Mariculture assessment of Apalachicola Bay, Florida a report to the Office of Coastal Zone Management, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

A Mariculture Assessment of
Apalachicola Bay, Florida

COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER

Michael Ednoff December 1984

A REPORT TO THE OFFICE OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT,
FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION

Funding for this project was provided by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration through the Office of Coastal
Management, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, under
--the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended.

SH
138
E36
1984

Acknowledgements

Much of the foundation of this report was based on the first

hand knowledge of people residing in and around Apalachicola. I

would like to thank all the oystermen, shrimpers, dealers and

other residents who gave me some of their time and answered my

questions. Thanks goes to Woody Miley and the Sanctuary staff for

introducing me to many of the industry folks and providing field

assistance. To Kathleen Brady for her biological expertise,

feedback and moral support. Thanks to Genie Nable for her editing

and laughter. A big thanks goes to Steve Leitman for providing

the opportunity, encouragement, critical review and ice cream.

This report could not have been completed without the assistance

of Patti Mullinax, BJ Morton, Mary England and Suzie Parks who

squeezed my typing into their normal workload. Finally, a very

special thanks to Bob Ingle for allowing me to pick away at

thirty-five plus years of knowledge and experience, who

continually questioned and criticized my ideas, and who became a

valuable friend during these critical times.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements ii

List of Tables v

List of Figures v

I. Executive Summary 1

II. Introduction
A. Overview of the Study Area 9
B. Scope of the Project 12

III. Mariculture Opportunities
A. Definition 14
B. Potential for Mariculture Development 14
C. Problems Constraining Mariculture Development 18

IV. Mariculture Systems
A. Ponds 19
B. Cages and Net Pens 24
C. Stock Enhancement as a Mariculture Tool 28

V. Selection of a Mariculture Species 36

Vi. Species Assessments 45
A. Sciaenids 45
1. Red Drum 45
2. Black Drum 48
B. Snappers & Groupers 49
C. Spotted Sea Trout 55
D. Pompano 56
E. American Eel 60
F. Hybrid or Sunshine Bass 65
G. Sturgeon 71
H. Penaeid Shrimp 82
I. Baitfish Culture 101
J. Other Species 104
K. Species Assessment Summary 108

VII. Oyster Species Plan Assessment 110
A. Industry Status 110
B. Biology 113
C. Government Effort & Service 115
D. Artificial Reef Construction 116
1. Methods of Construction 116
2. Relay Program 123
E. Marine Patrol 124
F. Development Potential 128

G. Basic Oyster Culture Systems 130
1. Hatchery Technology & Spat Collection 131
2. Bottom Culture 135
3. Off Bottom Culture 139
a. Rack Culture 139
b. Raft Culture 140
c. Long Line Culture 141
d. Tray Culture 142.
H. Intensive Systems 144
I. Oyster Harvesting 145
J. Marketing Needs 147
K. Oyster Research Needs 148
L. Open vs. Closed Seasons 151
M. Leasing
1. The Case Against LeELSing 154
2. The Case for Leasing 156
3. Individual Oyster Lease Approach 161
4. Cooperative Oyster Lease Approach 171
N. Summary and Recommendations 182
1. Artificial Reef Construction 183
2. Productivity of Bay 183
3. Communication & Cooperation 184
4. Education 184
5. Production 185
6. Harvesting 185
7. Technical Assistance 186
8. Economic 186
9. Marketing 186
10. Health 186
11. Government 187

VIII. Siting 188

IX. The Regulatory Process 200
A. Coastal Zone Management 203
B. Environmental Regulations 206
C. Bottom Leases 210
D. Water Column Leases 212
E. Shellfish Sanitation 216
F. Conclusions and Recommendations 218

X. Aquatic User Groups and Mariculture 220

XI. Marketing, Economics & Financing of Aquaculture
Projects 225

References 234

Appendix A - Oyster Calculations
Appendix B - Manual of Operations
Appendix C - Aquaculture Leases

TABLES

Page

Table 1 - Aquaculture Candidate Species Selection
Criteria 42
2 - Penaeid Shrimp Culture Production Costs 99
3 - Penaeid Shrimp Culture Production Costs 100
4 - 10 Acre Oyster Lease Annual Operating Budget 164
5 - Lease Development Budget 165
6 - Aquaculture Business Plan Outline 227

FIGURES

Page

Figure 1 - Study Area 10
2 - Ingle Plan 89
3 - Artificial Oyster Reefs in Apalachicola Bay 117
4 - Reef Configurations 121
5 - Development of a Fisheries Association Plan 176
6 - Potential Pond Sites 192
7 - Potential Off Bottom Oyster Sites 194
8 - Potential Cage/Net Pen Culture Sites 199-
9 - Potential DMCA Culture Sites 217
10- Aquaculture Leases 233

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Mariculture is marine or salt water aquaculture. Florida

law defines aquaculture as the cultivation of animals and plant

life in a water environment. Aquaculture may be undertaken to

produce food for human consumption, bait and stockers for

recreational fishing, oirnamentals for the aquarium hobbiest,

juveniles for enhancing natural fisheries, and raw materials for

energy and biochemicals.

Natural fisheries stocks are finite and are rapidly nearing

their maximum sustainable yields. Demand for seafood is

increasing and approximately 50% of the seafood Americans eat is

imported, creating an annual trade deficit exceeding two billion

dollars. Development of a mariculture industry could supplement

and ease the pressure on existing fisheries, to help meet the

growing demand, by producing quality products available year

round and consistent in texture, flavor and size. Mariculture

could provide juveniles to enhance both commercial and

recreational fisheries and create new economic opportunities

compatible with existing coastal uses and lifestyles.

Apalachicola Bay is an important and pristine estuary which

has received a considerable amount of protection by law. The

economic base of Franklin County has always been dependent on the

productivity of the river and bay, and the commercial and

recreational fisheries it produces which in turn are reflected in

the traditions and lifestyles of the people residing in the

county. However, the fisheries resource, especially oysters, have

been experiencing increased pressure resulting in a declining

fishery over the past few years. The decline has been due to a

combination of factors including overfishing, inadequate

enforcement of laws, social conflict and policies of multiple

users, environmental stresses from sewage, non-point sources,

urban development, upstream users, and man-made bay alterations,

and natural mortality. The net results; are an unstable economy

and a poorly managed resource. The solution is to improve

resource management through a cooperative effort combining

biological information, economic analysis, education and

sociological change. Mariculture could be one component of the

solution, applied as a management technique, to enhance the long-

term productivity of the fisheries resource.

Many criteria need to be considered and thoroughly evaluated

prior to selecting an aquaculture species and entering an

aquaculture enterprise. Suitable sites, appropriate culture

system, culture techniques, and cost of production must be

studied and feasibility assessed. A business plan must be

developed detailing required capital, identifying markets and

competitors, and assessing risks which will impact the venture's

potential of earning a profit.

Mariculture systems suitable for Franklin County include:

Upland ponds sited along the north shore of St. Vincent Sound;

cage and net-pen culture in semi-sIleltered areas of the bay; off

bottom shellfish culture; and stock enhancement techniques such

as,the construction of artificial oyster reefs and hatchery

reared juveniles for release into recreational and commercial

fisheries. Low winter temperatures will limit the culture of

some species in the bay, while rapidly fluctuating salinities will

limit others. Overall, Apalachicola Bay has tremendous

mariculture potential. The oyster is the species with the

greatest and most immediate potential and a full assessment of

oyster problems, possible solutions, culture systems, and

management techniques are provided in this report. Bait shrimp,

bait fish, food shrimp, hybrid bass, redfish and sturgeon are

recommended as having significant mariculture potential. Eels,

grouper and pompano may also hold some future promise. Small

scale demonstrations and economic evaluations are needed for each

of these species prior to large scale commercial development. The

research and education program of the Estuarine Sanctuary is

recommended as the vehicle to evaluate these species as well as

off bottom oyster culture systems.

Constraints to mariculture development are primarily social

and administrative rather than biotechnical. Local sentiments

are very traditional and in the past have greatly resisted any

change or innovation. Government has a poor understanding of

mariculture and has generally lumped this new emerging technology

into regulatory categories intended for commercial or recreational

fishing. A complete review of all pertinent laws should be

carefully undertaken to resolve problems due to cross referencing,

jurisdictional overlap and the use of ambiguous terminology in

order to clearly define aquaculture in regulations, reduce

uncertainty, and clarify authority. Mariculture is coastal

dependent requiring good quality water and access to marine

sites. Mariculture should be designated as an appropriate and

priority use of the coastal zone in coastal management programs.

Franklin County should define mariculture as agriculture for the

purpose of zoning codes and encourage its development by

requesting modification of the leasing procedures for the water

column and bay bottoms.

Apalachicola Bay is a multi-u:se system where many of the

uses have a tendency to come into conflict with one another.

Fisheries user groups often compete with one another on obtaining

priority fishing rights. Crabbers, bay shrimpers, oystermen, and

finfish seiners have often engaged in conflict over the use of the

resource. Competition between commercial and recreational

fishermen is growing and will intensify as the resource continues

a downward trend. The economic importance of recreational

fishing dwarfs commercial fishing statewide and its growth in

Apalachicola Bay should be seriously considered in conflict

resolution. Property owners and the aesthetics they demand and

commercial navigation are other users who must also have space

allocated in long range planning solutions.

The oyster population in Apalachicola Bay is very fecund

with few pests and diseases. The present problem is overfishing

as the resource is in danger of bej@ng picked clean. The number

of oystermen has more than doubled in the past ten years resulting

in more people spending more time looking for the same amount of

oysters. The intense competition among oystermen adds to resource

depletion as conservation practices are ignored and just about

anything is tonged off a bar and sold. The problem came to a head

in the spring of 1984 when the bay was closed for nearly a month

and the local economy experienced difficulties.

The biological solution is to cultivate more oysters and

manage the resource wisely. The majority of oysters shucked in

Apalachicola are trucked in from Texas and Louisiana where they

are primarily grown on leased beds. Apalachicola Bay is

presently producing about 5 million pounds of shucked oyster

meats each year. Proper cultivation techniques employed in-the

bay could raise production to well over 150 million lbs of

shucked oyster meats per year. Oyster production seems primarily

limited by the aspirations of industry members and natural

mortalities.

The construction of thousands of acres of artificial oyster

reefs over a period of time will enhance the entire fisheries

resources of the estuary, if developed and managed properly.

Reef construction methodology needs refinement over current

practices to develop the most economical reef with the best long-

term production. A properly constructed oyster reef will

continue to produce over decades for a one-time investment.

Proper management of the reef may include only harvesting the

large oysters, culling, relaying and seeding with coon oysters,

and maintenance cultching with clean bleached shell. A research

program demonstrating new and existing reef construction methods

and monitoring environmental factors correlated with community

settlement, succession, and climax, could be a long-term

objective of the Estuarine Sanctuary.

Reopening the bay to leases should be given serious

consideration. Oyster leases have provided many benefits in

s and these programs should be
states which have lease program.

assessed and their feasibility for applicability in Apalachicola

Bay determined. Water column leases would allow added benefits

of off bottom oyster culture and diversification into the culture

of additional organisms. Leases could relieve pressure on the

public bars, supplement, extend and create new markets which

could be serviced year around, produce a higher quality product,

increase yield per unit of production acreage, and provide year.

around employment.

Government assistance would be necessary in initially

planning, implementing, and managing a lease program. Individual

or family leases could be developed on ten-acre.tracts for a

minimum $65,000 investment broken down into a fixed and variable

operating cost budget approximating $15,000 per year, but having

the potential of returning $30-60,000 per year under good

management conditions. Low cost government loans with deferred

interest could assist in implementing such a program. The state

should additionally provide a full-time oyster expert to reside

in Franklin County and act as an extension agent to assist in
lease and reef'development, provide production and harvesting

information, and act as an advocate for the oyster industry with

government.

Any lease program in Apalachicola Bay would have to be

equitable in design to insure the preservation of the independent

oystermen, protect new and existing public bars, and prevent

monopolies. A coalition, coordinated through the Estuarine

Sanctuary, of Seafood workers Association members, each

representing a different segment of their industry (i.e., Oyster

Dealers Association members, commercial fishermen, recreational

fishermen, other county residents, the Marine Patrol, and

government agencies) should be organized to eliminate illegal

activities presently harming the resource and develop a long-term

comprehensive plan to manage and enhance the resource. Leadership

and cooperation by industry members in developing and managing

their resource is the key to the success of any program considered

for Franklin County. State agency persons would become a resource

to work under the direction of this citizen group.

The formation of a cooperative would give local industry

m
embers a strong voice in the development and protection of their

resource. The cooperative could literally develop thousands of

acres of naked bay bottom into productive, well-managed reefs, to

guarantee members a share of the resource. Additional facilities

for processing, depurating, fattening, live storage, and the

development of improved strains or new organisms for culture,

including a multi-species hatchery, could be implemented by the

co-op over time to diversify and expand the seafood based economy

of the area.

Mariculture requires a reliable source of good quali ty water

which parallels one of the desired. environmental goals for the

entire Apalachicola River and Bay system. In fact, mariculture

cannot develop to any great extent unless the long-term integrity

of the system is insured. Point and non-point sources, as well as

upstream sources, must be abated and the basin maintained as much

as practical in its natural state. A good deal of the land in and

around the bay and along the river floodplain is already in public

ownership. The remainder should be protected and the system

permanently set aside as a nursery and aquatic food producing area

of vital importance to the public interest.

As Florida's population grows, more and more pressure will

be exerted on our marine resources for food and recreation.

Recognizing this reality, we should forever set aside the

Apalachicola River and Bay system for use as a nursery for marine

organisms and develop its aquatic resources, through artificial

techniques, to satisfy our long-term seafood and recreation

needs.

II. INTRODUCTION

A. Overview of the Study Area

Apalachicola Bay is considered to be one of the most

important estuarine systems in the state. Much of the system

remains largely undeveloped in a pristine state enhancing the

high productivity of the estuary. The bay is a wide, shallow

estuary located behind a line of barrier islands and is

approximately 36 miles long, from 1-14 miles in width with an

average depth of 5 feet for a total area close to 180 square

miles. The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) River system

drains portions of Alabama, Georgia and Florida into the bay.

The Apalachicola is the largest river in Florida in terms of flow

and is the primary force driving the complex estuarine system. .

Excellent backgrounds of the river and bay system can be found in

Livingston (1983), Florida Department of Environmental Regulation

(1984), and Brady, Leitman and Edmisten (1984). Although the

estuary is divided into six sections based on natural bathymetry

and man-made alterations, this study only encompasses three

sections: East Bay, St. Vincent Sound, and Apalachicola Bay

(Figure 1). All of this area is included in the Apalachicola

National Estuarine Sanctuary (ANES) which both recognizes and

protects the excellent water quality found in the system.

Numerous technical studies of the bay system have been

undertaken over the years with many of the results applied to

various planning and management efforts. The economic base of the

bay has always been dependent on the productivity of the river and

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bay, and the recreational and commercial fisheries it produces.

Many planning efforts have focused attention on fisheries and the

protection of the natural resource base which supports those

fisheries. However, protecting habitat and the integrity of the

system alone will not guarantee long-term survival of the

fisheries resource. New approaches to managing and protecting

these resources are needed in what now has become a multiple-use

area where many of the uses are in competition. Mariculture may

be one such management techniq ue to enhance long-term fishery

productivity and one such compatible use component of a well

managed resource in this coastal zone.

The bay, in addition to recreational fisheries, supports

major commercial fisheries for oysters, shrimp, crabs and

finfish. The problems in the bay's fisheries are evident

from the declining production trends. More than half the local

residents make a living from fishing and the seafood industry

contributes over $15 million a year to the local economy. Since

the turn of the century, oyster acreage in the bay has declined

from 12,000 to 6,000 acres due to habitat loss. Overfishing

and poor management are seriously threatening the future of the

oyster fishery. Shrimp have been the most valuable fishery to

the area and the importance of the estuary as a nursery grounds

is reflected in total shrimp landings'(Table 1) both in and

outside of the bay. However, a major characteristic of

any aquatic species is widely fluctuating abundance and

inconsistant supply whic h may depress commercial value in any

given year. A commercial fishery may, therefore, collapse or

seriously decline at any time due to fishing pressure, pollution,

development, or natural biological processes. The importance of

fisheries is reflected in the traditions and lifestyles of the

people residing in the county. But this economy is in need of

new endeavors which complement the traditional way of life while

not adversely impacting the integrity of the resource. The

development of mariculture offers new opportunities in local

.economic development and is compatible with the economy and

lifestyle of the entire county. In addition, mariculture used as

a tool, fits the goals and objectives of the Estuarine Sanctuary

in guiding compatible development while maintaining the natural-

resources.

B. Scope of the Project JI

This project assesses the mariculture potential of

Apalachicola Bay and attempts to relate that potential as a

management tool to assist in solving fisheries problems faced by

the system. This report describes mariculture techniques

suitable to the bay, examines the mariculture potential of a

number of candidate species, and selects one species for detailed

discussion and development. Regulatory problems, conflicts

between user groups, and economic considerations regarding

mariculture are discussed. The report may be used to develop an

R&D or demonstration project on a potential mariculture

- 12

candidate, as an information source for writing,a business plan

for development of a commercial mariculture venture, or as a tool

to be used by government agencies to implement mariculture into

the planning and regulatory mechanisms.

III. MARICULTURE OPPORTUNITIES

A. Definition

Aquaculture is defined as the controlled cultivation and

harvest of aquatic plants and animals (National Aquaculture

Development Plan, NADP, 1983). Florida law defines aquaculture

as the cultivation of animals and plant life in a water

environment (Chap. 253.67(l) F.S.). Both definitions imply the

organism(s) are grown in an aquatic medium, the natural habitat

of the organism(s) is water, and some part or all of the life

cycle or culture period is influenced or manipulated by man. The

degree to which the life cycle and environmental needs of an

organism are controlled by the culturist may range from simply

relaying coon oysters for growout on a lease site to artifically

maintaining a fish from egg to harvest size in a tank.

Aquaculture may be undertaken to produce food for human

consumption, bait and stockers for recreational fishing,

ornamentals for the aquarium hobbiest, juveniles for enhancing

natural fisheries, and raw materials for energy and biochemicals.

Mariculture refers to aquaculture carried out in a marine or

saltwater environment. Aquaculture is the more encompassing term.

Both mariculture and aquaculture will be used interchangeably in

this report.

B. Potential for Mariculture Development

The potential for aquaculture development in Florida is

tremendous. Aquaculture can provide new opportunities in the

14 -

areas of economic growth, employment and agriculture. Presently

half the seafood Americans consume! is imported., The trade

deficit in fish and fisheries products has increased 100% since

1976 and is currently valued at over $2 billion each year. This

represents 10% of the annual trade deficit and is second only to

petroleum. Wild stocks of aquatic organisms are finite and can

no longer supply man with all the food he demands from our fresh

and salt water resources. These resources are already stressed

and are predicted to reach their maximum sustainable yield by the

year 2000. While production of the world's fisheries has

remained roughly the same, demand for these products has

continued to increase. Aquaculture can fill some of this gap and

continue to expand while fisheries near their biological limits-.

Thus, while aquaculture cannot replace the traditional capture

fisheries, it can act to supplement and expand fisheries supply.

Production of food through aquaculture could increase the

yields of fish and shellfish, help meet the demand for fresh

seafoods, produce a high quality product consistant in fl avor,

texture and size, stabilize the supply of certain species to

supply a year round market, help to stabilize commercial prices,

and bring new revenues to the State. For example, cultured

oysters typically have a more regularly shaped shel 1, making them

easier to shuck, bring a higher price, and are available year-

round. Due to the higher land and labor costs found in Florida,

species selected for culture will most likely be those with a high

market value. A good fish meal at a Florida restaurant is a high

- 15

priority among tourists, as is the opportunity to do some

recreational fishing. As the population in Florida continues to

grow, more pressure will be placed on the environment to produce

food and provide recreation. Aquaculture can help ease this

pressure by supplementing commercial fisheries and providing

juveniles for enhancing both recreational and commercial

fisheries. Aquaculture is compatible with environmental goals as

both require clean water. Beside food, aquaculture to produce

marine biochemicals from plants, animals and microorganisms as

sources of medically, agriculturally' and industrially useful

chemicals is an untapped resource (Attaway, 1983). Development of

an aquaculture industry will also have a favorable economic impact

in the areas of construction, equipment, feeds, processing,

shipping, training and research.

The mariculture potential for Franklin County is excellent.

The Apalachicola Bay system receives the maximum amount of

protection currently allowed by law. This system is a Class II

water, an Outstanding Florida Water (OFW) along with the

Apalachicola River, an Aquatic Preserve, and a National Estuarine

Sanctuary. These recognitions act to protect the high water

quality of the bay system and the fisheries it supports.

Mariculture can offer new economic and employment opportunities

for this coastal community by diversifying the fisheries based

economy. Mariculture is compatible with the existing lifestyles

and the community has expressed strong interest in maintaining

the fisheries related economic base. Mariculture ventures will

require similar skills already possessed by area residents.

These ventures will require labor, and support businesses such as

suppliers of equipment or feed and processing and marketing of

cultured products. Labor, processing and market channels are

already available in the community. Oysters have the most

immediate mariculture potential. Increased production of oysters

could employ more oystermen, increase the harvest per person, and

supply more product to an already strong market. Prochaska and

Mulkey (in Andree, 1983) have shown that Franklin County oysters

are primarily exported triggering a chain reaction throughout the

local economy. Oysters account for nearly one half the total

economic multiplier impact in the -county. Producing bait and

stockers for the recreational industry also has good short and

long-term potential. Recreational fisheries will continue to grow

in terms of both gross dollar value and political decisions

concerning fisheries. Stock enhancement of the natural fishery

has long-term potential to help commercial fishermen. Finally,

mariculture can ease developmental pressure around the bay and

make more efficient use of the areas resources with minimal impact

on the environment. This last point is very important in

considering the large economic impact and resultant degradation of

the bay from extensive development of St. George Island.

Mariculture can contribute towards counteracting the developmental

economic argument by demonstrating the abundance of dollars which

may be produced in the bay.

C. Problems Constraining Mariculture Development

Florida has abundant water resources, a favorable climate, a

long coastline, a number of resource persons with technical

expertise, and existing markets to encourage the development

of mariculture. However, Florida, like many other states, has

numerous constraints on the development of an aquaculture

industry. These general constraints are summarized as follows:

(1) Government: mostly political and administrative;

legal and regulatory; jurisdictional overlap and

inadequate coordination; poor understanding of

aquaculture;

(2) Competition for land and water;

(3) Multiple use conflicts;

(4) Financial risk; locating venture capital;

uncertainty of profits;

(5) Education and information transfer; and

(6) Biotechnical constraints: use of wild animals for

broodstock; poor understanding of nutrition and

diets; preventing and control of disease; and poor

knowledge of water quality factors in culture

systems.

Many of these constraints can be solved through research

and development. Planning and conflict resolution should ease

others. However, strong suppoert by government will eliminate

institutional constraints and reduce financial risk, thereby

making aquaculture more attractive to entrepreneures.

18 -

IV. MARICULTURE SYSTEMS

A. Ponds

The culture of aquatic organisms can occur in a variety of

structures and enclosures; however, the most common, oldest, and

versatile culture unit remains the pond. Ponds can be

constructed in different sizes or with special features to fit a

specific culture operation. Design and layout of a pond or pond

system will determine its management flexibility. Ponds used for

mariculture must be constructed in the coastal zone to be

sufficiently close to a salt or brackish water supply. Since

competition for coastal land is very keen resulting in high land

values, expansion of mariculture into the coastal zone will depend

upon the ability to design ponds for areas unsuitable for other-

uses such as homes, condominiums, commercial buildi-ngs, or

silviculture. However, due to an already overabused coastal zone,

many of these unsuitable areas may now be considered

environmentally sensitive and protected by laws such as the

Wetlands Act. Access to these lands may present an insurmountable

barrier to the development of mariculture. The barrier might be

broken by authorizing mariculture as a designated use of the

coastal zone and incorporating mariculture siting into the local

coastal zone planning process. This section will discuss the

general principles of pond design and construction. Specific

areas for locating ponds in and around Apalachicola Bay are

discussed in the section on siting.

19 -

Preliminary considerations in locating a pond include

topography, water supply and soil quality. Soil should have good

water retention capabilities. Soil analysis as well as pond

design assistance is a service of the local District

Conservationist of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS, USDA).

Soil samples at a prospective site should be analized for clay,

sand and humus content. Ideally clay content should be greater

than 20% and seepage or water loss should be less than 10 cm.

from a 15 cm. diameter hole in 24 hours. Highly permeable soils

may sometimes be sealed using a number of methods ranging from

compaction to hauling in clay or bentonite to the use of chemical

sealers and pond liners. Soil quality should be free of

pesticide residues to avoid killing or contamination of organisms

under culture, and have a certain amount of fertility- to support

healthy plankton populations. Soils with a shallow underlying

water table may be suitable pond sites even if clay content is

low as water will still be retained. Much of the land in the

lower Apalachicola River Basin sits over shallow water tables.

Ideal topography for ponds is on lands which are nearly

flat. Ponds should not be irregular in shape or have a bottom

contour which act to reduce harvest efficiency. Pond bottoms

should be sloped to facilitate drainage with a minimum horizontal

to vertical ratio of 1000:1. Higher slope ratios may be

preferable depending on the size of the pond and the organism to

be cultured. A cardinal rule of all pond construction is a pond

should be drainable. The pond should also be free from flooding,

be accessible year round, and be reasonably close to markets. A

pond should be able to be drained individually and drained

completely dry. Drainpipes should be large enough (6-10"

depending on pond size) to allow rapid drainage in 48 hours or

less. Stand pipes are routinely used as drains, as both water

level and drainage are controlled by rotating the pipe about a

coupling located on the bottom of the pond. A harvest basin is

recommended for most production ponds as the cultured organisms

are caught in the basin as the pond drains and are subsequently

easier to harvest. A harvest basin is usually 12-18 inches

deeper than the rest of the pond and occupies a maximum area no

more than 10% of the total pond area. Harvest basins are often

referred to as a pond within a pond.

The two general types of ponds constructed are dugout and

levee ponds. Dugout ponds are excavated with the bottom laying

below the ground surface. Levee ponds are excavated a few feet

down and the removed soil is used to build a dam or levee

completely around the pond so that the water level is above

existing ground level. Levee ponds are preferable in Franklin

County as they can be completely and easily drained. Levees

should be of sufficient size to withstand the pressure of the

water in the pond. Their bases should be constructed of non-

porous material and free of roots and other obstructions so as to

form a water tight bond. Pond slopes are usually 3:1 or 4:1.

Levees should be grassed on the top and outside after

construction to prevent erosion. Shape of ponds are usually

21 -

rectangular, but a square pond requires less footage of levee to

achieve the same water surface area. All ponds should have the

same width in order to use the same net for harvesting.

The size of a pond is influenced by a number of factors

including available labor, topography, capital and construction

costs, market demand, management or production schedules, and

most importantly the organism to be cultured. Small ponds less

than an acre in size are normally used for culturing fry and

fingerlings while larger ponds are used for growout or to hold

broodstock. -Small ponds are easier and quicker to harvest,

easier to treat for disease, can be drained and filled quickly,

and less subject to levee erosion by wind. Large ponds are less

costly to construct per acre of water, require less space per acre

of water, and less susceptible to oxygen depletion due to more

wind action. In fact, large ponds should be laid out with the

long axis parallel to prevailing winds for improved mixing and

aeration from the wind. Depth of -ponds may depend on the

organism to be cultured, but in general, are four to six feet for

fish culture and one and a half to three feet for shellfish

culture.

Water supply should be constant, of high quality, and

available throughout the year. Consideration should be given to

maximum evaporation rates for the area, when oxygen problems

could become most critical and water exchange necessary. A

general approximation of 200 gal/min/acre may be used to estimate

water quantity. Bay water is the choice for ponds constructed in

- 22

the study area. Since tides are not sufficient in the Northern

Gulf to use weirs or monks, bay water will have to be pumped into

ponds. The pump should be sized to provide the flow rate

necessary to service all ponds at maximum head. Intake pipes

should be 6 to 8 inches in diameter and have a backup pump in

case of emergency. Valves should have a long life and be

resistant to corrosion. PVC valves are often used for saltwater

ponds. Water inlet pipes should be positioned at the catch basin

and drainage end of the pond. intake lines should be slightly

larger than estimated as screening materials will be required to

filter out unwanted organisms. Socks made of Saran or tubular

nylon webbing are usually secured over the inlet pipe with a

stainless steel hose clamp and may be effective for 2-5 months.-

Periodically the sock should be removed and washed.

One drawback of this type of mariculture pond is that the

salinity of the pond is controlled by the salinity of the bay.

Abrupt changes in salinity can cause stress, reduce feeding and

possibly result in mortalities. Species with narrow salinity

tolerances would be difficult to culture. Management becomes

crucial so that periods of greatest salinity flux can be

predicted and effects minimized. Diluting the salinity could be

accomplished with a freshwater well as part of the overall water

supply. Groundwater has a constant temperature of 68-70*F and

might have to be slowly blended with bay waters or added

gradually to a pond. Increasing salinity is more difficult as

salt water wells are a hit or miss proposition and artificial

salts can become expensive.

Ponds should be prepared prior to stocking. Wild fish can

be eliminated with rotenone or by draining the pond completely

and allowing air drying of the bottom :sediments. Ponds should be

filled one to two weeks before stocking with juveniles and

fertilized to establish a healthy plankton population. If the

culture organism is to be reared on natural pond food organisms,

then a sample should be taken prior to stocking to insure the

correct food organism types and abundance are present. Actual

numbers of organisms stocked should be carefully determined for

proper management and production estimations. Acclimation of

organisms to temperature and/or salinity should be done at the

rate of 2*C or 2 ppt per hour. Stocking is best accomplished at

sunrise or sunset.

B. Cages and Net Pens

Cages and net pens are enclosed culture units with a similar

function of being used in large open water bodies such as bays,

sounds and lakes. Cages are usually smaller and more rigid than

net pens and the two terms are used interchangeably in this

discussion. Basically a floating cage is composed of a frame to

hang netting and floats. The netting can be made of synthetic

fiber, plastic covered hardware cloth, plastic netting, or

expanded metal. The netting material should be selected according

to sea conditions and the size of the fish being cultured. Cages

- 24

can be arranged in rows, often referred to as a nested system,

with catwalks which fix cages in place and allow access, or

floated and anchored as single units spaced apart to allow maximum

water exchange. Successful large floating cage systems exist in

Japan (yellowtail) and in Europe (salmon). In one bay in Japan,

more than two million yellowtail are cultured in an area of 1650

acres (1200 fish/ac).

Floating cages are divided into rigid and flexible cages.

Flexible cages are inexpensive, light weight, made of readily

available snythetic materials, and have low mooring loads.

Disadvantages include limited type of material with a short life

span, that they may collapse in rough weather crowding and

stressing fish, are easily fouled and hard to clean, have a higher

risk of failure as net material ages, and may require a double net

to protect culture organisms from predators. Rigid cages have

higher costs, longer life spans, more choices in mesh materials,

are easier to clean, do not collapse easily causing less stress on

fish, do not need predator nets, are easier to nest into units,,

and are more succeptible to damage from drifting objects.

Floatation may be accomplished in a number of ways using a variety

of materials. However, most floats are styrofoam or a high

density urethane foam and are usually incorporated into catwalks,

3 feet wide, on two sides of the cage. Cages are moored with

chains and anchors and nested together with cable and/or catwalks.

Birdnetting is usually placed over the tops of the cages to

protect the crop from depredation.

Ch oosing a site for a cage culture operation is s difficult

and time consuming task. A site must be monitored over all

seasons to determine water quality-, stocking densities, and

hydrological conditions. Maximum waves such as storm waves must

be known and the system located where maximum waves will not

break. Without local knowledge'of tidal currents, they are

difficult to quantitatively predict at a given point under varying

conditions. A good site whould have mild currents, seldom
exceeding 1.0 m3/sec and very short intervals of slack water

conditions. Past currents will create a high drag force and

collapse the cage. Water velocities within the cage should be

lower than those outside the cage. Minimum currents will help

determine the maximum carrying capacity of the cage (Ansuini,

1978). During rough seas or known seasons of rough seas, nested

systems are usually reinforced with additional netting. Cages may

also be sunk 4-5 feet below the surface. Some systems will have a

type of breakwater in front of the system which reduces wave

action but allows water exchange.

Biofouling of cages should be addressed during the design and

planning stage. Cages must have sufficient buoyancy to function

properly and fouling can increase the weight of the cage, the drag

of the cage, and limit circulation. Net cages in high fouling

areas need to be cleaned constantly and require frequent

replacement. Synthetic nets may lose 50% of their strength within

3 years due to degradation from the elements, fouling organisms,

culture organisms, and the sun. When replacing netting, mesh size

is usually increased correlating with increased growth of fish and

allowing greater water exchange. Treating with copper based anit-

foul agents can reduce fouling by as much as 50% and extend the

life of the net. A 90:10 copper-nickel expanded metal mesh,

although expensive, retards fouling and is easily cleaned.

Herbivorous fish such as mullet can be a good fouling control, but

may destroy synthetic nets. Production of the cage varies with

the size of cage, the location, the culture organism, and the

level of management. Production has been reported to range from
0.06 to 0.76 kg/m3/day for various fishes grown in seawater.

Feeds must be nutritionally complete as the caged fish are totally

dependent on the feed to meet all their requirements for growth.

many artificial feeds are supplemented with chopped trash fish.,

Feed management is in need of improvement. Best conversion-is

obtained with hand feeding, but auto feeders require less labor.

Grading the fish periodically is important as smaller fish of many

species will quit growing if they get too far behind in weight

with the larger fish in a cage. Also grading is important in

sending a uniform crop to market. Access to the cage is extremely

i ortant for feeding and harvesting. Caged fish are more

susceptible to diseases and require careful monitoring. Usually a

bag can be built to place around the cage while diseased fish are

being treated.

Costs of cages vary with the system and the design. In

general, the cost of a cage decreases with increasing volume of

the cage. Net pen cages may have 28-41% of the total cost in the

27 -

floatation system, 15-23% in the cage and netting, 23-24% in

mooring system, and the remaining 20-26% tied up in bird and

predator netting and miscellaneous materials (Chua and Teng,

1980). The overall scale of the operation will affect farming

economics and cost of the unit cage. Operating costs are

primarily tied up in feed (35-55%), Seed stock (10-24%) and labor

(8-27%). Returns can be high if nothing goes wrong. However,

risks can be substantial from disasters such as storms, disease,

fouling and mechanical problems. Management is the key to

success.

C. Stock Enhancement as a Mariculture Tool

Many fisheries resources require management in order to

prevent resource depletion. The stocking of fry or juveniles

(fingerlings) is one such suggested technique to enhance a

natural fish population. Since most species are dependent upon

the estuary as a nursery area, the estuary site is a logical

choice for stock enhancement. However, conflicting views, which

have yet to be firmly resolved in the literature, require the

stock enhancement technique to be selectively utilized with

caution.

All populations show changes in abundance through time. The

fluctuations are controlled by a changing balance between the

birth and death rates and availability of resources. Natural

selection maximizes the fitness of the population for its

environment. However, genetic factors such as mutation and

migration act on the population to increase genetic variation

which is necessary to enable the population to adapt to a

constantly changing environment. This causes the population to be

in equilibruim with its environment. No population will stay at

equilibrium for all time, but rather wanders about the equilibrium

point, which itself would move as environmental change occurred.

