 3) Collect core samples of the substrate by tide level at each beach site to investig ate substrate composition and 4) Combine past and current razor clam data for Gulf of Alaska areas to formulate the biological parameters of this baseline study. 267 Table 104 Commercial razor clam catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. 1) Month 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1961 January 572 February March April 39,633 20,544 25,830 600 2) May 162,822 140,906 123,262 166,753 20,000 14,257 2,155 PIO Z 0") June 158,132 145,540 117,610 93,570 0 Co July 53,143 74,979 56,644 .37,604 August September 0 October P4 November 0 December TOTAL 413,730 381,971 297,516 323,757 20,000 15,429 2,155 continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., Kodiak Area Annual Management Reports. 2) Exact catch data unknown - approximate poundage. Table 104 (continued). Commercial razor clam catch, Kodiak area, by month, in pounds, 1960-1974. Month 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 January February March April 1,693 4,485 2,384 .1,351 May 6,384 5,484 49,926 '14,760 23,503 12,760 39,995 co June 3,604 65,651 83,819 92,230 46,332 59,448 July 2,941 14,991 50,556 23,940 44,909 44003 August 36,774 8,663 58,442 52,634 September 1,356 455 October 2,424 November December TOTAL 6,384 12,029 132,261 190,394 152,116 165,282 198,381 Table 105 Kodiak area razor clam beaches. 1) Location of Clam Beds Extent -Abundance Historical Utilization Duck Bay 1/2 mile fair commercial/recreational Buskin Beach 1 mile poor recreational Middle Bay 1/2 mile fair recreational Narrow Cape 5 miles poor minimal Portage Bay 1/2 mile poor minor commercial/sport' Saltrey Cove 1/2 mile poor minimal C:) Ocean Beach 3 miles fair minimal Rolling Bay 1 mile fair minimal Tugiadak 10 miles fair commercial Cape Alitak-Low Cape 10 miles fair commercial Bumble Bay 2 miles fair commercial Halibut Bay 5 miles good commercial Carmel 2 miles fair minimal Cape Douglas 25 miles excellent commercial continued 1) Source - OCS Assessment Project, Razor Clam Habitat Survey, Annual Report, 1976. Table 105 (continued). Kodiak area razor clam beaches. Location of Clam Beds Extent Abundance Historical Utilization Swikshak, Big River & Village Beaches 20 miles excellent commercial/recreational Halo Bay 7 miles good commercial Kukak Bay 10 miles excellent commercial Dakavak Bay 3 miles good commercial Kashvik Bay 2 miles excellent commercial Alinchak Bay 4 miles good commercial Imwya Bay 2 miles excellent commercial K.ODIAK AREA SUBSISTENCE FISHERIES DESCRIPTION Subsistence fish harvests in the Kodiak area consist almost entirely of sockeye, coho, pink and chum salmon with only small numbers of kings being taken. Much of the subsistence fishing effort in Kodiak is concentrated directly around the village sites. Other important areas include Old Harbor, Midway Creek, Barling Creek and Chiniak Bay. Fishing effort for sockeye salmon migrating to the Buskin River is largely composed of non- native residents. This probably includes a percentage of "recreational oriented" subsistence fishermen. While most village residents still utilize subsistence caught fish as an Important food source, many of the people participating in the fishery are newly-arrived to the hrea or have subsistence fished in the past and continue to do so for recreational purposes. This portion of the fishery, however, is pretty much limited to the Kodiak road system. Concentrated subsistence fishing effort is directed towards the early run of sockeye salmon to the Karluk River as well as the late- running coho salmon. Much subsistence fishing also occurs on stocks of coho salmon returning to Spruce Island. On Afognak Island, significant subsistence fishing effort takes place in the Afognak Bay area. Table 1.06 shows the subsistence catch in the Kodiak area for the years 1962-1974. These figures represent only reported catches and have not been expanded to reflect total subsistence harvests. Only about 25% of the permit holders report their catches. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE AREA While there are some people who "subsistence" fish'for purely recreational reasons, most of the village residents in the Kodiak area still depend on subsistence fishing as a means of supplementing their 272 food supply. Fisheries are the mainstay of the Kodiak economy and during year's of poor commercial harvests, employment opportunities (such as cannery work, etc.) may become scarce. During these years, subsistence fishing acts as a partial substitute for a cash income. IIETHODS OF FISHING State regulations in this area require that any gear used for subsistence fishing between June 1 and September 15 must not be registered for commercial use. This restriction applies to purse seine vessels as well. Consequently, most subsistence fishing is done with old segments of set gill nets, although some purse seines are used after September 15. PROBLEMS During the past ftw years, the price of halibut has increased to the point that selling salmon as bait to.halibut fishermen has become a profitable business. Commercial fishermen have done this for some time in a lega 1 fashion, either to halibut boats or processors. At present, however, there are many small, local boats engaged in halibut fishing and some of these people use their subsistence permits to catch salmon bait for themselves and to sell to others. Presently, no restrictions on a bait fishery are in existence in the Kodiak area. Another problem concerns the illegal sale of subsistence caught fish on the commercial market. This is done by packing and salting the .fish in barrels, then selling them during open commercial periods. This technique is also used to sell fish that were illegally caught during a closed commercial period. However, there is no effective means of stopping this practice. 273 A chronic problem in this area involves subsistence permit holders that do not return their permits at the end of the season. This makes it very difficult for biologists to monitor the subsistence fishery and adjust harvest levels to meet escapement goals. 274 Table 106 Subsistence salmon catch, Kodiak area, by year, in numbers of fish, 1962-1974 l/ 2/. Permits Permits Year Issued Returned King Sockeye Coho Pink Chum Total 3/ 1962 74 13 0 0 433 397 20 850 1963 74 15 0 297 576 836 195 1,904 1964 43 9 6 332 184 88 71 681 1965 67 7 2 19 318 244 12 595 1966 48 13 0 295 331 334 393 1,353 1967 84 29 2 1,306 571 894 344 3,117 1968 132 28 0 658 433 529 45 1,665 U1 1969 242 30 1 481 338 620 30 1,470 1970 213 49 1 959 939 797 265 2,961 1971 267 131 5 3,442 1,720 1,276 472 6,915. 1972 329 176, 11 3,633 1,531 2,516 2,729 10,420 1973 400 149 7 4,453 2,289 1,393 1,166 9,308 1974 367 90 1 1,909 846 1,094 128 3,978 1) Source - A.D.F.&G. Kodiak Management Area Subsistence Fishery Report, Report to the Board of Fish and Game, April 1973 and Annual Management Reports. 2) These represent actual figures and have not been extrapolated to reflect a "real" subsistence catch value. Only about 25% of the permits are returned. 3) Subsistence permits were not required in the Kodiak area until 1962, thus catch and effort data not available prior to 1962. KODIAK AREA SPORT FISHERIES INTRODUCTION Description of the Region The Kodiak region consists of the Kodiak-Afognak Island group and is separated from the Alaska Peninsula by Shelikof Strait. It also includes the Barren, Trinity and Semidi Islands. Kodiak and Afognak Islands, the two largest islands, are rugged and mountainous, and the shoreline is highly irregular, broken by numerous fiords, bays and islands. Streams are generally short and swift, and few are longer than 15 miles in length. Small lakes and ponds are widely scattered. The climate is marine and is. characterized by cloudy skies, mod- erately heavy precipitation and cool temperatures. Winters are mild and summers are cool. Precipitation ranges from 20 to 60 inches annually. Fish Distribution Regional sportfish distribution and abundance are listed in Table 107. Dolly Varden are assumed to be distributed throughout all anadromous stream and lake systems and rainbow-steelhead trout are found in almost all sockeye lake systems. SPORT FISH LIFE HISTORY AND HABITAT Dolly Varden Dolly Varden life history patterns and habitat requirements in the region follow the generalized life history (Appendix), with some local variations in timing. Winter outmigration of immatures and adults from 276 BARREN IS. AFOGNA 14 0 KODIAK KODIAK 18. KARL LAKE SUTWIK IS TRINITY IS. MIDI ISLANDS PACIFIC OCEAN IGURE 10. KODIAK REGION 277 overwintering lakes begins in mid-April and ends in June. The saltwater feeding and migration period is brief, as fish again appear in local streams in mid-July. A limited tagging study indicated that saltwater migration is short, less than 50 miles (Marriot, 1967). Marriot (1966) noted the disappearance of Dolly Varden in American River, a nonlake system, from mid-September to late October, when mature spawners reappeared. A few fish spawned in springfed tributaries but the bulk of the run spawned later in the main stream, starting in late November. The fish apparently stayed until early February. In Saltery River, a lake system, mature fish were observed concentrated in riffles below the lake in late September and then moved into the lake by mid-October to spawn. Inlet streams are primarily used for spawning in lake systems. Nonlake systems are-also important for spawning. Small streams are important for juvenile rearing.' Marriot (1967) observed American River Dolly Varden juveniles rearing only in side tributaties and none were seen in the main river. Kodiak Dolly Varden rear.three to four years before entering saltwater for the first time. Critical Dolly Varden habitat in the Kodiak region is the overwinter- ing lake systems. Some important systems on Kodiak Island include Uganik, Little River, Karluk, Ayakulik (Red River), Akalura, Saltery, Buskin, and Barabara Lakes. Buskin Lake serves as the overwintering area for all Chiniak Bay fish (Kodiak area), holding up to 200,000 fish a season. Rainbow-Steelhead Natural populations of rainbow trout and steelhead are found in lakes characterized by having inlets/outlets capable of rearing fish (Murray and Van Hulle, 1974). Resident rainbow spawn primarily in inlet 278 streams,wit h fast moving sections for juvenile rearing, where stickle- backs cannot compete. The young fish rear in the inlets several years until they attain a length of 8-10 inches. The fish then drop out into the lake to feed and mature. On anadromous systems, most rainbow and steelhead spawn in the outlet streams. Kodiak region steelhead are fall-run fish which enter the streams in mid-August with the bulk of the runs entering the rivers in September-October. The fish overwinter in deep river holes or the lakes and then spawn in the outlet rivers in May. Marriott (1966) reported that two separate steelhead populations were found in the Karluk system. One population winters in Karluk Lake and spawns in the upper mile of river. The other winters in the Portage area and spawns in the lower half of the river., Most Kodiak steelhead rear in freshwater 1-2 years, primarily in outlet streams, and then migrate out to spend 1-3 years at sea. Repeat spawners on the Karluk River have varied from 10-43%. Grayling Grayling are not native to the Kodiak region, but have been intro- duced by fish plants. These have met with limited success, and repro- ducing populations have been establihsed in Cascade, Cicely, and Aurel Lakes near Kodiak. Spawning occurs in small inlet streams. PRODUCTIVITY AND PRODUCTION Productivity Kodiak region lakes and water may.be low in productivity, but large numbers of salmon are produced which rear in the ocean. The lakes are 279 generally oligotrophic, low in basic nutrients for biological activity, slightly acid, and they have rapid flushing rates. Many of the small ponds have marginal conditions for supporting salmonids. Winter fish kills are occasionally a problem for small, shallow ponds. Some of the most productive lakes are Buskin, Karluk, Saltery, Frazer, Uganik, Upper Station and Akalura, which support significant salmonid populations, particularly sockeye and/or coho salmon. Production Few population counts or estimates of sport fish production, other than for salmon, are available for any Kodiak region system. Marriott (1966-1968) reported that the Karluk was probably the most important steelhead system in the region,.but that the runs were depressed, only amounting to several hundred spawners a year. In previous years, native subsistence catches were reported as 3,000-5,000 fish annually, but by 1965 the harvest was observed to be several hundred. Spring fishing closures were initiated to protect spawning populations. The population appears to have increased substantially since the mid-1960's estimates. Estimates of Dolly Varden populations are also sparse. In 1964, .the Buskin Lake spawning population was estimated to be less than 500 fish, although the overwintering population was substantially larger. Van Hulle (pers. comm., 1976) estimates the average annual overwintering population to be around 200,000 fish. Marriott (1968) reported counting about 1,000 Dolly Varden at Saltery Creek in July 1967, and counting 600-800 fish in American River between August and October, 1967. No other estimates have been@reported. Many small lakes and ponds around the town of Kodiak have been stocked since the 1950's with rainbow, grayling and coho salmon. Naturally 280 reproducing-populations have been established on some, but most lakes require occasional re-stocking or rehabilitation to eliminate competitors (primarily stickleback). Winter kill by oxygen depletion also has affected populations on small, shallow ponds in severe winters. Rainbow growth and survival generally is good through age two, when the fish enter the fishery, but they normally are harvested or are lost to the fishery by age three. Grayling stocking has had limited success. Survival has been poor for most lakes stocked but reproducing populations have been established in Cascade, Cicely and Aurel Lakes (Table 108). Coho stocking has been very successful in the partially saline environments found in coastal lagoons. These plants have experienced good growth and survival. Most cohe plants are made in land-locked ponds and lakes, but a few pl,@Lnts in anadromous systems, such as Island and Mission Lakes, have produced good anadromous runs. A total of 30,000 coho, are planted.annually in 5 lakes (Table 108), and mostly support productive fisheries. Presently, the stocked systems around Kodiak are probably producing up to their full potential for sport fishery utilization. Most major systems outside this area, however, are under-utilized and could receive more angler use. Pink salmon, chum salmon, and Dolly-Varden could also absorb more sport fishing effort. SPORT FISHERIES Freshwater salmon and trout fisheries are the primary sport fish- eries in the Kodiak region, accounting for about 80-85% of the total angling effort. Beach fisheries for salmon and Dolly Varden account for 281 most of the saltwater effort. The saltwatei4 boat fishery for salmon is very minor although relatively stable fisheries for halibut and rockfish exist. Most of the total regional effort centers in the northeast part of Kodiak Island around Kodiak and the Kodiak road system. Total regional catch information is not available, but Harmer (1974) estimated that total angler effort in 1973 was 72,741 angler days. Total salmon and Dolly Varden catches for the northeast section of Kodiak Island have been estimated for 1973 and 1974, using a postal card survey, and have averaged 10,500 salmon and 45,000 Dolly Varden annually (Table 109). Significant fishing areas are characterized in Tables 108 and 110. Saltwater Saltwater fishing occurs primarily in the summer and early fall. The beach fishery begins in mid-July with the incoming pink run and extends into mid-September with the coho fishery. Beach fisheries occur mainly along the Kodiak road system. The beaches with heaviest angler use are Pasagshak, Woman's Bay, Middle, Kalsin, Monashka, and Anton Larsen Bays in that order. The boat fishery is primarily directed at halibut, but pinks, coho, rockfish, greenling and cod are also caught. Most of the salmon effort is directed at coho salmon. Halibut sport fishing is limited primarily to the northeast section of the Kodiak Island, with most effort concentrated in Chiniak Bay, but extending into Ugak and Kizhuyak Bays. Catches have remained relatively stable and were estimated at 1,000 to 1,500 pounds in 1975. A fairly substantial sport rockfish fishery exists in Monaskha and Chiniak Bays, but no catch statistics are available. A minor razor clam sport fishery exists, primarily in Woman's Bay, Middle Bay and Buskin Beach, all in the immediate vicinity of the town of Kodiak. A 282 small fly-in fishery occurs at Swikshak. No estimates of razor clam sport harvest or effort are available. In 1973 and 1974, the saltwater salmon catch in the northeast Kodiak Island area was 1,450 and 2,300 fish, respectively, and the Dolly Varden catch was 3,900 and 4,900 fish, respectively. The saltwater salmon catches account for about 12-13% of the total area catch. No other saltwater catch and effort information is available. Freshwater All five species of salmon are caught in freshwater, as well as Dolly Varden, rainbow, steelhead and grayling. Most effort is directed at cohos, pinks and Dolly Varden, but the other species are all sought where available. The main freshwater fishing season begins in April when fishermen seek Dolly Varden migrating to sea from overwintering areas. Effort switches to king and sockeye in-migrations in June on several systems. Pink fishing begins in late July and coho fishing extends from August into October. Dolly Varden fishing extends into October and November. A small winter ice fishery occurs in stocked lakes from December through March or April. Catch and effort information has been collected for the Buskin River, the major fishing system in the region, and for the Karluk River, the major king and steelhead stream in the region, since 1965. Census or estimation methods have varied between years,, hamever, so the infor- mation presented in Tables 111 and 112 serves mainly to indicate the magnitude of these fisheries. In addition, seasonal catch estimates have been made for selected coho systems along the Xodiak road system. Estimates of total salmon and Dolly Varden catches were also made for these systems in 1973 and 1974. 283 The Buskin Lake system is the most heavily used fishery in the region for several reasons: 1) It is the most accessible system, 2) It has all species of salmon except king s, 3) It has a very large overwinter- ing Dolly Varden population, and 4) It has the longest fishing season. About a third of the Kodiak area salmon catches and over half of the Dolly Varden catch are taken from the Buskin-system. An average of 1,300 coho, 350 sockeye, and 2,700 pinks have been taken annually since 1969. The annual Dolly Varden harvest has averaged 17,100 fish since 1971 (Table 111). Total seasonal effort data is not available. The Karluk River system has provided the largest king salmon and .steelhead fishery in the region, but catch and effort is relatively light, compared with other sport fisheries. Sexsmith (1963) reported that it sustained a yearly steelhead take of about 1,000 fish. By the mid-1960's, however, the run had dropped substantially. The run has apparently increased in recent years. Fall catches currently average 100-150 fish (Table 112). The king fishery occurs in June and July and sustains an average seasonal catch of 100-300 fish. Coho, pink, sockeye, Dolly Varden, and rainbow are taken incidentally. The coho sport fisheries are quite intensive in the Kodiak area. The Buskin Lake, Pasagshak River (Lake Rose Tead) and Saltery River systems are the largest producers, averaging 1,300, 800 and 350 fish harvested a year, respectively, for each system (Table Catch to escapement ratios are quite high on many systems, and up to 72% of the total estimated run has been harvested on the Buskin system (Table 114). The Pasagshak system has one of the highest catch per angler ratios in the state for an intensive fishery. Of the sport salmon catch, pinks are harvested in greatest numbers by sportsmen, with catches averaging 4,500 fish a year in the Kodiak 284 area (Table-109) during 1973 and 1974. Buskin, Pasagshak, American, and Saltery Rivers are the largest producers. In contrast to coho catches, the pink harvest is usually only a small percentage of the total run in any system, (Table 115). 'The Buskin system also produces- the largest annual sockeye and chum catches. Dolly Varden comprised the largest catch in the Kodiak sport fisheries during 1973 to 1974 with average freshwater catches of 41,200 fish a year (Table 116). The main fishery occurs in spring on the Buskin Lake outmigration in which 50-70% of the total season's harvest of that system is taken. Fishing effort, apart from the salmon and Dolly Varden fisheries, is comparatively minor. The stocked lakes along the road system and on several islands near Kodiak offer fair to very good fishing for rainbow, landlocked coho and grz@yling (Table 108). A small winter ice fishery for rainbow, coho and Dolly Varden on these lakes receives from 750 to 1,000 angler days of effort in the season. A number of lakes and streams off the Kodiak road-system on Kodiak and Afognak Islands provide good fly-in fisheries for salmon and trout (Table 110). Afognak Island provides some excellent resident rainbow trout fisheries which receive minor effort throughout the summer season. MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Sport fish management and research activities have primarily included catalog and inventory assessments, enhancement and creel census work, life history studies, and some habitat protection vork. Catalog and inventory work has been fairly extensivej with most lakes and streams along the Kodiak road system inventoried for sport species. Many other 285 lakes and streams on Kodiak and Afognak Islands have also been inventoried. Enhancement by fish stocking and lake rehabilitation has been done on many roadside lakes with easy access from Kodiak. Re-stocking and monitoring growth and survival of stocked populations is a continual process. Numerous egg takes have also been conducted. Dolly Varden eggs have been taken from the Buskin andPasagshak systems, and rainbow- steelhead eggs taken from Karluk River. Creel census work was concentrated on determining catch and effort for the Buskin and Karluk systems, but now is aimed at calculating area- wide and region-wide catch information using an annual mail survey, with computer data analysis. Ground surveys, however, continue to be important for making the total estimates. Limited work on steelhead and Dolly Varden life history data collection has been done. Coho salmon escapement counts have been collected annually since 1967, and annual king salmon counts have been made on the Karluk system. Habitat protection work is done as the need arises, primarily in connection with land-use developments affecting streams around Kodiak and with timber sales on Afognak Island. Public access recommendations and easement acquisition is done as need arises. 286 Table 107 Kodiak region sport'fish distribution and abundance. Forms Species Resident Anadromous Abundance Remarks Dolly Varden Char x x High Universally distributed in all anadromous systems. Resident population also found in any streams with. falls. Rainbow Trout x Moderate- Found in all sockeye salmon High systems, many stocked pop. around Kodiak. Natural pop. most abundant on Afognak IS. Steelhead Trout x Moderate Found in all sockeye systems, but most pop.. small. Karluk L. has largest run. Land-Locked x Low Stocked in a few lakes Coho Salmon. around Kodiak. May be locally abundant. Grayling x Very Low Stocked in 4-5 lakes around Kodiak. Not natur- ally occurring. Most lakes require frequent re-stocking. Smelt High Capelin found on several beaches around Chiniak, Ugak Bays. Are beach spawners, not anadromous or resident. 287 Table 108 Stocked.lakes around the Kodiak area. 1) 2) 3) Lake Location Stocking Frequency Stocking Name TWS RNG SEC Species FREQ. INFR. Rate Remarks Tanigak 27S-19W-3 RT x 6,500 Abercrombie 27S-19W-15 RT x 3,600 GR x 55,000 Island 27S-19W-21 DV 4 NR Originally stocked, good production, all RT x NR year fishery. SS Dark 27S-19W-28 DV NR RT, SS originally stocked, established RT x NR population. SS 00 00 Long 29S-19W-34 DV NR Lake was rehabilitated in 1972. Will RT be stocked annually with RT and GR. GR Cascade 27S-21W-12 GR x NR Good grayling population established RT x best grayling fishery, good RT. Una 28S-19W-3 RT x 1,000 Good productivity, good.potential. Dolgoi 28S-19W-12 DV NR SS x NR RT x NR continued 1) Source A.D.F.&.G., 1970-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fishwaters of south- western Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Vol. 11-16. 2) FREQ. - frequent, stocked every year or two or most recently.. INFR. - infrequent, stocked before 1971. 3) NR - Natural reproduction, established population. Table 108 (continued). Stocked lakes around the Kodiak area. Lake Location Stocking Frequency Stocking Name TWS RNG SEC Species FREQ. INFR. Rate Remarks Southern 28S-19W-14 SS x 3,250 Good winter ice fishery. Devil's 28S-20W-3 DV NR RT x Genevieve 28S-20W-10 DV NR RT x NR Louise 28S-20W-10 DV NR SS NR Lupine 28S-20W-10 RT x 1,800 00 Margaret 28S-20W-11 RT x 1,600 Lilly 28S-20W-27 RT x .1,500 SS x 1,500 Beaver(Bridge) 28S-20W-31 DV NR RT x 600 Orbin 28S-20W-31 DV NR Migrants from stocked lake, RT (Beaver Lake) Dragonfly 28S-20W-34 DV NR Heavily fished for RT. RT x 1,600 Snag 28S-20W-35 RT x .1,500 Horseshoe 20S-20W-35 RT x 1,400 Heavily fished. Aurel 28S-21W-36 RT x 3,000 GR migrated from Cicely L., GR NR established population. continued Table 108 (continued). Stocked lakes around the Kodiak area. Lake Location Stocking Frequency Stocking Name TWS RNG SEC Species FREQ. INFR. Rate Remarks Caroline 28S-21W-12 RT x 1,300 GR x original plant 10,000 Jack 28S-21W-18 RT x 900 Cicely 28S-21W-36 GR x 10,000 Established population. Lee 28S-21W-36 RT x 2,800 Pony 29S-19W-36 SS x 2,800 Mayflower 29S-20W-23 DV NR SS x 2,500 Heitman 29S-20W-5 RT x Saturn 30W-18W-18 RT x 2,400 Heavy effort in June, popular hike-in. Summit 30S-20W-31 DV NR RT x 7,400 Jupiter 30S-21W-18 RT x 3,600 Heavy effort in June, popular hike-in lake. Barry Lagoon 31S-19W-28 DV NR SS x 40,000 Beaver 31S-20W-31 DV NR RT x 600 Bull 31S-20W-35 RT x 3,000 Bestc@ 'Aowth of stocked lakes, moder- ately fished. Table 1-09 Pink, chum, and sockeye salmon and Dolly Varden sport harvest estimated for selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1973-1974.1/. Pink Salmon Chum Salmon Sockeye Salmon Dolly Varden System 1973 1974 1973 1974 1973 1974 1973 1974 American R. 344 886 150 171 -- -- 1,084 3,628 Buskin L. 685 2,186 202 147 632 409 20,400 26,387 Kalsin R. 105 408 20 19 -- -- 1,229 0 Old's R. 0 96 47 0 -- -- 160 693 Pasagshak R. 1,004 537 78 44 56 160 2,134 8,032 Roslyn Cr. 123 177 0 0 -- -- 595 287 Salonie Cr. 27 7 0 0 0 0 Saltery R. 320 615 197 109 -- -- 4,345 6,207 Others 489 500 76 8 275 1,414 2,361 4,249 Total 3,256 5,772 770 498 963 1,983 32,892 49,474 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1974-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports, vol. 15,16. Table 110 Some Kodiak region sport fisheries. 