Water quality indicators guide surface waters

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

United States
Department of
Agriculture Water Quality
Soil
Conservation
Service Indicators Guide:

SCS-TP-161
Surface Waters

S
622
X552
1989

All programs and services of the Soil Conservation Service
are available without regard to race, color, religion, sex, age,
marital status, handicap, or national origin.

United States
Department of
Agriculture Water Quality
Soil
Conservation
Service Indicators Guide
Surface Waters

Charles R. Terrell Dr. Patricia Bytnar Perfetti, Head
National Water Quality Specialist Departments of Geoscience and
Ecological Sciences Division Environmental Studies
Soil Conservation Service Physics and Astronomy
Washington, D.C. University of Tennessee-Chattanooga
Chattanooga, Tennessee

Property of CSC Library

0 - S - DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413

C"
C"
/V) cm

V3 lei

Issued September 1989

United States soil P.O. Box 2890
Department of Conservation Washington, D.C.
Agriculture Service 20013

FOREWORD

With more than fifty years of experience in soil and related
resources, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) is actively involved in
agriculturally related water quality issues. In recent years as the
public has become concerned about surface and ground water problems, SCS
has endeavored to meet water quality needs by developing and transferring
new and innovative technologies. As part of that new effort the SCS has
developed the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters to aid in
finding water quality solutions to problems from sediment, animal
wastes, nutrients, pesticides, and salts.

With the creation of new laws, such as the Food Security Act of 1985
and the Water Quality Act of 1987, and many new regulations relating
agriculture and water quality, SCS needs new tools to address water quality
situations. The Water Quality Indicators Guide also helps fulfill the
needs of educators for information and guidance to teach water quality in
a clear and understandable manner.

The Water Quality Indicators Guide employs a simplified approach,
allowing the user to learn the fundamental concepts of water quality
assessment quickly. The guide extracts basic tenets from many
disciplines, such as geology, hydrology, biology, ecology, and
wastewater treatment, and focuses those ideas in making decisions about
water quality. With the guide the user can assess potential water
quality conditions without elaborate chemical testing procedures or
intricate species identification. Then', the user can determine
possible sources of the problem on adjacent lands, and recommend
practices for correcting the condition.

The SCS has backed the guide's qualitative approach with the skills,
knowledge, and experience of SCS biologists, hydrologists, water quality
specialists and others from across the Nation. Our hope is that the
Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters will prove to be a useful
tool in making water quality assessments, leading to improved water quality
and a better environment for all of US.

ROBERT * SHAW
Deputy Cl-ief for Technology
July 18, 1988
1@1'-4@1

The Soil Conservation service WO-AS-1
is an agency of the 10-79
Department of Agriculture

Preface

The Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is dedi-
cated to Vernon M. Hicks, retired Soil Conservation Service
(SCS) biologist, who fostered the idea of the guide when he was
National Environmental Coordinator for SCS. As a result of
many years of service in the South and the Northeastern United
States, Mr. Hicks recognized the need for SCS field personnel to
have a guide that allowed the user to recognize surface water
quality problems easily but reliably, and to select conservation
and best management practices that help remedy those problems.
To date, few water quality publications have employed the
indicator approach where environmental "surrogates" are used to
represent pollution potentials. However, Mr. Hicks believed that
environmental conditions could be surveyed without elaborate
chemical testing procedures, and judgments made based on
surrogates, concerning the quality of waters.
The core of the Water Quality Indicators Guide is the field
sheets and list of associated practices to remedy or abate agricul-
tural nonpoint source pollution. The field sheets are arranged in
matrix format with environmental indicators given for sediment,
animal wastes, nutrients, pesticides, and salts. Each indicator is
divided into descriptions of the environment from excellent to
poor, and each description is given a weighted numerical rank-
ing. The user matches the individual description with what is
observed in the water or on the land. By totaling the individual
rankings, a score is obtained indicating the potential for agricul-
tural nonpoint source problems. Practices can be selected from
the list to alleviate problem situations.
With practice, the user of this guide will find that he or she
can quickly learn water quality assessment procedures through
the use of the guide's field sheets. With experience, the user's
ability to assess water quality situations accurately with the field
sheets will also increase. The guide is flexible, with places on
the field sheets where the user can insert environmental sur-
rogates representing local environmental conditions.

Charles R. Terrell
National Water Quality Specialist
Soil Conservation Service
United States Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
July 18, 1988

Contents

Introduction iv
Chapter 1 - Pollution Related to Agriculture ............ I
Chapter 2 - Water Quality Field Analysis .............. 9
Chapter 3 - Ecology of Freshwater Systems ............ 17
Chapter 4 - Sediment ............................... 19
Chapter 5 - Nutrients ............................... 23
Chapter 6 - Pesticides .............................. 29
Chapter 7 - Animal Wastes .......................... 33
Chapter 8 - Salts .................................. 37

Appendix A - Water Quality Procedures ............... 43
Appendix B - Aquatic Organisms ..................... 48
Appendix C - Glossary ............................. 78
Appendix D - References ........................... 81
Appendix E - Conservation and Best Management
Practices .............................. 84
Appendix F - Field Sheets .......................... 88

Introduction

Audience and Purpose of This Guide recommended to reduce or eliminate nonpoint source pollution
The Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is in- originating from agricultural lands.
tended for the district conservationists and other field personnel This type of approach may be sufficient in some instances to
of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS). It is designed to help confinn that a particular nonpoint source pollution problem ex-
field personnel recognize agricultural nonpoint source problems ists. In other instances, it may lead you to suspect a given pollu-
and their potential causes, and to give corrective measures. The tant, which can then be confirmed or denied by additional
Indicators Guide is meant to complement SCS's previously pub- scientific analysis. When available, dissolved oxygen meters, sa-
lished Water Quality Field Guide (SCS-TP-160). Together, these linity and conductivity meters, and field test kits may be used to
two guides provide a comprehensive examination of surface supplement the Water Quality Indicators Guide field sheets.
water agricultural nonpoint problems and possible solutions. However, acceptable determinations can be made by using the
field sheets without test kits or meters. When a particular non-
The Role of the Soil Conservation Service in Water Quality point source pollutant is identified, the user of this guide is
Throughout the history of the Soil Conservation Service, directed to possible solutions (conservation and best management
Congress has authorized SCS to provide water quality improve- practices), which are listed by number on the field sheets.
ments through flood and pollution control. Much of SCS's work There are two types of field sheets: one type for receiving
in water quality began in the early 1970's as a result of growing waters, including streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds; and another
public concern about agriculturally related pollution. SCS assist- type for use on agricultural lands draining into the receiving
ed State and local efforts to develop agricultural plans under waters. Chapter I reviews the overall distribution of agricultural
Section 208 of the Clean Water Act of 1977. nonpoint source problems. Chapter 2 gives a history of the
Both the Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of water quality indicators approach and gives some general limita-
1977 and the Agriculture and Food Act (1981 farm bill) tions of the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters. in-
strengthened SCS's role in setting clean water objectives. More structions for the water-based "A" type field sheets and for the
water efforts are cited in the Food Security Act of 1985 (1985 land-based "B" type field sheets are contained in chapter 2.
farm bill) that has important implications for SCS's future activi- Chapter 3 presents background ecological information about
ties concerning water quantity and quality. aquatic ecosystems, especially stream systems.
Chapters 4 through 8 discuss the five major pollutants-
A Note to the User of This Guide sediment, nutrients, pesticides, animal wastes, and salts. These
The Water Quality Indicators Guide examines five major chapters discuss in detail the water quality indicators enumerated
sources of agriculturally related nonpoint source pollution- in the water-based "A" series of field sheets. It is assumed that
sediment, nutrients, animal waste, pesticides, and salts. Field Soil Conservation Service district conservationists and other field
sheets are provided to enable the user to assess surface water personnel will be familiar with the terminology given in the
quality problems easily and accurately and to select appropriate land-based "B" field sheets, so few specific instructions are
remedial practices. The field sheet concept was adapted from a given for the "B" field sheets. The "B" field sheets are
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources methodology (ref. designed to assess the pollutant generation potential of a particu-
1-1). The field sheets are completed in the field through onsite lar field or pasture and are completed in the same way as the
observations, rather than chemical or physical measurements. "A" field sheets. As an aid, a glossary of terms appears in ap-
Conservation and best management practices (BMP's) are pendix C.

Chapter 1

Pollution Related to Agriculture

Recent reports acknowledge that a principal water quality impoundments, to rivers, streams, and even farm ponds. Ground
problem in our Nation is nonpoint source pollution. The U.S. water is also vulnerable to pollution. Contaminated wells and
Environmental Protection Agency defines nonpoint source (NPS) drinking water supplies are now being identified.
pollution as precipitation-driven stormwater runoff, generated by In general, water quality problems result from five categories
land-based activities, such as agriculture, construction, mining, of agriculturally related nonpoint source pollution: sediment,
and silviculture. Agricultural nonpoint sources are crop and nutrients, animal wastes, pesticides, and salts. Figure 1-1 shows
animal production activities. These activities result in diffuse the geographic potential for nonpoint source pollution of surface
runoff, seepage, or percolation of pollutants from the land to waters. The potential for agricultural nonpoint source pollution
surface and ground waters (ref. 1-2). Problems relating to problems, according to SCS's Second Resources Conservation
agricultural nonpoint source pollution can be observed in the Act (RCA) Appraisal report (ref. 1-3), is shown in figures 1-2
entire range of water bodies from estuaries to lakes and through 1-7:

Figure 1 -1
Composite Potential for Nonpoint Source Pollution of Surface Waters.

Potential
0 - High
-Medium

Low

An area with a "low" composite rating could have a high
rating for a specific contaminant. Ratings were made for multi@
county watershed areas and do not identify more localized
problems.-

Figure 1-2

Potential for Pesticide Problems.

-A

Potential
-High

-Medium

- Low

The potential for surface water pollution by pesticides was
estimated by multiplying the crop acreages in each area by
pesticide application coefficients for 184 pesticides. These values
were multiplied by an availability factor that estimated the
percentage of an application leaving a field and were adjusted by
a runoff value for the growing season. Pollution potential is
estimated for each watershed as a whole; localized conditions
may be masked by aggregation. To confirm the existence of
pesticide pollution, stream and lake monitoring would be
necessary.

Figure 1-3
Tons of Manure Per Acre of Cropland and Grassland.

Potential
- High

-Medium

Low

The number of each type of animal in a county (from the
1982 Agricultural Census) was multiplied by the appropriate
manure production factor. The amounts of manure produced by
all the county's livestock were totaled and aggregated by area;
the total was divided by the acreage of cropland plus grassland
(from the Agricultural Census) in each area.

Figure 1-4

Potential for Animal Waste Problems.

Potential

-High

-Medium

- Low

The figure shows potential for pollution resulting from
animal wastes, taking into account percentage of manure
needing improved management, percentage of cropland and
grassland associated with animal enterprises, runoff from
precipitation, ratio of feed purchased to feed produced on farm,
and ratio of nitrogen and phosphorus available from manure to
nitrogen and phosphorus needed by crops.

Figure 1-5

Potential for Nutrient Problems.

Potential
-High

-Medium
C3 -Low

Source: WATSTORE (U.S. Geological Survey data from water quality stations, Ref. 1-4).

The potential for impairment of water quality was estimated
by determining nutrient concentrations, by form, and comparing
them with the respective threshold levels at which they threaten
desired water uses. Data on nutrient concentrations were taken
from WATSTORE (U.S. Geological Survey data from water
quality stations). Stations were primarily National Stream
Quality Accounting Network stations at the downstream and of
hydrologic accounting units. Estimates of pollution potential are
for the watershed as a whole and may not reflect localized
conditions.

Figure 1-6

Estimated Sediment Yield.

0 OVA
1 0 is* 0
0 i0ot
Is

Problem
Potential
High: (3+Tons/acre/yr.)

Medium:
(1.0 - 2.9 Tons/acre/yr.)
-Low: (< 1.0 Tons/acre/yr.)

Sources: (1) 1982 National Resources Inventory (USDA-SCS, 1984, Ref. 1-5).
(2) USGS Surface Soil Surveys (Ref. 1-6).
(3) USDA Soil Survey Laboratory Data State Reports (Ref. 1-7).

Estimated sheet and rill erosion rates reported in the 1982
NRI were adjusted to county boundaries. Sediment delivery for
each county and land use was estimated using state sediment
delivery curves developed for the 1977 NRL Sediment delivery
rates are assumed to be higher in areas where streams are more
numerous and closely spaced and where the surface soils have a
higher percentage of fine particles (silt and clay). Data from
USGS Surface Soil Surveys and USDA Soil Survey laboratory
data were analyzed also.

Figure 1-7
Potential for Salinity Problems.

Potential
-High 1W

- Medium

-Low or None

Sources: (1) U.S. Geological Survey National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) stations in ASAs (Ref. 1 -8).
(2) Published and unpublished data from EPA and USGS.

To assess potential, indicators of total dissolved solids,
adjusted sodium adsorption, and chloride concentration were
checked and total solid loads were analyzed using data for
agricultural acreages, areas affected by saline or sodic soils, and
irrigated acres as modifying and/or contributing factors. Data
analyzed were taken from the U.S. Geological Survey National
Stream Quality Accounting Network stations and published and
unpublished data from EPA and USGS.
OIL
qIT_ @oi_

Chapter 2

Water Quality Field Analysis

History of the Indicators Approach This guide is especially limited where water flow rates are
Two centuries ago, when the U.S. population was small, the excessively low or high. In ephemeral or intermittent streams,
number of farmers and farm animals was also small. Agricultur- some parts of this guide, such as observing fish, vegetation, or
al wastes did not overload streams or other receiving water bod- bottom invertebrates, cannot be used. The guide's use may be
ies. In those days, streams cleansed themselves naturally. Today, limited in heavily silted, mud-bottom streams, where the silt's
with the increasing complexity of farms, many watercourses and presence provides an unsuitable habitat for many species. Also,
water bodies are unable to cope with the pollution loads being heavy siltation of the water can "mask" the effects of nutrients
generated. that may be present, by shutting out light that normally would
The SCS Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is reach aquatic vegetation, allowing its growth. Thus, the
designed to determine by means of an indicators approach vegetational part of the nutrient field sheet may not work well in
whether farm-generated materials are a problem. Water pollution heavily silted waters. In these cases, chemical testing may be
investigators have used this type of approach since the turn of necessary to determine nutrient levels.
the century. At the heart of this approach is a comparison of
water quality conditions above and below a suspected source of Description of the Field Sheets
pollution. In most instances, the suspected source may be a The heart of the SCS Water Quality Indicators Guide:
"point" source pollution; that is, a type of pollution that can be Surface Waters is a series of field sheets (appendix F). The field
readily identified as coming from a discrete source, such as a sheets relate to surface water quality and are designed to help
discharging pipe (e.g., a sewage outfall). field personnel assess the degree of contribution to receiving
The Water Quality Indicators Guide adapts this approach for waters from agriculturally related pollutants, namely sediment,
use with nonpoint source pollution-pollutants whose sources are animal waste, nutrients, pesticides, and salts. The receiving
diffuse and not readily identifiable. Nonpoint source pollutants watercourses are natural streams, constructed channels, or
include those substances which run off, wash off, or seep receiving water bodies, such as ponds or lakes.
through the ground into receiving watercourses and water bod- The field sheets are of two types: "A" and " B. " The five
ies. Agricultural nonpoint source pollution tends to wash or run "A" field sheets are designed to assess the effects of pollutants
off large tracts of cropland, pastures, feedlots, etc., and the con- to receiving waters. These are water-based field sheets and
ditions leading to pollution are highly variable. should be completed onsite, following visual inspection of the
One of the most important pollution variables is flow. In receiving water.
nonirrigated regions, loadings of the most common nonpoint By contrast, the seven "B" field sheets are land-based and
source pollutants in a small stream tend to be proportional to the are designed to assess the pollutant potential of a particular field
amount of runoff. Runoff, in turn, varies with conditions, such or pasture; i.e., how likely it is that an agriculturally produced
as: (1) amount of snowmelt or rainfall; (2) rate of snowmelt or pollutant will be carried from a given field or pasture to a
rainfall; (3) soil type, condition, slope, vegetative cover, and receiving watercourse or water body, or to ground water. There
land use; (4) time elapsed since the previous storm; and (5) are more "B" field sheets than "A" sheets, because some land-
seasonal timing and intensity of storm events. based activities or environmental conditions required special em-
Not only are the timing and extent of nonpoint source pollu- phasis.
tion events highly variable, but the effects of nonpoint source
pollutants, either singly or in combination, are also variable. Procedure for Field Analysis
The effect of a given pollutant on water quality depends upon NOTE: Do not write on the original field sheets. Make a copy
local site-specific environmental conditions; that is, on the local of each field sheet before proceeding and write on the copies.
geology and the physical/chemical characteristics of the nearby Step 1. Begin by completing the background information section
water. (part 1) of the "Watershed Assessment." Although the
Both water quality and rate of flow influence the types of Watershed Assessment was designed to be used with natural
organisms that inhabit a given watercourse or water body. Or- perennial streams, it can be adapted for use on either inter-
ganisms respond to many local environmental conditions, includ- mittent or ephemeral streams or on constructed waterways.
ing climate, habitat availability, streambed type, etc. The
ecology of watercourses is discussed in the next chapter. Please note that this evaluation cannot be made in the office.
It must be made onsite, in the field. If you lack some of the
Limitations of the Water Quality Indicators Guide necessary information, seek it from the landowner or opera-
The Water Quality Indicators Guide was written to cover tor, county agricultural extension agent, biologist, or other
the entire United States, so it is general by intent. It can be ex- knowledgeable person.
pected that a particular stream or pond may deviate from the
norms presented and will require the user to make adjustments Step 2. The "On-Farm (Ranch) Water Assessment" should be
for local situations. However, the guide has been field tested in completed for each farm or ranch visited.
five States across the Nation and by individual Soil Conservation Step 3. Next, do a preliminary assessment of possible nonpoint
Service personnel from many other States. The ideas, sugges- source impacts by answering the questions asked in the
tions, and comments from those tests have been incorporated "Watercourses" or "Water Bodies" Field Sheet Selection
into this version. The Indicators Guide is not a research tool, (part 2). If any of the questions in part 2 of the assessment
nor does it give quantitative data, but as a qualitative tool and as receives a "yes" answer, then it is likely that the receiving
an educational or leaming device, it will aid the user in evaluat- water is being adversely affected by the pollutant indicated in
ing agricultural nonpoint source pollution problems. the last column under the heading "Probable Cause." You

can verify this by completing the field sheets for this particu- In completing Field Sheet IA, it would be best to station
lar pollutant. yourself beside the stream (fig. 2-2) at the spot indicated by the
Please note that it is much easier to determine nonpoint *A. If the stream is flowing rapidly, flushing away pollutants
source (NPS) pollution effects on standing (lentic) water, very quickly, it may be necessary to walk downstream or up-
such as lakes or ponds, than for flowing (lotic) water, be- stream, observing indicators as you go. For ponds and lakes, it
cause standing water has a longer residence time (time that is best to observe from a site that allows a bird's-eye view of
water remains in the water body), giving pollutants time to the whole water body, as well as from the water's edge.
react.. The first indicator or ranking item on Field Sheet IA for
sediment is turbidity. Note that an indication of nonpoint source
Step 4. Proceed to the field sheets. If you are confident of your sediment pollution can most accurately be assessed only during
"no" answers in part 2 of the above assessment, you need to or immediately following a storm event. Ask yourself, "What
complete only those field sheets corresponding to the ques- does the water look like at this particular site immediately after
tions (pollutants) for which you marked either a "yes" or a storm?" Do you see "conditions normally expected under
I can't tell" answer. For example, there will not be an pristine conditions in your geographic region?" Is the water
animal waste problem if a particular farm or ranch has no "clear or very slightly muddy after a storm event" or are "ob-
animals and the owner or operator does not import animal jects visible at depths greater than 3 to 6 feet (depending on
waste. Obviously, in this case, none of the animal waste field water color)," such as described under the EXCELLENT head-
sheets (2A, 2B I, 2B) needs to be completed. If you are not ing? Or do the descriptors under the GOOD category more
confident that any of the pollutants should be eliminated as closely approximate conditions in your area; i.e., the water is
possible contributors of NPS pollution in a particular situa- I 'what is expected for properly managed agricultural land in
tion, complete all of the field sheets. your geographic region?" Is the water "a little muddy after a
storm event but clears rapidly" or are "objects visible at depths
To learn how to use the sheets, it is recommended that you between 1-1/2 to 3 feet (depending on water color)?" Are the
go through all of them at least once, including those for pol- conditions at this site better described by the descriptors under
lutants that have just a small possibility of affecting the the headings of FAIR or POOR? Having read all four definitions
watercourse or water body. This will allow you to gain under each of the four ratings, decide which of the four BEST
familiarity with the sheets. With practice, using the sheets describes the condition of the watercourse or body which you
will become second nature to you, and you will complete are evaluating and circle the number in the bottom of the box
them very quickly. for that particular rating.
Follow the procedure outlined above for the turbidity
Filling Out the Field Sheets parameter with each of the other five rating items on the Sedi-
ment Field Sheet IA. When you have completed the entire
TYPE A FIELD SHEETS sheet, add the circled numbers to obtain a total for the entire
If upon completing part 2 of the watercourse (or water field sheet. This total should fall into one of the four ranking
body) assessment you determined that sediment is probably ad- categories (excellent, good, fair, or poor) given at the very bot-
versely affecting the water, you should begin by focusing on the tom of each field sheet. For example, if the total score was
water-based Field Sheet IA: "Sediment Indicators for Receiving -8," record an "8/Poor" in the upper right-hand comer of the
Watercourses and Water Bodies (fig. 2-1)." Please take time field sheet by "Total Score/Rank." What this says is that the
now to look at this sheet. Outlined below is how you should use water being evaluated is in a "poor" condition relative to
it. The sheet has answers circled in the way that should be done sediment-or that sediment is greatly impacting the water at this
in the field. site.
For each field sheet, you are asked to complete the blanks
at the top of the sheet which identify you, the evaluator, the Design and Tailoring of the Indicator Guide Field Sheets To
county, State, etc. Notice that in the left column, Field Sheet IA Fit Your Region
lists six different indicators or rating items with four possible Please note that the field sheets are designed to be used for
options for item number 3. You will examine one indicator at a both flowing water and standing water across the entire United
time and judge whether the water quality at this particular site States. To use the sheets throughout this exceedingly diverse ge-
ranks as excellent, good, fair, or poor regarding that particular ographic area and for flowing and standing waters, it was neces-
indicator. Please note that these sheets should be completed in sary to include several descriptors per indicator (rating item) in
the field at the water's edge and not in the office. each of the four categories (excellent, good, fair, and poor).
A standing water body is fairly easy to assess for nonpoint These descriptors will rarely fit all given situations in a particu-
source pollutant impacts. Flowing waters are not as easy to lar geographic area. In fact, some of the options within the same
evaluate. The best place to observe a receiving watercourse is rank might at first appear contradictory if you fail to distinguish
downstream of the pollutant sources. The exact point down- between standing and flowing water. Be especially careful when
stream from which to observe varies. If the water flow is very reading these descriptors and be sure to select the option which
rapid, you may have to make observations at a distance down- BEST or most closely matches the site specific conditions of the
stream where the flow is slower. This is especially true when water you are assessing.
using the Nutrient Field Sheet (3A) because the effects from ex- If the condition of the water in your locality really falls be-
cessive nutrients often do not show in flowing waters until the tween two options or has about half of the characteristics of two
flow rate is slow. options, you may "split" a score. You may want to add one or
two other descriptors to all four options of a rating item. These

Figure 2-1
Sediment Pagel of 2 Lot. 40* 57'30"
FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT "a. wo 40'00"
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluator Zsi%"s 1PI'Ans County/State Dc."isjo, PA Date A pr. V8
Water Body Evaluated hot Water Body Location. Lykat" PA ' - ' - Total Score/ R;nk ?A-- 600&
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1 . Turbidity What is expected under What is expected for A considerable increase A significant increase
(best pristine conditions in properly managed in turbidity for your in turbidity for your
observed your region. agricultural land in region. region.
immediately Clear or very slightly your region. Considerable muddiness Very muddy-sediment
following a muddy after storm event. A little muddy after storm after a storm event. stays suspended most
storm event) Objects visible at depths event but clears rapidly. Stays slightly muddy most of the time.
greater than 3 to 6 ft. Objects visible at depths of the time. Objects visible to
(depending on water color). between 11/2 to 3 ft. Objects visible to depths depths less than 1/2 ft.
(depending on water color). of 1/2 to 11/2 ft. (depending on water
(depending on water color). color).
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 0 3 0
2. Bank Bank stabilized. Some bank instability. Bank instability common. Significant bank
stability in No bank sloughing. Occasional sloughing. Sloughing common. instability.
your viewing Bank armored with vegetation, Bank well-vegetated. Bank sparsely vegetated. Massive sloughing.
area roots, brush, grass, etc. Some exposed tree roots. Many exposed tree roots & No vegetation on bank.
No exposed tree roots. some fallen trees or Many fallen trees,
missing fence corners, etc. eroded culverts, downed
Channel cross-section fences, etc.
becomes more U-shaped as Channel cross-section
opposed to V-shaped. is U-shaped and stream
course or gully may be
meandering.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 4 1

3. Deposition
(Circle a number SELECT 3A OR 3B OR 3C OR 3D
in only A, B.
C, or D) :A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock & gravel :A. For rock & gravel
bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams:
3A. Rock or Less than 10% burial of Between 10% & 25% burial Between 25% and 50% burial Greater than 50% burial
gravel gravels, cobbles, and rocks. of gravels, cobbles, & of gravels, cobbles and of gravels, cobbles and
streams Pools essentially sediment rocks. rock. rocks.
OR free. Pools with light dusting Pools with a heavy coating Few if any deep pools
of sediment. of sediment present.
9 7 3 1

3B. Sandy bottom :13. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds:
streams Sand bars stable and com- Sand bars essentially Sand bars unstable with Sand bars unstable and
pletely vegetated. stable and well, but not sparse vegetation. actively moving with
No mudcaps or "drapes" completely, vegetated. Mudcaps or "drapes" no vegetation.
OR (coverings of fine mud). Occasional mudcaps or common. Extensive mudcaps or
No mud plastering of banks; "drapes." Considerable mud plastering "drapes."
exposed parent material. Some mud plastering of of banks. Extensive mud plastering
No deltas. banks. Significant delta of banks.
Beginnings of delta formation. Extensive deltas.
formation.
9 7 3 1

3C. Mud-bottom :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams:
streams Dark brown/black tanic- Dark brown colored water. Medium brown water, muddy Light brown colored,
colored water (due to presence bottom. very muddy bottom.
OR of lignins and tanins).
Abundant emergent rooted
aquatics or floating
vegetation.
9 7 3

Figure 2-1

Sediment Page 2 of 2

FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT, Continued
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
3D.Ponds Ponds essentially sediment Ponds with light Ponds with a heavy Ponds filled with
f ree. dusting of sediment. coating of sediment. sediment.
No reduction in pond Very little loss in pond Some measurable loss in Significant reduction in
storage capacity. storage capacity. pond storage capacity. pool storage capacity.

OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7

4. Type and Periphyton bright green to Periphyton pale green and Periphyton very light No periphyton.
amount of black. Robust. spindly. colored or brownish and No vegetation.
aquatic Abundant emergent rooted Emergent rooted aquatics significantly dwarfed. In ponds, emergent
vegetation & aquatics or shoreline or shoreline vegetation Sparse vegetation. rooted aquatics
condition of vegetation. common. In ponds, emergent rooted predominant with heavy
periphyton In ponds, emergent rooted In ponds, emergent rooted aquatics abundant in wide encroachment of dry
(plants, aquatics (e.g. cattails, aquatics common, but bank; encroachment of dry land species.
growing on arrowhead, pickerelweed, confined to well-defined land species (grasses,
other plants, etc.) present, but in band along shore. etc.) along shore.
twigs, localized patches.
stones, etc.)
OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 OTHER n7 5 2
OPTIONAL:
5. Bottom Stable. Slight fluctuation of Considerable fluctuation Significant fluctuation
stability of Less than 5% of stream reach streambed up or down of streambed up or down of streambed up or down
streams has evidence of scouring or (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degra-
silting, tion). tion). dation).
Between 5-30% of stream Scoured or silted areas More than 50% of stream
reach has evidence of covering 30-50% of reach affected by
scouring or silting. evaluated stream reach. scouring or deposition.
Flooding more common than Flooding very common.
usual. Significantly more
More stream braiding than stream braiding than
usual for region. usual for region.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1

OPTIONAL:
6. Bottom Intolerant species occur: A mix of tolerants: Many tolerants (snails, Only tolerants or very
dwelling mayflies, stonefiles, shrimp, damselflies, shrimp, damselflies, tolerants: midges,
aquatic caddisflies, water penny, dragonflies, black flies. dragon flies, black flies). craneflies, horseflies,
organisms riffle beetle and a mix Intolerants rare. Mainly tolerants and some rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants. Moderate diversity. very tolerants. none at all.
High diversity. Intolerants rare. Very reduced diversity;
Reduced diversity with upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of tolerants common.
tolerants, e.g. tube worms
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL[ ?.4
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. (Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 32. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 31, etc.).
Record your total score and rank (excellent good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field Sheet 1 B.

RANKING Excellent (32-37) Good(21-31)[ 7-4 Fair( 9-20) Poor ( 8 or less)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (40-46) Good (26-39) Fair (111 -25) Poor It 0 or less)
(with #5 OR #6)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) Good (31-47) Fair (113-30) Poor It 2 or less)
(with #5 AND #6)

Figure 2-2
Nonpoint Source Pollution Effects.

Observe Applied fertilizer & pesticides can wash
& complete "B" into the watercourse, causing nutrient
field sheets at site B or pesticide problems

Jll

V ...

Over-irrigating can cause
salinity problems downstream

*X.: j:j::::

..... ......

........ ......

........ . .......... ........

..... ......
..........
... .... .........
...........

Unprotected manure stack

f
.... . . .....
:@K

...........

Nutrients from
animal wastes & fertilizer
......... ...... ....
cause algal gr ths, ...
. . . . . . . . . . . .
creating nuis nce
recreational
problems
..........

. . ........

............ ..
..........

.... ......

.... .......
........ ....... .. .... Observe & complete "A"
...........
. . ...... ...... field sheets here
MUZ

................ .......

........ ...
77

..........
Sediment deposits cause shallow, wide watercourse

............
(braided condition)
................

.............
.. ..........
?t .........
.3 4.q.
M."