Year to year variations as well as long term trends in abundance

can affect population equilibrium. Abundance may also vary with

the season.

The success of a population, in terms of abundance or

critical standing crop (that point above which natural food is not

sufficient to sustain both body maintenance and maximum potential

growth rate), is believed by many fishery ecologists to be

dependent on available habitat at all stages of an organism's life

cycle, especially the breeding and larval stages. Available food

and environmental changes also affect the critical standing crop.

A population, as stated above, will then exploit its available

habitat, maximizing its population until reaching its critical

standing crop, where the population will then come into

equilibrium with mortality (death, predation, pollution,

commercially fished, etc.) and its environment. The question

arises as to whether or not too much pressure, in terms of habitat

loss through development, pollution, and overfishing, placed upon

the population will result in the maximum never being achieved.

That is, mortality exceeds replacement and enhancement of the

population through artificial means becomes a possible

alternative. However, equilibrium, must: still be addressed and it

could be argued that even if the population is decreasing (habitat

loss, etc.) equilibrium of the ecosystem is being maintained.

This would.result from the effects of fishery-independent changes

such as environmental changes or fishezy-dependent changes such as

oscillatory adjustment of predator-prey relationships. That is,

the system will adjust to the depressed population by reacting to

changes in the environment or by causing changes in the abundance

of other organisms. The net effect of both will be to maintain

overall system equilibrium.

For example, white shrimp (Penaeus setiferous) are abundant

in Apalachicola Bay. They are prolific spawners and move into the

estuary during their nursery phase of growth. East Bay is the

only protected nursery area as commercial shrimping is presently

allowed throughout the remainder of the (nursery) estuary. Many

organisms eat shrimp at some stage of their life cycle, so the

shrimp population is constantly being predated'. Commercial

shrimping adds to the overall mortality of the population. The

question arises as to whether this pressure is depleting the

population and endangering the survival of the resource, or does

the pressure merely result in the shrimp population responding

with greater fecundity to return the population to its normal

balance. Local residents are divided on the issue with some

feeling the entire nursery should be protected from overfishing,

while others believe that East Bay is a sufficient nursery area

and the shrimp resource will never be depleted. Enhancement of

the resource by artificially stocking hatchery reared post larval

shrimp (3 week old shrimp) or juvenile shrimp in East Bay may

result in maintaining shrimp catches in the bay at current levels.

However, stocking post larvae may only result in an increase in

larval predators ultimately restoring the system to equilibrium

with no net effect on the shrimp fishery for the cost incurred.

An enhancement program such as this would require more careful

study prior to recommendation.

The bulk of evidence is presently against the stocking of

larvae as a means to enhance a fishery. During the first third of

this century, millions of larval plaice, sole, flounder, turbot,

sea bass and mullet were produced in European hatcheries and

released into the North, Baltic and Irish Seas. It was never

clearly demonstrated whether or not these mass releases had added

significantly to naturally occurring stocks. The program was

eventually abandoned.

The case against stock enhancement has three major arguments:

The enormous scale by which it would have to be carried out to

give a significant effect; the difficulty of confining and hoped

for return to the country paying for the effort; and the doubts

concerning the ability of artificially reared fish to survive the

natural environment. For example, Alabama released striped bass

fry for a number of years with no noticeable effect on the

fishery.

Enhancement can best be accomplished in the early life

history phase of a fish. Reducing mortality by even a small

31 -

percentage during this early stage may increase by several fold

the number of mature fish available for harvest. Some researchers

feel the success of many fisheries has or will depend on the

contribution of hatchery reared fish and has become a major

strategy in some fisheries management programs. A major problem

is that all newly hatched marine fish are inefficient feeders and

take time to perfect the skills necessary for food capture. This

is a delicate or critical period of change and is highly dependent

upon food availability. Thus, the evidence suggests that

expansion or development of hatchery releases may not be the most

cost effective means for improving a fishery, but rather the

raising of fry to a larger juvenile size, where they are better

fitted for marine survival, and then releasing those juveniles may

be a more cost effective technique. The theory is that by raising

the fry to a larger sized juvenile or fingerling, the fish

bypasses the critical food availability period and certain nursery

habitats normally required for growth. The fish will then spend

less time in the nursery and be recruited to the fishery much

sooner. A research need is to understand the juvenile stages and

the behavioral and physiological factors the juvenile must go

through to prepare to leave the estuary and live in the ocean.

Therefore, the control of the fry-to-juvenile process through

environmental manipulation, to fit specific resource management

needs, should lead to an improved adult contribution to the

fishery.

- 32

The juvenile or put-and-take enhancement technique has been

shown to work well with anadromous species including salmon,

striped bass and sturgeon. Alabama now raises striped bass to a

5-611 fingerling, tags the fish, and releases them into rivers and

bays. The tagged fish are now showing up in the fishery. South

Carolina also has such a program for both striped bass and

sturgeon and Texas has recently demonstrated the feasibility of

releasing red drum fingerlings to enhance depleted populations in

bays and estuaries. Salmon fisheries have been enhanced for 100

years and ocean ranching of salmon in Alaska has shown positive

results.

The prospectus for stock enhancement as a mariculture tool

for Apalachicola Bay requires more time for study and development.

At present, the stocking of fish fry or post larval shrimp is a

questionable enhancement technique and is not recommended

(shrimp enhancement is discussed further in the assessment on

peneaid shrimp.). As marine fingerling spawning techniques

improve and as the critical larval to fry growth and feeding stage

is worked out, enhancement of the fisheries with juveniles will

become more probable. A hatchery (such as the one described in

the oyster plan) capable of rearing numerous species and

fingerling ponds for fry growout will need to be developed.

Numerous marine finfish could then be spawned and eventually added

to the natural fisheries. However, protection of both the nursery

grounds and the maximum amount of habitat may in the long run, be

33 -

the most cost effective method of preserving the fishery

resource.

one final, although indirect, method of protecting the

fishery resource of the estuary is the artificial reef program.

Creating habitat would allow a species a greater opportunity to

exploit its environment and sustain maximum population densities.
Constructing more oyster reefs is a good e@ample of expanding

habitat in the bay and would benefit small fishes and

invertebrates inhabiting oyster reefs. Creating habitat for blue

crabs, shrimp and larval fishes in the estuary should be explored.

For example, the Japanese build small concrete units which

essentially are a series of parallel slabs, place the units in

waters of appropriate salinity, temperature and plankton density,

and then stock the units with juvenile abalone which remain in the

unit until harvest.

The major emphasis should be an expansion of the offshore

artificial reef program. The Japanese have considerable

experience in offshore reef construction and the Florida program

has borrowed from the Japanese expertise. The profile of'an

artificial reef is very important and the higher the reef is built

above bottom, the more useful the reef is as habitat. Nearly all

fishes which spawn and live throughout their life cycle offshore

would utilize the reef including snapper, grouper, scamp and

albacore. The benefit to the estuary from offshore reef

construction lies in the reduction of some of the fishing pressure

on the estuary. Commercial and recreational fishermen will spend

- 34

more time out of the bay by fishing the artificial reefs. The

estuary and its inhabitants will then have a little more time and

space to grown and mature.

V. SELECTION OF A MARICULTURE SPECIES

Initially, criteria for selecting an aquaculture species were

limited to the species taste, growth rate, hardiness, feeding

level on the food chain, and availability of seed stock. over the

years the process of selecting an aquaculture candidate has become

much more complex due to economic considerations, environmental

factors, improved culture technology, and changes in consumer
attitudes. The bottom line is that the species'must command a

sufficient selling price in the marketplace to offset all

production costs allowing the culturist to realize a profit.

Selection criteria for a potential aquaculture species have been

broken down into four categories in Table 2. Decision makers in

both the public and private sector must consider all the criteria

and answer tough questions prior to s.election. The private sector

must ultimately look at profit and loss, while the public sector

must consider the expense involved in research and demonstration

of the candidate species to insure the greatest amount of benefit

is retured from the tax dollars expended in developing a potential

new aquaculture industry.

Biotechnical criteria have to do with the degree of control

of culture from egg through harvest of an aquaculture species.

Control of reproduction allows the culturist to operate outside of

normal time constrictions of natural spawning and eliminates the

need to collect seed from the wild. Complete control also assists

in securing capital from investors or lending institutions.

eutrition of the organism is a crucial consideration. Many

36 -

species, especially marine finfish, must be fed a live food during

early life stages. The ability to adequately supply live food and

rearing from larvae to stocking size are factors which must be

considered prior to final growout expectations. Species whose

nutritional needs are well understood and who readily accept

artifical feeds should receive a higher priority. Growth rate and

the physiological behavior and environmental factors which

influence growth rate are important biological considerations.

Too slow a growth is not favorable since the costs of maintaining

a high density population over a long period will tie up

investment dollars too long and increase the risk. Shorter

growout is more versatile to respond to fluctuating market vari-

ables and the culturist can make profitable adjustments to demand

for product size, form and volume (Webber 1976).

The susceptibility of a species to diseases and parasites

affects its potential for culture. Rapid assessment of an

organisms health will reduce the risk of diseases and increase the

suitability of the organism for culture. Species selected should

be hardy and able to tolerate a wide range of environmental fluc-

tuations including temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH,

and organic waste matter which may all affect growth rate and

survival. A species is preferred if it can withstand crowding and

is not cannibalistic as a lower cost per unit of product ion can be

achieved. Harvesting should be re-latively simple and efficient.

In summary, a culturist would seem to fare best by selecting only

- 37

those species which have already been successfully bred and reared

in captivity and for which management techniques are established.

The availability of appropriate sites for culture is

fundamental to development. Selecting a site in the marine

environment is tied to both the specie under consideration and the

type of culture system employed. The organism will usually

determine where in a bay and at what depth in the water column it

will grow and survive best. The exception is if the species is to

be cultured on shore in ponds or tanks. onshore and intertidal

sites have the advantages of availability of electricity, easy

access, and drainage capability. Exposure of a bay site to wind,

waves, tides and tidal currents may adversely affect the culture

structure (cages/net pens) or cause undue stress to the organisms

under culture. Conversely, a large number of cages or pens may

affect the normal hydrography of a bay. An adequate supply of

good quality water is essential and if not readily available will

drive up the cost of production. If a bay site has a large amount

of freshwater influxes as does Apalachicola Bay, then the

candidate species must be able to tolerate rapid changes of

salinity. Hurricane records should be examined to determine the

frequency of such an occurrence at the culture site. Finally,

competition for a site from alternate uses must be evaluated.

Finding an end use or market for the cultured product is a

major consideration. Knowing who will buy it, what times of the

year it will be bought, and how much the consumer is willing to

pay for the product must all be thoroughly studied prior to a

species selection. Consideration must also be given to the kind

of product cultured; whether large volumes of low priced food for

feeding masses of people are to be produced or whether less

quantities of high priced food items for a luxury market are to be

produced. Presently, most successful aquaculture operations fall

into the luxury category. As long as this market exists, an

operation can make more money per unit of space and effort raising

a $2 a pound product than raising a 10 cent a pound product

(Lindbergh 1984). The cultured product must be acceptable in

terms of taste, odor, color, texture, and appearence of the

processed product in the fish showcase at a retail outlet. If

restaurants are the target market, then these acceptable factors

become even more important. Knowledge of market behavior will

provide useful information to the culturist on changes in supply

and demand and changes in the size and structure of the market

which all impact the price of the product. The higher the

identifiable local market for an aquacultured product, the greater

the opportunity for commercial development. Identifying regional

and national markets will also boost the chances for commercial

success. Being able to service a market, especially a local

market, on a regular year round basis will add credibility to the
producer ultimately resulting in increased sales. Competition

from both the wild catch commercial fisheries and other

aquaculture operations must be continually assessed in terms of

price, quality, quantity and regularity of service. The larger

the natural fishery, the harder it may be for a cultured product

- 39

to compete in the marketplace. However, learning to exploit the

seasonal availability of wild caught species during their

offseason will produce greater returns to the culturist.

Ability to earn a profit overthe cost of culture is the most

important economic cnsideration in selecting a species. Investors

demand the return on investment be short enough to be profitable.

Keeping the cash flowing will reduce investor anxiety as opposed

to a crop which takes too long to reach market. The potential

profitability is based on state of the art culture, structure of

the market, and past or demonstrated performance of the species

under consideration. The degree of risk must also be assessed by

investors and lending institutions. Risk may include the past

performance of the species to be cultured, the expertise required

to operate and manage the business, the estimated time necessary

to develop the operation commercially, and the legal and social

barriers to development. Sources of capital must be identified.

Lenders who understand an operation will have greater confidence

in its potential profit and be more inclined to offer loans.

Finally, since an aquaculture venture requires a considerable

period of time prior to the first cash crop, the culturist must

make sure the amount of capital borrowed is sufficient to meet all

unexpected problems.

Social factors are the last category to be considered in

selecting a candidate species. The traditional food habits and

taboos of the targeted market need to be known as does the

identity of the product by different sectors of the population.

Targeting the selection of a species towards social habits of

people living in the local area will increase the marketability

and ultimately the success of the product. Analysis of the

available labor force in the area and the wages which will be

accepted are needed to help project costs. Other competition for

that available labor must also be known. Social barriers to

import, culture and sale of a potential species may impact on the

suitability of the species for culture. Legal barriers may be a

significant constraint to culture. The time and energy expended

in securing permits may dilute the energy of the culturist to the

extent that the operation suffers and risk increases.

A checklist of criteria such as those found in Table 2 should

be used to rank or evaluate each candidate species. It can be a

stepwise prog ression with each step analyzing fewer species in

greater detail. Species with the greatest potential will then be

identified and supported by the procedure.

TABLE 1

Aquaculture Candidate Species Selection Criteria

Biotechnical/Culture

Availability of life history information
Physiological requirements
Environmental influences
Reproduction

availability of seed/fry/juveniles
maintainance of broodstock
controlled reproduction in captivity
breeding programs/genetics
rearing of fry/available food sources for fry
survival of fry to juvenile stage or stocking

Nutrition

Dietary requirements of organism well understood
Brookstock, fry, juveniles, adult feeding rates known
Live food availability
Artificial feed available
Feed conversion efficiency
Trophic level of organism

Stocking Rate
Intensive high density culture potential
Hardiness
Territoriality/Cannibalism
Water Quality Parameters
Diseases and disease resistance
Growth rate
Time period for growout
Survival to harvest
Ease of harvesting
Success of previous culture attempts

Siting/Systems

Site selection

shore
intertidal
sublittoral
surface/floating
midwater
bottom

42 -

Culture system

ponds
raceways
tanks
cages/net pens
impoundments

Exposure

wind
waves
tidal influence
currents

Water source and availability
Rate of runoff/river influence
Freedom from hurricanes and floods

III. Marketing/Economic

Potential economic use of product(s)
Cost of culture
Return on investment/potential profit
Degree of economic risk
Time period necessary to develop operation to success
Sources of capital/financing
Flavor, taste and odor acceptability
Appearance of fish and of whole animal
Color, luster, form and texture of product
Processing

dress out percentage
ease and cost of harvesting and handling
rate of tissue decomposition/shelf life
shipping and distribution

market behavior

pricing of product(s) as food/bait
size and structure of market
supply and demand elasticities
identification of local, regional and national markets
servicing of market year round
competition from commercial fisheries
location to markets

Recreation potential

IV. Social Factors

Traditional food habits and taboos of targeted market
Identity of product by different social groups
Available labor force, wages, and competition for that labor
Poaching/vandalism/theft
Legal barriers

permits and licenses
time, cost and operators energy required in obtaining
permits and licenses
nonindigenous species
competing uses of culture site

VI. Species Assessments

The preceeding section provided criteria for selecting a

potential aquaculture candidate. This section reviews numerous

species with potential for culture in Apalachicola Bay. The

species chosen in this section are either currently found in the

bay or have a high market value. Selection criteria were then

assessed for each species to the extent of available information

in the literature or by personnal communication from fish

culturists. Not all criteria could be assessed for each species

indicating the need for further research and demonstration. The

assessments are not presented in any particular order.

A. Sciaenids

1. Red Drum or Red Fish

Red drum (Sciaenops ocellata) are believed to spawn offshore

at age 2 or 3 from September to February peaking during October.

Estuaries are nursery grounds for red drum and the amount of

available habitat appears to be directly related to recruitment.

As red drum grow they spend less time in estuaries and more time

in shallow ocean areas. While they may feed throughout the water

column, they prefer benthic organisms, particularly shrimp and

xanthid crabs. Red drum are both commercially and recreationally

fished. over 6800 lbs. were landed in Franklin County in 1982

averaging $0.46/lb. This represents a 30% decrease in landings

over the past four years, but nearly a 20% increase in price

(NMFS).

Red drum have excellent aquaculture potential. A state

hatchery capable of producing 10 million fingerlings each year is

in operation in Texas (they have actually stocked 14 million

fingerlings in two years) and a private firm has established a

facility in the Bahamas. Within the next two years the Fl

generation fishes in Texas should spawn. The DNR has spawned,

reared and maintained red drum for over a year in tanks.

Colura et al. (1976) stocked a 0.4 ha (.98 acres) pond with

red drum at 335,000 fry/ha, ten days after initial pond

fertilization. Higher stocking rates of 300,000-500,000 fry/ac

have been achieved. Only 63,914 fish were recovered for a 45%

survival and production of 67.5 kg./ha (60 lbs/ac) or 2.17

kg/ha/day. Salinity was 20%, fingerlings averaged 0.42 gm and

31.7 mm, and fed on zooplankton throughout the period. The

success of the sy stem relies on the ability to remove predators

from the ponds and maintain a high density of naturally occurring

food. Laboratory larval rear ing is more costly, labor intensive,

and rarely yields more than 25% survival. Pond rearing can

produce a 1-1.5 inch fingerling in 30-40 days.

First year growth may average 365 mm and 950 gm. A 0.08

hectare pond was stocked with 11.0 gm red drum at 4213 fish/ha.

The fish reached 335 gm and 316 mm in 290 days with excellent

survival and production of 935 kg/ha. The fish were fed

commercial catfish chows and had an FCR of 2.7:1. Growth from

fingerlings ranging from 2-6 lbs. has been reported over two

growing seasons (18 months). Further research is needed in

reproductive biology, diet and nutrition, grow out, winter

survival, and in decreasing production costs while increasing

yield. Market research is needed to determine if the product can

be produced and sold profitably and competitively with the wild

fishery. Preferred market size must also be determined. A 3-4

lb. fish will dress out to two 9-10 oz. fillets, requires at least

two growing seasons and will bring a high price. A 1-1.5 lb fish

can be cultured in one year, but must be sold as a pan sized fish

(headed, gutted and scaled). Texas extension specialists report

gutted redfish sold for $0.75/lb. during winter and reached

$1.90/lb. during the 1984 Lenten season.

Red drum are relatively easy to spawn and rear to market

size. They can grow in waters which are fresh to highly saline,

have good growth rates, readily accept artificial feeds, can be

seined from ponds, and do not succumb to low temperatures unless

the decline is very rapid. Low temperatures do inhibit growth,

and death resulting from termal shock is more prevalent in

freshwater (70C) than in saltwater (20C). The Texas program is

stocking red drum into freshwater areas as a predator for

sunfishes and as a sport fish for recreational anglers. The

program is also stocking fingerlings into bays and estuaries as a

fisheries enhancement tool.

This may be the most promising area for red drum culture if

natural stocks continue to decline and the competition between

47 -

commercial and recreational fishermen grows. However, the costs

of such a program compared to the expected benefits have not been

determined.

The major constraint to red drum culture in Apalachicola Bay

is the low price paid to fishermen for red drum caught in this

area of the Gulf of Mexico. So while red drum are an excellent

aquaculture candidate, the economics of' production would, most

likely, be a limiting factor. At such time when the value of red

drum increases, their commercial culture will become feasible.

The development of red drum culture in Texas by the private sector

should be monitored closely for applicability in Florida.

2. Black Drum

Black drum (Pogonias cromis) are an inshore species found

over sand and sandy mud bottoms. They especially like areas of

high runoff and sheltered areas such as bridges, docks and piers.

They average 1-3 lbs in weight, but have been known to live 35

years and reach over 100 lbs. Black drum reach sexual maturity

after two years and spawning occurs from late winter to spring.

Black drum is much like red drum in that it is an easy fish

to spawn and rear. Branch and Strawn (1978) reported that black

drum grow rapidly, are carnivorous benthic feeders, and tolerate a

wide range of both temperature and salinity. They grew Black drum

in ponds with mullet and noted a 17% increase in production of the

polyculture (532 kg/ha) over the monoculture (444 kg/ha) of only

Black drum. Survival in both experiments was 95%. Fish were fed

- 48

a 30% protein catfish chow at a maximum of 5% of their body weight

during warmest months.
These same researchers grew Black drum in 0.16M3 cages in a

brackish power plant cooling lake. Survival was excellent with

growth rates of 0.98 g/day (compared to 2.57g/day in ponds). The

work suggested that low salinities or rapid salinity fluxes

inhibit growth.

Black drum primarily utilize Apalachicola Bay as a nursery

area, but adults are often found in the bay during warmer months.

Black drum can also be a predator of oysters. The major

constraint to Black drum aquaculture at present, is the low price

of the fish which may sometimes sell for $0.15-0.20 per pound. As

demand and price both increase, Black drum will become a more

likely aquaculture candidate.

B. Snappers & Groupers

Grouper, native to the Gulf, with culture potential include

the red grouper, Epinephelus morio, the gag grouper, Mycteroperca

microlepis, the black grouper, M. bonaci, and the scamp,

M. phenax. Only the black grouper may be found in the

Apalachicola Bay during warmer months. Grouper spawn-offshore in

deeper waters with most species spawning during spring. Larvae

are pelagic. Juveniles may inhabit grass flats and in general,

move into deeper waters with growth. Adults are reef fishes, and

usually stay close to protective holes or other cover. Groupers

may live 25 years or more and may reach weights up to 30 lbs and

lengths up to 30 inches. Most groupers begin life as females

(protogynous hermaphrodites), reach sexual maturity at 2-4 years,

and may transform into males after 5 years of age. Groupers are

carnivores. In Florida, they have a minimum size limit of 12

inches.

Roberts, et al, (1983) have spawned gag grouper

(M. microlepis) in captivity with hormones. Since males live in

deep water and don't survive capture Well, captured females.were

given an oral application of methyltestosterone to induce sex

inversion. Mated females were then strip spawned and the larvae

reared for 15 days at which time they died. Controlled reproduc-

tion requires a 10 month conditioning period with a 10 hour light

photoperiod at maturation, a temperature change of 28-300C down-to

21-23*C, and hormone injections to induce ovulation. Fertiliza-

tion rate was 50% and larvae hatched after 45 hours at 210C.

Newly hatched larvae are only 2mm in length. Larvae must

be fed a live food and rearing thein up to.fingerling size is, at

present, a difficult task.

Inducing females to spawn is no problem, however, the strip

spawning process must be done under optimum conditions and with

perfect timing. Thus, time sequencing of spawning needs more

refinement so that the resultant fertilized eggs are of good

quality. Increasing the knowledge of the fishes' lifestyle and

increasing the overall effort would result, most likely, in

commercial hatchery feasibility and rearing larvae well past 15

days. One interesting technique would be to transform a female

- 50

into a male, freeze its sperm, allow the male to revert back to a

female, and then spawn the fish using its own sperm.

Grouper larvae will eat plankton, rotifers and copepods.

Adults are easy to feed and will consume most any chopped fresh or

frozen seafood. Gag grouper should be able to live and grow in

lower salinity waters found in Apalachicola Bay, but winter

temperatures may be a problem as lower tolerance is estimated to

range from 15-18*C. Gag grouper will grow about 14 inches per

year and are fairly robust which makes for thick fillets.

Chua and Teng (1980) have performed extensive research on

rearing of the estuarine grouper, E. salmoides, in floating net

pens in Asia. Much of the work may be applicable to groupers

indigenous to the Gulf of Mexico. Controlled reproduction of this

species is also a few years away from commercial feasibility.

These fish reduce their rate of 02 consumption as the oxygen

concentration in the water decreases. Metabolic rate (growth) is

reduced below 3.7 mg/1 and oxygen in the cage should not be below

50% saturation. Temperature tolerance ranged from a low of 10*C

to a high of 39.50C. The salinity where the fish is naturally

found ranges from 26-31 ppt, but best growth occurred at

15-26 ppt. The lower lethal salinity limit was 2.5 ppt.
Cages were 1.5m x 1.5m x 1.65m (3.33m3) made with

polyethelene netting with a 12.5mm mesh and wooden frame with

floats for support. Cages should be located one meter off the

bottom at low tide, which prevents disturbance of the benthic

community and minimizes disease. A current speed of 0.2-0.5

meters per second was adequate to insure oxygen levels and flush

the cage. Current speeds above 1.5m/sec. were too high and

caused stress and reduced growth. Fouling was a major constraint.

Water exchange through a 37.5mm mesh May be reduced by as much as

60% in two weeks. Sharp edges of some fouling organisms may

eventually tear netting and allow fish to escape. Netting must be

routinely inspected, cleaned and replaced. Low labor costs in

Asia allow for the efficiency of the system.

Fry in Asian net pen culture are presently obtained from the

wild. Chua and Teng found optimum stocking densities to be 60
fish/m3. They stocked 54gm fish (3.35 kg/m3) at 60 fish/m3 (200

fish/cage) and fed the fish chopped trash fish for six months

until they reached market size (500 gm). Net production was 2347
kg/m3 (173.6 lbs/cage). Mortality ranged from 15-20% with 5-8%

attributed to cannibalism of fish less than 15cm in length.

Feeding trash fish produced a FCR of 3.9:1 and a net average gain

of 432 gm per fish. Artificial feeds with a 40-50% protein

content resulted in a faster growth rate and FCR of 1.9:1. Fish

were fed to satiation once every two days. Food intake is a

growth limiting factor as grouper require 36 hours to completely

consume all food. Total cost was $2/kg ($0.91/lb).

In another test, the researchers used growth promoters, such

as 17 methvltestosterone and nitronin to increase growth by 43%

and 62% respectively. It is unlikely that these promoters could

be used in fish sold as food. The researchers also found that

fish grew better if a hiding space was provided much like that

found in its natural environment. A hide space of 25 cm3/fish was

found to be optimum. Stocking density could then be increased to
156 fish/m3. Addition of both hide spaces and growth promoters at

the increased stocking rate produced marketable fish in 2.7
months. Production increased to 136.7 kg/m3 and cost dropped to

$1.28/kg ($0.58/lb).

Prices paid for grouper vary by season and location in

Florida. In Apalachi cola, a low of $0.70/lb might be paid during

winter. The highest price paid to fishermen is $2/lb. In South

Florida prices may be as high as $3-4/lb. Landings have nearly

doubled over the past four years with average prices rising

$0.12/lb. reaching 743,000 lb. at $1.02/lb. average in 1982

(NMFS). Overall, the gag grouper and possibly the black grouper

have excellent culture potential. The adaptation of grouper to

estuarine conditions especially the accelerated growth rate at

estuarine salinities, along with acceptance of artificiaj. feeds,

good conversion, and use of cages with hide spaces make grouper.a

promising aquaculture candidate. Low water temperatures during

winter in Apalachicola Bay coupled with fluctuating market prices

may be constraints which may be solved by growing the fish during

warmer months and targeting marketing to coincide with gaps in the

commercial fishery. Closing the spawning cycle, rearing fry to

fingerlings efficiently, hybridizing the fish to tolerate lower

temperatures and salinities, and eliminating problems with net-pen

culture will be necessary before full commercial production can be

achieved. Preliminary feasibility of net-pen culture of grouper

53 -

in the bay might be demonstrated through a research project under

the guidance of ANES.

Culture success with re d snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, is

about at the same status as grouper. Complete life history of

snapper including spawning locations, seasons, descriptions of

eggs and larvae, and habitat preferences are not well understood.

Habitat varies with species, but in general as fish grow and age,

they move out to deeper waters where hard bottoms or reefs are

found. Snapper are both a commercially and recreationally

important species.

Red snapper have been spawned in Florida, Alabama and Texas.

They can be striped spawned using 'HCG or spawned naturally during

May and June in tanks by manipulating photo period at 15 hours

light, 9 hours dark, and.23-250 C and 31-34 ppt. Larvae are very

small and hesitant to accept feed. Very small rotifers and

copepod nauplii have been used as a food sour ce, but all trials

have terminated by day 5 posthatch with complete mortality. There

have been no attempts to raise fry in fertilized ponds all the way

through juvenile stage. Growth of adults has been observed in

ponds (1.7cm/month) and adults are able to withstand low

salinities. Snapper must be overwintered when temperatures fall

below 15* C.

The price of red snapper is a major aquaculture inventive as

it may go as high as $3.00-$3.50/11). in Apalachicola. From 1979

to 1981, red snapper landings increased in both pounds and dollar

volume - landings decreased in 198:2 to 1980 levels of roughly

50,000 lbs/yr and the average price has remained stable at $2.04-

$2.09/lb. for the past three years (NMFS).

C. Spotted Sea Trout

Spotted sea trout (Cynoscion neubulosus) are found in

Apalachicola Bay and are highly sought by both recreational and

commercial fishermen. The fish are mostly non-migratory spending

nearly their entire lives in estuaries. Each estuary has its own

brood stock with spawning occurring in spring and summer. Habitat

includes seagrass beds, marsh and oyster reefs. Sea trout are

carnivores and feed on a variety of organisms with fish becoming

more important to their diet as they grow. Trout will move out.of

the estuary when temeratures drop below 15*C. Commercial landings

in 1982 were 52,951 lbs. with an mean price of $0.70 lb. (NMFS).

Recreational landings are believed to be equal to or greater than

commercial landings.

Colura et al (1976), have spawned spotted sea trout in Texas.

A 15 hour light, 9 hour dark photoperiod at 26*C and 30 ppt

resulted in a high percent fertilization and subsequent hatching

after 18 hours. Larvae were fed rotifers and brine shrimp. Fry

were stocked in a 0.1 ha pond at 50,000 fry/ha and 20 ppt. Only

11% of the fingerlings were recovered with production of 5.89

kg/ha (0.19 kg/ha/day). Growth was poor with copepods the primary

food and polycheates, amphipods and palemonid shrimp secondary

sources of food. *Less than 3% of the total food consumed was

commercial feed.

The work concluded that stocking older fry would be

advantageous. The large mortality loss; was due to intense

cannibalism. Coupled with inadequate food sources, especially the

inability to accept commercial feeds, the researchers concluded

that spotted sea trout were not a suitable aquaculture species.

once early age culture is perfected, there may be a possibility of

culturing trout to fingerling size and releasing them into

estuaries as an enhancement too]. to replace declining stocks.

This may be a long range consideration for Apalachicola Bay due to

the tremendous recreational fisher, attributed to sea trout. Sea

trout, along with red drum, is the most sought after recreational

fish in the grass flats of the bay and tidal creeks of the river

delta.

D. Pompano

Pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) have been caught in

Apalachicola Bay during spring and summer when water temperatures

exceed 200C. Pompano are much more abundant in offshore waters as
higher salinities.are preferred. Very little is known on the

basic biology and life history of the pompano or its relative the

permit (T. falcatus). Pompano are believed to be offshore pleagic

spawners with an estimated fecundity of 426,000-630,000 eggs.

Peak spawning occurs from April thl7ough June, but may range from

February to October in Florida. Juveniles are found in the surf

zone on open beaches with sandy bottoms. The wave action uncovers

benthic invertebrates which, along with pelagic invertebrates and

larval fishes, form the basis of a juvenile's diet. Adults are

more oriented towards eating molluscs and fish. Pompano are hardy

fish which can withstand a wide range of pH, salinities and

turbidities. A DO of 2.5ppm and temperature of 100C are

considered lethal.

Pompano are an excellent food fish which command a high

market price. Pompano are commercially fished all along the

Atlantic and Gulf, but 90% of the catch is landed in Florida.

Pompano comprise less than 1% of the commercial landings in

Franklin County with only 380 lbs landed in 1982. Commercial

fishermen presently receive an average of $2.09 per lb., but it

may wholesale for $4.00 per lb or more. Pompano are also widely

sought by the recreational angler. Pompano must be a minimum of

9.5 inches fork length and are regulated by Chapter 370, F.S.

Culture of pompano received much attention in Florida in the

late sixties and early seventies by some large corporations and

several smaller operators. only a few crops reached market and

all operations have since ceased. All failed because of an

inadequate technological base. All attempts were dependent upon

the capture of wild fry as seedstock. Juvenile pompano are

abundant in Northeast Florida from April to November, are easily

haul seined, and are hardy enough to be transported.

Moe et al, (1968) made preliminary evaluations on pond

culture of pompano in 1967. They stocked saltwater ponds at three

57 -

random densities. Temperature ranged from 10 to 270C and salinity

was 30ppt. Fish were fed either, ground. trashfish, up to 30% of

body weight per day, or floating trout chow (Purina 5105) at 5-8%

body weight per day. Mass mortalities were experienced and only

1,781 fish were harvested from 322,200 initially stocked. A FCR

of 3.2:1 was estimated utilizing trout chow. They estimated a 10"

pompano could be cultured from fry in 12-18 months. Data was in-

conclusive regarding stocking rates, growth rates and production

per acre. Nutritional and environmental requirements remain

poorly understood.

Smith (1973) stocked 7gm. pompano at five densities (100, 250,
400, 650 and 900) in Im3 cages (6.4mm mesh). Growth was best

and mortaility lowest at the lower stocking rates. Mortality -

averaged 21% primarily due to inadequate feed. Fish were fed a

40% trout chow initially at 6.3% body weight, three times a day

along with a chopped squid or fish supplement once each week. A

1 lb. marketable fish was obtained in 47-51 week.s. Feed costs

were $1.70 per kg ($0.771/lb) of pompano produced. Low DO and

heavy cage fouling were problems.

Hoff et al (1978) were successful with both strip spawning

and semi-natural spawning of pompario using HCG. Depending on

environmental conditions, the complete gonadal cycle will take

from 34-66 days. Thus, it may be possible to condition a fish to

spawn 4 or more times a year. Fish were induced to spawn at 23-

280C. Larvae were reared for 23 dZLYS on a diet of plankton,

protozoans, rotifers and copepod nELUplii.

- 58

Researchers at the Claude Peteet Mariculture Lab in Alabama

worked with mono and polycultures of pompano and shrimp for eight

years. Cages were originally used, but the pompano proved to be

sensitive to parasite and disease problems. One-half inch

juveniles stocked in ponds in late May could reach the acceptable

market size of one-half pound by the end of October if no problems

were encountered. Polyculture of pompano with penaeid shrimp

(May-Oct) can yield up to 2,000 lbs/ac followed by a monoculture

of rainbow trout (Nov-April) producing 1,300 lb/ac in the same

pond. Shrimp should be cultured 30 days in a nursery pond prior

to stocking with pompano to reduce predation of the shrimp.

Many problems still exist for successfully culturing pompano.

Optimum stocking densities and causes of mortalities, including-

diseases under culture conditions, need to be assessed. Further

efforts to control spawning are also needed. Pompano have a high

metabolic rate which results in high oxygen consumption requiring

a rapid rate of water exchange in ponds or cages. At temperatures

above 30* C, it becomes virtually impossible to supply enough

oxygen to high concentrations of fish. Improvements on systems

engineering and more demonstration are needed. Diet and nutrition

is the area with the greatest research need. This is especially

true with the diet for rearing of larval pompano. Perhaps the

best place to start is with studying the basic biology and life

history of pompano.

