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Coastal Zone information Center CGAS-' L MEE INFORMAtION CENTER FEB YOUR LAND AND WATER RESOURCES CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE SUPPLIES AND USES 7 N NZIP S . . . . . . . . . . . S 21 ffilSCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION NO. 1,290 A46 @co NOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ABSTRACT U.S. land and water resources are analyzed as a basis for projecting national agricultural cropland and other land needs to the year 2000. Impact of changes in -technology and resource development as well as environmental and institutional factors affecting the availability of these natural resources are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the continuing responsibility of Federal, State, and local governments to assess the adequacy of our natural resources to meet future needs and to improve the quality of the environment. Keywords: Land, Water, Cropland, Land utilization, Landowner- ship, Natural resources, Conservation, Government programs, Projections. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.00 -- Stock No. 0100-03250 OUR LAND AND WATER RESOURCES CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE SUPPLIES AND USES Property of CSC Library U . S . DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413 U.S. Department of Agriculture Washington, D.C. 20250 Economic Research Service May 1974 FOREWORD Americans today have a greater appreciation than ever before of the importance of natural resources to our overall well-being, and of the need to use these resources wisely if we' are to meet both present and future requirements. The quality of our environment is also an important consideration in the development and use of these resources. For many years the Department of Agriculture has actively promoted the wise use of our land and water resources. It has done this through research and education programs, and through technical and financial assistance services available in every county and State. Because of the renewed interest in how to best use these 'resources in producing needed goods and services while protecting environmental values, I have directed agencies of the Department to give emphasis in their programs to measures for maintaining and improving the Nation's natural resources. Secretary's Memorandum No. 1827, Statement on Land Use Policies, issued in October 1973 (see the appendix), expresses the Department's goals and policies for achieving better use of our natural resources. It is my hope that this report will be useful not only in describing the present and projected use of our land and water resources, but also in presenting some of the problems that confront us and our expectations for the future. e AT Secretary of Agriculture PREFACE This report was prepared to provide background information for land use policy discussions. It includes a current summary of national rural land and water uses, estimates of future land and water requirements to meet projected national agricultural production needs, and a discussion of environmental and institutional factors that affect the availability of' land for agricultural and other uses. Major land use problems resulting from competing uses and those causing environmental conflicts are examined. Water supplies, trends in water use, and projected water requirements are discussed. Present and future water needs are analyzed in more detail in Me Nation's Water Resources: First National Assessment, published by the U.S. Water Resources Council in 1968. This report was prepared from Economic Research Service staff papers and economic studies of rural land and water problems. The primary data for these studies were obtained in large measure from resource inventories compiled by the Economic Research Service, Soil Conservation Service, and the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principal sources of published data and analyses are cited in the report. These data were supplemented with information from programs carried out by the Depart- ment in cooperation with private landowners and with State and local governments. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The following staff members of the Natural Resource Economics Division, Economic Research Service (ERS), participated in the preparation of this report: William Anderson, Robert Boxley, Melvin Cotner, William Crosswhite, Harold Ellis, Thomas Frey, Joel Frisch, John Fritschen, William Heneberry, Howard Hill, Orville Krause, Norman Landgren, Dudley Mat- tson, Howard Osborn, Robert Otte, Geogre Pavelis, John Putman, Leroy Quance, Louise Samuel, Larry Schluntz, and Gene Wunderlich. Also contributing were subject matter specialists in USDA's Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Cooperative State Research Service, Extension Service, Farmers Home Administration, Forest Service, Rural Development Service, and Soil Conservation Service. Overall direction of the report was under Howard Hill, Orville Krause, and Robert Boxley, ERS. iv CONTENTS Summary ............................................ A Introduction .......................................... I Land Resources ........................................ I Major Land Uses .................................... I Rural Land Uses Near Cities ............................ 