............
Akk
................ .......

other options apply to your particular geographic region and pre- Specialists in these offices are most willing to assist. Additional-
cisely define particular water quality situations. The word ly, many local colleges and universities have environmental and
"OTHER" that has been included in each block on each field water quality experts who can be of great help.
sheet means that you are free to ;idapt the field sheets to your The "B" field sheets allow an on-farm or on-ranch assess-
particular region or locale. Note also that if none of the descrip- ment (fig. 2-3) of the five major agriculturally related contribu-
tors fit, you can resort to rankings relative to your geographic tors of pollution. Recommendations for improving problem
region, such as the first ones given for the turbidity indicator on situations are given in the last column of each sheet under
Field Sheet IA: Sediment. "Practices from appendix E" (conservation and best manage-
One last point-A field sheet, like any other tool or instru- ment practices, ref. B-6). Figure 2-3 is completed with circled
ment, is only as good as the person using it. This is true of the answers in the way that was done on Field Sheet IA.
use of these field sheets. Those who take the time to learn how Other than the list of conservation and best management
to use the Water Quality Indicators Guide field sheets will practices (BMP's) in the last column, the format for the "B"
quickly become proficient in their use. Based on your experience series is identical to that for the "A" series. Therefore, the
with the sheets, you will start to make judgments about water procedure outlined above for use with the "A" field sheets
quality and will develop an "intuitive feel" for the water's con- should also be used in completing the "B" sheets.
dition. Rely on this judgment, even if it means altering the field The "B" sheets should be completed onsite. If a conserva-
sheets. tion plan exists for a given property, it would be helpful to have
Remember that the field sheets are only as good a tool as it in hand while completing the "B" field sheets. A soil survey
you make them, especially concerning local conditions. of the area would also be helpful if you are not familiar with the
Given that water is severely polluted by sediment, how can land tract. You may want to briefly reconnoiter the tract of
we know that the sediment is coming from agriculturally related land. Previous experience with this particular property owner or
activities? If it is related to agriculture, how can we correct the manager and prior knowledge of the property will prove in-
problem and improve water quality? To answer these questions, valuable.
turn to the "B" field sheets. Based on your previous knowledge of the land or your re-
cent reconnaissance, define a "representative" field which
TYPE B FIELD SHEETS drains into a watercourse or water body you have judged to be
Assumption. Before using the series "B" field sheets, it is polluted by use of the "A" field sheets. That is, choose an area
important to recognize that underlying the design of the overall large enough to give an appropriate numerical weighting to both
field analysis is the assumption that we are striving for water of properly and poorly managed areas. Then proceed to complete
fishable/swimmable qualities-a goal established in the Federal the appropriate "B" field sheet relative to the field that you just
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and iterated in the 1987 defined. While a sample field size should be representative, it is
Water Quality Act Amendments. While geographic and site- recommended to select for your observation site a location
specific conditions might cause us to accept a "good" rating in where you could expect to find a pollutant. For example, if you
some instances, we should not be satisfied with a water quality were assessing nutrients or pesticides, you might stand in the
rating of "fair" or "poor." middle of the row crops, as shown in figure 2-2, where the B*
The "B" field sheets should be completed in all cases is indicated. If you were interested in sediment pollution, you
where water quality ranks lower than what is expected regional- might position yourself in or near a recently plowed field.
ly under naturally occurring pristine conditions for any of the If scores for any of the indicators (rating items) were ranked
five major agricultural pollutants. While in many cases the less than "good" or "excellent," you will want to consider
pristine condition will receive an excellent rating, in other cases recommending to the property owner or user one or more of the
naturally occurring conditions (geologic, topographic, etc.) pre- conservation or BMP's listed in the right-hand column of the
vent the waters from ever being "excellent" (fishable/swimma- sheet for that particular rating item. The practices listed are by
ble). It is important to be able to distinguish between naturally no means exhaustive and may not be entirely suitable to your lo-
occurring and human-induced limitations to water use. It may be cality. Therefore, you will need to evaluate the suggested prac-
difficult to determine what constitutes "pristine" conditions for tices, selecting those that you consider to be appropriate to the
your area. If you do not know or are not sure, be sure to con- given situation and adding others that may be lacking.
sult with local experts in the water quality field. Call the SCS
State Office Water Quality Specialist or Biologist or the
specialists at the SCS National Technical Centers. Every State
has a water pollution control agency, although the names vary.

Figure 2-3
Sediment 37- 3110"
FIELD SHEET 18: SEDIMENT 1.... 76' 40- OW
INDICATORS FOR CROPLAND, HAYLAND OR PASTURE
Evaluator L�&&C51AYdr.9 - County/ StateT)sk,,,#h;n FA Dateis Practices
Field Evaluated WIlsdii Field Location _Ly", PA ' - Total score/ AankWd'-DQd from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Erosion Not significant. Some erosion evident. Moderate erosion. Heavy erosion. 1,3,5,7,8,
Potential Less than T (tolerance); little About T; some sheet, rill, T to 2T. More than 2T. 9,10,11,
sheet, rill, or furrow erosion. or furrow erosion. Gullies or furrows from Many gullies or furrows 15,16,17,
No gullies. Very few gullies. heavy storm events & presence of critical 18,19,20,
obvious. erosion areas. 21,22,23,
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER 24,25,26,
10 3 0 27,29,30,
2. Runoff Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 31,32,33,
Potential Very flat to flat terrain (0- Flat to gently sloping (0.5- Gently to moderately Moderately sloping to 37,38,40,
0.5% slope). 2.0% slope). sloping (2.0-5.0% slope). steep terrain (greater than 45,46,54,
Runoff curve number (RCN) RCN 71 - 80. RCN 81 - 90. 5%). 61,62,65,
61 -70. Semidry (20-30"). Semiwet (30-40"). RCN greater than 90. 69,70,73,
Dry, low rainfall (lessthan 20"):-- Even, gentle to moderate Even to uneven intense Wet (more than 40"). 75,79,85,
Even, gentle impact intensity rainfall. q rainfall. Intense uneven rain- 87,95,97,
(scattered shower-type) fall, especially in seasons 99,102
rainfall. when soil is exposed.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER 6,9,88,95
10 4 0

3. Filtering Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Cropping from less 5,18,25,
effect or between cropland & water- between cropland & between cropland & than 50 ft up to 27,79,107
sedimentation course greater than watercourse 100 to 200 ft. watercourse 50 to 100 ft. water's edge.
potential of 200 ft. Type of intervening vege- Type of intervening vege- Type of intervening
a vegetated Type of intervening vegeta- tation grazed woodland, tation high density vegetation low density
buffer or tion ungrazed woodland, brush, or herbaceous cropland. cropland or bare soil.
water/sedi- brush, or herbaceous plants. plants or range. Water & sediment control No water & sediment
ment collect- Water & sediment control Water & sediment control basins poorly installed & control basins.
ing basin basins properly installed & basins properly installed, poorly maintained.
maintained. but poorly maintained.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 0 2
4. Resource Excellent management. Good management. Fair management. Poor management. Practices
management RMS's always used as Most (80%) of the needed About 50% of the needed Few, if any, needed same as
systems needed. RMS's installed. RMS's installed. RMS's installed. Rating
(RMS's) Cropping confined to Cropping not confined Item #1
on whole farm proper land class. to proper classes.
(combined
value for all
agricultural OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
areas 9 3 0

5. Potential LOW: MODERATE: CONSIDERABLE: HIGH: See animal
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very low waste,
water con- organic matter (greater than in organic matter (3.0 to in organic matter in organic matter nutrients,
tamination 3.0%). 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%) pesticide,
Slow to very slow percolation Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in & salt "B"
in light textured soils such tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy Field
as clays, silty or sandy clays, silts. loams, loams, or sands or sands. Sheets for
or silty clay loams. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock practices
Perched water table present. present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas, well depth is less than 15 ft.
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), areas, well depth is 15-29 ft. In protected bedrock
well depth is 75-100 ft. 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock areas overlain with
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft. 50 ft. of sand or
overlain with 50 ft. of sand areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
or gravel, well depth is of sand or gravel, well depth is 50 - 99 ft. less than 50 ft.
greater than 150 ft. depth is 100-149 ft. In shallow bedrock areas, In shallow bedrock
In shallow bedrock areas (25- In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 ft. areas, well depth is
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well less than 25 ft.
depth greater than 200 ft. In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. In Karst areas, well
In Karst areas, well depth is is 500-999 ft. depth is less than
greater than 1,000 ft., if 100 ft.
aquifier is "confined."
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL 70 1
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40. Check "good" if the score falls between 26 and 39,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in
the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) Good (26-39) 1 Fair (10-25) Poor (9 or less)

Chapter 3

Ecology of Freshwater Systems

To assess properly whether or not a watercourse or water Mesotrophic lakes are the so called "middle-aged" lakes
body is polluted or potentially could become polluted, you will which have a greater amount of nutrients per unit volume of
need to know the basic ecological principles covered in this water compared to oligotrophic lakes. They are more productive
chapter. and have quite an abundance of organisms that are high on the
Freshwater systems can be divided into lentic (standing) and food chain. For example, a 50 million pound catch of the highly
lotic (flowing) water. Lotic systems are less prone to stress from edible lake trout, whitefish, blue-pike, and walleye from Lake
sediment, nutrients, and pesticides because the running water Erie was recorded in 1920. Many of the lakes, bays and estu-
flushes away pollutants. Lentic bodies, such as ponds and takes, aries prized for their fisheries are mesotrophic (ref. 3-4, 3-5).
are more prone to pollutant stress because they retain many pol- Eutrophic lakes have great productivity and high nutrient
lutants within their system. Impounded or dammed rivers flush turnover. Water quality in these lakes with excessive nutrients
out pollutants at rates which are between those for lakes and can deteriorate so much that the lakes become unfit for human
free-flowing rivers. use. Human-induced (cultural) eutrophication may result in un-
sightly scums of surface algae, dead fish, and weeds washed up
Lentic Systems (Lakes or Ponds) in mounds along the shoreline. The noxious smell of rotten eggs
The naturally occurring geologic process whereby lakes fill may result from hydrogen sulfide bubbling to the surface from
with sediment and eventually become dry land is termed "lake the decaying organic matter.
succession." Sediment is deposited concentrically from the outer The process of natural versus human-induced eutrophication
edges to the center of the basin. Thus, a transect from the and the presence of cutrophication indicators are discussed in
shoreline to the lake center crosses successively younger geolog- more detail in Chapter 5.
ic sediment deposits. This concentric or horizontal zonation of
sediment is reflected in concentric bands of vegetation. Lotic Systems (Streams or Rivers)
Rooted aquatic plants progressively encroach toward the As with plants and animals, watercourses progress through a
center from the shoreline. Large plants (macrophytes), such as natural life cycle from youth to old age. A young stream flows
cattails, alligator weed, and smartweed, generally occur in a in a fairly straight path and cuts deeply into its parent soil
band along the water's edge. Floating, leaved, emergent plants, material. In hilly terrains, it produces a narrow V-shaped valley
such as waterlilies and American lotus root, (fig. B-7; see ap- with steep-sloped banks. As the stream matures, its path begins
pendix B) occur in the bottom muds at shallow depths (0-5 to meander, cutting into adjacent slopes and widening the valley.
feet). These plants are flanked on the inside (toward the By old age, the stream has created a broad V-shaped valley and
lake/pond center) by a band of submerged rooted weeds, such as meanders back and forth within a broad flood plain (ref. 3-6).
watermilfoil, coontail, and pondweed (fig. B-7). The submerged Thus, a stream is not static, but is a delicately balanced sys-
plants usually grow to a depth of about 10 feet, depending upon tem, ever changing in response either to natural events or to hu-
wave action and turbidity of the water. The region of open man activities. In a well-balanced "ideal" condition a stream
water is inhabited by nonrooting plants of two types, has smooth, gentle banks-well vegetated banks free from ero-
(1) microscopic floaters or plankton species (fig. B-1 to B-6), sion or failure-and a channel bed that is neither scouring nor
and (2) macroscopic floating species, such as duckweed (ref. building up with sediment. However, this situation seldom oc-
3-1, 3-2). curs in nature. Instead, we find streams in a continual state of
Associated with lake succession is eutrophication or lake en- adjustment, responding to the environment. It is not uncommon
richment by nutrients. The nutrient load of a water body is not to find in riparian (stream bank) areas, cattle-grazing, fallen
directly observable. However, since nutrients stimulate plant trees, or debris. Fallen trees or debris can deflect water from its
growth, the biomass (total weight) of lake or pond aquatic vege- main course, causing it to undercut the bank and lose vegetation.
tation can serve as an indirect indicator of nutrient levels. Since Protective vegetative cover in the watershed may be lost as land
plants serve as food for animals, an abundance of plants often is converted to cropland or to urban development. The water-
means there will be an abundance of fish and other animals. The course's adjustment to these. ecological disturbances usually oc-
biomass of plants and animals living in a given water body area curs not just at the site of the disturbance, but in domino-like
in a unit of time is called "biological productivity." fashion along a significant stretch downstream from the activities
Lentic (standing) waters are classified in biological produc- (ref. 3-7).
tivity terms as: (1) "oligotrophic" (young, low productivity); A watercourse adjusts to environmental effects by changing
(2) "mesotrophic" (middle aged, medium productivity); or the shape of its bed, banks, or both. In an unbalanced condition,
(3) "eutrophic" (old, high productivity) (ref. 3-3). the bed will be either degrading (being scoured out) or aggrad-
Oligotrophic lakes are those which are young, geologically ing (depositing excess sediment). Either situation is unstable and
speaking, or are located in an infertile watershed. They are can lead to significantly adverse conditions. For example, if the
characterized by low levels of nutrients and consequently low bank toe is eroding, bank failure can result. If the streambed is
levels of biological productivity. Having a low volume of plants rising, channel capacity will be reduced. In the next flood, the
(phytoplankton) contained in a large volume of water, these stream will attempt to stabilize and restore itself to its original
water bodies appear crystal clear. Since there is not much plant capacity by scouring out the bed and in many cases eroding the
food at the base of the food chain 'top predators, such as prized banks as well (ref. 3-7).
sport fish, are not abundant. Lake Superior, Lake Tahoe, and Watercourse bottom materials (substrates) will vary depend-
Crater Lake are examples of oligotrophic lakes. In these deep ing upon regional geology and topography. In steep terrain,
blue, clear waters fish can be seen at considerable depths from swiftly flowing waters often cut deep channels and keep the
the surface. streambed scoured of sediments. By contrast, slowly flowing
streams in level terrain are usually characterized by shallow beds

and substrates composed mainly of sediment. Exceptions exist to Intermediate between cobble/gravel and mud/silt strearnbeds
the above situation, reflecting the geology of a region. For ex- are sandy beds. Sandy bottoms support very few, if any, inver-
ample, there are some high-velocity watercourses possessing fine tebrate species because shifting sands provide few stable surfaces
bottom materials and some low-velocity watercourses with to which organisms can attach.
coarse bottom materials. Watercourses with slow, relatively clear waters or pools
In general, stream flow or velocity varies according to the support the greatest amount of plant growth. Plants common to
shape, size, slope, and roughness of the channel. Velocities these waters include submerged periphyton species, such as algal
range from slow (0. 1 m/sec or 0.3 ft/sec); to moderate or vegetative masses growing on bottom substrate materials, on
(0.25-0.5 m/sec or 0.8-1.6 ft/sec); to swift (1.0 m/sec or 3.2 twigs, or on larger rooted aquatic plants. Rooted aquatics can be
ft/sec), depending on channel characteristics. Stream velocity de- either submergent species, such as Elodea (American water-
termines in large measure the type of bottom materials present, weed), or emergents, such as the broad leaved species of
which in turn influence the kinds and number of organisms that Potamogeton (pondweed) (fig. B-7) and Nasturtium (watercress).
can live on the streambed. Erosion of sand and gravel river beds These species root in the fine sediments of pools or along
occurs at velocities greater than 1.7 m/sec (5.6 ft/sec). Gravel stream margins (ref. 3-1).
settles at velocities ranging from 1.2-1.7 m/sec (3.9-5.6 ft/sec). The kind and amount of aquatic vegetation in watercourses
Sand settles at velocities of 0.25-1.2 m/sec (0.8-3.9 ft/sec), and or bodies depend on a variety of factors, including flow rate,
silt and organics deposit when velocities drop to 0.2 m/sec (0.7 bottom type, sunlight amount, nutrient levels, and water depth.
ft/sec) and less (ref 3-8). While the amounts of nutrients coming from agricultural lands
might be significant, any pollutional effects from the nutrients
Biology of Streams. might be minimized or "masked" by too little sunlight reaching
Watercourses having cobble and gravel beds (i.e., those that aquatic plants for photosynthesis. Reduced sunlight can be
are degrading or eroding) support the greatest diversity of inver- caused by many factors, including heavy siltation of the water,
tebrate life. The cobble or gravel bottom is stable and provides dense vegetative canopy over watercourses, depth of water, etc.
hiding places that bottom-dwelling animals need for protection. Watercourses may be classified on the basis of the type of
Usually, these streams have alternating pools (deep, slow- fishery they support. There are cold water, cool water, and
moving water) and riffles (shallow, fast-moving water). The warm water fisheries. Cold water fish include salmonid species,
greatest insect production occurs in riffles with rocks of 6 in. to such as trout and salmon (fig. B-12), which are members of the
12 in. on a side (ref. 3-9). trout family. These species occur in well oxygenated streams
The presence of larval insect species, such as stoneflies, that have a swift current. Trout grow best in waters between 50
caddisflies, and mayflies in riffle areas of cobble/gravel bottom and 65 degrees Farenheit. They are insect-feeders, eating species
streams, is an indicator of "clean" water. Although the such as mayflies and stoneflies.
presence of these species indicates "clean" waters, absence of The smallmouth bass (fig. B-12) is typical of cool water
these species does not always mean polluted water. There are fisheries and is found in lower stream reaches that are marginal
many reasons why the species might be absent. For example, for trout. The bass prefer a habitat of riffles and deep pools.
they may have been exterminated by a recent flood or drought Home range is normally restricted to one pool where the bass
and not have had time to recolonize. Or recolonization may be feed on insects or crayfish flushed out by turtles and bottom-
impossible due to limited flight range of the insect or simply be- feeding fishes.
cause there may be no individuals available to recolonize the lo- Where water temperatures are higher, warm water species,
cation. No single insect or other invertebrate by itself can such as largemouth bass, crappie, bluegill, and catfish are found
indicate pollution, but a group or association of indicator organ- (fig. B-12). The largemouth bass is a predator that feeds on
isms can indicate the presence or absence of pollution (ref. almost any animal which swims or falls in the water (fish,
3-10). Refer to appendix A for biological index methods. crayfish, large insects, frogs, snakes, mice). It is one of the
Aggrading or depositing streams with silt or mud bottoms most popular warm water fish in North America. These fish are
support invertebrate species, such as tube-building worms, bur- mainly invertebrate eaters except for the catfish, which eats both
rowing mayflies, "blood worm" midges (chironoinids), mussels, plants and animals (ref. 3-11, 3-12). See appendix B for fish il-
and clams. The deepest parts of very large rivers, such as the lustrations and descriptions.
Mississippi and its large tributaries, support few, if any, bottom-
dwelling species because their silty bottoms are unstable.

Chapter 4

Sediment

In the United States today, watersheds are adversely affected Sedirnent Indicators for Receiving Waters
by agriculturally related pollutants. Sediment, probably the most 1. Turbidity (Refer to Field Sheet IA, rating item 1, figure
common and most easily recognized of the nonpoint source pol- 4-2.)
lutants, ranks first in quantity among pollutants contributed by
agriculture to receiving waters. Cropland erosion accounts for To assess sediment pollution, it is necessary to observe
40 to 50 percent of the approximately 1.5 billion tons of sedi- receiving waters during or immediately following a storm
ment that reaches the Nation's waterways each year. Streambank event. Sediment-laden runoff, whether from overland flow or
erosion accounts for another 26 percent (ref. 4-1). The amount bank erosion, muddies receiving waters, and turbidity in the
of sediment eroding from agricultural areas is directly related to form of suspended solid matter increases. As turbidity in-
land use-the more intensive the use, the greater the erosion. creases, light penetration decreases, making objects less visi-
For example, in a given locality more sediment erodes from row ble at greater depths.
crop fields than from pastures or woodlands. if the receiving waters appear turbid, the cause must be
Sediment lost from agricultural sites varies significantly with determined. Problem sources may be overland flow paths or
the presence or absence of management practices. Figure 4-1 channels that drain from fields and pastures into receiving
shows that considerably more sediment is lost from agricultural waters. The muddier (thicker and denser) the overland flows,
land in row crops without management practices than in row the greater the sediment load. Evidence of bank erosion
crops with management practices. The least amount of sediment should be noted.
is lost from agricultural lands that have conservation cropping If receiving waters are turbid, but runoff water from
systems, i.e., practices such as cover crops and conservation til- overland flow is essentially clear (e.g., runoff from a densely
lage (ref. 4-2). vegetated pasture), and there appears to be no bank erosion

Figure 4-1
Sediment Losses Related to Land Use Practices.

Suspended sediment load
(pounds/ acre/ year)
2200 4400 6600 8800

Low density
residential

Agricultural land in
rotation crops

Agricultural land in row crops
Land use with management practices

Medium density
Increasing residential
intensity
Freeway

Agricultural land in row crops
without management practices

Areas under
development
J

Source: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Ref 4-2.

Figure 4-2
Sediment Pagel of 2

FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

3. Deposition
(Circle a number SELECT 3A OR 38 OR 3C OR 3D
in only A, B,
C, or D) :A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock & gravel :A. For rock & gravel
bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams:
3A. Rock or Less than 10% burial of Between 10% & 25% burial Between 25% and 50% burial Greater than 50% burial
gravel gravels, cobbles, and rocks. of gravels, cobbles, & of gravels, cobbles and of gravels, cobbles and
streams Pools essentially sediment rocks. rock. rocks.
f ree. Pools with light dusting Pools with a heavy coating Few if any deep pools
OR of sediment. of sediment present
9 7 3 1
3B. Sandy bottom :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds:
streams Sand bars stable and com- Sand bars essentially Sand bars unstable with Sand bars unstable and
pletely vegetated. stable and well, but not sparse vegetation. actively moving with
No mudcaps or "drapes" completely, vegetated. Mudcaps or "drapes" no vegetation.
OR (coverings of fine mud). Occasional mudcaps or common. Extensive mudcaps or
No mud plastering of banks; "drapes." Considerable mud plastering "drapes."
exposed parent material. Some mud plastering of of banks. Extensive mud plastering
No deltas. banks. Significant delta of banks.
Beginnings of delta formation.- Extensive deltas.
formation.
9 7 3 1

Figure 4-2
Sediment Page 2 of 2

FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT, Continued
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
3D.Ponds Ponds essentially sediment Ponds with light Ponds with a heavy Ponds filled with
free. dusting of sediment. coating of sediment. sediment.
No reduction in pond Very little loss in pond Some measurable loss in Significant reduction in
storage capacity. storage capacity. pond storage capacity. pool storage capacity.

OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1
4. Type and Periphyton bright green to Periphyton pale green and Periphyton very light No periphyton.
amount of black. Robust. spindly. colored or brownish and No vegetation.
aquatic Abundant emergent rooted Emergent rooted aquatics significantly dwarfed. In ponds, emergent
vegetation & aquatics or shoreline or shoreline vegetation Sparse vegetation. rooted aquatics
condition of vegetation. common. In ponds, emergent rooted predominant with heavy
periphyton In ponds, emergent rooted In ponds, emergent rooted aquatics abundant in wide encroachment of dry
(plants, aquatics (e.g. cattails, aquatics common, but bank; encroachment of dry land species.
growing on arrowhead, pickerelweed, confined to well-defined land species (grasses,
other plants, etc.) present, but in band along shore. etc.) along shore.
twigs. localized patches.
stones, etc.)
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 5 2

OPTIONAL:
5. Bottom Stable. Slight fluctuation of Considerable fluctuation Significant fluctuation
stability of Less than 5% of stream reach streambed up or down of streambed up or down of streambed up or down
streams has evidence of scouring or (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degra-
silting. tion). tion). dation).
Between 5-30% of stream Scoured or silted areas More than 50% of stream
reach has evidence of covering 30-50% of reach affected by
scouring or silting. evaluated stream reach. scouring or deposition.
Flooding more common than Flooding very common.
usual. Significantly more
More stream braiding than stream braiding than
usual for region. usual for region.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
7 3 1

OPTIONAL:
6. Bottom Intolerant species occur. A mix of tolerants: Many tolerants (snails, Only tolerants or very
dwelling mayflies, stonefiles, shrimp, damselflies, shrimp, damselflies, tolerants: midges,
aquatic caddistlies, water penny, dragonflies, black flies. dragon flies, black flies). craneflies, horseflies,
organisms riffle beetle and a mix Intolerants rare. Mainly tolerants and some rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants. Moderate diversity. very tolerants. none at all.
High diversity. Intolerants rare, Very reduced diversity;
Reduced diversity with upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of tolerants common.
tolerants, e.g. tube worms
and chrionomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 32. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 31, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field Sheet 1B.

RANKING Excellent (32-37) Good(21-31)f Fair( 9-20) 1 Poor ( 8 or less)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (40-46) Good (26-39) Fair It 1 -25) 1 Poor (110 or less)
(with #5 OR #6)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) Good (31-47) Fair (13-30) Poor (112 or less)
(with #5 AND #6)

(e.g., banks well vegetated), the turbidity may be due to visits before and immediately following a storm event. Final-
stirred-up mud deposits of the stream bottom. This is com- ly, indicators of pond degradation are thickness of the sedi-
mon in regions characterized by muddy-bottom streams. In ment coat and the relative degree of reduction in permanent
this situation, the regional environmental quality would be pond storage capacity (see rating item 3D).
considered "excellent" despite the muddiness because condi-
tions match what is expected under pristine conditions in that 4. Type and amount of aquatic vegetation and condition of
particular geographic region. periphyton (plants growing on other plants, twigs, stones,
etc.) (Refer to Field Sheet IA, rating item 4, figure 4-2).
2. Bank stability (Refer to Field Sheet 1A, rating item 2, figure
4-2.) In those waters where aquatic vegetation is typical of that
expected under pristine conditions in your geographic region,
To determine if streambanks are contributing sediment to sediment load may become great enough to interfere with
receiving waters, look for the following indicators: plant growth and reproduction. For example, periphyton
Evidence of bank instability -cracks, rills, and gullies. (small aquatic plants that grow on submerged plants, twigs,
stones, etc.) may create a "dusting" or coating on aquatic
Evidence of bank sloughing or chunks of soil dropping plants, reducing their photosynthesis. Sediment (silt) may also
into the stream. accumulate on aquatic plants and add to the poor environ-
mental conditions. Aquatic plants may appear to be paler
Extent of vegetative protective cover or "armoring." green and more spindly than the robust green condition that
Extent of exposed tree roots, fallen trees, missing fence is found where light penetration is maximal. Where there is
posts, etc. considerable sediment deposition, aquatic plants may never
reach full size and are not able to reproduce. Eventually, as
e The appearance of the channel in cross-section (adapted occurred in the Chesapeake Bay, an entire population of
from Keown, ref. 3-7). aquatic plants may smother and die.
3. Deposition (Refer to Field Sheet IA, rating item 3, figure 5. Bottom stability of watercourses (Refer to Field Sheet IA,
4-2.) rating item 5, figure 4-2).
Watercourses are distinguished on the basis of their type In instances where historical records are available, bot-
of bottom substrate-rock, gravel, sand, or mud. Deposition tom stability might serve as an indicator of sediment pollu-
occurs when water flow is insufficient to remove sediment tion. For example, aggradation (raising of streambeds) is an
entering receiving waters. indicator of sediment deposition. Deposition is sometimes
Note that this field sheet gives four choices for deposi- greatly accelerated by logjams or other stream obstructions.
tion. Items 3A, 3B, and 3C refer to streams or flowing These obstructions can slow water to an extent that sediment
waters, while item 3D refers to ponds or stationary waters. that usually is flushed through the system has time to settle
Indicators of deposition vary with the type of bottom out. Given enough time, this type of deposition can lead to a
substrate. In rock and gravel streams, the relative degrees of significant rise in the streambed with a number of attending
burial of gravels, cobbles, and rocks in riffle (fast-flowing, consequences. One consequence is that the flow becomes
shallow) areas are important as well as the thickness of sedi- shallow and spreads out over a wide area, resulting in in-
ment coatings in pool areas (see item 3A). For sandy stream- creased flooding and increased stream "braiding," the forma-
banks the condition and stability of sandbars and the presence tion of many small rivulets. It may also result in the death of
and frequency of mudcaps (drapes), mud plastering, and delta economically valuable bottornland hardwood trees. In such in-
formation are important (see rating item 3B). For mud- stances, it may be necessary to dredge or dynamite a channel
bottom streams, water color is especially important (rating to restore water flow to its original depth. An increased need
item 3Q. In this case, it is essential to be familiar with for dredging is a good indicator that sediment deposition has
waters of your region. You can gain familiarity with the increased (ref. 4-3).
"normal" color of local streams quickly by several onsite

Chapter 5

Nutrients

Natural and Human-Induced (Cultural) Eutrophication Indicators of Excessive Nutrient Input for Receiving Waters
Eutrophication is a natural aging process that occurs as a
lake or pond becomes increasingly enriched with nutrients. The ***LIMITATIONS OF NUTRIENT FIELD SHEET3A
rate of eutrophication varies, depending upon the relative fertili- Nutrient indicators may not be perceptible in certain
ty of the watershed. It proceeds most slowly in big lakes situat- watercourses, especially if flow is 0.5 feet per second or greater or
ed in relatively infertile watersheds and most quickly in small if sediment "masks" the effects of nutrient enrichment. Appendix
ponds in fertile surroundings. A contains a procedure ("Floating Body Technique") that can be
Eutrophication can be natural or human-induced (fig. 5-1). used to obtain water flow rate velocity. With rapid water flow, a
Eutrophication, resulting from human activity, such as fertilizing watercourse could be rated "good" or "excellent" according to the
fields or converting forest or pasture to cropland, is termed 3A Nutrient Field Sheet (fig. 5-2), when in fact it could contain
human-induced (cultural) to distinguish it from natural eutrophi- high nutrient levels.
cation. In most instances, the rate of human-induced eutrophica- In the above situations it may be advantageous to use the
tion is many times faster than the natural process. For example, 3B Nutrient Field Sheet first to determine if present agricultural
in a span of about 25 years (1950-1975), Lake Erie aged to management practices may be contributing to nutrient enrich-
about the same degree under human influences as would have ment in the nearby watercourse.
occurred in 15,000 years naturally (ref. 5-1). Today, some 75 Additionally, it may be necessary to conduct or have con-
percent of the large lakes in the United States are considered to ducted nutrient chemical analyses or to contact the State water
be eutrophic (ref. 5-2). quality agency to get nutrient values for the watercourse being
Eutrophication rates are increased by agricultural inputs of examined.
nutrients-phosphorus and/or nitrogen. Usually, these inputs
come from either fertilizer runoff or erosion from fields or
pastures.