Pompano command a high market price and as such, marketing

should pose no problems. New markets to restaurants or with a

59 -

frozen product may have to be developed in the future. No econo-

mic data is available on pompano culture. However, the high

market price would allow for higher production costs. Permits are

presently required to collect wild seedstock. A mechanism to

differentiate between wild caught and cultured pompano would have

to be developed.

The potential for pompano culture in Apalachicola Bay is not

good at this time. The primary constraint is low winter tempera-

tures in the bay which would result in mortality of the fish.

Cage or net pen culture are recommended techniques for the bay

while upland ponds may produce the greatest net returns. Pompano

fingerlings might have to be artificially spawned and reared to a

minimum of five inches indoors prior to final growout during

.spring, summer, and fall.

E. American Eel

Eels (Auquilla rostrata) are an unexploited resource in the

Apalachi cola River and Bay system. The fishery has never fully

developed due to poor domestic markets. A limited fishery

developed in 1980-81 landing 7500 lbs. averaging $0.74/lb. (NMFS).

Eels are considered slimy and inedible by local residents and are

not actively fished by the recreational angler. However, a

domestic market does exist for 4-9 inch fingerlings which are

considered excellent bass bait and for adult (one half pound or

more) eels as food in cities with large numbers of Oriental

Ame ricans. An export market, which may have a 165 million pound

shortage, for eels exists primarily in Japan and Europe (NADP,

1983). A fishery, consisting of both cultured and wild caught

eels, could be developed in the Apalachicola system to exploit

these markets.

Eels are catadromous fish in that they spawn in the ocean,

but spend the majority of their lives in fresh water rivers.

Eels spawn in the Sargasso Sea in the western Atlantic Ocean at

depths greater than 200 meters, temperatures of 16-18*C, and

salinities of 35ppt. Eggs are pelagic and soon hatch into

leptocephalus larvae which are brought into shallow coastal areas

by currents. This process may take a year. The larvae fall to

the bottom where they bury themselves and begin the transforma-

tion into elvers. In December the elvers begin to migrate

upriver which may continue through April. Migration may be

triggered by a drop in water temperature or increase in water

volume flowing down the river. The elvers burrow in the river

bed during the day and ascend the river at night. They are

commonly found at obstructions such as hyacinth beds, tidal

marshes, and dams. Young elvers feed primarily on detritus. As

they grow, small animals are consumed and as adults feed on

worms, shrimp, crabs, fishes, and frogs. Sexual maturity is

reached at 3-4 years for males and 4-6 years for females.

However, eels may remain in freshwater for fifteen years or more

before descending to the sea to spawn.

Eel culture is mostly practiced in Europe and Japan. Eels

are not yet routinely spawned in captivity. The Japanese have

61 -

done in vitro fertilization and have reared larva for five days,

and the Russians have obtained fertile eggs from eels grown in

captivity. However, nearly all eel farms depend on elvers

captured during their upstream migration as a source of

juveniles. They are usually captured with traps and nets or by

attracting them to light at night. Eels can be cultured in

ponds, but are usually grown in a series of tanks. Eel farms in
Japan usually average 1500-2000 m2 of tank surface area. All

tanks are round or octagonal to facilitate water circulation.

Fiberglass and concrete are the materials normally used for tank

construction. Fingerling tanks may be as small as two cubic
meters and stocked at 150-300 g/m2 (.33-.66 lbs). Fingerlings

3-4 inches run approximately 250 to the pound. Growout tanks may
be 4 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. deep and may hold 25-30 lbs/m3.

Water exchange varies, but tanks must be cleaned weekly. Sorting

of eels should be done frequently to utilize space efficiently

and for marketing as eels are often sold in a group of similar

size. Culture in outdoor ponds is limited to small ponds, 65 X

17 X 5 ft. filled to a depth of 3 ft. Fish are fed twice a day

with approximately 25% water exchange. Growout requires 12-14

months to reach a minimum market size of 1/3 pound.

Optimum water temperature for growth is 25-280C. Most farms

include a greenhouse and/or an additional heat source for elvers.

The greenhouse is used to help heat water, shade fish from the

sun, and avoid outside disturbances. Covers may also be employed

on outside tanks as eels like to feed in quiet and under cover.

Eels are fed a prepared food containing 45% or more protein. The

food is prepared daily from fish meal, corn starch and vitamin

permix in a kneading machine and resembles a ball of dough. The

food is immediately fed to the fish as the dough rapidly loses

its viscosity. Feeding rates vary between 2-6% body weight and

an FCR of 3-4:1 is the norm. Feed cos ts may run as high as

42@/lb.

Costs of production are high due to the equipment, energy

costs (pumping, heating, etc.), and feed. Equipment includes an

oil boiler, oil tanks, generator, blowers, water wheels, various

pumps, and a kneading machine. Most farms are flow through

systems requiring large quantities of fresh water. Profits may

be high if good markets are developed. Cultured eels are

considered a better product than wild eels due to their higher

fatty acid composition. Cultured eels one half pound or larger

may sell for as much as $2.50/lb. from the farm. Fingerlings to

be used as bait may wholesale from the farm for $4-8 per dozen.

Most eels are shipped to markets live. They can be shipped live

for 20-30 hours if packed in cardboard boxes containing two

double layered vinyl bags with an 8 1. (8.5 qts) capacity

containing 1-2 1. of water saturated with oxygen, 0.5 kg.

(1.1 lb.) ice and 5-10 kg. (11-22 lb.) of live eels.

Constraints to eel farming include a steady supply of seed

stock, disease and competition from the wild fishery.

Reproduction in captivity is a high research priority. Florida

law presently limits the methods by which elvers may be captured,

63 -

resulting in a great deal of time and energy expended to collect

juveniles. Diseases need to be routinely monitored in tanks

stocked at high densities. Wild eels currently sell for $1 less

per lb. than cultured eels.

The potential for an eel fishery, both wild and cultured, in

Apalachicola River and Bay is good. A handful of wild eel

dealers exist in the St. Johns River basin and there is one eel

farmer who deals in both wild and cultured eels in the same area.

These are potential buyers, with established markets, for all

sizes of eels captured in the Apalachicola basin if the eels are

live hauled to the St. Johns area. Live hauling would minimally

require a pickup truck with a portlable live tank equipped with

bottled oxygen. one buyer also exists in Tampa who wholesales

smoked eels. An alternative would be to plug eel sales into

existing seafood marketing channels in Franklin county. The

greatest immediate potential is the capture, holding, culture and

sale of fingerlings for the recreational fishing industry. The

bait business along the Apalachicola, Lake Seminole and up into

Georgia and Alabama is excellent and satisfying this market may

be sufficient to develop the fishery. Such an undertaking could

be a component of the multi-use facility described in the

oyster section. The elver season lasts approximately 4 months

and the adult season all year with summertime being the slowest

season. The recommendation is for the development of an eel

fishery as a supplement,to traditional fisheries with a long term

- 64

goal of culturing fingerlings for the bait business and possibly

adults for the live food market.

F. Hybrid or Sunshine Bass

The hybrid bass, (Morone Saxatilis X Morone Chrysops),

commonly known as the Sunshine Bass in Florida, is a cross between

female striped bass (M. saxatilis) and male white bass (M.

chrysops). The reciprocal cross also produces a hybrid. The

hybrids have superior early growth rates especially during the

first two years of life, greater disease resistance, improved

survival, better overall hardiness and are less canabalistic than

striped bass. The hybrid has an outstanding potential for culture

as a commercial food fish and is well suited for the conditions-in

Apalachicola Bay.

The striped bass (M. saxatilis) is a popular commercial food

fish and recreational fish on the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific

coasts. It is an anadromous, euryhaline species. on the Gulf

coast the striped bass spends the majority of its life in

freshwater rivers. Spawning of the striped bass began in the

1880's and fry and fingerlings have been raised ever since for the

stocking of public waters. over 40 million fry and fingerlings

were produced by state and federal hatcheries in 1982. Until

recently, a.lmost no research had been carried out on the culture

of stripers to market size. Striped bass have now been

successfully reared in freshwater ponds and in cages in salt

water. More recently, the potential for culture to market size of

65 -

the hybrid bass has been undertaken. Both the striped bass and

its hybrid are found in Apalachicola River and Bay.

Striped bass are routinely spawned in captivity using

hormones and then either stripping the eggs or spawning the fish

naturally in tanks. Hybrids have primarily been produced by

collected brooders from the wild and strip spawning after hormone

in@ection. The brooders are sacrificed in the process which only

occurs during spring. This necessitates a continual source of

brooders taken from the wild which is of concern to wildlife

agencies. Domesticating the two species so that the same brooders

may be used year after year to produce eggs will be necessary

before the full culture potential of the hybrid can be reached.

one researcher in South Carolina has been able to produce

domesticated hybrids without killing the brooders and to induce

spawning at different times of the year. Hopefully, this work

will lead to a routine supply of hybrid bass fry.

Water temperature should be 18-200 C for hatching, but can be

increased to 30* C or higher after the larvae are 10 days old to

accelerate growth. Photoperiod effects on reproduction are

unknown, but lights are routinely used to attract both zooplankton

and fry in rearing ponds at night -to facilitate natural feeding.

Fry are easily damaged in hatching tanks, so water inflow should

be kept at the lowest possible velocity to maintain water quality.

oxygen should be maintained near saturation. Water should be

slightly basic (pH, 7.3) and well buffered.

Rearing hybrid fry to fingerlings is the most crucial stage

of culture. Hybrids have a smaller mouth than striped bass and

rearing success is dependent upon an appropriate and abundant

source of food. Nauplii of copepods, cladocerans, and insect

larvae along with phytoplankton are considered preferred foods for

newly hatched larvae. Assuring an adequate concentration of food

is also critical. Brine shrimp are also used to feed fry as soon

as their mouths are large enough to eat the brine shrimp.

However, training the fry to accept prepared foods is considered

to be critical as fry which are poorly trained to eat artificial

feeds usually do not exhibit good growth rates during the grow-out

phase of culture. Prepared food with the same particle size of

brine shrimp should be included in the feeding regime when the

fish are between 14-21 days old. The combined diet should be fed

for 10-14 days and the brine shrimp then phased out. Feeding

sufficient quantities is important in reducing cannibalism. Once

fry are cannibalistic, other fry become the favorite food.

Production of fingerlings is accomplished in open ponds, tanks and

raceways. Survival from fry to fingerling can be as high as 50%,

but 30% is a more realistic average. Improvement of survival

during this stage especially in the areas of cannibalism and

feeding behavior is a high research priority. Presently

development of hybrid bass culture is constrained by the lack of

sufficient private sources of fingerlings.

Kahrs (1984) stocked 40,000 fingerlings, 38-50 mm in length

(1.6 gm) in a one acre pond with a flow of 15 gpm aerated spring

water. Fish were fed twice daily with 38% crumbled trout chow.

Fish learned to feed readily and averaged 127 mm in length after

60 days.

Growth is best during the warmer summer months when

temperatures average 280C. Little growth or active feeding occurs

at temperatures less than 15*C. Dissolved oxygen should not fall

below 5 mg/l for extended periods. Hybrids can withstand

salinities up to 28 ppt; however, some evidence suggests growth is

reduced at higher salinities. Resistance to ammonia toxicity has

been noted in hybrids cultured in brackish water. Ammonia should

not exceed 0.6 mg/l. Use of low salinity water reduces stress

during harvest, handling and transportation. A pH range of 7 to

9.5 is considered optimum. Alkalinity should be maintained above

150 mg/l. Most diseases and parasites which afflict warmwater

species may also occur in hybrid bass. Hybrids are more resistant

to disease than striped bass and resistance is slightly increased

when grown in brackish water.

Williams et al (1981), grew hybrids in estuarine waters of
South Carolina in 13.6m3 (10.5 X 8.5 X 6.3 ft) net pens similar to

ones used in salmon culture. They stocked 3.0 gm fingerlings at
densities of 66 fish/m3 and fed a mixture of dry salmon feed and

ground fish. Fish were fed at rates of 1-10% of body weight per

day, with the percentage decreasing as mean size increased. Water

temperatures ranged from 8-10*C from December through March to 25-

300C from May through September. ESalinity ranged from 11-28 ppt.

Fouling was a problem during the WELrmer months and nets were

- 68

cleaned with a high pressure hose or changed monthly. Blue crabs

were controlled by fishing crab traps at each end of the pen.

Fish were vaccinated with a dip against vibriosis disease.

Survival (88%) and growth (1.37g/fish/day) were excellent after

the fish were placed on a mixed diet and size graded. Food

conversion was estimated at 3.5:1. An FCR of 2.1:1 was obtained

in a subsequent experiment. After one year fish averaged 310 gm
and total biomass 16 kg/m3. The researchers concluded the fish

were underfed, substantially higher standing crops could be

obtained, and the potential for commercial net-pen culture of

hybrids in estuarine waters is excellent.

Kerby et al. (1983), cultured hybrids in freshwater ponds and
in cages in estuarine waters in North Carolina. Cages were 0.5m3
and stocked at densities of 100, 150 and 200 fish/m3 with hybrid

fingerlings averaging 44.6 gm. Fingerlings were dipped in a

vaccine solution to protect against vibrosis. Fish were fed to

satiation 2-3 times daily with a pelleted commercial trout chow.

After 226 days survival averaged 95% and mean weight per fish 333

gm. Growth rate was approximately 1.9g/fish/day with an FCR of
1.58:1. Biomass at harvest averaged 46 kg/m3 with a maximum of 62
kg/m3. They concluded hybrids can be grown to market size within
18 months at densities of 200 fish/m3. Lower stocking densities

exhibit slightly better growth rates, but less overall production.

Stocking larger size fingerlings also appeared to be advantageous

in cage culture.

69 -

Fingerlings averaging 20gm were stocked at densities of

10,000 and 15,000 fish/ha in freshwater ponds. Fish were fed to

satiation 2-3 times per day with a commercial salmon diet and

ponds aerated mechanically. Survival averaged 50% in the low

density ponds and 93% in the high density ponds. Mean weight was

465 gm at the low density and 351 gm at the high density. FCR

averaged 1.58:1 and standing crops were 2312 kg/ha and 4886 kg/ha

in the low and high density ponds. Hybrids can be grown to market

size in ponds in 15-18 months. Standing crops should be able to

reach 5000 kg/ha which is considered to be a c6mmercial density of

channel catfish raised in ponds.

The potential for hybrid bass culture in cages or pens in

Apalachicola Bay is excellent. Poj,.id culture using fresh or

brackish water also holds promise. Closing the reproductive cycle

would allow fingerlings to be produced earlier in the year for

stocking in April producing a marketable crop by December.

Hybrids are not affected by winter temperatures in the bay,

although growth rates are minimal. Limted marketing studies

indicate the hybrid could sell as a food fish for $3-4 per lb live

weight. A much more lucrative market may exist for raising

stockers for a put and take freshwater recreational fishery, but

would require a hatchery. The hybrid's status as a game fish is

presently under revision to allow its culture and sale as a food

fish. With such excellent market prices, the economic feasibility

appears positive and a pilot study is highly recommended. The

pilot study administered by ANES should demonstrate the latest

culture techniques suitable to Apalachicola Bay and an economic

profile to show the potential for investment in hybrid bass

aquaculture.

G. Sturgeon

The Gulf of Mexico sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus desotoi)

once ranged from Tampa Bay to the Mississippi River. Due to the

sturgeon's anadromous behavior, large size, and reproductive

requirements, populations are easily overfished. Today viable

populations have only been observed in the Suwannee and

Apalachicola Rivers and in Escambia Bay. Further fishing pressure

and alterations to the sturgeon's spawning habitats have

threatened these remaining populations. The only means to revive

the population and redevelop a commercial fishery may be through

hatchery production, stock replenishment and domestication of the

Gulf of Mexico sturgeon. 0

Life history, especially the time spent in the ocean, along

with reproductive behavior and larval development in rivers, is

poorly known for the sturgeon. Wooley (1984) has recently

completed a study on sturgeon movement and habitat in the

Apalachicola River. Population size is estimated to be from 180-

650 fish with an exploitation rate of 9.5%. This rate is

considered to be high due to snatch hooking of fish in the river

by recreational anglers and capture of sturgeon in trawls by both

bay and gulf shrimpers. Captured sturgeon are seldom returned to

the water. Sturgeon move to the mouth of the river in late March

71 -

and early April. It is during this time period that commercial

fishermen will catch sturgeon with a 9-10 inch stretch mesh nylon

net, hung 35-45 meshes deep with no leads. Sturgeon 25 lbs. and

over will get caught androll up in the: net where they can be

removed unharmed, if so desired.. Sturgeon can't always be fished

during this period due to surges of river water which fishermen

believe to be caused by operation of the dam. The surges may

last up to two weeks by which time the fish have moved up river.

To catch sturgeon the water must be dead (constant flow) like it

always was before the dam.

By mid-April the sturgeon have moved up river and

concentrate in the tailwaters of Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam

(JWLD). The fish like deep holes (20 ft. or more) and swift

current (2 ft/sec). Eggs ripen during may and June and this is

the time of year to fish sturgeon for their roe. Spawning is

believed totake place over hard bottoms on which the fertilized

eggs adhere. Conditions for spawning are not well known, but are

bel ieved to be related to habitat (rock bottom), temperature (22-
230C), depth (greater than 20 ft), flow (588-846m3/sec) and

possibly other water quality factors (Wooley, 1984). At low

velocities eggs will clump and be susceptible to fungus. At high

velocities eggs will not adhere properly and be swept downstream.

Almost nothing is known about larval development in rivers.

juveniles are believed,to migrate downstream becoming imprinted

to the chemosensory environment of their home rivers. Juveniles

then feed in the bay or gulf and may join the annual return up

river as early as age one (Huff). Commercial fishermen believe

there is a large gar population in the river which successfully

preys on the juvenile sturgeon keeping populations low.

Adults migrate back to the bay when temperatures fall below

180C, especially during the last part of October and the first

part of November. Many of the adults make a stop in the Brothers

River, where several deep holes also exist, prior to migrating

into salt water. Many small sturgeon (1/2 - 2 lbs.) are caught

in the bay during November. Sturgeon then return to the gulf to

overwinter. However, Wooley has shown that some sturgeon may

extend their freshwater residency year round in the hole below

JWLD.

Females are believed to sexually mature in 12 to 16 years

and males in 9 to 12 years. Gulf sturgeon may live over 75 years

and reach weights over 200 lbs. They are opportunistic feeders

with benthic invertebrates, amphipods and crabs forming a

significant portion of their diet in saltwater and plant material

and detritus in freshwater. The change in diet results in a

weight loss in freshwater and a weight gain in saltwater. The

abundance of the exotic clam, Corbicula fluminea, in the

Apalachicola River may be negatively affecting the sturgeon's

feeding habits resulting in the freshwater weight loss (Wooley

1984).

The ACF river system once supported a healthy sturgeon

fishery. Since the completion of JWLD, the fishery has steadily

declined. The last documented sturgeon caught above JWLD was in

1961. While overfishing has played a role in the population

decline, loss of habitat above ".TWLD may have effectively reduced

the maximum standing crop the river may support. That is,

sturgeon may have once spawned in places in the Chattahoochee and

Flint Rivers which are no longer accessible and may only have a

few remaining areas in the Apalachicola and Brothers Rivers in

which to spawn. JWLD may also have a negative impact on spawning

by altering normal flow conditions. The Russians have found that

dams reduce the effectiveness of spawning activity by halting the

spawning runs and causing the fish to increase its physical

activity in response to varying flows which may result in stress

and resportion of eggs. Thus, a number of factors, many of which

are not well understood, affect the spawning of sturgeon, the

hatching of the eggs, and post larval development. All these.

factors interact and play a role it-i survival and establishment of

a healthy population. Whether the present population is at or

near its maximum due to habitat loss or whether the river can

support an increased population is not known. Enhancement of the

population through culture techniques may provide a definitive

answer and hopefully re-establish a healthy population.

Attempts to culture sturgeon were first tried nearly 100

years ago in response to a decline in the lake sturgeon (A.

fulvescens) fishery in the Great Lakes. Lake sturgeon bring one

of the highest prices of any freshwater fish in the U.S. or

Canada and is valued not only for its flesh, but also for its roe

which is made into caviar. Most caviar produced in the U.S.

- 74

today does not come from sturgeon, but rather from paddlefish

(Polyodon spathula.). The sturgeon fishery in the Apalachicola

River never really developed a caviar market as there was only

one person with the know-how to properly produce the caviar. In

fact, dressed sturgeon presently only wholesales for $0.80 -

$1.00 per lb. However, considering the potential markets for

smoked sturgeon and caviar, its rapid growth rate, hardiness, and

being a low trophic level feeder, sturgeon are well suited for

culture. Both Japan and the Soviet Union have established

aquaculture programs for sturgeon and basic hatchery methods are

considered routine.

The Japanese have recorded growth to a size of 7-9 lbs. in

as little as 15 months. U.S. researchers have induced spawning-

in both the white sturgeon (A. transmontanus) and Atlantic

sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus). Presently, a few commercial

hatcheries in California are attempting to routinely reproduce

and culture sturgeon. Their long term success has not yet been

established.

The Russians culture five species of sturgeon at

approximately twenty hatcheries releasing 100 million fingerlings

a year. Recent advances in Russian culture techniques are not

readily available in the literature with most work being

published in the 60's and 70's. Translation and distribution of

recent Soviet literature on methods used in that country would

greatly help evaluate culture potential for species in the U.S.

While the Russians have had some success with ripening adult

sturgeon in captivity by mimicking natural conditions, the

traditional method is to inject both sexes in the dorsal

musculature or the peritoneal cavity with sturgeon pituitary and

hold the fish in tanks until ripe. Ripe spawners are killed,

gonads removed, eggs mixed with silt to reduce adhesiveness,

mixed with sperm for 4-5 minutes, and placed in incubators for

hatching. Depending upon the species and the temperature,

hatching requires from 50 to 264 hours.

The Russians initially made the mistake, as did early

American fish culturists, that fishery production could be

materially increased by releasing fry in great numbers, an

assumption that does not even hold true with respect to natural

spawning (Bardach et al, 1972). Presently larvae are reared by-
stocking at densities of 5000 to 2,0000/m2 in troughs filled with

running,water or in screen bottomed boxes floated in ponds. The

fry are intensively fed for 10 days on daphnia and cladocerans

and are then stocked in ponds at an average weight of 300 mg and

an 80-90% survival rate. The fry are protected from light which

seems to have an adverse effect on development. Fry are next

cultured in ponds for 1-3 months on a mixed diet of Daphnia and

oligocheate worms until a size of '75-100 mm (3-4 inches) is

reached. Overall survival from egg to fingerling is 35-40%. The

fingerlings are finally moved downstream to brackish water in

special live boats and released. This greatly reduces losses to

predation and at the same time allows the fingerlings to undergo

imprinting as is the natural case in the wild. The Russians

- 76

estimate 3% of the fingerlings survive the 8-15 years required to

reach sexual maturity.

The Soviets have attempted some pond culture of sturgeon with

some success. Work with a hybrid also appears promising; however,

very little of this information is available in the literature.

The Russians may have developed a technique to continually produce

caviar. Adult tagged females are maintained in large lakes where

they are captured each year during peak gonadal development, cut

open to remove roughly three-quarters of one ripe ovary, and then

sutured back up and released. The following year roe is removed

from the opposite ovary. This technique produces roe without

sacrificing the fish and should be studied for its applicability

in this country. -

Procedures for propagating and rearing sturgeon (A.

transmontanus) fry have been described by Doroshov et. al. (1983)

in California. Wild sturgeon are caught by hook and line in the

Sacramento River and San Francisco Bay and transported to shore in

a 500 1 (132 gal.) tank. Live fish are hauled to the hatchery in

a 1150 1 (300 gal.) tank which may hold 4-7 fish for 3 hours. At
the hatchery brood fish are placed in 10 m3 (2642 gal.) tanks with

a water flow of 50 1/min. at 130C. Fish collected from brackish

water are first acclimated to fresh water over a 24 hour period.

Sex and gonad development are checked by taking the fish out of

water except for a tube supplying water into the mouth, and making

a midventral 2-3 cm incision anterior of the pelvic fins. The

animal is sutured-up and released within ten minutes with little

77 -

stress. Ovulation was induced by injecting common carp or

sturgeon pituitary intermuscularly at a dosage of 3-8 mg dried

gland (diluted in 1 ml distilled water) per kg of body weight.

Frequency of injections varies with the stage of oocyte

development. The females are then placed in 1300 1 (343 gal)

circular tanks with 10-15 1/min flow at. 12-15*C. Once ova are

noticed in the bottom of the tank, the female is removed,

ovulation verified, and the eggs removed by sacrificing the fish.

Fecundity ranged from 7600 to 10900 egg-s per kg of body weight

(3450-4950 per lb). Sperm are collected by manually stripping

hormone induced males and diluting 1:200 with water just prior to

fertilization. Eggs were fertilized using the Russian method of

rinsing and silting and placed in .18 1 MacDonald incubators at a

density of 400-800g of eggs (30,0010-60,000 eggs) with a flow of

4-7 1/min at 14-160C. Hatching begins during the seventh day of

embryonic developmeqt and continues for up to 35 hours with

success closely paralleling fertilization rate. The researchers

have now developed a mechanical siltation and incubation unit

which causes de-adhesion of eggs an d allows newly hatched larvae

to be carried directly to holding tanks (Monaco et al. 1983).

This reduces manual labor as from 5 to 8 people are needed for a

single spawning event.

Fry were reared in a variety of tank sizes using different

foods and producing varied results. Live food consisted of Moina,

Tubifex and Artemia in combination and alone while four artificial

diets were also evaluated. Fish were fed to satiation. The

majority of mortalities occurred between 17 and 37 days post hatch

with the highest mortality observed in treatments with the longest

delays before exogenous feeding. Best growth was obtained with

live foods, however, semi-moist salmonid diets provided similar

survival rates and eliminated the large mortalities associated

with the transfer of fish from live food to artificial diets

(Buddington et al. 1984). Survival was mixed as was feed

conversion efficiency. Fingerling production was also varied, but

some sturgeon have been raised in captivity to 2.5 lbs. in 15

months.

While sturgeon culture has promising potential, many problems

need to be worked out before commercial feasibility is estab-

lished. major problems include the collection of broodstock,

larval diets, disease susceptibility, water quality problems es-

pecially ability to tolerate low oxygen levels, and temperature

sensitivity. Since sturgeon migrate from salt to fresh water to

spawn, it is not known if captive sturgeon held in fresh water can

breed without exposing them to saltwater between spawning seasons

nor whether or not a captive fish will spawn every year. A cul-

tured pond sturgeon produced for food may be possible within a few

years, but a profitable caviar culture operation may require 15-20

years to develop. The Russians have shown that the wild fishery

can be enhanced through the release of fingerlings and their work

with extracting caviar from captive adults should be closely

evaluated. The documentation of adult sturgeon overwintering in

the Apalachicola River indicates sturgeon might be domesticated

and cultured in fresh water.

Sturgeon steaks have been compared to sirloin and smoked

sturgeon sells for as much as $30 a pound in California. Caviar

from Great Lakes sturgeon wholesales for $30 per ounce. Caviar

often retails for $75 - $100 per ounce. Tropical fish wholesalers

in Florida purchase 3 to 6 inch fingerlings for $1.25 each f.o.b.

Los Angeles and wholesale them for $2.50 each f.o.b. Tampa. The

Gulf of Mexico sturgeon should be -able to develop markets with

similar prices. Capturing just the tropical fish trade in Florida

might support operating expenses of a pilot scale hatchery. The

State of Florida might be interested-in purchasing fingerlings for

public stockings if the fish can be bought for less than the cost

of establishing a public hatchery.

One approach might be to incorporate sturgeon hatchery

production into the multi-use facility described in the oyster

plan. This could be economical, especially if a number of

different species were to be spawned over time. If the facility

is initially operated as a joint public/private venture, the

governments role would be in research, development and transfer of

technology and management to the cooperative. The cost of such a

multi-use hatchery has not been itemized, but could easily exceed

$100,000. The hatchery would require a number of tanks of

different sizes, incubators, alltOMELtiC feeders, a water system, an

air system, equipment for culture of live foods, extensive

plumbing, and a back-up power system and heaters. Fry, fingerling

- 80

and brood ponds would be necessary as well as a live transport

tank and truck. If a hatchery was built just for sturgeon, then

it should realistically be built in Gadsden or Jackson County near

JWLD or at a site near the Brothers River.

Another approach would be to develop a sturgeon grow out

facility in freshwater ponds raising the fish to 2-3 lbs within 18

months. Ponds could utilize brackish water as well and net pen

culture might also be attempted. Ponds could be located in

Franklin County or in neighboring up-river counties. These

approaches are recommended as a pilot or demonstration project for

full biological and economic evaluation. Production of

fingerlings and release into the Apalachicola system may

eventually support a viable fishery again if habitat is sufficient

or if the fish are aided in their migrations to pass through the

dam. After the fishery is established, a modification of the

Russian caviar extraction might be employed by tagging fish and

leasing commercial fishermen the right to capture, remove roe, and

release the fish year after year on their way to spawn. Such a

fishery would be highly profitable as equipment would be limited

to a boat and nets with no support facilities.

Development of a sturgeon aquaculture program in the river

and bay holds great potential. Programs in Russia, South

Carolina, and California should be carefully studied and

monitored, prior to testing the feasibility in this area. The

81 -

program should be tied into the MUlti-1LLse facility and initially

managed by the State via the ANES.

H. Penaeid Shrimp

Shrimp are the most valuable fishery in the U. S. and are no

exception in Apalachicola Bay. Landings for 1981 were 4,787,717

lbs. with a value of $7,983,247 and for, 1982 3,047,102 lbs valued

at $6,399,351 (NMFS). However, the shrimp were caught both in the

bay and the gulf and as such cannot be directly compared economic-

ally with species harvested exclusively from the bay. All three

species of shrimp do utilize the estuary as a nursery grounds and

therefore are dependent on the continued integrity of the resource

for their survival.

White (Penaeus setiferus), pink (P,. duorarum), and brown (P.

aztecus) shrimp are the three commercially important species which

utilize the nursery at different times of the year and as a

result, are harvested at different times of the year. Basically,

all three shrimp spawn in the gulf in full strength seawater. The

eggs hatch and are carried by currents for two to three weeks as

they transform into post larvae (nauplius, protozoea, mysis, and

post mysis) where the few that survive (9.05% from spawned eggs

Kurata 1981) reach the estuary. The juveniles feed, grow and

mature in the estuaries. The importance of the estuarine habitat

to the life cycle of shrimp cannot be overstated. As nursery

habitat is destroyed through pollution or development, total

shrimp populations will be reduced. After spending 3-4 months on

the nursery grounds, the adolescent shrimp leave the nursery,

returning to the gulf to mature and reproduce. Most shrimp do

not live more than a year due to intense predation by a number of

organisms and fishing pressure exerted by man. However, it is

incorrect to say that shrimp only live one year.

White shrimp spawn from April through August in 4 to 17

fathoms (24-102 feet) and a female may lay between 500,000 and

1,000,000 eggs. They are primarily distributed from Texas to

Carrabelle. They arrive in the nursery beginning in the spring

where they may increase their weight more than four times a month.

They migrate from the nursery to the gulf during the fall months

when waters begin to cool. Some of the smaller whites will

overwinter in the estuary, but growth will be retarded by the

lower temperatures. Whites are the predominant species in

Apalachicola Bay and particularly like to seek sanctuary in East

Bay and St. Vincent Sound. They are principally fished in the bay

from July through November (70 plus count) and occasionally caught

in the passes in April and May (21-30 count) when currents bring

them into the bay from their spawning grounds.

Brown shrimp, locally referred to as hobos, spawn in the

winter farther offshore than whites and move into the nursery

during late winter or early spring to grow. Browns leave the bay

primarily in June and July and are heavily fished during the

summer months. Adults are nocturnal, burying themselves during

the day and feeding at night. Juveniles in the nursery do not

seem to be as strongly nocturnal and are often fished in the bay

both day and night.

Pink shrimp or hoppers are found in all coastal waters of

Florida. Pinks spawn year round in South Florida with principal

spawning in the panhandle occurring in the fall. Pinks enter the

nursery during early winter and exit during the late spring.

Pinks are believed to hibernate in bottom estuarine muds during

prolonged periods of cold weather. This hibernation, coupled with

the fact that fish tend to leave the estuary during cold weather,

results in a significant reduction in predation producing a bumper

spring crop. This is a theory postulated by Ingle which has never

been experimentally proven. Pinks tend to prefer the higher

salinity waters found at the east and west end of the bay.

The major question concerning the shrimp fishery in the bay

is whether to have shrimping in the bay or whether to close off

the bay to sh.rimping and allow the bay to be used exclusively as a

nursery grounds. The argument for closing the bay to shrimping is

primarily biological in that the nursery shouldn't be exploited.

After using the nursery to grow, the shrimp move out of the

estuary where they are captured.. The shrimp are bigger, worth

more money, and the season will last longer. By harvesting small

shrimp from the nursery, the shrimp aren't allowed to reach

maturity and less are recruited into the gulf shrimpery. Since

most of the bay shrimp are not yet mature, their diurnal migration

habits have not been perfected. Thus, small shrimp, such as

whites, will be captured at night while fishing for larger brown

shrimp during the summer. The biological concern is that the

fishery may be depleted by overfishing juveniles in the bay.

Another concern is that bay shrimping damages oyster bars and that

many immature fish, especially flounder and trout, are caught

inadvertantly and killed in the shrimp trawl. Closing all or a

portion of the bay to shrimping would then enhance the growth and

survival of a number of organisms dependent upon the nursery

during a critical stage of their development.

Bay shrimpers have counter arguments which are primarily

based on economics. While bay shrimpers do not fully understand

the biology, life cycles, and migrations of the three species of

shrimp, they do know the times of year the shrimp can be harvested

in the bay, the corresponding size of these shrimp, and the

potential price. The driving force behind any business is profit.

Bay shrimpers will only shrimp when there is sufficient shrimp to

be caught to be profitable. If the shrimp aren't around, then

they won't work, as fishing becomes too costly. Thus, they

believe economics protects the resource by preventing over

shrimping and allowing the resource to recover.

Entering the bay shrimping business is not nearly as capital

intensive as gulf shrimping. Overhead and depreciation are much

less since a smaller vessel is used and the range of fishing

effort is limited to the bay. Harvested bay shrimp are returned

to the docks the same day they are caught. Shrimp can be caught

in the bay year round; however, fishing usually slacks off during

cold winters. Larger whites are usually caught just inside the

passes in March and April, browns from May through July, smaller

whites from August to December and a few pinks during the winter.

The average bay shrimper fishes approximately.100 days per year

with an average catch of 200-300 lbs. per day. This is considered

an adequate living if prices remain stable. However, fishing is a

hit or miss proposition and this is why shrimpers believe the

economics of fishing protect the resource. Weather is a big

factor and bad weather can ruin good shrimping. Too much rainfall

or fresh water entering the estuary from the river seems to cause

white and brown shrimp to leave the bay. Shrimpers claim there

are just as many shrimp in the bay today as there were 20 years

ago, just more shrimpers.