1) (see also stocked lakes Table 108). Location 2) System TWS RNG SEC Species Remarks Kodiak Island Road System Anton Larsen Bay 27S-21W-2 PS,CS,DV Good beach fishery, summer-fall. Monashka Bay 27S-19W-19 SS,PS,DV Good beach fishery, summer-fall. Buskin L. 28S-20W-5 SS,PS,RS,CS Top fishery in region. Excellent DV,SH spring DV fishery, good salmon fishery, summer-fall. Woman's Bay 28S-20W-32 SS,PS,DV Good beach fishery. Russian R. 29S-22W-23 PS,DV Salonie Cr. 28S-21W-25 SS,PS Middle Bay 29S-20W-21 SS,PS,DV Good beach fishery. American R. 29S-21W-32 SS,PS,CS,DV Good salmon, DV fishery. Kalsin Bay 30S-20W-2 SS,.PS,DV Good beach fishery. Old's R. 30S-20W-26 SS,PS,CS,DV Kalsin R. 30S-20W-34 SS,PS,CS,DV Light fishing effort. Roslyn R. 30S-19W-20 SS,PS,DV Twin Forks Cr. 30S-19W-16,20 SS,Ps,Dv L. Rose Tead 30S-20W-22 SS,PS,RS.CS,DV Good SS,DV fishery. Pasagshak Beach 30S-20W-23 SS,PS,DV Good beach fishery. L. Miam 30S-21W-30 SS,PS,RS,CS, Light fishery. DV,RT-SH Saltery L., Cr. 30S-22W-35 SS,RS,PS,CS, Good DV,SS fishery. FV-,RT-'�-H continued 1) Source A.D.F.&C., 1975. Alaska Sport Fishing Guide. Sport Fish Division, Juneau, Ak. 96p. 2) Underlined species are primary species sought. 292 Table 110 (continued). Kodiak region sport fisheries (also see stocked lakes Table 108 Location System TWS RNG SEC Species Remarks Kodiak Wildlife Refuge Barbara L. 27S-23W-22 SS,RS,DV,RT Productive lake, fairly pop- ular with fly-in fishermen. Uganik L., R. 29S-25W-7 SS,RS,PS, DV RT-SH Karluk L., R. 32S-30W-10 KS,SS,RS,PS, Former Navy recreation camp. & Lagoon 30S-32W-22 CS,DV,RT-SH Top KS, SH fishery in region, light to moderate effort. KS-June, July, SH-Sept., Oct. Red L., R. 34S-32W-2 KS .,SS,RS,PS, Good SH fishery. Light effort. CS,DV,RT-SH Upper Station 36S-31W-18,17 SS,RS,PS,DV, Lakes Akalura L. 34S-31W-33 SS,RS,DV,RT-SH Afognak Island Afognak L.,R. 24S-22W-15 SS,RS,PS,DV, Former Navy recreation camp. RT.-SH Very heavy effort then. Light to umderate effort presently. Excellent RT fishing. Malina Lakes 23S-23W-25 SS,RS,PS,RT- Excellent RT fishery, light SH,DV . ef f ort. Little Afognak 23S-25W-27 SS,RS,DV,RT-SH Excellent RT fishery, light L. effort. Kitoi Lakes 23S-25W-16,10 SS,PS,RT,DV Good RT fishery, light ef fort. Portage L. 22S-25W-17 SS,PS,RS,RT-SH Excellent RT fishery, light effect Waterfall L. 21S-24W-15 DV Laura L. & Cr. 21S-25W-12 SS,RS,PS,DV, Excellent RT fishery, light RT-SH effeat. 293 Table 111 Buskin Lake system sport fish catch and effort, 1965-1974" Angler- Angler- Year Census Period Trips Hours SS RS PS CS DV@_ 1965 season estimates 80 120 1966 4/29-5/30 1,130 3,487 1967 5/1-6/1 6,085 6,611 7/1-8/1 1,847 1,547 season estimate 600 1968 late April-May 5,397 12,807 July-August 8,052. 5,547 season estimate 1,200 1969 8/27-10/12 4,494 9,374 2,112 804 3,319 21 1970 7/1-9/12 10,287 19,931 2,500r 559 8,543 1.971 season estimates 850 50 1,100 4,000 1972 season estimates 700 50 1973 season estimates 3/ 753 632 685 202 20,900 1974 season estimates3/ 1,049 408 2,186 147 26,387 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1966-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish' waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports, vol. 7-16. 2) Estimate covers whole season. 3) Based on postal card survey. Table 112 Karluk River sport fish catch and effort, 1965-1974. 1) 2) Catch Angler- Angler- RS Year Census Period Trips Hours KS SS PS SH DV Area 1965 season estimate 70 1968 season estimate 150 1971 season estimate -- -- 150 10/6-10/29 30 283 -- 108(l) 217(65) 121 1972 5/16-7/8 -- -- 87(56) l(l) 51(2) Lower Portage 6/6-8/4 143 1,256 170(123) -- 6(2) 50(15) 10(2) area 9/30-11/10 26 308 -- 166(5) -- 348(56) 31(l) TOTAL 169 1,564 257(179) 166(5) 7(3) 449(63) 41(3) 1973 season estimates 200 100 1974 season estimates 200 150 1) Source A.D.F.&G., 1966-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports, vol. 7-16. 2) Numbers of fish retained in parenthesis. Table 113 Coho salmon sport harvest estimated for selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1967-1974 l/. Estimated Harvest .System 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 American R. 60 150 -- 50 250 50 42 -- Buskin L. 600 1,200 2,200 2,500 850 700 753 1,049 L. Genevieve -- -- - 15 -- -- -- Hurst Cr. -- 75 10 Island L. -- 50 100 -- -- -- Kalsin R. 20 20 0 0 49 54 L. Miam -- - -- 50 -- 50 Mill Cr. 100 -- -- -- -- -- Old's R. -- -- 25 25 150 50 6 19 Pasagshak 100 300 -- 1,000 1,350 1,400 1,129 609 Pillar Cr. -- -- -- 25 25 36 -- 2/ Roslyn Cr. 40 50. 25 -- -- -- 74 35 Salonie Cr. 50 200 225 200 100 0 88 63 Saltery R. -- 100 200 - 100 1,100 -- 340 Total 850 2,100 2,695 3,885 3,050 3,340 2,593 2,733 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Came. 1968-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid. in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Report, vol. 9-16. 2) Fishery closed. 296 Table 114 Percent of sport-caught coho salmon harvested from total estimated run in selected northeast Kodiak Island systems, 1967-1974 l/. Percentage of Total Run System 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 American R. 17% 18% 10% 50% 26% 46% Buskin L. 21 36 72% 68' 43 51 38 68% L. Genevieve 30 Hurst Cr. 20 20 Island L. 45 14 Kalsin R. 15 12 0 0 40 42 L. Miam 7 3 Mill Cr. 33 Old's R. 8 8 2 28 Pasayshak 4 8 50 56 33 32 Pillar Cr. - 42 50 @8 2/ Roslyn Cr. 40 17 8 71 26 Salonie Cr. 77 22 50 29 50 0 54 17 Saltery R. 9 20 82 36 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1968-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Prog. Report, vol. 9-16. 2) Fishery closed. 297 Table 115 Pink, chum and sockeye salmon sport harvest as a percent of total estimated runs for selected-northeast Kodiak systems, 1973-1974.1/. Pink Salmon Chum Salmon Sockeye Salmon [email protected] 1973 1974 1973 . 1974 1973 1974 American R. 3% 5% 4% -- -- -- Buskin L. 7 5 -- 22% 20% Kalsin R. 1 -- neg. Old's R. -- neg. Pasagshak R. -- -- 28 4 Roslyn Cr. 21 4 -- -- Salonie Cr. 2 neg. -- - - Saltery R. 3 4 1 21% 1) Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1974-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in Southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports,. vol. 15-16. 298 Table 116 Estimated total sport salmon and Dolly Varden harvest, northeast Kodiak Island, 1973-1974. 1) Total Year Fishery SS RS PS CS Salmon DV 1973 Freshwater 2,593 963 3,256 770 7,582 32,892 Saltwater 233 - 974 235 1,442 3,934 TOTAL 2,826 963 4,230 1,005 9,024 36,826 1974 Freshwater 2,733 1,983 5,412 498 10,626 49,474 Saltwater 264 -- 1,966 63 2,293 4,877 TOTAL 2,977 1,983 7,378 561 12,919 54,351 1) Source A.D.F.&G., 1974-1975. Inventory and cataloging of sport fish and sport fish waters in southwest Alaska. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Ann. Progress Reports, vol. 15-16. 299 0 APPENDIX 0 0 300 LIFE HISTORY - KING SALMON Taxonomy .King salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are members of the family Salmonidae, and are the largest of the five Pacific salmon. Local names vary to location. In Washington and Oregon king salmon are called 11chinook," while in British Columbia they are surnamed "spring salmon." Other local names are "quinnat," "tyee," tule," and "blackmouth." Distribution King salmon range in western North America from Ventura River in southern California to Point Hope, Alaska, adjacent to the Chuckchi Sea. In Asia they range from Hokkaido,. Japan, north to the Anadyr River in Siberia. Physical Description A mature king salmon averages 40 inches in length and 40 pounds in weight, however, a 126-pounder was taken near Petersburg, Alaska in 1949. Adult king salmon are distinguished by the black irregular spotting on the back, dorsal fins and on both sides of the caudal fin. They are also characterized by a black pigment along the gum line. In the ocean, the king salmon is a robust, deep-bodied fish. It has a blue-green coloration on its back, fading to a silvery color on the sides with white on the belly. Depending upon location and degree of maturation, spawning colors vary from red to copper to almost black. Males are more deeply colored 301 than females. Males are also distinguished by their "ridgeback" con- dition and their hooked upper jaw. In fresh water, juvenile king salmon are recognized by well devel- oped parr marks which are bisected by the lateral line. Life History Like all species of Pacific salmon, king salmon are anadromous. They hatch in fresh water, spend part of their life in the ocean, then return to fresh water to spawn. King salmon may become sexually mature between their second and seventh years. As a result, fish in any spawning run may vary greatly in size. For example, a mature three-year-old generally weighs less than four pounds, while a mature seven-year-old may exceed 50 pounds. Females are usually older than males at maturity. With the exception of six and seven-year age groups, male spawners generally-outnumber female spawners. Small king salmon that mature after.spending only one winter in the ocean are commonly referred to as "jacks". These are ususally males. In Alaska, mature king salmon start to ascend larger rivers from May through July and often make lengthy freshwater spawning migrations to reach their home streams. Spawners destined for the Yukon River headwaters in Canada are known to travel more than 2,000 miles in a 60-day period. King salmon do not feed during the freshwater migration, causing their physical condition to gradually deteriorate. During this period they utilize stored body material for energy and for the development of reproductive products. 302 King salmon may spawn immediately above the tidal limit, but most travel upstream. Spawning generally occurs in the main channels of larger streams. Optimum substrate composition is 55 to 95% medium and fine gravel (no more than 15cm in diameter) with less than 8% 3 silt and sand. Optimum stream discharge is 0.5 to 2.0 ft /sec. The spawning act is essentially the.same for all five species of Pacific salmon. The female selects a spawning site, usually a riffle area, and digs the nest or redd by turning on her side and beating with her tail. Redd size varies from 1.2 to 9 meters in diameter. Usually a dominant and several accessory males are in attendance. When the redd is completed and the female is ready to spawn, she swims across the redd and lowers her anal fin into it. The dominant male comes alongside the female and quivers. The eggs from the female and sperm (milt) from the male are released simultaneously. After egg deposition, the female digs upstream from the redd, and covers the eggs with gravel. A female may dig several redds and spawn with more than one mal e. Males may also spawn with several females. Females may contain from 3,000 to 14,000 eggs. The eggs are comparatively large (six to seven millimeters in diameter) and are orangish-red in color. Shortly after spawning activity ceases, the adult king salmon die. Dependent upon water temperatures, the eggs hatch in about seven to nine weeks. The newly hatched fish, called alevins, remain in the gravel for two to three weeks while they gradually absorb the food in the attached yolk sac. Fry emerge from the gravel by early spring. Following emergence they school, but soon become territorial. Juvenile king salmon predominately migrate to the ocean after hatching but may remain in freshwater one or two years before migrating. 303 During the freshwater stage they feed largely on plankton, aquatic insect larvae and terrestrial organisms. In the ocean king salmon consume a wide variety or organisms, including: herring, pilchard, sandlance, rockfish, eulachon, amphipods, copepods, euphausiids and larvae of crabs and barnacles. King salmon grow rapidly in the ocean, often doubling their body weight during a summer season. King salmon feed in marine waters for a period of one to six years before returning to spawn in freshwater. Selected References Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Freshwater fishes of north western Canada and Alaska. Bull. 173. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada. 1970. 381 p. 304 LIFE HISTORY SOCKEYE SALMON Taxonomy Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) is a member of the family Salmonidae, which includes Pacific salmon, Atlantic salmon, trout, Dolly Varden and Arctic char. Common names for sockeye salmon are "red salmon" and "bluebacks." The majority of sockeye salmon are anadromous. However, some individuals become "lake-locked," completing their life cycle in fresh water. These individuals are known as "kokanee.11 Distribution Sockeye salmon are native to practically all temperate and sub- arctic waters of the North Pacific Ocean.. The distribution along the North American coastline occurs from Point Hope, Alaska (adjacent to the Cht.kchi Sea) south to the Klamath River in California.. On the Asiatic side, they have been reported from Cape Chaplina in the northern portion of the Bering Sea southward around Kamchatka Peninsula to the northern shore of the Okhotsk Sea off Siberia. Coastal distributions of sockeye salmon are well known because of the historical concentration of fishing effort along the coast and river esturaries. However, how far they move offshore and to what areas of the high seas they frequent during their one to five years of ocean residence is poorly understood. Investigations into the high seas distribution of sockeye by Davidson and Hutchinson (1938) and Fleming (1955) indicate that sockeye salmon are found where summer surface temperatures range from five to 16 degrees Centigrade, and where the summer surface salinities are generally less than 32.2 percent. 3 0 5" Forrester (1968) indicates that salmon normally occupy the upper 60-100 feet strata.- These ranges were calculated from gill net catches of the Japanese high seas fishery and from Canadian and United States Explora- tory'fishing vessels. Description Anadromous sockeye may reach (33 inches) in length and weighing up to 15.5 pounds. However, the average is 24 inches in length and six to nine pounds in weight. The nonanadromous form (Kokanee) seldom exceed 16 inches and one pound in weight. During their marine life adult'sockeye salmonare metallic, 'greenish- blue on the dorsal surface with fine black specklings. In fresh water, mature breeding males develop a humped back, hooked upper jaw and brilliant red on the back which eventually blends to a deep, dark red on the sides. The head is olive-green, and the lower jaw and underside are pale white. The breeding female lacks the characteristic humped back and hooked jaw of the male. It generally has greenish-yellow patches on its dark red sides. Juvenile sockeye salmon have dark, mottled green backs blending to an iridescent green and silver on the sides. They are distinguishable by the six to 10 dark oval parr marks on the sides. The parr marks are about the same width as the eye, barely extend below the lateral line and are irregularly spaced along the side of the body. Life History Differential distribution of anadromous sockeye salmon coincides with specific stages in its life cycle. Each spring sexually mature sockeye salmon leave their feeding grounds in the north Pacific Ocean 306 and migrate over the continental shelf, eventually finding the spawning rivers from where they emerged. Sockeye salmon reach the spawning stage at varying ages. They may spend from one to five years in marine waters, thus reaching sexual maturity at ages ranging from two to seven years. Sockeye salmon undergo many morphological changes as they near fresh water in preparation for spawning. Feeding discontinues and their digestive systems become nonfunctional and degenerate. Nourishment is derived from the fat and protein sources of their flesh, skeletal structures and scales. As sockeye salmon enter freshwater, they begin developing the characteristic spawning coloration. In Alaska,*the spawning season for sockeye salmon extends from late July to early October, depending upon the geographic location. Spawning rivers usually have lakes in their systems. Spawning occurs in inlet and outlet streams and along the'gravel shoals of lakes, often to a depth of 100 feet. In general, spawning coincides with water temperatures of 40 to 50 degrees Farenheit. Fish breeding in lakes or in their outlets spawn later than those in streams. This is because lake waters generally cool off more slowly in late summer than do runoff waters in lake tributaries. Factors determining the selection of spawning sites are variable. They include stream gradient, water depth and velocity, and size of streambed materials. Spawning sites are usually selected where there is good waterflow through the gravel, enabling the eggs to receive the essential amount of oxygen. Optimum substrate composition is fine- medium gravel with no more than 1% of the gravel being 15cm or more in 2 diameter. The nest, or redd, generally averages 1.75m in diameter, although they are usually larger and more irregular in lake spawning areas. Kokanee redds are considerably smaller. 307 After egg deposition and fertilization, the female covers the eggs with a layer of material from the streambed. This act is similar in all species of Pacific salmon. The total number of eggs found in samples of North American female sockeye ranges from 2,200 to more than 4,500. The avera ge is approximately 3,500. Fecundity depends primarily upon the size of the female. The egg incubation period depends primarily upon the temperature of water flowing through the nest, or "redd." Under normal conditions the period may vary from 80 to 140 days. When the eggs hatch, the young (alevins) remain in the gravel for three to five weeks. During this time they derive nourishment from the attached yolk sac. Full formed and free-swimming fry emerge from the gravel in early spring (April and May). After emergence into lake tributaries, fry move downstream into the lake. Those hatched in lake outlets must move upstream into the lake. In some river systems, "races" of sockeye salmon exist which spawn in streams without associated lakes. In these cases, fry drop down directly to the sea, or rear in backwater streams or eddies. When fry first enter a nursery lake they work along the shore for a few weeks. They soon move out into deeper water of the lake and con- centrate in the top 10 to 20 meters. Fry have been found at depths greater than 40 meters. Food during the nursery period consists primarily of insects and their larvae (in shallow water). Later they feed primarily on Cladocera, copeods and amphipods. In addition to competing with their own species for food, sticklebacks, whitefish and other freshwater species are significant competitors. Predators of sockeye fry include Dolly Varden, Arctic char, squawfish (Ptychodheilus oregonensis), rainbow trout, coho salmon and prickly sculpin (Cottus asper 308 Sockeye fry may remain in freshwater for a period from one to four years. When surface waters in.nursery lakes approach 39 to 45 degrees Farenheit, the young salmon, now called "smolts", begin their seaward migration. Depending upon genetic makeup and freshwater growth factors,. sockeye smolt range from three to six inches in length. Upon reaching saltwater the smolt generally remain inshore in estuarial areas. Food at this stage consists of insects, crustaceans such as copepods, amphipods, decopods, barnacle larvae, astrocods and euphausiids. Smolt also feed upon young fishes and larvae such as sandlance, bigeye, whiting, rockfishes, eulachon, starry flounder, herring, prickleheads and hake. Sockeye salmon remain in ocean feeding areas from one to four years. With the onset of sexual maturity, they begin migrating back to coastal waters and finally their native streams. Selected References Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Davidson, F.A. and S.J. Hutchinson. 1938. The geographical distri- bution and environmental limitations of the Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus). Bull. Bur. Fish., 48:667-692. (Bull. No.26.) Fleming, R.H. 1955. Review of the oceanography of the North Pacific. Intern. North Pacific Fish. Comm., Bull. No.2, 43 p. Foerster, R.E. 1968. The sockeye salmon. Bull. 162, Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 422 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. Hartman, Wilbur L. 1971. Alaska's fishery resource - the sockeye salmon. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Nat. Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., NMFS leaflet 636. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Freshwater fishes of north- western Canada and Alaska. Bull. 173. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada. 1970. 381 p. 309 LIFE HISTORY COHO SALMON Taxonomy Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) is a member of the family Salmonidae, which includes the rest of the Pacific salmon, Atlantic salmon, trout, char and Dolly Varden. In common usage, coho salmon are generally referred to as "silver salmon." Distribution Coho salmon are distributed in western North America from Monterey Bay, California, north to Point Hope, Alaska. In northeastern Asia they range from Hokkaido, Japan, north to the Anadyr River in Siberia. In Alaska cohos are abundant from the Dixon Entrance (Southeastern Alaska) north to the Yukon River. Eviden@e suggests cohos are rare north of Norton Sound. Physical Description The average weight of a mature coho salmon is from six to 12 pounds. The average length at maturity is 29 inches. During ocean residency adults are metallic blue on the dorsal surface, silvery on the sides and ventral surface and caudal peduncle. Irregular black spots are present on the back and usually on the upper lobe of the tail. Spots and gums are not as darkly pigmented as in king salmon. The caudal peduncle is unusually broad, and a silvery plate is evident on the tail. .During the spawning phase, both sexes turn dark, with a maroon-reddish coloration on the sides. The male developes an extremely hooked snout and its teeth become enlarged. The male also developes a "humped" back, 310 but it is not as extreme as those found in spawning sockeye or pink salmon males. Occasionally males return to spawn after only three to six months at sea. These smal 1 "jacks" resemble adults, but possess more.rounded tail lobes. Juvenile coho have parr marks evenly distributed above and below the lateral line. The parr marks are narrower in width than the inter- spaces. No black spots are visible on the dorsal fin. The anal fin has a long, leading edge usually tipped with white. All other fins are frequently tinged with orange. Life History In Alaska, coho salmon enter spawning systems from August through November, usually during periods of peak high water. Actual spawning occurs between September and January. Although spawning may occur in main channels of large rivers, locations at the head of riffles in shallow tributaries or narrow side channels are preferred. Optimum substrate composition is small-medium gravel. However, coho salmon are extremely adaptable and will tolerate up to to 10% mud. Optimum .. 3 stream discharge is 3.4 ft. sec. Nest, or redd, site is generally 2 larger than that for sockeye salmon and averages 2.8 m in the Columbia River basin. Fecundity ranges from 2,400 eggs to 5,000 eggs in larger females. Eggs are orangish-red in color and smaller than most other salmon eggs, ranging from four to six millimeters in diameter. Eggs in the gravel develop slowly during the cold winter months, hatching in about six to eight weeks. The sac-fry remain in the gravel and utilize the yolk material until emerging two to three weeks later (May-June). Upon emergence the fry school in shallow areas along the shores of the stream. These schools break up rather quickly as fry 311 establish territories. The fry defend these Ifterritories" from other juvenile coho with aggressive displays. This territory is usually along the shoreline or behind a log or boulder. From such a location the young fish do not have to fight the current, and can dart out to feed on surface insects or drifting insect larvae. Juvenile coho grow rapidly during the early summer months, and spend the winter in deeper pool areas of spring-fed side ponds. Coho salmon also rear in ponds or lakes, where they feed along shoreline areas. Rearing also occurs in brackish, lagoon areas. In the spring of their second, third or fourth year, coho smolts migrate to the sea. They remain inshore and near the surface during the first few months, feeding on herring larvae, sandlance, kelp, greenling, rockfish, eulachon, insects, and various-crustaceans such as copepods, amphipods, barnacles.' They also feed on crab larvae and euphausiids. After several months inshore, they move out into the open ocean where their principal foods are squid, euphausiids and various species of small fish. Information concerning the coho's ocean residency is scant. However, tagging in the Gulf of Alaska has indicated that a large number of southeast Alaska coho move north along the coastline until reaching the Kodiak Island vicinity. This movement corresponds with the Alaskan Gyre, which is a counterclockwise pattern of ocean currents moving across the North Pacific to the coast of British Columbia, northwest along the coast to the Gulf of Alaska and then southwest toward the Alaska Penninsula. Other species of Pacific salmon are thought to follow this counterclockwise pattern during ocean residency. Coho salmon spend from one to three years in marine waters before returning to spawn in their native streams. 312 Selected References Cleme ns, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Freshwater fishes of north- western Canada and Alaska. Bull. 173. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada. 1970. 