Figure 5-1
Advanced Eutrophication of a Pond.

Nutrients
A
from
air

-'W

Proliferation of aquatic..,_ 1666: -Y
plants & alga

.%RI: 1 00' .. ....... .. -C
0:
Z"o "Q1. --.*.o

Added layers of gravel,
Z ax
sediment & organic materials
P'. 4?

n"i-s
Original geologic or constructed depressio
-AK

Figure 5-2

Nutrients

FIELD SHEET 3A: NUTRIENTS
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES*

Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1 .Total amount Little vegetation, uncluttered Moderate amounts of Cluttered weedy conditions. Choked weedy conditions
of aquatic look to stream or pond. vegetation. Vegetation sometimes or heavy algal blooms
vegetation at OR OR luxurious and green. or no vegetation at all.
low flow or What's expected for good What's expected for good Seasonal algal blooms. Dense masses of slimy
in pooled water quality conditions in water quality conditions white, greyish green,
areas. your region. in your region. rusty brown or black
Includes rooted Usually fairly low amounts of water molds common on
and floating many different kinds of bottom.
plants, algae, plants.
mosses &
periphyton OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 6 3 0
2. Color of Clear or slightly greenish Fairly clear; slightly Greenish. Difficultto Very, very green pond
water due to water in pond or along the greenish. get pond sample without scums.
plants at whole reach of stream. pieces of algae or weeds Pea green color or pea
base or low in it. soup condition during
flow seasonal blooms of
microscopic algae in ponds.
"Oily-like" sheen when
pea soup algae die off.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 0
3. Fish No fish piping or aberrant In hot climates, occas- Fish piping common just Pronounced fish piping.
behavior in behavior. sional fish piping or before dawn. Pond fish kills common.
hot weater No fish kills. gulping for air in ponds Occasional fish kills. Frequent stream fish
fish kills, just before dawn. kills during spring thaw.
especially before No fish kills in last two Very tolerant species
dawn years. (e.g. bullhead, catfish).
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 5 3 0
4. Water use None. Minimal, such as reduced A couple of the following: Several of the following:
impacts; quality of fishing. Algal clogged pipes. Algal clogged pipes.
health Algal related taste, color, Algal related taste, color,
effects for or odor problems with or odor problems with
whole sub- human or livestock water human or livestock water
watershed supply. supply.
Cattle abortion. Cattle abortion.
Reduced recreational use Reduced quality of fishery.
due to weedy conditions, Reduced recreational use
decay, odors, etc. due to weedy conditions,
decay, odors, etc.
Blue babies-incidence
of methemoglobinernia due
to high nitrate levels.
Property devaluation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 7 4 2
5. Bottom- Intolerant species occur. Intolerants common. Mainly tolerants: snails, Mainly very-tolerants:
dwelling mayflies, stonefiles, A mix of tolerants: shrimp, shrimp, damselflies, midges, craneflies, horseflies,
aquatic caddisilies, water penny, damselflies, dragonflies, dragonflies, black flies. rat-tailed maggots, or no
organisms riffle beetle. black flies. Mainly tolerants, but some organisms at all.
High diversity. Moderate diversity. very-tolerants. Very reduced diversity,
Intolerants rare. upsurges of very-tolerants
Reduced diversity with common.
occasional upsurges of
tolerants, e.g. tube worms,
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1

*Theeffectsof nutrients maybe "masked" by high sediment loads, creating sufficient turbidity to shade light-dependent aquatic vegetation. This may cause aquatic
vegetation, a water quality indicator, to die and disappear from the watercourse. To obtain accurate nutrient levels in high sediment situations, chemical testing may
be necessary. Under these circumstances you should contact a local or other water quality specialist
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this,site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 38. Check "good" if the score falls between 23 and 37,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 3B.
RANKING Excellent (38-45) Good (23-37) Fair (9-22) Poor (8 or less)

1. Total amount of aquatic vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet Animal plankton (zooplankton- small, floating or feebly
3A, rating item 1, figure 5-2.) swimming animals), such as water fleas, rotifers, and cope-
Aquatic vegetation must be supplied with a sufficient pods, which usually graze on the phytoplankton (plant plank-
quantity of nutrients to grow and reproduce. Vegetative ton) avoid blue-green algae. As a result, blue-green algae can
growth in many waterways and bodies is held in check by a grow unchecked by predators until the algae die in massive
limited amount of an available nutrient, i.e., the limiting amounts. The decay of algal overgrowths leads to fluctuating
nutrient. Typically, waters are phosphorus limited, although oxygen levels and to periodic oxygen depletions (anoxia) that
sometimes result in fish kills (fig. 5-3). During extended
in some areas the waters naturally contain high phosphate periods of anoxia, vegetation of all types is destroyed during
levels and nitrogen is the limiting nutrient. the nights, when photosynthesis does not occur (ref. 5-3).
Agriculturally related inputs of phosphorus, nitrogen, or
both to nutrient-limited waters promote aquatic plant growth. 3. Fish diversity, behavior and fish kills (Refer to Field Sheet
With minimal additions of nutrients, plants may appear even 3A, rating item 3, figure 5-2.)
more robust and luxurious than usual. For example, water-
cress that has additional nutrients may be darker green than Nutrient enrichment can lead to the simplification of food
normal. By contrast, moderate amounts of nutrients may webs by the elimination of sensitive species, which are the least
result in noticeable increases in plant biomass. Stands of able to cope with adverse conditions. Long-lived organisms
watercress under this condition might enlarge considerably in that reproduce slowly and require extended periods of stable
surface area. Heavy additions of nutrients can stimulate conditions fare worst in unstable eutrophied waters. In partic-
weedy proliferations or extensive algal blooms. Sometimes ular, fish populations often shift from dominance by larger,
this potential is not realized, such as when sediment loads are top predator game species to dominance by smaller, less
so great that light becomes the limiting factor for plant desirable forage (rough) species. For example, in Lake Erie
growth. In this instance, sediment masks the expected effects the long-lived highly edible sport fish, such as lake trout,
of nutrient enrichment. whitefish, pike, and walleye, were replaced by "rough"
When a watercourse or water body regularly displays fish-carp, smelt, drum, and alewives (fig. B-12, ref. 5-1.)
symptoms of heavy nutrient enrichment, such as extensive al- Sensitive species, such as sport fish, decline because they
gal slimes (scums) or weedy proliferations, it is labelled "eu- cannot tolerate the periodic episodes of:
trophic." It is common for these eutrophic waters to be 9 Low dissolved oxygen levels (anoxia) due to the decom-
clogged with vegetation. In general, standing bodies of water position by micro-organisms of massive amounts of dead
are more prone to eutrophication than flowing waters, plants;
although even streams may appear quite clogged during peri-
ods of low flow. *Toxicity due to the release of the poisonous gases (hydro-
Many types of aquatic vegetation, such as watermilfbil gen sulfide and methane) by anaerobic micro-organisms
and many algae, die back at the end of summer in response during anoxic conditions;
to unidentified seasonal environmental influences. When sig-
nificant masses of vegetation die simultaneously, the bio- * Toxicity due to secretions from some blue-green or
chemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the water increases dinoflagellate algal blooms; or
dramatically and the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) drops e Some combination of the above activities with other
precipitously as oxygen-requiring (aerobic) micro-organisms major agricultural pollutants (adapted from Luoma, ref.
begin the process of decomposition. These lowered DO levels 5-3).
stress all aquatic organisms, both animals and plants, and
may lead to fish kills and the elimination of all vegetation. The loss of species diversity, as sensitive species die, is
This is discussed further in the next section. undesirable for both economic and ecological reasons. The
loss of sport fish from a lake may constitute a major eco-
2. Color of water (Refer to Field Sheet 3A, rating item 2, nomic loss to sport fishermen and local businesses dependent
figure 5-2). upon the fishermen.
Ecologically, simplification of a food web is a "warning
Excessive growth of microscopic plants or algae signal" or indicator that the whole ecosystem is unhealthy
(phytoplankton, figs. B-1 to B-6) often manifests itself as a and may be in jeopardy. An unhealthy system is more vul-
change in the color of the water. Ponds in particular might nerable than a healthy "diverse" system to further disrup-
assume a deeper color of various shades of green, blue- tions or disturbances, whether natural or caused by human
green, red, gray, or yellow depending upon the phytoplank- activities.
ton species present. Blue-green algae can undergo tremendous
growth in numbers when phosphorus is added, so that the water
can become like pea soup. Furthermore, blue-greens can survive
nitrogen deficient conditions because they are able to utilize
atmospheric nitrogen in much the same manner as soil bacteria
in the nodules of legumes. In addition, many blue-greens secrete
toxins or foul-tasting chemicals, making them most unattractive
as food to other organisms.

Figure 5-3
The Eutrophication Process.

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Fish kills can occur in ponds that receive excessive like rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide), as well as other
nutrient inflows. Three common scenarios for eutrophied poisonous breakdown products. The bacteria contribute to the
ponds are described below, namely: ultimate decline of a take or pond, which then is most unap-
pealing in terms of sight, smell, and taste. This situation can
*Floating Plant (macrophyte) Infestation be particularly dangerous in lakes or ponds used as reservoirs
9 Algal Mats (filamentous) Infestation for drinking water.
Pea soup (phytoplankton) infestation. Farm ponds,
9 Pea Soup (phytoplankton) Infestation which become highly enriched with nutrients may undergo
Floating plant (macrophyte) infestation. In the summer much photosynthesis and take on a pea soup appearance to a
months, floating plants, such as duckweed (Lenina, fig. B-7), depth of more than I ft. During summer, in some farm ponds
can proliferate in ponds enriched by the runoff from fertilized in the South, SCS personnel have recorded supersaturated DO
fields or pastures. If left unchecked, these plants can multiply levels ranging up to 28 ppm at 4 o'clock in the afternoon,
and cover the entire pond surface. When this happens, light dropping to near 0 ppm by an hour after sunrise of the
cannot penetrate through the surface plant cover. Without following day. Fish kills are common under such conditions.
light, the naturally occurring phytoplankton (microscopic al- The organisms responsible for the fish kills in the pea
gae) at the base of aquatic food chains cannot carry on pho- soup condition are phytoplankton (small, floating plants),
which are so small that they can be observed only with a
tosynthesis, and little or no oxygen is produced. The microscope. The phytoplankton consist of a variety of algae,
protective cover of floating plants also reduces wave action, including diatoms and green and blue-green algae (cyanobac-
an important source of oxygen. Oxygen is depleted by the teria, fig. B-1 to B-6). Despite their small size, populations
respiration of plants, animals, and micro-organisms. of these plankton can reach proportions that color the water
Hot weather intensifies the problem by accelerating both pea green and thicken it to resemble soup.
the rate of respiration of the organisms and the chemical oxi-
dation of many substances. Eventually, fish and other 4. Water use impacts (Refer to Field Sheet 3A, rating item 4,
oxygen-requiring (aerobic) organisms suffocate from a lack of figure 5-2).
dissolved oxygen, and fish kills occur. Agriculturally related nutrient enrichment and eutrophica-
Algal mat (filamentous) infestation -fish piping com- tion can adversely affect a number of water uses. For exam-
mon. Many farmers routinely treat ponds for floating plants ple, eutrophied water can alter the color, taste, and odor of a
before the plant populations reach nuisance proportions. drinking water supply. The removal of excessive algal slimes
However, some ponds that appear "clear" (you can see to may also increase the cost of water treatment. Nuisance levels
the bottom) will have significant amounts of filamentous al- of vegetation or algae may detract from the aesthetic quality
gae (pond scum) growing along the bottom and sides or at- of the water, clog pipes and intakes, and reduce property
tached to rocks or other larger plants (fig. B-7). In response values and recreational use.
to an unidentified trigger, these filamentous algae rise to the Finally, high nitrate levels in drinking water are known
surface in mats and die, creating decaying odors and to affect adversely the health of babies and the elderly. Ba-
nuisances. bies who receive too much nitrate from the water used in
The sudden existence of such large quantities of dead al- preparing formula may suffer from methemoglobinemia, or
gae in a pond pollutes the pond by increasing oxygen- blue baby syndrome. Some babies have died from this condi-
demanding organic matter, which increases the biochemical tion, when it was not treated in time. These same conditions
oxygen demand (BOD) of the decay micro-organisms. This can affect the young of cattle.
results in an immediate drain on the dissolved oxygen (DO).
DO levels in the pond become critical at night when photo- 5. Bottom-dwelling aquatic organisms (Refer to Field Sheet
synthesis by any remaining living plants comes to a halt. 3A, rating item 5, figure 5-2).
The lowest DO levels occur at dawn. As waters become increasingly eutrophied, the abundance
At sunrise, fish in a pond with insufficient DO can be and species composition of bottom organisms change. Waters
observed congregating at the edge of the water where DO receiving few, if any, excess nutrients from agricultural or
levels are highest. The fish usually assume a hanging position other sources are characterized by a high diversity of bottom-
at approximately a 45 degree angle and pipe (suck or gulp) dwelling organisms. Generally, in these very pristine waters,
air. Under these critical DO concentrations, fish begin to die the diversity of bottom species is high, but the number of
slowly. It takes about a week of nightly DO levels dropping each type is low.
to levels of less than 2.0 parts per million (ppm) to achieve a Among bottom organisms found to be sensitive to or in-
total kill. tolerant of nutrient excesses are mayflies, stoneflies, caddis-
Under highly enriched conditions, aerobic decay micro- flies, water-penny, and riffle beetles (ref. 5-4). Generally, as
organisms may become too overworked to handle the in- nutrient quantities increase, populations of these intolerant'
creased organic load and may die of suffocation when DO species recede. They are replaced by expanding populations
levels approach zero. The decomposition process is then of nutrient-tolerant species, such as chironomids and black-
taken over by much less efficient anaerobic bacteria that do flies. The usual pattern is that as nutrients increase over
not require oxygen. These bacteria release a gas that smells

time, the number of species (species diversity or richness)
decreases, while the population growth of a few species in-
creases.
An excellent tool for determining the diveisity of bottom-
dwelling invertebrates is the Sequential Comparison Index
(SCI, appendix A), which is designed for nonprofessionals
and assumes no background knowledge of biology or taxono-
my (ref. 5-5). Appendix A also contains Beck's Biotic Index
procedure, which requires the identification of pollution-
tolerant and intolerant species to make a waterquality deter-
mination. Appendix B contains pictorial keys for common in-
vertebrates and another procedure entitled "Simple
Assessment of Bottom-Dwelling Insects."

Chapter 6

Pesticides

Most agricultural pesticides are either herbicides, which Figure 6-1
make up approximately one-half of the U.S. pesticide usage, or
insecticides, which make up about one-third of the pesticide Blomagnification of DDD in the Food Chain
usage. at Clear Lake, California.

Effects of Pesticides on the Aquatic Environment Numbers are times amount in water.
The effect of a pesticide on the aquatic environment depends
upon many factors, including the physical, chemical, and biolog- Concentration
ical properties of the pesticide; the amount, method, and timing Water of DD
of application; and the intensity of the first storm event follow-
ing application. In general, pesticide effects on aquatic organ-
isms vary with the relative toxicity of the pesticide, its
persistence or how long it remains active in the environment,
and its tendency to accumulate in the food chain. The longer
...............
a pesticide persists in the soil, the greater the opportunity for it Plankton
................
...............
................
to be transported from the crop area to receiving waters or to
................

...............
ground water, or for it to affect nontarget organisms, such as 265
.................
animals, humans, and noncrop plants adversely.
................
...............
................
...............
insecticides: Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, such as ................
DDT, which appeared after World War 11, are of low-to-
moderate toxicity and are termed "wide-spectrum" (i.e., they Small fish
......... ...
kill a wide variety of insects). These insecticides severely affect-
ed many environments, killing top-of-the-food-chain predator 500
birds, such as the bald eagle, brown pelican, and peregrine fal-
con.
The most infamous of the synthetic organics was DDT.
DDT is very persistent, with a half-life in sediments of greater Predator fish
than 10 years. The half-life is how long it takes for half of a
compound to decay. Since DDT is fat soluble, it concentrates in 75,000
the fat of organisms. Figure 6-1 illustrates the increase in con-
centration of DDD, a close relative of DDT, as DDD is passed
from one organism to another up the food chain in a lake.
In some ecosystems, DDT can become concentrated at the Grebe
top of the aquatic food chain in quantities great enough to inter-
fere with reproduction or cause death. Consequently, decline or 80,000
death of birds of prey at the top of aquatic food chains (e.g.,
bald eagle or fish hawk) may be an indicator of pesticide
damage to an aquatic ecosystem.
The decline or death of sensitive fish species and other
aquatic organisms also serves as an indicator of pesticide pollu-
tion. Salmonids (rainbow trout, brown trout, and salmon) are the (Flint and van den Bosch, 1977) (Ref. 6-10).
most sensitive to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Redear
sunfish, bluegill, and largemouth bass are intermediate in
sensitivity, with channel catfish and black bullheads being the the most sensitive and catfish the least sensitive. Carbarnates and
least sensitive (ref. 6-1). organophosphates are soluble in water and can be easily
Today, most synthetic organic insecticides have been transported in water. Thus, these compounds may increase the
replaced by the organophosphate insecticides (e.g., malathion
and dia-zinon) and by carbamates (e.g., carbaryl). Organo- potential for ground water contamination.
phosphate insecticides are much less persistent, with half- Herbicides: Herbicides vary considerably in their persis-
lives from I to 12 weeks. The main feature of organophosphate tence. Herbicides, such as 2,4-D and alachlor, are considered to
insecticides is their rapid degradability (ref. 6-1). Some carba- be nonpersistent, with half-lives of less than 20 days. They sel-
mates persist only a few days. dom remain in the soil for longer than a month to 6 weeks when
Since carbarnates and organophosphates are not fat soluble, used at the recommended levels for weed control. Atrazine is
the do not concentrate in organisms nor do they accumulate up considerably more persistent, remaining in the soil for as long as
the yfood chains. Consequently, the compounds are much safer 17 months. Others such as monuron, picloram, simazine, and
environmentally. However, while organophosphate compounds paraquat are very persistent, remaining in the soil from 2 to 4
are safer environmentally, a toxic organophosphate compound years. Most herbicides are norpersistent, breaking down by the
can kill fisE in a water body and quickly degrade with no end of the growing season (ref. 6-2, 6-3).
detectable chemical trace a few weeks later. Fish families still In general, when compared to insecticides, herbicides in use
today rank lower in relative fish toxicity and the potential for
OMNI, I$ OW4101,11111111111
0

show the same types of sensitivity to the organophosphates that environmental impact. Many herbicides do not appear to have a
they did to the chlorinated hydrocarbons, with salmonids being

permanent impact on aquatic ecosystems and appear to be only 4. Overall diversity of fish (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rating
moderately toxic to fish. item 4, figure 6-2).
Chronic sublethal effects of pesticides in waters are
Pesticide Indicators for Receiving Waters difficult to observe. Chronic effects include:
1. Presence of pesticide containers (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, 9 Fish avoidance of contaminated watercourse areas. This
rating item 1, figure 6-2). may result in their absence in a localized area or prevent
Evidence of careless and haphazard disposal or dumping their swimming into these areas to spawn.
of pesticide containers in or near sink holes, streams, or *Altered reproduction due to toxicity or avoidance. Trout
water bodies should be a warning of possible adverse pesti- do not naturally reproduce in some agriculturally drained
cide effects on the aquatic ecosystem. streams common to their range.
2. Appearance of nontarget vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet *Lowered fish productivity.
4A, rating item 2, figure 6-2). e Young fish mortality (decreased survival of newly
By definition, herbicides are toxic to plant life. Herbi- hatched fish; adapted from Pimentel, Brown, Cross, ref.
cides draining from agricultural fields can result in the death 6-4, 6-5, 6-6).
of aquatic vegetation. This is especially true if a storm occurs These subtle effects, combined with the dieback of fish
immediately following spraying and washes the newly applied food (fish bait) organisms as described in number 3 above,
pesticide into nearby waters. Also, aerial drift that carries manifest themselves in altered or degraded fisheries. In
pesticide away from the field, and "overspray" by the spray general, the greater the input of pesticides, the less diverse
plane beyond the field edge can damage or kill aquatic the fishery. Salmonids appear to be most sensitive and
vegetation by landing directly on it. Large (macroscopic) decline or are eliminated first. Next in sensitivity are the in-
aquatic plants are particularly sensitive. Microscopic tolerant centrachids, such as longear sunfish, striped bass,
phytoplankiton appear to be less sensitive, although the effects smallmouth bass, crappie, redfin pickerel, and bluegill. These
on plankton have not been extensively studied (ref. 6-3). are followed by the more tolerant centrachids (blacknose
Leaf bum and evidence of vegetative dieback on nontar- dace, common shiner, sculpin, creek chub, madtom, golden
get vegetation, whether aquatic or terrestrial, are indicators shiner, largemouth bass, blueback herring and alewives). In
of herbicide damage. Care should be taken to look for this the worst of the chronically polluted pesticide waters, there
type of evidence in or along ponds, drainage ditches, and are only the very most tolerant species of cyprinid minnows
streams. Examine floating species, such as pond lilies and and ictalurids. Typical species include brownhead carp, bull-
duckweed. Also examine emergent rooted aquatics, such as heads, white sucker, shad and catfish, or no fish at all. See
watercress, watershield, and spatterdock, and marginal appendix B for a brief summary of fish species (ref. 6-7,
weeds, such as alligator weed, smartweed, arrowhead, pick- 6-8).
erelweed, and cattails (fig. B-7).
5. Fish kills, animal teratology (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rat-
3. Overall diversity of insects, presence of "fish bait types" ing item 5, figure 6-2).
(Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rating item 3, figure 6-2).
Acute effects of lethal concentrations of pesticides result
Insecticides kill nontarget, as well as target insects and in insect kills (mayfly, dragonfly, etc.) or fish kills or both.
other closely related species. It is not uncommon to observe These kills are usually of a limited nature and are easy to ob-
reduced species diversity and reduced populations of aquatic serve. They frequently occur after routine spraying of bams
bottom-dwelling organisms in waters that receive pesticide or feedlot areas that are in close proximity to a watercourse or
runoff. Diversity is reduced as sensitive species, such as pond, or from the improper washing of spray equipment and
some types of mayflies, dragonflies, water mites, or beetles, containers. Massive kills are rare.
decline or die off. As sensitive species die, populations of Chronic sublethal concentrations of pesticides are some-
insecticide-tolerant species, such as blackflies and times teratogenic; that is, they produce birth defects or
chironomids, expand to fill the void vacated by the sensitive tumors. One type of birth defect that might be observed is
species. Ask the landowner if there have been any insect broken-back syndrome in fish (vertebral deformities and
population upsurges or decreases in the local area. An excel- scoliosis). Other types are deformed bird beaks or the ab-
lent tool for determining the diversity of bottom-dwelling in- sence of ears or eyes, resulting from elevated levels of
vertebrates is the Sequential Comparison Index (SCI) shown selenium or other trace elements or toxic ions.
in appendix A.

Figure 6-2

Pesticides

FIELD SHEET 4A: PESTICIDES
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
w
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Presence of No containers in or near No containers in or near Containers located near Containers in the water.
pesticide water. water. the water.
containers OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 9 5 3

2. Appearance of No leaf burn. Some leaf burn. Significant leaf burn. Severe dieback of
non-target No vegetation dieback. No vegetation dieback. Some vegetation dieback. vegetation.
vegetation OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 4

3. Overall High diversity including Average diversity of Occasional insect kills. Insect kills common. Not
diversity of dragonflies, stoneflies, insects-some of those Reduced numbers and kinds. many fish-bait types such
insects mayflies, caddisflies, water listed under excellent. Upsurges of blackflies & as hellgrammites (the
("fish bait") mites or beetles. chironomids. larvae of clobsonflies),
alderflies, or fishflies.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 3 1
4. Overall Excellent fish diversity- Good fish diversity. Reduced fish diversity. Extremely reduced fish
diversity what's expected in the area. Native salmonics (trout & The more tolerant centrar- diversity.
of fish Presence of intolerants such salmon) begin to die out chids die off-blacknose Only very tolerant
as brook, brown or rainbow first. The least tolerant clace, common shiner, species of cyprinicls &
trout, salmon or stickleback. centrarchids (longear sun- sculpin, creekchub, ictalurids (such as
fish, rock bass, small- madtom, golden shiner, brownhead carp, bull-
mouth bass, crappie, large mouth bass, blueback heads, white sucker,
redfinned pickerel and herring, and alewives. shad, and catfish.
bluegill) begin to decline. Larger proportion of green Some highly polluted
sunfish. waters (usually ponds)
Occasional (once every 1-2 may lack fish entirely.
years) pond fish kills. OTHER
OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 4 1

5. Fish kills; No fish kills in last 2 years. Fish kills rare in last Occasional fish kills. Fish kills common in
animal No birth defects of tumors. 2 years. Some birth defects & last couple of years.
teratology Minimal birth defects & tumors. Frequent fish kills
(birth tumors occurring in the during spring thaws.
defects & population randomly. Yearly pond fish kills
tumors in following aquatic vegeta-
fish & other tion dieback not uncommon.
animals) Considerable numbers of
birth defects & tumors.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 5 3 0

OPTIONAL
6. Fish behavior Normal behavior, e.g. fish Behavior as expected, e.g. Behavioral changes in Fish avoidance or be-
in hot seen breaking the surface for evidence of fish, such as fish-swimming near haviors, such as erratic
weather; insects. water rings or bubbles. surface, uncoordinated swimming near surface &
fish kills, No evidence of Little if any evidence of movements, convulsive gulping for or piping
especially disease, tumors, fin damage, disease, tumors, fin darting movements, erratic for air. More likely
before or other anomalies. damage, or other anomalies. swimming up & down or in seen in ponds.
dawn No fish piping or aberrant In hot climates, occasional small circles, hyperexcita- Pond fish kills common.
behavior. fish piping or gulping for bility Ournping out), Frequent stream fish
No fish kills. air in ponds just before difficulty in respiration. kills during Spring thaw.
dawn. More likely seen in ponds. Very tolerant species
No fish kills in last 2 Fish piping common. (e.g. bullhead, catfish).
years. Occasional fish kills.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 4 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40. Check "good" if the score falls between 27 and 39,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 4B.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) Good (27-39) Fair (12 -26) Poor (11 or less)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) Good (32-47) Fair (114-31) Poor (13 or less)

6. Fish behavior and condition (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rat-
ing item 6, figure 6-2).
In addition to a degraded (less diverse) and less productive
fishery, chronic sublethal doses of pesticides can lead to the
following conditions, which are more likely to be observed in
standing waters than in flowing waters:
e Increased susceptibility to attack by parasites and disease,
such as infection by the aquatic fungus, Saprolegnia;
Increased incidences of tumors;

Behavioral changes in fish:

- uncoordinated movements;

- convulsive darting movements;
- erratic swimming up and down or in a small circle;
- sluggishness (nonresponsiveness) alternating with hyper-
excitability Oumping out);
- difficulty in respiration (adapted from Pimentel, Brown,
Cross, ref. 6-4, 6-5, 6-6).
Frog tadpoles display some of the same aberrant types of
behavior as fish; that is, hyper-irritability, spastic activity,
and rhythmic muscular contractions that produce a whirling
motion (ref. 6-9).

Chapter 7

Animal Wastes

Animal Waste Pollutants: Micro-organisms, Organic Matter, or if a lagoon overflows. Direct disposal into water represents a
and Nutrients significant threat to animals, or to humans swimming in or
Surface runoff of animal wastes contaminates a receiving drinking the water (ref. 7-4).
body of water with four types of pollutants: (1) pathogenic and Public health departments test for the presence of Es-
nonpathogenic rnicro-organisms; (2) biodegradable organic mat- cherichia coli (E. coli) to determine if waters classified for
ter; (3) nutrients; and (4) salts. Ground water can be adversely swimming are contaminated by organic pollution. The most
affected by animal-waste nutrients and salts. Only organic matter commonly used indicator species of organic pollution is E. coli.
can be seen with the naked eye, but it, too, may be degraded It is generally nonpathogenic and is a member of a group of fe-
into fine particles that dissolve or remain suspended in the cal coliforms, bacteria that reside in the intestine of warm
water. These particles color the water, increase its turbidity, and blooded animals, including humans. The presence of E coli does
increase the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Refer to figure not by itself confirm the presence of pathogens. Rather, it
7-1 for a comparison of typical BOD concentrations in municipal indicates contamination by sewage or animal manure and the
and agricultural wastes. Effects of the bacteria, nutrients, and potential for health risks. Unfortunately, there is still no easy
salts may be observed indirectly, such as human-health effects method for distinguishing between human and animal coliform
from shellfish contamination or as eutrophication. bacteria (ref. 7-5).
Micro-organisms. Animal wastes are potential sources of For this reason and because bacterial identification requires
approximately 150 diseases. Illnesses that may be transmitted by the use of sterile technique and incubation, field offices general-
animal manure include bacterial diseases, such as typhoid fever, ly have not used bacteria as pollution indicators. However, those
gastro-intestinal disorders, cholera, tuberculosis, anthrax, and individuals interested in using bacteria as pollution indicators
mastitis. Transmittable viral diseases are hog cholera, foot and should refer to the last page in appendix B and to Standard
mouth disease, polio, respiratory diseases, and eye infections Methodsfor the Examination of Water and Waste Water (ref. B-
(ref. 7-3). 5) for details.
Organic Matter. Animal waste contaminates receiving
waters with oxygen-demanding organic matter, including organic
Figure 7-I.-BOD concentrations in municipal and agricultural nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. When manure enters a
wastes (ref. 7-1, 7-2). standing water body, such as a pond, it is subject to natural de-
cay. As decomposition occurs, BOD increases, dissolved oxygen
All values are BOD5* in milligrams per liter (mg/1). (DO) decreases, and ammonia is released. Low DO levels and
Raw domestic (municipal) sewage 200 increased ammonia cause stress to stream inhabitants. Fish, in
Treated sewage with secondary treatment 20 particular, are sensitive to ammonia. Nonionic (un-ionized)
Milking center wastes 1,500 ammonia (NH )-concentrations as low as 0.2 ppm may prove
toxic to fish (ref. 7-6).
Animal manure is commonly spread on frozen ground in
Influent source Effluent source cold regions. When snowmelt runoff occurs in early spring,
to a lagoon from a lagoon some of the manure washes away in the runoff from the frozen
ground, contaminating nearby watercourses and bodies. Fish
Dairy cattle 6,000 2,100 kills are common under these circumstances. Frequently, the
Beef cattle 6,700 2,345 receiving waters are the farm's own pond or stream.
Swine 12,800 4,480 It is only later in the spring after a complete thaw that ma-
Poultry 9,800 3,430 nure nutrients are able to seep into the soil. Even then, since the
crop has not been planted, or if planted, is immature and lacks
*The determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand as an empirical test- extensive root systems, more than half of the nutrients can wash
ing procedure to determine relative oxygen requirements of wastewater, through the soil or run off it. Since surfaces coated with very dry
effluents, and polluted waters using a 5-day incubation period. or very wet manure repel water, there is greater runoff in range
areas or feedlots under these conditions compared to less runoff
Numerous factors influence the nature and amount of from water-absorbing, moderately moist manured areas. In
disease-producing organisms that reach waterways. Some of general, from 0.22 to 0.5 in of rain is necessary to produce runoff.
these factors are climate, soil types and infiltration rates, topog- Monitoring has shown that manure solids in late-February and
raphy, animal species, animal health, and the presence of "car- early-March runoffs can be ten times more concentrated than
rier" organisms. These latter organisms carry disease-causing summer rain-storm runoffs (ref. 7-3, 7-4, 7-7).
micro-organisms in significant numbers, but do not contract the Fast-moving (lotic) waters usually can effectively degrade
disease themselves. Manure, applied to the land in solid or slur- moderate amounts of manure and organic matter without severe
ry form or stored in lagoons, poses varying public health haz- declines in water quality. However, since lakes and ponds (lentic
ards, depending on the distance to watercourses, nature of the waters) are characterized by lesser flows, they often have less
soil overlying aquifers, etc. When manure is applied on hot, dissolved oxygen. They usually degrade less manure and organic
sunny days, harmful bacteria die quite rapidly, virtually matter and can be easily overloaded.
eliminating any potential health threat. However, rain falling on Nutrients. The effects of nutrient enrichment on receiving
freshly applied manure may yield 10,000 to 10 million bacteria waters, whether nutrients come from fertilizers or manure, are
per milliliter in runoff waters. The public health hazard in- the same. Since this is the case, the effects of nutrients on
creases if manure is applied onto frozen ground or in the rain, receiving waters discussed in Chapter 5 are applicable here.