The bottom line to shrimpers is profit. Some segments of the

industry believe the shrimp in the bay must be continually cropped

to maintain prices. That is, the higher the production, the

greater is the amount of shrimp harvested which results in a price

drop and the smaller the population of shrimp in the bay, the

hig.her the price. The shrimpers contend that shrimp left to

overwinter or migrate out of the bay and return will just produce

a bunch of large shrimp which will lower prices. They also

contend that many of the small shrimp they harvest will never

reach a larger size due to predation. They believe the white

shrimp will never be depleted and that East Bay is sufficient

nursery grounds to maintain a healthy population. These shrimpers

believe they are substantiated by the fact they continue to catch

shrimp year after year. However, this could also be interpreted

- 86

as being somewhat short sighted as a fishery may fail in any given

year for a number of reasons. A fisheries management plan for the

bay cannot adopt this attitude, but must instead develop

methodologies to protect and enhance the fishery.

During the 1920's, Apalachicola Bay was in its natural

condition and produced abundant harvests of oysters, crabs and

fish. Although the bay was plentiful with shrimp, none were

harvested as dealers would not buy what they considered to be

undersized shrimp. Bay shrimping began in the late 1930's when a

market developed for small shrimp. Some locals believe that by

1960, a definite downward trend could be seen in oyster production

due to the bay shrimping. During the 1960's a portion of the bay

presently bounded by the Intercoastal Waterway and the two

bridges, was closed off to shrimping for five years. The oyster

bars benefitted tremendously, as did the shrimp fishery. Small

shrimp in the newly closed,nursery area were protected and were

not captured until they grew larger and moved outside the closed

area. The season lasted longer and production increased.

Politics reopened the area and within three days of intense

fishing, the shrimp population in the area was nearly depleted.

Counts dropped from 60 to 96 per lb and many small fishes were

caught and killed in the nets. Gradually production outside the

area began to decrease as well, due to a lower amount of shrimp

coming out of the East Bay nursery area. Some shrimping elements

believe they are working harder and catching less shrimp.

Depletion of the bay shrimp fishery has been contended by many,

but there is not enough evidence to say this is certain. All this

points to a need to re-evaluate the closing off of portions of the

bay to shrimping or limiting the shrimping season so that the

nursery will be expanded and small shrimp protected during their

period of most rapid growth. One management approach which was

originally proposed by Ingle over :20 years ago and later

aggressively pushed for by George Kirvin, but which has never

received critical evaluation from a fisheries biology or

management viewpoint may be called the Ingle plan. The plan is

shown in Figure 2 and basically divides the bay into a northern

half for use as a nursery and oyster grounds, and a southern half

to be used for shrimping and fishing. Shrimping in the southern

half would only occur when sampling determined the shrimp to be.of

good size. The Ingle plan would also protect spawning grounds in

the gulf during April, May and June when white shrimp are known to

spawn.

The bay shrimpery should be carefully assessed to determine

its future viability. If a decline or depletion of the fishery is

predicted, then careful consideration should be given to the Ingle

plan or a similar plan. The plan, if implemented, should be

carefully monitored to assess its full effects on the shrimp

fishery in and outside of Apalachicola Bay. Another alternative

is to enhance the fishery or supplement the fishery through

mariculture.

In 1983, over one half of all shrimp consumed in this country

were imported. Shrimp consumption is projected to increase while

t:oz

Figure 2
INGLE PLAN

harvests from natural stocks are approaching their maximum

sustainable yield. Prices will continue to rise due to increased

demand, limited supply and escalating cost of fuel (NADP, 1983).

Shrimp farming will play an increasingly important role in

supplying shrimp for the U. S. market.

Shrimp culture can produce food for human consumption, bait

for recreation, and possibly seedstock for a fishery enhancement

program. Shrimp culture consists of a reproduction phase, a

hatchery phase, and final grow out. A predictable and consistant

source of seedstock (larvae) has been a major constraint to shrimp

culture. Controlling the maturation process has been achieved for

some species by manipulating light intensity (20-60%), photoperiod

(14 hrs light, 10 hrs dark), and temperature (22-280C).

Unilateral eyestalk abaltion has also been used to enhance

spawning. Control of reproduction to produce seed year round is a

high priority. Recent improvements in technology, including

artificial insemination and the production of hybrids may remove

the barriers from the reproduction phase and increase the

feasibility of commercial production. Commercial production

requires survival to be 20% or more. Shrimp larvae have also been

produced from sourcing, which is the capture of mature females in

the ocean and subsequent spawning in captivity. Both the white

and brown shrimp have reproduced in captivity, as well as many

other species.

The hatchery phase rears newly matched Nauplius larvae for 10

to 14 days to produce what is knowia as a postlarvae. Postlarvae

are then reared for an additional 5 to 10 days prior to stocking

for final growout. While the technology for the hatchery phase is

considered adequate to support a commercial operation, problems

which must be dealt with include the percent survival, variability

in different batches of offspring, control of water quality, foods

and feeding schedules for larval rearing, and disease-diagnosis

and control in the hatchery.

Post larvae may be stocked in ponds, tanks or raceways for

final growout. Food sized shrimp require 3 to 6 months growout to

produce 15 to 40 count shrimp, while bait shrimp require 1.5 to

2.5 months growout time to produce 60 to 100 count shrimp

(Lawrence 1983). Pond culture is the most common form of growout

and can be accomplished in a two or three phase system where

postlarvae intensively stocked in a small pond are thinned and

moved into successively larger ponds as the organisms grow.

Production can range from 500 to 2000 lbs/acre depending upon the

level of management, the use of feed and fertilizer, water quality

and exchange, and optimum stocking densities. Estuarine water can

be used in culture ponds. Temperatures should be between 18 and

31*C and salinities 10 to 40 ppt for good growout. Pond survival

has varied from 40 to 90% in different culture trials. A recent

study by Tatum in Alabama showed that shrimp trawlers used $35 of

diesel fuel for every 100 lbs of shrimp caught, while pond culture

of shrimp only required $12 of diesel fuel for every 100 lbs of

shrimp produced, making pond culture more energy efficient than

the shrimp fishery.

91 -

Shrimp may also be cultured in sel[Li-closed or closed

recirculating intensive systems., These systems require more

capital, a higher level of engineering, more management, and more

energy. A few commercial ventures are reported to be nearing

success with estimated production of a minimum of 50,000 lbs/

acre/year valued at $125,000/acres (NADP, 1983). In Taiwan,

shrimp are cultured intensively in 0.5 acre ponds with continuous

aeration and water circulation producing up to 3000 lbs. per half

acre.

Another method of shrimp culture presently being evaluated in

South Carolina should be closely monitored for potential

application in Florida. Old salt water impoundments originally

constructed to grow rice more than 100 years ago are being

assessed for shrimp culture. The impounded marshes perform the

same function as an unimpounded marsh, except that the inflow and

outflow of water can be controlled. Water level and control are

tied to the tidal cycle. The impoundments are drained at low tide

and cleaned of existing fish. The ponds are then flooded for 7 to

10 days, raising the water level each day, and finally maintaining

the water level at a minimum of 15 inches. Many ponds are kept at

24 inches depth to protect plants on which water fowl feed. Most

ponds have a dual use of water fowl management and shrimp culture.

Post larvae are then stocked at high densities in the pond and

left alone to grow. Four to five months later the ponds are

drained and shrimp harvested. So far yields have ranged from 30

to 1400 lbs. per acre. In addition, other fish and blue crabs may

be harvested. One 15 acre pond produced 854 lbs. of white shrimp,

488 lbs. of fish and 50 lbs. of crab worth nearly $3600. Not much

is known about managing such impoundments to increase yields.

However, two commercial ventures are in operation and if

successful, could have wide spread application in other coastal

areas.

A final mariculture tool of potential consideration is the

releasing of hatchery reared fry into the es tuary. This is a very

controversial subject area, but there is some limited evidence to

support such a program if the releasing is well organized

according to sound techniques to obtain positive results. The

Japanese have had some preliminary success to date (Kurata 1981)

and a recent highly sophisticated tagging and release program is

underway in Kuwait. The Japanese, using Kuruina shrimp

(P. japonicus), identified three successive periods of mortality

upon release of fry. Hatchery reared shrimp undergo a severe

initial mortality during the first 24 hours after release, a

variable intermediate mortality, and a stable low level mortality

from 3cm length to commercial size. The Japanese believe at 3cm

body length the kuruma shrimp acquire the general behavior of

adults and mortality closely parallels that normally found in the

wild. Mortality was found to be caused primarily by small fishes;

however, crowded conditions or insufficient*food will cause the

fry to disperse from the release area into more open areas where

survival is much less. The fitness of fry was determined by

evaluating the habitat, survival potential, and behavior of

93 -

shrimp. The results concluded that benthic juveniles (lcm) were

the best stage for releasing if the fry are adequately protected

against adverse conditions until. attaining an average length of

3cm.

The most favorable release sites were found to be where fry

settle on intertidal areas lying between the mean low water level

of neap tides and mean sea level. where the substrate is exposed

for up to 12 hours during low tides and covered by a few feet of

water at high tide Murata 1981). The Japanese construct man-made

nurseries called artificial tidelands for release of shrimp. The

tidelands enhance settlement of shirimp fry and attempt to keep

predatory fish away during low tides by manipulating physical

conditions such as elevation, wave action, currents, depth,

substrate, and water supply. The artificial tidelands harbor and

nurse the fry until they reach 3cm. and gradually move out of the

tidelands. A stocking figure which includes mortality is 5

million fry released onto 50ha (12:3.5 acres) at an average density
of 100 fry/m2 (2.6g/m2). However, as the fry grow they require

more food and thus room, so an additional 450ha (1111.5 acres) of

nursery area is required to keep the intermediate mortality within

the expected range. A higher elevation was found to be more

beneficial in settling higher numbers of fry and keeping predatory

fish out of the nursery area. A supplemental supply,of water is

necessary to maintain water quality. Waves and currents are

controlled with a breakwater.

A great deal of difficulty exists in proving conclusively the

effect of fry release on the yield of commercial catches due to

the role of natural fluctuations in shrimp populations. Annual

overall shrimp landings, once depressed, have increased since the

initiation of a fry release program in the Seto Island Sea.

However, the same situation might occur in a natural fishery.

Size frequency distributions at weekly intervals between wild and

released shrimp were used by the Japanese to estimate a recovery

of 5-8% of hatchery released shrimp. If the artificial tideland

can be used at least six times a year, a profitable cost/benefit

ratio can be attained. Additional work promoting production of

food organisms on the tideland and displacing all the larger

juveniles prior to the release of a new batch of fry will improve

the overall feasibility of a release program. However, much more

data will be required before this technique can be adequately

proven.

A second technique of shrimp enhancement is to release the

fry in an enclosure surrounded by a net fence. Continental

Fisheries, LTD (formerly Marifarms) in Panama City attempted this

technique from 1971-74 in West Bay (Kittaka 1981). The total area

used varied from 1000 to 1700 acres and was divided into a pen

(0.0625 inch mesh), a nursery (0.5 inch mesh), and a growing (0.75

inch mesh) area. Post larval white, brown and pink shrimp were

released into the pen at 0.3g. After the shrimp were grown to a

sufficient size, the pen was opened and the shrimp released into

the nursery area until they reached 1.lg mean weight. After one

to two more months the shrimp were released into the grow out

area. An attempt to remove both predatory and non-predatory fish

which compete for food was made with mixed results. Survival

rates immediately after release were 27% for browns, 87% for

whites and 55% for pinks. The recovery rates ranged from 2-13%.

The commercial success was never demonstrated and failure was

largely attributed to escape from the netted areas. However,

during one of the test years an above average harvest of over

100,000 lbs of white shrimp were caught by commercial shrimpers in

the bay system indicating some support for this type of release

program. On the other hand, recovery rates of shrimp released

into large impounded ponds along t1ie shore of West Bay ranged from

27-51% which was largely attributed to the absence of predators4

A release program for white shrimp in Apalachicola Bay might

be feasible if a number of questions can be answered. A small

scale gemonstration using net enclosures could be attempted at

reasonable cost and with little environmental impact. An

artificial tideland would cost more money and significantly alter

the environment in creating this new habitat, but if regularly

used under appropriate conditions as in Japan, might be

successful. Research would need to be performed on the site to

determine appropriate substrate, tidal cycles, elevation, water

quality, food supply, and control of predators. Behavior and

survival of white shrimp would need further study to estimate the

best stage or size for release and the size at which white shrimp

become strong enough to reasonably protect themselves in the

- 96

natural environment. Predatory fishes of shrimp at different life

stages need to be identified and the artificial tideland

manipulated to eliminate them. A sophisticated tagging program

would have to be designed to evaluate the merits of such a

program. Finally, the costs of such a program would have to be

compared to the added benefits showing up in commercial catches

and compared to the costs and returns of culturing shrimp to

market size in ponds. Pond culture may then prove to be more cost

efficient in the long term.

There are many technical areas of shrimp culture which can be

improved through research. More needs to be known about natural

reproduction and nutritional requirements of different species

even though much has already been discovered and is presently

being applied. Comparative studies on growth and behavior of

different species under different culture conditions are needed.

Least cost diets for specific species need to be developed for

each stage of growth and for different culture systems. More

information is also needed on predation and control of diseases.

A lack of sites and competition for available sites has

constrained development as has the complexity of the permitting

process. Inclusion of mariculture into coastal zone planning and

establishing a lead agency to assist in developing the industry

could minimize these constraints.

Several economic estimations for shrimp culture have been

generated by the shrimp research group at Texas A & M (Johns et

al., 1981; 1983 Pardy et al 1983). One of their examples is shown

- 97

in Table 3. Net profits can range from $120 up to $2000 per acre

depending upon the success of the operation. Realistic cost and

profit information is needed by lending! institutions in order to

adequately assess loan applications.

The potential for shrimp culture in the Apalachicola Bay area

is good. Available sites for ponds exist along St. Vincent Sound.

Processors, labor and markets are already in existence. A

commercial source of white shrimp post larvae exists in Panama

City. The only factor absent is the interest to develop a culture

operation. Expansion into a hatchery phase could be part of the

multi-use facility described in the oyster plan. Production of

bait shrimp requires less time and costs less than production of

food sized shrimp, yet has a producer value equal to that of food

sized shrimp. Bait shrimp, especially whites, are in demand

throughout the coastal area. The culture of either bait or food

sized shrimp would benefit the fis1iery resources of Apalachicola

Bay by providing a supplemental source of shrimp for processors,

providing an economic alternative for financially stressed bay

shrimpers, and by relieving some of the fishing pressure being

exerted on the nursery. A combination of shrimp culture and bay

management (such as the Ingle plan) are recommended to insure the

long term viability of the shrimp industry in Apalachicola Bay.

Table 2
Penaeid Shrimp Culture Production Costs

ASSUMPTIONS:

Best Expected Least
Case Case Case

Number of acres 250 250 250

Production (heads-off)
Pounds/acre 1055 931 780

Days in pond 210 196 182

Size of shrimp (lb)
at harvest 0.071 0.062 0.051

Price/lb (heads-off) $5.43 $ 4.80 $ 4.80

Initial density/acre 40,000 40,000 40,000

Harvest density/acre 22,302 22,384 22,716

Percent survival 55.7 55.9 56.8

Source: Johns, et al. (1983)

Table 3
Panaeid Shrimp Culture Production Costs

PROJECTIONS: Best Expected Least
Case Case Case

Gross revenue $1,435,023 $1,119,848 $ 937,846

Variable costs

Seedstock 149,685 149,685 149,685
Feed 269,812 234,301 205,287
Labor 57,60 56,456 55,652
Other 73 285. 73,157 73,033

TOTAL $ 550,042 $ 513,599 $ 587,657

Fixed costs

Salaries 43,200 43,200 43,200
Depreciation 86,254 86,254 86,254
Interest 267,480 267,302 266,626
Other 20 268 20,268 20,267

TOTAL FIXED COSTS $ 417,201 $ 417,023 $ 416,347

TOTAL COST $ 967,243 $ 930,622 $ 900,347

Net return (before tax) $ 467,780 $ 189,226 $ 37,842

Federal income tax $ 21.5,180 $ 87,044 $ 7,568

Net return (after tax) $ 252,600 $ 102,182 $ 30,274

Required return to other
equity $ 88,101 $ 88,101 $ 88,101

Economic profit $ 16.4,499 $ l4r081 $ -57,827

Break-even price/lb $ .3.66 $ 3.99 $ 4.60

Break-even production (lb) $ 36,504 $ 35,121 $ 33,965

Net profit/acre $1,495.34 $ 408.72 $ 121.10

Source: Johns, et al. (1983)

101)

I. Baitfish Culture

The culture of baitfish began in the early 19001s; however,

significant progress and expansion was not attained until the

1950's and 1960's. Most baitfish are cultured in freshwater and

as a result most available information is derived from the

freshwater baitfish industry. Saltwater anglers enjoy fishing

with live bait, most of which is trapped in shallow estuarine

areas. The major species sold as bait along the northern Gulf of

Mexico are penaeid shrimp (Penaeus spp) and the Gulf killifish

(fundulus grandis). Killifish are commonly known as bull minnows

and are used to catch red drum, spotted seatrout, and flounder. A

2 to 3 inch bull minnow is considered desirable bait. Due to

increased recreational fishing, and a limited n atural spawning

eason, qupplies of bull minnows have fallen way short of demand
Sand this has resulted in research aimed at producing bull minnows

commercially.

The majority of research on commercial culture of bull

minnows has been performed by researchers at the Claude Peteet

Mariculture Center in Alabama (Tatum 1979, 1982; Trimble 1981).

Culture occurs in a three phase pond technique consisting of a

brood pond phase, hatching pond phase, and grow-out pond phase.

This procedure results in high survival of disease-free eggs and

fry and producing multiple crops of bull minnows for the live bait

market. While further research is required, present results are

sufficient to recommend commercial culture.

101 -

Ponds may average 0.2 acres and 5 ft. in depth. Brood fish

averaged 9.6 gm and were stocked at approximatly 10,000 fish/acre

and a ratio of two females to one male. Ponds were periodically

fertilized with chicken manure at 250 lbs/ac and oiled with a

mixture of oil and diesel fuel (1 qt. oil to 9 qts. diesel

fuel/surface acre) to prevent predation by insects. Spawning

begins in March (20*C) and gradually decreases until it ceases in

August. Spanish moss spawning mats are placed around the edges of

the brood ponds and the egg-laden mats are removed every 7-13 days

and transferred to hatching ponds. Fish then hatch and grow in

these ponds until they reach an average of 0.5 gm where they are

then transferred to grow out ponds. Newly hatched fry may develop

on natural foods available in the fertilized ponds or supplemented

with commercially available minnow chow. Grow out ponds may be

stocked at densities up to 100,000 fish/acre (roughly 110 lbs/ac).

Fish are fed twice daily at 10% of the total biomass. Minnow

chows produce lower yields than trout chows, but give higher

returns over costs. Ponds are harvested at 55 day intervals when

fish average 2-5 inches and 2-5 gm in weight. Feed conversion

averaged 2.4:1 and survival was usually greater than 90%. Three

successive crops can be produced with a. combined annual production

of 1770 lbs/ac. The operation can produce over 600,000 marketable

size fish per acre. Since bull mij,.inows are sold by the dozen,

gross revenue can exceed $45,000 per acre (Tatum).

Research needs include much work in genetics and reproduction

to spawn bull minnows.year round and select fast growing, disease

- 10:2

resistant strains. Most knowledge about nutrition has been

borrowed from trout research and specific information related to

baitfish is lacking. Baitfish ponds may produce many undesirable

algae and aquatic plants which are not easily controlled without

killing the fish or resulting in oxygen depletion. Control of

predation by a number of organisms is badly needed. Access to

suitable coastal sites is often a problem too.

Bull minnows are seldom used as bait in Apalachicola River

and Bay primarily because they are unavailable. They are,

therefore, considered an untested bait. White shrimp in the 40-50

count range are the preferred bait. Dead shrimp are purchased

from bay shrimpers. Live shrimp are usually caught by fish camp

operators or individuals who specialize in live bait capture.

Boats must be equipped with live wells and tows must be slow,

lasting not more than ten minutes to insure the shrimp are

captured alive. Anglers purchase the live shrimp for $2.25 per

dozen; however, fish camp operators don't believe there is much

profit in bait shrimping, but rather it is a necessary part of

their overall operation. The camp must own and ope rate a boat

which includes paying a crew, and shrimp are not always caught.

The cost of such an operation is not known, but should be

determined and compared with pond bait shrimp culture in Alabama.

If the costs are significantly lower, a bait shrimp operation

could be started to steadily supply the recreation market

throughout its entire season.

103

The Apalachicola River and Bay system supports a large

recreational industry. Production of killifish and shrimp for

saltwater fishing and minnows, elvers, shiners and crawfish for

freshwater fishing could be a profitable business. Brackish water

sites are not as available as freshwater sites. Research in

Alabama should be monitored and the feasibility of marketing

baitfish be determined prior to the development in Franklin

County. More information needs to be collected from recreational

fishermen angling in the bay as to what species are biting, where

they are hitting, and what types of bait are catching the fish. A

demonstration of both shrimp and bull minnows could be evaluated

through the Sanctuary research and education program.

J. Other Species

Many other species naturally occurring in the bay and/or gulf

may have culture potential for Apalachicola Bay. Full assessments

of these species were not made due to a lack of culture

information, priority preference of species already discussed, and

time constraints. However, some of these species are worth

mentioning for future consideration.

Black or striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) support the largest

marine finfish fishery in Apalachicola Bay. Landings in 1982 were

over 652,000 lbs. (NMFS). Landings have historically been much

higher and the mullet fishery may be experiencing an overfishing

problem. Although they spawn in the fall in oceanic waters,

mullet spend most of their lives in estuaries where they feed on

104

benthic detritus, diatoms and algae. As primary consumers they

have excellent potential as a mariculture species, as they can be

produced in large volume at low cost. In fact, mullet are both

monocultured and polycultured in brackish and fresh water ponds in

many countries, including India, Indonesia, Taiwan, China, Hong

Kong,, Italy and Israel. However, their low price and poor

marketability to American consumers restrict their development as

a mariculture candidate. They might be stocked in low densities

in a polyculture with another more valuable species in a net-pen

situation. Researchers in Texas have used this technique to

increase overall productivity, maintain better water quality, and

reduce fouling.

Flounders (Paralichthys @M) once supported an active fishery

in Apalachicola Bay and are, in fact, a commercially important

species landed in Franklin County representing 94,841 lbs worth

$49,971 in 1982 (NMFS). Many local residents believe bay

shrimping caused the decline in the flounder fishery in the bay as

many juvenile flounder get caught in the shrimp trawl and never

reach harvest size. Flatfishes, including flounder, plaice, sole,

halibut and turbot were among the first marine fishes to be

experimentally cultured. Flatfish larvae were stocked in large

numbers at the turn of the century primarily in the Irish Sea and

accomplished nothing other than to provide a free meal for

various predators (Bardach 1972). Flatfish are now routinely

spawned and cultured in Great Britain in enclosed sea lochs, net

cages, and tanks and raceways using heated power plant effluent.

105 -

Winter and smooth flounder have been cultured in the northeastern

U.S. Larval rearing, feed formulations and diseases are presently

the major biological constraints to successful culture.

Development of more oyster reefs and the prohibiting of bay

shrimping over these reefs may be all that is needed to restore a

flounder fishery in Apalachicola Bay.

Blue crabs (Callinectes saL)idus) are a commercially important

species harvested out of Apalachicola Bay. In 1982, 982,654 lbs

valued at $238,379 were landed in Franklin County (NMFS). Wakulla

County traditionally*has the highest landings in the state. The

waters off of Franklin and Wakulla Counties are considered to be

important spawning grounds for blue crabs which migrate up the

west coast of Florida from as far south as Charlotte Harbor. The

Apalachicola River may act as both a window inhibiting further

westward migrations and as a possible larval transport mechanism,

for reaching offshore waters more suitable for larval growth and

development. Researchers at the University of Miami reared blue

crabs from egg to market size in 3-4 months from hatching, but

survival was very poor. Temperature and salinity factors appear

to be critical in larval development. Research has not

progressed, most likely due to the present low pr ice received per

organism and competition from the -commercial fishery. Production

of soft crabs has considerably more profit potential and in fact,

is practiced to a limited extent in Franklin County.

Mussels in Apalachicola Bay are small and considered to be a

competitor for space with oysters. However, a much larger mussel

106

has been reported to be found in certain parts of the bay and is

reported to have good taste, but does not have the characteristic

reddish-pink color when steamed. Techniques for mussel culture

are well known and good markets exist. A good research or thesis

project would be to seek out this mussel, study its biology and

test its potential for culture.

Rudloe (1983) has performed some preliminary work with the

culture of the slipper lobster (Scyllarides nodifera) in tanks

designed to resemble a natural looking habitat. The organisms

were captured at the post larval or puerulus stage as they moved

inshore and reared to 30 cm in 16-18 months at 20-260C and 30-

35 ppt. They were fed mussels (Modiolus sp) at 1.26 mussels/day/

lobster, or clams (Rangia sp) at 1 clam/day/lobster and were

fairly non-aggressive towards each other. Slipper lobster have

good consumer acceptance and may have a future potential cultured

in cages locatedin higher salinity waters or in intensive tank

culture.

Culture methods for the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenario) and

scallop (Argopecten irradians) exist, but these organisms require

higher salinities than are normally found in Apalachicola Bay.

Limited work has also been done with the commercially important

stone crab (Menippe mercenaria), but presently the commercial

fishery would out compete a cultured crab in the marketplace as

the crab is released after the claws are removed. Research in

Texas with Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) resulted in

poor survival in ponds and a negative assessment to their

107 -

potential as a mariculture species. Preliminary work with the

dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus) is promising as these fish readily

spawn and reach market size in as little as three months. Larval

rearing and cost effective feeds are currently constraints;

however, once the problems are solved, two crops per year might be

cultured in cages in Apalachicola Bay if fluctuating salinities

are not a constraint. Gafftopsail catfish (Bagre marinus) may

have culture potential, but have never been investigated. A

commercial fisherman once captured a school of these fish as they

entered the bay on the first full moon before Easter, herded the

school into Nicks Hole where he fericed them off, and then fed,

harvested and sold the catfish over a two month period.

K. Species Assessment Summary

A great deal of research has been accomplished on culturing

marine finfishes, but much more research followed by pilot

demonstrations and economic analysis, are necessary prior to

commercial development of most of the species assessed in this

section. The major biotechnical constraints in Apalachicola Bay

are temperature and salinity. Seasonal changes in temperature

normally require some species to leave the estuary for warmer

waters. Confined organisms cannot leave and will either cease

growing, die or must be artificial'y maintained. Rapidly

fluctuating salinities cannot be tolerated by some species and the

generally lower salinities found in the bay are prohibitive to

others. However, not all species candidates are limited by these

- 108

constraints as many can be overwintered and acclimated to these

physical changes. Marine finfish nearly all hatch out at a very

small size which means they have very tiny mouths. Initial

feeding of most of these fry is presently a constraint or the

issing link in closing the culture cycle. Overall, Apalachicola

Bay offers excellent water quality and mariculture potential.

Baitfish, shrimp, hybrid bass, red drum and sturgeon appear

to be the most promising species for culture in ponds or cages.

Stock enhancement should presently be limited to recreational

species as the recreation industry is the only user segment of the

fishery which can support such a program. Applied research

through demonstration of a species potential in the bay or on

shore in upland sites should be coordinated through the Estuarine

Sanctuary's research and education program.

The species with the greatest mariculture potential and with

the greatest economic impact on Franklin County was not assessed

in this section. That species is the oyster and a thorough

assessment is presented in the following section.

109

VII. OYSTER SPECIES PLAN ASSESSMENT

The American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is considered the

most commercially important resource in Apalachicola Bay. The

foundation of the local economy, employment and social structure

is based on the oyster. This in turn has led to increased

pressure on the resourc e resulting in a declining fishery over the

past few years. The decline has been due to a combination of

factors including overfishing, inadequate enforcement of laws,

social conflict and policies, environmental stresses from sewage,

runoff, urban development, and manmade bay alternations, and

natural mortality. The net results are a faltering economy and an

ill managed resource. The solution is to improve resource

management through a cooperative effort combining biological

information, economic analysis, education, and awareness of

sociological impact. This necessitates improved communication

among workers and dealers in the industry, other residents of the

county, and representatives of government.

A. Industry Status

Although record harvests were achieved from 1978 through

1981, many local industry members believe the Bay's fisheries,

especially oysters, have been declining since 1970. During this

period many Virginia companies came down and purchased anything

which could be tonged (shell, seed and oysters) to replant in

Chesapeake Bay. There were no laws to protect the resource and

many locals believe this was the beginning of a downward trend.

110 -

At the time, the county reportedly produced 20,000 gallons per day

of shucked oysters. However, today overfishing of oysters is the

major problem affecting the productivity of the bay. The number

of oyster tongers has increased from less than 500 in 1970 to

nearly 1150 in 1984 while productive oyster acreage has remained

roughly the same. This means there are more tongers spending more

time looking for the same amount. of legal sized (3 inches or

larger) oysters. This increased. pressure results in a reduced

amount of legal sized oysters and an increased amount of

undersized oysters harvested from the bay. It is somewhat

analogous to a lawn which is repeatedly mowed without allowing any

time for the grass to grow. The need then is for increased

production through better management.

In 1983, the Department of Natural Resources reported a total

of 4,942,000 lbs (450,514 gallons) of shucked oyster meats pro-

duced from Apalachicola Bay. The oysters were processed by 71

dealers and had a total value of $41,126,000. This does not in--

clude oysters trucked in from other Gulf states and processed in

Apalachicola. The poundage roughly equates to 540,740 bushels of

oysters or 470 bu per permit per year. A tonger could easily

harvest this amount in 20-30 working days. Since 470 bushels are

not enough from which to earn a living, most permitted tongers

would seem to only work part time. Alternatively, many oysters

reportedly are taken from the bay ZLnd leave the county without

being recorded by the DNR which further contributes to

overfishing. overall there doesn't seem to be enough oysters to

satisfy the yearly income needs of all those permitted.

Rockwood (1973) made a comprehensive analysis and recommended

a management program for the Apalachicola oyster industry. Few of

his recommendations have been enacted, yet nearly all of his

conclusions remain valid today. The DNR, Florida Sea Grant, and

the Apalachicola National Estuarine Sanctuary have sponsored

several oyster conferences and workshops for oystermen, shuckers

and dealers to agree on appropriate management techniques for the

resource. Until this can be accomplished, the resource is

expected to continue to decline.

Problems in Apalachicola Bay came to a head during the spring

of 1984 when the bay was closed for nearly a month. Harvesters-

were hard pressed as cash flow came to a halt. Allegations were

made as to reasons for the closure and the methods and frequency

of testing for coliform bacteria. Seafood workers actively

engaged in the political process and a number of problems of the

industry surfaced. The action resulted in the Governor activating

and directing an interagency task force to protect, conserve and

enhance Apalachicola Bay and the local seafood industry and local

economy.

In summary, there is really nothing wrong with the oyster

population in Apalachicola Bay. The population is very fecund,

with few pests and little disease. Overfishing is presently the

major problem as the resource has been nearly picked clean. The

biological solution is to cultivate more oysters. This is a

112

highly scientific procedure which requires expertise to do the job

correctly and carry it out at every level of management. This

must be accomplished in conjunction with increased education and

mandatory cooperation at all levels and between all users in

managing, exploiting and protecting the resource.

B. Biology

As water temperatures rise to about 260C, oysters begin to

spawn. Fertilization is external. Eggs and sperm in the water

stimulate the release of more and iniore sperm and eggs until mass

spawning occurs. An oyster may SPZLwn several times during the

spawning season which may last from April to November. Eggs soon

hatch into trochophore larvae which develop into pelagic veliger

larvae which swim for 2-3 weeks before settling on suitable

substrate and are termed spat.

Apalachicola Bay is wellsuited to the growth of oysters.

The American oyster, Crassestrea virginica is the dominant

species, however a smaller species, Ostrea equesris does occur in

the bay. Although salinities may Nrary rapidly, negatively

affecting the glycogen content at different times of the year,

oyster growth and reproduction remaLin excellent. Salinities vary

widely within the bay and may range from 0-42 ppt at Porters Bar

to 16-43 ppt at Indian Pass over a year (Ingle, 1951). However,

the rapid growth is due primarily to the warm temperatures and the

Apalachicola River which brings into the estuary enormous

quantities of nutrient-laden fresh water known to increase the

113

size or volume of oyster meats. Local harvesters have always

known that when the winds are blowing from the east, the best

oystering will be west of the river and vice versa. This is

because the wind blows the fresh water over oyster bars and the

oysters through osmosis increase their water content.

Phytoplanktont bacteria and detritus produced in the bay are an

additional source of food for oysters. A 3 inch oyster can easily

be produced in a year's time and oysters have been known to reach

the legal size from spat in as little as 39 weeks (Ingle, 1952).

Organisms which compete with oysters for substrate space

include barnacles, Balanus improvisus, limpets, Crepidula

fornicata, mussels, Mytilus spp., and bryozoans, Schizoporella

IM. Barnacles and mussels can cover oysters, suppressing growth,

while limpets were found to grow as fast as oysters during the

first few weeks of post larval life. Both organisms compete with

oysters for setting space ultimately reducing the number of

oysters per unit of space. Predators include the oyster drill,

Thais haemastoma; the crown conch, Melogena corona; whelks,

Busycon spp.; flatworm (leeches), Stylochus frontalis; stone

crabs, Mennippe mercenaris; blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus; and

black drum Pogonias cromis. The fungal parasite, Perkinsis

marinus (Dermocystidium marinum), does not extensively occur in

the bay. Blue crabs are always a pest and do their greatest

damage on small oysters. While black drum are a severe pest in

Louisiana, there has been no evidence to indicate black drum to be

a pest in Apalachicola Bay. Almost all oyster predators,

114 -

especially drills, have a preference for higher salinities and so

depredation by these predators only occurs during periods of high

salinities. Salinity regimes in A4?alachicola Bay are more

favorable to the oyster than their predators.

C. Government Effort and Service

Government has provided a great deal of support for the

oyster industry and Franklin County. The DNR is the most active

agency maintaining a shellfish sanitation lab in Apalachicola,

providing programs in oyster relaying and reef building,

performing research on oysters, managing state owned lands and

parks, administering the Apalachicola National Estuarine

Sanctuary, and providing enforcement through the Marine Patrol-.-

The DER attempts to minimize pollution threats to the bay through

the permitting process while HRS monitors the oyster industry from

a public health viewpoint. Florida Sea Grant has provided funds

for research in the bay and provides some technical service

through a marine advisory extension agent. University assistance

has primarily come from FSU due to its close proximity to

Apalachicola Bay and expertise in marine biology and oceanography.

In the federal government the FDA is concerned with shellfish

sanitation, and the Department of Commerce collects fisheries

statistics through NMFS and funds Sea Grant through NOAA.

D. Artificial Reef Construction

Since 1949, over 800 acres of artificial oyster reefs have

been constructed in Apalachicola Bay. Their locations are shown

in Figure 3. The program seems only to be limited by a lack of

funds and a controversy as to the correct method of constructing

reefs. The DNR estimates an average of 5500 bu/acre of shell are

used to build a solid reef a minimum of six inches off bottom.

The DNR construction costs average $3700/acre of reef with an

initial cost benefit ratio of $2.38 for every $1.00 expended.