381 p. 313 LIFE HISTORY - PINK SALMON Taxonomy Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) are members of the family Salmonidae, which also includes the genera Salmo (Atlantic salmon and trout) and Salvenlinus (char and Dolly Varden). Pink salmon have also been called "humpy"or "humpback" salmon because of the enlarged hump that develops on the back of the spawning male. Distribution Pink salmon occur in streams from northern California to the Arctic Ocean in North America, and from the Arctic Ocean south to Hokkaido Island of northern Japan in Asia. Their oceanic distribu- tion extends from North America to Asia north of the 40th parallel through the Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean. Although several attempts have been made to transplant pink salmon to waters outside their natural range, no new fishery has been established to date. Physical Description The average length of a mature pink salmon is from 16 to 22 inches, with an average weight of four pounds. Adults have large black spots on the back, adipose and both lobes of the caudal fin. The spots on the caudal fin are oval. The largest of these spots are at least as large as the eye diameter. Fry have a general silvery appearance and their backs are often deep blue to green. A lack of parr marks easily distinguishes them from 314 other salmon fry. During the first three months after the fry's entry into the ocean, they have a silvery color common to all salmon. Pink salmon fry can also be readily distinguished by small and numerous scales, with subtle differences in scale shape, color and internal structure. Spawning adult males develop an elongated and hooked snout, en- larged teeth and a pronounced hump behind the back. The back and sides of the fish become dark, with green-brown blotches on the sides. Spawning females do not develop these characteristics as distinctly. Life History In Alaska mature pink salmon begin migration to spawning streams from mid-June to late September, usually ascending streams only short distances. In British Columbia and California, some pink salmon have been known to migrate more than 200 miles, and in Asia migrations have been reported up to 400 miles from the sea. In Alaska, pink salmon spawn in the lower reaches of short, coastal streams. Some prefer intertidal areas of these streams, where eggs are alternately bathed by fresh and brackish waters. Spawning areas with medium size gravel are preferred. Optimum stream flow is 0.03m/sec. or greater. Spawning generally begins in August or September when stream temperatures are approximately 50 degrees F. Pink salmon tend to spawn earlier in colder streams and later in warmer ones. Because pinks are smaller than the other salmon, the nest, or redds, dug by the female are 2 n.ot as large. In Southeast Alaska, redd size averages 1.1m in diameter and 9.3cm deep. The egg deposition and fertilization process is similar to the other species of Pacific salmon. The mature female usually 315 carries between 1500 and 2000 eggs, which axe orangish-red in color and roughly six millimeters in diameter. From the time of spawning to the fry's emergence from the gravel, less than 25 percent of the deposited eggs survive. This heavy mortality is caused by digging in the redds by other females, poor oxygen supply to the eggs, poor water circulation in the streambed, dislodgement of eggs by flooding and scouring, freez- ing of eggs during severe and prolonged cold, and predation by other fish. The developmental period of t he egg is critically affected by water temperature. Hatching normally occurs from December through February. Alevins remain in the gravel for several weeks and emerge in April or May. The fry migrate downstream to estuaries immediately after hatching, migrating at night and hiding in.the gravel by day. Migrating fry generally do not feed% but if the distance is great they may consume larval insects. Fry form large schools in estuarine areas, remaining inshore throughout their first summer. In September they move into deeper water. In April and June their principal food consists of copepods. By July, increased growth enables them to supplement their diet with larger organisms such as insects, and small fishes. In the estuaries of southeastern Alaska, fry may reach six to nine inches before migrating into the open ocean. Maturing pink salmon r emain in ocean feeding grounds until the following summer. Growth is rapid during the last spring and summer in the sea and throughout most of the spawning migration through coastal waters. Pink salmon reach sexual maturity when they are 14 to 16 months old and average 16 to 22 inches in length. Little data concerning estuarial 316 and ocean survival is available. Evidence suggests that roughly three- fourths of the fry entering estuary waters die before reaching the ocean. Of those entering the ocean, approximately three-foruths die before reaching sexual maturity. Predation is believed to be the principal cause of these mortalities. Pink salmon have the shortest and simplest life history of any Pacific salmon. With a two year cycle they have two genetically distinct stocks. These stocks are called "odd" or "even" year, and are based upon the year adults spawn. Differences in the number and size of fish in the two stocks have been the subject of speculation for many years. In some areas of Alaska, only one stock spawns in significant numbers. In general, odd-year runs predominate in the Fraser River and in southern British Columbia. Even-year runs predominate in northern British Columbia and the Queen Charolette Islands. Switches from odd-year to even-year dominance have been recorded in Asian streams to a significant extent. Puget Sound and Southeastern Alaska odd-year runs dominate, while in Kodiak, Cook Inlet and Bristol Bay, even-year runs are in the majority. Long term averages in Prince William.Sound indicate a higher abundance of even-year stocks, however, odd-year stocks have periodically sus- tained several years of high abundance. Selected References Baily, Jack E. 1969. Alaska's fishery resource - the pink salmon. U.S. Dept. of Int., Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Comm. Fisheries. Leaflet 619. Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. 317 Helle, J.H, 1962-63. Biological characteristics of intertidal and freshwater spawning pink salmon at Olsen Creek, Prince William Sound, Alaska. Special scientific report no. 602. U.S. Dept. Fish and Wildlife Serv. 1970. Helle, J.H., Richard S. Williamson, and Jack E. Bailey. 1964. Inter- tidal ecology and life history of pink salmon at Olsen Creek, Prince William Sound, Alaska. Special scientific report no. 483. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Serv. 1964. McNeil, W.J. 1969. Survival of pink and chum salmon eggs and alevins, page 101-117. D.W. Chapman and T.C. Bjornn, distribution of salmonoids in streams, with specific reference to food and feeding, page 153-176, in symposium on salmon and trout in streams, U. of British Columbia. H.R. MacMillan lectures in fisheries, 1969. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Freshwater fishes of north- western Canada and Alaska. Bull. 173. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada. 1970. 381 p. Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corp., 1975. Salmon culture program (unpublished). 318 LIFE HISTORY - CHUM SALMON Taxonomy Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) are members of the family Salmon- idae and sub-order Salmonoidea. Chum salmon are commonly referred to as "dogs" or "dog salmon." This name can be attributed to the hooked snout and protruding teeth of spawning males. Distribution Chums are the most widely distributed of the five Pacific salmon and second to the pink salmon in abundance. In western North America they range from California north to the Bering Strait and east to the MacKenzie River. In northeast Asia they run from near Pusan, Korea, north along the Asian coast to the Arctic Ocean. They also range west along the Arctic coast to the Lena River of Siberia. Primarily, distribution is above latitude 46*N in the colder waters of the subarctic region. Physical Description Adult chum salmon have been recorded as large as 40 inches in length and weighing as much as 33 pounds. The average is 30 inches long and eight pounds in weight. In marine waters they are metallic blue on dorsal surfaces with occasional black speckling. The pectoral, anal and caudal fins have dark tips. In fresh water maturing-chums show reddish or dark streaks (or bars) and large blotches, with white tips on the pelvic and anal fins. The spawning male develops an elongated, hooked snout, and its teeth become enlarged. 319 Chum salmon fry have six to 14 short parr marks that rarely extend below the lateral line. The back is mottled green, while the sides and belly are silvery with a pale green iridescence. Life History From July through September, sexually mature chum salmon leave ocean feeding grounds and migrate to freshwater spawning habitat. These habitats may range from tidal flats of short, coastal streams to springs in the headwaters of large river systems. The longest known spawning migration occurs in the Yukon River, where chum salmon swim more than 1,500 miles upstream from the Bering Sea. Spawning usually occurs in riffle areas, with gravel size com- parable to that used by pink salmon. Spawning also occurs in coarser gravel and even in bedrock area atop loose rubble. Chum salmon generally avoid areas where there is poor circulation of water through the streambed. Optimum stream flow is 0.1-1.0 m/sec. Nest, or redd, size is considerably larger than that for pink salmon and has average 2 2.25m in diameter in the Columbia River basin. Optimal size is considered 3m in diameter. Females produce an average of 3,000 orangish-red eggs approximately six to seven millimeters in diameter. Hatching occurs from December through March. Experiments have revealed that at a constant temperature of 50 degrees Farenheit, eggs hatch in about 50 days. Alevins emerge from the gravel from April through May to begin their seaward migration. When fry reach the estuary they are usually about one and one-half inches long. They feed near shore for several months and migrate to open sea in September. Growth during the first months of marine resid- ence is rapid, with juveniles reaching lengths of six to nine inches in 320 their first year. The diets of maturing chum salmon is similar to that of other Pacific salmon. Chum salmon return to spawn after spending two to four years at sea. Counting freshwater growth, they are between three and five years old when they leave the ocean. Selected References Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd'ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. McNeil, W.J. 1969. Survival of pink and chum salmon eggs and alevins, page 101-117. D.W. Chapman and T.C. Bjornn, Distribution of salmonoids in streams, with specific reference to food and feeding, page 153-176, in symposium on salmon and trout in streams, U. of British Columbia. H.R. MacMillan lectures in fisheries, 1969. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Freshwater fishes of northwestern Canada and Alaska. Bull. 173. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada. 1970. 381 p. Merrell, Theodore, R. Jr. 1970. Alaska's fishery resource - the chum salmon. U.S. Dept of Int., Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Comm. Fisheries. Leaflet 632. Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corp., 1975. Salmon culture program @unpublished). 321 LIFE HISTORY - PACIFIC HERRING Taxonomy The Pacific herring is a member of the order Clupeiformes. Its family, Clupidae, is characterized by an elongate, compressed body. In general, all Pacific herring have similar characteristics, but minor differences may exist between the herring in Alaska and those in other areas. Physical Description The species can grow to lengths of 33 centimeters (13 inches), but an average large specimen is nine to 10 inches long, weighing about 1/3 pound. They are bluish-green dorsally and silvery on the ventral side, having relatively large scales. Herring are fast swimmers and occur in-schools of up to one million or more fish. They feed principally on planktonic crustaceans and store large quantities of oil in their bodies. The common maximum life is about nine years, although some fish may live more than 15 years. They attain sexual maturity in their third or fourth year of life and spawn each year thereafter. Distribution Pacific herring occur all around the North Pacific rim, in the Bering Sea, and along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. In Alaska, the largest commercial quantities occur around Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound and in much of southeastern Alaska. Recent develop- ments in fishing techniques and gear have resulted in the discovery 322 of additional concentrations of Pacific herring in the Bering Sea, where thousands of tons are no'w taken annually by Soviet and Japanese trawlers. Spawning The life history of Pacific herring from the time adults spawn until the developing juveniles move from inshore waters is well documented, but little is known about what occurs in the 2 1/2 years while herring are maturing. Adult Pacific herring usually mature at about age three or four years in Alaska at a size of about 150 to 200 mm. However, this may vary somewhat between areas. Spawning occurs throughout the spring months, late April through mid-June, slightly earlier in more southern areas. Water temperatures appear to be one of the main factors that influence spawning timing, and spawning usually begins when water temperatures reach approximately 39.5'-40.0' F. A female can produce about 10,000 eggs when she is three-years-old and as many as 59,000 when she is eight. The older and larger females produce more eggs than the younger ones, but approximately 20,000 eggs per spawning is average. The eggs are adhesive, and the female deposits them on solid surfaces rather than broadcasting them loosely in the water. The generally preferred surface for spawning is living plants. Those plants most often used are eel grass (Zostera), rockweed (Fucus) and girdle (Laminaria). A spawning female makes physical contact with the substrate and deposits her eggs in narrow bands upon it. The male herring does not pair off with any particular mate, but wanders among the spawning fe- males extruding milt (sperm) at random. The thousands, or perhaps 323 millions, of fish spawning on a beach usually produce so much milt that the water becomes discolored. A heavy spawning does not always result in more adult herring. In some cases, mortality cuased by crowding of the eggs may actually produce fewer young herring than more moderate spawning. Moreover, if many of the eggs of a heavy spawning hatch sucessfuly, high mortality may result as the millions of larvae compete for a limited food supply. The eggs of the Pacific herring are small (1.0 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter). They are spherical, slightly heavier than seawater, and adhesive. The incubation time is governed by the temperature of the water, and ranges between 12 and 20 days. Higher temperatures accel- erate development. Even under ideal conditions, millions of eggs fail to hatch and mortalities in the egg stage can range from 50% to as high as 99%. During the incubation period, eggs laid within the intertidal area are alternately exposed and covered by tides. In warm weather, great numbers of eggs may dehydrate and die when exposed by low tides. Severe mortality may also result from coastal storms if the egg-covered eel grass or kelp is torn from the bottom and cast up on the beach. The alternatve exposing and covering of the eggs by the tide makes them available to both aquatic and terrestrial predators. Upon hatching, a larva receives nourishment from a small quantity of yolk that remains in the egg. When the yolk has been utilized the larva begins to feed. The herring larva is almost transparent and about six millimeters (1/4 inch) long. The transition from yolk subsistence to active feeding is perhaps one of the most critical periods in the 324 herring's life. If water currents are unfavorable, thousands of larvae may be swept out to sea or to -areas without proper food. The larvae are constantly exposed to predation by marine animals such as arrow worms, comb jellies and other fish. The change from a larva to a scaled juvenile takes place from six to eight weeks after the egg is hatched. At this stage the herring is approximately 65 millimeters (2 1/2 inches) long. The young collect in small schools and gradually move seaward toward the mouths of bays and inlets in which they were hatched. By early fall they are about 100 millimeters (4 inches) long and consolidate into large schools of per- haps one million fish or more. Most of the schools move into deep or offshore water by late fall. They return 2 1/2 years later as mature adults ready to spawn for the first time. Selected References Clemens, W.A., and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. McPhail, J.D. and C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Fresh water fishes of northwestern Canada and Alaska. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 173. 381 p. Reid, Gerald M. 1972. Fishery facts - 2, Alaska's fishery resources the Pacific herring. U.S. Dept. Comm., MfFS, U.S. Government printing office, Wash., D.C. 20 p. 325 LIFE HISTORY HALIBUT Taxonomy The Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) is a member of the order Pleuronectiformes, which includes such species as flounders, sole and brill. Physical Description The order Pleuronectiformes is characterized by a greatly com- pressed body (somewhat rounded on the eyed side) and flat body on the blind side. In young flatfished, the body is upright and symmetrical with an eye on each side of the head. Very soon a metamorphosis occurs, in which one eye migrates to the opposite side of the head. Eventually both eyes are on the upper or darker side. The fish then settle to the bottom and swim horizontally. In the Pleuronectidae or flounder family, to which the halibut belongs, the eyes and colored surface are typically on the right side of the fish (dextral). The halibut mouth is large and symmetrical, with the maxillary extending to the pupil of the eye or behind. The teeth are developed on both sides of the jaws, associated with their predatory nature. Halibut are the largest of all flatfishes and one of the larger fishes in the world. The adult male halibut may reach 4 feet seven inches in length, and attains an average weight of 40 pounds. An adult female may grow to 8 feet nine inches. Females have been recorded weighing 470 pounds at an age of 35 years or more. The 326 largest Pacific halibut on record was caught near Petersburg, Alaska, and weighed 495 pounds. Atlantic halibut up to 690 pounds have been recorded. Halibut are dark brown in color on the eyed side and irregularly blotched with,lighter shades. The blind side is white. By control- ling the contraction and expansion of chromatophores of various colors, halibut and other flatfishes have the ability to change their external shades and color patterns to blend in with the immediate surroundings. These changes are activated by visual stimulation. Distribution The species range from Rosa Island off Santa Barbara in southern California to the Bering Sea, asfar north as the Norton Sound. They are also distributed about halfway between St. Matthew and St. Lawrence Islands. On the Asiatic Coast, they range from the Gulf of Anadyr in the north as far south as Hokkaido, Japan. Halibut are found in very shallow waters and to depths of 600,fathoms. They generally range between 30-225 fathoms. Spawning Spawning takes place from November to January along the slopes ,of the continental shelf in depths from 125 to 250 fathoms. Some well known hal4 ut spawning grounds are: Cape St. James, Whaleback, ib Cape Omanney, Yakutat Spit, Western Spit, Icy Bay Strait, V1W11' Seward Gully, Trinity Islands and Chirikof Island. Fecundity in females is proportionate to the size of the fish. A large female of 140 pounds may have as many as 2.7 million eggs. The eggs, or ova, are about 1/8 inch in diameter and bathypelagic; 321 being laid and fertilized in proximity to the bottom but subsequently drifting in the middle to upper water levels. The eggs and larvae drift passively with the ocean currents at depths down to 375 fathoms. As development proceeds, they gradually rise toward the surface and drift into shallow water with the inshore surface currents. The germinal disc of the egg goes through the normal processes of cell division to form the embryo that lives off the yolk. The yolk comprises the main mass of the egg. Eggs hatch afte r about 15 days, with the larvae living off nourishment from the yolk sac. After absorption of the yolk, post larvae must depend upon the external environment for their food. As with the eggs, the larvae and post-larvae continue to be free floating. They are transported many hundreds if not thousands oL miles by the westward moving ocean currents. The free floating stage lasts about six months. After rising to the surface water layers, they tend to be propelled by the pre- vailing winds toward the shallower sections of the continental shelf. The larvae undergo metamorphosis and commence their bottom existence far from the spawning grounds as juvenile halibut, but possessing the characteristic adult form. Thus the floating eggs, developing larvae and the post-larvae are dispersed far westward from-the points where they were produced. With advancing size and age the young halibut move into deeper water. Females grow faster than males. The age of sexual maturity in females is from eight to 16 years, averaging about 12 years. Tagging operations have shown that immature halibut move within very restricted areas, whereas mature fish may migrate extensively to and from the spawning grounds. Some individuals have been known 328 to migrate as far as 2,000 miles. Food for halibut consists of fishes, crabs, clams, squid and other invertebrates. Selected References Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. Bell, H.F. 1972. The Pacific halibut - a managed resource. (In) a review of the oceanography and renewable resources ofthe Gulf of Alaska. Ed. Donald H. Rosenberg. IMS report R72-23. 329 LIFE HISTORY - PACIFIC COD Taxonomy The Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) is a member of the family Gadidae and the order Anacanthini. The scientific name Gadus macrocephalus is derived from the Latin gadus (codfish) and the Greek macros (large and cephalos (head). Common usage may continue to refer to this species as "plain" cod, "gray" cod or "true" cod to distinguish it from the other species currently referred to as varieties of cod. Other members of the family Gadidae are: the whiting (Theragra chalcogrammus), pacific tomcod (Microgadus proximus), and longfin cod (Antimora rostrata). Physical Description The Pacific cod has a brown to gray coloration on the dorsal surface, shading into lighter hues on the ventral surface. Brown spots are numerous on the back and sides, and are more or less dusky on the fins. The outer margin of all unpaired fins are white, and the white becomes wider on the anal and caudal fins. The Pacific cod is noted for three separate dorsal fins, with the anus below the second dorsal fin. The barbel below the lower jaw is as long or longer than the eye. This species may attain lengths up to 3 feet 3 inches. Distribution Pacific cod are mostly benthic, but are occasionally taken in quite shallow water. They have been caught at depths up to 300 fathoms 330 (550 meters). The species ranges from Santa Monica in southern California through Alaska and the Bering Sea to the Chukchi Sea. On the Asian side, they are distributed past the Kuril Islands to Kamchatka, Okhotsk Sea, Sea of Japan, off Honshu, Korea and in the Yellow Sea to Port Arthur. Toward the southern part of its center of abundance, cod occur in temperatures throughout the year between 6* and 9'C. Spawning Spawning takes place in the winter. The eggs are slightly more than 1 mm in diameter and show no oil globule.. The eggs are. pelagic and slightly adhesive. They hatch in eight or nine days at ll'C and in 17 days at 5*C, but will take about four weeks at 2*C in northern waters. The hatching period for a batch of eggs lasts over several days. Egg survival is high at 5*C. Newly hatched larvae are approximately 4.5 millimeters in length. At 50C, the yolk sac is absorbed in about 10 days. Young about 20 millimeters in length have been found to eat copepods. Female cods sexually mature at approximately 40 centimeters of body length and two to three years of age. The length at which 50% of the females are sexually mature is 55 centimeters (Foerster, 1964). Half the males are mature at two years of age. At 60 centimeters, a female may produce 1.2 million eggs. At 78 centi- meters, she may produce 3.3 million. Cod generally move into deep water in the autumn and return to shallow water in the spring. Feeding includes a wide variety of invertebrates and fishes including: worms, crabs, molluscs and shrimps, herring, sand lance, walleye pollock and flatfishes. 331 Selected References- Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. 332 LIFE HISTORY-LINGCOD Taxonomy The lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus), is a member of the family Hexagrammidae in the suborder Scorpaenoidea. The scientific name Ophiodon elongatus is from the Greek ophis (snake) and odons (tooth) and the Latin elongatus (elongate). It is often referred to as 11cultus cod". Other members of the family Hexagrammidae found in Alaskan waters include the kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus), rock greenling ([email protected]), masked greenling (Hexagrammo@L octogrammus) and whitespotted greenling (Hexagrammos stelleri). Physical Description Reaching a length of five feet (152 centimeters), the lingcod is recognizable by its rounded.and once-notched long dorsal fin, large mouth, large teeth, thoracic pelvic fins and small, smooth scales covering its body and head. Its coloration is variable, with bold, darker mottling on many shades of brown, gray, or green on the back and sides, depending upon the environment. Some smaller individuals are strongly green with the color permeating the flesh. Distribution The lingcod ranges from Baia in southern California north to Kodiak Island to the Shumagin Islands south of the Alaska Peninsula. It is common along the northeastern shore of the Pacific Ocean, with 333 its center of abundance in waters of British Columbia. Its habitat is near the bottom of the intertidal zone down to at least 60 fathoms, among kelp beds and reefs, especially where there are strong tidal movements. When resting on the bottom, the fish supports its weight by resting on its pectoral and pelvic fins. Spawning Spawning takes place from December to March. Females deposit their eggs in crevices or under rocks in shallow water, sometimes in the intertidal zone. Newly maturing females produce 100,000 to 150,000 eggs. Larger females (40 inches in length) may produce upwards of 500,000 eggs. When water hardened, lingcod eggs are approximately 3.5 millimeters in diameter, and have tough membranous shells. They adhere strongly to each other, producing large, thick masses weighing up to'30 pounds, with a pinkish opalescent color. The male lingcod guards the eggs against intruders and fans them with his large pectoral fins. Hatching is progressive, with eggs on the outside of the.mass hatching first. Newly hatched young are seven to 10 millimeters long, have blue eyes, and a bright yellow oil globule near the liver. They sink to the bottom in intense light. The yolk sac is absorbed' in about 10 days. At one year of age, lingcod average about 10.5 inches in length. Growth in females is faster, averaging roughly 2.7 pounds per year, while males average only 1.7 pounds per year. Females reach 36 inches in length at 10 to 14 years old, with males seldom exceeding 36 inches. Males reach sexual maturity at about 18 inches. Females reach maturity at 27.5 to 30 inches. 334 Lingcod show two main pat-terns of movement. Some individuals are obviously quite sedentary, making few, if any, movements. Tagging has shown that fish were recaptured at the same location years after release, however, migratory populations have been known to exist. Lingcod are voracious feeders, eating herring and sand lance, when available, and a variety of bottom forms such as flounders, hake, walleye pollock, cod and rockfishes. Lingcod also eat crustacea and octopus, and are definitely cannibalistic. Juveniles feed extensively on copepods and other small crustaceans. Selected References Clemens, W.A., and G.V'. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific Coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. 