Salts. Salts are added to animal feeds to maintain the Nutrients contained in the manure eventually dissolve and
animal's chemical balance and increase weight. Excess salts pass are taken up by plants. The indirect effects of increased
through the animals and are eliminated in the wastes. When nutrients manifest themselves in both the vigor and amount of
manure accumulates, salt leaching becomes a potential pollution aquatic vegetation. For a detailed discussion of these effects,
problem. With sufficient rainfall and runoff, salts can contribute refer to chapter 5.
to surface and ground water pollution (ref. 7-8).
3. Aquatic vegetation; fish behavior; bottom-dwelling organ-
Animal Waste Indicators for Receiving Waters isms (For rating items 3, 4, and 5 on Field Sheet 2A, see items
1. Evidence of animal waste: visual and olfactory (Refer to 1, 3, and 5 in Chapter 5).
Field Sheet 2A, rating item 1, figure 7-2). Some of the same water-use impacts noted for nutrients
The most obvious indication of fresh manure even at a in item 4, chapter 5 are also true for manure. For example,
waters having excessive inputs of manure are often character-
distance, is the unpleasant odor and the smell of ammonia. ized by reduction in fishery quality. These waters also have
Closer visual inspection of the water and the water's edge is reduced recreational use because of odors, muddy conditions,
necessary to locate dried sludge, which may be fairly decay of massive amounts of vegetation, etc. Property near
odorless. or adjacent to these waters is often devalued.
2. Turbidity and color (Refer to Field Sheet 2A, rating item 2, Health effects, such as blue baby syndrome or water-
figure 7-2). bome bacterial and viral diseases sometimes occur. The clos-
When manure enters water, it disintegrates fairly rapidly ing of bacterially contaminated areas to fishing or recreation
into small particulate matter. When the manure input is heavy by public health agencies is sometimes due to animal waste
and the rate of water flow is low, a noticeable increase in pollution from agricultural sources. Drinking water may also
turbidity might occur (i.e., water may appear more opaque or be impaired by taste, color, odor, or turbidity problems.
cloudy).

Figure 7-2

Animal Waste

FIELD SHEET 2A: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1 .Evidence of No manure in or near water Occasional manure Manure droppings in concen-:-- Dry and wet manure all
animal body. droppings where cattle trated localized areas. over banks or in water.
waste: No odor. cross or in water. Strong manure or ammonia Strong manure & ammonia
visual and Slight musk odor. odor. odor.
olfactory
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 2 0
2. Turbidity & Clear or slightly greenish Occasionally turbid or Stream & pond water bubbly, Stream & pond water
color water in pond or along the cloudy. Water stirred up & brownish and cloudy where brown to black,
(observe in whole reach of stream. muddy & brownish at animal muddied by animal use. occasionally with a
slow water) No noticeable colored film on crossings. Pea green color in ponds manure crust along banks.
submerged objects or rocks. Pond water greenish. when not stirred up by Sluggish & standing
Rocks or submerged objects animals. water-murky and bubbly
covered with thin coating Bottom covered w/green or (foaming).
of green, olive, or brown olive film. Rocks or sub- Ponds often bright
build-up less than 5 mm merged objects coated with green or with brown/
thick. heavy or filamentous build- black decaying algal
up 5-75 mm thick or long. mats.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 0
3. Amount of Little vegetation-u n cluttered Moderate amounts of Cluttered weedy conditions. Choked weedy conditions
aquatic look to stream or pond. vegetation; or Vegetation sometimes or heavy algal blooms
vegetation What you would expect for a What you would expect for luxurious and green. or no vegetation at all.
pristine water body in area. the naturally occurring Seasonal algal blooms. Dense masses of slimy
Usually fairly low amounts site-specific conditions. white, greyish green,
of many different kinds of rusty brown or black
plants. water molds common on
bottom.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 3 0
4. Fish behavior No fish piping or aberrant In hot climates, occas- Fish piping common just Pronounced fish piping.
in hot weather; behavior. sional fish piping or before dawn. Pond fish kills common.
fish kills, No fish kills. gulping for air in ponds Occasional fish kills. Frequent stream fish
especially before just before dawn. kills during spring thaw.
dawn No fish kills in last Very tolerant species
two years. (e.g., bullhead, catfish).
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 5 3 0
5. Bottom Intolerant species occur: A mix of tolerants: Many tolerants (snails, Only tolerants or very
dwelling mayflies, stoneflies, shrimp, clamselflies, shrimp, clamselflies, tolerants: midges,
aquatic caddisflies, water penny, dragonflies, black flies. dragonflies, black flies). craneflies, horseflies,
organisms riffle beetle and a mix Intolerants rare. Mainly tolerants and some rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants. Moderate diversity, very tolerants. none at all.
High diversity. Intolerants rare. Very reduced diversity.
Reduced diversity with upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of tolerants common.
tolerants, e.g. tube worms,
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 5 3 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellenf' if the score totals at least 35. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 34,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 2131 or 2B.
RANKING Excellent (35-43) Good (21-34) Fair (7-20) Poor (6 or less)

Chapter 8

Salts

More than 90 percent of the total irrigated land in the Unit- Salinity Indicators for Receiving Waters
ed States is distributed in 8 major river basins of the West, en- 1. Geology of area and geochemistry of water (Refer to
compassing parts of 17 States (fig. 8-1). California and Texas Field Sheet 5A, rating item 1, figure 8-3).
lead the Nation in the number of irrigated acres. The major Salts come from natural sources and result from human
water quality problem identified in seven out of the eight basins activities. Natural sources include geologic formations of ma-
is salinity or salt pollution (ref. 8-1). Half of the 90 to 100 mil- rine origin, soils with poor drainage, salty ground water, and
lion tons of salt delivered annually to watercourses comes from salty springs. The salinity of the soil is increased primar-
agriculturally related activities (ref. 8-2). Salinity is commonly ily by overapplying irrigation water to areas where drainage
measured and expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/1) or parts is inadequate. The salinity of receiving waters is increased
per million (ppm). primarily by over-irrigating lands underlain with salt-bearing
Approximately one-fourth of all irrigated land (about 10 mil- layers.
lion acres) suffers from salt-caused crop yield reductions (ref. Saline waters contain a number of salts whose relative
8-3). Although the most severe salt problems occur in the and proportions reflect the geology of the region as well as
and semiarid West (fig. 8-2), increasing salinity is symptomatic seasonal changes in hydrology. Consequently, salt propor-
of water use and reuse. tions tend to be site-specific. The primary components of the
dissolved solids that constitute saline water are chlorides, sul-
fates, and bicarbonates of the following elements: sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium (ref. 8-3).

Figure 8-1
Hydrologic Divisions.'

Pacific Northwest

Missouri River
Basin

Great Basin L

South
Pacific Colorado
River Arkansas-Red River
Basin Basin

Rio Grande and
Western Gulf Region

'Source: EPA - Pollution Control Manual for Irrigated Agriculture (Ref. 8-1).

Figure 8-2
Levels of Dissolved Solids (Mg/1) in U.S. StreaMS.2

E=:;,

200 or less 201-500 501-1000 OverlOOO

Milligrams per liter (Mg/1)

2SOurce: EPA - Council on Environmental Quality. Analysis of U.S. Geological Survey data of the National Stream Quality Accounting Network (Ref. 8-4).

2. Precipitation and irrigation requirements (Refer to Field For example, of the 10 million metric tons of salt annual-
Sheet 5A, rating item 2, figure 8-3). ly reaching the Lower Colorado River Basin, 600,000 to
The salinity of both water and soil is increased by salt 700,000 metric tons are annually contributed by the Grand
concentration and salt loading. High salt concentrations are Valley. The salt-load contribution from the Grand Valley is
more likely to occur in semiarid and and regions where the result of saline subsurface irrigation return flows reaching
evaporation exceeds precipitation. In these regions of salt- the Colorado River. The alluvial soils of Grand Valley are
bearing layers, the usual salty water becomes even saltier as high in natural salts. However, the most significant salt source
water is lost by evaporation from soil and plants (evapotran- is the Mancos Shale geologic formation, which underlies these
spiration). Salt pollution is even more likely to occur in these alluvial soils and which contains crystalline lenses of salt that
regions when drainage is inadequate or if water tables are are readily dissolved by subsurface return flows (ref. 8-3, 8-5).
"perched" close to the surface (5 feet or less). In this area, the irrigation water applied is at least three
Salt "loading" occurs when irrigation water percolates times greater than the crop water requirements. Although
through a salt-laden soil profile or geologic layer on its way much of this excess water returns to open drains as surface
back to a river or stream, or when irrigation return flows ac- runoff, having negligible effect on the Colorado River salinity,
cumulate salt as they run over the soil surface. The greater the significant water quantities still reach the underlying Mancos
irrigation requirements, the greater the opportunity for salt Shale formation and pass to a near-surface cobble aquifer,
loading of soils. where the water is returned into the Colorado River (ref. 8-5).

Figure 8-3

Salinity

FIELD SHEET 5A: SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

2. Precipitation Average crop water consumption Average crop water Average crop water consump-:-- Average crop water consump-
and is equal to or less than consumption is between tion is between 10 & 25% tion exceeds average
irrigation average precipitation. 5 & 10% more than average more than precipitation. precipitation by more than
requirements Minimal irrigation required. precipitation. Considerable irrigation 25%.
Moderate irrigation req'd. required. Maximal irrigation required.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 0

3. Location of Near headwaters. Not far from headwaters. Moderate distance from Far from headwaters.
watercourse headwaters.
in watershed OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 5 3
4. Appearance No evidence of salt crusts. Some evidence of white, Numerous localized patches Most of the pond or stream
of water's crusty deposits on banks. of white, crusty deposits bank covered with a thick,
edge (shore- on banks. white, crusty deposit. Salt
line or "feathering" on posts abundant
banks) OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 4 1
5. Appearance No evidence of wilting, Minimal wilting and Stream or pond vegetation Evidence of severe
of aquatic toxicity, or stunting. toxicity, bleaching, may show wilted and toxic wilting, toxicity, or
vegetation leaf burn. symptoms-bleaching, leaf stunting.
Little if any stunting. burn. Presence of only
Presence of some the most salt-tolerant
salt-tolerant species. species or complete
OTHER OTHER OTHER absence of vegetation.
10 7 3 OTHER 0
6. Strearnside Very few species. Few salt tolerant species. Increasing dominance of Vegetation almost totally
vegetation Refer to list below@. salt-tolerant species. salt-tolerant species or
absence of vegetation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 7 5 3

OPTIONAL
7. Animal No birth defects or tumors. Minimal birth defects & Some birth defects & Considerable numbers
teratology tumors occuring in the tumors. of birth defects &
(birth defects population randomly. tumors.
& tumors in
fish and
other animals) OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 6 1 0

*Salt-tolerant species include greasewood, alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush, shadscales, saltgrass, tamarisk (salt cedar), galleta, western wheatgrass, crested
wheat, mat saltbush, reed canarygrass, and rabbitbrush.
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 47. Check "good" if the score falls between 32 and 46,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 5131 or 5B2.
RANKING Excellent (47-54) Good (32-46) Fair (15 -31) Poor (14 or less)
RANKING (optional) Excellent (55-64) Good (35-54) 1 Fair It 6-34) Poor (15 or less)

Figure 8-4

Salinity
FIELD SHEET 5B2: SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR SALINE SEEPS

3. Cropping Crop rotation consists of Crop rotation consists of Crop rotation contains a Crop rotation contains 17,37,68,
system annual crops with maximum annual crops. biannual fallow period. a biannual fallow 72
consumptive water use. Crops with maximum period.
water consumptive use
grown.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 2

4. Field Downslope fields exhibit Downslope areas of field Downslope areas of field Downslope areas of
appearance, even-appearing crop growth. or downslope fields or downslope fields have fields have bare spots
including High yields are common for exhibit even crop growth, uneven growth of crops not accounted for by
salt crusts the area. but of reduced yield for with patches of crops soil variations. Bare
the area. significantly stunted. spots occur in highly
Occasionally white crust saline soils. White
occurs in these patches. crust common.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 30. Check "good" if the score falls between 20 and 29,,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices
in the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (30-35) Good (20-29) Fair( 8-19) Poor ( 7 or less)

3. Location of watercourses in watershed (Refer to Field Sheet 4. Appearance of water's edge (shoreline or banks) (Refer to
5A, rating item 3, figure 8-3). Field Sheet 5A, rating item 4, figure 8-3).
In geologic regions where the soils are underlain by salt- The most obvious indicator of excessive salinity is the
bearing layers, the salinity of receiving watercourses in- presence of white, crusty deposits of salts. These deposits
creases with the distance from the headwaters. The salinity is may occur at the high water mark along the banks of a
least near the headwaters, where there has been little oppor- stream or river, or at seepage points along a high bank or
tunity for salt loading or salt concentration, and greatest cliff. "Salt feathering," the crystallizing of salt in feathery-
downstream, where effects of these two processes are max- like patches on posts and tree stumps, is another indicator of
imized. Generally, salt loading is the major cause of salinity highly saline conditions.
increases in the and and semiarid regions of the United
States. Salinity in the Colorado River ranges from an average 5. Appearance of aquatic vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet 5A,
of less than 50 milligrams per liter (mg/1) in the headwaters rating item 5, figure 8-3).
to 825 mg/1 at Imperial Dam and 950 mg/I in Mexico (ref. Salt pollution becomes a problem when the concentration
8-3, 8-6, 8-7). of salts in the soil/water solution interferes with the growth
of plants. Table salt (sodium chloride) is often the dominant
salt present. It affects plants in two ways: (1) By increasing

Figure 8-5
Generalized Diagram of Saline Seep, Recharge Area, and the Substrata Formation That Contributes to a
Saline Seep (Ref. 8-10).
Precipitation
(in excess of crop use)

A
//0
g7

A
'RECHARGE AREA
I ,,- - -@&LAWL'L _ @
Ta La@ =W04_"_ M. L. i - L A. dLU_a
R@@t_z_one
_rT 'T I

7771;

T
SALINE-SEEP
SA.LTY SUBSTRA .-IWATERTABL

Zone of
d
Weathered zo e ecre, 4
ased
permeability

JK
WATERJABLE

LOW HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ZONE

the osmotic pressure, it reduces the amount of water that A white salty crust can be an indicator of a saline seep.
plants can take up, leading to stunted growth and reduced Saline seeps are in those localities where saline water sur-
yields; (2) At high concentrations it causes toxic effects, such faces downslope of its recharge area. The seeping water
as leaf tip and marginal leaf burn, chlorosis (bleaching), or results from excess root zone moisture that percolates
defoliation (ref. 8-8). through salt-bearing layers. Water, leaching below the root
zone, carries dissolved salt to the surface downslope of the
6. Strearnside vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet 5A, rating item area of infiltration. These areas are common in the Northern
6, figure 8-3). Great Plains Region (Montana, North Dakota, and South
As the salinity of water increases, salt-intolerant species Dakota), where precipitation percolates through salt-laden
die and are replaced by more salt-tolerant types. Examples of glacial till into ground water, emerging later in a discharge
the latter are greasewood, alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush, area at another location (fig. 8-5).
shadscales, saltgrass, tamarisk (salt cedar), galleta, western Indicators for saline seeps are land-based, not water-
wheatgrass, mat saltbush, reed canarygrass, and rabbitbrush. based. Rating items I and 2 approximate those discussed
Some emergent rooted aquatics, such as cattails, appear to be above in field sheet 5A, "Salinity Indicators for Receiving
tolerant of even the highest concentration of salts. Waters." Other indicators include the type of cropping sys-
tem (rating item 3) and the appearance of field crops down-
7. Animal teratology (birth defects) (Refer to Field Sheet 5A, slope of the recharge area (rating item 4). Saline seep areas
rating item 7, figure 8-3). will have uneven growth of crops with some significantly
Severe toxic effects and birth defects or tumors in stunted patches or bare spots. White salt crusts occur in oc-
animals have been observed in isolated areas (e.g., Kesterson casional patches in areas considered to be "fair," and are
Reservoir in California) because of high concentrations of common under "poor" conditions.
toxic compounds, selenium, or flouride. Some newly hatched Since saline seeps result from excess moisture in the soil
ducks and other birds in the Kesterson Reservoir, which had profile, it is important to consider the cropping system
elevated levels of selenium, lacked ears, eyes, beaks, wings, thoroughly. There will be less "seeping" when crops with
or legs (ref. 8-9). the maximum consumptive water use are planted. This is es-
pecially true when crops are grown on an annual basis; i.e.,
8. Salinity indicators (Refer to Field Sheet 5132, figure 8-4. when the fields are not allowed to lie fallow.
Field Sheet 5132 should only be used in areas where the geol-
ogy makes saline seeps possible.)

APPENDIX A

Water Quality Procedures 5. Determine the total number of specimens in the sample.
� Sequential Comparison Index 6. Calculate DII:
� Beek's Biotic Index
� Floating Body Technique DI1 number of runs
Sequential Comparison Index number of specimens

The Sequential Comparison Index (SCI) is a simple stream 7. Record the number of different taxa observed. This does not
quality method, based upon distinguishing organisms by color, require a specialist in taxonomy. Most bottom fauna organ-
size, and shape, and requires no taxonomic expertise (ref. 8-4). isms are fairly easily divided into recognizable entities by
The only needs are to be able to distinguish the number of non-biologists. Identification of the organisms is not neces-
different types (taxa) of organisms and the number of "runs" in sary. A 2X magnifying glass or a low powered binocular
samples containing less than 250 organisms. A diversity index microscope is needed for this operation.
(DI) is obtained by dividing the number of runs by the number of
specimens. This index is multiplied by the number of taxa to give 8. Determine from figure A-2 the number of times (N) the SCI
the final DI. DI values of 12 or above are indicative of healthy examination must be repeated on the sample to be 95 percent
streams with high diversity and a balanced density. Polluted confident that the mean DII is within a desired percentage
streams typically have DI values of 8 or less. of the true value for DII. In most pollution work involving
gross differences, line A of figure A-2 should be used.
Sample analysis. There are many methods of biological speci- 9. After determining N from figure A-2, rerandomize the sam-
men analysis. Diversity indices are useful because they condense ple and repeat the SCI examination on the same sample N-I
considerable data into a single numerical value. The SCI is a times. Calculate the average DII by the following equation:
simple diversity method which can be used by a non-biologist.
The following is a brief summary of the SCI evaluation. For
detailed information see Cairns' article on simple biological as- 2;DIl
sessment (ref. 5-5). DII N
Bottom sample collection and preservation. Bottom samples 10. DIT is a diversity index value. It represents species diversity
from a watercourse or water body should be collected with an and, therefore, health of a watercourse. Calculate DIT by
appropriate sampler. If a bottom sampler is not available, the following equation:
trowels or shovels can be used to collect the sample. Place the
material collected into a tub or bucket. Dilute the material with
water and swirl. Pour it through a U.S. Standard #30 sieve or a DIT = DII x No. of Taxa
30-mesh screen. Remove rocks, sticks, and other artifacts after
carefully checking for clinging organisms. Wash the screened 11. Repeat the above procedure for each sample collection.
material into a container and preserve it in 10 percent formalin
or 70 percent ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Organisms may be sorted The above procedure should only be used on samples containing
from the sample detritus in the field with forceps or at the fewer than 250 specimens. Healthy streams with a high diversity
laboratory. It is often desirable, prior to preserving the sample, and a balanced density tend to have DIT values above 12. Pol-
to place rocks, sticks, and other objects in a white pan partially luted communities tend to have DIT values of 8 or less. Inter-
filled with water. Many of the animals will float free from the mediate values have been found in sernipolluted streams.
objects or can be removed with forceps. All samples should be
stored in a suitable container and preserved with 10 percent for- To determine if different bottom-fauna community structures
malin or 70 percent ethanol. The samples should be labeled with are significantly different from each other, calculate the 95 per-
the location, date, type of sampler used, name of collector, and cent confidence intervals around each DIT value. If the intervals
other pertinent information. do not overlap, then the community structures are significantly
different. For example, if sampling station "A" has a DIT
SCI Procedure. value of 25, station "B" has a DIT value of 10, and line A of
figure A-2 is used, then the 95 percent confidence interval
1. Randomize specimens in a jar by swirling. would be 20 percent, or 10 percent on either side of the deter-
2. Pour specimens into a lined white enamel pan. mined DIT value. Station "A" has 95 percent confidence inter-
val for the DIT value from 22.5 to 27.5 (20 percent of 25 = 5).
3. Disperse clumps of specimens by pouring preservative or Station "B" has a 95 percent confidence interval for the DIT
water on the clumps. value from 9 to 11 (20 percent of 10 = 2). The 95 percent con-
fidence intervals do not overlap, and therefore the bottom fauna
4. Determine the number of runs in the sample by comparing communities at the two stations are significantly different.
two specimens at a time. The current specimen need only be The SCI examination is a useftil tool. It requires no taxo-
compared with the previous one. If it is similar, it is part of nomic expertise. It is easy to perform and produces results
the same run. If not, it is part of a new run (fig. A-1). A quickly. It should not be used to represent or replace other more
2X magnifying glass or a low-powered binocular microscope accurate techniques requiring a person trained in aquatic
is needed for this operation. biology.

Figure A-1 Three categories (table A-3, fig. A-4) are defined below:
Determination of Runs in Sequential Comparison Class I Organisms (Sensitive or Intolerant)
Index Organisms that exhibit a rapid response to aquatic environ-
r____1 r ------ I r____1 r__1 mental changes and are killed, driven out of the area, or as a
group are substantially reduced in number when their environ-
ment is degraded.

.4Z Class 11 Organisms (Facultative)
AIN Organisms that have the capability to live under varying
conditions; e.g., a facultative anaerobe is an organism that
although usually and normally lives in the presence of free oxy-
gen, can live in absence of free oxygen. Most survive in areas
where organic pollution is producing eutrophication or "enrich-
ment" of the aquatic ecosystem.

Class 111 Organisms (Tolerant)
Organisms capable of withstanding adverse conditions within
the aquatic environment.
According to this approach, which assumes that there are
not naturally occurring limiting factors, an undisturbed commu-
Figure A-2 nity will include representatives of the majority of the groups
contained in Class I as well as some representatives of Classes
Confidence Limits for 1311 Values. 11 and III. By contrast, a sample which consists mainly of Class
H organisms is being "limited" or impacted by either natural
D11 factors, such as low flow, homogenous substrate, etc. or is im-
1.0 - A - pacted due to human activities. Waters dominated by Class III
organisms are probably adversely affected by organic pollution.
0.9 - - The structure of the benthic (bottom) invertebrate com-
0.8 - X* use line A to be 95% - munity in waterways polluted by organic waste differs quanti-
confident the mean tatively from invertebrate communities in unpolluted waterways.
0.7 - of D11 is within 20% - That is, organic pollution results not just in a reduction in species
0.6 of true value. - richness (the total number of benthic groups), but also in a
stimulation in density (the total number of organisms collected
0.5- B. use line B to be 95% - per sample).
0.4 - confident the mean -
of D11 is within 10% By contrast, waterways impacted with toxic materials, such
0.3 - of true value. as pesticides or acid mine drainage, show decreases both in rich-
0.2 - ness and density. Sediment causes a greater reduction in density
than in richness. Because of the above differences and because
0.1 - there are often dominant organisms characteristic of sediment
0 pollution, it is possible to differentiate sediment stress from the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 stresses of toxic materials and organic wastes.
(N) For this type of investigation, a dip net is used to take a
"kick" sample, which is sufficient to obtain a representative
sample of the organisms present. With this procedure the net is
placed upright on the bottom in an area of swift water, and the
Beek's Biotic Index stream bottom upstream of the net is sufficiently disturbed to
dislodge any organisms located there. The dislodged organisms
Beck's Biotic Index (ref. 3-10) was developed primarily for will be carried by the current into the net and captured. Any
use in Florida and assumes taxonomic expertise, but it can be rocks that can be overturned should be turned and any clinging
used with generic level identification when less sensitivity is ac- organisms collected.
ceptable. This system can be used to indicate both the magnitude
and probable cause of environmental stress. Beck developed the Mathematical expression.
methodology to categorize stream macro-invertebrates (large BI = 2nI + nII
animals without backbones, ref. A-1). where:

BI = Beck's Biotic Index
nI = the number of Class I species identified from the
samples
nII = the number of Class H species identified from the
samples

Table A-3.-Benthic macroinvertebrates classed according to
Beck's Biotic Index Classes (ref. A-2)

Invertebrate Form Class Invertebrate Form Class

Caddisflies: Trichoptera Crayfish
Hydropsychidae I Astacidae 2
Hydroptilidae I Flatworms
Limnephilidae I Planaridae 2
Leptoceridae I
Helicopsychiade I Crane Flies
Psychomyiidae I Tipulidae 2
Goeridae I
Gill Snails
Stoneflies: Plecoptera Pleuroceridae 2
Perlidae I
Perlodidae I Horse Flies
Tabanidae 2
Mayflies: Epherneroptera
Baetidae I Isopods
Heptageniidae I Asellidae (Aquatic
Epherneridae I Sowbugs) 2
Helligrammites Blackflies
Corydalidae I Simuliidae 2
........................................................
Freshwater Naiads (Clams) Air-Breathing Snails
Unionidae Physidae 3
Beetles: Coleoptera Ancylidae (Limpets) 3
Elmidae (Riffle Beetle) Aquatic Earthworms
Psephenidae (Water Penny) Oligochaeta 3
.......................................................
Damselflies: Odonata Midges
Coenagrionidae 2 Chironomidae 3
Agrionidae 2 Leeches
Dragonflies: Odonata Hirundinea 3
Aeschnidae 2 Moth flies
Comphidae 2 Psychodidae 3
Libellulidae 2

Recommended Level of Taxonomic Identification. This index Use of the index.
should be used in conjunction with species level identification to
enhance the sensitivity of the index in detecting ecosystem per- I .Level of sampling required. Sample size can be limited, de-
turbations. The use of generic level identification requires the pending on the degree of organic pollution encountered. Or-
assignment of a tolerance classification to a genus, correspond- ganically polluted conditions demand more extensive and
ing to the most tolerant species within that genus, and leads to precise collection and analysis of data to ensure that sensitive
decreased index sensitivity. Generic level identification can be animals have not been overlooked.
utilized when less sensitivity is acceptable or when species iden- 2. Recommendedform of data reduction. Absolute estimates of
tification is not possible. For example, species taxonomy within generic and/or specific representation should be entered
the Chironomidae (midges) can be so difficult as to preclude its directly into the computational formula.
use.
Geographic Applicability. This index has not been widely 3. Modes of data display. Index values can be displayed in
employed outside of the State of Florida. either tabular and/or graphical form in a site or locale-
Computational Devices Required. A simple desk-top calcula- specific manner.
tor is recommended for the calculation of values. 4. Interpretation. Index values will range from 0 to approxi-
Statistical Evaluation. Statistical evaluation of index values mately 40; the lower the index value, the greater the organic
can be inappropriate or present interpretation difficulties. Tests stress. See table below. An index value of 10 is the lowest
of raw data (Chi square, correlation, t-test, etc.) are recom- value accepted as indicative of clean water without additional
mended. discussion.

Figure A-4

Macroinvertebrates According to Beck's Biotic Index Classes (Ref. A-2).

1. Intolerant (sensitive) to pollution:

C
L
A Mayflies
S Caddisflies, Hellgrammites
S Tricoptera Stoneflies Megaloptera
Ephemeroptera Plecoptera
Aquatic Beetles: Coleoptera

4
Riffle Beetle

Freshwater Clams "Water Penny"

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------

2. Facultative - Can tolerate some pollution:

Gill Snails

Aquatic
Sowbugs

C rk
L
A
S
S

2 Damselflies
Dragonflies ldiR>l Fingernail
lkz=@O Clams
Blackfly
Odonata

----------------------------------------------------- --------------------------
3. Tolerant to pollution:

Leeches,
C Cranefly
L
A
S Midges
S Aquatic
Air breathing
3 Horsefly Earthworms Snails
Tubificid (Physa)
Chironomidae Worms Gastropoda
tMayfli'E

Rat-tailed Maggot Ofigochaeta

Beck's Biotic Index Values tossed into the stream above the initial point and then timed to
see how long it takes to get from one point to the other. If dye
Index Value Description is used, the time is measured until the front part of the dye stain
arrives. Velocity is calculated as distance divided by time.
0 Stream grossly polluted When the velocity measured is the peak velocity of the
1to 5 Stream moderately polluted stream (usually at the surface in the center), it is possible to cal-
6 to 9 Stream clean, but with a monotonous culate an approximate average for velocity for the stream, as-
habitat and instrearn velocity suming typical cross section. A common average is 85 percent
10 or greater Stream clean of the maximum current velocity.
Accuracy. This technique can be moderately accurate. The
major sources of error are caused by the marker floating out of
Floating Body Technique the desired path. If the maximum current velocity is desired, the
marker may tend to end up in eddies along the way, rather than
The Floating Body Technique measures water flow velocity, staying in the maximum velocity portion of the stream. This
which is calculated by measuring the time taken for a marker to source of error can be reduced by making repeated measure-
travel a known distance downstream. ments or by using dye as the marker. Calculations of average
stream velocity from a measured maximum velocity are in error
Procedure. A stretch of a watercourse should be selected which if the correction factor is inappropriate. Deviations from the 85
is approximately straight. The compass direction of this stretch percent factor mentioned above are common.
should be measured. Using the compass direction, a 90 degree
angle is laid out so it crosses the stream. This is most con- Application Notes. This technique is inexpensive. A crew size
veniently done by locating a landmark on the distant side of the of one is suitable for slow moving streams, but a crew size of
stream, and moving up- or downstream to locate (and mark) the two is necessary to signal when the marker has passed the end-
point at which a 90 degree angle exists. A distance should then ing point if the stream moves too fast for one crew member to
be measured downstream to the other end of the straight stretch, move from the starting point to the ending point. It is most ap-
and a similar 90 degree angle laid out. The marker or dye is propriate where streams are relatively large and have a smooth
slope.