This benefit continues to grow over the years as oysters continue

to be produced without any additional expenditures. The DNR

allows harvesting to begin anywhere from 14 to 24 months after

planting. Production is estimated at 400 bu/ac/yr but some reefs

have been recorded as producing 700/bu/ac/yr with 1200 bu/ac/yr

seeming to be a maximum under good management techniques. While

the program receives widespread community support, it also

receives much criticism as to the methodology employed in reef

construction. The criticism ranges from they (DNR) don't know

what they're doing, to just going out there and dumping the shells

in a pile, to constructing reefs which never produce.

1. Methods of Construction

The Ingle method was the first method employed and its

effectiveness is witnessed by the fact that those early reefs are

still producing oysters today. The method is highly technical and

must be carried out by a trained and experienced crew. The

116 -

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Figure 3
ARTIFICIAL OYSTER REEFS IN APALACHICOLA BAY

Source: DNR

substrate must first be checked and must be fairly firm with

little or no soft mud. A mixture of sand and mud is best. The

idea is to raise the level of shell 1-1.5 ft. off the bottom

forming a permanent structure. The shell is brought out to the

site on a barge. How the shell is laid is of great importance.

The barge is set in place by sinking two spuds into the substrate

to anchor the barge on each side and prevent movement. Shell is

then blown off one side of the barge. The results are

continuously checked by probing with an aluminum pole to insure a

solid foundation is being built. When a firm sufficiently thick

layer of shells is verified by probing, unloading of cultch

ceases, the spuds are raised and the barge moved to a new barren

area of bottom and the process is repeated. The new area should

be as close as possible to the Qriginal plantings. Time of the

year is also important. Reefs should only be constructed during

the spring and summer months so that newly created reefs are

settled by oyster spat and not by other organisms or plants.

Alternatively, a lower foundation using green or unaged clutch may

be layed down at any time of the year. A final layer of clean,

bleached cultch would then be constructed on top of the lower

foundation during the spring and summer months. This would help

insure maximum set and reduce competition for space by undesirable

organisms (i.e. barnacles, limpets and mussels).

Other methods have been employed over the years utilizing one

spud or no spuds and with varying degrees of success. One

possibility is to tie the front of the barge to an anchor 75 to

118 -

100 ft away from the barge. Buoys are then placed 50 to 60 ft

from each side of the barge. The barge is then allowed to pivot

in a pendulum fashion between the two buoys. As the barge swings

towards one bouy, cultch is sprayed off the opposite side in a

steady stream moving the barge towards the bouy. The process is

then reversed. Frequent probing must still take place. Once the

reef is,completed, the barge is moved to an adjacent spot.

- Reef building is a painstaking, time consuming operation.

Correctly blowing off all the shell on a fully loaded barge is

difficult to complete in one days time and the barge must be

anchored overnight. Presently, a fully loaded DNR barge is

brought on site in the morning and fully emptied within 4 hours by

blowing shell from both sides. The barge then returns to the dock

and is reloaded with shell for the next. day. The operation has

been designed to fit into a normal 8-5 workday so as to avoid

overtime and stay within budget. A similar method was

successfully employed years ago on a private oyster lease. DNR

has done very little monitoring and evaluation of its reef

construction activities.

Determining the proper method of reef construction should be

a high priority. Oyster cultivation in Louisiana is a put and

take method where the reef construction is more like planting a

field of corn where the cultivator comes back and harvests by

digging up the entire reef. The Florida method developed by Ingle

is permanent. Once built the reef keeps producing year after year

for a one time investment. Research should be designed to

11,9

determine which method is the most productive over time and most

cost efficient. Increasing reef construction efforts should

increase oyster production in the bay. The feasibility of

subcontracting reef construction to the private sector should also

be examined as well as methods to pay for construction by the

industry. A first step would be to identify and tank the best

areas in the bay for planting. Substrate, hydrography, salinity

and proximity to producing reefs are factors for consideration.

Rehabilitation of old, unproductive bars to increase their

productivity should also be examined for cost effectiveness. The

improvement of old grounds should only be attempted when it is

certain that conditions are favorable for the set and growth of

oysters as some combination of conditions may have led to the

demise of the bar. Conditions to be avoided include exposure to

silt, shifting sand, potential storm damage, excessive or

prolonged exposure to fresh water or high salinity conditions,

rapidly vacillating salinities of wide range, and prevalence of

parasites.

Three possible permanent reef configurations have been

identified and should be evaluated as to their ease of

construction, cost, and productivity. The configurations have

been termed the pile or dome shaped reef, the row reef, and the

flat reef, and are depicted in Figure 4. All may be constructed

by the Ingle method or a method specifically suited to their

configuration.

120

CULTCH DOME

CULTCH
CUL,

CULTCH :::@@@@FLAT

FIGuRE 4
Reef Configurations

The dome configuration is formed by blowing shell off the

barge into one large pile which slowly spreads out and settles.

Many such piles already exist in the bay. The top of the domes

are readily visible, lying a foot or so below the water surface.

The upper portion of these domes are completely barren of any kind

of attached or commensal life and cultch remains clean. The

reasons for this are unknown, but may be caused by wave

interaction preventing setting or organisms. Live oysters and

associated organisms are found along the outskirts of the dome 15

to 20 ft away from the dome top and in 3 or more feet of water. A

well designed monitoring program should determine the reason for

the barren top. Those involved should investigate the optimum

height of the dome below the surface minimizing wasted cultch, and

find out where on the dome periphery lies the greatest

concentration of oysters, the best growth, the optimum density for

fastest growth, and the area of highest set, and then correlate

these results with environmental factors to find out why.

The row configuration is best constructed by the Ingle

method. The barge is locked into position, cultch piled and layed

in a line, and the barge then repositioned to the front of the

line, locked into place and the process repeated. The result is a

long thin row of cultch one to two feet off the bottom with the

greatest altitude occuring in the center of the row. A second row

is laid parallel to the first row but spaced apart from the first

row by the approximate width of a row. The spacing allows the

oyster reef to grow and fill in the gap over time. The end result

122 -

is a series of parallel rows equally spaced apart. A monitoring

program would determine the optimum profile the cultch makes with

the bottom substrate to produce a *.maximum crop of oysters.

The flat configuration is probably the most difficult to

construct, and may be the most costly as well, but can

theoretically produce the greatest yield of oysters. The flat

reef basically covers the entire bottom with a uniform thickness

of cultch. Optimum cultch height is unknown, but a good producing

flat reef may be possible at a minimum thickness of 6 to 8 inches

of shell. Experience reported by a private'lease holder and on a

tiny experimental DNR flat reef constructed in the 1950's,

indicates this configuration is well suited to the production of

single, well cupped select oysters if managed properly. A flat@

reef may be constructed by the Ingle method or by a method similar

to the present DNR method where the barge is slowly pushed back

and forth over pieces of the designated area gradually carpeting

the bottom with cultch. The process must lay out plenty of cultch

to insure the shell is not silted over. This method will only

give satisfactory results on a hard bottom of mud and sand.

2. Relay Program

Oyster reef enhancement through relaying coon or stunted

oysters from unproductive reefs to productive reefs is another

popular program of DNR. However, relaying methodology also

receives criticism from those who claim the coons are not relayed

to the best areas or in too deep of water. Again, industry

12:3

funding methods and participation by the private sector should be

explored. The DNR relaying program should be accelerated as the

dividends it pays are high. The DNR estimates that 100,000

bushels of relayed oysters can have a final retail value from

$1.8-2.8 million per year. Relaying tends to break coon burrs up

into single oysters which allows the oyster to grow more rapidly

and with a more commercially desirable shape. Finally, when these

transplanted coon oysters are ready to harvest, they are much

easier to cull which allows the harvester to spend less time,

catching more oysters.

E. Marine Patrol

The Marine Patrol has one of the most important yet one of.

the most difficult jobs in Apalachicola Bay. The Marine patrol is

charged with enforcing the laws and protecting the resource.

However, manpower shortages, difficultiegs in catching violators,

and low fines and conviction rates by the courts are discouraging

to the individual officer. The number of oyster boats compared to

the number of officers makes the job difficult and unselective.

The major focus of law enforcement should be on preventing the

taking of unculled or small oysters.

Harvesting of undersized oysters (less than 3 inches) is

severely damaging the resource. The law currently allows only 15%

of those oysters harvested per bushel to be undersized. Time

spent culling is an extra cost imposed on the tonger, but the

added culling effort aids in preserving the resource, adds to the

124

price received per bushel, and makes the job of shucking much

easier.

If DNR severely enforces the law, then many oystermen will

not go out oystering. Oyster dealers demand that enforcement be

carried out on the bay and not in their houses once the oysters

are purchased. The DNR maintains the job would be easier if they

could check the oyster houses. The dealers maintain they do not

have the manpower to check each bag of oysters they buy. The fact

remains that some houses or some persons are buying the small

oysters thereby encouraging their 'harvest. The problem is further

complic ated by the fact that court fines are small and the catch

is never confiscated thereby making it profitable to harvest

undersized oysters even if one gets caught and fined. This is

especiall@y true of oystermen caught illegally poaching oysters

from a lease site. The oysters are usually sold before the

violator is apprehended and charged only with trespassing. The

fine is much less than the value of the oysters, which is forever

lost to the leaseholder.

Culling and harvesting only legally sized oysters is a sound

management practice which will help preserve the resource. If the

law were enforced, the result would be enhancement of the

resource. The solution should be a compromise among workers in

the industry (Seafood Workers Association), oyster dealers, and

the Marine Patrol. Oystermen feel the Marine Patrol should have

more leeway in enforcing the laws .-rather than unilaterally

enforcing the laws. That is, persons who are not culling should

- 125

be vigorously policed, while those who cull their catch should not

be rigorously held to the 15% undersize maximum. Non culling is

locally referred to as tonging in the hole, when an oysterman

tongs oysters directly from the water into the hold of the boat.

The oysterman rapidly fills up the hold with unculled oysters and

has many more bushels to sell. Dealers need to cooperate more by

putting pressure on those dealers who buy undersized oysters or

those tonged in the hole and by only buying from oystermen with

good reputations for culling. Finally, oystermen should take

pride in culling their catch by sacrificing a little today for

more tomorrow.

Conversations with oystermen and dealers revealed the need to

do something about enforcement problems. Some suggested solutions

to helping preserve the resource are presented as follows:

1. Limit the amount of recreational tonging in the bay.

2. Limit the amount of permits issued for oystering.

Then permits could not be sold nor passed on. Franklin

County residents should have first priority.

3. Limit the amount of bushels of oysters which can be

harvested over the year by a single permit. Record

keeping could be done by the dealers, marine patrol or

by punching or stamping the permit. Posting a bond may

help insure the limit is not exceeded.

4. Close off depleted bars until such time as they begin

producing again. Rotate closing off different areas of

the bay to allow growth.

126 -

5. Reinstate a closed seasoj,.i during summer months.

6. Increase the amount of' t1ie fine substantially each time

a violation is repeated until a permit is finally

revoked for a one year, period. Make penalties a real

deterrent.

7. The Marine Patrol could go out on the bay in mid-morning

and stop all boats riding low in the water. Most likely

these will be ones tonging in the hole (no culling).

Vigorously enforce tonging in the hole.

8. Require tongers to go by a Marine patrol check point to

be inspected, have bags counted and an inspection slip

issued. Dealers could then only buy oysters from a

person with an inspection slip.

9. Dealers, Seafood Workers Association members, and, Marine

Patrol meet and make a public list of those known to be

tonging in the hole and those known to be buying

undersized oysters.

10. Require tongers to post it $2500 bond which would be

forfeited upon the third repeat violation.

11. Marine Patrol should rigorously enforce illegal trucks

purchasing oysters. All oysters tonged in the bay

should have to go through a certified house.

12. Change the law for persons caught poaching on a lease

from trespassing to theft.. Impose stiffer fines for

those persons caught taking oysters from public grounds

- 127

and passing over leases to either cull or claim the

oysters came from the lease.

F. Development Potential

DNR estimates put total oyster production acreage, both

natural and artificial, in Apalachicola Bay at roughly 6000 acres.

Conservative estimates indicate an additional 40,000 acres of bay

bottom are suitable for oysters (Andree, 1982). Clearly the

potential to expand production exists just by increasing acreage

through reef construction. Odum et al, (1974) using the net

primary production of a marsh-estuary system (18,000 lbs/ac/yr)

and a 10% conversion efficiency to oyster meat calculated that

4 acres of estuary would be required to support one acre of

instensive raft culture of oysters (17,500 lbs oyster meat/ac/yr

or 2400 bushels). Assuming Apalachicola Bay is similar to the

estuary described by Odum and knowing that additionally up to

214,000 metric tons of organic matter are transported into the

estuary each year by the river (Livingston, 1983) the 40-50,000

acres of potential production in Apalachicola Bay could possibly

yield more than 500,000,000 lbs. (approximately 68,500,000

bushels) of oyster meat each year. A more conservative estimate

would be to multiply the 50,000 potential oyster acres times 4500

lbs. meat/ac (225,000,000 lbs./yr total) which is the average

production of intensive, well managed systems in Long Island

Sound. Even using the DNR estimated average production of

400/bu/ac/yr would yield nearly 150,000,000 lbs of meat per year.

128 -

In any event, any of the three figures are considerably greater

than the 4,942,000 lbs harvested cut of the bay in 1983. The

potential for oyster production in Apalachicola Bay seems

primarily limited by the aspirations of the members of the

industry and natural mortalities.

Nationwide oyster production is constrained by pollution and

loss of grow out areas due to water use conflicts. This is not

yet the case in Apalachicola Bay. Designation of the bay a's a

sanctuary was an important step in recognizing the importance of

the estuary and should help to protect and enhance ;oyster habitat

as well as other species habitat. However, protecting the estuary

and the water quality necessary for oyster production from

pol,lution and other man made alterations is not a simple task.

Water quality in the bay is highly dependent on the water

quality of the river. maintaining water quality in the river and

eliminating upstream sources of pollution is necessary to insure

survival of the oyster industry. Commerical development around

the bay, especially on St. George Island, can have significant

deleterious effects on both habitat and, water quality. Since

oyster culture requires space in the estuary which is in conflict

with other uses, coastal zone planning at the local, state and

federal levels should recognize the importance of allocating space

in the bay for food production and should devise methodology for

protecting this space. Some of the competing use problems can be

minimized by recognizing the compatibility of some areas for more

than one use. Recreation is one such competing use. Recreation,

121)

especially sports fishing, is placing a good deal of pressure on

the commercial fishing industry throughout the state as recreation

dollars become more important than fishing dollars. Educational

programs aimed at different users and advocating the unique

dependency of oysters on an undisturbed natural environment are

the long term solution for resolving multiple use conflicts.

Annual oyster consumption in the U.S. is expected to exceed

125 million pounds by the year 2000 (NADP, 1983). This increase

is not anticipated to be met by expansion of the public fishery of

natural oyster populations. A lack of suitable space is another

constraint. The opportunity to meet the demand through private

oyster culture utilizing innovative techniques is significant.

Apalachicola Bay has suitable and abundant acreage to expand the

public fishery and develop the private fishery. The mere fact

that undersized oysters are routinely harvested and sold is

indicative of the market demand. In order for the Apalachicola

oyster industry to cash in on this projected demand the industry

must: increase production by increasing acreage and employing

culture techniques; increase harvesting efficiency; upgrade

processing and develop new products; enhance the value of current

production by developing a quality oyster for the luxury market;

and protect the natural integrity of the estuary.

G. Basic Oyster Culture Systems

The increasing demand for oysters coupled with declining

production from natural stocks, enhances the feasibility of

130 -

culturing oysters for market. Numerous. oyster culture techniques

exist and may vary as to their degree of control by the culturist.

The techniques may range from simple reef construction on public

or leased grounds to upland facilities where every stage of the

oysters growth is controlled. Culture of oysters can increase the

overall quality of the product, produce a regularly shaped oyster

sometimes with reduced numbers of fouling organisms and high in

glycogen content for the gourmet trade, and supply a year around

market demand.

1. Hatchery Technology and Spat Collection

The oyster population in Apalachicola Bay is healthy and very

fecund. Oysters have never failed to spawn in the bay and this-

prolific natural recruitment seemingly makes the-need for a

hatchery uneconomical. However, there have been some failures of

natural setting on the Gulf Coast in recent years which may

require the re-evaluation of hatchery seed in the years ahead. In

fact, certain bars or areas of the bay may not consistently have

spatfall each year. Of course, too much spatfall can result in

crowding and stunting of oysters. Certain types of off bottom

oyster mariculture, including those destined for the luxury half

shell trade, require spat produced in a hatchery or collected in

natural waters on artificial cultch. Finally, hatcheries can

produce a genetically superior strain of oyster and enlarge the

base of genetic knowledge essential. for the long range success of

commercial breeding. If oyster production in Apalachicola Bay

- 131.

expands to its full potential, new products are developed, and new

high priced markets are sought, then, inclusion of a hatchery in a

mariculture plan, as an emergency backup source of seed, becomes a

viable possibility for the future.

Oyster hatchery technology is well established and was first

accomplished in 1920 by W. F. Wells and refined in the 1940's at

Milford Harbor, Connecticut by Victor Loosanoff and H. C. Davis.

Further modifications have been made since that time, but the

methodology remains essentially the same. Reproduction is

controlled by environmental manipulation and spawning can be

induced year round. Broodstock are usually maintained at 10-120C

until they are required for spawning. The broodstock are then

conditioned by slowly raising the temperature to 18-20*C for a

period of two to four weeks. The temperature is then raised to

260C to trigger spawning. Newly hatched larvae are transferred to

rearing tanks where they are fed either cultured or naturally

occurring phytoplankton. Cultch material is then provided and the

spatfall settle within 15-20 days. Cultchless spat are now

produced by providing plastic screens or metal sheets to catch the

spat. Cultchless spat can then be individually moved for growout

in trays or racks producing that regularly shaped luxury market

oyster. Many hatcheries now take orders, spawn the oysters and

ship the larvae to the customer who then settle the larvae out on

their own cultch usually in tanks or plastic swimming pools. This

saves extra work, space and money in the hatchery for grow out and

setting the larvae as well as reducing shipping costs to the

132

customer. One hatchery can then produce several billion larvae in

any given year.

Construction of a large year round shellfish hatchery can be

costly and failure in any one year may be disastrous for

investors. Cost is dependent on the volume of product and

competition with other sources of seed, especially those produced

natutally. Matthassen (1983) has described a hatchery which has

operated for many years on Long Island and is limited in terms of

production, but is inexpensive. The hatchery is only used during

the warm summer months and has a total capital investment of

$1000. one person is required to maintain the algal food supplies

and rear the larvae through settling over a two month period. Two

additional persons are required to maintain and operate the

juvenile grow out system. Not much can go wrong with this simple

system as it is operated at the time of year when natural

conditions are most favorable to spawning. The system is capable

of producing up to 6 million seed (luring the two month period.

Seed production may also be accompl ished in natural waters by

collecting spat on artificial cultch. Strings of shells, sticks,

nylon bags and other materials have been used to collect spat.

The key to the process is knowing the best time to set out the

cultch and collect the settling larvae rather than some other

organisms. The best time in Apalachicola Bay seems to be a

function of temperature, salinity ELnd location. A minimum

salinity of 20 ppt and temperature of 26*C are required for mass

spawning, and most recorded mass spawns were at 28*C (Ingle,

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1951). While mass spawns may occur the second week in May at

Porters Bar, the best time seems to be in late June, July and

August for most of the central and eastern portions of the bay.

The best time to collect spat in St. Vincent Sound (13 Mile) and

Indian Pass is in August. Checking cultch set out to collect spat

at frequent (2 weeks) intervals is important. Cultch must be

clean or bleached to insure the highest rate of catch. Freshly

layed cultch will lose almost all of its usefulness for oyster

attachment after about four weeks due to competition from other

organisms, especially barnacles. High spatfall is associated with

higher salinities, while best growth occurs in less saline waters

with higher concentrations of nutrients and detritus. Production

at Porters Bar has declined in recent years, but spatfall remains

high. In Louisiana, the state maintains oyster seed or spatfall

grounds in higher salinity waters west of the Mississippi River.

Private lease holders then dredge up the seed oysters and relocate

the seed to more suitable, less saline growout areas.

As oyster production increases and the industry expands,

hatchery plans should be developed to insure continued production

and circumvent natural disasters. The mechanics of setting up a

hatchery, especially securing a competent hatchery manager, will

require considerable time and should be well planned. Collection

of spatfall on cultch in natural waters is a suitable method for

obtaining seed for various off bottom culture techniques. A seed

collection area, such as in Louisiana, could be maintained in the

eastern end of St. George Sound. Establishing a low cost hatchery

134

as part of a multi-use facility, as described in the Cooperative

Oyster Lease section of this report, is recommended to insure the

long term success of the industry. Hatchery procedures should be

undertaken with caution as technical and biological problems may

be encountered using the traditional Milford or Wells-Glancy

procedures. These site specific problems may be overcome through

innovation and by drawing upon oyster culture experience in

Apalachicola Bay.

2. Bottom Culture

Bottom culture is the only culture technique presently used

on leases in Apalachicola Bay. It differs from public bars in

that a higher degree of management is required resulting in an

increase in production. Growth and survival of cultured oysters

is related to the quality of the beds or bars which should be

located on sand and mud substrate in 3 to 10 feet of water. Tidal

currents should be sufficient to flush the bed and maintain good

water quality. Seed oysters may be scattered on the bed or spat

allowed to recruit naturally. Once the oysters are established,

management is limited to predator control, removal of silt, and
thinning or culling and moving oyster's to other beds. Yields can

reach 4500 lbs of meat per acre pe'r year. The remainder of this

section will describe a successful bottom culture operation

formerly carried on in Apalachicola Bay.

Shell should be planted to a minimum of 12 inches to obtain a

hard bottom which will not easily silt over. The shell should be

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spread as flat as possible to cover a maximum amount of bottom

area. A margin of uncovered bottom should be left around the

lease perimeter to reduce poaching and clearly delineate where

oysters were harvested. If natural setting is used to sow the

lease, then a waiting period of 20-30 months from the time the

shell is planted will be required to produce select oysters. The

time in each case will be dependent upon the quality of the

habitat as oysters exhibit variable growth rates. The waiting

period is a management tool necessary to produce a steady supply

of superior oysters with a higher market value. Harvesting at 14-

18 months after planting, as is often the case with artificial

reefs created by the state, produces a less than top value oyster.

These oysters are sometimes fragile and are often killed during

harvesting or damaged and culled back into the water where they

eventually die.

Management should only allow selects to be caught and

carefully culled to obtain maximum production. Workers must be

controlled. A harvester should make more money working the lease

as he can catch two or more times as many oysters on the lease in

the same amount of time as he would working public bottom. This

increased efficiency is supported by early accounts of Franklin

County, where in 1890 three men working 12 hours each could

harvest 100 bushels of oysters. The lease should be worked a

variable amount of days, usually 3-4 days per week. Careful

culling serves to maintain the lease and insure production the

following year. The lease produces best when the winds carry

136 -

fresh water from the river over the lease. This is due to the

oysters absorbing more water into their tissues when salinities

are lower. The excess water does not decrease quality as it is

readily lost when salinities increase or the oysters are shucked.

For the best monetary yield, the lease should be worked from early

November through the end of March, because the condition of the

oysters (percent glycogen in their flesh) is best during that time

period. The oysters are more desirable, less watery, and have a

higher yield. Annual production in this example, ranged from

1100-1300 bushels per acre.

The lease was not worked during the summer due to the

leaseholders opposition to summertime oystering. oysters are of

inferior quality during the warm months partly due to diversion-of

energy, normally used for growth and glycogen production, to

spawning. In addition, the warmer water temperatures require more

energy to be expended in the pumping process to extract

approximately the same amount of available food in the water.

However, if sufficient food is available, the expenditure of

energy can be compensated for, in which case high quality can be

sustained.

Weak oysters when tonged and placed on a culling board are

often injured and culled back into the water. If salinities are

higher during the summer, predators are usually more abundant and

the injured oysters become easy prey. The net result is an

increased mortality, a decrease in next year's crop, and a poorer

quality product. By harvesting during the prescribed months when

137

oyster quality is best, yields and prices are highest. Main-

taining the quality and price should be more important than

oystering in the summer. To remain competitive, oysters harvested

in the spring can be frozen in flexible pouches and sold during

June, July, and August. Careful attention must be given to

processing methodology, particularly temperature constraints.

Fresh oysters can be obtained in September and October from

tongers working public beds.

Work on a lease does not cease during summer. Clean,

bleached shell should be sprinkled over the lease area during mass

spawning periods to insure maximum collection of spat. The cultch

should be replenished every year as silt, mud and algal growth

reduce the effectiveness of the existing cultch to keep catching

spat.. A permit may also be obtained to collect and relay coon

oysters to the lease site. Salinities should be the same at both

the lease site and coon site or the cogns will have to be

acclimated prior to placing on the lease. A coon burr can be

turned upside down and gently tapped while extended over the water

to.allow the small oysters to fall off or just thrown over the

side and it will break up naturally after settling on the bottom.

By the following February or March under good growing conditions

these coons could grow into selects. Finally, the summer months

afford an opportunity to clean, repair and renovate oyster

harvesting gear. So, leases offer the added virtue of year-round

employment for oystermen.

138

3. Off Bottom Culture

Off bottom culture of oysters is riot practiced in

Apalachicola Bay. Off bottom culture offers the advantages of

utilizing the entire water column, maintaining a higher degree of

control over culture conditions, and producing an individual high

quality product. The site must be protected from severe waves and

wind, must have sufficient and frequent. water exchange, must

contain adequate nutrients to produce an abundant food supply, and

be free of any industrial wastes or sewage. Off bottom culture

requires leasing the water column 'which creates more legal

problems especially with competing users. The site must be away

from navigable channels, not be unsightly, and not interfere with

commercial or recreational fishing. The four most common off

bottom methods are rack culture, r1aft culture, long line culture

and tray culture.

a. Rack Culture

The rack method is for shallow water where cultches with

attached seed are hung from a rack fixed on the bay bottom 4 to 12

feet deep. The rack is constructed of marine treated poles driven

into the sediment. These vertical poles are connected by

horizontal poles at any desired spacing and crossbraced. A

typical rack is usually 81 x 201, anchored with 8 poles, and

having 5 horizonal (201) poles frorri which oysters are hung. wires

or strings are strung with cultch six inches apart containing

spat. The wires are hung at equal intervals from the poles, but

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remain six to twelve inches off the bottom which eliminates

predation by conchs and oyster drills. This method has primarily

been used in Japan to collect seed or harden oysters prior to

final growout. The method may be suitable in shallow, protected

areas in St. Vincent Sound and along St. Vincent Island. Tides

would have to be monitored to insure there would be no prolonged

exposures.

b. Raft Culture

Raft culture is the most commonly employed off bottom

technique used in Japan and much of the Far East. Rafts can be

made with bamboo, cedar, or even PVC. Rectangular rafts are

framed with poles or boards spaced two feet apart and cross

braced. Rafts are usually standard in size and construction to

facilitate ease in production. The rafts may reach 16m x 8m (55

ft x 28 ft) in size and are often laid out in lines ten feet

apart, tied together and anchored. A raft may also be viewed as a

movable oyster bed and relocated to safeguard oysters from storms,

sudden pollution events, or other disasters. The rafts are buoyed

by styrofoam, or high density urethane foam encased in polyethylene

bags to protect them from fouling. More floats must be added as

the oysters grow and the weight of the raft increases. The

standard raft may suspend 500-600 strings of oysters. Seed

oysters are attached to cultch and strung 6-8 inches apart on the

string or wire and then vertically suspended from the raft for

140

growout. Production varies with the size of the raft and length

of the strings. Rafts usually last a minimum of five years.

Experimental raft culture was; attempted in Delaware Bay in

1975. The rafts withstood environmental conditions in small tidal

rivers, but were severely damaged by waves in the open bay.

Researchers concluded that physical factors would prevent large

scale raft culture along east coast estuaries. Sheltered waters

are a must in order to protect the raft: structure. Sheltered

sites appear to be limited in Apalachicola Bay. Breakwaters which

reduce wave intensity but allow flow may be a possible solution.

An economic analysis was performed, using 1974 dollars, a raft cost

of $2610 per unit producing 600 bushels of oysters with a 40%

mortality harvested every other year, and a selling price of $22

per bushel. The analysis showed after 14 years an overall loss

would be suffered regardless of the price of oysters (Aprill and

Maurer 1976). However, Delaware Bay does not possess the

conditions suitable to rapid growth rates which are found in

Apalachicola Bay. With the increased demand, improved methods,

and new markets, the economics of raft culture in Apalachicola Bay

deserve a closer look. Additional problems with raft culture

include control of fouling, high labor costs, and theft.

c. Long Line Culture

Two parallel ropes, 1-2 inches in diameter and 100-250

ft long, are linked to floats, 10-25 feet apart, and stretche ,d out

over the water by anchoring on both ends. Strings of cultches are

- 14.1

then hung from the long lines, but do not touch bottom. This

method can be used in rough or deep seas as it resists wind and

waves effectively.

While Apalachicola Bay has few deep areas where this method

might be employed, a modification of the method may have

considerable potential. Either the vertical strings of cultches

can be shortened to one or two feet below the long line or one or

more additional long lines with cultches could be strung

horizontal and parallel to the surface long lines but at a depth

of one foot or more. The method might be modified even further by

combining it with rack culture. Poles would be driven down into

the bottom substrate and lines with cultches tightly stretched

horizontally between the two poles, one to two feet below the

surface. The exact depth should be determined tidally and by

growth factors, so that the cultch line could be set at a depth

where it was occasionally exposed to air. This would eliminate

most fouling organisms and predators. The combined long line/rack

technique seems to satisfy both the shallow depth and the

roughness found in the bay.

d. Tray Culture

Trays may come in several sizes and shapes and may be

constructed with a variety of materials. A typical tray has a

hardwood frame (lx3 inch wood), plastic or galvanized hardware

cloth as a bottom in which to place oysters, and a wide mesh net

cover to help keep predators out of the tray. Trays may be as

142

small as 3 ft x 3 ft for easy hand-ling or as large as 3 ft x 9 ft

for large operations. Trays may tie tarred before use to increase

their life. Trays are used extensively in Australia, Great

Britain, and the Netherlands, but very few growers use them in the

U.S. Tray cultivation may be carried out on soft mud flats, on

racks, or suspended from rafts. They can be set out as a single

unit or stacked in multiple layers. Trays should be kept off the

bottom and at optimum growing depth which must often be found

through the grower's experimentation. Trays must be protected

from wave action which is most often accomplished with a

breakwater. Trays require regular attention and inspection to

insure that oysters have not clumped up or washed off the trays.

Periodic culling and separating results in faster growth and a

better shaped oyster. A bushel of oysters can be produced in a 9

x 3 tray and about 400 of these trays can be accommodated in one

acre of water. This is approximately the same production which is

presently being achieved on artificial reefs in Apalachicola Bay.

With the good growing conditions of the bay, it may be possible to

increase the number of trays per acre and thus, production.

A major barrier to profitable tray culture is effective

fouling control. Fouling can reduce growth by competing for food

and space, covering oysters with silt, and reducing water

circulation by plugging the tray screen. Apalachicola Bay is one

such place where prolific fouling could prove to be a major

constraint. A recent innovation has been to use biological

controls. Researchers in Maine found that placing a small (62mm)

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rock crab, Cancer irroratus, in the tray eliminates nearly all

fouling and silting. The foraging by the crab moves the oysters

about such that there was no silt build up around the oysters.

The crab selectively fed on mussels in the 20-30 mm size range.

Crabs too large (>100mm) will also feed on the oysters.

Biological fouling control holds great promise for oyster culture

as it improves growth and reduces labor costs.

H. Intensive Systems

Intensive systems for rearing oysters from spat to larvae

have been experimentally tested and commercially developed. A

recent high technology recirculating system developed at the

University of Delaware was found to be, at present, economically

unfeasible primarily due to the costs associated with algal

culture. A large commercial scale flow through system in Hawaii

went out of business in 1983 after five years of operation. Thus,

while technologically feasible, the economics are presently

unfavorable.

An oyster fattening project was undertaken during 1978-81 in

Apalachicola. The project placed oysters in shallow trays through

which seawater enriched with cornmeal flowed through. Substantial

fattening and improved quality were obtained within two weeks of

artificial feeding, but the economics were not favorable. The

extra cost per gallon at that time could not be offset by

increased quality. This technique should not be abandoned. As

the industry grows, high priced markets for quality product will

144 -

be developed. Selects, with high glycogen content, harvested

uring winter cannot naturally be produced in the bay during

summer. In order to service these lucrative markets year round,

oysters harvested during the summer Could be passed through the

fattening plant prior to market., The extra cost could be passed

on or recouped by maintaining the :market year round. The

fattening plant could be part of the multi-use facility described

in the Cooperative Oyster Lease section.

I. Oyster Harvesting

Hand tonging of oysters is the only method of harvesting

oysters ever employed in Apalachicola Bay. The method requires

skill and strength and is considered to be a local craft.

However, hand tonging is inefficient and adds to the overall low

productivity and inefficiency of the entire oyster industry. The

net result is acompetitive disadvantage for the Apalachicola

industry with mechanized oyster industries located elsewhere

(Rockwood 1973). Productivity of hand tonging is just not

competitive with mechanized harvesting. The people of

Apalachicola need to realize the necessity of upgrading their

primary industry to compete with oyster producers elsewhere

resulting in higher local earnings to harvesters, shuckers and

dealers which will help insure the survival of the industry in the

future.

Mechanized harvesting with an oyster dredge does not have

local approval and in fact, is presently illegal in Franklin,

- 14.5

Wakulla and Gulf counties. Reasons often cited include loss of

jobs and damage to the ecology of the bay. The idea of an oyster

dredge is a popular misnomer. An oyster dredge is not really a

dredge, but a scrape and it has no relationship to a dredge which

digs a channel. Oyster dredging or scraping can be an efficient

method of harvesting when carried out properly on a lease, but

should never be employed on a natural reef.

A number of small scrapes are presently employed in oyster

harvesting. For a mechanized oyster harvester to be successful,

it must reduce the manual labor required to harvest, be

economical, and be environmentally acceptable. one such scrape

can operate in 2.5 to 11 feet of water, harvest 500 bu/hr with a

three man crew, and causes negliglble damage to the shell matrix

and less than 5% damage to harvested oysters (Collier 1981).

Dredging or scraping will harvest more shell and cultch material

which must be culled and replaced on the oyster bed. Culling thus

becomes a limiting factor of oyster dredging. Improvements in

culling efficiency are not easy as the task must still be

completed by hand or in this case, by a number of hands. With

mechanical harvesting, culling may be made more efficient by only

culling the larger.and easiest oysters to pick from the pile of

shell and oysters. The remainder would then be thrown back

overboard to be harvested and culled another day. Since the

dredge produces so much more product from which to cull from, this

method would be a step towards improved efficiency.

146 -

Rockwood (1973) thoroughly reviewed alternate harvesting

methods in Apalachicola Bay and recommended the use of mechanical

tongs. Mechanical tongs are operated off a winch, close under
their own weight, and do little ecological harm while doubling

efficiency.

Harvest efficency must be achieved on leases due to the cost

of developing the lease. Scraping may be desirable for leases if

carefully employed. The leaseholder could be required to post a

minimum of a $10,000 bond to insure scraping was carried out

properly and only on the leased area. Scraping could also be

efficiently utilized in the relaying of coon oysters to productive

public bars or leased areas.