3 3 5 LIFE HISTORY ROCKFISHES Taxonomy The rockfish family, Scorpaenidae, belongs to the order Scorpaeniformes and the suborder Scorpaenoidea. These fishes frequently are called rockcods, but since they have no close relationship with the true cods, (Gadidae) it seems advisable to adopt the term rockfishes and discard the term 11cod" in reference to members of this family. Species of the rockfish family found in Alaskan waters include the blue rockfish (Sebastodes mystinus , black rockfish (Sebastodes melanops , orange rockfish (Sebastodes pinniger), blackblotched rockfish (Sebastodes crameri), redstripe rockfish (Sebastodes p origer), rougheye rockfish (Sebastodes aleutianus), longjaw rockfish (Sebastodes alutus), stiipetail rockfish (Sebastodes saxicola), red snapper, (Sebastodes ruberrimus), flag rockfish. (Sebastodes rubrivinctus), brown rockfish (Sebastodes. auriculatus), copper rockfish (Sebastodes caurinus), quillback rockfish (SAastodes maliger , yellowstripe rockfish (Sebastodes nebulosus), blackbanded rockfish (Sebastodes nigrocinctus) and spinycheek rockfish (Sebastolubus alascanus). Among the numerous species of rockfish found in Alaskan waters, the red snapper (Sebastodes ruberrimus) is among the most important commercially. Adults reach lengths of three feet. Physical Description In the rockfishes, the body is elongate and the anterior (front) is stout. The head is large and usually bears prominent ridges and-spines in definite positions. The scales are large and ctenoid. The dorsal fin is si ngle with 13 to 15 spines and nine to 16 rays. The anal fin has three stout spines and five to nine rays. The pelvic rins are thoracic, each with a spine and five rays. Some species of rockfish average 3 feet in length, however, most species range between 20 and 30 inches long. Species living near the surface are, for the most part, brown in color while those in deep water often have a red coloration. Distribution The rockfishes constitute a group of many species largely in the north temperate seas. More than 50 species are known along the eastern shores of the Pacific.Ocean from California to Alaska. At least 24 of these species are found in British Columbia waters in the two genera: Sebastodes aad Sebastolobus. Many species inhabit rocky shores but the family has repre- sentatives in a vertical range from tidewater to 822 fathoms. Rockfish populations in all regions are thought to be under- estimated, since these groups are known to be distributed on the ocean bottom and at considerable distances above it. Test sampling conducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service and the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration between 1950 and 1968 showed that the rockfish group comprised a greater number of species than any other fish group sampled. About 20 rockfish species, mostly from the genus Sebastodes, occurred in the Gulf of Alaska regions. The two species of the genus Sebastolobus, both of which are deep water inhabitants, constituted a large portion of the rockfish catches beyond 99 fathoms. Many of the Sebastodes,species appear 337 to be primary pelagic forms, and were reported taken in mid-water trawls. For this reason, these species had the greatest bathymetric range, occurring in all depth zones sampled. During the exploratory fishing, rockfishes were mostly encountered in the offshore waters,of all regions. They were rarely found in the inside waters of southeastern Alaska. Spawning All species of the genus Sebastodes have internal fertilization of the eggs and subsequent release of the young. These are less than 1/2 inch in length and are produced in large numbers during the summer months. Selected References Clemens, W.A. and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. 338 LIFE HISTORY --SABLEFISH Taxonomy The sablefish (Anoplopoma. fimbria) is a member of the order Scorpaeniformes, which was originally established to include those fishes having a perch-like form of body. The order now includes many groups that are quite varied from the basic percoid character. One of these is the suborder Scorpoenoidea, to which the sablefish belongs.. Within its family Anoplopomatidae or the skilfishes, sablefish are known to various names such as "skil". 11coalfish" and "blackcod." However, the latter term is inappropriate since the fish is not a cod. Physical Description The body of the sablefish is long and slightly compressed, tapering into a long, slender, caudal peduncle. It is usually slaty black or greenish-gray on its dorsal surface and lighter on the ventral side. Males do not get as large as females, and reach maturity at an earlier age. Females may attain lengths of one meter or greater. It is estimated that a 40 inch sablefish is about 20 years old. Large individuals three feet in length and 40 pounds in weight have been captured on the halibut banks at depths down to 170 fathoms. Their food consists of crustaceans, worms and small fishes. In captivity, sablefish are indiscriminate feeders. They have been observed actively feeding on saury and blue lanternfish. 339 Distribution The species ranges from C6dros Islands in southern California to the Bering Sea and is quite abundant in Alaskan and Canadian waters. On the Asian side of the North Pacific, they range from Hokkaido, Japan, north to the Kamchatka Peninsula off Siberia. Commercial quantities of adults are most abundant in water deeper than 200 fathoms and down to 500 fathoms. Although tagging studies have shown certain individuals to travel more than 1,200 Miles, sablefish tend to be localized in most cases. Spawning Sablefish spawn in the early spring with rising water temperatures and their eggs are pelagic, drifting with the current after.fertil- ization. In late May, post-larval individuals have been found on the ocean surface at distances from 100 to 185 miles off the coast of Oregon. In the post-larval phase, sablefish are subject to heavy predation by larger organisms. Selected References Clemens, W.A., and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific Coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. McPhail, J.D. and-C.C. Lindsey. 1970. Fresh water fishes of north- western Canada and Alaska. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 173. 381 p. 3140 LIFE HISTORY FLOUNDER Taxonomy The flounder family, Pleuronectidae, belongs to the order Heterosomata. This family includes demersal flatfishes such as halibut, sole and brill. Of 15 flatfish caught commercially in Alaskan waters, the arrowtooth@ flounder or turbot (Atheresthes stomias) was the most dominant species. Physical Description In flounders the eyes and colored surface are typically on the right side of the fish (dextral). The pelvic fins are symmetrically arranged, with one on each side of the abdominal ridge. The family may be divided into two groups. In one, as exem- plified by the halibuts and related species, the mouth is large and symmetrical, the maxillary extends to the pupil of the eye or behind, and the teeth are well developed on both sides of the jaws, associated with the habit of actively,pursuing fishes for food. In the other group, the mouth is small and asymmetrical, the maxil- lary does not extend to the pupil of the eye, and the teeth are confined largely to the sides of the jaws on the unpigmented side of the head. This is associated with the habit of feeding upon invertebrates and small fishes of the sea bottom. The body of the flounder is rather elongate, slender and much compressed. The arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) has an average length of 2 feet 9 inches. The starry f1bunder _(Platichthys stellatus) has an average length of 3 feet. 341 Distribution Flounder range from southern California to the eastern Bering Sea. They are present in all regions and depth zones of the con- tinental shelf and slope in the Gulf of Alaska. As a group, they historically dominated the catches in the Gulf of Alaska regions. They are most frequently encountered in the offshore regions. Flounder are most abundant on the continental shelf (less than 100 fathoms) decreasing as it extends beyond the 150 fathom contour. Spawning Spawning generally occurs in late winter and early spring in. a sandy substrate. In starry flounders (Platichthys stellatus), the eggs are pale orange, and their membranes have very fine vermiculate wrinkles, but no sculptured pattern. They have diameters between 0.89 and 0.94 millimeters, are slightly larger than sea water, and are non-adhesive upon hatching. Larvae are between 1.93 and 2.08 millimeters long. Like the other flatfishes, they are symmetrical. Young five to 12 millimeters long feed primarily on copepods and their nauplii, as well as barnacle larvae and'Cladocera. The young are transformed to asymmetry at about 10.5 millimeters. Lengths corresponding to years of growth are: 1, 105 millimeters; 11, 310 millimeters and IV, 340 millimeters. Females are somewhat longer than males at higher ages and live longer. Flounder consume crabs, shrimps, worms, clams and clam siphons, other small molluscs, small fishes, nemertean worms and brittle stars. At low water temperatures feeding stops. At this time, little digestion occurs and the stomach functions-primarily as a food storage organ. 342 Selected References Clemens, W.A., and G.V. Wilby. 1961. Fishes of the Pacific Coast of Canada. 2nd ed. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 68. 443 p. Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. 180. 740 p. 343 LIFE HISTORY - KING CRAB Taxonomy King crabs are anomuran crabs of the superfamily Paguridea found throughout the circum-arctic region of North America. Eldridge (1972) has described its taxonomy as follows: Order: Decapoda Section: Anomura Superfamily: Paguridea Family: Lithodidae Subfamily: Lithodinae Genus: Paralithodes Of three species found in Alaskan waters, the "red" king crab (Paralithodes camtschatica) are the most abundant and commercially valuable. Although the "blue" king crab (Paralithodes platypus is not as.abundant, it is morphologically similar to Paralithodes camtschatica and the Japanese have developed a modest fishery for this species in the Pribilof Island region of the Bering Sea. The "brown" or "golden" king crab (Lithodes aeguispina) is found in the deep waters (100 to 200 fathoms) of southeastern Alaska. The Jap- anese refer to the king crab as "taraba-gani," whereas the Russians often call it the "Kamchatka" crab. Americans usually reserve the name "king crab" for.Paralithodes camschatica. The term "king crab" will refer to Paralithodes camschatica for the remainder of this report. 344 Distribution Paralithodes camtschatica) is abundant on both sides of the north Pacific Ocean. In Asian waters, it is found from the Sea of Japan northward into the Sea of Okhotsk and along the shores of the Kamchatka Peninsula; the northern limit on the Asiatic coast has been reported at Cape Olyutorskiy (60*N latitude). The species occurs throughout the Aleutian Islands and the southeastern Bering Sea, where large fisheries for it exist. On the western 'coast of North America, the northern limit for king crab appears to be Norton Sound (65'N latitude) in the northeastern Bering Sea. King crabs are also abundant in the Gulf of Alaska, where major fisheries for them exist in Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island and the south Alaska Peninsula. Moderate numbers of king crab are found in Prince William Sound and southeastern Alaska. The southein limit of this species in the northeastern Pacific appears to be Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Butler and Hart, 1962). During their various life stages, king crabs appear to segregate themselves quite distinctly from one another. In particular,-males are separate from females except during the mating season, and in general, adults appear to inhabit different areas from those frequented by juveniles. Catch statistics also indicate that male king crabs may school by size. - King crabs are distributed to depths of 1,200 feet, although the commercial fishery is generally confined to depths less than 600 feet. Females and smaller males appear to be most abundant in intermediate depths. Juveniles are most abundant in inshore waters and in relatively shallow waters, although they have been.found to depths of 58 fathoms (Powell and Reynolds, 1965). 345 The favorite bottom habitat of king crabs appears to be mud or sand. King crabs are stenohaline and adapted to cold waters. Maturity King crabs of both sexes reach sexual maturity when their cara- pace (back) length becomes about 100 mm (3.9 inches), or at an age of about 5 years. Many females appear to participate in breeding shortly after attaining sexual maturity. However, it appears that few males less than 120 mm in carapace length actually mate. Mating King crabs follow distinct annual migration patterns associated with their mating season. During winter months they migrate to water depths of less than 50 fathoms along the shoreline and onto the offshore ocean banks. Young adults precede old adults; males precede females (Powell & Nickerson 1965). The females molt and mate during April and May. Females normally, but not necessarily, molt while being grasped by a male. This precopulatory embrace (grasping) is an intrinsic behavior of adult king crabs which serves to keep breeding adults together untill subsequent mating has occurred. It affords a protective mate to the female before and during the molt and aides the female in molting. Immediately after the female molts, the attendant male deposits spermatophore material around the female's oviducts and releases her. The female then extrudes eggs into her abdominal pouch where they mix with the spermatophore material and are fertilized. Fertile eggs are carried by the female for 11-12 months, hatching prior to the females next annual molt. Female king crab, not mating after molting, will not extrude eggs. Over ripe eggs will die and decay in the ovaries of unmated females. 346 Female king crab mate with only one male annually. Male king crab are polygamous. Fecundity The number of eggs each female carries varies with their size. Female king crabs in Asiatic waters apparently carry less eggs than their counterparts in the northeastern Pacific. In this regard, Nakazawa (1912) reported that large females in Japanese waters could carry as many as 345,000 eggs while the average female carried approximately 220,000 eggs. A later study (Sato, 1958) found that the number of eggs carried by femalds in Japanese waters varied between 15,000 and 204,000, with a mean of 102,000 eggs. At Kodiak, small females have been reported to carry between 50,000 and 100,000 eggs, with large females carrying as many as 400,000 eggs. Eggs and Larvae The eggs develop into pre-zoea within about 5 months and remain in this state while they are carried by the female. During this period, the eggs become well developed and are easily visible. During hatching, which occurs between Marchand June, all of the eggs carried by an individual will hatch in about a 5-day period. After hatching, the pre-zoea larva molts and assumes the first zoeal stage. During the pelagic phase, the larvae are active swimmers and feed primarily on diatoms. After the fifth molt, the larvae assume a benthic, or bottom, existence as glaucothoe larvae. In the 347 next molt, which occurs during the first summer of life, they assume the first adult form. Juveniles During their first year of life, the juveniles assume a soli- tary, benthic existence, generally in shallow water. They appear to be quite abundant in waters close to shore in the Gulf of Alaska. in the Bering Sea, large concentrations of juveniles have been found in depths of 29 fathoms. Two year old king crab are known to aggregate in large groups. Small crab commonly pile upon each other and move as a conglomerate. This practice known as "podding" is a social behavior which affords the crab protection from predators. Groups are maintained until crab attain sexual maturity. At that point crab segregate by sex and size. Sculpins, cod and halibut have been reported to prey on juvenile king crabs. In addition, Gray (1964a) has reported that halibut prey on king crabs when they are in the soft shelled condition. Evidence suggests that once king crabs attain sexual maturity they are relat- ively immune to predation, except during the molting phase, Growth During the first several years of the king crab's life growth is rapid, and it molts or sheds the hard outer shell several times in order to accommodate the increased body size. At the time of molting, the crab sheds the carapace, eyes, antennae, mouth, eso- phogus, stomach, calcerous teeth, gills, tendons, and in general, the 348 entire outer body covering. Juvenile male.and female crabs steadily increase in carapace length at' a rate of 24 and 23 percent respectively (Powell 1967) until reaching sexual maturity. After reaching sexual maturity growth rates and molt frequency for male and female crab differenciate. Adult females molt annually and average 4 mm per molt. Adult males molt annually through the eighth year and averaged 20 mm per molt. After eight years an in- creasing proportion molt biennially. Few male crab molt less frequently than biennually. Maximum size is reached at an average of 14 years of age. Growth rate for males decreases slightly following the eight 'Year. Food Habits The king crab is omnivorous during both its juvenile and adult stages of life. In a study of food items found in the stomachs of king crabs in the Bering Sea, the following occurred (in descending order or frequency): Mollusca (clams, etc.); Polychaeta (marine worms); Algae (marine plants); other crustacea and Coelenterates (jellyfish). Other food organisms found less frequently were fora- miniferans, nematode worms, tunicates, echiuroids and fish (McLaughlin and Hebard, 1959). Diseases Sindermann (1970) has reported that P. camtschatica and P. platypus from the eastern north Pacific are occasionally affected by "rust disease" which seems to result from action of chitin-destroying bacteria of the exoskeleton. However, this disease appears to be relatively rare. 349 Sinderman (1970) has also reported that P. platypus from Alaskan waters are occasionally invaded by rhizcephalans. Moore and Meyer (1951) have reported that egg cases and adults of the leech (Notostomobdella cyclostoma) are common on Alaskan king crabs, particularly during the summer. Literature Cited Butler,* T.H. an*d J.F.L. Hart. 1962. The occurrence of the king crab, Paralithodes camtschatica (Tilesius), and of Lithodes aeguispina. (Benedict) in British Columbia.*J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 19(3):401-408. Gray, G.W., Jr. 1964. Halibut preying on large crustacea. Copeia 1964(3):590. McLaughlin, P.A. and J.F. Hebard. 1959. Stomach contents of the Bering Sea king crab. U.S. Fish and"Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rept.-Fish. n. 291. Moore, J.P. and M.C. Meyer. 1951. Leeches (Hirudinae) from Alaskan and adjacent waters. Wasmann J. Biol. 9:11-17. Nakazawa, K. 1912. Report on king crab, Paralithodes camtschatica. In experiment report of fisheries training school 8(6):21. Translation file, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Nat. Mar. Fish. Serv. Biological Laboratory, Auke Bay, Alaska. Powell, G.C. 1967. Growth of King Crabs in the vicinity of Kodiak Island Alaska. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game Info. leaflet no. 92. Powell, G.C. and R.B. Nickerson. 1965. Reproduction of King Crabs, Para- lithodes comtschatica (Tilesius). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 22(l): 101-111. Powell, G.C. and R.E. Reynolds. 1965. Movements of tagged king crabs. Paralithodes camtschatica (Tilesius), in the Kodiak Island-Lower Cook Inlet region of Alaska. 1954-1963. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game. Info. leaflet no. 55. Sato, S. 1958. Studies of larval development and fishery biology of king crab, Paralithodes camtschatica (Tilesius). Bull. Hokkaido Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. 17. 102 p. Sindermann, C.J. 1970. Principal diseases of marine fish and shellfish. 'Acad. Press, New York. 369 p. 350 LIFE HISTORY - TANNER CRAB Taxonomy The tanner crab is a member of the brachyuran crabs of the superfamily Oxyrhycha found throughout the circum-arctic region of North America. Garth (1958) has described its taxonomy as follows: Order: Decapoda Section: Brachyura Superfamily: Oxyrhyncha Family: Majidae Subfamily: Oregoniinae Genus: Chionoecetes The genus of Chionoecetes may actually consist of two polytypic species, C. opilio and C. angulatus. C. opilio may have given rise to C. opilio elongatus and C. bairdi; while C. angulatus may have given rise to C. tanneri and C. jEponicus (Garth, 1958). All of these species are present in the North Pacific. Crabs of the genus Chionoecetes have been referred to as spider, tanner, and snow crabs in the English literature. In Japanese literature, this genus is referred to as zuwai crabs., In an attempt, to capitalize on the excellent reputation of the king crab, American processors initially attempted to sell tanner crab under the trade name "Queen Crab". However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has since ruled that "Snow Crab" will be the official trade name for the tanner crab. In common usage, tanner crab has become the accepted name for the genus. Distribution The genus belongs to the subfamily, Oregoniinae, which has a circum-arctic distribution, ex tending into the temperate waters on the east and west coasts of North America and Eurasia. The genus' range is: the eastern Pacific from the Bering Strait and the 351 Aleutian Islands to Cortex Bank, opposite the United States - Mexico boundary; western Pacific, from Kamchatka to off Kinkazan, Japan, and Oki Islands in the Japan Sea; Siberian, Alaskan, and Canadian Arctic; and the Western Atlantic, from the west coast of Greenland to Casco Bay, Maine. Members of the genus are found in shallow waters to depths of 1,625 fathoms (Garth, 1958). The greatest concentrations occur along the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope. Trawl surveys conducted by the International Halibut Commission indicate that tanner crabs are quite abundant in the Gulf of Alaska and that they increase in abundance as one goes west toward the Bering Sea. C. tanneri is typically found from the coast of Washington to the extreme southern edge of California. It occurs from depths of 29 to 1,062 fathoms with the greatest abundance in the 275 to 400 fathom interval. C. angulatus occurs along the 49 to 1,625 fathom interval from the eastern edge of Kamchatka to the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea, south along the Aleutians, and from British Columbia southward to Oregon. Because these two species occur in relatively deep water, intensive commercial exploitation of them is infeasible .at this time. C. bairdi and C. opilio typically inhabit shallow waters and are the principal commercial species in the Gulf of Alaska. C. bairdi occurs from the littoral zone to depths of 259 fathoms. Its range extends from Puget Sound, Washington, to the Aleutian Islands and the southeastern Bering Sea where it is reported to be the most common species in the commercial catch. C. opilio also occurs within the littoral zone and to depths of 300 fathoms. The greatest concen- trations of C.' opilio are west of longitude 163* W, with C. bairdi 352 comprising the bulk of the Gulf of Alaska catch. Tanner-crab distribution and abundance appears to be inversely related to that of king crab. Preliminary evidence indicates that king and tanner crabs compete for space and food. Exploratory surveys in the southeastern Bering Sea indicate that both male and female tanner crabs of all sizes are most abundant at depths where the abundance of male and female king crabs is low. Although male tanner crabs may overlap considerably with king crabs of both sexes, female tanner crabs are most abundant in areas where no female king crabs are present (Haynes and Lehman, 1969). Studies by Pereyra (1966) along the Oregon co ast indicate a pronounced seasonal and sexual difference in the distribution of adult tanner crabs, C. tanneri.. His studies indicated that C. tanneri were commonly present at depths from 250 to 850 fathoms. Furthermore, female tanner crabs were concentrated principally between 350 and 375 fathoms throughout the year; whereas the relative abundance of male tanner crabs changed seasonally by depth. During the spring and summer, males were most abundant at depths between 275 and 300 fathoms. With the onset of fall, the male population shifted back 'Into deeper waters and mingled with the female population during the winter for the purpose of mating. Although specific.observations are limited, the other species of tanner crab are believed to exhibit similar sexual and seasonal migrations. Sexuality The tanner crab is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. There is considerable variation in morphology between male and female tanner crabs, with the males being significantly larger than the 353 females. Adult males have an acute and narrow abdomen, while adult females have'a round and broad abdomen. Maturity Due to the difficulty of aging crustaceans, the age at which tanner crabs reach sexual maturity is not known with certainty, although the size at maturity is known for-most species. Alaska Department of Fish and Game tanner crab research has determined that the average male C. bairdi reaches maturity at 111 mm carapace width. The same research puts the size of 50% maturity for female C. bairdi at 84 mm (Donaldson 1976, personal communication). Studies conducted in the Japan Sea indicate that C. opilio reaches sexual maturity after about the 10th molt or six to eight years after hatching. Male and female C..opilio in Jappnese waters reach sexual maturity at a size of approximately 50 to 65 mm in carapace width (Ito, 1970). Female C. tanneri off the Oregon coast reach sexual maturity at 75 to 126 mm in carapace width, while male C. tanneri mature at 103 to 181 mm in carapace width (Pereya, 1966). Mating As a genus, tanner crabs appear to be polygamous. Initial mating is believed to take place in the spring or early summer shortly after the female has molted and grown to maturity. At the present time, it is suspected that female tanner crabs can mate while hard-shelled. Some evidence is available which suggests that unlike king crab females, tanner crab females are capable of breeding while 'hard-shelled. Hartnoll (1969) contends that only hard-shelled male tanner crabs are successful at mAting. Female tanner crabs are apparently capable of producing more than one hatch of fertile eggs from one mating (Watson, 1970 and Bright, 1967). 354 Eecundity The number of eggs produced by female tanner crab is extremely yp:ried, The range of 24,000 to 318,000 eggs per female C. bairdi (11ilsinger, 1975) compares with 20,000 to 140,000 and 6,000 to 130,000 @ggp per female C. opilio in Canada (Watson, 1969) and Japan (Ito, 1963) Toppectively. The large egg number variation exists between females pf both varying and similar sizes. Some ok this variation can be @[r,qovnted for by a decrease in clutch size in very old animals. V,ggs and Larvae After mating, the female lays a clutch of bright orange eggs. The eggs stick to the female's abdomen and are carried for approximately t,wgivp months before being released. A steady loss of eggs following fertilization has been documented for C. bairdi (Hilsinger, 1975) and opilio (Kon, 1974). The total loss may amount to as much as 45%. The decrease in egg number is attributed to death and disintegration of abnormal embryos and predation. Hatching of the eggs (larval re- lease) appears to coincide with the plankton blooms. The free-swimming larvae molt and grow through several distinct stages before settling to the bottom as juveniles where they cover themselves with debris and begin feeding on detritus. The growth rate from larval to juvenile stage is dependent upon water temperature, with warmer temperatures producing faster growth. At water temperatures of ll* to 13* C, the free-swimming developmental period between the larval and juvenile stages may last approximately sixty-three to sixty-six days (Kon, 1970). Plankton studies in the Japan Sea indicate that the free-swimming larva of tanner crab undergo diurnal vertical migrations. This migration is a feeding response to the diurnal movements of plankton blooms. 