APPENDIX B

Aquatic Organisms Table B-2-Filter clogging algae

Algae Important in Water Supplies (ref. B-1). Linear
� Taste and odor algae Species Names Magnifications
� Filter clogging algae Anabaena flos-aquae 500
� Polluted water algae Anacystis dimidiata 1000
� Clean water algae Asterionella formosa 1000
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 5000
� Plankton and other surface water algae Closterium moniliferum 250
� Algae growing on reservoir walls Cyclotella meneghiniana 1500
Cymbella ventricosa 1500
Types of Freshwater Algae (ref. B-2). Diatoma vulgare 1500
Dinobryon sertularia 1500
Simple Assessment of Bottom-Dwelling Insects (ref. A-2). Fragilaria crotonensis 1000
SCS Key to the Major Invertebrate Species of Stream Zones Melosira granulata 1000
(ref. B-3). Navicula graciloides 1500
0scillatoria princeps (top) 250
Diagrams of Common Fish Species (ref. B-4). Oscillatoria chalybea (middle) 250
Oscillatoria splendida (bottom) 500
Detection of Escherichia coli in water samples (ref. B-5). Palmella mucosa 1000
Rivularia, dura 250
Spirogyra porticalis 125
Table B-I.-Taste and odor algae. Synedra acus 500
Tabellaria flocculosa 1500
Linear Trachelomonas crebea 1500
Species Names Magnifications Tribonema bombycinum 500

Anabaena plactonica, 250
Anacystis cyanea. 250
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae 250 Table B-3-Polluted water algae.
Asterionella gracillima 250
Ceratium hirundinella 250 Linear
Dinobryon divergens 250 Species Names Magnifications
Gomphosphaeria lacustris,
kuetzingianum type 500 Agmenellum quadriduplicatum,
Hydrodictyon reticulaturn 10 tenuissima, type 1000
Mallomonas caudata 500 Anabaena constricta 500
Nitella gracilis I Anacystis montana 1000
Pandorina morum 500 Arthrospira jenneri 1000
Peridinium cinctum 500 Carteria multifilis 2000
Staurastrum paradoxum 500 Chlamydomonas reinhardi 1500
Synedra ulna 250 Chlorella vulgaris 2000
Synura uvella 500 Chlorococcum hurnicola 1000
Tabellaria fenestrata 250 Chlorogonium euchlorum 1500
Uroglenopsis americana 125 Euglena viridis 1000
Volvox aureus 125 Gomphonema parvulum 3000
Lepocinclis texta 500
Lyngbya digueti 1000
Nitzschia palea 2000
Oscillatoria chlorina (top) 1000
Oscillatoria putrida (middle) 1000
0scillatoria lauterbornii (bottom) 1000
Phacus pyrum 1500
Phormidium autumnale, 500
Pyrobotrys stellata 1500
Spirogyra communis 250
Stigeoclonium tenue 500
Tetraedron muticum 1500

Figure B-1
Algae Important in Water Supplies.
Taste and Odor Algae

--MA
ANABAENA

ASTERIONELLA ANACYSTIS

UROGLENOPSIS
G!0
WOO 'w 0
0 NO, I " , -
00 0 0 0 40 9 W 0
00004,9 pg?"
0
0
0a*
000
so Do
0
00

0 SYNEDRA

HYDRODICTYON

MALLOMONAS

DINIUM

STAURASTRUM
CERATIUM
APHANIZOMENON

GOMPHOSPHAERIA
NITELLA

Goo

DINOBRYON

TABE LARIA

PANDORINA

A -

SYNURA
VOLVOX

Figure B-2

Filter Clogging Algae.

ANACYSTIS

DINOBRYON

CYMSELLA

CHLORELLA J,-ff

SYNEDRA CLOSTERIUM

rem

MELOSIRA

RIVULARIA

CYCLOTELLA

TABELLARIA

N"ICULA

SPIROGYRA

OSCILLATORIA ASTERIONELLA

TRACHELOMONAS

PALMELLA

FRAGILARIA

ANABAENA

DIATOMA

Figure B-3
Polluted Water Algae. PHORMIDIUM
AGMENELLUM

CARTERIA

LEPOCINCLIS

PyRoBOTRYS NITZSCHIA

ANABAENA

EUGLENA

TETRAEDRON

CHLOROCOCCUM SPIROGYRA

OSCILLATORIA

PHACUS

CHLOROGONIUM

CEN

CHLORELLA

GOMPHONEMA

STIGEOCLONIUM

ANACYSTIS

ARTHROSPIRA

LYNGBYA
ImmGmrL,,- @c CHLAMYDOMONAS

Figure B-4
Clean Water Algae.

RHIZOCLONIUIA CLADOPHORA

PINNULARIA

SURIRELLA

CYCLOTELLA

RHODOMONAS

ANKISTRODESMUS
94C)
CHRYSOGOCCUS
46

AGMENELLUM

COCCOCHLORIS NAVICULA

ULOTHRIX

CALOTHRIX
MICRASTE AS
-Nks
MERIDION

ENTOPHYSALIS

Ok.
IL

10
CHROMULINA

PHACOTUS
HILOENBRANDIA STAURASTRUM
-mff@-

LEMANEA
MICROGOLEUS COGGONEIS

Table B-4.-Clean water algae Table B-6.-Algae growing on reservoir walls.

Linear Linear
Species Names Magnifications Species Names Magnifications

Agmenellum quadriduplicatum, glauca t)W 250 Achnanthes microcephala 1500
Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. acicularis 1000 Audouinella violacea 250
Calothrix parietina 500 Batrachospermum moniliforme 3
Chromulina rosanoffi 4000 Bulbochaete insignis 125
Chrysococcus rufescens 4000 Chaetophora elegans 250
Cladophora glomerata 100 Chara globularis 4
Coccochloris stagnina 1000 Cladophora, crispata 125
Cocconeis placentula 1000 Compsopogon coeruleus 125
Cyclotella bodanica 500 Cymbella prostrata. 250
Entophysalis lemaniae 1500 Draparnaldia glomerata 125
Hildenbrandia rivularis 500 Gomphonema geminatum 250
Lemanea annulata I Lyngbya lagerheimii 1000
Meridion circulare 1000 Microspora amoena 250
Micrasterias truncata 250 Oedogonium. suecicurn 500
Microcoleus subtorulosus 500 Phormidium, uncinaturn 250
Navicula gracilis 1000 Phytoconis botryoides 1000
Phacotus lenticularis 2000 Stigeoclonium lubricum 250
Rinnularia nobilis 250 Tetraspora. gelatinosa 125
Rhizonclonium hieroglyphicum 250 Tolypothrix tenuis 500
Rhodomonas lacustris 3000 Ulothrix zonata 250
Staurastrum punctulatum 1000 Vaucheria sessilis 125
Surirella splendida 500
Ulothrix aequalis 250

Table B-5.-Plankton and other surface water algae.

Linear
Species Names Magnifications

Actinastrum. gracillimum 1000
Botryococcus braunii 1000
Coelastrum microporum 500
Cylindrospermum stagnale 250
Desmidium grevillei 250
Euastrum oblongum 500
Eudorina elegans 250
Euglena gracilis 1000
Fragilaria capucina 1000
Gomphosphaeria aponina 1500
Goniurn pectorale 500
Micractinium pusillum 1000
Mougeotia scalaris 250
Nodularia spurnigena 500
Oocystis borgei 1000
Pediastrum boryanum. 125
Phacus pleuronectes 500
Scenedesmus quadricauda 1000
Sphaerocystis schroeteri 500
Stauroneis phoenicenteron 500
Stephanodiscus hantzschii 1000
Zygnema sterile 250

Figure B-5
Plankton and Other Surface Water Algae.

FRAGILARIA

NODULARIA Or dr

coELASTRUM
@U.LE.A

GOMPHOSPHAERIA

MIGRACTINIUM

MOUGEOTIA

BOTRYOCOCCUS

OOCYSTIS EUASTRUM

PHACUS
CYLINDROSPERMUM

ACTINASTRUM

SCENEDESMUS

GONIUM

STEPHANODISCUS

DESMIDIUM

SPHAEROCYSTIS

ZYGNEMA
STAURONEIS EUDORINA

PEDIASTRUM

Figure B-6

Algae Growing on Reservoir Walls.
PHORMIDIUM
ULOTHRIX
A&A

CLADOPHORA

0
GOMPH oil Q

ACHNANTHES 0 a Q
VQ a Q00 00 a 0

IR
Cc "
0
jpGa

VAUCHERIA

STIGEOCLONIUM
TETRASPORA

GD;-

AUDOUINELLA

CHARA TOLYPOTHRIX

1A,

BULBOCHAETE

LYNGSVA

MICROSPORA

COMPSOPOGON

BATRACHOSPERMUM CYMBELLA

PHYTOCONIS

...........
OEDOGONIUM
DRAPARNALDIA

CHAETOPHORA

Figure B-7
Types of Freshwater Algae.

OWN

WaterHly (Nymphaea)
The large, circular, waxy floating leaves are deeply notched
Algal scums (various species) grow on the bottom or on and and borne on tough, elastic stems. The large white, pink,
around objects. Later, they rise to the surface in large mats, yellow, or blue flowers, with 12-40 petals, float on the sur-
whereupon they die and decay. Two forms are present, the face with the leaves. The thick inter-twining roots of this
branched form (upper) and the single filamentous (below). The plant form extensive mats over the bottom.
branched form is green to grayish-green and coarse feeling
like wet cotton. The single filament is slimy to the touch and
green-to-brown in color.

Figure B-7

Flower

Seed pod

Waterinilfbill (Myriophyllum)
Leaves. Upper aerial ones elliptical with scalloped edges, giving
it a prickly appearance, and dark green in color. Late in
summer they turn red. Submerged leaves much longer and
wider. Finely divided, giving the leaves a feather-like ap-
Leaf and stem pearance.
Stems. Thick, reddish to brown, hollow or loosely pith filled.
Lotus Special characteristics. The upper leaves of this plant projecting
3-5 inches above the surface of the pond make it easily iden-
Leaves. Circular 12-24 in. in diameter, with the centers fified and separated from Parrots Feather.
11 cupped." Usually they stand up out of the water, but im- Habitat. Shallow water 0-5 ft. deep.
mature leaves lie flat on the surface.

Stem. 1/4 to 1/2 in. in diameter, stiff and upright.
Flowers. 4.5 to 10 in. in diameter, pale yellow in color.
Special characteristics. The large, cupped leaves which stand
upright are distinctive and characteristic of no other native
plant.

Figure B-7

Continued.

Coontaff (Ceratophyllum) Naiads (Najas)
A submerged, brittle herb with leaves in whorls about the Submerged herbs with opposite or whorled, narrow to thread-
main stem, which is generally forked once to several times. like leaves. The bases of the leaves sheathe the stem. The
The leaves are very fine and forked (sometimes divided into main stem is branched and has fibrous roots. The seeds are
threes) at the tips. These "tiplets" have a "spiny" appear- small and ellipitical and are found in the axil of the leaves.
ance because of their wavy margins. This plant is "rooted" This plant is a favored food of many ducks.
in the spring and early summer and free-floating in the late
summer and early fall. The seeds of this plant are taken by Fanwort (Cabomba)
waterfowl. Delicate, branched, submerged herbs with finely divided
leaves that are opposite or in whorls. Occasionally, the upper
floating leaves are produced. These are small, oblong, and
attached at the center of the blade. The flowers are small and
have three white to yellow petals.

Figure B-7

Free Floating Plants

Duckweeds, (Lemna and Spirodela spp.)
Small, 1-12 nim (0.04-4.7 in) long, free floating green
plants of various shapes, generally oblong, that have one to
many small rootlets hanging in the water and 1-15 "nerves"
Pond Weeds (Potamogeton) appearing on the top of the plants. Spirodela is larger and
may be purple on the underside. These plants are 1-9 mm
Leaves. Upper floating ones elliptical to oval, generally small (0.04-0.3 in) long, oval in outline with a small pointed tip,
(1/2-2 in). One species has very large leaves (3-10 in long). have many rootlets, and have 5-11 "nerves" oD the upper-
The surface is waxy. In some cases, the upper leaves may be side. Lemna has 1-5 "nerves," one rootlet, and is green on
missing. Lower leaves are very narrow, 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08 the underside and smaller, being 1-5 mm (0.04-0.2 in). Un-
in) or less and strap-like. der some conditions, these plants may have a reddish color.
Stems. Thin, but strong, varying in length, according to water It would be best to check them to prevent confusion with
depth. Always rooted. water fern.
Fruit. The small, cylindrical seed heads are on separate stalks, Duckmeal, (Wofflia and Wolfella spp.)
sometimes appearing above the water or generally found in The tinest flowering plant in the world, 0.5-2mm (0.04-0.08
the axil of the leaves. These seeds are avidly taken by ducks. in) long, rootless, globular to ellipsoid in outline.
Special characteristics. The only plant having leaves this small
floating on the surface of the water. Waterfern (Azolla sp.)
Larger than the above, 0.5-1 cm (0.2-0.4 in) long, having
Habitat. Any body of water. small overlapping leaves borne on a once-to-several times
V_x
I toll

forking stem. Several small roots hang in the water. At matu-
rity these plants are red, rosy pink, or reddish brown. Young
plants are green.

Figure B-7

Continued.

I @k

Elodea, or Waterweed (Anacharis)
Leaves. Narrow, gradually tapering to the tip. Borne either op-
posite each other in pairs, or in whorls of 4-5. Leaves of E.
densa are large and coarse; those of the other two species Watershield (Brasenia)
smaller and more delicate. The floating leaves are oval and the undersides reddish and
covered with a shiny covering. The stems are usually covered
Stems. Herbaceous, lax, and generally rooted; sometimes form with this coating also. The small flowers are reddish to pur-
floating mats. ple and have 3-4 petals. Prefers ponds or slow-moving acid
Flowers. Arise between the stem and leaves. Three petals are water with a sandy bottom. Some diving ducks readily take
present, and these are white or pinkish. Mainly spreads the seeds of this plant.
vegetatively.
Special characteristics. These are the same plants sold in pet
stores for use in aquariums. Perennial, does not die back in
the winter.

Habitat. Shallow water of lakes or ponds.

Figure B-7

Alligatorweed (Alternanthera)
May be found growing upright on damp soil or growing as a
floating mat in water. Leaves roughly oval and opposite one
another on the stem. The bases of the leaves merge to form a
sheath which is slightly swollen. Leaves and stems succulent
and fleshy. Flowers white and resemble the flowers of white
clover. These are borne on a long stalk growing between the
stem and leaf. Seeds are not viable, and this plant reproduces
vegetatively from the nodes.

Carolina Watergrass (Hydrochloa)
Leaves small (1-2 in long x 1/4 in wide), elliptical, grayish-
green to green in color. These are found mainly towards the
Spatterdock, Yellow Waterlily (Nuphar) end of the stem and float on the surface. This plant can be
The large, waxy leaves are heart-shaped and may be upright found growing next to the shore or in shallow water. May
or floating on the surface. The stems are thick, strong, and form floating mats which can cover up small ponds. Rarely
elastic. The small flowers are yellow and waxy in appear- fruits.
ance. This plant is found in the shallows out to a depth of
3-4 feet.

Figure B-7

Continued.

Arrow-arum (Peltandra) - Upper Left
Smartweeds, Water Pepper (Polygonum) Plants inhabiting the The leaves are shaped like a barbed arrowhead and are borne
shallow water of a pond, with lance-shaped, alternate leaves. on thick fleshy stems. The yellow "flowers" are enclosed in
At the base of each leaf is a sheath going around the stem a green, partly opened, sac-like structure which tern-linates in
and topped with long, fine hairs. The flowers are pink, a wrinkled tip. The skin of the fruit is green, purplish, or
white, or greenish and found in terminal spikes or on short, brown, and the seeds are enclosed in a gelatinous mass with-
lateral spikes originating between the leaf and the stem. The in the fruit.
seed is either triangular or lens-shaped in cross-section.
These seeds are a choice food for ducks. Arrowhead (Sagittaria) - Upper Right
The leaves are highly variable, but are generally arrowhead-
Lizardstail (Saururus) shaped, though the "barbs" may or may not be present, ac-
Succulent herbs with jointed stems and alternate drooping cording to the species and water depth. The small white
heart-shaped leaves, found along the edges of the water. The flowers are in whorls of three along the main stalk.
long, nodding, white-flowered spike is present during the
summer and easily distinguishes this plant. Pickerelweed (Pontederia) - Lower Left
The leaves are heart-shaped and are bome on thick stems.
Cattail (Typha) The flowers are bluish and found in a terminal spike.
Long, narrow, veinless, bluish-green leaves, sheathing at the Note: In the case where the flowers are absent, these plants may
base of the plant, and the familiar seed head are enough to be differentiated by the veination of the leaves. See the illus-
identify this plant. tration.
Y

Figure B-7 Simple assessment of bottom-dwelling insects (ref. A-2).
Immature forms of bottom-dwelling stream insects live
primarily in riffles-shallow, swift-flowing portions of a water-
course. Two major groups of aquatic insects should be present
in the upper watercourse reaches of all unpolluted waterways:
mayflies (fig. B-8) and caddisflies (fig. B-9). Mayflies have a
roachlike body, a thin hairlike tail, and six jointed legs. Caddis-
flies have a maggotlike body, no tail, and six jointed legs.
To sample these insects, use the following simple technique.
Remove three stones from a shallow, swift-flowing portion of
the watercourse. Each stone should be about six inches in di-
ameter. Place the stones in a bucket filled with stream water.
Brush the entire surface of each stone with your hands. If after
carefully examining the surface of each, you are satisfied that no
insects remain, then discard the stone. Pour the contents of the
bucket through a white handkerchief. Count the number of may-
flies and caddisflies. Using the following illustrations, identify
and count the number of insects belonging to the various groups.
If both mayflies and caddisflies are absent from the water-
course, then the watercourse is severely polluted. If only may-
flies or caddistlies are present, then the watercourse is probably
moderately polluted. If both mayflies and caddisflies are present,
along with stoneflies (fig. B-10), then the stream is probably in
good -to-excellent condition. Stoneflies resemble mayflies in hav-
ing a roachlike body, tail, and six jointed legs. Mayfly legs
come to a fine point at the tips, whereas stonefly legs are tipped
with two hooks or claws.
Insect larvae, which are tolerant of pollution and might be
found in either clean or moderately polluted water, are black-
flies, bloodworm midges (chironomids), rat-tailed maggots, and
others. See also fig. A-4.

Stoneworts Muskgrass (Chara)
Actually a higher form of perennial algae. The 6-12 leaves
are cylindrical and arranged in whorls around the stems and
branches. Stems, branches, and leaves are very brittle, and
when crushed, emit a strong musk-like or "skunky" odor.
The "fruit" or oogonium appears as small black dots scat-
tered over the leaves of the plant. Variable in height but
generally not reaching the surface of the water. All parts of
the plant are eaten by waterfowl.

Figure B-8

Mayflies (Ephemeroptea).

One cla
w
Only one
claw

Exposed
Note broad
head '@y

3 tails----,-

Note 2 tails
(not common)
3.250 3.251 3.25'2

3.184 3.185

i",10,

3.188 3.254
3.253
3.187 40W M@ Figures 3.250 through 3.254. Baetidae. Baefis nymph, dorsal
3.186 aspect: 3.250 B. macdunnoughi, 3.251 B. pygnweus, 3.252 B.
3.183 intercalaris, 3.253 B. propinquus, 3.254 B. tricaudatus (an after
Figures 3.183 through 3.188. Heptagenfidae. 3.183 Spinadis, Morihara and McCafferty, 1979).
lateral aspect (shown without legs and gills); nymph, dorsal
aspect: 3.184 Epeorus, 3.185 Arthroplea bipunctata; 3.186
Pseudiron, gill of 3rd abdominal segment; Anepeorus: 3.187
mandible, 3.188 dorsal aspect and left abdominal gill (3.183 af-
ter Flowers and Hilsenhoff 1975; 3.184 through 3.186, 3.188,
Illinois Natural History Survey, (INHS)).

Figure B-9

Caddisfiles (Tricoptera).

@-7

9.7
93

9.14
9.13

9.9

9.16
9.18
9.10 9.17 9.11
9.15

Figures 9.7 through 9.18. Family characters. Helicopsyche Polycentropus larva, lateral aspect; 9.13 Lepidostonia, head and
borealis larva: 9.7 anal claw, lateral aspect, 9.8 larval case; 9.9 thorax of larva, dorsal aspect; 9.14 Hydroptila larva, lateral
Brachycentrus, anal claw of larva, lateral aspect; 9.10 Leu- aspect; 9.15 Ochrotrichia larva in purse case, lateral aspect; lar-
cotrichia pictipes larva, dorsal aspect; 9.11 Limnephilus sub- val head, dorsal aspect: 9.16 Leptocerus americanus, 9.17 Lim-
monilifer, head and thorax of larva, dorsal aspect; 9.12 nephilus, 9.18 Lepidostoma (all INHS).

Figure B-10
Stoneffies (Plecoptera).

Antenna -------- Maxillary Palpus
Labrurn
Epicranial Arm -------- --- ------ Median Ocellus
Epicranial St --- Lateral Ocellus
e m -- -------- Transverse
Marginal Groove
Occipital Ridge
Marginal Flange -
Dorsal Suture 5.2
Thoracic Gill ------WingPad

2
3
2 claws jo.
5
6
7
No abdominal 1 st segment
gills 2nd segment
@k 17 2
:'M' 10
3rd segment
Anal Gill Tarsus
5.3
Only 2 tails Cercus
5.1

Figures 5.1 through 5.3. Stonefly structure. 5.1 generalized
k\ stonefly nymph, dorsal aspect. Abdominal segments 8 and 9 of
Phasganophora capitata nymphs, ventral aspect: 5.2 male, 5.3
female (all courtesy of the INHS).

Figure B-10

Stoneflies, continued.

2 claws,

No abdominal
gills 'OV

+
2 tails 5.87 5.88\ 5.89

'% 'ILI

5.90 5.91

Figures 5.87 through 5.91. Perfidae. Acroneuria nymph, dorsal
aspect: 5.87 A. mela, 5.88 A. lycorias, 5.89 A. evoluta, 5.980
A. perplexa, 5.91 A. fificis (all INHS).

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Figure B-12
Some Common Freshwater Fishes (Ref. B-4).

Alosa aestivalis (Mitchill) Order Clupeiformes
Blueback herring Family Clupeidae

TYPE LOCALITY: New York (Mitchill 1815. Trans. Lit. Philos.
Soc. N.Y. 1:355-492).
SYSTEMATICS: Formerly placed in Pomolobus, synonymized @i 5J i
most recently underA/osa bySvetovidov(1964. Copeia: 118-30).
Often confused with A. pseudoharengus.

Washington, D.C., market ca. 23 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann
1900).

Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson) Order Clupefformes
Alewife Family Clupeidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Probably Delaware River at Philadelphia,
Philadelphia Co., PA (Wilson ca. 1811 in Rees'New Cyclopedia
9: no pagination).
SYSTEMATICS: Formerly placed in Pomolobus, most recently
synonymized with Alosa (Svetovidov 1964. Copeia:. 118-30).
Often confused with A. aestivalis.

Washington, D.C., market: ca. 26 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann
1900).

Alosa sapidissima (Wilson) Order Clupelformes
American shad Family Clupeidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Probably Delaware River at Philadelphia,
Philadelphia Co., PA (Wilson ca. 1811. in Rees'New Cyclopedia
9: no pagination).
SYSTEMATICS: Forms geographically disjunct species pair
with A. alabamae (Berry 1964. Copela: 720-30). Meristic dif-
IN,
ferences seen between spawning populations inhabiting
various river systems (and their tributaries) along Atlantic coast V,
(Carscadden and Leggett 1975. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:653-
60 and included references).
VA: Norfolk, ca. 43 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann 1900).

Figure B-12

Continued.

Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum) Order Salmoniformes
Pink salmon Family Salmonidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Rivers of Kamchatka, USSR (Walbaum in
Artedi 1772. Genera Pisciurn 3:4-723).
SYSTEMATICS: Essentially unstudied, apart from Rounsefell's 4.
-------- --------
(1962. Fishery Bull. 62:237-70) work on relationships between
-- ----------- ---------
Oncorhynchus species. Vladykov (1962. Bull. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 136:1-172) compared pyloric caeca in specimens from
North America and Japan. Taxonomic comparisons between
even and odd year stocks seem warranted.

ca. 53 cm SL (NMC).

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) Order Salmoniformes
Chinook -salmon Family Salmonidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Rivers of Kamchatka, USSR (Walbaum in
-723).
Artedi 1792. Genera Piscium 3:4

SYSTEMMATICS: Broad meristic variation within species, but
individual stocks usually uniform. Scott and Crossman (1973.
Freshwater Fishes of Canada) provided comparison of variation
between Pacific and introduced Lake Ontario populations.
CA: Sacramento Co., American River, male, 64 cm SIL (Moyle
1976).

Salmo gairdneri Richardson Order Salmoniformes
Rainbow trout Family Salmonidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Mouth of Columbia River at Fort Vancouver,
WA (Richardson 1836. Fauna Boreali-Americana).

FM
SYSTEMATICS: The "rainbow trout" is comprised of two major
groups, coastal rainbow trouts and redband trouts. The redband
eq
- .- M 2.1
trout native to headwaters of McCloud River, CA, is closely
related to the golden trout of Kern River drainage, CA, S.
aguabonita. Oldest name for any member of redband trout g rou p
is S. newberryi. Oldest name applied to any member of either (N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
group is S. mykiss, proposed by Walbaum in 1792 for the
Kamchtakan trout Many practical difficulties are involved if
gairdneri becomes synonym of mykiss.

Figure B-12

Salmo truffa Linneaus Order Salmoniformes EXOTIC
Brown trout Family Salmonidae

TYPE LOCALITY: "Europe" (Linneaus 1758. Systema naturae,
Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 1 Oth ed., 1:1 -824).
SYSTEMATICS: Subgenus Salmo. Rather variable within native
range and number of subspecies recognized. Hybridizes with
Salvelinus fontinalis in nature (hybrids called "tiger trout") and
artificially hybridized with other salmonids (Scoff and Crossman
1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada; Buss and Wright 1958.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. [1957) 87:172-81).
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus Order Cypriniformes EXOTIC
Common carp Family Cyprinidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Europe (Linneaus 1758. Systema naturae,
Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae 1 Oth ed., 1:1 -824).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Cyprininae, which does not include
native North American cyprinids. Hybridizes with goldfish,
Carassius auratus, another exotic cyprinine (Scott and Cross-
I.; v -t
man 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada). Hubbs (in Blair [ed.]
A Symposium.) discussed Asiatic
1961. Vertebrate Speciation.
genus Carassiops, possibly of ancient hybrid origin between C,
carpio and C. auratus.

MD: Charles Co., Community Lake, 151 mm SL (NCSM).

Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill) Order Cypriniformes
Golden shiner Family Cyprinidae

TYPE LOCALITY: New York (Mitchill 1814. Rept. on Fishes of
New York. 1-30).
SYSTEMATICS: Possibly more closely related to certain
Eurasian cyprinids than to any North American group (Gosline
1974. Jap. J. Ichthyol. 21: 9-15). Three subspecies have been
recognized-N. c. crysoleucas in northeast, and N. c. auratus
and N. c. bosci in south-but recent authors have not con-
sidered these valid. Variation in anal fin ray count appears to be
influenced by water temperature during development (Hubbs
1921. Trans. 111. State Acad. Sci. 11: 147-51; Schultz 1927. Pap.
Mich.Acad.Sci. Arts Letts. [1926] 7:417-32). Scottand Crossman MD: Anne Arundel Co., Lake Waterford, 101 mm SL (NCSM).
(1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada) discussed and provided
additional data on geographic variation in this character.

Figure B-12

Continued.

Notropis comutus (Mitchill) Order Cypriniformes
Common shiner Family Cyprinidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Wallkill River, 4.8 km sw of New Paltz, Ulster
Co., NY (Mitchill 1817. Am. Mon. Mag. Crit. Rev. 1:289-90).
SYSTEMATICS: Subgenus Luxilus, Gilbert(1964. Bull. Fla. State
Mus. Biol. Sci. 8:95-194) reviewed systematics of species.
Hybridizes extensively with N. chrysocephalus (Gilbert 1961.
Copeia:181-92). Based on blood protein patterns Menzel (1976.
Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 4:281-93) considered N. cornutus and N.
chrysocephalus as subspecies. N. albeolus is also closely
related to N. cornutus and replaces it on middle Atlantic coast.

MID: Harford Co., Swan Creek, male, 88 mm SL (NCSM).

Rhinichthys atratutus (Hermann) Order Cyprinformes
Blacknose dace Family Cyprinidae

TYPE LOCALITY: "North America" (Hermann 1804. Observa-
tionsZoologicae, quibus novae complures, aliaeque anamalium
species descibuntur et illustrantur 31:1 -332).
SYSTEMATICS: Three subspecies distributed about as follows:
R. a. atratulus on Atlantic slope; R. a. meleagris in central and
northern interior; and R. a. obtusus (including nominal form
simus)from lower Ohio basin to upper Mobile drainage (Hubbs
1936. Copeia: 124-25; Matthews etal. ms). Matthews etal. (1979.
Abstr. 59th Ann. ASIH meetings) discussed intergradation be- MID: Charles Co., Zekiah Swamp, 51 mm SL (NCSM).
tween R a. atratulus and R. a. obtusus in James River drainage,
VA.

Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede) Order Cypriniformes
White sucker Family Catostomidae

7q
TYPE LOCALITY: None given (Lacepede 1803. Histoire
Naturelle Poissons 5:1-803).
SYSTEMATICS: No comprehensive analysis of systematics
over entire range published, although numerous dwarf popula-
tions have received individual recognition (McPhail and Lindsey
1970. Freshwater Fishes of Northwestern Canada and Alaska).
Beamish and Crossman (1971. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34:371 -
78) concluded dwarf form C. cornmersonii utawana not valid MID: Frederick Co., Glade Creek, 96 mm SL (NCSM).
subspecies. Metcalf (1966. Univ. Kans. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.
17:23-189) suggested that three geographical forms from east-
ern, Plains, and Hudson Bay drainages existed in past.