J. Marketing Needs

A complete review of the Apalachicola oyster industry's

market structure should be undertaken. A clear distinction in

accounting should be made between oysters harvested from

Apalachicola Bay and those trucked in from Texas and Louisiana.

These oysters are not as good as oysters grown in Apalachicola

Bay. Assessment of bay oysters should be broken down by season,

size, product type and price to determine the type of oyster most

in demand during a particular month which brings the highest

price. All values should be reported as gross income or gross

market value. Average monthly output for each product type

(shucked and singles), location of wholesale, retail and

restaurant markets, identification of untapped or not fully

- 147

developed regional and national markets, range of wholesale prices

by season, comparison of wholesale prices received in Apalachicola

with those received elsewhere, and location of competitors, should

all be assessed for precise marketing information.

K. Oyster Research Needs

Although the oyster has been one of the most intensively

studied marine organisms in the world and thousands of technical

papers have been published on the oyster, there remain gaps in

scientific and technical knowledge necessary to fully develop

commercial oyster mariculture. Research needs include those

important to general oyster mariculture and those specifically

related to increased oyster productivity in Apalachicola Bay.

Needs related to the details of artificial reef construction have

previously been discussed and shown to be of great importance.

Determining the productivity of Apalachicola Bay and the

standing crop of oysters it can reasonably sustain should be a

long term research priority. This might be accomplished by

determining the biotic potential of the oyster or its capacity to

increase in abundance under optimum environmental conditions. The

biotic potential must be balancqd by enviromental resistance or

the sum total of all environmental factors that prevent the biotic

potential from being realized. What factors limit abundance and

when, where, how and to what extent these factors are limiting

need to be determined for the oyster throughout its lifecycle and

in determining weak vs. strong years. Factors which should be

148

examined to determine environmental resistance include spawning,

larval development, setting, loss to benthic community,

availability of attachment sites, survival, predation, overgrowth

by competitors, suffocation, shell fracture, and other mortality.

Most of these factors should be resolved by focusing the research

on the best methods to build permanent reefs. The results will be

useful in determining the maximum acreage suitable for oyster

growth in the bay as well as the maximum number of oysters the bay

system is capable of producing each year.

Although growth and behavior of oysters is well understood, a

need exists to continue investigations of off bottom culture.

Growth rates using various off bottom techniques should be

measured at suitable sites in the bay. Many off bottom techniques

are primitive and labor intensive. Research on facility design

and engineering of low cost culture devices requiring a minimum

amount of labor are needed and should accommodate navigation and

recreation. Harvesting methods are primitive and are dictated by

law. Mechanizing harvest gear including culling and sorting,

based on local conditions should be a high research priority.

Improved quality control is needed in the areas of regulation and

inspection, rapid detection of bacterial and viral pathogens, and

economical depuration of oysters.

Major gaps of knowledge in genetic research of oysters should

receive more attention as oysters can be reared throughout their

life cycle in captivity. Methods to select strains to improve

hatchery production, developing strains resistant to disease,

149

selecting for traits to improve growth, size and weight, and

understanding the importance of wild gene pools are all necessary

for the long range success of oyster mariculture. Understanding

natural setting, designing new spat capture systems, and

development of artificial cultch are all important in the

production of seed. Growers need to know the nutritional

requirements of oysters at every stage of growth especially the

nutritional needs of oysters in natural habitats. Knowing the

quantity and species of phytoplankton and other food utilized by

oysters in the bay would contribute to selecting sites for

growout.

More research is required in the control of diseases,

parasites and predators. Microbial diseases can contribute to

mass mortalities,-especially oysters under stress. Development of

disease resistant oyster strains should be closely tied with

genetic studies. Several effective drugs and antibiotic for

disease control are presently available, but more effort in this

area would be beneficial. Almost everything harmful to oysters

deals with high salinity waters and research relating salinities

with predation and disease is needed. Eliminating commensals and

competitors will improve the appearance, quality and value of

oysters. Depredation by drills, conchs, crabs and fish are

extremely damaging to oysters. Efforts to reduce or eliminate

predators could save the industry considerable money and increase

productivity at the same time.

150 -

Research needs for the Apalachicola oyster industry are

ranked in the following order:

(1) Develop the best method for oyster reef construction

resulting in the most productive reef over time;

(2) Develop mechanical means of shucking and mechanical

devices to improve.harvesting and culling efficiency;

(3) Control or elimination of conchs and drills;

(4) Determine the biotic potential of the oyster in the bay.

and

(5) Determine growth rates of oysters cultured off bottom in

trays, rafts, racks and strings.

L. Open vs. Closed Seasons

Management of oyster resources have traditionally been

accomplished through open and closed seasons. Until 1977,

oystering in Apalachicola Bay was prohibited during June, July and

August. The reasoning behind a closed season deal with health

concerns due to increased bacteria counts during warmer months;

spawning and recruitment are accomplished during summer; and the

oysters are debilitated, much weakEtr and as a result do not have

the flavor normally found in the cooler months. The closed season

basically allows the resource to rEtCover from fishing pressure and

reproduce. Additional management reasons were provided in the

section on bottom culture. In 1977, the bay was opened to summer

oystering in designated areas. The designated areas, described b y

statute, are normally closed during the remainder of the year and

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those oyster bars normally open during the year, are usually

closed during summer. This rotation means that all oyster bars in

the bay are closed at some time during the year. Designated

summer and winter areas are presently under consideration for

revision. The law is specific to Franklin County as all other

oyster grounds in Florida are closed during the summer season.

The year round open season then would seem to be based more on

politics, than biology.

It is often alledged that mortality of large r oysters (over 3

inches) is as much as 50-70% in late summer. This is probably

true if the animals are under stress, but if growing conditions

are favorable, no such death rate need be anticipated. But, based

on these erroneous allegations an argument has been made that

summer oystering simply allowed animals to be harvested that were

destined to die later. This argument has obvious weaknesses when

and where environmental conditions are optimum. In fact, the

oyster fattening project showed when temperatures are high, but

food is not limited, oysters have enough energy to meet both the

need for body maintenance (pumping) and growth, and will continue

to grow and be healthy.

Summer oystering would seem to benefit the entire industry as

supply is continuous and markets served regularly. Losing markets

to out of state producers is a major concern to dealers. They

believe that keeping the bay open, even if no oysters are

harvested, maintains their competitiveness. However, it must be

noted that the majority of oysters shucked and shipped out of

152

Apalachicola are trucked in from natural producing beds in Texas

and leases in Louisiana. That is, production is continuous and

markets are regularly served regardless of the amount of oysters

harvested during the summer from the bay. Shuckers remain working

and dealers continue to have product.

I The oyster tonger or harvester is the segment of the industry

most benefited by summertime oystering., A closed season would
then cause economic hardship on those entirely dependent on

oystering to earn a living. Many oystermen do little or no

harvesting during summer months due to on shore employment,

employment in other fisheries (shrimp, crab), or due to their

principles on conservation of the resource.

Rockwood (1973) examined price data, yield statistics, and-

growth and survival characteristics of the Apalachicola oyster and

concluded that a longer closed season (May through September) made

a good deal of economic and biological sense. The biological

sense was suggested in the 150's by Ingle and Dawson (1952; 1953)

when they reported glycogen content to vary seasonally. If

oysters normally harvested from May to October were allowed to

grow until the following winter, then they would double in weight,

have high glycogen content, and twice as much oyster meat would be

produced with the same amount of work effort. Rockwood concluded
the gain in value could approach 225%. Therefore, wages earned by

.oystermen are theoretically higher with a closed season than with

an open summer season for the same amount of fishing effort. In

addition, the larger oyster fetches a higher price.

- 15:3

Biological and economic research efforts should be able to

provide some clear choices between an open and closed season. The

integrity of the resource is most important, as there will be no

jobs if the resource is depleted. If the resource is exploited

properly and an oysterman can earn an annual living in nine months

time, then the summer season should be closed. If the resource

can significantly increase in productivity and oystermen cannot

make a decent living in nine months, then an open summer season

would appear reasonable. Assuming that productivity can be

significantly increased in the bay and new markets developed for a

high quality brand,"Apalachicola oyster", then supplying that

quality oyster year round would be a high priority. The best way

this can be achieved would be to carefully harvest the lower

quality oyster found during the warmer months and pass the animal

through the oyster fattening facility and depurate if necessary.

This is one mariculture practice recommended for Apalachicola

Bay.

M. Leasing

1. The Case Against Leasing

Most residents of Franklin County are opposed to private

leasing of bay bottom for the cultivation of shellfish. They fear

that only the wealthy could engage in such an activity with the

end result being a monopoly of the bay bottom with little or no

public bottom. Their feeling extends from a strong belief that

154

the seas, or estuary in this case, are a common property resource

belonging to everyone. They have a right to tong oysters just

like their fathers and grandfathers had done. Bowden (1981) has

stated that the single most important public policy question

raised by mariculture is that of whether private property should

be created in the sea. Presently, state statute (370.16(9))

prohibits shellfish leases in Franklin County. Franklin County is

the only county in the state where leases are prohibited and some

feel like this is an inequitable statute and may, in fact, be

unconstitutional.

Presently, once a lease is acquired, it remains the property

of the leaseholder as long as the lease fee and lease agreement

are met each year. The agreement may stipulate the type, shape@

depth, size and height of cultch. By the end of the second year

from commencement of the lease, one fourth of the water bottom

leased shall be placed under cultivation. one fourth shall be put

into production each successive year until the entire lease is

under cultivation. This is nearly impossible for the DNR to check

or enforce and as a result many leases in the state have never

been fully cultivated. Leases may also be sold or transferred

which makes the fear of monopoly very real.

The biggest problem with leases seems to be greed and theft.

Obtaining a lease solely for the purpose of controlling that

bottom without culturing it, is not, the way the system was

intended to work. Stealing oysters from a leased area is

difficult to stop and requires the leaseholder to employ a

155

watchman. Poached oysters are a lost revenue which drives up the

cost of production. Too much poaching could put a leaseholder out

of business and at present, the only legal remedy is to charge the

poacher with trespassing. Since the fines are small, poaching on

leases is profitable.

On the other side of the coin, leaseholders have been known

to remove oysters from state bottoms, bring the oysters to the

lease site, then either plant or cull the oysters over the lease

and claim the oysters came from the lease. A person could obtain

a lease and not work it, but instead steal from the state and cull

over the lease. Oysters may even be taken from closed areas and

then sold as leased oysters. A leaseholder operating legitimately

might work his crew on state bottoms when these waters are

producing well, then work his lease when state bottoms are not

producing well which creates an unfair situation for the oystermen

only working public bars. .

Most oystermen believe the cost of developing a lease is

unobtainable for the common man. They fear that lease monopolies

would result in a loss of independence for the oystermen and they

would end up working for the leaseholder rather than have their

own business.

2. The Case for Leasing

A number of states have active shellfish leasing programs

which have benefitted the local oyster industry. Louisiana has

over 240,000 acres of leased oyster beds. Up to 100 acres per

156

person may be leased in Mississippi waters. In South Carolina

leases are divided into quadrants which. are then cultivated on a

rotating basis with harvest occuring once every fourth year per

quadrant. The majority of oysters presently shucked in

Apalachicola are trucked in from natural beds in Texas, and leased

beds in Louisiana. The economic benefits leasing has brought to

other states should certainly be thoroughly examined and their

feasibility for implementation in Florida waters be established.

Basically, a leaseholder should be considered the same as a

farmer trying to raise a crop for a profit. This differs

considerably from the oysterman who presently hunts and gathers

from the wild. Farmers have always been stewards of the land they

farm as they must continue to make that land produce year after-

year. If the oyster farmer utilizes the resource correctly, then

it will always produce. Leases could benefit the public bars and

the oystermen who fish the public bars by relieving some of the

fishing pressure from the public bars, by extending markets, by

creating new markets, by obtaining higher prices for leased

oysters, and by helping to protect the resource by creating new

oyster beds which will also provide habitat for other estuarine

organisms.

The case for leasing, and mariculture development in general,

is based upon a number of arguments. Wild stocks are finite while

demand is increasing which results in increased fishing pressure

on the resource. The decrease in the size of the average oyster

harvested in Apalachicola Bay directly supports this argument.

157

While cultured oysters will not replace the natural fishery, they

will supplement the supply of marketable oysters. Apalachicola

Bay is considered to be one of the most pristine and relatively

clean estuaries remaining in the country. This is one of the

reasons why shellfish thrive in the bay. However, incresing

threats from pollution stemming from development, runoff and

upstream sources of discharges, will eventually restrict approved

shellfish harvesting areas. Producing more oysters on less

avai lable area can be accomplished through leasing. Mariculture

offers increased yields per acre through culture techniques,

breeding programs, and effective management. Leasing will also

result in more efficient harvesting. Less time will be spent

searching for the catch as the culturist will know which areas are

producing best at different times of the year.

Mariculture techniques applied to oyster leases will result

in an improved, higher quality product, more consistent in flavor

and texture. The culturist eliminates overcrowding which allows

quicker and more uniform growth requiring less shucking time and

bringing a higher price. Quality is insured by management

resulting in a product which can proudly be declared as grown in

Apalachicola. Satisfying the supply and demand of markets is the

best argument in favor of leasing. Leasing can provide a

continuous and regular production which will result in regular

deliveries to established markets. This in turn, will establish a

good reputation for the producer resulting in the acquisition of

new markets.

158 -

Management and planning are the keys to a successful lease.

For example, a producer may require 300-400 bags (bushels) of

oysters each week to satisfy established customers on a year round

basis. The producers business plan will reflect this figure and

the lease developed so that a minimum of 400 bushels per week are

produced or an equivalent number of bushels (20,000) produced per

year. The oysters may be harvested on a weekly basis or harvested

during the best producing months and then frozen, or harvested

using a combination of factors. In any event, the culturist can

identify the needs necessary to satisfy markets, develop a

business plan to meet these needs, and effectively implement the

plan in the development and working of the lease operation.

Leasing will also help preserve the resource if good

management practices are followed. A leasehcxlder must build

oyster reefs. The reef will increase suitable substrate for spat

settlement and eventually reproduction. Other reef organisms will

flourish including juvenile shrimp, trout and flounder, adding to

the overall productivity of the nursery grounds. Recreational

fishing would be a compatible use of the leased area. The

leaseholder can also control harvesting on the lease. Only the

correct size will be harvested and proper culling employed.

Oystermen working the lease who do not employ proper techniques

will not be allowed to continue working the lease. Oystermen

would be expected to properly work the lease because they can

harvest twice as many oysters from, leased bottoms as opposed to

public bottoms in the same amount of time.

159

The case for leasing in Apalachicola Bay has met heavy

resistance in the past. Any future possibility of re-opening the

bay to leasing would have to equitably consider monoplies, maximum

lease acreage, ownership and transfer of lease title, methods of

harvesting the lease, protection of public bars and the small

individual-businessmen they support, and poaching from both

private and public grounds. Leases must be equitable so that the

small entrepreneur or individual oyster tonger may participate in

the lease program. Low cost loans with deferred interest or

government development grants may be necessary to insure

participation by individual oystermen.

Individual or family leases should be strictly controlled.

Hypothetically, these leases should be limited to 10 acres of bare

bottom with a four year period to develop the lease. At the end

of the four years, the leaseholder should have the option to lease

an additional 10 acres. A fully developed twenty acres could

provide a family with a very high standard of living and should be

a maximum ceiling for an individual lease. In this scenario there

would be no selling or subleasing of the lease. However, the

lease should be allowed to be passed on (inherited) to an

immediate family member. In any event, if the lease is not

properly developed, abandoned or no longer harvested, or the

leaseholder dies without passing it on, -the lease should revert

back to the state and become public bottom, never to be leased

again unless it is barren. Larger leases may be granted to

corporations, oyster dealers or cooperatives under much stricter

160

conditions with maximum acreages set and titles which revert back

to the state upon termination of the lease. One approach would be

to set aside a "pool" of available acreage for leasing specifying

acreage ceilings for various user categories. Another possibility

would be to develop leases in deeper areas of the bay where

tongers do not work. Franklin county residents should have first

priority for obtaining a lease. Poaching laws should be strictly

enforced and penalties made more severe. If additional harvest

labor is needed, leaseholders should be required to subcontract

the harvest work out to private oystermen at the current going

rate per bushel. Any lease resembling a monopoly should be

strictly prohibited, except for an oystermen's cooperative which

should be specifically established by law.

once a comprehensive program is developed, an educational

program should be implemented to inform and advise residents of

the county as to the advantages and disadvantages of the leasing

program. As a first step, the state should consider entering into

a cooperative venture with a private leaseholder in Apalachicola

Bay to develop a small acreage demonstration project showing

various culture techniques, production processes, and economic

analysis.

3. Individual Oyster Lease Approach

The strong independence of the individual oyster harvester

demands that any changes in current. practices of the industry

benefit the small guy so as not to generate local opposition. One

- 161.

approach to increase productivity of the bay and maintain the

resource would be to offer small leases to individuals. This

section examines the income needs of an individual tonger, the

operation of a 10 acre lease, and the costs and returns of the 10

acre lease.

The income of individual oystermen is difficult to determine

since nearly all transactions are cash. An estimation may be made

by looking at the average daily catch, which most estimate as

between 15 and 20 bushels of oysters. However, daily catch varies

with the ability of the individual to harvest effectively, the

numbers of hours spent harvesting, the amount of culling, and the

individual's respect for the resource. One harvester may tong and

cull 15 bushels of standard oysters a day while another may tong

in the hole 40 or more bushels of unculled and undersized oysters

each day and earn considerably more money while harming the

resource. Price also varies with demand and size of the oysters

harvested. Harvesters sell their catch to local oyster houses,

trucks illegally buying oysters, or a direct market developed by

that individual. The following matrix indicates the potential

gross daily earnings of an oysterman:

162

Bushels Harvested pier Day

Price/Bu 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

$5.00 $50 $75 $100 $125 $150 $175 $200

5.50 55 83 110 138 165 193 220

6.00 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

6.50 65 98 130 163 195 228 260

7.00 70 105 140 175 210 245 280

An oysterman who worked 160 days and tonged twenty bags a day

would gross $17,600 a year at $5.510 per bushel or $22,000 a year

if he worked 200 days. A tonger could potentially gross as much

as $56,000 ayear at $7 per bushel, 200 working days, and 40

bushels harvested per day. A more realistic figure may be derived

at by assuming the average tonger works 3-4 days per week for 39

weeks a year (9 months) and averages 20 bags per working day which

is roughly $15,000 per year at $5.50 per bushel (2730 bushels

total). The question then arises as to the size of a lease

necessary to support the oysterman and his family.

Ideally, if an acre of naked bottom is evenly spread with

cultch, sown with seed, and managed properly, then the acre can

theoretically produce 1200 bushels of oysters per year assuming a

25% mortality (See Appendix A for calculation). To earn $15,000

per year, an individual would only need 2.5 acres of good

producing reef. However, in order to obtain a slight economy of

16.3

scale and higher income, a lease of 10 acres was chosen. It was

assumed the lease would be worked by a family with additional help

hired if needed. The family would utilize the same equipment used

on a public bar and have roughly the same annual expenses, except

for those costs charged to lease maintenance and development.

interest was estimated at $99 per $1000 borrowed at 15% on a 10

year note. A selling price of $5.50 per bushel was used. A

summary of costs are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

The operating and development budgets should only be used as

guides in developing a business plan or preparing a loan

application. Interests rates will vary with the type of loan, the

duration of loan and the present cost of money.

To maintain cash flow until the crop is harvested an

operating loan may have a much different rate and payback period

than a capital loan to develop the lease. The artificially

created reef is only depreciated over 20 years, but will exist,

essentially, forever. Depreciation could therefore take place

over a much greater length of time. Ideally, there should be a 30

month lag period between the time the reef is constructed to the

time the first oysters are harvested. Interest on the development

loan must be paid during this period and this budget does not

account for that interest and additional funds that would have to

be obtained to meet the lag period obligation. If coon oysters

are relayed or larger seed oysters planted on the reef or a

164 -

TA13LE 4
10 Acre oyster Lease Annual Operating Budget

Cost Life Span Annual Cost
Equipment (fixed)
Boat-- 22 ft wood,
30 yr frame guarantee 1,200 20 60

Motor - 40 HP Mariner
with stainless steel
prop, tank & hose 2,100 7 300

Interest 327
Subtotal 687

Lease development

materials, spreading,
marking 64,671 20 3,234
Interest 6,402
Subtotal 9,636

Expenses (variable)
Gas/oil (4 gal/day)-
(1.25/gal) (200 days) 1,000

Tongs, cull tools 125

maintenance & repairs-
paint, dry boat;
plugs, grease, etc 250

Permit/lease fees-
(5/ac)(10/ac) +
(25 license) 75

Misc. Supplies 150

Taxes and Insurance (estimated) 800

Lease Maintenance (175-225 cu yd
shell, gas, etc.) 2,000
Interest 436
Subtotal 4,836

TOTAL 15,159

Annual Returns (Gross)
(1200 bu/ac)(10ac)(5.50/bu) 66,000
(1000 bu/ac)(10ac)(5.50/bu) 55,000
( 800 bu/ac)(10ac)(5.50/bu) 44,000
( 600 bu/ac)(10ac)(5.50/bu) 33,000
165 -

TABLE 5
Lease Development Budgetl Cost

Shell - 8067 cu yd at $7.25/yd $58,486

Spreading cultch
haul/load shell on barge
(275/day)(3 days) 825
Barge 110lx30'x6l (75/day)(3 days) 225
Boat 50'x 201 (1200/day)(3 days) 3,600
Fuel and Oil (80/day)(3 days) 240
Hose and Pump - 311 suction,
100 psi, 160 gal/min (125/day)(3 days) 315
Labor - (2 men)(60/day)(4 days) 420
Marking lease - Poles, bouys, cable,
rope, signs 500

TOTAL COST $64,611

1. Notes - Shell cultch is assumed to be purchased locally.

Otherwise shell must be barged from New Orleans at $14/yd

delivered on a deck barge with a 2500 cu.yd capacity weighing

2125 tons. The shell is enough to evenly spread a 0.5 foot

layer of cultch over 10 acres. The operation may be

completed in 3 days, loading the barge in the evening hours

and spreading cultch from the barge during the day. The

barge could be purchased used for $60,000 and the boat

$80,000 (twin screw, 671 detroit diesels). The boat charge

includes captain and crew. The pump costs $1155 new fob St.

Louis and is smaller than the pump used by the DNR, but

sufficient according to th e manufacturer. Rent on a pump,

dump truck and loader was estimated from conversations with

166

private contractors. The extra days labor is for marking the

lease using the leaseholders boat.,

portion of the reef, the lag period could be reduced to as little

as 12 months and cash flow initiated that much sooner. Adequate

collateral for the loan may pose another problem especially since

in this scenario the lease could not be sold or sub-leased.

The boat selected is the standard wooden oyster boat. The

boat is built locally to individual specifications and has a 30

year guarantee on the frame. The builder claims that with annual

painting and maintenance, the boat could last this long. However,

with a lease, a larger boat may prove more practical. Mechanical

harvesting would require a larger working area for culling and the

larger boat would be more suitable in maintenance shelling the -

lease each year. The scenario calls for an oyster reef six inches

thick. This may not be enough cultch to properly construct a reef

which would add to capital requirements and higher interest

payments. Many reefs are constructed a foot or more off the

ground. The three day time period may also be insufficient to

adequately build a reef and would add to lease development costs.

The 806 cu yd per acre of cultch is much greater than the DNR

average of 254 cu yd per acre and should produce a much better

constructed reef. Ingle (1962) estimated 746 cubic yards per acre

to be sufficient,-but did not specify thickness of the reef.

The lease could produce as much as 12,000 bushels of oysters

per year. An individual with good oystering ski'lls might harvest

a maximum of 5000-8000 bushels during the year. The remaining

167

bushels would have to be harvested by outside help. In a family

operation, the additional oysters might be harvested by other

family members, but at a minimum would require a second boat.

Hired labor would, most likely, have to be paid the going rate

they could earn by tonging the public bars. one successful lease

holder solved this problem, by only allowing the harvest of select

oysters but paying the standard bushel price. The difference

between the standard and select price was used to pay for the

lease expenses plus a profit. The leaseholder stated the

harvesters did not complain as they could tong two times as many

oysters on his lease in the same amount of time as they could from

public bars.

Annual returns were calculated for production of 600, 800,-

1000,.and 1200 bu/ac. The $15,000 income figure generated earlier

can easily be met with 600 bu/ac production. The break even point

may be reached at 275 bu/ac/yr. Anything over 800 bu/ac/yr would

provide a family with a high standard of living. At the high end

of production, total gross income would pay for the entire initial

cost of the lease development. Profits such as these should

interest a wide range of investors. Additional profits could be

earned by carrying production through shucking and to market.

The 10 acre lease scenario appears to be economically

feasible despite the model's limitations. once built and properly

maintained, the lease will continue to earn profits. Securing the

capital, wading through the regulatory process, and waiting out

the time period until oysters can be harvested are the major risks

168

to such an undertaking. Proper managem.ent, predation and

diseases, and protecting the lease from, poachers are the major

problems to consider once the lease is producing. Selling and

implementing this type of program would. most likely meet with much

local opposition. The reason is primarily sociological, going

back to the prevailing attitudes of leave things as they are and

fear of change.

The $65,000 cost of developing the lease would frighten the

average oysterman away as there is almost no risk in tonging the

free public bars. Making payments on a loan to develop something

which may be obtained for free-does not make sense to the average

oysterman even if interest payments on borrowed capital can be

deferred. Creating a community awareness of the resource

depletion, and methodologies, including leases, of protecting and

enhancing the resource, are the first steps which must be taken to

solve the problem and alter the present attitudes of local

residents.

The next recommended step to implementing the small scale

individual lease program is to form a joint venture between the

public and private sectors. The government wants to protect and

enhance the resource by building aLrtificial reefs which will have

an added economic benefit of supplying more oysters for the

industry and keeping local residents employed. The private

individual shares the conservation concepts, but must continue to

exploit the resource in order to earn a living. The state could

set up and manage the program. Leases would be granted under

169

strict development and conservation conditions with guidelines

vigorously enforced. A loan program would be established by the

state for development of the lease site. Loans would be strictly

administered to insure the funds were expended on cultch and lease

development. Loans should be long term with adjustable interest

rates and have a 30 month deferred period before payment of the

first installment to allow the leaseholder time to culture and

begin harvesting oysters.

Allowing the state flexibility in altering lease fees and

interest rates would assure the state of receiving a fair return

once the lease was actively producing oysters. Failure by the

leaseholder to properly develop and work the lease or forfeit on

loan payments would aut6matically revert the lease back into state

ownership. The state could then finish reef construction if

necessary, but ultimatel y tu rn the lease area into a public bar.

A certain percentage of leaseholders are bound to fail and these

leases would satisfy the state goal of creating more public reefs.

A comparison of costs between this proposed program and the

present DNR program was not attempted. The state would also be

required to have an oyster expert on site who would assist

leaseholders in developing and managing their oyster leases. The

benefits to the private individual lie in ownership of their own

oyster bar which will increase income, provide long term security,

and assist in protecting the resource.

170

4. Cooperative Oyster Lease ApprDach

An alternative to the individual lease approach is to develop

a large lease operated by a non.-profit cooperative. The

cooperative should function similar to a private lease and produce

the same economic benefits. In order for the concept to work,

there must be sufficient interest and ability of local residents

to develop and manage the cooperative. This does not seem to

presently be the case in Franklin County. Once again the solution

may be found in a marriage between government and the private

sector.

Today there are two aquaculture cooperatives which may be

examined for comparison with the Franklin County situation. The

largest processor of farm raised catfish in the country is a

farmer owned cooperative in Mississippi. It is set up as-an

agricultural'cooperative, similar to most farmer cooperatives and

is less than 20 years old. The cooperative is 100% member owned

(113 members) and has no ties with government. Capital has been

generated from members and commercial sources. The cooperative is

vertically integrated operating its own feed mills, processing

plants, distribution system, and buying fish from its members.

The cooperative processes and markets 1 to 1.5 million lbs of live

fish each week grown by its members. This type of structure,

although ideal from a private sector viewpoint, would probably not

work in Franklin County due to the sociological factors previously

stated.

171

A structure much more applicable to Franklin County may be

found in Alaska. The Alaskan Legislature passed extensive

legislation during the 1970's to create private non profit

regional aquaculture associations. The intent of the legislation

is to authorize the private ownership of salmon hatcheries and

facilities by private nonprofit corporations for the purpose of

contributing, by artificial means, to the rehabilitation of the

state's depleted and depressed salmon fishery. The laws designate

specific regions of the state for salmon production and authorizes

the establishment of regional associations to develop

comprehensive plans in conjunction with state planning councils

and to manage and operate the salmon facilities development in the

plan. The legislation is designed to give commercial fishermen-a

strong voice in the development of the resource.

User groups are defined and the plans must assess their needs

and aspirations. The regional associations are run by a Board of

Directors composed of at least one representative from each user

group with most members being commercial fishermen. The

commercial fishermen board members are elected by the membership

of the gear groups they represent (seine, power troll, gillnet and

hand troll). Other board representatives include sports

fishermen, native Indians, chamber of commerce, subsistence

fishermen, processors, municipalities, and public at large. The

board sets policy, suggest programs, and approves expenditures.

Association staff are directly responsible to the commercial

fishermen through a chain of command.

172 -

The regional plans must encourage investment by private

enterprise in the technological development and economic

utilizations of the fisheries resource., The plan must address

numerous cri teria including harvest management, natural stock

considerations, hatchery and harvesting site evaluations, stock

genetics, control of diseases, transportation of live organisms,

sale of hatchery fish, 1egal harvest gear, sharing an allocated

harvest area, broodstock, program compliance, annual reports, and

additional benefits derived from the program such as employment,

education, training, and research. The state assists, as much as

practically possible, in the planning, construction and operation

of the facilities.

The Alaskan laws provide checks and balances through the

planning and permitting process. :Permits contain specific

conditions pertaining to criteria such as harvesting, management,

health of organisms, and segregation of cultured and wild stocks.

The legislature has made low interest loans available for

planning, construction and operation of the facilities. The

interest on the principal is deferred and does not accrue during

the intial period of the loan which may be 5-10 years in length.

Funds originate from fossil fuel revenues to the state which are

dedicated to development and enhancement of renewable resources.

Operating capital is also generated by a mandatory 3% assessment

of the total catch of permitted commercial fishermen. The tax is

collected by the buyer of the catch who in turn is responsible to

the state.

- 173

The end result is the development of hatcheries cooperatively

owned and operated by commercial fishermen. Staff hired to

operate and manage facilities may number over twenty, providing

another economic benefit. The success of the associations have

been verified by an extensive tagging and analysis program

conducted by the associations and the state. Nearly all the

associations presently are or are projected to be operating in the

black and making loan repayments. Revenue is generated from the

3% assessment and sale of surplus fish returning to the

hatcheries. The so called profits are pumped back into the

operations to hire more staff, expand facilities and develop new

programs. The associations have shattered egg take records and

return records most every year. Return rates by the non profits

have far exceeded return rates for private ocean ranching

operations in Oregon demonstrating the success of the Alaska

program. ComnWrcial fishermen are catching more fish and earning

more profits. Conflicts of gear user groups have been resolved by

allocation of gear days for specific sites with order being

determined by lottery. Overall success is due to the interest of

commercial fishermen who have demonstrated a lot of forethought in

planning and executing their association.

An oyster cooperative in Franklin County could be set up

using the Alaskan laws,, regional plans, and associations as

generalized models. State involvement would be necessary to

coordinate plan development, organize and initially operate and

manage the cooperative. The state should also provide a full time

174 -

oyster culturist to assist coop members; in developing bars,

maximizing production, and trouble shooting problems. The plan

might call for a gradual phase out of state involvement. However,

the state should maintain a close relationship through a

regulatory process, especially for financial matters, to insure

payback of loans and a fair return to the taxpayers for rent on

the lease. The recommended approach is to detail the structure of

such a program in legislation directed at the oyster industry.

A schematic scenario of one such possible government/private

non profit joint venture is diagramed in Figure 5. The

Legislature would create a private non profit Apalachicola

Regional Fisheries Association (ARFA) to develop, rehabilitate and

enhance Apalachicola Bays declining and depressed fisheries

th-rough a program designed to protect both the integrity of the

estuary and insure the long term slaccess of its fisheries. The

Board of Directors would be composed of oystermen, shuckers,

dealers, bay shrimpers, other commercial fishermen, recreational

fishermen, chairman of the county commission, community persons,

etc. to plan, develop and execute their.association and protect

their resource. Direct input, organization and membership could

be provided by the Oyster Dealers Association and the Franklin

County Seafood Workers Association. The ARFA mandate would be to

develop a comprehensive plan for long term management of the

fishery resources. The central vehicle for coordinating all

public assistance, state and federal agencies, and organization

175

Legislature

State Agencies/
Resource persons
DNR
Sea Grant
DER
DACS
FSU
DCA
ARPC
Franklin Federal Gov't
County r_ i
Gov't Private
ANES Non Profit 0 ster
Franklin Apalachicola Dealers
County Regional
Schools Fisheries Association
%I& Association
Vocational :Agency Franklin
Education :.Coordination.: County
Program Seafood
Workers
Association
:Research,-
*. 1. 1. , , ** * L. PLAN
*@i- - efits
c ion- COOP -Member ben
:Financial

Demonstration, Multi-Use
Facility 'Processing

ZExtention:
,.?epuration.- Marketing
Sales
,Information4 'Live storage.
:Transfer 'Luxury Half.'
tFatten.ing'- :%Shell-

..........
-'Ope@a"tion's*% *.Laboratory: :Live Market:-
:Assistance*.
-Multi-species: -,Shucked,'.
Hatchery
Man@4(@@en@: 'Further
:As .s. istance: bNe.w pro3 .ects.- :.Processe!@.
:5@m'onstration'- :Consulting
es ua y :Lab Services ::
release T ,echnology..-
other privafe ;@ned Stock'
@nc :ie s Leg.
s
p.rsogn
@
Prlvr
Nn
0
Apal-
Regic
F ishe
As s oc

M'
F

L
,nilti-se
cillty P1

sector use
*Hatchery Fisl@:.
FIGURE 5
DEVELOPMENT OF A FISHERIES ASSOCIATION PLAN

and managemnt assistance to ARFA should be ANES. ANES would be

responsible for coordinating the development of the plan with the

Association and implementing the plans recommendations. A gradual

phase out of ANES to an advisory role would be expected over

time.

One vehicle to developing a cooperative would be to utilize

the Apalachicola Regional Fisheries Association. The Association

could form a private non profit service corporation to act as the

cooperative. Since membership to the ARFA would be open to all

persons working in the seafood industry, (i.e. Seafood Workers

Association, etc), the service corporation would be owned by

association members and corporate ;staff would be responsible to

the Association Board of Directors. This is an equitable approach

with a good chance of community Acceptance especially if there is

a push from government. The cooperative should sub-contract with

its members for harvesting the lease, with a variable quota rate

dependent upon production estimations and the number of members

actively working the lease. This would preserve the independent

small businessman attitude of the oystermen.

Management of the cooperative should have control over the

time of year a segment of the lease is harvested, the size of

oysters to be harvested, harvesting methods,.and the number of

oystermen working a segment. All harvested oysters would be sold

back to the cooperative. The burden of all management should be

the responsibility of coop staff. The coop will control all

sales, purchases, disbursements, and records in order to provide a

177

big business type service and capability to the member oystermen.