14 Land Capability and Conservation Needs .................... 18 Ownership and Land Use ............................... 20 Public Controls Over Private Land. Use ..................... 32 Water Resources ....................................... 33 Water Supplies and Uses ............................... 33 Water Rights and Regulation ............................ 39 Prospective Land and Water Resource Requirements and Potentials ....................................... 41 Assumptions and Economic Framework ..................... 41 Agricultural Projections ................................ 42 Ximber Demand and Supplies ............................ 42 Agricultural and Forest Land Projections .................... 43 Nonagricultural Land Requirements ........................ 45 Water Requirements .................................. 45 Current Problem Areas Affecting Land Use Policy ................ 46 Changing Demand for Food and Fiber ...................... 46 Competing Uses for Land .............................. 47 Environmental Concerns and Rural Land Use ................. 48 Energy Supplies and Land Use ........................... 49 Institutional Change .................................. So Literature Cited ........................................ 51 Appendix: Secretary's Memorandum No. 1827, Statement on Land-Use Policy .................................... 52 v SUMMARY Although thousands of acres of farmland are con- This sizable reduction in cropland has been possible verted annually to other uses-urbanization, roads, because of a 50-percent increase in output per crop wildlife, and recreation-and population has risen a acre during the last 20 years. Contributing to the gain third in 20 years, we are in no danger of running out in output 'are more efficient farm organization, of farmland. Increasingly efficient production methods, increased irrigation and use of agricultural chemicals, a declining rate of population growth, and an abun- improvements in other farming inputs, developm@nt of dance of water resources and land with agricultural more productive cropland, and retirement of less potential should ensure our domestic food and fiber productive acreage. needs to the year 2000 and leave enough land left over Under a specific set of assumptions with respect to for other purposes. population, exports, and related variables, acreage of Distribution of the Nation's land among major uses crops harvested in the year 2000 is projected to has not changed markedly in recent decades. Agri- decline slightly ftor@ 1969 acreage, as shown in table culture continues to use more of our land than any 1. A population growth of 30 percent and a moderate other segment of the economy. In the 50 States, about increase in exports are basic to these estimates. With a a fifth of all land is used for growing crops and well lower population growth rate and no other changes, over a third, including both grassland and woodland projected requirements for harvested cropland are 291 grazed, is used for livestock grazing. Forest land million acres in 1980 and 261 million,acres in 2000. occupies a third of the total land area. About Projected cropland requirements would increase to 304 one-eighth of the land consists of marshes and swamp, million acres of harvested cropland in 1980 'and 309 desert, tundra, and barren land. Land in urban uses has million acres in 2000, if exports of farm products are about doubled since 1950 and now makes up almost 2 higher than assumed in the base projection. This is an percent of the total land area. One percent of the land increase of about 6 to 7 million acres of cropland for area is used for roads, air-ports, and other rural each $1 billion increase in farm exports. Export levels transportation facilities. assumed for the high projection are up 25 percent in How land is used, and its potential for development 1980 from the baseline projection, and up 75 percent or conversion to other uses, is interrelated with in 2000. availability and quality of water. Water supplies and Total acreage potentially available for crop pro- demands vary widely among regions. Nationwide, 5 duction exceeds these projections. By 1980, the total percent of annual runoff supply is consumed; that is, it acreage of cropland harvested could range from 340 to does not return to surface or ground sources. Agri- 350 million acres, assuming no limitation on crop culture accounts for at least half and in many cases for acreage and favorable cost-price relations for agricul- nearly all water consumed in 13 of the 18 water tural production. This increase in crop acreage could resource regions. The Water Resources Council projects be met by more complete use of land now in farms that water withdrawals for steam-electric power will with a cropping history and continuation of cropland exceed all other major uses by 2000 (fig. 1). Irrigation will development at about the current rate. In the longer continue to be the principal consumptive use of water, term, considerable additional land could be developed although it will decline slightly as a share of total use. for crop production, although costs could be quite More than a million acres of rural land are con- high because of the extensive improvements-clearing, verted annually to urban and transportation uses and drainage, irrigation, etc.