355 Juveniles There is very little published material concerning the habitat and distribution of juvenile tanner crabs. Exploratory work in the Japan Sea indicates that juveniles settle out along the sea bottom at depths between 163 and 191 fathoms (Ito, 1968). Alaska Department of Fish and Game biologists in Kodiak, using scuba, have collected juvenile C. bairdi as small as 6.5 mm in 10 fathoms. The National Marine Fisheries Service have records of juvenile tanners as small as 12 mm caught in shrimp trawls off Kodiak in 30 to 80 fathoms. This information suggests that distribution of juvenile tanner crab is widespread and not depth dependent. The actual diet of the juvenile is uncertain, but they are believed to feed primarily on dead and decaying mollusks and crustaceans which accumulate in the detritus along the sea floor. Fish remains and small planktonic organisms are also ingested to a limited degree. Adults Adult tanner crabs are intolerant and restricted in their dis- tribut ion by low salinities and high temperatures. Laboratory exper- iments in Canada have demonstrated that C. opilio will die within twenty-four hours if kept in salinities less than 22.5*/oc (Anonymous, 1971). At a salinity of approximately 31 to 32'/.. McLeese (1968) determined that C. opilio reached the 50*/oo mortality point after 18.8 days when held at 16* C. Thus it is reasonable to expect that the southern range of tanner crab distribution may be limited if water temperatures exceed 16' C. Adult tanner crabs appear to have few predators, although it is likely that during molting they may be vulnerable to large fish and perhaps other large crustaceans such as the Ung crab. In addition 356 to predation, it is speculated that king and tanner crabs may compete for food and space. If this'is true, then it would appear that the larger size of the king crab would give it a competitive advantage over the smaller tanner crab. The concept of competition between the king and tanner crab is interesting in that it poses the question of whether the populations of tanner crab are affected by the abundance of king crabs. In this regard, the depletion of the larger male king crabs by the present intensive fishery might have a favorable effect on the abundance of tanner crabs. Growth Dimensional growth occurs in tanner crab when the hard exoskeleton is periodically cast off or molted. The animal is then able to take water into its tissues and increase in size before the rehardening occurs. Male and female crab display similar growth rates and molt frequently prior to reaching sexual maturity. Males continue to molt after be- coming sexually mature but the intervals between molts increase with age. Female crab normally do not molt after reaching sexual maturity. In females the molt to maturity is considered the terminal molt. Growth may vary from one geographic location to another. The maximum age of tanner crab is probably eight to twelve years, although this is not known with certainty. Diseases Tanner crabs, as are all organisms, are subject to disease. Brown (1971) reported a black encrustment on the shell which was labeled "shell syndrome". The meat of the crab is not affected by the "syndrome", but it may cause mortality in individuals which have 357 unddrgone'their terminal molt due to disablement of the mouth parts and eyes. There is some evidence that the indiscriminate dumping of wastes from crab processing plants may be a factor contributing to the spread of the disease. Gordon (1966) reported that some polyclad Turbellaria are ectoparasitic on crabs. Specifically, Coleophora chinonoecetis has been found on the eggs of tanner crabs. Oka (1927) reported that the leech, Carcinobdella kanibir, is occasionally found on C. opilio in Asiatic waters. Migration and Local Movement Little is known concerning the migrations and local movements of tanner crabs. However, tagging studies conducted by Canadian scientists (Watson, 1970) indicate that tagged male crabs travel relatively little with eight-five percent of the returns recaptured within ten miles of the release point. The farthest recapture in the study was a male that travelled twenty-eight miles. A limited tagging experiment in Auke Bay, Alaska, concluded that tanner crabs may return to a "home" area to mate and molt each year (Anonymous, 1971) Numerous trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea indicate that tanner crabs are more concentrated in some areas than others. These data indicate that tanner crabs may school, but further work is needed for clarification. Literature Cited Anonymous. 1971a. Review 1969-1970. The Fisheties Research Board Ottawa, Canada. 358 Anonymous. 1971b. Intern. N. Pacific Fish. Comm. Proc. of the-Seventeenth Annual Meeting, 1970. Report of the subcommittee on King Crab and 'Tanner Crab. Appendix 5 (Doc. 1341). 247-257 p. Bright, D.B. 1967. Life histories of the king crab and the "tanner" crab in Cook Inlet, Alaska. PhD. thesis. U. So. California 265 p. Brown, R.B. 1971. The development of the Alaskan fishery for tanner crab, Chionoecetes species, with particular reference to Kodiak area, 1967-1970. Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game Info. Leaflet 153. 26 p. Garth, J.S. 1958. Brachyura of the Pacific coast of America. Oxyrhyncha. Allan Hancock Pacific Expedition 21:854. Gordon, 1. 1966. Parasites and diseases of Crustacea. Mem. Inst. Fondam.. Afrique Noire No. 77. 27-86 p. Hartnoll, R.G. 1969. Mating in the Brachyura. Crustaceana 16:161-181. Haynes, E. and C. Lehman. 1969. Minutes of the second Alaskan-shellfish conference. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game Info. Leaflet 135. 102 p. Hilsinger, J.R. 1975. Aspects of the reproductive biology of female snow crabs, Chionoecetes bairdi Rathbun, from Prince William Sound, Alaska. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Alaska 88 p. Ito, K. 1970. Ecological studies on the edible crab, Chionoecetes opilio (0. fabricius) in the Japan Sea. III. Age and growth as estimated on the basis of the seasonal changes in the carapace width frequencies and the carapace hardness. Bull. Jap. Sea Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. 22:81-116. Kon, T. 1970. Fisheries biology of the tanner crab. IV. The duration of planktonic stages. 1967. Fisheries of the United States. 1967. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bur. of Comm. Fish. C.F.S. No. 4700. Review (Crabs, king). xvii P. McLeese, D.W. 1968. Temperature resistance of the spider crab, Chionoecetes opilio. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 25(8):1733-1736. Oka, A. 1927. Sur la morphologie esterne de Carcinobdella kanibir. Proc. Imp. Acad. (Tokyo) 3:171-174. Pereya, W.T. 1966. The bathymetric and seasonal distribution of adult tanner crabs, Chionoecetes tanneri, Rathbun (Brachyura: Majidae) of the northern Oregon coast. Deep-Sea Res. 13(5)::1185-1205. Watson, J. 1970a. Maturity, mating, and egg-laying in the spider crab, Chionoecetes opilio. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 27:1607-1616. Watson, J. 1970b. Tag recaptures and movements of adult male snow crabs, Chionoecetes opilio, (0. fabricius) in the Gaspe region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept. No. 204. 16 p. 359 LIFE HISTORY - DUNGENESS CRAB Taxonomy The dungeness crab, Cancer magister, is a member of the brachyuran crabs of the family Cancridae. Mayer (1972) described its taxonomy as follows: Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Crustacea Superorder: Eucarida Order: Decapoda Suborder: Brachyura Family: Cancridae Genus: Cancer Genotype Cancer magister (Dana, 1852). Crabs of the species, Cancer magister have been referred to as market crab, common edible crab, Pacific edible crab, commercial crab, dungeness crab, and dungeoness crab. At the present, dunge- ness crab is the accepted common name. Distribution Dungeness crabs are found in the shallow nearshore waters of the North Pacific along the western North American coast. They range from a northern limit of Unalaska to a southern limit in Monterey Bay, California (McKay, 1943 ). The crabs inhabit bays, estuaries, and open ocean near the coast from the intertidal zone to depths of 50 fathoms. Favored substrate is a sand or sand-mixed bottom, although dungeness crab may be found on almost any bottom substrate. Unlike the king and tanner crabs, they inhabit shallow water most of the year. Juveniles are commonly associated with stands of eelgrass, or masses of detached algae in the absence of eelgrass, which is believed to afford them protection (Butler, 1956). 361 Water temperatures and salinity appear to be controlling factors in the seasonal distribution. Studies by Cleaver (1949) indicate that crab abundance, as estimated from catch per unit effort data, increase with rising spring water temperatures and decrease with dropping fall temperatures. Changes in winter catch appear to be in response to fluctuating low salinities. McKay (1942) determined that adult dungeness crabs migrate offshore during the winter months and return to the nearshore in the early spring and summer. Sexuality The dungeness crab is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. There is considerable variation in morphology between male and female crabs, with males being significantly larger than females. Adult males have an acute and narrow abdomen, while adult females have a round and broad abdomen. Maturity According to Butler (1960), male dungeness crabs from the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, reach sexual maturity at a carapace length of 110 mm, or at about three years of age. He found, however, that sexual activity was not appreciable until the crabs obtained a carapace width of 140 mm. McKay (1942) found by examination of gonads that male crabs matured at a carapace width of about 137 mm. Butler (1960) found mature female dungeness crabs with a carapace width of 100 mm, which were approximately two years old. Weymouth and McKay (1936) also determined that female crabs reach sexual maturity at about 100 mm carapace width. 362 Mating The mating of C. magister as observed in aquaria has been reported by Cleaver (1949), Butler (1960), and Snow and Nielsen (1966). No observations made under natural conditions have been reported. The crabs copulate only after the female has recently molted. Premating activity begins with the male crab firmly grasping the female with both of his chelae. The male then holds the female crab beneath himself so that both sterna are in contact. The male crab continues to restrain the female during her ecdysis, but allows her to move into an upright position. Snow and Nielsen (1966) found that within 1 hour and 32 minutes after the female.has molted, copulation took place. The female is again held with both sterna in contact. The abdominal flaps of both individuals are flexed in the copulatory position with the gonopods inserted in the spermathecae. Snow and Nielsen (1966) also reported the occurrence of a post-mating embrace which lasted for two days. Fecundity McKay (1942) found that a single egg mass contained 1,500,000 eggs and speculated that a single female dungeness crab may spawn three to five million eggs during a lifetime. Eggs and Larvae After mating, the female's oviduct is closed by a secretion which hardens in contact with sea water. The spermatozoa are sealed in the oviduct where they remain viable for several months. Upon extrusion, the eggs are fe rtilized (McKay, 1942). Egg-bearing occurs durin g October to June in British Columbia. Larvae emerge from the egg masses between December and April in Oregon waters (Reed, 1969). 363 Egg and larvae development is dependent upon water temperature with warmer temperatures producing.faster growth. In California waters, Poole (1966) determined that the developmental period between egg and juvenile may last 128 to 158 days. Predation and cannabilism, is a major source of mortality among larval dungeness crabs. Heg and Van Hyning (1951) found the larvae of C. magister as prey items in stomachs of chinook and silver salmon taken along the Oregon coast. McKay (1942) cites observations of C. magister larvae commonly found in the stomachs of salmon, herring, and pilchard. Reed (1969) investigated the effect of temperature and salinity on the growth of laboratory reared C. magister larvae. He found that optimum ranges of temperature and salinity for C. magister larvae are 10.0 to 13.9*C and 25-35'/ , respectively. 00 Juveniles Juvenile dungeness crabs are commonly associated with stands of eelgrass, or masses of detached algae in the absence of eelgrass, which is believed to afford them protection from predation (Butler, 1956). Butler (1954) reports the common occurrence of juvenile crabs, about three-eighths of an inch, in the stomachs of adult crabs. The diet of juveniles is assumed to be similar to adults with crustaceans and mollusks accounting for the principal food items. Growth during the juvenile stage is fairly rapid with crabs reaching the eleventh or twelfth molt by age two. Adults After reaching sexual*maturity at two or three years of age, dungeness crabs continue to grow, with males obtaining their 364 maximum size at age five. Female growth is similar to male dungeness crab during the first two years of life, but decreases afterward (Butler, 1961). Butler (1960) concluded that the maximum age for C. magister is eight years. McKay and Weymouth (1935) felt that the maximum age was not more than ten years, with the average life expectancy being eight years. The diet of adult dungeness crab is varied; consisting primarily of other crustaceans, mollusks, worms, and occasionally seaweed (McKay, 1942). The cannibalism of juvenile and larval crabs by adults is reported by Butler (1954). Temperature tolerance for adult C. magister in Puget Sound, Washington, has been reported by Stober, Mayer, and Salo (1971). In general, no mortality was observed at temperatures below 240C. Adult dungeness crab are subjected to heavy predation, part- icularly while in the soft-shelled condition following a molt. Waldron (1958) found ling cod, the great marbeled sculpin, wolf-eels, halibut, octopus, and some rockfish to be voracious predators upon adult C. magister. Predation is particularly heavy on small, immature crabs, but is not exclusive of adults. McMynn (1951) observed two C. magister, which were 114 mm wide, and four smaller crabs in the stomach of one rockfish. Diseases A "black spot" or "rust spot" is occasionally found on the legs of C. magister. Although no discussion of this disease was found in the literature, it may be similiar to the chitininvrous bacteria-caused disease described for the European dungeness crab, C. pagurus (Sinderman, 1970 365 The occurrence of a species of worm adhering to the carapace and among the egg masses was reported by McKay (1942). Sinderman believes the worms to have been a marine leech. Migration and Local Movement Little is known concerning the migrations and local movements of dungeness crab. However, Cleaver (1949) has divided the migration of C. magister into two types: the onshore-offshore movements and coastwise. Cleaver concluded that adult crabs migrate offshore during the winter months and return to the nearshore in the early spring and summer. This seasonal migration is apparently in response to seasonal changes in water temperatures. Furthermore, Cleaver observed that crabs which were tagged in early winter moved north- ward with the approach of summer. Although he had no evidence of a return migration, he believed that one might exist in the deeper waters. Presumably, these migrations may also be in response to seasonal changes in water temperature. 366 Literature Cited Butler, T.H. 1956. The distribu'tion and abundance of early post-larval stages of the British Columbia commercial crab. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Pac. Prog. Rept. 107:22-23. Butler, T.H. 1960. Maturity and breeding of the Pacific edible crab, Cancer magister Dana. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 17(5):641-646. Butler, T.H. 1961. Growth and age determination of the Pacific edible crab, Cancer magister Dana. J. Fish..Res. Bd. Can. 18(5):873-891. Cleaver, F.C. 1949. Preliminary results of the coastal crab Cancer magister ') investigation. Wash. State Dept. of Fish., Biol. Rept. 49A:47-89. Heg, R. and J. Van Hyning. 1951. Food of the chinook and silver salmon taken off the Oregon coast. Fish. Comm. Oregon Res..Brief 3(2):32-40. McKay, D.C.G. 1942. The Pacific edible crab, cancer magister. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 62:32. McKay, D.C.G. 1943a. The behavior of the Pacific edible crab, Cancer magister.Dana. J. Comp. Psych. 36(3):255-268. McKay, D.C.G. 1943b. Temperature and the world distribution of crabs of the genus Cancer. Ecology 24(l):113-115. McMynn, R.G. 1951. The crab fishery off Graham Island, British Columbia to 1948. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 91:1-21. Poole, R.L. 1966. A description of laboratory-reared zoeae of Cancer magister 'Dana, and megalopae taken under natural conditions (Decapoda Brachyura). Crustaceana 11(l):83-97. Reed, P.H. 1969. Culture methods and effects of temperature and salinity on survival and growth of Dungeness crab (cancer magister) larvae in the laboratory. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 26(2):389-397. Sinderman, C.J. 1970. Principal diseases of marine fish and shellfish. Academic Press: New York and London. Snow, C.D. and J.R. Nielsen. 1966. Premating and mating behavior of the Dungeness crab (Cancer magister Dana). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 23(9):1319-1323. Stober, G'J., D.L. Mayer and E.O. Salo. 1971. Thermal effects on I survival and predation for some Puget Sound fishes. Proceedings of Third National Symposium on Radioecology, May 10-12, 1971 (in press). Waldron, K.D. 1958. The fishery and biology of the Dungeness crab (Cancer magister Dana) in Oregon waters. Fish. Comm. Oregon. Contr. 24:1-43. Weymouth, F.W. and D.C.G. McKay. 1936. Analysis of the relative growth of the Pacific edible crab, Cancer magister. Proc. Zool. Soc. Part 1 (1936). 367 LIFE HISTORY - SHRIMP Commercial catches of shrimp in the north Pacific Ocean are made up of three families: Crangonidae, Hippolytidae, and Pandalidae; The first species exploited by the west coast shrimp fisheries were members of the family Crangonidae in intertidal areas. Now, however, members of the Crangonidae and Hippolytidae are rarely taken and then only incidental to catches of Panalidae. Consequently, this life history report will consider only the pandalid shrimps. Taxonomy Fox.(1972) defines the suprafamilial taxonomic relationships of the family Pandalidae as follows: Phylum: Arthoropoda Class: Crustacea Subclass: Malacostraca Order: Decapoda Suborder: Natantia Section: Caridea Family: Pandalidae Rathbun (1904) lists fourteen species of pandalid shrimps found off the northwestern coast of North America which are divided between the two genera Panadalus and Pandalopsis. They are as follows: Pandalus borealis* Kroyer Pandalus danae Stimpson Pandalus goniurus Stimpson Pandalus gurneyi Stimpson Pandalus hypsinotus* Brandt Pandalus j2jq@ji@ Rathbun Pandalus leptocerus Smith Pandalus montagui tridens Rathbun 368 Pandalus platyceros* Brandt Pandalus stenoi@@P-sis Rathbun Pandalopsis aleutica Rathbun Pandalopsis ampla Bate Pandalopsis Aj@par* Rathbun Pandalopsis longirostris Rathbun Only six, identified by asterisk above, of the fourteen species are caught by commercial fisheries in reasonable quantities in Alaskan waters. The remainder of this life history report will be devoted entirely to these six species. Distribution Shrimps of the family Pandalidae are found throughout the higher temperate and boreal latitudes of the world, with centers of concen- tration varying with the species. In the northeastern Pacific, shrimp are distributed in bays and on offshore banks. Their range extends from the Bering Sea to southern California with commercial fisheries occurring off every Pacific state. Specific distribution data for the six major shrimp species found in Alaskan waters is given as follows. The pink shrimp, Pandalus borealis, has been found from the Bering Sea southward to the Columbia River in depths of 10 to 350 fathoms. It is the most abundant shrimp in the north Pacific Ocean. The greatest concentrations located by exploratory surveys occurred from the southeastern tip of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, westward along the southern side of the Aleutian Chain. Isolated concentrations also occur in portions of Prince William Sound and in Yakutat Bay. Optimum depth where the greatest commercial catches may be taken vary somewhat by area but are generally between 30 and 100 fathoms (Rathjen and Yesaki, 1966). 369 The "'humpy" shrimp, Pandalus goniurus, has been caught from the Arctic coast of Alaska southward to Puget Sound, Washington, in depths of 3 to 100 fathoms (Rathjen and Yesaki, 1966). The greatest concentrations are off southeastern Kodiak Island and in the Shumagin Islands. Although overlapping in distribution, the "humpy" shrimp is not as abundant as the pink shrimp. Rathjen and Yesaki (1966) repqrted an index of relative density for "humpy" shrimp about twenty-three percent of that for pink shrimp from southern Kodiak Island. The coonstripe shrimp, Pandalus hypsinotus, has been found from the Bering Sea to the Strait of Juan de Fuca in depths of 3 to 100 fathoms; very similar in range to that of the "humpy" shrimp (Fox, 1972). High concentrations occur off southeastern Kodiak Island and in the Shumagin Islands. Coonstripe shrimp comprise a relatively small portion of the commercial catch. Rathjen and Yesaki (1966) reported that the index of relative density for coonstripe shrimp off southeastern Kodiak Island was only six percent of that for the pink shrimp, P. borealis. The ocean pink shrimp, Pandalus jordani, is distributed from Unalaska Island to southern California in depths ranging from 20 to 250 fathoms (Fox, 1972). The greatest densities are located off the northern coast of California to Cape Beale, British Columbia, with a peak density off Oregon (Dahlstrom, 1970). Greatest concen- trations are found from 60 to 80 fathoms off California (Dahlstrom, 1970), and from 70 to 110 fathoms off Oregon, and from 60 to 90 .fathoms off Washington (Ronholt, 1963). The ocean pink shrimp is primarily found in warmer waters. For this reason, and the fact that it is generally concentrated at depths below normal commercial 370 trawling efforts, it is not found in abundance in the Alaskan shrimp harvest. The spot shrimp, Pandalus platyceros, has been reported from Unalaska Island to San Diego, California, in depths of 2 to 266 fathoms (Fox, 1972). While the other pandalid shrimps are generally found in areas suitable for trawling, P. playtceros is found in rocky areas unsuitable for exploratory trawl surveys. Consequently, areas of major concentration are unknown. Ronholt (1963) reported small quantities taken off Lapush, Washington and in southeastern Alaska. In addition, pot fisheries are located in the Puget Sound- Vancouver Island area (Butler, 1964) and in scattered areas off. central Alaska, principally Kachemak Bay (Barr, 1970a). 'The sidestripe shrimp, [email protected], is distributed from the Bering Sea, west of the Pribilof Islands, southward to Manhattan Beach, Oregon, in depths ranging from 20 to 351 fathoms (Fox, 1972). Next to the pink shrimp, P. borealis, it is the most abundant shrimp in the north Pacific Ocean. The greatest concentrations occur off southeastern Kodiak Island and in the Shumagin Islands. The index of relative density for sidestripe shrimp off southeastern Kodiak Island is about ten percent of that for the pink shrimp (Rathjen and Yesaki, 1966). The greatest concentrations of sidestripe shrimp are somewhat deeper than pink shrimp, generally from 60 to 120 fathoms (Ronholt, 1963). Most pandalid shrimps are found on mud or sand and mud-mixed bottoms. However, they are not found in all areas where these types of bottoms occur. References to green mud bottoms in relation to large concentrations of the pink shrimp, P. borealis, and the ocean pink shrimp, P. jordani, have been made by many authors who infer 371 that theorganic content of the bottom is more important in deter- mining distribution than bottom consistency. It should be noted, however, that most sampling has been conducted with trawls which work well only on the type of bottom described above. It is, therefore, inconclusive whether or not many pandalid shrimp concentrate on harder or rockier bottoms. One species, P. platyceros, and perhaps P. hypsinotus, is known to prefer rocky bottoms (Fox, 1972). Sexuality The reproductive life history of pandalid shrimps is rather unique among shellfish. Although reproduction is bisexual, pandalid shrimps exhibit protandric hermaphroditism. Pandalid shrimps mature first as males and then later in the life cycle transform into functional females. The morphological changes that accompany sex change usually occur quite rapidly. Individuals, who the previous year spawned as a male, will spawn the current year as a female. Once an individual has become a female, it remains so throughout the rest of its life. The literature contains reports on a phenomenon called "primary" females. Primary females may be defined as those individuals who never function as males, or more strictly, as those individuals who mature directly as females, never being hermaphrodites. Dahlstrom (1970) reported primary females in P. jordani off northern California, a few were found by Tegelberg and Smith (1957) off Washington, and forty-seven of a sample by Butler (1964) off British Columbia were .primary females. The production of early maturing (or primary) females may be environmentally related or may'be a density dependent mechanism. At any rate, the early maturation of females is a survival 37Z mechanism beneficial to the population. Primary females have also been noted in P. borealis and P. hypsinotus.in British Columbia (Butler, 1964). Maturity The age at sexual maturity varies with the species and by geographical location within a species. The normal situation for pandalid shrimps is that they are protandric hermaphrodites, matur- ing first as males and then later transforming into functional females. P. danae and P. goniurus apparently mature as males during their first autumn and function again as males at one and a half years in British Columbia (Butler, 1964). The age at first maturity as males is one and a half years for P. borealis, P. hypsinotus, 1@. jordani, P. platyceros,, and Pandalopsis dispar (Butler, 1964; and Dahlstrom, 1970). Ivanov (1964a) believes that P.,borealis in the Pribilof Islands area of the Bering Sea do not mature as males until two and a half years. Such is the case for P.,borealis around Kodiak Island; however, some may mature at one and a half years (McCrary, 1971). The age at transition to functional female also varies with the species and by geographical location within the species. By and large, most shrimp function two years as a male before transforming to a female. Mating During September, eggs ripen in the ovaries of the females and the forming eggs may be seen as greenish masses lying dorso- laterally under the carapace. Spawning may occur from late September 373 through mid-October (Fox, 1972). The male attaches a sperm mass to the underside of a female between the last two pairs of pereiopods (walking legs). This usually occurs within thirty-six hours sfter the female molts into breeding dress (Needler, 1931). Fertilization and oviposition occur as the eggs stream from the oviducts over the sperm masses and become attached to the forward four pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) and abdominal segments. Fecundity Pandalid shrimps have a high fecundity. The number of eggs per clutch ranges from 500 to 2,500 for P. jordani and P. borealis to over 4,000 for Pandalopsis dispar (Dahlstrom, 1970; and Hynes, 1929). The number of eggs extruded is positively correlated with the size of the shrimp. Howevef, Rinaldo (Marine Department of Sea and Shore Fisherl2s, West Booth Bay Harbor, Maine as reported by Fox, 1972) related a study which indicated that the percentage of eggs surviving to hatching was lower for larger than for smaller shrimp. This would indicate that the effective fecundity may act- ually be rather constant with shrimp size. Eggs and Larvae Females carry their eggs externally for about'five to six months until hatching. Hatching occurs mainly from March through April (Fox, 1972). The lengths of spawning, carrying and hatching periods vary inversely with the water temperature, at least for P. borealis (Haynes and Wigley, 1969). In laboratory studies, Berkeley (1930) found that most larvae hatch at night during periods of vigorous pleopod movement by the female. Hatching an entire clutch of eggs may take as long as two days. 374 Early larval stages have been found on or above the spawning beds (Berkeley, 1930; and Pearcy, 1971). .There are no published reports of finding larvae in the surface waters, which indicates that in the absence of strong mid-water or bottom currents, larval drift may not occur to any appreciable degree. However, the time of day that the surveys are conducted may be important since it is known that mid-water zooplankton, of which shrimp larvae are presum- ably a part, perform diel migrations, rising near the surface during the hours of darkness. The larvae remain planktonic for about two to three months, passing through six stages to become juveniles, and then settle, taking up a benthonic existence like the adults (Berkeley, 1930). Juveniles Little information is available on juvenile shrimp prior to their maturation as adult male shrimp. Differential rearing areas and migration patterns appear to exist between juvenile and adult shrimps. More specific information on this is available in the Migration and Local Movement section of this life history report. Adults Mortality rates are high for adult pandalid shrimps. Virtually no P. borealis survive to be seven years of age off the Pacific coast, and this is probably true for the other pandalid species (Fox, 1972). Estimates of annual survival rates for P. jordani off California range from fifty-two to 'thirty percent for the years 1960-1966 (Dahlstrom, 1970). These.estimates.were made in the presence of a fishery, so they reporesent both natural and fishing mortality. 