Operation of the coop could then be centered around a computerized

system of management accounting. Additional work, other than

harvesting, done by members on the lease, such as general

maintenance, culling and relaying, would be debited or credited to

individual member accounts and paid at'a later date or in the form

of a dividend. The coop should be responsible to provide at a

minimum: training and technical production services; reduce

materials cost through volume purchasing; provide an equipment

warehouse facility; monitor crop growth; organize and schedule

member based labor pools; and schedule production harvesting and

processing for consistent volume output and sales. As the coop

expands and establishes a sound business record, additional

services can be provided to members such as group insurance,

health plans, retirement plans and loans. In factr the coop could

provide financial planning to individual members to insure a

regular cash flow throughout the year including those times when

the bay is closed to oystering. This service could reduce public

subsidies in the form of unemployment and welfare payments.

Financing the entire operation can be accomplished by a

number of methods or combination of funding sources including

government grants, low interest government loans, private loans

from banks or production credit association, private capital, or

direct assessments on oyster catches. Initial planning followed

by construction of artificial reefs and production facilities

would be best accomplished by a combination of grants and low

178

interest loans with deferred payments. Generating capital for the

long term could come from assessment on oyster catches and

vertical integration by the cooperative. Vertical integration

would require the coop to carry production from spat to market.

This would require the coop to develop processing and marketing

expertise and is highly recommended. After purchasing oysters

from coop members working the lease, the cooperative could process

the oysters into different products such as fresh in the shell,

shucked in the pint and gallon, frozen, or further processed, to

service diverse markets. The markets should include a luxury half

shell trade to fine restaurants in large cities year round as well

as fish distributors, institutional markets, and retail food

stores. Monies earned from processing, distribution and marketing

oysters would be used to pay overhead including staff salaries,

repayment of loans, expansion of facilities, development of new

projects, and perhaps even dividends to members. A processing

facility would have to be leased, purchased or designed and

constructed. Equipment for the processing plant, refrigeration

and freezers, and trucks for distribution would have to be

purchased. A detailed operating budget, equipment and facility

needs would be a part of the comprehensive plan developed to

establish the cooperative's feasibility.

New projects could include off bottom culture techniques,

diversification into the culture oJL-- other organisms, an oyster

canning plant or oyster breading plant which would also require

the development of new markets, and a multi-use facility. A

171)

multi-use facility is highly recommended and might be included as

part of the initial operation, The multi-use facility should be

designed to include oyster fattening, shellfish depuration, live

storage for shellfish, crab shedding, hatchery, and research and

laboratory functions. The fattening, holding and depurating

functions would insure the supply of oysters for a year round

luxury market. Oysters could be depurated during times of bay

closures or shellfish could be brought in from elsewhere for

depuration. Depuration is an issue the county might have to

address in the near future if pollution sources are not brought

under control and water quality in the bay declines. Holding

oysters and clams in a live condition would assist in supplying

certain lucrative markets. Crab shedding could occur during those

times of the year when the facility had low usage or when the

markets for soft shell crabs are the best. A low cost hatchery as

described in the section on hatchery technology, could serve to

produce hybrid oysters, cultchless spat for tray culture, or as an

emergency back up system in the event of a failure of natural

setting in the bay. The hatchery might be redesigned to be

sophisticated enough to be utilized to spawn other commercially

important species for direct sale or future growout. The research

laboratory could function to monitor water quality, develop hybrid

oysters or other organisms in combination with the hatchery,

explore new culture techniques or examine new species for culture

potential. All uses could be housed in a single facility as many

of the uses would require the same basic equipment, tanks, and

180

plumbing. The old oyster fattening facility at Nine Mile could be

used as a model from which to improve upon. Detailed design,

equipment needs and costs of such a multi-use facility would be

developed as part of the comprehensive plan. A site along St.

Vincent Sound or St. George Sound should be considered as good

water quality and higher salinities are important in producing a

high quality oyster.

The cost of establishing a cooperative would be high. A

minimum of 100 members and 1000 acres of leased bottom is

recommended. Building a thousand acres of reef would be no easy

task and may take as long as 3-4 summer seasons to complete.

Alternative construction schedules should be considered. The

majority of the cultch would most likely be barged in from

Louisiana at $14 per cubic yard delivered, considerably driving up

the cost per acre. Total cost of reef building and facilities

could easily exceed $10 million. However, ingenuity by coop

members could help save money. This would include the use of

members equipment, pooling of labor, and working around the clock

in shifts to ac hieve maximum efficiency in the use of leased

equipment for reef construction.

In any event, the comprehensive plan should lay out a

workable time table for lease development correlated with

production, marketing, and cash flow. Such a comprehensive plan

would become the business plan for the cooperative. Oyster

production on 1000 acres could reach as much as 1,200,000 bushels

per year. At a selling price of $23 per gallon, the cooperative

- 181

could theoretically earn $23rOOOrOOO per year. At this rate loans

could easily be paid off and member earnings soar. The

feasibility of a cooperative should certainly be investigated

further as part of the comprehensive plan.

N. Summary and Recommendations

Apalachicola Bay is a gold mine which has never been fully

exploited. Sociological factors have largely kept the industry

from modernizing and progressing to reach its full potential.

Pollution from sewage, runoff, urban development, and upstream

users is threatening the resource. Oystering is presently a

primitive hunting and gathering technique, but earning income for

over 1100 residents in the county. However, oysters are being

overfished and the resource is declining. Poor enforcement of

laws has only worsened the situation. The net results are an

unstable economy and an ill managed resource. Biologically there

is nothing really wrong with the oyster population as it is very

fecund, has few pests and diseases, and has excellent water

quality for oyster growth. The solution to the problem requires a

combination of economical and biological factors along with close

cooperation by all those employed in the industry, other residents

in the county, and government.

Some recommendations were presented in the sections on the

Marine Patrol and research needs. A number of recommendations are

presented here for careful consideration by Franklin County

182 -

residents and government agencies. The recommendations are not

ranked in any particular order.

1. Artificial Reef Construction - A comprehensive analysis

should be undertaken on existing artifical reefs to determine

which reef construction method(s) have resulted in the greatest

annual production and the best long term production. A research

program demonstrating various new and existing reef construction

methods and monitoring environmental factors correlated with

community settlement, succession, and climax should be undertaken

under the guidance of the Sanctuary. The best methodology would

then be utilized in future reef construction. A part of the

analysis should include an independent CPA cost accounting to

determine the real cost of reef ccnstruction. The reef program-

should then be expanded both publically and privately. Methods to

pay for the program should be examined including private sector

involvement. The program should include the sprinkling of clean

bleached shell on existing reefs and the possible renovation of

older nonproducing bars.

2. Productivity of Bay - The biotic potential for oysters in

Apalachicola Bay should be thoroughly evaluated. At a minimum,

the analysis should include the ma:Kimum number of oysters the bay

could reasonably support, the total acreage suitable for reef

construction, and the effects, both positive and negative, of

expanded oyster production on the ecology of other organisms

residing in the estuary.

18:3

3. Communication and Cooperation - A coalition coordinated

by ANES of Seafood Workers Association members, Oyster Dealers

Association members, other county residents, the Marine Patrol,

and government agencies should be organized to ferret out those

who are abusing the resource by harvesting undersized oysters,

tonging in the hole, or buying undersized oysters. Oystermen

could use peer pressure to reduce illegal activities. Dealers

could do the same to prevent the buying of undersized oysters.

The Marine Patrol should have more leeway and flexibility in

enforcing the law so that the law may be vigorously enforced

against those abusing it the most. The coalition could then serve

as a vehicle to set new policies for enhancement and preservation

of the resource (i.e. Apalachicola Regional Fisheries

Association).

4. Education - A comprehensive education program and public

relations compaign is recommended as the long term solution to

resource management in the bay. Children educated in oyster

biology, production techniques, and management strategies will

grow up with sufficient respect for the resource to exploit it

wisely over time. Educating existing residents, especially those

new to the county (such as St. George Island residents), to the

benefits and importance of the oyster industry should result in an

informed constituency dedicated to the conservation and wise use

of the oyster resource. Government agencies, especially those

with Coastal Zone Management responsibilities and policies and

planning agencies, will require a broader understanding of the

184 -

oyster industry and the importance of a clean environment to the

continuance of the resource.

5. Production - Increases in production may be achieved

through improved management techniques including the harvest of

larger oysters, increased culling, replacement of cultch,

modernization of equipment, and development of leases. A new

program to lease naked bay bottom to individual oystermen, an

oystermens cooperative, and/or private companies should be well

designed and implemented. It should minimally include provisions

to prevent monopolies, protect public bars, maintain the existence

of the independent oystermen, and encourage private sector

participation. The feasibility of an oystermen cooperative should

be examined and if established, a -comprehensive plan developed.

off bottom culture techniques should be developed suitable to

various parts of the bay. A demonstration project should be

undertaken by the state on an existing private lease to develop

maximum production, show new culture techniques and provide

economic information. A low interest government loan program with

deferred interest payments, should be developed to finance

individual and cooperative leases.

6. Harvesting - Harvesting technology should be upgraded to

remain competitive with other oyster producing areas with

mechanization. New methods should be tested and evaluated in the

areas of labor savings, volume output, economics of the process,

and environmental acceptance.

- 185

7. Technical Assistance - A full time oyster expert should

be hired by the state and reside in Franklin County. The person

would act as an extention agent to assist in development of leases

and artificial reefs, provide production and harvesting

assistance, transfer information, and act as an advocate for the

oyster industry with government.

8. Economic - Data should be collected on the price and

market demand for oysters now and projected into the future.

Annual earnings of oystermen should be established. Total

production and value of both Apalachicola oysters and those

trucked in from other states should be tabulated. Lending

institutions should be educated on the value and potential of

oyster culture operations. Private and public funding sources

need to be identified.

9. marketing - A complete review of the Apalachicola oyster

industry's market structure should be undertaken. New markets

need to be developed including a luxury market for select half

shell oysters known for being grown in Apalachicola Bay. New

product forms should be developed and promoted. Consumers should

be educated as to the nutritional value of oysters and ways to

prepare and serve oysters.

10. Health - Coliform testing needs to be improved for more

rapid and frequent detection to prevent disease outbreaks. In

addition, new methods or new organisms besides fecal coliform need

to be developed to evaluate the water. When the bay is closed,

186

testing should be done more often and with more samples so as to

re-open the bay at the earliest. moment.

11. Government - Planning is needed to restrict development

and resolve multiple use conflicts. Apalachicola Bay should be

designated as an oyster producing area. Measures should be

enacted to protect oyster habitat and to allocate space for oyster

production which will be forever free from environmental

alterations by man.

187

VIII. SITING

Terrestrial farming requires access to arable lands.

Aquaculture or aquatic farming also requires access to lands and

waters suited for its purposes. For mariculture to develop in

Franklin County, access to lands or waters in or bordering the

Apalachicola Bay system is critical. The limited supply of such

lands, the competing uses for this area by several different user

groups, and public ownership of all submerged lands make siting a

mariculture project in Apalachicola Bay a difficult task. These

constraints will be explored in the section on the regulatory

process. This section ignores the regulatory constraints and

focuses on potential sites throughout the system.

Determination of sites was accomplished by examination of a

variety of maps of the bay, biological considerations of potential

species, interviews with local citizens, and field observations.

On one field observation (7/9/84), temperature, salinity,

dissolved oxygen and depth were recorded. The values are not to

be considered truly representative, as data would have to be

collected over time and seasons to be useful in assessing the full

potential of a particular site. However, the values are useful as

preliminary indicators of a sites potential, and for this reason

are reported.

Upland pond sites for mariculture are limited in Franklin

County primarily by long-term private and public ownership of the

majority of the potential acreage. St. Vincent Island is a

federal preserve and aquaculture is not a purpose of the preserve.

188

Little St. George Island is a state park and presently cannot be

used for commercial purposes. St. George Island is well suited

for a number of aquaculture activities on the bay side. However,

developmental pressure eliminates the island from consideration.

Land adjacent to St. George Sound is primarily residential and

further constrained by U.S. 98 which runs along less than 200 feet

from the waters edge. Constructing ponds north of the highway

where housing is absent requires placing water intake lines

beneath the highway adding an additional, and possibly prohibi-

tive, expense to a commercial venture. This area is slowly

developing with low density residential. units which place a higher

value on the land and greater return on investment, and as such

can be ruled out. Lands bordering East Bay are primarily marsh.

and wetlands. Poor accessibility, low salinities and inclusion of

most of the acreage as part of the sanctuary limit their potential

for pond development. A small stratch on the western shores of

East Bay and north of Eastpoint may be suitable for pond culture,

but was not inspected.

The only sites remaining are located along the north shore of

St. Vincent Sound. There are approximately 1000 acres of suitable

pond sites located between the sound and Highway 98 and S.R. 30.

A fringe of wetlands exist along a portion of the approximately 15

mile stretch, however, the majority are uplands with much of the

edge dropping off directly into the sound. Nearly all the acreage

is owned by St. Joe Paper Company and is planted in pine. The

value of such land is difficult to estimate since slash pine

189

requires 18 years to mature. At an average growth rate of one

cord per acre per year over 18 years and today's average value of

$25/cord, the value of slash pine may be estimated at

$450/acre/year. An intensive mariculture operation culturing fish

or shrimp could easily gross between $2000-$6000 per surface area

of water per year.

Most of the soil is believed to be Leon Fine Sand which

consists of a light-gray, fine textured sand grading at 8-12

inches into a lighter colored fine sand. About 15 to 18 inches in

depth a dark brown layer consisting of organic matter mixed with

fine sand and some iron compounds known as hardpan is found. The

hardpan layer varies in thickness from 2 to 12 inches or more and

inhibits the upward or downward movement of water. Soils which:

contain hardpan are not as suitable for pond construction as soils

containing clay since water will have to be added more frequently

during the dry season. Ponds constructed in hardpan soils are not

true levee ponds, but more like a shallow water table or dugout

pond where the hardpan is mostly left on the bottom of the pond

and the overburden is spread around the banks to protect against

flooding. Such ponds are drainable either through use of the

natural topography or by digging a drainage ditch deeper than the

pond.

The salinity of St. Vincent Sound varies considerably over

the year and may range from 5-30 ppt. In general, the salinity

increases towards Indian Pass. Salinities are usually lower from

December through April when river flow is highest and increase

190 -

during late summer and fall when river flow is lowest. The high

ground water table and fresh water influx during the winter will

therefore always keep the salinity of pond water low. Since the

salinity of the pond is already heavily influenced by the salinity

in the sound (i.e. the pond receives intake water from the sound),

the number of potential mariculture species suitable for pond

culture at this site will be reduced considerably. A complete

analysis of this site to determine salinity flux over the year and

methods to manage the effects should be undertaken prior to

commercial consideration. Slow acclimation will often enable the

culture of some stenohaline species in waters lower in salinity

than found in their natural habitat. Maintaining salinity records

will enhance pond management by allowing the manager to delineate

periods of greatest risk and stock species accordingly. For

example, penaeid shrimp will not be able to be cultured year round

unless minimum salinity levels can be maintained, but 20-25 count

shrimp have been cultured in ponds from post larvae (0.6g or less)

in 155 days (Tatum, in Homziak, 19133). Other species with pond

culture potential at this site include hybrid bass, eels, red

drum, pompano and sturgeon. Pond culture sites in the study area

are shown in Figure 6.

Suitable sites'for the location and construction of

artificial oyster reefs is beyond the scope of this study, but

conservative estimates indicate 40,000 acres of bay bottom are

suitable for reef construction. Some artificial reefs, if under

lease, may be suitable for additional off bottom oyster culture.

191

FIGURE 6

POTENTIAL POND SITES
,4@-d

The major factor to consider is protection from waves, tides and

currents. Other considerations include navigation recreation and

commercial fishing. Siting for off bottom oyster culture is

nearly the same as siting for cage or net pen culture and will be

discussed simultaneously.

Potential sites for off bottom oyster culture-and net pen or

cage culture are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Apalachicola to Two

Mile Channel is a dredged waterway running primarily east-west and

connecting the Intercoastal Waterway with Two Mile. A portion of

the channel is sheltered by a vegetated spoil island on the south

side. The north side is lined with docks, boats, houses and

businesses. The area seems to be well flushed, and approximately

4 feet deep right off the spoil island with a mucky bottom.

Salinity was 8 ppt, oxygen 6 mg/l and temperatrue was 30*C at

10:00 a.m. Small scale cage culture could be undertaken as a side

crop for those living or parking their boats along the north

shore. Potential problems include water quality degradation from

human activity in the area, low tides exposing cages, rapid

salinity fluxes from fresh water runoff or storm events, and

theft. Th area immediately west of this area going towards Green

Point is undeveloped and has potential along the north shore.

The remainder of the north side of St. Vincent Sound already

has a considerable amount of oyster bars and a few oyster leases.

The area appeared to be too shallow for cage culture, but is well

suited to be fully developed into EXtificial reefs. Raft, rack or

193

ey C-

x .4

FIGURE 7

POTENTIAL OF

MW*wlftmm Sam" Im No ow 00 so

tray culture of oysters could also be developed along this area.

Salinity varied from 13 to 18 ppt.

The south side of St. Vincent Sound right off.the north

shores of St. Vincent Island contains many nooks and crannies

sufficiently sheltered for off bottom oyster or net-pen/cage

culture. Water quality appeared to be excellent with salinity of

10 ppt, DO 6.7 mg/l and temperature 30"C. Depth varied from 2 to

6 feet and bottoms were firm sand with some mud. Consideration

should be given to varying tides, salinity fluxes, theft and

possibly strong currents or winds at certain times of the year.

Barriers for wind and currents may be necessary structures for

culture operations.

Big Bayou appeared to be an excellent site as it is well

protected, has good water quality, contains a seemingly

inexhaustible food source for oysters, and can be well policed

against theft. The salinity at the mouth was 16 ppt aad 13 ppt

near the end of the bayou. Cage or net. pen culture could be

attempted in the bayou, however off bottom oyster culture designed

to fit the bayou has tremendous potential. Salinity fluxes in the

bayou are unknown, silty sediments may cause some problems in

rough weather, and low tides may expose a considerable amount of

the area and reduce depths to dangerously low levels. While a

drop in depth from tides exposing oysters for short periods of

time may be beneficial, low tides coupled with freezes, such as

the December 183 freeze, could result in complete mortality.

1915

Sheepshead Bayou was not explored, however, its potential should

be similar to that of Big Bayou.

Indian Lagoon is well sheltered with higher salinities (25

ppt, 330C, DO 9 mg/1), good water quality, sandy to mud bottoms,

depths of 1-6 feet, and an abundant source of food for oysters.

Much of the area is leased and well suited to oyster culture. off

bottom techniques could be developed at this site as well. Marine

fin fish with higher salinity requirements may be suitable for

cage or net pen culture in the deeper portions of the lagoon.

Additional sites which were not examined but would have

potential for cage or net pen culture are along sheltered areas on

the bay side of the barrier islands. The use of Horseshoe Cove,

Pilots Cove, and New Inlet off Little St. George Island should be

assessed. The protection of the island as a state park eliminates

development and the pollution which often results from

development. Water quality should remain good, objections from

riparian owners would be absent, and uses would be compatible.

Areas along the eastern fringes of St. George Island such as

Rattlesnake Cove, East Cove, East Slough, and Pilot Harbor may

also hold potential as mariculture sites.

Dredged material containment areas (DMCA) are being used in

other states for the culture of bait and food crops. The

commercial operations are in the early phases of development, but

their prospect for success is bright. Open water disposal is the

present technique used by the Corps of Engineers when maintenance

dredging channels in Apalachicola Bay. A dredged material

196

disposal plan for the bay is currently being prepared (Brady,

Leitman and Edmiston, 1984). If DMCA are an acceptable

alternative, then their use for mariculture activities should

receive serious consideration. The multiple use of DMCA would

offer benefits of desirable location, access to good water

sources, and reduced construction and maintenance costs t o

mariculturists. Local communities would benefit from new

employment opportunities and new tax revenues. The Corps would

benefit from positive publicity generated from the use of what is

presently perceived as biologically and economically unproductive

acreage, which might lead to the availability of more sites for

use as DMCA.

The Corps has recently reviewed the concept and published a

proceedings (Homziak, 1983). Redfish, shrimp, trout, bait shrimp

and minnows were,identified as the most promising species for

culture in DMCA. Problems identified include: the

characteristics of the spoil material, especially contaminents,

and its suitability for culture; time compatibility of disposal

with crop production; an involved, complicated, and often unclear

permitting process; the absence of an economic track record for

such ventures applying for commercial loans; improvement in design

specifications for use of DMCA for culture; and a lack of

experience in managing such areas with such dual purposes. Sites

in Apalachicola Bay suitable for DJACA aquaculture should be

limited to those areas where the Corps have previously disposed of

spoil resulting in a build up of sediment which is often exposed

- 197

at low tides. Such sites are near Two Mile, The Two Mile Channel

and the Intercoastal Waterway and are shown in Figure 9.

A final area for site assessment lies along the Intercoastal

Waterway traveling through the Jackson River and Lake Wimico.

Cage/net pen culture and upland pond culture of freshwater fishes

might be feasible. The water is primarily fresh and this would

eliminate many euryhaline species. Water quality is good, but

accessibility is poor. However, existing technology for

freshwater aquaculture is readily available. Concerns would

primarily be with interference with navigation, consumptive use of

channel waters and environmental concerns reflected in the

permitting process as much of the area seems to be wetlands. No

site visits were made in this area and as a result no sites were

identified.

198

ww" me on

FIGURE 8

POTENTIAL CAGE/NET P
% tlo@-

IX. THE REGULATORY PROCESS

Farming the sea means farming the seas coastal margins, bays

and estuaries as this is where nearly 90% of the worlds food fish

spawn, mature and get captured. The conditions which make

mariculture attractive to a given coastal area are the same

conditions which make the area attractive for people to live and

play. Conflicts among competing users are a significant threat to

the development of aquaculture along the coastal zone. The most

significant public issue is whether or not an individual should be

allowed to privately own (lease) and make a profit from a commonly

held natural resource such as the sea (Bowden 1981). This will

involve some basic changes in the legal system and established

bureaucratic thinking in order to develop this wholly new economic

activity.

Our forefathers farmed the land long before they began to

regulate themselves and laws governing farming evolved along with

farming technology. Laws governing the hunting and gathering

techniques of commercial fishermen and recreational anglers

evolved long before mariculture was given serious consideration.

As a result mariculture is often governed by commercial and/or

recreational fishing laws. Mariculture is a farming technique and

not a fishing technique and the issue becomes whether or not our

regulatory system can accommodate a new use of our coastal

resources.

In 1978, the National Research Council found that the

constraints on the orderly development of aquaculture tend to be

200 -

politica 1 and administrative rathE@r than scientific and

technological. This statement was reaffirmed in the 1983 National

Aquaculture Development Plan (NADFI). There are few laws designed

to promote-and protect aquaculture. That is, aquaculture does not

fit into existing agricultural programs and as a result is

regulated at each level of government by a number of agencies each

who have their own range and scope of different state and federal

programs (Wypyszinski 1983). This absence of direction and

coordination has resulted in fragmented and overlapping regulatory

jurisdiction adversely impacting the fish farming industry. The

number of agencies participating in the permitting process of an

individual aquaculture facility is often large while regulations

are highly complicated and often require technical experitse to-

understand. Most laws do not address the needs of the industry

and in fact, programs or policies often conflict with one another.

The problem stems from broad definitions and policies defined in

law, taken by regulatory agencies, who propose and adopt detailed

regulations which try to cove r every possible activity that might

come under that broad policy definition.. The National Aquaculture

Act of 1980 (PL 96-362) sets up a framework for federal policy and

direction to identify problems and recommend-solutions, collect

and disseminate information, and coordinate federal activities and

programs.

A fundamental problem with regulatory agencies is that the

basic information on aquaculture as an industry and for issues and

policy considerations hindering its development, are not readily

2 01

available (Conte 1982). Thus, there is inadequate information on

what regulations apply to a specific aquaculture situation leaving

regulators uncertain whether or not a permit is needed and whether

or not specific rules are applicable. The end result is many well

intended laws developed'to meet public needs at local, state and

federal levels which were written without considering aquaculture.

Aquaculture impacts our regulatory process in a number of areas

including: land and zoning regulations; water and water quality

regulations; environmental, including dredge and fillf placement

of structures in-Navigable waters, and facility discharges

(NPDES); fish and fisheries management; facility and hatchery

management; FDA drug registration and shellfish sanitation;

coastal protection; wildlife protection; introduction of non-

native species; transport of live animals; and the normal business

functions such as taxes, workmans compensation, and safe work

places.

A need exists to identify state rules and regulations which

could potentially affect the initiation and operation of an

aquaculture enterprise and to define the practical effects of

these laws and regulations on specific culture operations. The

end result will hopefully be to remove regulatory impediments to

aquaculture by eliminating regulations not intended for

aquaculture or by streamlining the regulatory process as it

applies to aquaculture. This.is underway at the federal level as

mandated by the National Aquaculture Act and will be reviewed on

the state level during the coming year as prescribed by The

202 -

Florida Aquaculture Policy Act of 1984. Bowden (1981) has

proposed a four point solution: A. central permit register

describing each permit required at all government levels; creation

of a lead agency with direct interest in aquaculture; formation of

a joint hearing procedure where all problems connected with a

single project can be sorted out; and appointment of an

administrative advisor to explain and assist in the bureaucratic

process and reduce the procedural trauma experienced along the

way. Presently, culturists feel the permit process is lengthy and

uncertain. This diverts a significant amount of entrepreneurial

energy away from the start up phase of the culture operation and

into the bureaucratic process resulting in undue and increased

risks.

A. COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

Mariculture is a resource dependent activity of the coastal

zone. It is coastal dependent and as such should have priority

over other developments on or near the shoreline (Conte 1982).

These statements sum up the sentiments of all culturists in that

mariculture should be a designated use of the coastal zone with

areas set aside for culture activities as determined through the

planning process. The Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Act of 1972

(PL 92-583) is the logical place to include aquaculture in the

planning process. The Act creates a process for federal and state

cooperation in coastal management and fund the preparation and

administration of plans. The federal guidelines were adhered to

20.3

by passage of the Florida Coastal Management Act (Chapter 380 FS)

which instead of a plan, produced an environmental impact

statement entitled the Florida Coastal Management Program (FCMP).

Water dependent uses, such as aquaculture, fit into the CZM scope.

However, the FCMP only briefly addresses aquaculture leases under:

Statutory Authorities and Policies: Ownership and Management of

,Public Lands. Aquaculture site criteria, policies and designated

areas could have been fully addressed under the Commercial and

Recreational Fisheries Section. The FCMP does recommend the

program address ways to maintain, promote and enhance commercial

and recreational fishing industries in a fashion that is

consistent with the long term productivity of our living marine

resources. This recommendation seems to leave the door open to-

incorporate aquaculture into future program revisions or implement

it at the local planning level. However, the flexibility of the

FCMP to incorporate new coastal uses which evolve over time is

uncertain.

The Comprehensive Plan Franklin County (Apalachee Regional

Planning Council) was produced in response to the local Government

Comprehensive Planning Act of 1975 (Chapter 163 F.S.). The plan

does not adequately consider all uses of the available water

resources and doesn't discuss aquaculture, yet the top two key

issues for growth management are maintenance of the resource based

seafood economy and maintenance of water quality in the bay. The

general policy is to protect, maintain and foster the growth of

the seafood industry for generations to come by minimizing or

204

preventing pollution sources from entering the bay or by placing

special requirements on construction along the coastal zone to

protect water quality. General growth objectives and policies

Objective XXIII suggests limiting development in areas vital to

the functioning of marine ecosystems or vital to the sustained

harvesting of shellfish, while Objective XXIV states that ANES

should identify past damage to the ecosystem and appropriate

programs for restoration so that the county could then formulate

methods for management of the watershed. The plan does talk about

zoning and.land use to provide for activities related to

commercial fishing expansion and specifically mentions marine

culture shore facilities including seed oyster rearing, oyster

fattening and blue crab culture (E. Commerce. ll.d(l)(d)).

However, none of these policies, objectives or statements

specifically discuss or recommend methods to enhance or manage the

resource to incresae and maintain fisheries production.

Encouraging aquaculture development is not addressed.

There seems to be a contradiction in that the plan wants to

preserve the estuary as it is through preservation techniques such

as aquatic preserves, sanctuaries, state parks, EEL, OFW, etc,

which will certainly help to maintain good estuarine water

quality, but will do nothing towards protecting the resource from

overfishing or natural biological processes. The resource needs

controlled management with some environmental manipulation which

could be addressed with mariculture techniques. The Franklin

County Plan objectives and policies discussed above certainly seem

2 05

to leave the door open for inclusion of a mariculture element or

development of a separate comprehensive fisheries plan as

recommended in the oyster species plan assessment.

B. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS

Activities impacting environmental quality in Florida are

regulated by the Department of Environmental Regulation (DER).

DER attempts to evaluate potential pollution sources through

construction permits prior to the start up of an operation. DER

examines the permit application to see if the proposed source

utilizes appropriate technology to remove pollutants from the

discharge and for impact of the discharge on the environment.

This is permitted through the National Pollution Discharge

Elimination System (NPDES). The Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) is the federal administrator of NPDES and has developed

criteria for permit application evaluations based on the impact (bf

discharges on human and animal health and marine life (40 C.F.R.

227-4). Generally this means a potential aquaculture discharge

cannot negatively impact the marine ecosystem nor human health.

Discharges from intensive aquatic animal facilities are covered by

general NPDES permits and are divided into cold and warm water

facilities with maximums defined by 40 C.F.R. 122.43. EPA exempts

warm water fish culture facilities if discharge occurs less than

30 days per year or only occurs during periods of excess runoff or

if the facility produces less than 100,000 lbs. of round weight

product. DER provides state certification of a NPDES permit to

206

insure compliance with state water quality standards. DER usually

acts within ninety days of receiving the permit application from

EPA. NPDES permits may be required for ponds, hatcheries, closed

intensive systems, and possibly net-pen culture. None are

required for artificial oyster reefs.

Dredge and fill permits are another regulatory function of

DER and are required for most activities in wetland areas and

along the coastal zone. A dredge and fill permit may be required

for ponds, unless the site is in aj.,i upland location out of DER

jurisdiction. A permit application must also be filed for

structures placed in navigable waters or waters of the state which

would include structures associated with net-pen culture and off-

bottom shellfish culture. Assistance in recognzing the need for a

permit may be obtained from any DEJI field office. Types of

activities, agency contacts, requirements and a description of the

permitting process are provided in the DER publication "Regulatory

and Review Procedures for Land Development".

Permits for dredge, fill and structures are jointly

administered by DER, DNR and the Corps of Engineers (COE) using a

single application. other agencies which may become involved on a

review and comment basis include the Coast Guard, Fish and

Wildlife Service (FWS), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS),

Game and Fish Commission, Department of Community Affairs, Water

Management District, and local government. Each of these agencies

varies in their jurisdictional roles and level of involvement

depending on the scope and magnitude of the individual

207

application. For example, FWS is concerned about the effects of a

proposed operation on habitat and native stocks as well as the

importation and interstate shipment of plants and animals (Lacey

Act). While FWS is highly supportive of freshwater aquaculture,

they are adamantly opposed to most mariculture activities. The

COE is very tough on dredging and filling activities, but very

helpful in acquiring permits to use dredge material containment

sites for mariculture. Statutes which may apply to such

activities include:

Beach and Shore Preservation Act, Chapter 161, F.S.

State Land Trust Fund, Chapter 253, F.S.

State Parks and Preserves, Chapter 258, F.S.

Florida Air and Water Pollution Control Act, Chapter

403, F.S.

Chapter 253 is the only statute which specifically addresses

aquaculture and aquaculture leases. The remaining statutes as

well as others pertaining to water and water use are silent about

aquaculture, which can be viewed as a constraint to aquaculture

development.

Protecting and conserving the quality of water in the state

is a concept shared by both regulators and fish culturists. Clean

water is essential to an aquaculture operation in order to produce

a healthy good tasting product. An owner or operator of a

facility where animals are confined for feeding or one which may

have a discharge of waste must apply for a permit. A hatchery or

net pen system may or may not fit this classification. However,

208 -

laws such as NPDES and the Clean Water Act are restrictive in that

they fail to distinguish between biodegradable wastes produced by

fish operations and chemical wastes produced by industry

(Wypyszinski 1983). The concern over discharges from a culture

system, especially a net pen operation, are overstated since

discharged effluent is the natural metabolic waste product of

marine animals and a natural component of the marine environment.

They are comparable to discharges of oyster reefs and fish

populations and when properly disposed under permit guidelines

have negligible impact on an ocean or bay system (Conte 1982).

Wastes from a net pen system originate from uneaten feed or fish

feces. While these systems tend to have an effect on the bottom

directly beneath the pens, no effects have been documented to

adjacent surrounding bottom. In fact, a net pen system often

attracts other fish and crabs which consume uneaten feed and

metabolic wastes and can be harvested for extra profits. These

wastes may also be assimilated by oysters.

Metabolic wastes eminating from a net pen culture are usually

subject to flushing by tides, winds and currents. Assessing their

impact on an estuary such as Apalachicola Bay would be a difficult

undertaking. Livingston (1983) reports there are 34,200 tons of

carbon, 668 tons of nitrogen, 197 -tons of phosphorus, and 214,000

tons of organic matter which enter Apalachicola Bay each year.

Nutrients are highest in winter when river flow is highest which

is also the best oystering season. The oysters absorb more water

and expand during these periods of high freshwater inflow

- 201)

indicating uptake of some of the organic matter. There are many

factors including time of year, river discharge, primary

productivity rates, temperature, flushing rates, and other

biological productivity which all contribute to the nutrient

concentrations in the bay. It is an extremely complex system and

not completely understood (Livingston 1983). Nutrients may go

into the sediments or into phytoplankton production which is

cyclic and dependent upon a number of factors too. The connection

between upland nutrient sources (forest litter, etc.) and

recycling in the estuary is unknown. Therefore, concentrations of

nutrients and metabolic wastes originating from a net pen

operation or artificial reef would appear to be insignificant when

compared to the overall magnitude of nutrient and organic release

from the ACF system and complexity of nutrient cycling in the bay.

Research to determine the amounts of uneaten feed and metabolic

waste products from an aquaculture operation, their dispersal,

ultimate fate, and positive or negative impact on the estuarine

system might answer many questions. This research should be a

function of the federal government.

C. BOTTOM LEASES

Mariculture requires access to lands and waters adapted for

its purposes. The Florida Cabinet sitting as the Board of

Trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust Fund administers all

state owned lands and shall be responsible for the creation of an

overall and comprehensive plan of development concerning

210 -

acquisition, management and disposition of state-owned lands so as

to insure maximum benefit and use (Chapter 253.03 (7) F.S.).

Responsibility for the leasing of state bottoms for oysters and

shellfish has been delegated by the Trustees to,DNR and
specifically defined in Chapter 370.16 F.S.