Figure B-12

Ictaturus catus (Linnaeus) Order Siluriformes
White caffish Family Ictaluridae

TYPE LOCALITY: "Northern part of America" (Linnaeus 1758.
Systema naturae Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 10 ed., 1:1 -824).
SYSTEMATICS: No definitive study; no subspecies recognized.
Phylogenetic relationships to other ictalurids presented by
Taylor (1969. U.S. Nafl. Mus. Bull. 282:1-315).

CA: Lake Co., Clear Lake, 11 cm SL (Moyle 1976).

ktalurus melas (Rafinesque) Order Siluriformes
Black builhead Family Ictaluridae

TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1820. Q. J. Sci. Lit.
Arts 9:48-55).
SYSTEMATICS: Two subspecies sometimes recognized: L
Melas catulusfrom Gulf coast states and northern Mexico, and L
m. melas from farther north (Smith 1979. The Fishes of Illinois,
Scoff and Grossman 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada). List of
synonyms provided by Scott and Grossman (1973). Phylo-
genetic relationships with other ictalurids presented by Taylor
(1969. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 282:1-315), and Lundberg (1975. Univ.
Mich. Mus. Zool. Pap. Paleo. 11). MID: Anne Arundel Co., Annapolis Reservoir, 99 mm SL (NCSM).

Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) Order Silurfformes
Channel catfish Family Ictaluridae

TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1818. Am. Mon.
Mag. Grit. Rev. 3:354-56).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey et al. (1954. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
106:109-64) discussed geographic and clinical variation but did
not recognize subspecies. Possibly name-worthy forms were
originally present, but situation has become greatly (perhaps
hopelessly) confused by extensive introductions within and
outside original range. Several closely related Mexican species,
but precise relationships yet to be delineated. Most closely MD: Cecil Co., Susquehanna River, 127 mm SL (NCSM).
related United States species is L lupus of TX and Mexico.
Phylogenetic relationship to other ictalurids presented by Taylor
(1969. U.S. Nat Mus. Bull. 282:1-315).

Figure B-12

Continued.

Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill) Order Silurilormes
Tadpole madtom Family Ictaluridae

TYPE LOCALITY: Wallkill River, NY (Mitchill 1817. Am. Monthly
Mag. Crit Rev. 1:289-90).
SYSTEMATICS: Subgenus Schilbeodes. Appears to be most
closely related to N. lachneri (Taylor 1969. U.S. Nall. Mus. Bull.
282:1-315).

MID: St Mary's Co., St. Mary's River (NCSM)

Morone saxatifis (Walbaum) Order Perciformes
Striped bass Family Percichthyidae

TYPE LOCALITY: "NewYork" (Walbaum inArtedi 1792. Genera
Piscium 3:4-723).
SYSTEMATICS: Appears in earlier literature as Roccus lineatus.
Whitehead and Wheeler (11966. Ann. Mus. Civ.Stor. Nat. Genova
76:23-41) showed that Morone has priority over Roccus.

(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)

Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque Order Perciformes
Bluegill Family Centrarchidae
TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1819. J. Physique AAAA
88:417-29).
SYSTEMATICS: Three subspecies are recognized. Lepomis m.
macrochirus occurs in the Great Lakes and north Mississippi
basin, L.m. speciosus in TX and Mexico and L.m. purpurescens
on the Atlantic slope from coastal VA to FIL (Hubbs and Lagler
1964. Fishes of the Great Lakes Region). Widespread intro-
04.t
ductions have resulted in extensive mixing of these gene pools.
Avise and Smith (1974. Evolution 28:42-56) studied geographic
variation and subspecific intergradation, and Avise and Smith
(1977. Syst Zool. 26:319-35) studied relationships to other
centrarchid species using electrophoretic data. Commonly
hybridizes with several other species of Lepomis, particularly in (N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
areas of ecological disturbance. Considered to be most closely
related to L. humilis (Branson and Moore 1962. Copeia:1 -108).

Figure B-12

Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede) Order Perciformes
Largemouth bass Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: "les rivieras de le carolina"; Charleston, SC,
regarded as probable type locality (Lacepede 1802. Histoire
Naturelle des Poissons 4:1-728).
11f
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Lepominae, tribe Micropterini.
Formerly placed in monotypic genus Huro (Hubbs 1926. Misc.
Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 15:1-77; Hubbs and Bailey 1940.
Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 48:1-51). Hubbs and Bailey
(1940) reviewed systematics, and Bailey and Hubbs (1949.
Occas Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 516:1-40) defined and (N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
mapped distinctive subspecies, M. s. floridanus, endemic to
peninsular FL.

Pornoxis annularis Rafinesque Order Perciformes
White crappie Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1818. Am. Mon.
Mag. Crit. Rev. 4:39-42).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Centrarchinae, tribe Centrarchini.
Branson and Moore (1962. Copeia: 1-108) studied morphology Ogg&
of acoustico- lateral is system and determined closest generic
relationships to be with Centrarchus. Avise et al. (1977. Copeia:
250-58), based on electrophoretic data, sugested relationships
might be closer to Lepomis and Micropterus, subfamily Lepo-
minae. Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan) reviewed
systematics. Known to hybridize naturally with P. nigroma-
culatus; artificially crossed with other genera (Schwartz 1972.
Publ. Gulf Coast Res. Lab. Mus. 3:1-328).
MD: Garrett Co., Piney Creek, 165 mm SL (NCSM).

Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque) Order Perciformes
Longear sunfish Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Kentucky, Licking, and Sandy rivers, KY
(Rafinesque 1820. Ichthyologia Ohiensis).

SYSTEMATICS: Closest relative L. marginatus, these two
species comprising subgenus Icthelis. Hybridizes extensively
with other Lepomis. Most polytypic member of family Cen-
trarchidae, consisting of from four to six subspecies. Presently
under study by compiler. 0,
4

(NMC)

Figure B-12

Continued.

Lepomis microlophus (GUnther) Order Perciformes
Redear sunfish Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: St. Johns River, FL (GUnther 1859. Catalogue
of the Fishes in the British Museum 1:1 -524).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan)
concluded that L. microlophus comprises two distinct sub-
species. Extensive introductions of stocks into ranges of each
other have obscured natural relationships. Avise and Smith
(1977. Syst. Zool. 26:319-35) on basis of electrophoretic data
fill
determined that most closely related species of Lepomis likely
are L. megalotis and L. marginatus.

(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)

Micropterus dolomieui Lacepede Order Perciformes
Smallmouth bass Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: None given (Lacepede 1802. Histoire
Naturelle des Poissons 4:1 -728).
SYSTEMATICS: Hubbs and Bailey (1940. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool.
Univ. Mich. 48:1-51) recognized two subspecies: M. d. dolomieui
east of Mississipi River and from central MO north; and M. d.
ve/ox from middle Arkansas River drainage. Intergrades identi-
fied from White and Black river drainages, AR and MO, and
Ouachita River system, AR. Widely introduced and genetic
integrity of original stocks may no longer be valid. Summary of
nonmenclature in Scottand Crossman (1973. Freshwater Fishes (N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
of Canada).

Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur) Order Perciformes
Black crappie Family Centrarchidae

TYPE LOCALITY: Wabash River, OH (Lesueur in Cuvier and A d
Valenciennes 1829. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons 3:1-500).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Centrarchinae, tribe Centrarchini.
Branson and Moore (1962. Copeia:1 -108) studied morphology
of acoustico-fateralis system and determined closest generic
relationships to be with Centrarchus. Avise et al. (1977. Copeia:
250-58), based on electrophoretic data, suggested relationships
might be closer to Lepomis and Micropterus, subfamily Lepo-
minae. Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan) reviewed
systematics. Known to hybridize naturally with P. annularis,-
artificially crossed with other genera (Schwartz 1972. Publ. Gulf
Coast Res. Lab. Mus. 3:1-328).
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)

Figure B-12

Coffus bairdi Girard Order Perciformes
Mottled sculpin Family Cotticlae

TYPE LOCALITY: Mahoning River, OH (Girard 1850. Proc. Am.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. [1849]:409-11).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey and Bond (1963. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool.
634:1-27) presented summary of species included in C. bairdi
group. Considerable geographic variation throughout wide
range of species, and overall systematic picture unresolved.
Some populations classified as C. bairdi maybe distinct species.
Scott and Crossman (1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada) noted
that Canadian populations have received insufficient attention (NCSM)
for subspecific recognition. Robins (1954. Ph.D. diss., Cornell
Univ.) studied systematics in eastern United States. McAllister
(1964. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21:1339-42) discussed
separation of C. bairdi from C. cognatus.

Detection of Escherichia coli in water samples. The presence
of E. coli is detected by the following procedure:
A water sample is collected in a sterile bottle and poured into
a filtering apparatus. When water is drawn through a sterile
filter, the bacterial contaminants are left behind on a piece of
filter paper. This filter paper is placed in a sterile Petri plate
containing a nutrient broth, which the bacteria will use to
grow. The plate is incubated at 35 degrees C for 24 hours.
Portable incubators are available that run off a car's cigarette
lighter and can be used until a source of electricity is availa-
ble. By the end of this 24-hour period, individual E. coli or-
ganisms have divided to produce metallic-green colonies
visible to the naked eye. The log, or geometric mean of 200
fecal coliform colonies per five 100 ml samples collected
over 30 days, is the allowable limit for fresh waters used for
swimming. See Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (1985) for details (ref. B-5).

APPENDIX C

Glossary

Acute toxicity. A relatively short-term lethal or other adverse Dissolved oxygen (DO). The amount of oxygen dissolved in
effect to a test organism caused by pollutants, and usually de- water. Generally, proportionately higher amounts of oxygen
fined as occurring within 4 days for fish and large inver- can be dissolved in colder waters than in warmer waters.
tebrates, and shorter times for smaller organisms. Emergent rooted plant. An aquatic plant whose roots are in the
Alluvial soil. A deposit of sand, mud, etc., formed by flowing watercourse or water body's bottom and whose upper part
water. emerges from or lies on top of the water.
Animal waste. Either solid or liquid products, resulting from Ephemeral stream. A watercourse that flows briefly only in
digestive or excretory processes, and eliminated from an direct response to precipitation in the immediate locality, and
animal's body. whose channel is at all times above the water table.
Aquifer. Any geological formation containing water, especially Escherichia coli (E. coli). A bacterium of the intestines of
one that supplies water for wells, springs, etc. warm-blooded organisms, including humans, that is used as
Bedrock. Unbroken solid rock, overlain in most places by soil an indicator of water pollution for disease-producing or-
or rock fragments. ganisms.
Best management practice. An engineered structure or manage- Eutrophication. A natural process whereby a watercourse or
ment activity, or combination of these, that eliminates or water body receives nutrients and becomes more biologically
reduces an adverse environmental effect of a pollutant. productive, possibly leading- to a water body clogged with
aquatic vegetation.
Bioaccumulation. The process of a chemical accumulating in a Feathering. The process whereby dissolved salts move upward
biological food chain by being passed from one organism to through a wooden post or stake and become deposited on the
another as the contaminated organism is preyed upon by structure's outer surface, yielding a white, fluffy, "feathery"
another organism. appearance.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). An empirical test in
which standardized laboratory procedures measure the oxygen Fertilizer. Any substance used to make soil or water more
required for the biochemical degradation of organic material, productive. Fertilizers may be commercially produced or be
and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic materials, such as the result of animal or plant activities.
sulfides and ferrous iron. Food chain. The transfer of food energy from plants through a
Biomass. The total weight of all living organisms or of a desig- series of organisms by repeated eating and being eaten.
nated group of organisms in a given area. Food web. An interlocking pattern of several to many food
Birth defect. A deformity of an organism at birth that results chains.
from a biologic infection, genetic anomaly, or presence of a Herbaceous vegetation. Plants having a stem that remains soft
pollutant during the gestation period. and succulent during the growing season, not woody.
Chronic toxicity. A relatively long-term adverse effect to a test Herbicide. A type of pesticide, either a substance or biological
organism caused by or related to appetite changes, growth, agent, used to kill plants, especially weeds.
metabolism, reproduction, a pollutant, genetic mutation, etc.
Cobble streambed. A watercourse predominately lined with Insecticide. A type of pesticide, either a substance or biological
naturally rounded stones, rounded by the water's action. Size agent, used to kill insects or insect-like organisms.
varies from a hen's egg to that used as paving stones. Intermittent stream. A watercourse that flows only at certain
Conservation practice. An engineered structure or management times of the year, receiving water from springs or surface
activity that eliminates or reduces an adverse environmental sources; also, a watercourse that does not flow continuously,
effect of a pollutant and conserves soil, water, plant, or when water losses from evaporation or seepage exceed avail-
animal resources. able stream flow.
Confined aquifer. An aquifer bounded above and below by im- Invertebrate. An organism without a backbone.
permeable beds of rock or soil strata or by beds of distinctly Karst topography. An area of limestone formations character-
lower permeability than that of the aquifer itself. ized by sinks, ravines, and underground streams. Areas with
Cultural eutrophication. The process whereby human activities less than 20 feet of sod over fractured limestone. No shale
increase the amounts of nutrients entering surface waters, layers present, capping the top aquifer, but shale layers can
giving increased algal and other aquatic plant population separate the top aquifer from deeper ones.
growths, resulting in accelerated eutrophication of the water- Lake. A body of fresh or salt water of considerable size, whose
course or water body. open-water and deep-bottom zones (no light penetration to
Delta. A nearly flat, often triangular, plain of deposited sand, bottom) are large compared to the shallow-water (shoreline)
mud, etc., between diverging branches of a river mouth. zone, which has light penetration to its bottom.
Lentic water. Water that is standing, not flowing, such as that
in a lake, pond, swamp, or bog.

Lotic water. Water that is flowing or running, such as that in a Pesticide. Any chemical or biological agent that kills plant or
spring, stream, or river. animal pests. Herbicides, insecticides, nematocides, miticides,
Macrophyte. Any large plant that can be seen without the aid of algicides, etc., are all pesticides.
a microscope or magnifying device. Examples of aquatic Photosynthesis. The process by which plants manufacture their
macrophytes are cattail, bulrush, arrowhead, waterlily, etc. own food (simple carbohydrates) from carbon dioxide (C02)
Mancos shale. A geologic formation, remnant of an ancient sea, and water. The plant's chlorophyll-containing cells use light
which exists in many parts of the western United States. as an energy source and release oxygen as a byproduct.
When irrigation waters flow through the formation, salts be- Phytoplankton. Small-to-microscopic, aquatic, floating plants.
come dissolved in the water, increasing its salinity. Piping. Under low dissolved oxygen conditions, the act of fish
Mesotrophic water body. A water body classified midway be- coming to surface of the water and capturing a bubble of air
tween oligotrophic and eutrophic; characterized by moderate in their mouth.
amounts of nutrients entering the water body, a moderate
number of shoreline aquatic plants, and occasional plankton Plankton. Small-to-microscopic, floating or feebly swimming,
blooms. aquatic plants and animals.
Methemoglobinemia. The presence of methemoglobin in the Point source pollution. Pollutants originating from a "point"
blood, making the blood useless as a carrier of oxygen. source, such as a pipe, vent, or culvert.
Methemoglobin, a compound closely related to oxy- Pond. A body of fresh or salt water, smaller than a take, and
hemoglobin, is found in the blood following poisoning by where the shallow-water zone (light penetration to its bottom)
certain substances, such as nitrate. Young babies, both hu- is relatively large compared to the open water and deep bot-
man and animal, are particularly susceptible to tom (no light penetration to the bottom).
methemoglobinemia, leading to a condition known as "blue
baby," which if untreated can cause death. Pool. In a watercourse, an area often following a rapids (riffle),
which is relatively deep with slowly moving water compared
Mudcap. A thick deposit of mud or fine sediment lying over to the rapids.
permeable materials. Protected bedrock. Areas with 50 feet or more of fine-to-
Mud plastering. Mud deposited by force of water against the medium textured soils and a shale layer capping the topmost
sides of a watercourse, sealing them. bedrock aquifer.
Nonpathogenic organism. An organism that does not produce Receiving waters. Waters of a watercourse or water body that
disease. receive waters from overland flow or other watercourses.
Nonpoint source pollution. "Diffuse" pollution, generated Resource Management System (RMS). A combination of con-
from large areas with no particular point of pollutant origin, servation practices and management identified by the primary
but rather from many individual places. Urban and agricul- use of land or water. Under an RMS, the resource base is
tural areas generate nonpoint source pollutants. protected by meeting acceptable soil losses, maintaining
Nontarget organisms. Plants or animals that inadvertently are acceptable water quality, and maintaining acceptable
sprayed by pesticide when "target" vegetation or animals are ecological and management levels for the selected resource use.
missed by the spraying operation.
Nutrient. Any substance, such as fertilizer phosphorous and Riffle. In a watercourse, an area often upstream of a pool,
nitrogen compounds, which enhances the growth of plants which is relatively shallow with swiftly moving water com-
and animals. pared to the pool.
Oligotrophic water body. A water body characterized by few Riparian zone. An area, adjacent to and along a watercourse,
nutrients entering the water body, few to no shoreline aquatic which is often vegetated and constitutes a buffer zone be-
plants, and rarely any plankton blooms. tween the nearby lands and the watercourse.
Overland flow. Water flow over the land, often in "sheet" Runoff. Water that runs off the land in sheet flow, in rivulets,
flow or in small rivulets before emptying into a defined or in defined watercourses.
watercourse. Runoff curve number. An index number, used to approximate
Pathogenic organism. An organism that produces disease. the amount of runoff resulting from a given rainfall event.
Periphyton. Small-to-microscopic aquatic plants, which grow on Saline seep. Water, carrying salts, rising to the surface usually
stones, submerged twigs, and other plants. Their appearance in a localized area, after traveling subterraneously from
may be that of a coating on these objects. another location. Saline seep salts can reduce productivity or
kill plants, leaving a barren place in the field or landscape.
Perennial stream. Watercourse that flows continuously through- Scoliosis. A vertebral deformity, such as "broken back" syn-
out the year and whose upper surface generally stands lower drome in fish, resulting from a biologic infection, genetic
than the water table in the area adjacent to the watercourse. anomaly, or the presence of a pollutant.

Shallow bedrock. Areas having 20 to 50 feet of soil capping the Teratology. The science or study of monstrosities or abnormal
topmost bedrock aquifer. No shale layer present, capping the formations in animals or plants.
topmost aquifer, but shale layers may separate top aquifers
from deeper ones. Turbidity. The presence of sediment in water, making it un-
Sinkhole. A circular depression, commonly funnel-shaped, in a clear, murky, or opaque.
Karst area. Drainage is subterranean; size is measured in Water body. An enlargement of a watercourse or a geologic ba-
meters or tens of meters. sin filled with water, such as a lake or a pond.
Submergent rooted plant. An aquatic plant whose roots are in Watercourse. A linear depression containing flowing water,
the watercourse or water body's bottom with the upper part such as a stream, creek, run, river, canal, ditch, etc.
of the plant submerged below the surface of the water. Pond
weeds (Potamogelon) and muskgrass (Chara) are examples. Woody vegetation. Plants having a stem or trunk that is fibrous
and rigid.
Zooplankton. Small-to-microscopic, aquatic, floating animals.

APPENDIX D

References

1-1. J. Ball. Stream Classification Guidelinesfor Wisconsin. 3-9. L.D. Marriage and R.F. Batchelor. "Ever-Changing Net-
Department of Natural Resources Technical Bulletin; work of Our Streams, Rivers and Lakes." Using Our
Madison, WI, 1982. Natural Resources, Yearbook of Agriculture, U.S. Dept.
1-2. Report to Congress: Nonpoint Source Pollution in the of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1983.
U.S. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 3-10. W.M. Beck, Jr. "Studies in Stream Pollution Biology."
Water Planning Div., Washington, D.C. 1984. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 17(4):211-227, 1954.
1-3. 7he Second RCA Appraisal: Soil, Water, and Related 3-11. K.F. Lagler. Freshwater Fishery Biology. 2nd Ed. Wm.
Resources on Nonfederal Land in the United States- C. Brown Co., Dubuque, IA, 1966.
Analysis of Condition and Trends. U.S. Dept. of Agricul- 3-12. G.W. Lewis. Common Freshwater Sportfishes of the
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tension Service Pub. N. SP-15, no date.

A Word of Thanks Robert Higgins, KS
Patricia Hood-Greenberg, NHQ
Any effort to implement an idea involves a sound concept, a Robert Hurnmel, KS
need to be filled, the dedication of many people, a little luck, Thomas Iivari, NTC, PA
and hard work. All these elements came together to complete Barry Isaacs, PA
the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters. If any one David Jones, MT
of the above had been lacking, the guide would never have been James Kaap, WI
finished. Each of the following people contributed in his or her Arnold King, NTC, TX
own way. Four individuals deserve special thanks: Susan King, EPA, Dallas
Dr. Patricia Bytnar Perfetti, Head of the Geoscience and Judith Ladd, NHQ
Environmental Studies Department, and the Physics and As- Mary Landin, CE***, MS
tronomy Department of the University of Tennessee at Chat- Sarah Laurent, NHQ
tanooga, researched and wrote much of the manuscript. Her Ronald Lauster, NM
assistance on the guide made it a reality. Selene Robinson of Jerry Lee, TN
Trandes, Inc., not only typed the manuscript, but translated the James Lewis, NHQ
field sheet format concept into a real, workable tool. Richard Jeff Lozer, MD
Francoeur, at the time in 1983 a graduating senior from Cornell Gary Margheim, NHQ
University, made the first "cut" at a water quality indicator David McCalley, Univ. of No. Iowa
guide by doing initial research and developing the environmental James Meek, EPA, NHQ
cause/effect relationships that are present in the guide. Finally, Daniel Merkel, NHQ
my wife, Sandra, maintained her patience and good humor Milton Meyer, NHQ
through many hours and days of proofreading. Kent Milton, LA
David Moffitt, NTC, OR
Gerald Montgomery, TN
Susan Alexander, EPA, Dallas John Moore, NTC, PA
Malvern Allen, NTC*, PA Robert Moorehouse, MA
Mike Anderson, NE Eldie Mustard, CO
Joseph Arruda, KS Dept. Health & Envrmt. Joel Myers, PA
Donald Bivens, TN James Newman, NHQ
Valerian Bohanty, NE Victor Payne, AL
James Boykin, Ofc. Gov't & Pub. Aff., USDA Frank Resides, NTC, PA
Bill Brown, CO Walter Rittall, NHQ
Gary Bullard, CA Larry Robinson, SC
John Burt, NTC, TX Marc Safley, NHQ
Gerald Calhoun, MD Donald Schuster, MN
Sam Chapman, TX Jane Sisk, Calloway Co. Pub. Schools, KY
Douglas Christensen, NHQ Daniel Smith, NHQ
Toby Clark, The Conservation Foundation, DC Donald Snethen, KS Dept. Health & Envmt.
Ellen Dietrich, PA Frank Sprague, NTC, TX
Thurston Dorsett, TN Lyle Steffan, CA
Robert Drees, KS James Stiebing, EPA, Dallas
Steven Dressing, EPA, NHQ Billy Teels, NHQ
Paul DuMont, NHQ Mark Waggoner, MN
Thomas Dumper, NTC, NE Clive Walker, NHQ
Dennis Erinakes, NTC, TX Gerald Welsh, NHQ
Robert Francis, NTC, PA Robert Wengrzynek, ME
Robert Franzen, NTC, PA
Larry Goff, TN
Pat Graham, MO Charles R. Terrell
Gary Gwinn, WV National Water Quality Specialist
Timothy Hall, FWS**, MD Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. 20013
Thomas Hamer, NE
Howard Hankin, TN
James Hannaham, DC Water Resources Resrch. Ctr.
Leaman Harris, EPA, Dallas
John Hassell, OK Conservation Commission SCS National Technical Center
Steven Henningen, KS U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
U.S. Ariny Corps of Engineers

Appendix E

Conservation and Best Management Practices

List of conservation and best management practices (BMP's) 16. Crop Residue Use-Leaving plant residues after harvest to
that can be employed to reduce or eliminate nonpoint source protect cultivated fields during critical erosion periods when
water pollution problems. the ground would otherwise be bare.
I . Access Road-A road located and constructed to provide 17. Crop Rotation-Planting different crops in successive sea-
needed access, but built with soil conservation measures to sons in the same field. Procedure can reduce pesticide loss
prevent sod erosion caused by vehicular traffic or animal significantly. There are some indirect costs if less profitable
travel. crops are alternated.
2. Alternative Pesticides-Pesticides other than chemical types 18. Debris Basin-A barrier or berm constructed across a water-
traditionally used on a crop. course or at other suitable locations to act as a silt or sedi-
3. Bedding-Plowing, blading, or otherwise elevating the sur- ment catchment basin.
face of flat land into a series of broad, low ridges separated 19. Deferred Grazing-Postponing grazing for a prescribed peri-
by shallow, parallel channels. od to improve vegetative conditions and reduce soil loss.
4. Biological Control Methods-Use of organisms or biological 20. Diversion-Channels constructed across a slope to divert
materials to control crop pests. Integrated Pest Management runoff water and help control soil erosion, and having a
(IPM) is an example of biological control that can reduce the mound or ridge along the lower side of the slope.
amounts of chemical pesticides needed to grow a crop. 21. Drainage Land Grading-Reshaping the surface of land to
5. Brush Management-Management and manipulation of improve surface drainage and/or water distribution.
brush to improve or restore plant cover quality in reducing 22. Emergency Tillage-Roughening soil surfaces by methods,
soil erosion. such as listing, ridging, duck-footing, or chiseling. Procedure
6. Chiseling and Subsoiling-Loosening the soil to shatter com- is done as a temporary protection measure.
pacted and restrictive layers to improve water quality, in-
filtration and root penetration, and reduce surface water runoff. 23. Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreak-A strip or belt of trees
or shrubs, established next to a farmstead or feedlot to
7. Conservation Cropping-Growing crops in combination with reduce wind speed and protect soil resources.
needed cultural and management measures to improve the
soil and protect it during erosion periods. Practices include 24. Fencing-Enclosing an environmentally sensitive area of land
cover cropping and crop rotation, and providing vegetative or water with fencing to control access of animals or people.
cover between crop seasons. 25. Field Border-A border or strip of permanent vegetation, es-
8. Conservation Cropping Sequence-A sequence of crops tablished at field edges to control soil erosion and slow,
designed to provide adequate organic residue to maintain and reduce, or eliminate pollutants from entering an adjacent
improve soil tilth. watercourse or water body.
9. Conservation Tillage-In producing a crop, limiting the 26. Field Windbreak-A strip or belt of trees or shrubs, estab-
number of cultural operations to reduce soil erosion, soil lished in or adjacent to a field, to reduce wind speed and
compaction, and energy use. Usually involves an increase in protect soil resources.
the use of herbicides. 27. Filter Strip-A strip or section of land in permanent vegeta-
10. Contour Farming-Farming sloped land on the contour to tion, established downslope of agricultural operations to con-
reduce erosion, control water flow, and increase infiltration. trol erosion and slow, reduce, or eliminate pollutants from
entering an adjacent watercourse.
11. Contour Orchard and Other Fruit Areas-Planting or-
chards, vineyards, or small fruits, so all cultural operations 28. Fishpond Management-Developing or improving impound-
are done on the contour. ed water to produce fish for consumption or recreation.
12. Correct Fertilizer Container Disposal-Following accepted 29. Grade Stabilization Structure-A structure to stabilize a
methods for fertilizer container disposal, keeping containers streambed or to control erosion in natural or constructed
out of sinkholes, creeks, and other places adjacent to water channels.
to reduce the amount of fertilizer that reaches waterways. 30. Grasses and Legumes in Rotation-A conservation cropping
13. Correct Pesticide Container Disposal-Following accepted system that establishes and maintains grasses and/or legumes
methods for pesticide container disposal, keeping containers for a definite number of years.
out of sinkholes, creeks, and other places adjacent to water 31. Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment-Renovating, con-
to reduce the amount of pesticide that reaches waterways. touring, furrowing, pitting, or chiseling native grazing land
14. Cover and Green Manure Crops-Use of close-growing by mechanical means to improve plant cover and water avail-
grasses, legumes, or small grain for seasonal soil protection ability.
and improvement. 32. Heavy-Use Area Protection-Establishing vegetative cover
15. Critical Area Planting-Planting vegetation to stabilize the or installing structures to stabilize heavily used areas.
soil and reduce erosion and runoff.