-needed to make it suitable for to water storage and flood control reservoirs. Probably regular cultivation. less than half of this land was in crops before it was Acreage required for urban needs is projected to converted to other uses. Total conversion of cropMnd grow by as much as 21 million acres between 1969 to other uses currently averages over 2% million acres a and 2000. Some increase in the area used for recrea- year. This acreage is partially offset by development of tion and wildlife habitat is expected. Where recreation IV4 million acres of new cropland each year. and wildlife uses are introduced as a multiple use of vi Water Uses: 1965 vs. the year 2000 WITHDRAWALSI (billion gallons per day) RURAL irrigation 1 15.1 Livestock and 4 domestic 6 URBAN Municipal 24 (public supported) 51 :odu,trial 46 self-supported) 1271 Steam-electric power Fresh :3 91 Saline 22M 2111 RURAL CONSUMPTIVE USE2 irrigation 65 901 Livestock and 3 domestic 5 URBAN Municipal 5 Water removed from the ground or diverted from a stream or lake. (Public supported) 17 2 Consumption is the proportion of withdrawals not available for : dustrial 4 subsequent use. It includes transpiration and some evaporation. Self-supportedl 0 10 Steam-electric power Sour= The Nation's Water Resources Summary Report, U.S. Water Fresh .7 Resources Council, Washington, D.C. (1968). 5b Saline .2 1965@ 2 20W= Figure 1 Table I-Major uses of land in the 48 States: Historic and projected, 1949-2000 wasteland, and total land area, but has little effect on agri- Historic Projected' cultural and commercial forest acreages. Land use 1 2Cropland harvested, crop* failure, and culiivated summer 969 1 1980 2000 fallow. Million acres 'Excludes reserved forest land in parks, and other special uses of land. The total acreage of forest land in the 48 Cropland used for crops' 387 333 320 298 contiguous States was approximately 627 million acres in 1949 Cropland harvested (352) (286) (292) (272) and 632 million acres in 1969. Forest and woodland' 601 603 591 578 'Permanent grassland pasture and range in farms and not in Pasture, range, and other farms, land in crop rotation but used only for pasture or idle, agricultural land' 768 767 771 782 and miscellaneous other land in farms. Urban and related' 42 60 66 81 'Area in urban places, highway and road rights-of-way, Other special uses and railroad rights-of-way, and nonmilitary airports. miscellaneous uses' 106 134 149 158 ' Includes National and State parks and wildlife areas, Total land area 7 F1,904 1,897 1,897 1,897 national forest wilderness and primitive areas, national defense lands, State institutional sites, miscellaneous other special uses, 'Land use projections are derived from projections pre- and unclassified areas such as marshes, open swamps, bare rocks, pared for the Water Resources Council by the Economic sand dunes, and deserts. Research Service, and the Bureau of Economic Analysis, 7Change in total land area is attributable to changes in Department of Commerce. Exclusion of data for Alaska and methods used in occasional remeasurements by the Bureau of Hawaii significantly affects acreage of noncommercial forest, the Census, and increases in the area of mamnade reservoirs. vii land, however, land will not necessarily be converted devising institutions to reconcile private and public from other uses such as agriculture or forestry. The interests in resources and achieve local, , State, area required for national defense installations, water and national goals for resource management and storage and flood control reservoirs, and surface mining use. is expected to total 5 million acres by 2000. None of Government and citizen participation in setting these projected changes would substantially alter the objectives for land use, and designing measures to present distribution of major land uses. achieve these objectives, are essential elements of land The sum of the many private and public land use use policy. The demonstrated broad interest in environ- decisions has importance both for the near and the mental improvement, which directly touches on many long term. This concern for the future is evident in land use decisions, is evidence of growing public several a-eas of current national interest in which land concern about the adequacy of our land and water use has a central role: meeting present and future resources to meet increasing needs. Decisions made needs for agricultural and forest. products, allocating now about the way land and water resources are land among competing uses, improving envrionmental developed and used will affect our own well-being quality, meeting present and future energy needs, and and that of future generations. viii INTRODUCTION The Nation's land and water resources, while abun- retirement and cropland adjustment programs are dant, are limited in the amount of products and examples of programs that have had major influence services they can supply. Changes in technology and on land use. Other Federal programs, such as those for resource development affect the amount and productiv- water resource development, transportation, power, ity of our natural resources, while factors such as and regional development, have land use effects that population growth and migration, industrial