375 The growth of pandalid shrimps may be generalized as follows: (1) the animal molts, ridding itself of a rigid exoskeleton, (2) water is absorbed, increasing the size of the animal, (3) a new exoskeleton is formed, and (4) the water is gradually replaced by new tissue. Growth in size, therefore, is a step function, increasing in increments at each molt, but remaining constant between molting periods. The most comprehensive study of the growth of Pacific pandalid shrimps is that of Butler (1964). He found, that based on ultimate size, P. platyceros,becomes the largest followed by Pandalopsis dispar, and P. hypsinotus. However, until about two years of age, hypsinotus.is larger than Pandalopsis dispar. Butler further reported that P. borealis and P. jordani both reach about the same size. Dahlstrom (1970) reports a somewhat faster growth rate for P. jordani off northern California and Oregon, but a slower growth rate off Washington. Studies by Ivanov (1969) indicate that the growth rate for P.,borealis in the Bering Sea'is slower than those of the western Gulf of Alaska or of British Columbia. Hence, it appears that the growth rate of P. borealis is dependent upon latitude and consequently water temperature. It is assumed that the other pandalid species exhibit similar growth characteristics. Pandalid shrimps are carnivorous bottom feeders and feed both by scavengering dead animal material and by preying on living organ- isms such as amphipods, euphausiids, limpets, annelids, and other shrimps. Vegetative plant material is rarely found in the stomachs of pandalid shrimps (Berlekey, 1929). Pandalid shrimps are subject to a high level of predation, both as planktonic larvae and as benthonic adults. Virtually any large 376 fish in their vicinity is a potential predator. Those noted as feeding on shrimp include the-Pacific hake, Pacific cod, sablefish, lingcod, arrowtooth flounder, petrale sole, yellowfin sole, rock sole, flathead sole, various rockfish, spiny dogfish, skates and rays, Pacific halibut, salmon, and even harbor seals (Skalin, 1963; Barr, 1970a; Butler, 1970; and Dahlstrom, 1970). Pandalid shrimp distribution and range is dictated, to a large degree, by temperature and salinity tolerances. On the basis of water temperature, P. borealis and P. jordani are diametrically opposed, with P. borealis being concentrated in colder water (Fox,, 1972). The other pandalid species are not so easily delimited. goniurus, however, is not found in appreciable quantities off British Columbia or southward, yet it is off Kodiak Island, Alaska. goniurus is apparently selective toward colder waters. Butler (1964) reported finding all species but P. goniurus in temperatures of 7 to ll*C off British Columbia. Butler's data does not represent minima.and maxima since Dahlstrom (1970) reports P. jordani from 5.6 to 11.5*C off northern California. Ivanov (1964b) found fishable concentrations of P. borealis down to 0.5*C in the Bering Sea and Allen (1959) reported specimens of P. borealis taken from water -1.68*C off Europe. Salinity tolerances are more difficult to find in the literature, with P. jordani having the highest range, 28.7 to 34.6*/oo, (Dahl- strom, 1970) and P. borealis the lowest, 23.4 to 30.8*/oo, (Butler 1964). The remaining ranges reported by Butler (1964) are P. hypsinotus, 25.9 to 30.6*/oo; P. platyceros, 26.4 to 30.8*/oo, and Pandalopsis dispar, 26.7 to 30.8*/oo. 377 Diseases Little is known about the diseases.and parasites of pandalid shrimps. Yevich and Rinaldo (1971) reported a condition in P. borealis off Maine termed the black spot gill disease. This disease results in the destruction of gill lamellae and in the formation of a chitinous growth over the damaged area producing a black spot. A similar condition was observed by Fox (1972) in a few specimens of P. borealis caught off Kodiak Island. Butler (1970) reported the infestation of a male P. platyceros by a rhyocephalan, Sylon sp., in British Columbia waters. He stated that there are no records of isopod parasites on P. platyceros. However, Fox (1972) reports that most species of pandalid shrimps are parasitized to some degree by bopyroid isopods (Bopyrus sp.). The isopods, a large female and the smaller male together, attach ir the gill area. The shrimp s carapace then forms around them after molting and produces the characteristic "bubble". Migration and Local Movement Pandalid shrimps are known to undergo migrations onsH6re-offshore, coastwise, and vertically in the water column. Extensive migrations in European waters are well documented (Mistakidis, 1957), but less so in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Migration associated with age has been documented by Berkeley (1930) for,P. borealis, P. hypsinotus, P. platyceros., and Pandalopsis dispar. Freshly hatched larvae were found around or near the vicinity of the spawned adults. At about the third stage of development, the larvae were found segregated in shallower water 5 to 35 fathoms deep where they spent their first summer. Later, during their first 378 winter, the juveniles joined the adult population in deeper waters. Dahlstrom (1970), however, states that juvenile P. jordani are found among the adults throughout their life cycle. Area migrations of the adult populations are less well documented. jordani off California are known to exhibit short spawning migra- tions during the winter into deeper water and short summer migrations ostensibly in search of food (Dahlstrom, 1970). Diel vertical migrations are common among some pandalids. Many P. borealis leave the bottom during late af ternoon or evening and return to near, or on, the bottom about dawn in Kachemak Bay (Barr, 1970b). The period of time that the shrimp remained away from the vicinity of the bottom varied directly with the season's number of hours of darkness. Pearcy (1970) reported the same pheno- menon for P. jordani off the coast of Oregon. He suggested that diel migrations are related to feeding behavior, since the shrimp fed mainly on euphausiids and copepods which also make diel migrations. Pearcy also suggested that th ese movements may be evolutionary pro- tection and dispersal mechanisms. Chew et al. (1971) stated that platyceros.exhibited a diel bathymetric distribution after finding high catches in shallow water at night in Dabob Bay, Washington, but in deeper water during the day. Literature Cited Allen, J.A. 1959. On the biology of Pandalus borealis Kroyer, with reference to a population off the Northumberland Coast. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. 38:189-220. Barr, L. 1970a. Alaska fishery resources-the shrimps. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv., Fish. Leaflet 631. 10 p. 379 Literature Cited Berkeley, A.A. 1929. A study of the shrimps of British Columbia. Biol. Bd. Can., Prog. Rept. (Pacific) 4:9-10. Berkeley, A.A. 1930. The post-embryonic development of the common pandalids of British Columbia. Contrib. Can. Biol. 10(6):79-163. Butler, T.H. 1964. Growth, reproduction, and distribution of pandalid shrimps in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 21(6):1403-1452. Butler, T.H. 1968. The shrimp fishery of British Columbia. FAO Fish. Rept. 57(2):521-526. Butler, T.H. 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the prawn Pandalus platyceros Brandt, 1851. FAO Fish. Rept. 57(4):1289-1315. Chew, K.K., J.W. Wells, D. Holland, D.H. McKenzie and C.K. Harris. 1971. January size frequency distribution of Pandalopsis dispar and Pandalus platyceros trawled in Dabob Bay, Hood Canal, Washington from 1966 to 1971. (Abstract) Nat. Shellfish Assn., 63rd Ann. Conv. (Unpublished.) Dahlstrom, W.A. 1970. Synopsis of biological data on the ocean shrimp Pandalus jordani Rathbun, 19Q2. FAO Fish. Rept. 57(4):1377-1416. Fox, William W. 1972. Shrimp resources of the northeastern Pacific Ocean. Pages 313-337 in Donald H. Rosenberg. 1972. A review of the oceanography and renewable resources of the northern Culf of Alaska. University of Alaska, Institute of Marine Science. Haynes, E.B. and R.L. Wigley. 1969. Biology of the Northern Shrimp, Pandalus borealis, in the Gulf of Maine. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98(l):60-76. Hynes, F.W. 1929. Shrimp fishery of southeast Alaska. U.S. Rept. Comm. Fish. 1929. 1-18 p. Ivanov, B.G. 1964a. Results in the study of the biology and distribution of shrimps in the Pribilof area of the Bering Sea. Trudy VNIRO, Vol. 49 (Soviet Fisheries Investigations in the Northeast Pacific, U.S. Dept Int. Trans., 1968, 115-125 p.). Ivanov, B.G. 1964b. Biology and distribution of shrimps during winter in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. Trudy VNIRO, Vol. 53 (Soviet Fisheries Investigations in the Northeast Pacific, U.S. Dept. Int. Trans., 1968, 176-190 p.). Ivanov, B.G. 1969. The biology and distribution of the northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis Kr.) in the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. FAO Fish. Rept. 57(3):800-810. 380 Literature Cited McCrary, J.A. 1971. Pandalid shrimp studies project, Ann. Tech. Rept. Comm. Fish. Res. Devel. Act. (Unpublished ms.) Mistakidis. 1957. The biology of Pandalus montaqui Leach. Fishery Invest. (Gr. Britain), Ser. 2, 21(4):52. Needler, A.B. 1931. Mating and oviposition in Pandalus danae. Can. Field Nat. 45(5):107-8. Pearcy, W.G. 1970. Vertical migration of the ocean shrimp, Pandalus jordani': a feeding and dispersal mechanism. Calif. Fish and Game 56(4):125-129. Pearcy, W.G. 1971. Diel changes in the behavior of pink shrimp. (Abstract) National Shellfish Assn., 63rd Ann. Conv. (Unpublished.) Rathbun, M.J. 1904. Decapod crustaceans of the Northwest Coast of America. Harriman Alaska Series 10:1-210. Rathjen, W.F. and M. Yesaki. 1966. Alaska shrimp explorations, 1962-64. Comm. Fish. Rev. 28(4):1-14. Ronholt, L.L. 1963. Distribution and relative abundance of commercially important pandalid shrimps in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. U.S. Fish. and Wildl. Serv., Spec, Sci. Rept.-Fish. No. 449. 28 p. Skalin, V.A. 1963. Diet of flatfishes in the southeastern Bering Sea, Izvestiya TINRO, Vol. 51 (Soviet Fisheries Investigations in the Northeast Pacific, U.S. Dept. Int. Trans., 1968, P. 235-250). Tegelberg, H.C. and J.M. Smith. 1957. Observations on the distribution and biology of the pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani off the Washington coast. Wash. Dept. Fish. Res. Pap. 2(l):25-34. Yevich, P. and R.G. Rinaldo. 1971. Black spot gill disease of Pandalus borealis (Abstract) Nat. Shellfish Assn., 63rd Ann. Conv. (Unpublished.) 381 LIFE HISTORY WEATHERVANE SEA SCALLOP Taxonomy The weathervane sea scallop, Patinopecten caurinus, is a member of the Lamellibranchia clams of the family Pectinidae. Keen (1963) described its taxonomy as follows: Class: Pelecypoda Subclass: Pteriomorphia Order: Pteroconchida Superfamily: Pectinacea Family: Pectinidae Genus: Patinopecten rformerly known as Pecten (Gould)] Distribution Although small numbers of weathervane sea scallops have been. taken incidental to other fisheries from California to Alaska, the major commercial concentrations of this species are centered in the Kodiak Island and the Cape Fairweather to Cape Saint Elias area (Yakutat region) of the Gulf of Alaska (Hennick, 1970a). Trace amounts of scallops have also been dredged off the lower Kenai Peninsula, Shelikof Strait, and off Montague Island. Exploratory surveys in the Bering Sea and Alaska Peninsula area have revealed no extensive beds of scallops (Hennick, 1970b). Ronholt and Hitz (1968) reported that commercial quantities of weathervane sea scallops did not appear to be present in waters off Oregon. Thus, it appears that the Kodiak Island and Yakutat areas are the only regions that can support commercial exploitation of scallops in the Gulf of Alaska. 382 Exploratory surveys, largely conducted by the National Marine Fishery Service, have indicated that weathervane sea scallops are most abundant in depths of between thirty and seventy fathoms (Alverson, 1968). Gravel and sand, with some mud, is typical of Alaska scallop beds (Hennick, 1973). The three major commercial scallop beds in Alaska may be de- scribed as follows (Hennick, 1973): AREA 1 Yakutat, between Cape Saint Elias and Cape Spencer. Primarily mud-sand- clay or silt overburden. Productive areas between thirty and sixty fathoms in depth, twenty to forty miles offshore. AREA 11 Westside Kodiak Island, between Cape Skdlik to Afognak Island including that area of the Alaska Peninsula bordering Shelikof Strait adjacent to Kodiak Island proper. Primarily gravel-sand-mud or silt bottom. Productive areas twenty to seventy fathoms within three miles of shore. AREA 111 Albatross, Marmot, Portlock Banks. Primarily rock, gravel, and sand bot- toms. Productive areas between twenty- five to seventy-five fathoms, extending inshore and out to fifty miles or more offshore. Sexuality The weathervane sea scallop is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. The sex of mature adult scallops can be distinguished by the characteristic white coloration of the testes and the bright orange of the ovaries (Hennick, 1970a). There are no superficial characteristics that indicate the sex. 383 Maturity Scallops are aged by counting the growth rings, or annuli, on the shell. Although this method may not always provide the correct age, especially with older scallops, it gives a good estimate of age for younger scallops. Studies conducted in the Yakutat.and Kodiak areas indicate that most weathervane sea scallops attain sexual maturity at age three and that all scallops at age four are mature (Hennick, 1970a). In addition, Hennick found that most scallops which exceed 100 mm in shell height are sexually mature. Mating Studies conducted by Hennick (1970a) indicate that weathervane sea scallops spawn only once annually. The spawning period normally occurs during June and early July and is apparently triggered by rising water temperatures. The sexes are separate and fertilization occurs externally. As the eggs and spermatozoa ripen, they are released through the kidney and are expelled into the water where fertilization is a random occurrence. Fecundity No information is available in the literature describing the fecundity of weathervane sea scallops. Eggs and Larvae After fertilization occurs in the open water, the eggs settle to the bottom And become attached to objects in the substrate. Hatching occurs within two to three days time @Hennick, 1973). Development is dependent upon water temperature, with higher temperatures 384 producing faster growth. The larvae at this stage are capable of swimming and become planktonic*, drifting with the tides and currents. During this planktonic stage, metamorphological changes take place and within two and one-half to three weeks the larvae settle to the bottom substrate and assume an adult form (Hennick, 1973). Mortality is high during the larval stage, both from,environ- mental factors and predation. Planktonic feeders, both fish and shellfish, including adult scallops, feed upon the drifting plank- tonic scallop larvae. Juvenile Complete basic studies on the life history cycle of weathervane sea scallops have not been conducted, especially in the juvenile stage. Hence, little information is available for this life stage. Based on studies of sea scallops elsewhere, however, the following observations can be made. After the larva settles to the bottom, the juvenile scallop may attach itself to the bottom, move around through the use of the foot appendage which later becomes residual, or swim. The juvenile at this stage is leptocephalus or transparent. Within a few months, pigmentation of the shell takes place and the ,animal appears identical to the adult form. Adults After reaching sexual maturity at about three to four years of age, weathervane sea scallops continue to grow. Studies con- ducted by Hennick (1973) indicate that growth is more rapid during the first ten to eleven yea rs, then tends to slow as age advances. The meats of old, aged scallops actually tend to decrease in weight 385 (Hennick, 1973). In light of this growth phenomena, weathervane sea scallops-should ideally be harvested between seven and eleven years of age, both from a biological and economic viewpoint. There is little documented information on the longevity of weathervane sea scallops. Exploratory surveys and commercial catch data indicate a scarcity of scallops over 1.5 years of age. However, Hennick (1973) reported scallops recovered with as many as twenty- eight annual rings. The growth rate of weathervane sea scallops is subject to regional differences. Based on HennicWs (1973) studies, the meats of scal- lops from the Yakutat area at a given age are much'smaller than those from either of the Kodiak Island areas. Additionally, scallops from the Marmot, Albatross, and Portlock areas of Kodiak Island are the largest at any given age of all scallops in the Gulf of Alaska This phenomena is of great importance to the commercial fishermen as scallops from the Kodiak area have average meat weights nearly twice as large as those from the Yakutat area, meaning only half as many need be handled in order to obtain the same volume of salable product. Weathervane sea scallops are planktonic filter feeders, consum- ing bottom detritus and drifting plankton. The opening and closing of the valves draws water into the mantle cavity. The circulation of water within the mantle cavity and gill areas provides a food source and enables respiratory functions to occur. I@ is interesting to note that scallops are the only bivalve molluscs capable of swimming (Hennick, 1973). This is accomplished through relaxation of the adductor muscle, causing the valves to part and draw water into the mantle cavity. The scallop then rapidly 38t contracts the large adductor muscle forcing water out. Rapid re- petition of this function enables the scallop to rise off the bottom and essentially swim. Predation is often high on weathervane sea scallops, with the major predators including cod, plaice, wolffish, and starfish. Disease Hennick (1973) reported the presence of marine boring worms on the shells of weathervane sea scallops from the Yakutat region. Nearly all of the scallops were heavily infected. However, infest- ation by marine boring worms in the Kodiak region is rare. Migration and Local Movement Little information is available concerning the migrations and local movements of weathervane sea scallops. Adult scallops are capable of independent movement but the extent or direction of any movement is not known. Literature Cited Alverson, D.L. 1968. Fishery resources in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. In The future of the fishing industry of the United States. Univ. of Wash. publications in fisheries-New Series. 4:96-97. Hennick, D.P. 1970a. Reproductive cycle, size at maturity, and sexual composition of commercially harvested weathervane scallops, Patinopecten caurinus in Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 27:2112-2119. Hennick, D. 1970b. The weathervane scallop fishery of Alaska with notes on occurrence in Washington and Oregon. 22nd Ann. Rept. of the Pac. Mar. Fish. Comm. 1969. Appendix 3-Spec. Rept. 33-34. Hennick, D. 1973. Sea scallop, Patinopecten caurinus, investigations in Alaska. Completion report, Commercial Fisheries Research and Development Act, Project No. 5-23-R. Keen, M.A. 1963. Marine molluscan genera of western North America. Stanford Univ. Press. 126 p. Ronholt, L.L. and C.R. Hitz. 1968. Scallop explorations off Oregon. Comm. Fish. Rev. 30(7): 42-49. 387 LIFE HISTORY - CLAMS. The clam resource of the Gulf of Alaska consists of approximately one hundred and sixty different species of clams, about twenty-eight of which can be utilized commercially (Baxter, 1965). The fishery is essentially supported by three species, the razor clam, (Siliqua patula), the butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus), and the cockle (Clinocardium nuttalli). Minor species, usually taken in the sports catch, include the Manila clam (Venerupus japonica), the little neck clam (Protothaca staminea), the horse clam (Schizothaerus nuttalli), and gapers (Tresus nuttali and T. capax). In addition, there appears to be substantial stocks of soft-shell clams (Mya truncata) at Cold Bay, Kachemak Bay, and Prince William Sound, Alaska (Kirkwood, 1967). Large populations of surf clams (Spisula alaskana) also occur subtidally in many areas of central Alaska. However, the importance, size and distribution of populations of minor clam species which may have a commercial potential is largely unknown In the following section, a summary of the taxonomy, distribution, and life history of the three principal commercial species, razor, butter, and cockle clams, in Alaska is given. 388 Razor clams Taxonomy_ The razor clam, Siliqua patula, is a member of the Lamellibranchia I clams of the family Solenidae. Nosho (1972) described its taxonomy as follows: Phylum; Mollusca Class: Lamellibranchia Family: Solenidae Genus: Siliqua Species: S. patula Distribution The razor clam is found from Pismo Beach, California, to the Bering Sea (Amos, 1966). It occurs in commercial quantities from Tillammok Head, Oregon, to the western end of the Alaska Peninsula. In Alaska, commercial stocks are found on the shores of Cook Inlet, Orcas Inlet, the Copper River delta near Cordova, and the mainland side of. Shelikof Strait. Razor clams are found intertidally to several fathoms in depth on the sandy ocean beaches of the open coast. Fine sand with some glacial silt, as found at Karls Bar located at Orcas Inlet near Cordova, is typical of Alaska clam producing areas (Weymouth and McMillan, 1931). Near Kodiak, the large beds at Swickshak and Hallo Bay consist of fine sand, volcanic ash and some glacial mud. In Cook Inlet, razor clams are found in substrata varying from al- most entirely coarse white sand (Deep Creek area) to a fine sand- clay-gravel mixture at Clam Gulch (McMullen, 1967). Razor clams may be found in the mouths of coastal harbors, but growth is usually inferior in these locations. They are not found in enclosed bodies of water. 389 Sexuality The razor clam is hererosexual and sexually dimorphic. How- ever, only through examination of the gonads is it possible to tell the sex of the clam. There are no superficial characteristics that indicate the sex. Examination of the contents of the gonads reveals a marked difference between sexes. The female ova have a granular appearance, in contrast to the viscous homogeneous mass in which the sperm is found. Maturity Razor clams are aged from growth rings on the shell. Although the method may not always provide the correct age, especially with older clams, it gives a good estimate of age for younger clams. In addition, accurate aging is hindered by the presence of summer growth checks (false annuli) on the shell which, it is believed, are caused by disturbed growth through tidal action. Razor clams in the northwest Pacific reach sexual maturity after two or more years, or a shell length of approximately 100 mm (Nosho, 1972). Razor clams of the northern beds do not reach sexual maturity until much later. Clams of the Swikshak and Cordova beaches do not mature until their fifth and sixth years, respectively (Weymouth and McMillan, 1925). However, Cook Inlet clams appear to grow much faster, reaching maturity in their third year (McMullen, 1967). Mating Spawning occurs in the spring or summer when rising water tem- peratures reach 13*C (Nosho, 1972). In Alaska, this usually occurs in July. Studies conducted in Prince William Sound indicate that spawning timing can be computed by monitoring the cumulative maximum 390 daily water temperature (Personal communication with Richard Nickerson, A.D.F.