33. Hillside Ditch-A channel constructed to control the water 47. Optimizing Crop Planting Time-Planting a crop at a time
flow and erosion by diverting runoff to a protected outlet. other than when the crop's specific pest enemies would be
34. Integrated Pest Management Program-Use of organisms present can reduce the need for pesticides and lower costs.
or biological materials for effective pest control with reduc- 48. Optimizing Date of Application-Changing a pesticide ap-
tion in amounts of pesticides used. "Scouting" of insect pest plication date to avoid impending rain or winds can improve
populations is necessary to determine when pest management effectiveness of the pesticide application and avoid environ-
actions are necessary to reduce pests. mental problems. Application can only be done when pest
35. Irrigation Field Ditch-A permanently lined irrigation ditch control effectiveness is not adversely affected. Process in-
that conveys water from a supply source to fields, preventing volves little or no cost.
erosion, infiltration, or degradation of water quality. 49. Optimizing Pesticide Formulations-Pesticides come in
several formulations with different half-lives. If a formulation
36. Irrigation Water Conveyance-A pipeline or lined waterway with a shorter half-life than one normally used by the farmer
constructed to prevent erosion and loss of water. is chosen, the pesticide will be less available to cause en-
37. Irrigation Water Management-Determining and controlling vironmental damage. Also, some formulations require fewer
the rate, amount, and timing of irrigation water applied to applications for the same pest protection, so costs are
crops to minimize soil erosion, runoff, and fertilizer and pes- reduced and less is available to the environment.
ticide movement. 50. Optimizing Pesticide Placement-Direct application of a
38. Land Absorption Areas and Use of Natural or Construct- pesticide on the field and plants rather than aerial spraying is
ed Wetland Systems-Providing adequate land absorption or more effective, reduces costs, and protects nearby environ-
wetland areas downstream from agricultural areas so that soil ments from accidental spraying.
and plants receive and treat agricultural nonpoint source pol- 51, Optimizing Time of Day For Application-Applying pesti-
lutants. cide at times of low winds, often early and late in the day,
39. Listing-Plowing and planting done in the same operation. can reduce amounts needed for the crop, reduce costs, and
Plowed soil is pushed into ridges between rows, and seeds reduce pesticide that could adversely affect adjacent en-
are planted in the furrows between the ridges. vironments.
40. Livestock Exclusion-Excluding livestock from environmen- 52. Pasture and Hayland Management-Proper treatment, in-
tally sensitive areas to protect areas from induced damages. cluding fertilizing, aerating, and harvesting can protect soil
Also, excluding livestock from areas not intended for and reduce water loss.
grazing. 53. Phreatophyte Water Losses-Elimination of nonbeneficial
41. Precision Application Rates-Within a particular field, ap- uses of water by phreatophytes (plants getting water from
plying precise amounts of fertilizer and pesticide according to deep roots) not only lessens the concentration of salts through
the soil/plant needs in specific parts of the field. Generally, transpiration, but conserves water as well. Lowering the
lower rates can be applied, especially where tests show water table and developing mechanical and chemical tech-
residues are present from previous applications. niques for elimination of phreatophytes ensures more efficient
water use and minimizes salt hazards.
42. Managing Aerial Pesticide Applications-Having pesticides
applied when winds are low and when they are in a direction 54. Planned Grazing Systems-A system in which two or more
away from watercourses and riparian areas. This can reduce grazing units are alternately grazed and rested from grazing in
contamination in these nontarget areas. a planned sequence to improve forage production, maintain
vegetative cover, retain animal wastes on the land, and protect
43. Mechanical Weed Control Methods-Using mechanical or animals from polluted waters.
biological, instead of chemical, weed control can reduce sub-
stantially the need for chemicals. Costs will have to be care- 55. Plant Between Rows in Minimum Tillage-Applicable only
fully computed to make the operation economically feasible. to row crops in non-plow-based tillage; may reduce amounts
44. Minimizing Number of Irrigations-CareMly monitoring of pesticides necessary.
crop water needs and soil water availability minimizes the 56. Plow-Plant-Crop is planted directly into plowed ground
number of irrigations necessary to produce a crop. This may with secondary tillage. This system increases infiltration and
yield higher profits at harvest and reduce water pollution and water storage.
soil erosion. 57. Pond-A water impoundment made by constructing a dam or
45. Mulching-Applying plant residues or other suitable materi- embankment or by excavating a pit or "dugout."
als to the soil surface reduces evaporation, water runoff, and 58. Pond Sealing or Lining-Installing a fixed lining of impervi-
soil erosion. Plastic sheeting can increase runoff, but will ous material or treating the soil in a pond to reduce or pre-
reduce nutrient leaching. vent excessive water loss.
46. No-till or Zero-tillage-Tilling the soil with minimal distur- 59. Precision Land Forming-Reshaping the surface of land to
bance and utilizing a fluted colter or double-disk opener planned grades to give effective and efficient water
ahead of the planter shoe to cut through untilled residues of movement.
the previous crop.

60. Proper Fertilizer Applications-Selecting the proper time 76. Roof Runoff Management-A facility for collecting, con-
and method of fertilizer application to reduce losses through trolling, and disposing of rainfall/snowmelt runoff water from
leaching and soil erosion, and ensure adequate crop nutrition. roofs. It keeps animal holding areas free of excess water and
61. Proper Grazing Use-Having no more animal units than will helps to maintain water quality of adjacent watercourses.
allow grazing areas to maintain sufficiently healthy, productive 77. Row Arrangement-Establishing crop rows on planned
vegetative cover to protect the soil from eroding and protect grades and lengths to provide drainage and erosion control.
the water quality of adjacent watercourses. 78. Runoff Management System-A system for controlling ex-
62. Proper Timing of Irrigation Sprinklers-Using irrigation cess runoff from a development site during and after con-
equipment when plants need moisture, and controlling the struction operations.
amount of moisture delivered to the plants by avoiding over-
irrigating to conserve water, protect soil from eroding, and 79. Sediment Basin-A basin constructed to collect and store
protect the water quality of adjacent watercourses. sediment from runoff waters associated with nonpoint source
pollutants.
63. Pumped Well Drain-A well sunk into an aquifer to pump
water to lower the prevailing water table. 80. Stow Release Fertilizer-Applying fertilizers that release
nitrogen slowly to soil and plants, to minimize rapid nitrogen
64. Pumping Plant for Water Control-A pumping facility in- losses from soils prone to leaching.
stalled to transfer water for a conservation need. 81. Soil Testing and Plant Analysis-Testing soils and determin-
65. Range Seeding-Establishing adapted plants on rangeland to ing plant fertilizer requirements to avoid overfertilization and
reduce soil and water loss and produce more forage. subsequent nutrient losses to runoff water.
66. Reducing Excessive Insecticide Treatment-Applying exact- 82. Split Applications of Nitrogen- "Splitting" or dividing a
ly the correct amounts of insecticide recominended by the set amount of fertilizer into two or more applications in the
manufacturer for the crop and soil types. Refined predictive same season for the same crop.
techniques required, such as computer forecasting. 83. Spring Development-Improving springs and water seeps by
67. Reduction of Weed Growth-Reducing number of weed excavating, cleaning, capping, or providing collection and
plants to reduce water loss from evapotranspiration. storage facilities for the water.
68. Reduction or Elimination of Irrigation of Marginal 84. Spring Nitrogen Fertilizer Application-Applying nitrogen
Lands-Taking irrigated marginally productive lands out of fertilizer in the spring, instead of autumn, to avoid fertilizer
production to reduce water losses and salt pollution. losses from heavy late winter and early spring runoff events.
69. Regulated Runoff Impoundment-Retention or detention of 85. Streambank Protection-By vegetative or structural means,
water with infiltration prior to discharge to reduce runoff stabilizing and protecting banks of watercourses, lakes, estu-
quantity, retain nutrients and pesticides, and prevent pollu- aries, or excavated channels against scour and erosion.
tants from reaching watercourses. 86. Strip Tillage-A narrow strip, tilled with a rototiller gang or
70. Regulating Water in Drainage Systems-The use of water- other implement. Seed is planted in the same operation.
control structures to control the removal of surface runoff
waters or subsurface flows. 87. Stripcropping-Growing crops in a systematic arrangement
of strips or bands to reduce water and wind erosion.
71. Reservoir Evaporation-Controlling, through design or prac-
tices, the evaporation rate of water from reservoirs. If not -88. Stripcropping, Contour-Growing crops on the contour to
controlled, evaporation tends to increase the salt content of reduce erosion and control water.
the reservoir waters. 89. Stripcropping, Field-Planting large sections or entire fields
72. Resistant Crop Varieties-Use of plant varieties that are in a systematic arrangement to help control erosion and
resistant to insects, nematodes, diseases, salt, etc. -runoff on sloping cropland where contour stripcropping is not
a practical method.
73. Return Flow Regulation-Regulating the type and quantity 90. Structure for Water Control-A structure to control the water
of water return flows as a means of maintaining.and improv- stage, discharge, distribution, delivery, or direction of water
ing irrigation water quality. flow in open channels or water use areas.
74. Ridge Tillage-Tillage producing a row configuration similar 91. Subsurface Drain-A conduit, such as tile or plastic pipe,
to listing, but planting is done on the ridges year after year installed beneath the ground surface to control water levels for
with no seedbed preparation preceding planting. increased production. Net runoff and leaching are reduced,
75. Rock Barrier-A rock retaining wall, constructed across the but nitrate concentrations may be increased.
slope, forming and supporting a bench terrace to control the
flow of water on sloping land. 92. Surface Drainage-A conduit, such as tile, pipe, or tubing,
installed beneath the ground surface to collect and/or convey
drainage water.

93. Surface Roughening-Roughening the soil surface by ridge 102. Waste Management System-A planned system to manage
or clod-forming tillage. animal wastes in a manner that does not degrade air, soil, or
94. Sweep Tillage-Using a "sweep" on small-grain stubble to water resources. Often wastes are collected in storage or
kill early fall weeds. The practice shatters and lifts the soil, treatment impoundments, such as ponds, lagoons, or stacking
thus enhancing infiltration while leaving residue in place. facilities.
95. Terrace-An earth embankment, channel, or a combination 103. Waste Storage Pond-An impoundment for temporary
ridge and channel constructed across a slope to control storage of animal or other agricultural waste.
runoff . 104. Waste Storage Structure-A fabricated structure for the
96. Timing and Placement of Fertilizers-Delaying tim ing or temporary storage of animal wastes or other organic agricul-
using proper placement of fertilizers for maximum utilization tural wastes.
by plants and minimum fertilizer leaching or movement by 105. Waste Treatment Lagoon-An impoundment for biological
surface runoff. treatment of animal or other agricultural waste.
97. Tree Planting-To establish or reinforce a stand of trees to 106. Waste Utilization-Using wastes for fertilizer or other pur-
conserve soil and moisture and help protect water leaving poses in a manner which improves the soil and protects water
agricultural areas by "filtering" pollutants from the water resources. May also include recycling of waste solids for
flow. animal feed supplement.
98. Trickle Irrigation-Using trickle irrigation equipment to 107. Water and Sediment Control Basin-An earth embankment
deliver small quantities of water to irrigate crops. or a combination ridge and channel to form a sediment trap
99. Trough or Tank-Locating watering facilities a reasonable and a water detention basin to prevent soil erosion losses and
distance from watercourses and dispersing the facilities to en- improve water quality.
courage uniform grazing and to reduce livestock concentra- 108. Water Supply Dispersal-A well which is constructed or
tions, particularly near watercourses. improved to provide water for irrigation and livestock and
100. Underground Outlet-A water outlet, placed underground to which enhances natural livestock distribution or improved
dispose of excess water without causing damage by erosion vegetative cover.
or flooding. 109. Water Spreading-Diverting or collecting runoff and spread-
101. Uniformity of Irrigation Water Quality-Uniform irrigation ing it over relatively flat areas.
water quality can be achieved through water flow regulation
by controlling the release of water from storage reservoirs.

APPENDIX F

Soil Conservation Service

Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters

Field Sheets

Note: Copy the assessment and field sheets before proceed-
ing! Write on the copies.
Part 1: Background information for the watershed assess-
ment needs to be completed only once for each watershed. The
assessment gives general information about the watershed and
may serve for several watercourses or water bodies within the
watershed. The on-farm (ranch) water assessment will have to
be completed for each farm or ranch evaluated.
Part 2: Field sheet selection of nonpoint source pollutants
will have to be completed for each watercourse or water body
evaluated. This preliminary decision about pollutants will deter-
mine which field sheets will need to be completed (sediment,
animal wastes, nutrients, pesticides, or salts).

Part 1: Background Information

Watershed Assessment

Evaluator's Name Date

Location

State/County Township/Range

Watershed (basin) Subwatershed.
(if applicable)

WatercourseslWater Bodies

1. Size of watershed

2. Number of major watercourse

3. Watercourse names

4. Types of watercourses ephemeral* intermittent* or perennial*

5. Average watercourse gradient (feet per mile)

6. Watercourse bottom (predominant type):
Elbedrock 11 boulder El cobble gravel sand silt-clay organic
7. Frequency of flooding: 11 none Frare Floccasional frequent
8. Watercourse channel alteration: El dredged channelized other (alteration date if known)

9. Watercourse primary uses:
(1) 11 Domestic drinking water supply
(2)EI Industrial water supply
(3) 11 Agricultural water supply: 11 Irrigation 11 Livestock 11 Other (explain

(4) 11 Recreation:E] Swimming 11 Fishing 11 Other (explain)

(5) Other uses (explain)

*Stream definitions: See Glossary in Appendix C.

Watershed Assessment (Continued)

10. Water use impairments (watercourses): Are there water use impairments or restrictions of the watercourses in the watershed? Is
there something "wrong" with the water? Has it been degraded by acid mine drainage, industrial discharge, etc.?
E]No. 0 Yes. If Yes, explain. The impairment(s) is/are due to:
Inadequate or overloaded
El Agricultural runoff Logging runoff Elwastewater treatment facilities
0 Industrial discharge E] Urban or other construction 11 Irrigation problems
ElMining runoff ElFailing septic tanks ElOther (explain)

If the impairment(s) is/are due to a combination of factors, what is your best estimate of the relative contribution of agricultural
operations to the watercourse impairment(s)?
E]Total About half
11 Most Small portion

11. Names of major ponds or lakes

12. Names of minor ponds or lakes

13. Sizes of individual ponds or lakes in acres

14. Primary uses of pond or lake water:
(1) 11 Domestic drinking water supply.
(2)EI Industrial water supply.
(3)E1 Agricultural water supply: F-IrrigationElLivestockElOther (explain)
(4)1:1 Recreation: r - ] SwimmingEl Fishing F-1 Other (explain)
(5) 11 Other uses (explain)

15. Water use impairment (ponds or lakes): Are there any water use impairments or restrictions of the ponds or lakes in the
watershed? Is there something "wrong" with the water? Has it been degraded by acid mine drainage, industrial discharge, etc?
Eho. E]Yes. If Yes, explain. The impairment(s) is/are due to:
Inadequate or overloaded
El Agricultural runoff Logging runoff wastewater treatment facilities
11 Industrial discharge Urban or other construction ElIrrigation problems
ElMining runoff Failing septic tanks E]Other (explain)

If the impairment(s) is/are due to a combination of factors, what is your best estimate of the relative contribution of agricultural
operations- to the pond/lake impairment(s)?
Total About half
Most Small portion

16. Land uses in watershed: (check appropriate categories)
1. Farming: Pasture/grazing Dryland cropping Irrigated cropping Woods

Other (explain)
2. Urban areas: Homes Stores Other (explain)
3. Industrial areas: Factories Small shops Other (explain)
4. Mining: Surface Deep Other (explain)
5. Logging: Clearcut Selective cut Other (explain)

6. Other uses (explain) (e.g., sanitary landfill)

On-Farm (Ranch) Water Assessment

Surface Watercourses

1. Number of watercourses (streams or drainage ditches)
2. Types of watercourses: 0 Perennial 1:1 Intermittent Ephemeral. (If applicable, check more than one).

3. Location of watercourses on property*

Wetlands

1. Acres of wetlands

2. Location of wetlands on property*
3. Uses: F-]Sediment sink 11 Water storage 0 Flood control 11 Irrigation
11 Other (explain)

Ponds
1. Farm ponds: FIRare 11 Common 11 Abundant (Number

2. Other water bodies: Number _; Surface area (natural lakes and impounded bodies)

3. Uses
4. Are any of the uses impaired? 11 No. E] Yes. If yes, what type of impairment?

5. Location on property*

Ground Water
1. Number of springs (wet weather or year-round):E]None 11 RareE]Common 11 Abundant

2. Total number of wells

3. Population served

4. Primary uses of ground water:
E]Domestic water supply Industrial water supply DRecreation
11 Fish and aquatic life Irrigation
ElLivestock watering & wildlife ElOther (explain)
5. Number of sinkholes on or near property: 11 None 11 Rare 11 Common FlAbundant

6. Location of ground water features on property*

*Optional: If feasible and not already present, add these locations to the farm's map.

Part 2: Field Sheet Selection of Nonpoint Source Pollutants

Watercourses

Evaluator's Name Date

Location

State/County Township/Range

Watershed (basin) Subwatershed
(if applicable)

Watercourse location

Note: If there is a natural or constructed watercourse on or near the farmer or rancher's property, complete this form for a preliminary
decision about nonpoint source pollutants. If your answer is "Can't Tell" or "Yes," you must complete the field sheets for that
particular pollutant.

Probable Cause

1. Is the watercourse bottom coated with sediment? Or is there evidence that the watercourse bed is aggrading or degrading? Or has
flooding increased over the last several years? Or is there evidence of bank sloughing? Or is the water turbid or muddy after a
storm event?
0 CAN'T TELL 0 YES EINO (Field Sheets 1A, 113) Sediment

2. Do you see or smell evidence of manure in or along the watercourse? Or is there evidence of bank trampling? Or is the water-
course bottom coated black or with a whitish or grayish "cottony" mold?
0 CAN'T TELL 11 YES F-1 NO (Field Sheets 2A, 2B1, 2B2) Animal Wastes

3. At low flow is the color of the water greenish? Or is there an increase in rooted aquatic vegetation or seasonal algal blooms that
can be linked to the timing of fertilizer application?
11 CAN'T TELL 11 YES F@ NO (Field Sheets 3A, 313) Nutrients

4. Is there evidence of leaf-bum or a sudden dieback of vegetation that does not seem to be due to natural causes? Has this happened
after pesticide application? Or has fish productivity declined or a fishery been degraded from cold or warm water sport fish to
predominately rough (trash) fish? Or has a fish kill occurred in an apparently fertile watershed? Or do fish avoid this particular
reach of the watercourse or exhibit strange or erratic behavior such as gulping for air, swimming in circles, jumping out of water,
etc?
11 CAN'T TELL YES NO (Field Sheets 4A, 413) Pesticides

5. Is the watercourse reach located in a naturally occurring salt-laden geologic area and far downstream from the headwaters? Or is
there evidence of white salt crust on the watercourse banks?
D CAN'T TELL 11 YES 0 NO (Field Sheets 5A, 5BI, 5132) Salts

After completing this preliminary decision about pollutants, complete the appropriate field sheets.

Water Bodies (Ponds, or Lakes)

If there is a natural or constructed pond or take on or near the farmer or rancher's property, complete this form for a preliminary decision
about nonpoint source pollutants. If your answer is "Can't tell" or "Yes," you must complete the field sheets for that particular pollutant.

Water body location. Probable Cause

1. Is there evidence of sediment from field erosion or bank erosion getting into the pond from rills or gullies; muddiness after a large
storm? Or has the pond changed in size over the years? (Pond surface area may become smaller or larger as sedimentation
occurs.)
0 CAN'T TELL E] YES NO (Field Sheets IA, 113) Sediment

2. Is there visual or olfactory evidence of manure in or around the pond? Or is the pond covered. with an organic ooze or black
mayormaise-like coating?
1:1 CAN'T TELL YES NO (Field Sheets 2A-, 2131, 2B2) Animal Waste

3. Have there been seasonal algal blooms or fish kills or evidence of oxygen depletion (fish gulping for air near the surface of the
water at dawn)? Or is there evidence of greener, more robust vegetation along the pond edge? Or is the pond choked with vege-
tation?
1:1 CAN'T TELL YES NO (Field Sheets 3A. 3B) Nutrients

4. Is there evidence of leaf-bum or a sudden dieback of vegetation that does not seem to be due to natural causes? Has this occurred
after pesticide application? Or has fish productivity declined or a fish kill occurred in an apparently fertile watershed with good
pond management. practices? Or has abnormal fish behavior been observed, such as uncoordinated movements, convulsive darting
movements, erratic swimming up and down or in a small circle, sluggish movements alternating with jumping out of the water, or
difficulty in respiration?
1:1 CAN'T TELL YES NO (Field Sheets 4A, 4B) Pesticides

5. Is the pond or lake located in a naturally occurring salt-laden geologic area and far downstream from the headwaters? Or has there
been a significant amount of irrigation drainage to the pond and a need to increase the number of evaporation ponds in a given
area?. Or are pond shorelines covered with white, crusty salt depositsT
11 CAN'T TELL 1:1 YES 0 NO (Field Sheets 5A, 5Bl, 5B2) salts

After completing this preliminary decision about pollutants, complete the appropriate field sheets.

sediment Page I of 2

FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "Split" a score.)
1. Turbidity What is expected under What is expected for A considerable increase A significant increase
(best pristine conditions in properly managed in turbidity for your in turbidity for your
observed your region. agricultural land in region. region.
immediately Clear or very slightly your region. Considerable muddiness Very muddy-sediment
following a muddy after storm event. A little muddy after storm after a storm event. stays suspended most
storm event) Objects visible at depths event but clears rapidly. Stays slightly muddy most of the time.
greater than 3 to 6 ft. Objects visible at depths of the time. Objects visible to
(depending on water color). between 11/2 to 3 ft. Objects visible to depths depths less than 1/2 ft.
(depending on water color). of 1/2 to 11/2 ft. (depending on water
(depending on water color). color).
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 0
2. Bank Bank stabilized. Some bank instability. Bank instability common. Significant bank
stability in No bank sloughing. Occasional sloughing. Sloughing common. instability.
your viewing Bank armored with vegetation, Bank well-vegetated. Bank sparsely vegetated. Massive sloughing.
area roots, brush, grass, etc. Some exposed tree roots, Many exposed tree roots & No vegetation on bank.
No exposed tree roots. some fallen trees or Many fallen trees,
missing fence corners, etc. eroded culverts, downed
Channel cross-section fences, etc.
becomes more U-shaped as Channel cross-section
opposed to V-shaped. is U-shaped and stream
course or gully may be
meandering.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 4 1
3. Deposition
(Circle a number SELECT 3A OR 3B OR 3C OR 3D
in only A, B, C, or D) :
:A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock and gravel :A. For rock & gravel :A. For rock & gravel
3A. Rock or bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams: bottom streams:
gravel Less than 10% burial of Between 10% & 25% burial Between 25% and 50% burial Greater than 50% burial
streams gravels, cobbles, and rocks. of gravels, cobbles, & of gravels, cobbles and of gravels, cobbles and
Pools essentially sediment rocks. rock. rocks.
OR f ree. Pools with light dusting Pools with a heavy coating Few if any deep pools
of sediment. of sediment. present.
9 7 3

3B. Sandy bottom :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds: :B. For sandy streambeds:
streams Sand bars stable and com- Sand bars essentially Sand bars unstable with Sand bars unstable and
pletely vegetated. stable and well, but not sparse vegetation. actively moving with
No mudcaps or "drapes" completely, vegetated. Mudcaps or "drapes" no vegetation.
OR (coverings of fine mud). Occasional mudcaps or common. Extensive mudcaps or
No mud plastering of banks; "drapes." Considerable mud plastering "drapes."
exposed parent material. Some mud plastering of of banks. Extensive mud plastering
No deltas. banks. Significant delta of banks.
Beginnings of delta formation. Extensive deltas.
formation.
9 7 3
3C. Mud-bottom :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams: :C. For mud bottom streams:
streams Dark brown/black tanic- Dark brown colored water. Medium brown water, muddy Light brown colored,
colored water (due to presence bottom. very muddy bottom.
OR of lignins and tanins).
Abundant emergent rooted
aquatics or floating
vegetation.
9 7 3
3D.Ponds Ponds essentially sediment Ponds with light Ponds with a heavy Ponds filled with
free. dusting of sediment. coating of sediment. sediment.
No reduction in pond Very little loss in pond Some measurable loss in Significant reduction in
storage capacity. storage capacity. pond storage capacity. pool storage capacity.

OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3

co
OD sediment Page 2 of 2

FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT, Continued
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
4. Type and Periphyton bright green to Periphyton pale green and Periphyton very light No periphyton.
amount of black. Robust. spindly. colored or brownish and No vegetation.
aquatic Abundant emergent rooted Emergent rooted aquatics significantly dwarfed. In ponds, emergent
vegetation & aquatics or shoreline or shoreline vegetation Sparse vegetation. rooted aquatics
condition of vegetation. common. In ponds, emergent rooted predominant with heavy
periphyton In ponds, emergent rooted In ponds, emergent rooted aquatics abundant in wide encroachment of dry
(plants, aquatics (e.g. cattails, aquatics common, but bank; encroachment of dry land species.
growing on arrowhead, pickerelweed, confined to well-defined land species (grasses,
other plants, etc.) present, but in band along shore. etc.) along shore.
twigs, localized patches.
stones, etc.)
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 5 2
OPTIONAL:
5. Bottom Stable. Slight fluctuation of Considerable fluctuation Significant fluctuation
stability of Less than 5% of stream reach streambed up or down of streambed up or down of streambed up or down
streams has evidence of scouring or (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degrada- (aggradation or degra-
silting. tion). tion). dation).
Between 5-30% of stream Scoured or silted areas More than 50% of stream
reach has evidence of covering 30-50% of reach affected by
scouring or silting. evaluated stream reach. scouring or deposition.
Flooding more common than Flooding very common.
usual. Significantly more
More stream braiding than stream braiding than
usual for region. usual for region.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1

OPTIONAL:
6. Bottom Intolerant species occur: A mix of tolerants: Many tolerants (snails, Only tolerants or very
dwelling mayflies, stonefiles, shrimp, damselflies, shrimp, damselflies, tolerants: midges,
aquatic caddisflies, water penny, dragonflies, black flies. dragon flies, black flies). craneflies, horseflies,
organisms riffle beetle and a mix Intolerants rare. Mainly tolerants and some rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants. Moderate diversity. very tolerants. none at all.
High diversity. Intolerants rare. Very reduced diversity;
Reduced diversity with upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of tolerants common.
tolerants, e.g. tube worms
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3
1 - Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. (Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 32. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 31, etc.).
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field Sheet 1B.

RANKING Excellent (32-37) [ ] Good (21-31) [ Fair( 9-20) [ Poor ( 8 or less) [
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (40-46) [ ] Good (26-39) [ Fair (11 -25) [ Poor (10 or less) [
(with #5 OR #6)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) [ ] Good (31-47) [ Fair (13-30) [ Poor (12 or less) [
(with #5 AND #6)

Sediment

FIELD SHEET I B: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR CROPLAND, HAYLAND OR PASTURE

Evaluator County/State Date Practices
Field Evaluated Field Location Total Score/ Rank from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Erosion Not significant. Some erosion evident. Moderate erosion. Heavy erosion. 113,5,7,8,
Potential Less than T (tolerance); little About T; some sheet, rill, T to 2T. More than 2T. 9,10,11,
sheet, rill, or furrow erosion. or furrow erosion. Gullies or furrows from Many gullies or furrows 15,16,17,
No gullies. Very few gullies. heavy storm events & oresence of critical 18,19,20,
obvious. erosion areas. 21,22,23,
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER 24,25,26,
10 7 3 0 27,29,30,
2. Runoff Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 31,32,33,
Potential Very flat to flat terrain (0- Flat to gently sloping (0.5- Gently to moderately Moderately sloping to 37,38,40,
0.5% slope). 2.0% slope). sloping (2.0-5.0% slope). steep terrain (greater than 45,46,54,
Runoff curve number (RCN) RCN 71 - 80. RCN 81 - 90. 5%). 61,62,65,
61 -70. Semidry (20-30"). Semiwet (30-40"). RCN greater than 90. 69,70,73,
Dry, low rainfall (lessthan 20"):-- Even, gentle to moderate Even to uneven intense Wet (more than 40"). 75,79,85,
Even, gentle impact intensity rainfall. rainfall. Intense uneven rain- 87,95,97,
(scattered shower-type) fall, especially in seasons 99,102
rainfall. when soil is exposed.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER 6,9,88,95
10 8 4 0
3. Filtering Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Cropping from less 5,18,25,
effect or between cropland & water- between cropland & between cropland & than 50 ft. up to 27,79,107
sedimentation course greater than watercourse 100 to 200 ft. watercourse 50 to 100 ft. water's edge.
potential of 200 ft. Type of intervening vege- Type of intervening vege- Type of intervening
a vegetated Type of intervening vegeta- tation grazed woodland, tation high density vegetation low density
buffer or tion ungrazed woodland, brush, or herbaceous cropland. cropland or bare soil.
water/sedi- brush, or herbaceous plants. plants or range. Water & sediment control No water & sediment
ment collect- Water & sediment control Water & sediment control basins poorly installed & control basins.
ing basin basins properly installed & basins properly installed, poorly maintained.
maintained. but poorly maintained.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 2

4. Resource Excellent management. Good management. Fair management. Poor management. Practices
management RMS's always used as Most (80%) of the needed About 50% of the needed Few, if any, needed same as
systems needed. RMS's installed. RMS's installed. RMS's installed. Rating
(RMS's) Cropping confined to Cropping not confined Item #1
on whole farm proper land class. to proper classes.
(combined
value for all
agricultural OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
areas) 9 7 3 0
5. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: See animal
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very low waste,
water con- organic matter (greater than in organic matter (3.0 to in organic matter in organic matter nutrients,
tamination 3.0%). 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%). pesticide,
Slow to very slow percolation Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in & salt "B"
in light textured soils such tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy Field
as clays, silty or sandy clays, silts. loams, foams, or sands or sands. Sheets for
or silty clay loams. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock practices
Perched water table present. present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas, well depth is less than 15 ft.
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), areas, well depth is 15-29 ft. In protected bedrock
well depth is 75-100 ft. 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock areas overlain with
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft. 50 ft. of sand or
overlain with 50 ft. of sand areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
or gravel, well depth is of sand or gravel, well depth is 50 - 99 ft. less than 50 ft.
greater than 150 ft. depth is 100-149 ft. In shallow bedrock areas, In shallow bedrock
In shallow bedrock areas (25- In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 ft. areas, well depth is
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well less than 25 ft.
depth greater than 200 ft. In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. In Karst areas, well
In Karst areas, well depth is is 500-999 ft. depth is less than
greater than 1,000 ft., if 100 ft.
aquifier is "confined."
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 4 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40. Check "good" if the score falls between 26 and 39,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in
the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) Good (26-39) Fair (10-25) Poor (9 or less)

Animal Waste

FIELD SHEET 2A: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

4. Fish behavior No fish piping or aberrant In hot climates, occas- Fish piping common just Pronounced fish piping.
in hot weather; behavior. sional fish piping or before dawn. Pond fish kills common.
fish kills, No fish kills. gulping for air in ponds Occasional fish kills. Frequent stream fish
especially before just before dawn. kills during spring thaw.
dawn No fish kills in last Very tolerant species
two years. (e.g., bullhead, catfish).
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 5 3 0
5. Bottom Intolerant species occur: A mix of tolerants: Many tolerants (snails, Only tolerants or very
dwelling mayflies, stoneflies, shrimp, damselflies, shrimp, damselflies, tolerants: midges,
aquatic caddisflies, water penny, dragonflies, black flies. dragonflies, black flies). craneflies, horseflies,
organisms riffle beetle and a mix Intolerants rare. Mainly tolerants and some rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants. Moderate diversity. very tolerants. none at all.
High diversity. Intolerants rare. Very reduced diversity.
Reduced diversity with upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of tolerants common.
tolerants, e.g. tube worms,
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 5 3 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 35. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 34,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 2B1 or 2B 2'
RANKING Excellent (35-43) Good (21-34) Fair (7-20) Poor (6 or less)

Animal Waste

FIELD SHEET 2B,: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR PASTURE OR RANGE ANIMALS

3. Rate of Rapid decomposition of Moderate to rapid Slow to moderate de- Slow decomposition due
Waste waste due to hot, sunny decomposition due to composition due to cooler,: to cold climate
Decomposition: climate. warm sunny climate. more overcast climate. with little direct
solar radiation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 2