develop- frequently extend beyond State boundaries. ment, and changes in goods and services the people The States have broad authority to regulate land use desire affect demands for the products of land and and some have enacted legislation directed toward water. environmental and land use problems. A number of The adequacy of our land and water resources to States have enacted legislation permitting special tax provide products and services essential to the well- treatment of farmland. Local governments also have being of all the people, now and in the future, is a the power to regulate land use. Every State has continuing concern. Actions to improve environmental enacted legislation that permits some zoning of rural quality or to meet energy needs will affect future land land. Most cities, and many counties within Standard and water use. Environmental and economic objectives, Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's), do detailed including estimates of the demand for national food land use planning.' and fiber production, need to be jointly considered in No single approach or prescription can be offered assessing long-term consequences of alternative resource for resolving land problems. Broadly speaking, the programs and resource development decisions. problems arise from changing objectives and needs Each level of government-Federal, State, and for the products and services of land. Possibly the local-has powers to influence the way people use land. most challenging problem in achieving better land The Federal Government directly manages a large area use is in devising workable and accep6ble insti- of land and, through its spending and taxing powers, tutional arrangements for guiding or coordinating also influences land use decisions. Federal cropland land use decisions. LAND RESOURCES Major Land Uses some roads have been abandoned. In response to Demands on OUT land resources have increased greatly increased demand, land designated as recreation greatly over the last two decades. Population has and wildlife areas has tripled and now accounts for grown by a third, while the total output of goods and about 4 percent of the land resource (table 3). The services has risen even more because of an improved increase in this category is largely due to a reclassifi- standard of living. In spite of these demands for food cation of some public forest or wilderness while the and fiber and space for living in the rural environment, land cover itself remained unchanged. Total land the total land use pattern has remained virtually available for recreation, including land available in the unchanged (fig. 2, table 2). As in 1950, cropland still other primary use categories on a shared basis, com- comprises about a fifth of our total land area, prises a high share of the country's total area. This grassland pasture and range about a fourth, forest land recreation land is discussed later. about a third, and wasteland an eighth. Land use varies greatly among regions of the 48 Land for urban uses has about doubled since 1950 contiguous States. More than half of the land in the but still takes only 11h percent of our 50-State land 'A Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) is defined area. Land for transportation purposes (about I per- by the Census Bureau as a county or group of contiguous cent of the total) is up only slightly because many new counties (except in New England) which contains at least one roads have been built on existing rights-of-way and central city or twin cities with at least 50,000 population. I LAND USE MIL. ACRES 0 \,\\,,,,\\\,\,,\\OTHER LA' 2100 1,500 FOREST LAND A ....: .. ....... ........... ..... ... ......... '000 -------- ........... ... .... . .. ... ........... ..... .... .. ..... ....... .. . ....... .... ...... ....... ... .... ...... ... ....... ............ ...-GRASSLAND PASTURE AND R A N G E 0 .... ...... ............... ............ ........ ..... .. ..... .... . .............. ............ ................ ............... ................I ..... .......... ................ ............... . ... 5 0 0 ........ ..... .......... ................ . . ......... . ........ .. DI A &1r% n CR^_. .-IMW 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1959 1969 OCROPLAND USED ONLY FOR PASTURE IS INCLUDED IN GRASSLAND PASTURE AND RANGE. AEXCLUDES FOREST LAND RESERVED FOR PARKS AND OTHER SPECIAL USES OF LAND. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS 5576-73 ( 4) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 2 Corn Belt and the Northern Plains is in cropland. acreages of the total cropland base for specified years Pasture and rangeland predominate in the Southern 1949-69 are shown in table 4. Plains and Mountain States. Forest land is the major Because of crop failure and land preparation use in the Northeastern, Appalachian, Southeastern, requirements, the acreage harvested does not fully and Delta States, and along the Pacific Coast above identify the total acreage required in crop production. San Francisco. Cropland used for crops or the land input to crop Land use and management problems in Alaska differ production is more adequately measured by aggregating from those normally experienced in other States. Aliree component acreages-cropland harvested, crop Alaska, with 363 million acres, accounts