&G., Cordova, 1975). Razor clams spawning occurs when the cumulative maximum daily water temperature reaches 1,350 temperature units; with the cumulative total computed by suming the daily maximum degree units above or below 32*F from January 1 on. The 50% spawning level is generally reached when the cumulative total reaches 1,500 temperature units. Spawning occurs for several weeks as eggs and sperm ripen and are discharged through the excurrent siphon. Fertilization occurs in the open water with surf action mixing the eggs and sperm. Fecundity The number of eggs carried by the female razor clam ranges between six to ten million eggs annually (McMullen, 1967). Eggs and Larvae After fertilization occurs in the open water, the eggs hatch into la rvae within a few hours to a few days. Development is de- pendent upon water temperatures, with higher temperatures producing faster growth rates. The larvae exists as free swimming veligers (ciliated larvae) for five to sixteen weeks (Oregon Fish Commission, 1963). After the veliger stage, the young clams develop a shell and settle to the bottom where they "set" into the top layer of sand upon reaching an average shell length of 13 mm (Tegelberg, 1964). In years of heavy setting, as many as 1,000 to 1,500 young clams per square foot of beach may be found. Mortality is extremely high during the larval stage. The pelagic larvae are subjected to a high level of predation by planktonic feeders. Unfavorable currents may also carry the larvae away from desirable habitat. 391 Juveniles After settling to the bottom, juvenile growth is slow throughout the fall and winter. Growth accelerates during the spring and summer with warmer waters and increased food supply. After the first winter, young clams reach a length of about four-fifths of an inch in the Cordova district. An average length of four and one-half inches is attained in three and one-half years in'the southern beds as compared to six and one-half years in the Cordova region (Amos, 1966). The growth rate varies with locality. In Alaska, initial growth rate is slower than in the northwest states; however, after several years, the relative growth rate is higher (Weymouth and McMillan, 1931). Generally, razor clams have a larger final size and grow older in the northern beds than in the southern beds. Adults The maximum age for razor clams is highly variable with clams of the northern beds living longer than those of the southern beds. Clams collected at Pismo Beach, California, do not exceed five years in age, while Washington clams grow up to nine years. In Alaska, ages up to nineteen years have been recorded (Weymouth and McMillan, 1931). Adult razor clams live in the intertidal zone where they lie buried in the sand with their necks, or siphons, protruding above the surface. During the low water stages, when the clams are exposed, their siphons are covered with a thin layer of sand which makes detection of the clams difficult. The clams can move through the sand very rapidly, averaging several feet per minute. Their unusual ability to move so fast is due to their foot, which is an effective burrowing organ. In digging, the foot of the clam is projected half 392 the length of the shell and pushed into the sand. Below the surface the tip of the foot expands forming a strong anchor. Then the foot muscles contract pulling the clam downwards. The clam can repeat this movement in rapid succession. It has been observed that clams laid on the top of the sand have buried themselves completely in less than seven seconds (Loosanoff, 1947). Razor clams are filter feeders, consuming bottom detritus and drifting plankton. Food particles are brought in along with water through the incurrent tube. Small hairlike structures (cilia) on the gills filter the food particles out. The food particles are then passed to the sensitive palps near the mouth for sorting, and are then ingested. Predation is often high on razor clams, with the major predators including starfish, crabs, rays,, octopus, and starry flounders. Disease As with all animals, razor clams are subject to disease. Marine bacteria and fungi are often injurious to clam larvae. In addition, razor clams are also subject to the problem of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), as are all bivalve mollusks. PSP is associated with plankton blooms and is properly called Gonyaulax poisoning (Hayes, 1967). The causative organisms are believed to be the dinoflagellates Gonyaulax catenella and G. acatenella. The toxin is accumulated as a direct result of feeding on these organisms. PSP is extremely toxic and is one of the most potent materials known to man. The poison is a metabolic product of the dinoflagellate. It is believed that PSP directly affects the nerve and muscle membrane, blocking the passag e of nervous impulses, and eventually resulting in paralysis of the diaphragm and death by suffocation if enough toxin is ingested. :393 Razor clams, unlike other mollusks, do not retain the toxin over a long period of time. The toxin is rapidly eliminated from the tissue by normal metabolic activity. In addition, the toxin does not build up to high levels in the tissue, but is concentrated in the digestive tract. Thorough cleaning and removal of the di- gestive tract will remove most, if not all, of the toxin. Miaration and Local Movement Little is known concerning the migrations and local movements of razor clams. At the present, there is little evidence that razor clams move horizontally or migrate between areas. However, heavy surf action along exposed beaches is often responsible for the move- ment of razor clams laterally along the beach as well as onshore-offshore movements.. Butter Clams TaxonoMy The butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus, is a member of the Lamellibranchia clams of the family Veneridae. Nosho (1972) described its taxonomy as follows: Phylum: Mollusca Class: Lamellibranchia Family: Veneridae Genus: Saxidomus Species: S. giganteus Clams of the species, S. giganteus, have been referred to as Washington clam, quahog, Coney Island clam, beef-steak clam, butter clam, 394 and great Oregon clam. At the present, butter clam is the accepted common name. Distribution The butter clam is found from Humboldt Bay, California, northward to the Aleutian Islands. They are distributed from the lower levels of exposed tide flats out to depths of over thirty fathoms in some areas (Amos, 1966). Baxter (1971) indicated that the optimum habitat for butter clams is narrowly defined by tidal levels; primarily between mean low water and lowest low water. Butter clams appear to prefer a mixed gravel-sand-mud substratum, although they occasionally occur in sand bottoms. They generally occupy the upper twelve inches of the substratum, most commonly six to ten inches beneath the surface. Sexuality The butter clam is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. However, only through examination of the gonads is it possible to determine the sex of the clam. The female ova have a granular appearance, in contrast to the viscous homogeneous mass in which the sperm is found. Maturity As are all clams, butter clams are aged from growth rings on the shell. Although this method may not always provide the correct age,, especially with older clams, it gives a good estimate of age for younger clams. The growth rate for butter clams is extremely slow in Alaskan waters. Baxter (1965) reported that butter clams may take from fifteen to twenty years to reach sexual maturity at a size of two and one-half inches in diameter. 395 Mating Spawning occurs in the spring or summer when rising water tem- peratures reach 20% (Breese and Phibbs, 1969). Unlike most clams, butter clams require fairly warm water to successfully spawn. For this reason, successful spawning and setting of butter clams is at best sporadic in the cool Alaskan waters. Amos (1966) reported certain British Columbia butter clam beds that have had only one major spawning and setting in twenty years. This inability to reproduce was attributed to low water temperatures. When water temperature requirements are met, spawning will occur over several weeks as eggs and sperm ripen and are discharged through the excurrent siphon. Fertilization occurs externally in the open water with surf action mixing the eggs and sperm. Fecundity Little information is available in the literature describing the fecundity of butter clams. However, like all.clams, the number of eggs carried annually by the female is quite large. Eggs and Larvae After fertilization occurs in the open water, the fertilized eggs develop into free swimming larvae. The larvae exist as free swimming veligers (ciliated larvae) for 20 to 30 days before devel- oping a shell and settling to the bottom where they "set" into the top layer of the substrate. The rate of development is dependent upon water temperatures with higher temperatures producing faster growth rates. 396 Mortality is extremely high for butter clams during the larval stage. The pelagic larvae are subject to a high level of predation by planktonic feeders. Adult butter clams, as well as other bivalve mollusks, contribute heavily to the predation upon the pelagic larvae. In addition to predation, unfavorable currents, generated by storms, may carry the larvae away from desireable habitat. Juveniles Progressive growth for juvenile butter clams is extremely slow, particularly in Alaska. Baxter (1965) indicates that butter clams in Alaskan waters may take from fifteen to twenty years to reach a size-of two and one-half inches or sexual maturity. Predation is often quite high on juvenile butter clams, parti- cularly at the "setting" stage. The young clams are concentrated in the upper layer of the substrate and are vulnerable to predation by crabs, starfish, and numerous demersal fishes. Adults Adult butter clams live in the intertidai zone where they lie buried in the sand with their necks, or siphons, protruding above the surface. Food particles, along with water, are brought into the siphon through the incurrent tube. The food particles are filtered out by small hairlike structures (cilia) on the gills and are then passed to the sensitive palps near the mouth for sorting and ingestion. Butter clams are filter feeders, consuming primarily bottom detritus and drifting plankton. Adult butter clams, as are the other life stages, are also subject to predation. Crabs, particularly dungeness crab, star fish, octopus, and numerous other demersal fishes are the major predators. 397 Disease There is little documenta*tion in the literature as to the specific diseases of butter clams. However, marine bacteria and fungi are known to often be injurious to clam larvae in general. In addition, butter clams are also subject to the problem of para- lytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), as are all bivalve mollusks (refer to razor clam life history - diseases for specifics on PSP poisoning). Unlike razor clams, PSP toxin in butter clams is concentrated and retained in primarily the siphon tissue. The toxin is eliminated very slowly by metabolic activity. This retention is particularly dangerous in the northern part of the butter clams' range, where* colder waters slow down metabolic activity. Butter clams in these localities may still retain lethal concentrations of the toxin one year or mo re after the initial exposure to PSP. Migration and Local Movement Little is known concerning the migrations and local movements of butter clams. At the present, there is little evidence that butter clams move horizontally or migrate between areas. However", heavy surf action along exposed beaches may be responsible for movement laterally along the beach as well as onshore-offshore movements. Cockles Taxonomy The cockle, Clinocardium nuttalli, is a member of the Lamelli- branchia clams of the family Cardiidae. Nosho (1972) described its taxonomy as follows: 398 Phylum: Mollusca Class: Lamellibranchia Family: Cardiidae Genus: Clinocardium Species: C. nuttalli Clams of the species, C. nuttalli, have been referred to as heart cockle, basket cockle, and cockerel. In common usage, the simple use of the name cockle is primarily used. Distribution The cockle is found from San Diego, California, northward.to the Bering Sea. It is most abundant in British Columbia and in Puget Sound, Washington; although minor concentrations exist in the Kodiak Island and Cordova regions (Nosho, 1972). Cockles are generally found in both intertidal and deep water, one to three inches beneath the surface of the bottom and are often only partially buried. They appear to prefer a substratum of mixed sand and mud and are commonly found on eel-grass flats (Quayle, 1970). Sexuality The cockle differs from razor and butter clams, as well as most other clams, in that it is hermaphroditic (Amos, 1966). Individuals produce both sperm and eggs during the same season. Maturity Cockles, as are other clams, are aged from growth rings on the shell. Although this method may not always provide the correct age, especially with older clams, it gives a good estimate of age for younger clams. Amos (1966)'indicates that cockles reach sexual maturity at the age of two years. 399 Mating The mating behavior of cockles is quite different from most clams in that it is hermaphroditic, i.e., individuals produce both sperm and eggs. Unlike pandalid shrimp, which mature first as males and then later as females, cockles produce both sperm and eggs within the same season. Usually, the eggs are discharged first and the sperm later in the season, although both may be liberated simultaneously. Spawning occurs in the summer with rising water temperatures and continues for some time. Fertilization occurs externally in the surrounding waters with surf and wave action mixing the eggs and sperm. Fecundity Little information is available in the literature concerning the fecundity of cockles. However, like all clams, the number of eggs discharged annually is quite large. Eggs and Larvae After fertilization occurs in the open water, the eggs develop into free swimming larvae, or veligers. The veligers remain planktonic until they develop a shell and settle to the bottom. The rate of development is dependent upon water temperature N&th warmer temperatures producing faster growth rates. Mortality is extremely high for the pelagic larvae. Predation by other mollusks, including adult cockles, and mamerous plankton feeding fishes is quite high. In addition, mortality may result from the movement of the larvae to undesireable habitat by unfavorable currents generated by storms. 400 Juvefiiles Similar to razor clams, the progressive growth of juveniles cockles is faster in its southern range than it is in the northern portion of its range (Amos, 1966). Growth is slow during the fall and winter, but accelerates rapidly during the spring and summer with warmer waters and an increased food supply. Cockles are particularly vulnerable at the "setting" stage to predation by crabs, particularly dungeness crab, starfish, starry flounder, and other demersal fishes. Tidal movements or heavy storm driven wave activity may relocate the young juveniles into undesire- able habitat which will slow or stop the growth rate. Adults The maximum age for cockles is somewhat variable, with some indications that cockle s in the northern beds grow older than those in the southern beds. However, generally, they live to be about eight years old; although Amos (1966) reports a cockle which was ten years old. The average size of commercially marketed cockles is usually three to four inches. Amos (1966) reported one specimen as four and three-fourth inches from hinge to edge and weighing 26 ounces. Cockles are filter feeders, consuming bottom detritus and drifting plankton. Free swimming planktonic cockle larvae should also be included as a food item, for these are ingested along with other planktons. Disease There is little documentation in the literature as to the specific diseases of cockles. Most bivalve mollusks, however, are subject 401 to infestation by marine bacteria and fungi. In addition, cockles are subject to the problem of paralytic shellfish poisoning (refer to razor clams life history diseases for specifics on paralytic shellfish poisoning). The toxin is concentrated in the muscle tissue of cockles and is only slowly released by normal metabolic activity. Consequently, the clams may remain toxic year-round following a paralytic shellfish poisoning outbreak. This is particularly true in the northern range where cooler waters slow down the metabolic rate. Migration and Local Movement The migrations and local movements of cockles are poorly docu- mented. At the present, there is little evidence that cockles move horizontally or migrate between areas. Baxter (1971), however, indicates that the cockle is the-only species of hard-shell clam in Prince William Sound, Alaska, that is capable of changing postion in the adult stage. However, their movement appears to be limited and rarely exceeds twenty feet. Heavy surf and wave action along exposed beaches may be responsible for movement laterally along the beach as well as onshore-offshore movements. Literature Cited Amos, M.H. 1966. Commercial clams of the North American Pacific coast. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Circ. 237. 18 p. Baxter, R. 1965. The clam resource of Alaska. Pages 3-4 in W.A. Felsing, Jr. 1965. Proceedings of joint sanitation seminar on North Pacific Clams, Sept. 24-25, 1965. U.S. Public Health Service and Alaska Dept. Health and Welfare. Baxter, Rae E. 1971. Earthquake effects on clams of Prince William Sound. Pages 238-245 in The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964, Biology volume. Published 1971 by the National Academy of Sciences. 402 Breese, W.P. and F.D. Phibbs. 1970. Some observations on the spawning and early development of *the butter clam Saxidomus giganteus (Deshayes). Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assn., 1969. 6 5-98. Hayes, M. 1967. Review of the shellfish toxicity problem in Alaska waters. Page 2 in E. Haynes and J. McCrary. Minutes of the first Alaskan shellfish conference, May 23-26, 1967. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, Info. Leaflet No. 106. Loosanoff, U.L. 1947. Commercial clams of the Pacific coast of the United States. V.L. Bur. Fish and Wildl. Fish Leaflet No. 223. McMullen, J.C. 1967. Some aspects of the life history of razor clams Siliqua patula (Dixon) in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, -Info. Leaflet No. 110. 18 P. Nosho, Terry, Y. 1972. The clam fishery of the Gulf of Alaska., Pages 351-360 in Donald H. Rosenberg. 1972. A review of the oceanography and renewable resources of the northern Gulf of Alaska. University of Alaska, Institute of Marine Science. Oregon Fish Commission. 1963. Razor clams. Educ. Bull. 4, Portland, Ore. 13 p. Quayle, D.B. 1970. Intertidal bi@alves of British Columbia. British Columbia Prov. Mus. Dept. Educ., Hand. No. 17. Tegelberg, H.D. 1964. Growth and ring formation of Washington razor clams. Wash. Dept. Fish., Fish Res. Papers 2(3):69:103. Weymouth, F.W. and H.C. McMillan. 1931. Relative growth and mortality of'the Pacific razor clam ('Siliqua patula, Dixon) and their bearing on the commercial fishery. U.S. Bur. Fish., Bull. No. 46. 543-567 p. Weymouth, F.W., H.C. McMillan and H.B. Holmes. 1925. Growth and age at maturity of the Pacific razor clam, Siliqua patula (Dixon) U.S. Bur. Fish., Bull. No. 41. 201-236 p. 403 LIFE HISTORY - RAINBOW TROUT Taxonomy Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, belong to the family Salmonidae. Anadromous rainbow are known as steelhead and are discussed separately. Distribution Rainbow trout are native to western North America, occuring from northwest Mexico to the Kuskokwim River. In Alaska, rainbows are found throughout southeast Alaska west to the Alaska Peninsula and as far up the Kuskokwim as the Stony River. Clear water lakes and streams in Bristol Bay drainages provide prime habitat. They occur naturally in the Susitna and the Copper River drainages and have been transplanted to several interior areas, mostly around Fairbanks. Spawning Rainbows reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years, with males often maturing a year younger than females. They spawn in the spring and exhibit a high degree of homing instinct for a specific spawning area. They generally spawn in smaller tributaries of the parent stream or the inlet or outlet streams of lakes. Spawning usually occurs in temperatures between 50*-60*F. The female choses the spawning site and digs a redd, approximately 4-12 inches deep and 15 inches in diameter. Preferred site is a bed of fine gravel in a riffle above a pool. The eggs are deposited in the redd, fertilized, and covered with gravel. Total eggs range from 200- 404 8,000, dep'ending on size of female. The eggs develop several weeks to four months depending on temperature. Rainbows may spawn up to five years consecutively, but survival is low and only 10% of a population may spawn more than once. Habitat and Migration Rainbow prefer cool clear streams and lakes. In stream populations, the young fry move into riffle areas of the spawning streams to rear for up to two years. Preferred adult habitat is found in areas of gravel bottoms, moderate flow, and pool-riffle configuration in rivers of small to moderate size. They remain in riffles in the summer, but move into deep pools in the fall to overwinter. In lake-dwelling populations, fry usually move into the lake immediately after hatching, but may stay to rear 1-3 years in the spawning streams. 'Lake residents are usually found in moderately deep to deep, cool lakes with adequate shallows and vegetation for good food production. For the lake populations to be self-sustaining, there must be a river with good gravel bottom for spawning. They are most successful in waters with temperatures less than 70*F. 405 LIFE HISTORY STEELHEAD TROUT Taxonomy Steelhead trout, Salmo gairdneri, are the anadromous form of the rainbow trout. They are covered separately since their life history is markedly different from that of rainbow.' Distribution Steelhead originally occurred from southern California to Alaska, but the southern end of the range has been reduced somewhat. In Alaska, steelhead occur throughout the southeast region, in the lower Copper River drainages, and on the lower Kenai Peninsula as far up as the Ninilchik River. Spawning Steelhead become sexually-mature in 3-5 years, with males often maturing at a younger age than females. Spawning may occur in the fall, winter, or spring, depending on run timing. In A laska, steelhead spawn in the spring between March and May. Steelhead spawn in small to medium- sized streams or in suitable sections of mainstem rivers. Suitable redd sites have gravel bottoms and moderate stream flow. Depth preference varies from 16 to 35 cm deep and redd sites are chosen in areas that would rarely be exposed by lowering stream levels (Jones, 1975). The female prepares the redd in riffle areas or the tail end of pools, and spawning occurs as for rainbow trout, except that redds are generally larger. Fecundity varies from 3,000 to 12,000 eggs. 406 After spawning, the spent fish move downstream and return to the ocean. Steelhead may spawn more than once, but initial spawning mortality is usually high. Egg incubation time varies with temperature but averages 50 days at 50*F. Habitat and Timing After emerging from the gravel, the fry remain in shallow gravel areas to feed. They move out into deeper waters as they grow older and establish territories among rocky areas. Young steelhead rear 2-4 years before migrating out to sea as smolts. Growth and size appears to determine time of smoltification. Most outmigration occurs in April through June. Immature steelhead migrate out into the ocean to feed for several years. Tagging studies indicate that steelhead ocean migration is similar to salmon as @hey apparently circulate around the Gulf of Alaska before returning to their home stream to spawn. Steelhead may remain at sea 1-3 years. After their ocean stage, steelhead return to their home stream, exhibiting a very strong homing ability. Maximum age reported for steelhead has been eight years. 407 LIFE HISTORY CUTTHROAT TROUT Taxonomy The cutthroat trout, Salmo clarki, is a member of the family Salmonidae. Two forms of the trout are recognized, the coastal form (coastal cutthroat) and the interior form (Yellowstone trout), which are separated on basis of location and external appearance. The Alaska cutthroat are of the former variety. Distribution Cutthroat trout occur in fresh, brackish and saltwater areas of western North America, from northern Califronia to Alaska. In Alaska, cutthroat are found throughout southeast Alaska up into Prince William Sound. Spawning Sexual maturity is reached by males as early as two years of age and as late as 5-6 years for females. The average age of spawners is 2-4 years. Spawning usually occurs between February and May. Spawning takes place in small, gravelly streams, and the female digs one or more redds about a foot in diameter and 4-5 inches deep. The eggs are deposited in the redd, fertilized, and covered with 6-8 inches of gravel. Fecundity of the female ranges from 400 to 4,000 eggs (females 8 to 17 inches long) and the average is 1,500 eggs. Spawning occurs primarily at night. Cutthroat may spawn more than once, but mortality is usually high. After spawning, anadromous spawners will return to saltwater, but non-anadromous fish may remain in the tributary or else drop 408 down to a larger stream or lake. The eggs usually hatch in 6-7 weeks, with the alevins remaining in 'the gravel several additional weeks. Habitat and Migration Cutthroat may be anadromous or non-anadromous. Adult habitat may be coastal streams and lowland lakes, inland alpine lakes, or inshore coastal areas. In British Columbia, Hartman and Gill (1968) described cutthroat habitat in British Columbia in relationship to that of steelhead trout. Cutthroat predominated in small, short 2 2 drainages (less than 13 km In drainages less than 120 km , cutthroat were found in streams that contained sloughs in lower sections. In large streams where both steelhead and cutthroat occurred, cutthroat usually predominated in small tributaries and headwaters. Non-anadromous populations may remain.in their parent streams all their life, remaining in a territory as small as 20 yards (Miller, 1957). Others may rear several years in small tributaries before moving into larger streams or into a lake. Anadromous young fish rear in the spawning stream or connected lake two to four years before migrating to sea. Immature fish at sea may wander from stream to stream, feeding during the summer months; usually remaining fairly close to the stream of outmigration. Over- wintering at sea is uncommon and in the fall both mature and immature cutthroat return to freshwater to overwinter in lakes or streams with deep holding areas. The fish may or may not overwinter in the same system every year (Armstrong, 1971, Jones, 1974). Many cutthroat live only a few years and spawn only once. For others, spawning may be non-consecutive., Ten years is probably maximum life expectancy with 4-7 years being more common. 409 Critical Habitat Critical habitat for cutth'roat consists of spawning, rearing and overwintering areas. Sloughs, side channels, deep pools, and beaver pond areas constitute important rearing areas.. 