The statute requires minimum quantities of cultch (656

bu/acre) and annual cultivitation guidelines until the entire

lease is under cultivation. The law defines transfer, revocation

and forfeiture of the lease. Transfer of a lease is barred by

sale or barter until the lease has been in existence for a minimum

of two years and has been cultivated according to the standards

outlined in the lease. Rental charges are $5/acre for the first

ten years and increase a minimum of $1/acre thereafter. The DNR

is presently re-evaluating lease fees. The rental change may be

based on the probable rates of productivity, marketability, and

value of the product produced by the operation. Florida law gives

the cultivator exclusive property rights to the shellfish planted,

but poorly defines the rights of the public (Kaplan, 1984).

Tresspassing and the taking of leased oysters is a first degree

misdemeanor. The statute also singles out Franklin County as

being the only county in the state prohibitng future leases. This

section 370.16(9) would have to be amended prior to the initiation

of a leasing program in Franklin County.

A draft DNR manual for shellfish leases is included in the

Appendix which clearly explains the procedures required by the

applicant and agency response. -There are presently 191 active

2 11

shellfish leases in Florida ranging from less than one acre to 177

acres. However, the DNR believes that many leases are not

actively being farmed and checking each lease for compliance is

nearly impossible to enforce. The DNR presently has a moratorium

on granting new leases. The seemingly restricted use of submerged

lands coupled with high adjoining land values has restricted

extensive mariculture systems. This may force the ndustry to move

towards more intensive systems which require higher energy costs,

higher densities and greater environmental manipulation. If these

systems are designed to have minimal environmental impact, then

this use of a smaller space with maximum environmental control

should result in fewer coastal use conflicts.

D. WATER COLUMN LEASES

In 1969,' Florida passed a very progressive aquaculture law

allowing the lease of both the water column and the submerged land

below it (Chapter 253.67-253.76 FS and 16Q-17 PAC). A review

procedure for obtaining a water column lease is given in the

Appendix. The legislation was intended to respond to the needs of

the mariculturist by broadly drafting legislation flexible enough

to accommodate new mariculture technologies. The Florida law was

a decision to encourage aquacultural enterprises by granting

exclusive use of the water column to the mariculturist since

existing law was unable to accommodate this need. Legislation is

required not only to protect the activities of the mariculturist,

but also to clarify the rights and responsibilities of conflicting

212 -

interests in the coastal waters. Ambiguities from poor drafting

and failure to respond to all issues or innovation have resulted

in an awkward legal process for the mariculturist. Since

enactment, not much has been accoNplished with regards to

aquaculture ventures utilizing the water column. While some of

this lack of interest can be placed on the private sector,

inadequate techniques for commercialization, and competing land

values, problems with the law and administrating agencies in

achieving this specific objective have tended to discourage full

implementation of the statute.

DNR is given administrative discretion in determining what

areas may be leased. The law (253.75(2)(c)) requires DNR to

designate areas for non-aquaculture use, but remains silent on

designating potential aquaculture sites. DNR must make a lease

assessment and a recommendation to the Trustees prior to the

granting of a lease. The assessment must 4nclude riparian rights,

navigation, commercial and sport fishing, and the conservation of

fish or other wildlife or other natural resources, including

beaches and shores (253.75(l)). The Trustees have the final

authority in determining conflicting use priorities and are not

required to follow the DNR recommendation. However, local

politics may prevent the siting of an aquaculture enterprise by a

simple majority veto by county commissioners (253.68).

The size of the lease is flexible; however, the law tends to

encourage a smaller lease for experimental purposes prior to

granting large tracts for commercial purposes (Owen, 1978). In

213

fact, DNR must determine in advance whether or not the lessee is

competent to carry out the terms of the lease (253.71(3)). A

reasonable area of adjacent bottom land may be held in reserve for

the time when a holder of an experimental lease will begin

operation under a commercial lease. Leases may be for a maximum

of 10 years at which time public notice for renewal is given. The

law is.ambiguous as to whether or not priority must be given to

the present lessee upon releasing the area. This may be viewed as

a deterent to aquaculture development.

Riparian owners must be notified of the proposed lease

and must file written approval or given the opportunity to present

objections prior to the issuance of a lease. Riparian owners

therefore seem to have a preference right or veto power to the

leasing of submerged lands, but there is no mention in the

statutes saying if preference rights can be overcome by a higher

bid (Kaplan, 1984). Determination of rents is left to DNR. In

the past DNR has charged a basic rent plus royalties after the

operation is established. This procedure has been criticized in

an independent study performed on a penaeid shrimp operation

(Snedecker, 1975). A performance bond is required by the lessee

to insure that cultivation will be actively pursued (253.71(4)).

Insurance companies presently charge a premium plus full cash

collateral, as the way Chapter 253 is presently written, the

insurance company and not the lessee is guaranteeing the

performance of the aquaculture lease. Finally, in order to comply

214

with the states audit procedure, two sets of boo ks must be kept

adding to the headaches of the mariculturist.

Procedural requirements to reconcile conflicting interests

are necessary to obtain a lease, but have the effect of creating a

paperwork burden on the applicant and impede the application of

new technology (Owen, 1978). The applicant must demonstrate

competency, gain local acceptance, post: a bond, notify riparian

owners, and then engage in regulatory involvement with a number of

federal and state agencies before the lease can be implemented. A

coordinating body or joint hearing process could keep this burden

to a minimum.

The statute (253.72(3)) allows exclusive use of the area only

to the extent necessary to permit affective development of the

species being cultivated by the lessee. The public is then

provided reasonable ingress and egress to and from the clearly

marked leased area for boating, swimming and fishing. DNR

requires the lessee to survey the quantity of public marine

resources which will be lost and to perform rehabilitation,

stocking or other remedial projects as would tend to improve the

marine productivity diminished by the lease (Owen, 1978). This

may place a great burden on the potential mariculturist. marine

species and ecology are further protected by Chapter 370, F.S.

However, Florida law is not clear on distinguishing a natural

species from one artificially cultivated.

If water quality violations occur as provided in Chapter 403,

F.S., the lease may be cancelled. This increases risk and places

- 215

the day to day survival of a venture at the mercy of a regulatory

agency. The lease may also be revoked if the activities for which

lease was granted are not substantially performed or for failure

to pay rent. Finallyr any person poaching on the lease shall be

guilty of trespass and punished for up to 60 days in prison or by

fine not exceeding $50 or both (253.72(2)). A DNR flow chart of

aquaculture lease procedures is shown in Figure 10.

In summary, the Florida law attempts to respond to the needs

of mariculturists by granting exclusive use of the water column

and at the same time attempts to respond to compatible uses and

conflict resolution through its application and revocation

procedures. However, as the above discussion reveals, many legal

and procedural barriers stand-in the way of obtaining a lease. -In

Franklin County, the initial and major obstacle to obtaining a

lease is gaining local acceptance.

E. SHELLFISH SANITATION

The Shellfish Sanitation Program has been administered by DNR

since 1975. DNR maintains a shellfish laboratory in Apalachicola

which monitors oysters and water for potential health problems.

Franklin County has the greatest amount of water quality

monitoring in the state. DNR has recently published a table using

river stage and cumulative three day rainfall to predict bay

closings. Authority is granted under Chapter 16B-28 FAC. DNR

also classifies and approves waters for shellfish harvesting based

upon those factors influencing the sanitary quality of a growing

216

Am' to, Am. ow M,

.0 ll@fc@

FIGURE 9

POTENTIAL.DMCA CULT

area. The DNR program has gone on record as stating "shellfish

culture and harvesting represents a beneficial use of water in

estuaries" (Futch and Schneider, 1984). Permits required by this

program are limited to an oyster harvesting permit and permits

relating to oyster houses and processing.

The Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC) is a

fairly recent organization composed of state agencies, FDA, NMFS,

and the shellfish industry. Its purpose is to provide a formal

structure for state regulatory authorities to establish uniform

guidelines and procedures for controlling shellfish sanitation.

This voluntary organization will be formulating nationwide

guidelines. Two meetings have been held, the most recent in

August, 1984, in Orlando. The effects and impacts of this program

are presently unknown, however, industry has-been favorable to the

initial results.

F. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Mariculture is a coastal dependent use compatible with a

number of existing coastal land uses. Regulatory agencies should

work with the industry to encourage the location and development

of mariculture facilities which fit into the local planning

philosophy. Regulatory agencies should be flexible in permitting

individual aquaculture ventures and assist applicants in obtaining

the necessary permits for an acceptable project. Aquaculture is

an agricultural enterprise which can add to existing food

218

supplies, enhance fisheries and contribute to the stability of a

coastal area's economy. Specific recommendations are:

(1) The Florida Aquaculture Policy Act (Chapter 84-90, F.S.)

should be supported to encourage the orderly development of

mariculture activities in the coastal zone.

(2) A complete legal review of all pertinent laws should be

carefully undertaken to resolve problems due to cross referencing,

jurisdictional overlap and the use of ambiguous terminology in

order to clearly define aquaculture in statute, reduce

uncertainty, and'clarify authority.

(3) Aquaculture should be designated as an appropriate and

priority use of the coastal zone in coastal management programs.

(4) Local governments should define aquaculture as;

agriculture for the purpose of zoning codes.

(5) A series of hypothetical culture systems and lease

situations should be run through the permitting process to assist

in finding problems with the process, assess the time and cost

requirements involved in obtaining a lease, and measure the impact

on developing such a new industry.

219

X. AQUATIC USER GROUPS AND MARICULTURE

Coastal waters in Florida can presently be considered an

underused resource especially regarding mariculture. Development

of an aquaculture industry will only heighten conflicts among

present users of the coast. Established users usually resist a

new use such as mariculture due to the belief of competition for

access to the resource. No one person or industry has the right

to exclusive use, but rather must conduct themselves in a manner

consistent with rights of others to use the same area.

Admin-istrative agencies must be able to reconcile conflicting

interests equitably among users. Resolution of conflicts,

especially those new ones created by mariculture development, will

depend upon how badly we come to need the things mariculture can

provide. -

Bowden (1981) has thoroughly reviewed the issue of creating

private property rights in the sea and declared it the single most

important public policy question raised by marine aquaculture. He

concluded that the public interest could be well served by

creating limited or common property rights in the use of coastal

waters for aquaculture. Common property rights can be defined as

rights of use, disposition and capital gain in a natural resource

held by a class of co-equal users whose membership and use rights

can be expanded only by government (Bowden pg. 191). Many of the

barriers identified to the successful development of an

aquaculture industry can be removed by addressing the question of

property rights. Defining property rights along with sound

220 -

planning procedures should clarify the competition among

traditional attitudes for access to the resource and reconcile

conflicting views. The traditional or established users include

commercial fishing, recreation, property, ownership, aquatic

habitat preservation, and navigation.

Commercial fishing in Apalachicola Bay includes tonging for

oysters on public bars, shrimping in all parts of the bay except

East Bay, and seining of fishes such as red drum, mullet and

trout. Although oystering only occupies a small percentage of

space in the bay, the potential to create public bars on a much

greater area of the bay leads many oystermen to believe that

aquaculture would be in direct competition with their right of

access to public submerged lands. The strongly independent

oystermen believe all of the sea to be a common resource and fears

that aquaculture would lead to monopolies and big business control

of the bay bottoms. They also fear that this would then lead to

price and market control. Not all oystermen are opposed to

aquaculture. In fact, nearly all of them support public

artificial reef buidling if constructed properly. Many do not

oppose non-oyster aquaculture and inany more realize the severity

of the present problems confronting the oyster industry.

Aquaculture would directly compete with bay shrimping and

some fish seining for space in this shallow bay. A good

allocation system could easily resolve this problem. The

advantages of aquaculture cannot be ignored. Creation of

artificial oyster reefs whether public or on leases, would enhance

- 22.1

the overall fisheries resources of the bay. Aquaculture does not

necessarily eliminate all other uses. Aquaculture can contribute

when fisheries are in short supply or unavailable during parts of

the year, it may help to stabilize prices, and it offers new

opportunities for those who can no longer make ends meet in

commercial fishing.

Although recreational fishing is considered good in

Apalachicola Bay, speckled trout and redfish, the top two sport

species, are declining in population. Fishing is good over the

grassflats in the bay, from piers and causeways, passes, and in

the tidal creeks and river mouths where bass are also sought.

Fishing is considered good in all but the coldest months of the

year. Live and dead shrimp are the best bait. Some anglers

believe the bay is on the decline while others observe there is a

continual increase in the number of sports fishermen.

Competition between aquaculture and sports fishing, or

recreation in general, is not considered to be a serious problem.

The major issue is equal access. Presently, the intent of Florida

law is to allow coexistence as long as the recreational angler is

not disturbing the culture operation. Aquaculture facilities

often act to attract fish which recreational anglers can catch

without disturbing the cultured organisms. Aquaculture may also

relieve pressure on wild fisheries and provide more fish through

stock enhancement programs. Recreational oyster harvesting is not

considered a threat to commercial oystering. And aquaculture is

usually carried out in waters not used for boating and swimming.

222 -

The major conflict is between commercial and recreational

fishing. Recreational anglers complain that commercial fishing

methods have become too efficient and have the ability to

completely deplete natural stocks. This sophistication results in

the catching of more fish each year and is presently worth $288

million per year (Bell, 1984) Commercial fishermen complain the

recreational anglers are catching too many fish, are driving down

the price by selling their catch for less than market value, and

are threatening their right to earn a living. However, Bell

(1984) found the worth of Florida's marine resources as

sports fishing value to be a $27 billion assets with $5 billion

generated directly and indirectly by business, $1.4 billion in

wages paid to 124,000 jobs, and paying $150 million in taxes.

Overall, the amount recreational fishermen spend on gas, oil,

food, beverages, motels, slip fees, rentals and bait is more than

five times the value of the annual commercial catch. Bell noted

the success rate of anglers is dropping which could have severe

economic consequences for the state. The portion of these figures

which relate to Apalachicola Bay are unknown; however, recreation

is clearly the most important economic use of the resource.

Aquaculture could, therefore, never hope to directly compete

economically with recreational fishing nor should aquaculture get

caught in the battle between recreational and commercial fishing..

However, as previously stated, aquaculture could both help supply

the presently unfulfilled demand for seafood and enhance natural

stocks thereby relieving some of the pressure off the resource.

22:3

Extensive development on St. George Island is not only a

threat to aquaculture development, but to the entire fisheries

ecology of the bay. Developers must realize there can be no

compromise if the bay is going to be saved and they must be

willing to pay the extra costs associated with development which

will protect the bay. Aquaculture, in turn, must then be

developed so as to be aesthetically pleasing to property owners.

Proper design to blend into the environment can help to eliminate

competition between these two users.

The COE and Coast Guard would never site an aquaculture

facility if it would interfere in any way with commercial

navigation. Boaters or commercial fishermen, such as bay

shrimpers, may have a limited conflict with aquaculture.

In summary, the. resolving of conflicts among various user

groups can be accomplished through sound comprehensive planning

where all uses are allocated space, rights and acces-swin an

equitable manner. Aquaculture is compatible with many of the

other uses. In the end, the solutions must be both socially and

economically acceptable.

224

XI. MARKETINGr ECONOMICS AND FINANCING OF AQUACULTURE PROJECTS

A thorough analysis of the economics of production, financing

the operation, and marketing the final product must be undertaken

for each individual aquaculture venture and the species it

cultures. This type of detailed analysis is beyond the scope of

this study. This section describes some of the basic needs and

requirements of developing a business plan, locating the required

capital, and developing markets as they might relate to a

mariculture operation in Apalachicola Bay.

Business Plans

Lenders and investors need to know specific details of a

proposed aquaculture venture which is usually provided in the form

of a busin ess plan. The plan should take a realistic view of the

viability of the entire proposed operation identifying strengths

and weaknesses, anticipating problems, and mapping out methodology

to achieve the goals of the business. A business plan should

eventually be the blueprint for operating the business. The three

essentials for a plan are what the busi ness is, how it will work,

and why will it work.

Contents of a business plan vary with the type of proposed

venture. An outline of essential elements to'consider in a

possible aquaculture business plan has been taken from Rhodes

(1984) and shown in Table 6. Financial projections, especially

cash flow are of great importance. Timing of production with cash

225

flow on a monthly basis for a minimum of three years will be both

an effective planning tool for the business as well as allow the

lender to assess the proposed operation, especially as it relates

to repayment of loans or potential earnings. The experience and

management capabilities of the principal(s) are also of great

interest to lenders. A marketing strategy is a key component of a

business plan which sets a profitable pricing policy, targets

markets, details product promotion, and assesses current and

future competition. Finally, a business plan needs a cover letter

which succinctly states the goals of the business, the amount of

capital to be borrowed, and terms desired.

226

TABLE 6
AQUACULTURE BUSINESS PLAN OUTLINE

I. Summary
A. Name and location
1. Name and location
2. Species
3. Porduction facility and site
4. Target market(s) and competition
5. Management expertise
B. Goals of business
C. Summary of financial needs and use of funds
D. Earning projections
E. Repayment capabilities and/or potential return to
investors

ii. Market Description
A. Overview of different market segments for species
B. Target Market(s) and trends
C. Competition: Current and future

III. Aquaculture Product(s) and Technology
A. Species descriptions
B. Facility and site description
C. Proprietary position: ownership of production site,
patents, [email protected], other techniques and legal
considerations
D. Permitting.requirements and other regulatory
considerations

IV. Aquaculture Production Technology
A. Brood and/or seed stocks: Sources and quality
B. Water quality controls
C. Production techniques
V. Marketing @trategy
A. Overview
B. Pricing policy and product form
C. Product promotion
D. Marketing logistics

VI. Management Plan
A. Legal form of organization
B. Owners and/or Board of Directors
C'@ Responsibilities by key personnel
D. Resumes of key personnel
E. Staffing and hiring plans
F. Facility construction/improvement plan
G. Species production schedule (first year by quarters;
remaining years annually)

VII. Financial Data
A. Current and past financial statements (if applicable)
B. Three to five year financial pro ections (first year by
quarters; remaining years annualiy)
1. Capital expenditure projection
2. Income (profit and loss projection)

227 -

3. Balance sheets
4. Cash flow projections
C. Descrip@ion of projects, including assumptions
D. Key business ratios
E. Description of use and effect, of new funds
F. Explanation of repayment capabilities/potential return
to investors

SOURCE: Primer on Aquaculture Finances, Planning For Success,
Part I. Raymond J. Rhodes Aquaculture Magazine Vol-10, No. 1 Dec.
1983.

Sources of Capital

Securing the necessary capital to develop and operate an

aquaculture venture may be obtained from private, public and

commercial sources. The sources differ, in the amount of risk they

are willing to take and the amount of interest they charge which

often depends on the type of operation and the legal form of the

company. Personal savings and loans from relatives are private

sources and are good places to look for capital when developing

the early stages of a business. Venture capitalists are another

source of private capital. They must be found by the operator and

usually require a rapid and high rate of return on their

investment.

The Farmers Home Administration (FHA) offers direct or

guaranteed loans for feeding, tending, harvesting and other

activities necessary to raise and market aquatic products (NADP,

1983). Emergency loans are also available from FHA. FHA

primarily makes loans for establ.isl.-ied operations and species with

a strong track record and usually for freshwater operations. The

Federal Crop Insurance Corporation has established an all risk

crop insurance program for fish farmers.

2213

The Farm Credit Administration (FCA) administers several

lending institutions such as Production Credit Associations (PCA),

Federal Land Banks (FLB), and Federal Intermediate Credit Banks

(FICA). These institutions can make loans on commercial terms

which support the production or harvesting of species under

controlled conditions, primarily the fisheries industry (NADP,

1983). Mariculture operations are included. PCA's usually give

intermediate term loans less than 11 years for purchase of capital

items, while FLB's are the major source of long term loans

exceeding 10 years. FCA institutions require collateral, a

business plan with financial projections, and often require the

borrower to buy stock in the institution. However, these

institutions are sensitive to the needs of the people they serve

and members (borrowers) serve on the board of directors.

The Small Business Administration (SBA) makes guaranteed,

immediate participation, and direct loans to aquaculture operators

and provides disaster loans in authorized areas. SBA loans may be

used for purchase and improvement of land or buildings,

construction, machinery and equipment, operating expenses, and

refinancing of debts (NADP, 1983). SBA provides business

assistance to a new business and disseminates information on other

sources of financial help. SBA also coordinates the Small

Business Innovation Research Program which is designed to give

small businesses approximately $500 million of all research and

development monies contracted out each year by federal agencies.

The awards may require three successive phases of research,

229

demonstration and commerial development: and are primarily geared

to innovative or hi-technology needs of' the agency's choosing.

Several aquaculture firms have received SBIR monies.

Commercial banks are the last source of capital and they make

the greatest number and variety of loans. Banks are conservative

lenders and generally do not make bad loans. Banks evaluate the

applicants collateral, their ability to repay with business

profits, management capabilities, and the applicant's character or

personal record (Rhodes, 1984). Banks in Franklin County have a

vested interest in the community and may be the best source of

financing local aquaculture ventures.

Aquaculture can be a risky business. It often requires large

amounts of energy, materials and capital. Operating costs can be

high especially if feed and pumped water have to be supplied.

Aquaculture is presently labor intensive; intensive crops are

susceptible to disease, and a jaeriod of time must pass before the

product is harvested and cash flows into the operation. Security

must be provided, especially for an operation such as a shellfish

lease where theft can put an operator out of business. Insurance

underwriters lack the expertise to assess risks and have too few

aquaculture ventures in which to spread, the cost of the risks.

Regulations are both costly and time consuming. Each of these

factors create an added risk to an aquaculture operation, making

the securing of a loan difficult.

230

Marketing

Fish and shell fish are in the future of the American diet.

Per capita consumption of seafood products will continue to

increase each year due to a growing consumer awareness of

nutrition and per capita income increases which result in more

food eaten away from home. The majority of seafood is -sold in

restaurants. Franklin County is one of the leading seafood

producing areas in the state. Processors, processing labor and

established market channels already exist and should be available

to aquaculture producers located in the county. Markets for bait,

sport fish or juveniles for enhancement would need to be

established.

Market research should be carried out prior to commercial-

scale production of an aquaculture product. A product must be

both raised at a profit and sold in sufficient volume at a profit

in order to have value. Market research determines what makes

people buy or not buy a product, when they.buy it, and how long

they continue to buy that same product. A product is then

researched to determine what additional features make the product

more appealing to potential buyers.

One hypothetical example could be the development of a high

quality oyster grown for the luxury market which might be called

an "Apalachicola Select." This oyster would be cultured on a well

worked leased ground to produce the desired shape and passed

through a fattening depuration facility to produce the right taste

and quality. The oyster would be cultured in sufficient

231 -

quantities to service markets year round and have a greater

production cost than both oysters harvested from public and leased

beds. All these production factors Could be estimated in a

business plan to final a range of unit costs at various scales of

production quantities. Market research would be used to tell if

the oyster can be sold and at what price by test.marketing the

product, surveying potential buyers, and identifying the type of

establishment which would offer this oyster on its menu. The

research should examine the degree of potential and the amount of

promotion which may be required. Research should determine if the

oyster can be sold at a price above production cost. Potential

orders can be assessed along with frequency of repeat orders, the

appearance of the oyster, and consumer reaction to the product.

The results of the research would be used to determine the level

of production which must be achieved in order for the idea to be

profitable or if the idea should be abandoned. Such a study is

recommended and could be coordinated through ANES.

23:2

Application received

-Acknowledge
Request to Title Marine Resources
to verify Back to.operations for comments
I Management section
JGFWFC for comments DER for coimentsi for comments
JBack to Operati
Prepare lease Agenda for permission
form to advertise

owners within 1000, Advertise] !,[Notify applicant
I

Agenda for consideration If objections aire
of bids upon acceptance received, a public
hearing is held

Notify Fiscal
applicant

Lease to Legal for approval.
Back to Operations

To applicant for signature.
Back to Operations

To Executive Director for signature.
Back to Operations

FCTPY TO LESSE

FIGURE 10
EEI@@
16--tEac
aEt @s

Agen" onj_,
of b, Lce IC

AQUACULTURE LEASES
Source; DNR

REFERENCES

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236

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2 39

Appendix A

OYSTER CALCULATIONS

A. 1 bushel = 62 lbs. = 240 standard oysters = 20 doz. oysters
8.75 lbs. = 1 gallon shucked oyster meat
1.2 bags or bushels = 1 gal. or 7.29 lbs. meat = 1 bushel

B. DNR Reef Construction:
5500 bu/ac - 253.5 cu. yd./ac. oyster shell
Evenly spread this will be a depth of 1.89 inches

C. Oyster Production Estimates:

An ideal oyster growing space is 16 sq. inches
1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = 6,272,640 sq. inches
= 6,272,640 T 16
= 392,040 oysters can be grown on 1 acre
= 392,040 - E(25%)(392,040)] mortality
= 294?030 oysters
= 1225 bushels

Thus, approximately 1200 bu/ac/yr can ideally be bottom
cultured on a well managed lease. Under optimum conditions, a
standard oyster can be produced from spat in 39 weeks.

D. Depth/thickness of shell planted = (#cu/yds)(36 inM acre
( ac YU )(4840 sq yd)

i.e. (253.5 cu yd)(36 in)( acre )
acre H yd )(70-40 sq yd) 1.89 in ches

f
Appendix B LRru
MANUAL OF OPERATIONS

SHELLFISH LEASES

(1) Lease Information

Section 370-16, Florida Statutes, provides that certain water
bottoms of the State may be leased for t .he purpose of growing
shellfish.
Anyone may apply to the Division of Marine Resources for a
shellfish lease on an application form supplied by the Division. The
following procedures are required:

A. Date of Application.
B. Applicant's name, address, telephone number and signature.
C. The name and address of the riparian upland property owner(s).
D. A survey plat and legal description shall be attached *(see
note).
E. The proposed lease site shall be permanently staked by the
surveyor.

*NOTE: PRIOR TO SURVEY

1. The applicant shall insure the site is, in fact, state land
and there are no natural oyster or clam beds thereon or other
encumbrances to prevent its leasing.
2. The applicant shall check with.the local Tax Assessor to
obtain land ownership and riparian owner information,
3. The applicant shall check with the local Florida Marine Patrol
District office to insure the site is in an apprcved or conditionally
approved shellfish harvesting area.
4. The-applicant shall request that the Bureau have the site
inspected to determine if it is leasable. The applicant may accompany
the inspector.

Upon receipt of the application, the Division of Marine Resources'
Bureau Personnel shall:

A. Sign and date the application.
B. Set up an application file.
C. Using the survey plat and legal description, to insure that
the proposed lease site is an approved or conditionally approved
shellfish harvesting area.
D. Using the survey plat and legal description, check 6xisting
leases to insure the proposed site does not conflict with existing
leases.
E. Using the survey plat, legal description, and application,
check with Bureau of State Lands and Bureau of Survey and Mapping to
insure the proposed lease site is in fact State property and has no
encumberances to prevent it from being leased for shellfish cultiva-
tion.

Source: DNR

F. Using the survey plat and legal description, place a
legal advertisement once a week for it weeks containing the description
of the proposed lease in a newspaper of general circulation in the
county where the proposed lease is located. to notify the public that an
application for a shellfish lease has been filed and that objections
must be filed within 30 days after last publication to the Division of
Marine Resources.
G. Mail a certified returned receipt requested, lease appli-
cation notification to the riparian owner(s).
H. After items A-G are satisfactorily completed, insure the
applicant has posted signs on the corners of the proposed lease.
I. Arrange for a finai inspection to insure the area pre-
viously inspected and surveyed are the same and are leasable.
i. If riparian owner gives his consent in writing or if the state
is riparian owner then no advertising is necessary.

(II) Documentation

The Bureau Personnel shall prepELre an original and three copies of
a shellfish lease contract between the State of Florida Department of
Natural Resources and the applicant.
Upon approval, the original contract and the three copies shall be
mailed to the applicant for his signELture and the entire current year's-
lease rent. Upon receipt of the signed contract and rent, the original
contract and 3 copies shall be signed by the Executive Director of the
Department of Natural Resources. Onet signed copy of the contract shall
be returned to the lessee. The original copy of the contract and'a
copy of the survey plat shall be filed in the official oyster lease
file in the office of the Bureau. The remaining two copies of the
contract and survey plat shall be foxwarded to the Bureau of State
Lands and the Division of Law Enforcement.

(III) Lease Rent

A. Notice. All leases have an annual lease rental which
shall be paid in advance. Rent for all leases shall be $5.00 per
acre or fraction of an acre per calendar year. Rent is due on or
before January 1 each year. Notice of lease rental shall be sent by
regular mail no later than December 10. Failure to pay rent by January
30 subjects the lessee to a ten percent penalty rent. A second and
final lease rental notice shall be mailed on or about February I by
registered mail return receipt requested to lessees not having paid
their rent. Failure to pay rent by March 5 subjects the lease to can-
cellation.
B. Receipt and Recording of Lease Rental Monies. The recapitula-
tion sheet, rental notice, and other correspondence pertaining thereto
shall be forwarded to the Bureau. A copy of the recapitulation sheet
shall also be forwarded to the Bureau of Fiscal Services.
The Bureau of Fiscal Services shall mail t o the Bureau a fiscal
office daily recapitulation sheet to compare with Bureau and Cashier
lease'records. Copies of the Fiscal and Cashier recapitulation records
shall be maintained together in the files in the Bureau.

C. Lease Records.-
1. Shellfish Administration.
A. Copies of all lease correspondence, transfers, paid
lease rental notices, and other pertinent data shall be filed in
the official individual lease file in the office of the Bureau.
B. All financial and ownership information shall be
recorded on individual ledger sheets by lease number in the offi-
cial lease record book. The ledger sheets shall also contain the
name and address of the lessee.
C. All leases shall be cross filed on 3" X 5" cards in
numerical order, by lessee's name in alphabetical order, and by
county. The cards shall contain the number of the lease, the name
and address of the lessee, the acreage, and date issued for easy
reference.
D. The lease number, lease stakes and signs, lease
ledger sheet, lease files, and cross reference file shall use
identical number for indivudual leases for easy reference.
2. Cashier. The cashier shall maintain records of all lease
receipts for easy reference and comparison with the records of the
Bureau Personnel.
3. Fiscal. The Bureau of Fiscal Services shall maintain
records of rent receipts of the Cashier.
4. Bureau Personnel shall total all recorded lease receipts
monthly by comparing the Cashier and fiscal recapitulation sheets, and
the daily Shellfish Administration lease receipts ledger sheets. This
total shall be recorded on the Monthly Reconcilement of Oyster Lease
Rental form and mailed to the Bureau of Fiscal Services and Cashier's
office for verification.
S. The Bureau of State Lands shall keep appropriate records of
all leases for reference.

(IV) Miscellaneous
A. Numbering. All leases shall be numbered in consecutive
numerical order (example 739) as they are executed and leases will
retain the original numerical designation followed by letters for each
portion (i.e. 739A, 739B, etc.) for easy reference.
if a lease is cancelled for failure to pay rent and resold to the
highest bidder, the lease will retain its numerical (and letter) designation.
B. Transfer. A lease is inheritable and transferable in whole or
in part. A change in ownership of a lease is invalid and will not be
recognized by the Department of Natural Resources unless given prior
notice of the change so that accurate records may be maintained. The
Department of Natural Resources places the responsibility of.a lease on
the lessee of record.
A lease is inheritable, in whole or part, at any time without a
transfer fee being required. The ledgers of the official record book
and the individual lease file will be changed to reflect the change in
ownership upon receipt of the Judge's order, notarized copy-of a will,
or other documentation approved by the Department of Natural Resources'
legal staff.
No lease or part of a lease may be transferred by sale or barter
until the lease has been in existence at least two years and cultivated
according to Section 370.16(4)(b), F.S. A lease cannot be transferred
by sale or barter without the express written permission of the
Division of Marine Resources and the transferee paying a $50 transfer
fee.. The receipt and recording of transfer fees shall be done as lease
rental receipts.

C. Inspections. All leases shall be inspected at least annually
to check compliance with Florida law. A copy of the inspectors report
shall be placed in the official individual. lease file.
D. Notification. The Florida Marine Patrol and Bureau of State
Lands shall be notified of all cases of lease transfer, subdivision,
reduction of acreage or other lease status changes.

(V) Lease Cancellations
A lease may be cancelled in two ways by the Executive Director of
the Department of Natural Resources. Records of cancelled leases shall
be retained as mentioned above. Lessees shall be notified by certified
mail of all cancellation and of his rights to a Section 120
Administrative Hearing.
A. Cancellation (Jue to lack of cultivation according to standards
found in Section 370.16(4)(b), F.S. Each lease is inspected annually
for cultivation progress by inspection of the lease bottom by tonging,
dragging a chain, wading, etc. The Lessee is given notice by certified
mail to enable him to comment why the lease should not be cancelled.
The Executive Director may cancel the lease in 30 days if there are no
comments nor requests for and administrative hearing are received, or
if the comments received by mail or at an administrative hearing do not
justify keeping the lease active.
B. Cancellation for non-payment of rent. By March Sth of each
year a certified letter is mailed to the lessee advising him of the
cancellation. Leases cancelled for non-payment of rent are to be sold
to the highest bidder. The lease to be sold must be advertised by
lease number and description once in a newspaper serving the county.in
which the lease is located at least (50 days prior to the sale. The
advertisement shall contain an invitation to interested parties to con-
tact the Division of Marine Resources for lease specifications.
The bid specifications contain the lease number, description,
bidding information, bid opening date, and itemized minimum acceptable
bid price for the lease. The minimum price includes the rental (Jue at
$5.00 per acr7e plus penalty, certified mail expenses, and advertising
expenses. All monies over and above the rental due and expenses to
advertise, etc., shall be paid to the lessee forfeiting his rights
herein.
The sealed bids shall be opened on the date and time specified in'
the bid specifications. The high bidder shall be notified. If he does
not mail in the bid amount due within a specified period of time the
next highest bidder will be notified and so on.
When the high bidder submits the bid amount, the monies received
will be handled like regular rent receipts (see above). A new lease
contract shall be completed and signed like newly issued leases
contracts. The same lease number will be used.
C. The Florida Marine Patrol. and Bureau of State Lands shall be
notified of all lease cancellations.

Appendix C

3.17 AQUACULTURE LEASES

Applications for aquaculture leases must include the following:
1. Name and address of applicant;
2. Legal description and acreage of the parcel sought for
leasing;
3. Two prints of a survey p:Fepared by a person properly
licensed by the Florida State Board of Land Surveyors or an agent
of the Federal Government acceptable to the DNR;
4. Description of the aquaculture activities to be conducted
and an assessment of the ability of the applicant to conduct such
activities;
5. State=@ment evidencing that the lease is in the public
interest; I
6. Names and addresses, as they appear on the latest county
tax assessment roll, of each owner of riparian uplands within one
thousand feet of the parcel sought, certified by the county
appraiser;
7. Statement of the impact of the proposed activities on the
environment of the area.

If the DNR decides to lease the parcel sought, the lease will
be accomplished through ccupetitive bidding. The DNR will cause
notice of the lease to be published once a week for four
consecutive weeks in a newspaper in the county containing the
parcel.

The DNR will not approve an aquaculture lease if it receives,
within thirty days of the first publication of notice of lease, a
resolution of objection from the county commissioners of the county
containing the parcel sought.

Acpmculture leases may not exceed ten years in duration. The
annual lease fee may either be a fixed fee or a basic fee plus
royalties based upon the productivity of the aquaculture. The
terms of the lease will also include the disposition of all
improvements and plant and animal life upon termination or
cancellation of the lease. The applicant must post a surety bond.

Failure to perform the aquaculture activities for which the
lease was granted constitutes grounds for cancellation of the
lease.

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