4. Pasture or Excellent: Good: Fair: Poor: 5,15,18,
Range 90% cover. 70-90% cover. 50-70% cover. 50% or less cover. 19,20,24,
Management Proper grazing. Occasional bare areas. Some bare spots. Numerous bare spots. 25,27,29,
Animal numbers within the Animals exceed carrying Animals exceed carrying Animal numbers exceed 30,31,32,
carrying capacity of vege- capacity only 1 to 2 capacity over 25% of the carrying capacity 100% 33,38,40,
tation. times per year. year. of year. 52,54,61,
No fertilization or pH No fertilization or Fertilization at greater Significant over- 65,69,70,
adjustment and application recommended amounts than recommended application of animal 75,76,78,
of recommended amounts of for maximum forage amounts for forage waste or commercial 79,92,95,
fertilizer for maximum utilization. utilization. fertilizer close to 99,102,
forage utilization based on water's edge. 105,106
soil tests. 107,108
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 0
5. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 14,16,19,
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very 25,27,30,
water organic matter (greater in organic matter (3.0 in organic matter low in organic matter 31,32,38,
contamination than 3%). to 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%). 40,45,54,
Slow to very slow percolation Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in 58,61,65,
in light textured soils such tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy 97,102,
as clays, silty or sandy clays, silts. loams, loams, or sands or sands. 103,104,
or silty clay loams. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock 105,106
Perched water table present. present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas, well depth is 15-29 less than 15 ft.
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), areas, well depth is ft. In protected bedrock
wel I depth is 75 -100 ft. 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock 50 ft. of sand or
In protected bedrock areas In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft. areas overlain with
overlain with 50 ft. of sand areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
or gravel, well depth is of sand or gravel, well depth is 50-99 ft. less than 50 ft.
g reater th a n 150 ft. depth is 100-149 ft. In shallow bedrock areas, In shallow bedrock
In shallow bedrock areas (25- In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 ft. areas, well depth is
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well less than 25 ft.
depth greater than 200 ft. In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. In Karst areas, well
In Karst areas, well depth is is 500-999 ft. depth is less than
greater than 1,000 ft., if 100 ft.
aquifier is "confined." OTHER OTHER OTHER
OTHER 9 6 4 0
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40. Check "good" if the score falls between 25 and 39, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in the
right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (40-46 Good (25-39) Fair (10-24) Poor (9 or less)

Animal Waste Page 1 of 2

FIELD SHEET 2B2: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR TOTALLY OR PARTIALLY CONFINED ANIMALS

Evaluator County/State Date Practices
Field Evaluated Field Location Total Score/ Rank from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Runoff Low: Moderate: Considerable: High:
25,27,38,
Potential Runoff Curve Number (RCN) RCN 71-80. RCN 81-90. RCN greater than 90. 69,70,78
61-70. Flat to gently sloping Gently to moderately Moderately sloping to
Very flat to flat terrain (0.5-2.0% slope). sloping (2-5% slope). steep (greater than 5%).
(0-0.5% slope). Semidry (20-30") with R Semiwet (30-40") with R Wet (more than 40" rain)
Dry, low rainfall (less than 50 to 100. 100 to 200. with R greater than 200.
20") with rainfall erosivity Even, gentle to moderate Even but intense rainfall. Intense uneven rainfall
(R) factor less than 50. intensity rainfall. in seasons when soil
Even, gentle impact isexposed.
(scattered shower-type)
of rainfall.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 4 0
2. Animal waste Site is 600 ft. from Site is between 200-500 ft.:-- Site 200 ft. from water. Site is on bank of 24,25,27,
yield to water body with intervening from water with inter- Slow to moderate de- water body; or in close 38,40,
water body; vegetation. vening vegetation. composition due to cooler,: proximity to it. 102,103,
proportion Rapid decomposition of waste:-- Moderate to rapid decom-: more overcast climate. Slow decomposition due 104,105,
of waste to due to hot, sunny climate or position due to warm, to cold climate with 106
leave the low pH soils. sunny climate. little direct solar rad-
site iation or high pH soils.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 4 0
3. Animal None to very little. Watering Very limited. Watering Access limited to Unlimited access for 1,40,54,
accessto areas located far from natur- away from stream or pond.: watering. both watering and 61,102
water ally occurring water bodies. Stream used only as cooling.
access path.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 0

4. Runoff Excellent management: Good management: Fair management: Poor management 25,27,38,
Management Runoff is completely diverted A good portion of clean Only a partial runoff Little or no runoff man- 69,70,76,
away from concentrated runoff is diverted from management system. agement. Natural runoff 78,102,
waste. BMPs used as needed,: waste. Runoff from feedlot,: Evidence of contaminated removes most of the 103,104,
such as surface water barns, etc. is diverted to runoff going directly to waste or little to no 105,106
diversions, including holding pond. streams or ponds. mgmt. of lagoons results
guttering. in recurrent overflows.
Evidence of lagoon over-
flows, manure-caked flow
paths, etc.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0

co Animal Waste Page 2 of 2

FIELD SHEET 2B2: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR TOTALLY OR PARTIALLY CONFINED ANIMALS

5. Waste Excellent mgmt. always with: Good management most Haphazard management No or little management: 102,103,
handling and Established collection of the time (80%) with common: A real mess most of the 104,105,
utilization schedule. some of the following: Collection random. time. 106
practices Application at proper rates & Established collection Applies waste anytime Continual odor and
times. schedules. even before predicted waste accumulation
Control of odor & pests. Application at proper rainfall. problems.
Regular sampling & record rates and times. Odor and pests as
keeping. Control of odor and pests.: occasional problems.
More than sufficient acreage Sufficient acreage for Insufficient acreage for
for waste utilization. waste utilization. waste utilization.
OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 OTHER 8 4 0
6. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 14,16,19,
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very 25,27,30,
water organic matter (>3.0%). in organic matter (3.0 to in organic matter low in organic matter 31,32,38,
contamination Slow to very slow percolation 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%). 40,45,54,
in light textured soils such Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in 58,61,65,
as clays, silty or sandy clays, tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy 97,102,
or silty clay loams. silts. loams, loams, or sands or sands. 103,104,
Perched water table present. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock 105,106
In protected bedrock areas. present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), In protected bedrock areas, well depth is 15-29 less than 15 ft.
well depth is 75-100 ft. areas, well depth is ft. In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock areas overlain with
overlain with 50 ft. of sand In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft 50 ft of sand or
or gravel, well depth is areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
greater than 150 ft. of sand or gravel, well depth is 50-99 ft. less than 50 ft.
In shallow bedrock areas (25- depth is 100- 149 ft. In shallow bedrock In shallow bedrock
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 areas, well depth is
depth greater than 200 ft. areas, well depth is 50- ft. less than 25 ft.
In Karst areas, well depth is 199 ft. In Karst areas, well In Karst areas, well
greater than 1,000 ft., if In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. depth is less than
aquifier is "confined." is 500-999 ft. OTHER 100 ft.
OTHER 9 OTHER 6 4 OTHER 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 51. Check "good" if the score falls between 33 and 50, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in the
right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (51-58) [ I Good (33-50) Fair (11 -32) Poor (110 or less)

Nutrients

FIELD SHEET 3A: NUTRIENTS
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES*

4. Water use None. Minimal, such as reduced A couple of the following: Several of the following:
impacts; quality of fishing. Algal clogged pipes. Algal clogged pipes.
health Algal related taste, color, Algal related taste, color,
effects for or odor problems with or odor problems with
whole sub- human or livestock water human or livestock water
watershed supply. supply.
Cattle abortion. Cattle abortion.
Reduced recreational use Reduced quality of fishery.
due to weedy conditions, Reduced recreational use
decay, odors, etc. due to weedy conditions,
decay, odors, etc.
Blue babies-incidence
of methemoglobinernia due
to high nitrate levels.
Property devaluation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 7 4 2

5. Bottom- Intolerant species occur: Intolerants common. Mainly tolerants: snails, Mainly very-tolerants:
dwelling mayflies, stonefiles, A mix of tolerants: shrimp, shrimp, damselflies, midges, craneflies, horseflies,
aquatic caddisflies, water penny, clamselflies, dragonflies, dragonflies, black flies. rat-tailed maggots, or no
organisms riffle beetle. black flies. Mainly tolerants, but some organisms at all.
High diversity. Moderate diversity. very-tolerants. Very reduced diversity,
Intolerants rare. upsurges of very-tolerants
Reduced diversity with common.
occasional upsurges of
tolerants, e.g. tube worms,
and chironomids.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3

*The effects of nutrients may be "masked" by high sediment loads, creating suff icient turbidity to shade fight-dependent aquatic vegetation. This may cause aquatic
vegetation, a water quality indicator, to die and disappear from the watercourse. To obtain accurate nutrient levels in high sediment situations, chemical testing may
be necessary. Under these circumstances you should contact a local or other water quality specialist.
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 38. Check "good" if the score falls between 23 and 37,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 313.
RANKING Excellent (38-45) Good (23-37) Fair (9-22) Poor (8 or less)

Nutrients Page 1 of 2

FIELD SHEET 313: NUTRIENTS
INDICATORS FOR CROPLAND, HAYLAND, OR PASTURE

2. Runoff Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 6,9,52,
Potential Soils hydraulic Group A. Soils Group B. Soils Group C. Soils Group C. 88,95
Very flat to flat terrain Flat to gently sloping Gently to moderately Moderately sloping to
(0-0.5% slope). (0.5-2% slope). sloping (2-5% slope). steep terrain (greater
Dry, low rainfall (less Semidry (20-30") with Semiwet (30-40") with than 5%).
than 20") with rainfall R 50 to 100. R 100 to 200. Wet (more than 40" rain)
erosivity (R) factor Even, gentle to moderate Even but intense rainfall. with R greater than 200.
less than 50. intensity rainfall. Intense uneven rain-
Even, gentle impact fall in seasons when
(scattered shower-type) soil is exposed.
of rainfall.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 4 0

3. Resource Excellent management. Good management. Fair management. Poor management. All
Management RMSs always used as needed.:-- Most (80%) of the needed About 50% of the needed Few, if any, needed Practices
Systems on RMSs installed. RMSs installed. RMSs installed.
whole farm Predominance of farming Cropping confined to Cropping not confined
(combined practices diverting runoff proper land class. to proper classes.
value for all away from receiving Predominance of farming No diversion of runoff
agricultural waters (terraces without practices diverting runoff water; water flowing
areas- tile drains). toward receiving waters directly into receiving
pastureland, (tile drains and field waters.
cropland, or ditches).
animal
holding areas OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 0

4. Buffer Zone Cropland is more than 600 ft. Cropland is less than 600 Cropland is less than Cropping up to the 25,26,27,
from water with intervening ft. but more than 200 ft. 200 ft. but more than water's edge. 32,38
herbaceous vegetation (grass): from water with interven- 15 ft. from water with No bank (riparian)
Cropland is more than 100 ft. ing herbaceous vegetation: intervening herbaceous vegetation.
from water with intervening (grass). vegetation (grass).
woody vegetation (trees). Cropland is less than Cropland is less than 50
100 ft., but more than ft., but more than 15 ft.
50 ft. from water with from water with inter-
intervening vegetation vening woody vegetation
(trees). (trees).
Little bank (riparian)
vegetation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 2 0

Nutrients Page 2 of 2

5. Fertilizer Excellent management. Good management. Haphazard management. Little or erratic Mgmt. 7,8,9,12,
management No fertilizer necessary. Mainly follows a schedule Follows a schedule about Seldom follows a 14,16,17,
practices Well defined schedule but sometimes misses the half the time. schedule. 25,27,30,
as to frequency & timing best timing for the Application is based on Applications without heed 38,41,45,
for inorganic or organic maximum utilization by convenience. Tends to to weather forecasts. 52,60,69,
fertilizer depending on the crop. 11 overfertilize" by using Often loses most of the 70,73,78,
crop type, height of Usually follows directions more than the recom- applied fertilizer in a 79,80,81,
growth, etc. for proper dosages of fer- mended dose as washout. Applies 82,84,96
Application of exactly the tilizer and has soil tested "insurance." usually too little,
proper (recommended) regularly. Follows weather:-- Occasionally loses much sometimes too much.
amounts according to soil forecasts but once in a of application in a Most of the fertilizer
tests. Pays close attention to while will risk applying washout. is surface applied with-
weather forecasts. Never when rain is forecast. More than half the out incorporation, e.g.,
applies before a storm. Fertilizer is mainly of the fertilizer is applied to in the North nitrogen
Fertilizer is incorporated incorporated slow-release: the surface. application in the
into the soil. type. Autumn for some crops.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 0

6. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 7,9,10,20,
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very 25,27,30,
water organic matter ( > 3.0%). in organic matter (3.0 to in orqanic matter low in organic matter 37,38,44,
contamination Slow to very slow percolation 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%). 60,64,80,
in light textured soils such Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in 81,82,84,
as clays, silty or sandy clays, tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy 87,96
or silty clay loams. silts. loams, loams, or sand or sands.
Perched water table present. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), In protected bedrock areas, well depth is less than 15 ft.
well depth is 75-100 ft. areas, well depth is 15-29 ft. In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock areas overlain with
overlain with 50 ft. of sand In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft. 50 ft. of sand or
or gravel, well depth is areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
greater than 150 ft. of sand or gravel, well depth is 50-99 ft. less than 50 ft.
In shallow bedrock areas (25- depth is 100-149 ft. In shallow bedrock areas, In shallow bedrock
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 ft. areas, well depth is
depth greater than 200 ft. well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well less than 25 ft.
In Karst areas, well depth is In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. In Karst areas, well
greater than 1,000 ft., if is 500-999 ft. depth is less than
aquifier is "confined." 100 ft.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 4 0
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 49. Check "good" if the score falls between 30 and 48, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in the
right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (49-57) Good (30-48) Fair (9-29) Poor (8 or less)

Pesticides

FIELD SHEET 4A: PESTICIDES
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

3. Overall High diversity including Average diversity of Occasional insect kills. Insect kills common. Not
diversity of dragonflies, stoneflies, insects-some of those Reduced numbers and kinds. many fish-bait types such
insects, mayflies, caddistlies, water listed under excellent. Upsurges of blackflies; & as hellgrammites (the
("fish bait") mites or beetles. chironomids. larvae of dobsonflies),
alderflies, or fishflies.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 3 1
4. Overall Excellent fish diversity- Good fish diversity. Reduced fish diversity. Extremely reduced fish
diversity what's expected in the area. Native salmonids (trout & The more tolerant centrar- diversity.
of fish Presence of intolerants such salmon) begin to die out chids die off-black- Only very tolerant
as brook, brown or rainbow first. The least tolerant nosed dace, common species of cyprinids &
trout, salmon or stickleback. centrarchids (Iongear sun- shiner, sculpin, ictalurids (such as
fish, rock bass, small- creekchub, madtom, brownhead carp, bull-
mouth bass, crappie, golden shiner, large heads, white sucker,
redfinned pickerel and mouth bass, blueback shad, and catfish).
bluegill) begin to decline. herring, and alewives. Some highly polluted
Larger proportion of green waters (usually ponds)
sunfish. may lack fish entirely.
Occasional (once every 1-2
OTHER OTHER years) pond fish kills. OTHER
9 7 OTHER 4 1

OPTIONAL
6. Fish behavior Normal behavior, e.g. fish Behavior as expected, e.g. Behavioral changes in Fish avoidance or be-
in hot seen breaking the surface evidence of fish, such as fish-swimming near haviors, such as erratic
weather; for insects. water rings or bubbles. surface, uncoordinated swimming near surface &
fish kills, No evidence of Little if any evidence of movements, convulsive gulping for or piping
especially disease, tumors, fin damage disease, tumors, fin darting movements, erratic for air. More likely
before dawn or other anomalies. damage, or other anomalies. swimming up & down or in seen in ponds.
No fish piping or aberrant In hot climates, occasional small circles, hyperexcita- Pond fish kills common.
behavior. fish piping or gulping for bility Ournping out), Frequent stream fish
No fish kills. air in ponds just before difficulty in respiration. kills during Spring thaw.
dawn. More likely seen in ponds. Very tolerant species
No fish kills in last 2 Fish piping common. (e.g., bullhead, catfish).
years. Occasional fish kills.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 4 0

1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40. Check "good" if the score falls between 27 and 39,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 4B.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) [ Good (27-39) [ Fair (12 -26) [ Poor (111 or less)
OPTIONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) [ Good (32-47) [ Fair (14-31) [ Poor (13 or less)

OD Pesticides Page i of 2

FIELD SHEET 413: PESTICIDES
INDICATORS FOR CROPLAND, HAYLAND, OR PASTURE

Evaluator County/State Date Practices
Field Evaluated Field Location Total Score/Rank- from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Erosion Not significant. Some erosion evident. Moderate erosion. Heavy erosion. 7,9,10,16,
Potential Less than T (tolerance), little About T; some sheet, T to 2T. Greater than 2T. 17,27,29,
sheetrill, or furrow erosion. rill, or furrow erosion. Gullies or furrows ifrom Many gullies or furrows 39,45,46,
No gullies. Very few gullies. heavy storm events & presence of critical 55,74,77,
: obvious. erosion areas. 79,87,95
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0
2. Buffer Zone Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Intervening vegetation Cropping from less 25,27,38
between cropland & water- between cropland & between cropland & than 50 ft. up to
course greater than watercourse 100 to 200 ft. watercourse 56 to 100 ft. water's edge.
200 ft. Type of intervening Type of intervening Type of intervening
Type of intervening vegeta- vegetation grazed wood- vegetation high density vegetation low density
tation ungrazed woodland, land, brush, or herbaceous: cropland. cropland or bare soil.
brush, or herbaceous plants. plants or range.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 2
3. Appearance of:-- No leaf burn. Some leaf burn. Significant leaf burn. Severe dieback of 2,4,34,41,
non-target No evidence of dieback. No dieback. Some vegetation dieback. vegetation. 42,43,48,
vegetation OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER 49,50,51,
9 6 4 1 66,72
4. Runoff Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 6,9,52,
Potential Runoff Curve Number (RCN) RCN 71-80. RCN 81-90. RCN greater than 90. 88,95
61-70. Flat to gently sloping Gently to moderately Moderately sloping to
Very flat to flat terrain (0.5-2.0% slope). sloping (2-5% slope). steep (greater than.5%).
(0-0.5% slope). Semidry (20-30") with R Semiwet (30-40") with Wet (more than 40"
Dry, low rainfall (less than 50 to 100. R 100 to 200. rain) with R greater
20") with rainfall erosivity Even, gentle to moderate Even but intense rainfall. than 200.
(R) factor less than 50. intensity rainfall. Intense uneven rainfall
Even, gentle impact in seasons when soil
(scattered shower-type) is exposed.
of rainfall.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 8 4 0

5. Type of Narrow spectrum, species Fairly narrow range of Persistent, not species Persistent, wide 2,49,66
pesticide specific. toxicity. specific. spectrum biocide (harms
Water soluble, very Water soluble, rapid-to- Fat soluble, nonbio- "any living thing").
rapidly degrading. moderate degradation. degradable. Fat soluble, nonbiode-
gradable.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 5 3

Pesticides Page 2 of 2

6. Pesticide Application according to a Application of recom- Application based on Application by a 2,4,9,10,
management well defined pest management mended dosages by certi- scouting done by the schedule that meets the 13,16,17,
including program such as integrated fied applicators based on landowner; extra pesticide: needs of the landowner. 20,21,25,
amount of Pest Management (IPM) with scouting by professionals. beyond the recommended: No scouting. 27,29,33,
pesticide close supervision by Insecticides applied twice dosage to insure pest Landowner strives for 34,38,41,
applied per professional. per year. Two herbicide control. zero pests (complete 42,43,45,
acre; the Insecticides applied once treatments per year. Insecticides applied 2 to eradication) by doubling 47,48,49,
frequency of every two years. One OR 5 times per year. 2 to 3 or more than doubling 50,51,55,
application, herbicide treatment per year. Insecticides & herbicides herbicide treatments per the application rate. 59,66,72,
timing & Careful nonaerial spraying or applied as needed. year. Insecticides applied 77,80,87
manner of incorporating into the soil. Careful non-aerial or Casual non-aerial or more than 5 times per
application; Spraying on dry, hot, windless: aerial spraying. aerial spraying. year. More than 3 herb-
and clean-up days. Spraying on calm, dry Spraying with minimal icide treatments per
practices Follows instructions on days. concern about weather. year.
pesticide label. Discards Careful to avoid spills. Containers discarded Application almost ex-
containers at appropriate Careful to keep con- haphazardly. Containers clusively aerial.
disposal centers. tainers away from water washed in a water body Spraying with no heed to
Uses a professional body. or in close proximity the weather. Applica-
applicator. to the water, so tion on windy, rainy,
that contamination is days common.
likely. Careless discarding of
containers in water
bodies or sinkholes.
Doesn't heed warnings
for human safety with
regard to application,
cleanup, and disposal.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0

7. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 14,16,19,
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soils rich to moderate Soils moderate to low Soils low to very 25,27,30,
water con- organic matter (>-3.0%). in organic matter (3.0 to in organic matter low in organic matter 31,32,38,
tamination Slow to very slow percolation 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%). 40,45,54,
in light textured soils such Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in 58,61,65,
as clays, silty or sandy clays, tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy 97,102,
or silty clay loams. silts. loams, loams, or sands or sands. 103,104,
Perched water table present. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock 105,106
In protected bedrock areas present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), In protected bedrock areas, well depth is 15-29 less than 15 ft.
well depth is 75-100 ft. areas, well depth is ft. In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock areas overlain with
overlain with 50 ft. of sand In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft. 50 ft. of sand or
or gravel, well depth is areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
greater than 150 ft. of sand or gravel, well depth is 50-99 ft. less than 50 ft.
In shallow bedrock areas (25- depth is 100-149 ft. In shallow bedrock In shallow bedrock
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is 25-49 areas, well depth is
depth greater than 200 ft. areas, well depth is ft. less than 25 ft.
In Karst areas, well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well In Karst areas, well
greater than 1,000 ft., if In Karst areas, well depth depth is 100-499 ft. depth is less than
aquifier is "confined." is 500-999 ft. 100 ft.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 4 0
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 54. Check "good" if the score falls between 35 and 53, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in the
right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (54-64) Good (35-53) Fair (14-34) Poor (13 or less)

Salinity

FIELD SHEET 5A: SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES

5. Appearance No evidence of wilting, Minimal wilting and Stream or pond vegetation Evidence of severe
of aquatic toxicity, or stunting. toxicity, bleaching, may show wilted and toxic wilting, toxicity, or
vegetation leaf burn. symptoms-bleaching, leaf stunting.
Little if any stunting. burn. Presence of only
Presence of some the most salt-tolerant
salt-tolerant species. species or complete
OTHER OTHER OTHER absence of vegetation.
10 7 3 OTHER 0
6. Streamside Very few species. Few salt tolerant species. Increasing dominance of Vegetation almost totally
vegetation Refer to list below*. salt-tolerant species. salt-tolerant species or
absence of vegetation.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 7 5 3

*Salt-tolerant species include greasewood, alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush, shadscales, saltgrass, tamarisk (salt cedar), galleta, western whealgrass, crested
wheat, mat saltbush, reed canarygrass, and rabbitbrush.
1. Add the circled Rating Ite m scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 47. Check "good" if the score falls between 32 and 46,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc. in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 5131 or 5132-
RANKING Excellent (47-54) Good (32-46) [ Fair (15-31) [ Poor (14 or less) [
RANKING (OPTIONAL) Excellent (55-64) Good (35-54) [ Fair (16-34) [ Poor (15 or less) [

Salinity Indicators Page 1 of 2

FIELD SHEET 5131: SALINITY INDICATORS

Evaluator County/State Date
Practices
Field Evaluated Field Location Total Score/ Rank.. from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Length of Less than 1/4 mile. :7- Between 1/4 and 1/2 mile. Between 1/2 and 1 mile. Greater than 1 mile.
off -farm
delivery
system from
headgate to
farm boundary:-- OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0
2. Irrigation All canals lined or piped. Canals are partially Vegetated canals. Earthen canals. 21,35,36,
management Excellent maintenance. lined. Little maintenance. Maintenance leading to 37,38,44,
practices, Clay soil texture. Moderate maintenance. Sandy, silty, clay loams. disturbed canal bottom. 53,59,62,
including: Seepage rate of 0.1 to Sandy clay soil texture. Seepage rate 0.3 to 1.3 Sands, loams, & silty 67,68,69,
seepage 1.0 cu. ft. of water per Seepage rate of 0.2 to 1.1 ft3 /ft2 /day. loams. 70,71,73,
potential of sq. ft. of surface per day ft3/ft2/day. About 50% of needed Seepage rate 0.5 to 1.5 98,101,
delivery (ft3/ft2/day). Most (80%) of needed practices installed. ft3/ft2/day. 108,109
system, Sediment ponds, fertilizer practices installed. Irrigation tied to Poor management. Few
overall management, monitoring Timing based on crop traditional irrigation needed practices in-
irrigation flow, and other BMPs used needs and maximum scheduling with little stalled. Continuing
rating, and as needed. allowable deficiency regard to crops' water increase in number of
timing of Irrigation scheduling based (e.g., testing by wet requirements. evaporation ponds.
irrigation on crop needs and testing ball or soil probe). Excessive irrigation
by tensiometer, moisture based on convenience &
block or neutron probe. traditional irrigation
scheduling. No consid-
eration of crop needs.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0

3. Kind & Coarse textured particles. No restrictive properties- Clay soils with high High montmorillonite 68
properties Deep topsoi I-excel lent tilth. good tilth. sodium & high salt. clays with high sodium &
of soils; Reduced tilth. Several high salt. Black soils
permeability of the characteristics with dissolved organic
(adjusted listed under poor. matter. Poor tilth.
Sodium Montmorillonite clay with Puddling, soggy soils,
Adsorption SAR = 8. poor infiltration and
Ratio-SAR) Illite clay with SAR drainage. Slick spots
of 12-15. and white crust.
Kaolinite clay with SAR of Montmorillonite clay
20-23. with SAR 9.
Illite clay with SAR 16.
Kaolinite clay with
SAR 24.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 0

4. Soil salinity Less than 0.8 (mmhos/cm). Between 0.8 & 1.5 Between 1.5 & 2.5 Greater than 2.5
(mmhos/cm) (mmhos/cm) (mmhos/cm). (mmhos/cm).
or
(Decisiemans/
meter) OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 0

0) Salinity Indicators Page 2 of 2

5. Crop type. Crop type relatively non- Moderately salt-tolerant Less salt-tolerant crops Only highly salt- 17,22
Productivity tolerant to salt. Refer to species predominate. die out. Replacement by tolerant crops can be
and Appendix. Average productivity- relatively salt-tolerant grown.
appearance, High productivity. what's expected in the species. Plants of variable size.
including Prolific growth. region. Less than expected Stunted growth. Reduced
specific None. Some wilting. productivity. Some production.
ion toxicity stunting. Toxic symptoms & dieoff
(varies with Wilted & noticeable toxic of crops sensitive to
species symptoms-tip and given ions.
sensitivity marginal leaf burn,
to particular chlorosis (bleached areas),:
toxin) defoliation. Deep blue-
green foliage. Thickened
waxy coating on leaves.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 1
6. Animal No reduction in productivity. Minimal reduction in Some reduction in total Greatly reduced growth, 24,40,54,
productivity No incidence of disease. productivity. growth, milk production, milk production, etc. 64,71,72,
and health Minimal incidence of etc. With sudden salinity 83
disease. Moderate incidence of changes, livestock may
disease symptoms such reject water.
as diarrhea. High incidence of
disease symptoms such
as diarrhea.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 6 3 1

7. Potential Low: Moderate: Considerable: High: 21,35,36,
for ground Soils rich to very rich in Soft rich to moderate Soils moderate to Soils low to very 37,53,62,
water con- organic matter (> 3.0%). in organic matter (3-0 to low in organic matter low in organic matter 64,68,70,
tamination Slow to very slow percolation 1.5%). (1.5 to 0.5%). (less than 0.5%) 73,91,92
in light textured soils such Slow to moderate percola-:-- Moderate to rapid Rapid percolation in
as clays, silty or sandy clays, tion in clay loams or percolation in silty coarse textured loamy
or silty clay loams. silts. loams, loams, or sands or sands.
Perched water table present. Perched water table silts. In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas present. In protected bedrock areas, well depth is
(50 ft. of soil & shale cap), In protected bedrock areas, well depth is 15-29: less than 15 ft.
well depth is 75-100 ft. areas, well depth is ft. :-- In protected bedrock
In protected bedrock areas 30-74 ft. In protected bedrock : areas overlain with
overlain with 50 ft. of sand In protected bedrock areas overlain with 50 ft.: 50 ft. of sand or
or gravel, well depth is areas overlain with 50 ft. of sand or gravel, well gravel, well depth is
greater than 150 ft. of sand or gravel, well depth is 50-99 ft. less than 50 ft.
In shallow bedrock areas (25- depth is 100- 149 ft. In shallow bedrock
In shallow bedrock
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well In shallow bedrock areas, well depth is areas, well depth is
depth greater than 200 ft. areas, well depth is 25-49 ft. less than 25 ft.
In Karst areas, well depth is 50-199 ft. In Karst areas, well depth In Karst areas, well
greater than 1,000 ft., if In Karst areas, well depth is 100-499 ft. depth is less than
aquifier is "confined." is 500-999 ft. 100 ft.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 4 0
1. Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 54. Check "good" if the score falls between 31 and 53, etc.
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in the
right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (54-65) Good (33-53) Fair (112-32) Poor (11 or less)

K)
03 Salinity
FIELD SHEET 5132: SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR SALINE SEEPS

Evaluator County/State Date Practices
Saline Seep Evaluated Seep Location Total Score/ Rank from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. It a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Geology Agricultural area overlies Agricultural areas Agricultural area overlies Agricultural area over-
formations of igneous or primarily overlies forma- marine deposits. lies marine deposits of
metamorphic origin. tions of igneous or Faulting common. recent origin.
Few fractures or faults metamorphic origin with Fractures and faulting
in the area. occasional areas above very common in the
marine deposits. area.
Few fractures or faults.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
10 7 3 0
2. Precipitation Average crop water Average crop water Average crop water Average crop water
& irrigation consumption is equal consumption is between consumption is between consumption exceeds
requirements to or less than 5 and 10% more than 10 and 25% more than average precipitation
average precipitation. average precipitation. precipitation. by more than 25%.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 0
3. Cropping Crop rotation consists of Crop rotation consists of Crop rotation contains a Crop rotation contains 17,37,68,
system annual crops with maximum annual crops. biannual fallow period. a biannual fallow 72
consumptive water use. Crops with maximum period.
water consumptive use
grown.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
8 6 4 2
4. Field Downslope fields exhibit Downslope areas of field Downslope areas of field Downslope areas of
appearance, even-appearing crop growth. or downslope fields or downslope fields have fields have bare spots
including High yields are common for exhibit even crop growth, uneven growth of crops not accounted for by
salt crusts the area. but of reduced yield for with patches of crops soil variations. Bare
the area. significantly stunted. spots occur in highly
Occasionally white crust saline soils. White
occurs in these patches. crust common.
OTHER OTHER OTHER OTHER
9 7 3 1

1 - Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL [ 1
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 30. Check "good" if the score falls between 20 and 29,
etc. Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices
in the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (30-35) [ I Good (20-29) [ I Fair( 8-19) [ I Poor ( 7 or less) [ I

I
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