410 LIFE HISTORY - DOLLY VARDEN TaxonoMy The Dolly Varden char (Salvelinu@i malma) belongs to the family Salmonidae. Distribution Dolly Varden occur in eastern Asia and in western North America from northern California to Alaska. In Alaska, Dolly Varden distribution extends from southeast Alaska westward to the Aleutian Islands and into Bristol Bay. Occurrence of Dolly Varden has been reported in the Yukon River drainage, on the Seward Peninsula, and as far north as the Noatak River,'but confusion exists as to whether these fish are Dolly V.1.rden or Arctic char. Spawning Most Dolly Varden mature at age five or six. Mature fish migrate into their parent streams beginning in July and spawn from September to November. The female digs a nest (redd) in relatively uniform substrate of small to coarse gravel. The redd measures 12-24 inches in diameter and 6-8 inches deep. Blackett (1968) reported water velocities of 3-4 feet per second (fps) over the redd during construction, with water temperatures between 42-44*F. Females, depending on size, .may deposit 600 to 6,000 eggs in the redd. The eggs are deposited in several pockets and each pocket is covered with gravel. The eggs take about four to five months to hatch after fertilization, usually hatching in March. The alevins *remain in the gravel until their yolk sacs are absorbed. Emergence usually occurs in April or May. 4 11 Habitat and Migration Dolly Vaxden may be either anadromous or non-anadromous. Most life history information available on Dolly Varden pertains to the sea-run variety. Little is known concerning the habits on non-migratory Dolly Varden. Young Dolly Varden rear in clear water streams from two to four years before their first migration to sea (anadromous form). The young fry keep to slow-moving waters, remaining hidden on the bottom in pools, undercut banks and sloughs. They continue to remain bottom dwellers during their rearing stage, although the larger juveniles move out into riffles and faster moving areas in the stream. Small feeder tributaries, side-channels and high water overflow areas also constitute important rearing habitat. Dur ing the fall, rearing fish apparently.seek out areas in the stream to overwinter. Stud ies on Dolly Varden rearing ecology by Elliott and other workers in southeast Alaska have noted an upstream migration of Dolly Varden into spring-fed areas in the fall (Elliott and Armstrong 1972, Elliott and Reed 1974, Dinneford and Elliott, 1975). The fish overwinter there until late spring when they again re-distribute themselves throughout the stream. The fall migration ceases when stream temperature drops below 4'C, and the spring migration begins when temperature increases above 4*C. Anadromous Dolly Varden migrate to sea primarily as three and four-year-old fish, though some fish from lake systems migrate as two-year-olds. At this time they are about five inches long and are called smolts. This migration usually begins in March, peaks in May and June, with significant but smaller numbers migrating to sea in September and.October. Once at sea, they begin a fascinating pattern of migration. 412 After their first seaward migration, Dolly Varden usually spend the rest of th eir life wintering in and migrating to and from lakes. Those hatched and reared in a iake system carry on annual feeding migrations to sea, in the spring and summer, returning to the lake each year for the winter. However, Dolly Varden originating from non-lake systems must se ek a lake in which to winter. Recent research indicates that they find lakes by random searching, migrating from one stream system to another until they find one with a lake (Armstrong, 1974). once a lake is found these fish may also conduct annual seaward migrations in the spring, sometimes entering other stream systems in their search for food. At maturity, Dolly Varden return to their parent stream to spawn. The fish possess the ability to find their "home" stream without randomly searching as was the case in their original search for a lake. Those that survive the rigors of spawning return to the lake shortly thereafter. It is doubtful that much more than 50% of the Dolly Varden live to spawn a second time. A small number of them live to spawn more than twice. Some fish apparently spawn non- consecutively (Armstrong, 1974). Few Dolly Varden appear to live longer than eight years. Critical Habitat Critical habitat for Dolly Varden consist of rearing, overwintering and spawning areas. Blackett (1968) and Armstrong (1974) have discussed the importance of critical habitats in relationship to successful management. Non-lake systems are of primary importance for spawning and rearing while anadromous lake systems and large rivers are important for overwintering.. For five to nine months 413 a year, each overwintering lake harbors fish from many streams over a wide area. Depletion of the;*se fish could severely reduce populations from many systems. Migrations between streams and lakes also complicates management. Heavy fishing on one system or one area may severely affect populations in other areas, when.these fish migrate into heavily fished areas. Spawners also remain in streams for much longer periods and would -be more susceptible to the fishery. Spawning sites are quite specific and need to be identified and protected during spawning and egg incubation periods. Fishery closures may be used to protect spawning fish on the spawning grounds and on their migration to overwintering areas (October and November). Rearing areas are often overlooked but are very critical. Side channels, undercut ban s, sloughs, isolated pools and small tributaries provide critical rearing habitat. Land uses which disrupt or destroy these areas must be avoided. Overwintering rearing areas such.as springs or open water areas are also critical. 414 LIFE HISTORY ARCTIC CHAR Taxonomy The Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus is a member.of the Salmonidae family. Distribution Arctic char are circumpolar in its distribtuion and are found in inshore marine waters, lakes and streams of the northern hemisphere. In Alaska, they are found north of the Brooks Range and extend southeast along the Bering Sea to include the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula. Anadromous populations extend up the Yukon River into the Anvik drainage. In the Kuskokwim.and Yukon systems scattered non- anadromous populations are found in lakes and c lear rivers. A few non- anadromous Arctic char populations are also found in Cook Inlet on the Kenai Peninsula. Spawning Arctic char mature between their fifth and twelfth years of age. Mature char begin their spawning migration in late July and spawn between late August and mid-November. Spawning takes place.over gravel beds in lakes, pools below rapids in rivers, and in spring areas. The redd is constructed in small gravel in depths from 0.2 to 4.5 meters (m). A redd measured by Yoshihare (1973) was 1.2 m wide, 3.5 m long with eggs deposited 10 centimeters (cm) deep. Water depth was 0.2 m and water velocity over the redd was 0.6'meters per second (mps). Spawning takes place during the day in water temperatures around VC. 415 Anadromous females usually contain between 3,000-5,000 eggs. The eggs are buried after deposition. The eggs remain in the gravel overwinter and hatch in April. The eggs are exposed to temperatures of 0.0*-2.2*C. They are killed by temperatures above 7.8*C. The alevins are thought to remain in the gravel until after ice break-up in June or July, before emerging. Habitat and @@raqLoij Arctic char may be either anadromous or non-anadromous. Little is known about the juvenile life stage of Arctic char. Anadromous char migrate to sea for the first time at two to seven years of age. Downstream migration occurs in June and early July. The fish usually remain near the estuary to feed, although tagged fish have been captured as far as 80 miles from its origin stream. Anadromous char return to streams in July thro ugh September. Arctic char do not spawn every year (non-consecutive spawners) but may wait one or more years before spawning again. Both non-spawning char and spawning char enter the rivers at the same time during the fall migration. spawners will later segregate out on the spawning grounds. The fish overwinter in lakes, deep river pools, or spring areas in streams. Growth is generally slo w. The oldest reported char was 24 years old. 416 LIFE HISTORY - LAKE TROUT Taxonomy Lake trout Salvelinus namaycush are not true trout (genus Salmo) but are classed as char (genus Salvelinus.). They are the largest of the chars and are also Alaska's largest freshwater fish. Distribution Lake trout are found only in North America and almost entirely within the limits of Pleistocene glaciation. In Alaska, they are found in the Brooks Range, but are not found in lowland lakes on the North Slope. In the Kobuk drainage, they are not found closer than 400 miles from the Bering Sea. Lake troutare also found in Bristol Bay, the upper Susitna, and the Copper River drainages. Spawning Lake trout generally mature in 5-7 years and spawn in late summer and early autumn. Most lake trout are lake spawners, but river-spawning populations also exist. Lake trout may be non-consecutive spawners. The male selects a spawning site over large boulders or rubble. substrate in shoal areas. Suitable lake sites are often associated with windy areas. Unlike most salmonids, no nest is dug but the site is cleaned of silt and mud by brushing and fanning motions. The eggs are fertilized and broadcast over the bottom to settle into crevices i n the rocks. Large females may contain up to 18,000 eggs. Depth of spawning ranges from six inches to 200 feet, but spawning typically occurs in 417 depths less than 40 feet. Optimum spawning temperature is about 48*- 50*F. Spawning almost always'occurs at night. The eggs remain in the rocks overwinter and hatch in the spring. Habitat Lake trout are entirely freshwater dwellers and prefer large, cold, deep lakes, although some are found in shallow lakes or in rivers associated with lakes. The young fish stay under cover until their yolk sacs are absorbed and remain on the bottom hiding from predators and feeding on plankton and bits of plant material. After growing to about six to eight inches, they leave the bottom and begin solitary wandering, which continues, except for spawning periods, throughout life. Lake trout are found near the surface.in the spring at the time of ice break-up. As the water warm-, up in summer, the fish move deeper to remain below the thermaline in the cold bottom waters, preferring temperatures between 40* and 50'F. In the autumn mature fish move into the shallows to prepare for spawning, returning to the same site in successive spawnings. After spawning, the fish disperse and wander throughout the system. Lake trout may be found at every level in the winter. Growth is generally slow. Lake trout are long-lived, with one fish reportedly attaining 40 years of life. 418 LIFE HISTORY -*EASTERN BROOK TROUT Taxonomy The eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) is a char in the family Salmonidae. Distribution Brook trout are native to the eastern part of North America from the mountain streams in Georgia north to Hudson Bay. They have been widely introduced around the world, however, including Alaska. Numerous introductions were made in southeast Alaska in the 1920's and 1930's, but viable populations have surv#ed only in a few lake and stream systems near Juneau, Ketchikan and Sitka. Spawning Sexual maturity is usually attained by age three, but some individuals may mature by age two. Brook trout are fall spawners, with Spawning occurring between September and December in Canada. Spawning time occurs earlier with increased latitude. Spawning occurs primarily in shallow headwaters of streams, but fish will spawn in lakes.in gravel areas with upwelling groundwater. The usual site is a riffle area with a substrate of small gravel. Spawning takes place in the daytime. Females, depending on size, deposit from 100 to 5,000 eggs. The eggs are covered within the redd. Egg incubation depends on temperature. At 41OF eggs hatch in 100 days, at 50*F in 50 days. Young fry remain in the gravel until the yolk sac is absorbed. 419 Habitat Brook trout are found in tool, clear, well-oxygenated lakes and streams. Anadromous populations may occur, but none are known in Alaska. Brook trout tend to mature early and can quickly over-populate a stream or small lake. Stunting of individuals is quite prevalent under these conditions. The brook trout is relatively short-lived, rarely living beyond five years and never beyond eight years. Ix 420 LIFE HISTORY - WHITEFISH Taxonomy Whitefish wi 11 be dealt wi th as a group because of their overlapping ranges and biolo gy. Whitefish belong to the subfamily Coregoninae of the family Salmonidae. Three genera with eight species are known in Alaska. The genera Stenodus is represented by the sheefish S..leucichthys, which is covered in another section. Genus Prosopium is represented by two species: P. cylindraceum (round whitefish) and P. coultari (pygmy whitefish). Genus Corogonus is represented by the following: C. clup6aformis (humpback whitefish), C. nasus (broad whitefish), C. sardinella (least Cisco), C. autumnalis,(Arctic Cisco) and.C. laurettae (Bering Cisco). Distribution Whitefish are widespread in the cooler parts of the northern hemisphere. In Alaska, ranges and characteristics of these fish sometimes overlap. They are found in the large rivers in southeast Alaska which drain interior British Comumbia, in the Copper and Susitna River drainages and are widely distributed from Bristol Bay to the Arctic Ocean. They are also abundant in interior streams and lakes. The humpback whitefish is most widely distributed in Alaska, but broad and round whitefish are very common in the interior. Ciscos are very abundant along the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean coast drainages. 421 Spawning Whitefish are generally fall spawners in Alaska. Spawning migrations begin as early as mid-July and run as late as December. Spawning areas vary with the habitat of the population, but in general whitefish prefer the shallows of small rivers, tributaries, or river mouths, but may also use the shallows or shoals of lakes. Spawning takes place over sand, gravel or hard substrates. Stream temperatures during spawning vary from 42* to 32*F, and some fall spawning populations may spawn under ice. No nest or redd is built, so the eggs are dispersed more or less randomly to drift with the current. After spawning, the adults leave the spawning grounds for feeding or wintering grounds. The eggs incubate during the fall and winter and hatch in March and April. By Jung the fry are dispersed to pools to rear. Habitat Further discussion of distribution, habits and habitat will be discussed separately by species. Round Whitefish Round whitefish primarily dwell in streams and-lakes and are not found in estuaries. In rivers they may be found throughout the river but they seem to prefer swift currents in the clear headwater regions. They are most abundant in gravel-bottom streams throughout the interior and arctic regions, but are found down to the Taku River drainage in southeast Alaska. 422 Pygmy Whitefish Pygmy whitefish have been.reported in the clear rivers and lakes of Bristol Bay and the Alaska Peninsula. Their growth is slow and maximum size is seldom more than 7-9 inches. Little is known of their biology. Broad Whitefish Broad whitefish are widely distributed in Arctic Alaska, western Alaska, and in the Yukon and Kuskokwim drainages. They are not found in the Copper River or Susitna River drainages. They may be found in estuaries, rivers, and lakes, but are most common in large rivers. They are not found above rapids in the tributaries of large rivers, but prefer slower moving waters. They may have mid-winter downstream migrations, and they overwinter in main river-channels and in large lakes. Humpback Whitefish Humpback whitefish (lake whitefish) are the most widely distributed whitefish in Alaska, ranging from the arctic coast down to the Alsek River near Yakutat. This includes the entire Yukon-Kuskokwim drainages, Bristol Bay, Susitna River and Copper River drainages. They are found in rivers, lakes, and brackish areas and have both anadromous and non-- anadromous forms. Like the broad whitefish, they do not venture up past rapids into headwater streams. In lakes, the fish move into deep, cool waters in the summer,but come back into the shallows in the fall to spawn. 423 Arctic Cisco In Alaska, arctic cisco occur in the coastal areas from Demarcation Point through-the Beaufort, Chuckchi and Bering Seas to the Bristol Bay, area. Arctic cisco are anadromous and reside primarily in nearshore areas or estuaries. They leave this area in the spring and summer, ascend coastal rivers to spawn, and then return to the sea again. They seldom are found very far inland from their home estuary. They overwinter in estuary or delta areas. Least Cisco Least cisco have the same general distribution as arctic cisco but are found throughout interior Alaska also. Both anadromous and non- anadromous populations are found. The anadromous populations behave similarly to arctic ci"Sco. Bering Cisco Bering cisco are known to occur only in Alaska, from Cook Inlet north to the mouth of the Colville River. Very little is known about their biology but they are coastal and are probably anadromous. 424 LIFE HISTORY SHEEFISH Taxonony The sheefish, Stenodus leucichthys, is the only member of the genus -Stenodus in the whitefish family, Corigonidae. Distribution Sheefish occur in northwestern North America and thearctic drainages of northern Asia to the White Sea. Sheefish in Alaska have been separated into five major populations: Minto Flats, upper Yukon, the lower Yukon, Kuskokwim and Selawik-Kobuk groups. Life history information differs greatly among these different groups. Spawning Sheefish age at first spawning varies with population, but males mature at ages 5-8 and females at ages 7-11. Spawning occurs in late September and early October in water temperatures near 40*F (Alt, 1971). Suitable spawning sites are critical and apparently must meet stringent criteria. Water depth is four to eight feet deep, current is fast, and the bottom is composed of differentially-sized. gravel. Few spawning grounds are available and entire populations may use one spawning area. Sheefish do not build a redd but broadcast eggs over the bottom. A 12-pound female may contain 100,000 eggs while a 50-pound female may have up to 400,000 eggs. The slightly adhesive, fertilized eggs fall to the stream bottom and lodge in the gravel. Spawning occurs at dusk and at night. Development of the eggs is slow, taking up to six months. 425 Habitat Sheefish primarily reside.'in the mainstem and estuarine areas of the large rivers mentioned above. After hatching, the fry drift downstream to begin feeding in the extensive delta areas of the large rivers. Young fish feed throughout the summer and fall months. The Minto Flats and upper Yukon populations overwinter in the mainstem Yukon in the central Yukon area while the Kuskokwim, lower Yukon and Kobuk-Selawik populations overwinter in the respective estuarine delta areas of these rivers. After ice break-up, the sheefish begin moving upstream, feeding in the main rivers and tributaries. The feeders generally do not venture far awar from the main rizers. The migrations continue upstream through the summer months, but feeding slacks off and ends as the mature fish reach the spawaing grounds. Sheefish may travel as far as a thousand miles to spawn. The post-spawning migrattion is rapid and the spent fish begin to feed as they reach their overwintering areas. Sheefish appear capable of consecutive spawning, but Russian scientists believe that spawning everly two or three years is the rule. Sheefish on the Selawik-Kobuk area may live up to 21 years of age. 426 LIFE HISTORY - ARCTIC GRAYLING Taxonomy The arctic grayling, Thymallus arcticus, is a member of the subfamily Thymallinae of the Salmonidae family. Arctic grayling are commonly called grayling. Distribution Arctic grayling distribution is circumpolar in North America and Asia. In Alaska they are found north of the Chugach Mountains to the Arctic Ocean and west to Port Moller on the Alaska Peninsula. Grayling have been introduced to lakes in southeast Alaska and Kodiak Island. In general, these introductions have produced good sport fishing. Spawning Grayling occasionally become sexually mature at four years of age, but all-are mature by their sixth year. Grayl ing spawn about ice breakup time on small streams, usually between April and June in Alaska. As the ice goes out in the small streams, adults migrate from ice-covered lakes and from larger rivers to small gravel or rock-bottom tributaries. Where no suitable small streams are available, spawning takes place in gravelly to rocky parts of the main rivers. Grayling may travel over 100 miles to reach their spawning grounds and will home to a particular stream (Reed, 1969). On the spawning ground, the male establishes a territory in a riffle, usually 6-8 feet wide and 8-10 feet long. No redd is dug, but small depressions sometimes result from spawning activity. The eggs are fertilized and extruded over the gravel, where they settle 427 and adhere. The female carries an average of 4.'000-7,000 eggs. Grayling seem to prefer clear,'moderately-flowing waters about 15 inches deep with temperature between 40-43*F for spawning. The eggs hatch in 8-25 days depending on stream temperatures. After spawning, the adults may migrate out to feed in another stream. Habitat and Migration Grayling are found in clear, cold waters of large rivers, rocky creeks, and lakes. Downstream migration of mature fish to the tributary mouth begins in mid-June and coincides with the upstream movement of immature grayling to rearing areas in the tributary. These fish will migrate upstream into headwater areas until early September, when they then drift downstream out of the small tributaries into the main river or lake. All age classes overwinter in larger rivers and lakes. 428 LIFE HISTORY SMELT Taxonomy Five species of smelt are significant in Alaska: Mallotus villosus (capelin), Hypomesus olidus (pond smelt), Spirinchus thaleichthys (longfin smelt), Osmerus eperlanus (boreal smelt) and Thaleichthys pacificus (eulachon). Eulachon or "hooligan" are the most often used as a sport species and are taken with hand-held and fine mesh gill nets. Distribution Smelt are found on the west coast of NorthAmerica from San Francisco Bay, California to the Bering Sea. Eulachon are commonly taken in southeastern Alaska around Haines, in the Chilkat River, upper and lower Cook Inlet, and the estuary areas of Bristol Bay. Spawning Eulachon reach sexual maturity at 2-3 years of age. They spawn in the spring (May-June), and a few survive spawning and may return to spawn in a subsequent year. The anadromous run usually spawns in the lower few miles of coastal rivers. The female produces about 25,000 eggs which are shed over sand or gravel. The larvae hatch in two-three weeks and are carried out to sea shortly after emergence. 429 Habitat and Migration After entering the sea, eulachon spend the majority of their life in the inshore marine waters. They form part of the food of salmon and seals, and during spawning runs may be taken in great quantities by sturgeon. In fresh water they are taken in large numbers for human and animal consumption. Arctic records of pond smelt are all from fresh water but littoral spawners exist further south. They are abundant in some of the large Alaskan salmon lakes. Boreal smelt exist in both the anadromous and landlocked form in Alaska. The longfin smelt is anadromous, with runs from October through December. It is recorded only from the Bristol Bay region. The capelin is a beach spawner and is neither anadromous or resident. Spawning occurs in the late fall and early winter. 430 LIFE HISTORY NORTHERN PIKE TaxonoMy The northern pike, Esox lucius, is a member of the family Esocidae, and is often refereed to as pike or jackfish. Distribution Northern pike are circumpolar in distribution in the freshwaters of Eurasia and America. In Alaska, the pike ranges from the Alaska Peninsula streams that feed into Bristol Bay northward to the Arctic Coast and throughout the interior. An isolated population is found in the Ahrlin River, southeast of Yakutat, as well as in ponds in that area. Spawning Pike in southern Canada have been known to mature as early as age two. Maturity is delayed to age five and six in areas further north. Pike spawn in the spring, sometimes before ice breakup. They migrate under the ice from their wintering areas into shallow bays and sloughs along rivers or in lakes or ponds. They prefer quiet, shallow areas with mud bottoms and dense aquatic vegetation. Depth of spawning ranges from three inches to two feet. No spawning territory is established nor is a nest built. Pike spawn by swimming through the vegetation and randomly dispersing eggs. The eggs are very adhesive and cling to the vegetation. The number of eggs deposited is high (average of 32,000 per female), but egg to fry survival is usually less than 1%. After spawning, the adults disperse to summer feeding areas. 431 Hatching takes place in 10-12 days at 50*F. The eggs can develop in temperatures from 35* to 739F. Habitat Pike generally prefer clear or brown-stained slow, vegetated rivers or warm, weedy bays of lakes. The young remain in the spawning area for several weeks after hatching. They then move out to establish territories where adequate food and cover exists. In general, pike are found in shallow water in spring and fall, but move into deeper water in summer. Their winter movements are largely unknown. Many of the summer areas dry up, freeze to the bottom, or become oxygen depleted. Pike are assumed to move into the large river systems and lakes to overwinter. Extensive movements have been suspected but not documented for some populations.- Generally, movement from overwintering areas to' spawning areas is quite short. Pike are known as voracious feeders, but ae slow-growing in northern-areas. Some fish have been reported to be up to 26 years old. 432 LIFE HISTORY - BURBOT Taxonomy The burbot Lota lota, is the only member of the family Gadidae (cods) to live in freshwater. The burbot is also known as freshwater ling, lawyer and lush. Distribution Burbot occur in Siberia, northern Europe and northern North America from the Great Lakes basin and the northern Rocky Mountains to Alaska. In Alaska, they oc@cur in the Copper River drainage north and west to the Arctic Ocean and the Bering Sea. Spawning Burbot mature in four to seven years of age. In Alaska, spawning occurs under the ice from February through April. Burbot are primarily lake spawners, though some do move into riversto spawn. The spawning site is usually in one to four feet of water on a sand or gravel bottom or in gravel shoals five to ten feet deep in quiet waters. No nest is made so the spawning fish broadcast eggs over the bottom. Spawning occurs at night. Number of eggs vary greatly depending on size of the female. A 343 millimeter (mm) female may have about 45,000 eggs while a 643 mm fish may have 1,362,000 eggs. The eggs remain on the bottom until they hatch, usually after about 30 days. Habitat Burbot generally prefer the cook deep waters of lakes and have been found to depths of 700 feet. In Alaska, they are common in many streams and in lakes of all sizes. 433 Little is known about the early life history of burbot. Burbot tend to move into shallow water in the summer to feed. Adults and young are often found in river channels, weedy areas of tributary streams and rocky lake shores. After spring spawning, burbot may move into tributary rivers. All movement seems to cease in July after the large fish head for deep water.. In the winter burbot are mainly found in shallow areas under 20 feet deep. After a four year spurt of early growth, burbot grow slowly. Fish over 16 years of age have been recoded in Alaska. 434 NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CTR LIBRARY 1 3 6668 14110866 4