for 16 percent failure, and cultivated summer fallow. In 1973, the of our land area. About 60 percent is in the miscel- acreage required for crop production totaled 354 laneous "o.ther" category (swamp, tundra, bare rock, million acres. etc.,), and a third is in forest land; relatively little is in The idle component of the cropland acreage cropland. The climate is subarctic, population density includes cropland completely idle and cropland used is very low, and land is practically all in public only to grow soil improvement crops. The sum of ownership. these categories (cropland used for crops, soil improve- Cropland nient crops not harvested or pastured, and completely idle cropland) is the most reliable indicator of total The Nation's cropland resources total 472 million cropland acreage when showing trends (fig. 3). Crop- acres, or 21 percent of the land area. This total land pasture is identified in table 3 but is not shown in represents neither the acreage actually used in crop figure 2 because the census definition has changed over production each year nor the acreage that could be time so that historical figures are not comparable. I N used for crops. Rather, it represents the acreage Over the last two decades, total cropland, excluding presently in the crop rotation. In any given year, part cropland pasture, declined about 6 percent, or about a of the available cropland is used for crops, part is million acres a year. Although the total acreage of used only for pasture, and the rest is idle. Component cropland has not varied greatly during this period, 2 Table 2-Trends in major uses of land, selected years, demands for farm products. Cropland used for crops 1950-69 - - increased and there was a large but not completely Land use 19501 19541 19591 1964TI969 corresponding decrease in idle cropland. Idle cropland, Million acres particularly that diverted from production to soil- Cropland' 478 466 458 444 472 conserving crops, represents a source of cropland as Grassland pasture and needed. The idle acreage tends to vary inversely with range' 632 634 633 640 604 annual changes in the acreage used for crops. In 1974, Forest land' 721 727 728 727 723 the only remaining diverted cropland acreage will be (grazed) (319) (301) (245) (225) (198) about 2 million acres under long-term contract. Special areas' 138 143 151 168 178 Miscellaneous other land' 304 303 301 287 287 The great increase in cropland productivity since Total' 2,273 2,273 2,271 2,266 2,264 1949 resulted from more efficient farm organization; 'Cropland harvested, crop failure, cropland idle or fallow, Table 3-Summary of major land uses, 1969 and cropland used only for pasture. Acreages shown were Major land uses Acreage Percentage obtained from the Census of Agriculture and adjusted for I of total underenumeration. Million acres Percent 'Grassland and other nonforested pasture and range. 'Exclusive of forest land in parks, wildlife refuges, and other Agricultural: special use areas. Cropland' 384 17.0 4Includes such uses as urban areas, highways and roads, Cropland used for crops' (333) (14.7) parks, wildlife areas, military reservations, and farmsteads. Soil improvement crops and 'Includes deserts, swamps, bare rock, tundra, and similar idle cropland (51) (2.3) areas generally having low value for agricultural purposes. Grassland pasture and range' 692 30.6 ' Decreases in the land area mainly represent increases in the Forest land grazed 198 8.7 water area of artificial reservoirs. Changes in methods of area Farmsteads, farm Toads 9 .4 measurement used by the Bureau of the Census, together with Total agricultural land 1,283 56.7 revisions for Alaska, also account for part of the decrease. Source: (21). Italicized numbers in parentheses indicate items Nonagricultural: in the Literature Cited, p. 5 1. Forest land not grazed 4 525 23.2 important changes have occurred in individual use Special uses 169 7.5 Urban areas, roads, and other components. Of particular interest is cropland used for built-up areas' (61) (2.7) crops. This category decreased from a record high of Primarily for recreation parks 387 n-ffllion acres in 1949 to 335 million acres in and wildlife" (81) (3.6) 1964, remained near this relatively low level through Public installations and facilities' (27) (1.2) 1972, and then increased sharply to 354 million acres Miscellaneous land8 28 12.6 in 1973. The cutback in "cropland used for crops" came Total nonagricultural land 981 43.3 about because of great increases in cropland productiv- Total land area 2,264 100.0 ity. From 1949 to 1969, population increased a third 'Excludes cropland used only for pasture. but output per crop acre increased more than a half. 'Cropland harvested, crop failure, and cultivated summer Total crop production rose 41 percent. Thus, output fallow. per person actually gained, although there was a 'Includes cropland used only for pasture. cutback of 14 percent in cropland used for crop 4Excludes 32 million acres of reserved and other forest land production. duplicated mainly in parks and other special use areas. It was not feasible to eliminate all overlap that exists because of Cropland in soil improvement crops and other idle multiple use. cropland trended upward as the acreage used for crops 'Urban and town areas; highway, road, and railroad rights-of- decreased. Idle land went from 22 million acres in way; and airports. 1949 to 51 million acres in 1969. This gain was closely 'National and State parks and related recreational areas, National and State wildlife refuges, and national forest wilderness associated with land diverted from crop production and primitive areas. under Federal programs, although additional cropland 'Federal land administered by the Department of Defense was diverted to cultivated summer fallow and to and the Atomic Energy Commission, and State land in institu- various noncropland uses. In 1973, acreage diverted tional uses. from crop production under Federal programs dropped 'Includes miscellaneous uses not inventoried and areas of little use such as marshes, open swamps, bare rock areas, deserts, by 43 million acres as farmers were encouraged to and tundra. expand production to supply domestic and export Source: (21). 3 Table 4-Major uses of cropland, selected years, 1949-73 Cropland use 1949 1954 1959 1964 1 1969 1 1970 F1971 1972 1973 Million acres Harvested 352 339 317 292 286 289 301 290 318 Crop failure 9 13 10 6 6 5 5 6 5 Cultivated summer fallow 26 28 31 37 41 37 34 38 31 Total for crops 387 380 358 335 333 331 340 334 354 Soil improvement and idle cropland 22 19 33 52 51 53 45 48 28 Total cropland, excluding pasture 409 399 391 387 384 384 385 382 382 Cropland pasture 69 66 66 57 88 NA NA NA 'NA Total cropland, including pasture 478 465 457 444 472 NA NA NA NA Diverted acres' - - 22 55 57 57 37 62 19 NA = not available. 'Acreage diverted or set aside to comply with Federal farm supply management programs. This acreage is mostly included in the soil improvement and idle cropland category but some is included in the cultivated summer fallow category of cropland. Based on data from the Statistical Reporting Service, U.S. Dept. Agr., and U.S. censuses of agriculture. improved machinery; increased use of agricultural increased use of agricultural chemicals, increased irriga- chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, and ration tion, and regional shifts in production, have had additives; improved crop and livestock species and environmental as well as economic impacts. management; more irrigation; and regional shifts in Primary plant nutrients in fertilizer rose from 15 production. Some of these changes, particularly the pounds per acre in 1950 to 76 pounds in 1970; while MAJOR USES OF CROPLAND Excluding Cropland Pasture MIL. ACRES Total cropland 400 300 200 Cropland used for crops HARVESTED 100 0 19A9 1954 1959 196A '69 '71 '73 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS 8909-7300) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 3 4 the active ingredients in the synthetic organic pesti- water supplies, as in parts of the Texas High Plains, cides (excluding sulfur and petroleum), largely intro- and to more intensive nonagricultural competition for duced since 1950, rose to 321 million pounds by 1964 farmland and its water supply elsewhere in the Western and to over 450 million pounds by 1970. Much of the States. increase in land productivity can be attributed to the In 1969, crops were harvested from 34 million acres increased use of agricultural chemicals. However, agri- of irrigated land, about 12 percent of total harvested cultural chemicals may contribute to stream and lake acreage. In addition, about 5 million acres of cropland pollution by runoff and may be leached into ground- pasture and improved pasture were irrigated. Hay water supplies. harvested plus pasture accounted for about a third of Regional shifts in agricultural production have had the total 39 million acres irrigated. appreciable environmental impacts, both in those areas Ninety percent of the irrigated land is in the 17 where land is being newly developed or farmed more Western States. Concentrated areas include the Texas intensively and in those areas where cropland was Gulf and High Plains, southern Arizona, and Cali- abandoned. From 1944 to 1964, 868 counties gained a fornia's Central Valley. In addition, there is scattered total of 27 million acres of cropland (harvested, plus irrigated acreage in a broad band extending from the soil improvement and idle cropland). During the same Central Plains to the Northwest. In this drier part of period, 2,204 counties lost a total of 54 million acres the country, irrigation accounts for the difference of cropland. This extensive regional change occurred between low-producing range and highly productive during a time when total cropland showed only a small cropland. About 10 percent of the irrigated acreage is downtrend. Cropland in some areas increased 1.3 in the area from the Plains States eastward to the million acres a year, while in other areas it declined Atlantic. Concentrated acreages are found in Florida, 2.6 million acres a year. Arkansas, and Louisiana; otherwise, small operatioris New cropland appeared in a number of well-defined are scattered across the cropland areas. areas (fig. 4). Reclamation in Florida was associated Irrigated acreage has been on the rise for many with both drainage and irrigation projects; in the Delta years (fig. 5). From 1939 to 1969 the annual increase with clearing and drainage; and in the Texas High was 700,000 acres a year. irrigated acreage in the East Plains, California, and Washington with expanded irri- is still relatively small, but the 4.2 million acres gation facilities. Expansion was associated with irrigated in 1969 is six times greater than the acreage improved dryland farming techniques in northern Mon- irrigated in 1939. Two-thirds of this increase has taken tana and with various farm-oriented techniques, such as place in the Florida fruit and vegetable area, and in the drainage, clearing, contouring, and leveling, throughout rice and soybean areas of Arkansas and Louisiana. In the Corn Belt. recent years, irrigated acreage in these areas has Cropland abandonment occurred on a large scale continued upward, as has acreage in the Corn Belt and south and east of the Corn Belt, except in the Delta Lakes States. However, the increases have been offset by States and in southern Florida. Abandonment east of decreases in the Northeast and Appalachia that tend to co- the Mississippi resulted from low soil fertility and a incide with declining agricultural activity in those regions. terrain that was not suited to efficient use of modern Irrigated land use differs widely across the country. machinery. (Many fields are small, rough, and isolated.) In the West, more than a third of the irrigated land is In extensive areas of eastern Oklahoma and Texas, used for hay and pasture, compared with a tenth in cropland has reverted to grass. This appears to be the the East (fig. 6). The major field crops account for best and most stable use of the land from the about 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in the West; standpoint of efficiency as well as conservation. Prelim- in the Southern Plains large acreages of cotton and inary findings of cropland use studies for the period sorghum are irrigated. The high-valued fruit and vege- 1964-69 show a continuation of the earlier rate of table crops account for about a tenth of irrigated land cropland abandonment. Major areas of recent cropland use-mostly in California (72 percent), but southern increase are the Mississippi Delta, Central Plains, and Texas and southern Arizona account for about 9 northernmost Great Plains. Major decreases in cropland percent and 5 percent, respectively. In the East, more acreage occurred throughout the Eastern States, Lake than half of the total irrigated area is used for the States, and parts of the Great Plains. Some of the production of rice, vegetables, and fruits. cropland increases, notably in the Central and South- ern Great Plains, appear to be closely associated with Pasture and Range irrigation development. Some decreases in irrigated Livestock graze on 890 million acres, or 39 percent acreage also took place, mainly due to a decline in of the land area of the 50 States (tables 5 and 6). This 5 CROPLAND ACREAGE CHANGES, 1944-64 INCREASE IN CROPLANO ACREAGE* -1/0 % -1 dot=10,000-ocre increase, in counties hich had a not Mcleass in cropland acre"s -@NQUDES CROPLAND HARVESTED, FAILED, SUMMER FALIOWED. DIE OR IN SOIL IM PROVEMENT CROPS ONLY AND fXCLUDES CROPIAND PASTURE. SOURCE: U.S. CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE mjG. ERS 6981-69 (71 ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE DECREASE IN CROPLAND ACREAGE* 19"-19rA A :v v I dat=10.000-auf dec'".., ti., Ach had Ir nt dKrmso in cropland acreage MER FALLOWEDA -@NCLUDES CROPLAND HARVESTED, FAIIED, SUM OLF On IN SOIL IMPROVEMENT CROPS ONL V AND EXC UDES CROPLAND PASTURE. SOU RCE! U S CENSUS OF AGRICUITURE ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE U S@ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Figure 4 6 IRRIGATED LAND IN. FARMS MIL. ACRES AO - I 31 EASTERN STATES HAWAII AND ALASKA 30 - I U.S. total 20 STERN STATES 10 0 1939 1944 1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 DATA FROM THE SUREAU OF THE CENSUS. [1U.L DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS 8436-72 (8) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 5 IRRIGATED LAND, BY CROP AND REGION As Percent of Regional Totals PERCENT 100 WEST EAST 10 OTHER 13 . ................................................... . CHARDS, VINEYARDS . ............. P! .............. 5 12 80 2 V E ETA B LES 60 38 RKE 16 FIELD CROPS 28 40 15 PASTURE 20 20 25 HAY 10 33.4 mil. acres 3.7 mil. acres *CORN, SORGHUM, WHEAT, BARLEY, SOYBEANS, COJ-TON. SOURCE: CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE, 1964. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS8904-72 (9) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 6 7 Table 5-Total pasture and range, selected years, methods which may have led some farmers to identify 1949-69 permanent grassland pasture as cropland pasture. Type - 1949 1 1954 1 19591 19641 1969, About two-thirds of the 890 rhillion acres of Million acres pasture is on farms. This includes 88 million acres of Grassland pasture and cropland used for pasture, 4.52 million acres of range 701 700 699 697 692 permanent pasture and range, and 62 million acres of Cropland pasture (69) (66) (66) (57) (88) woodland. Of the 288 million nonfarm acres used for Open permanent pasture (632) (634)(633) (640) (604) grazing, about half is Federal grassland, a fourth is Woodland grazed 319 301 245 225 198 Federal woodland grazed, and. a fourth is largely Total pasture and range 1,020 1,001 944 922 890 woodland in State or private ownership. Most of the Source: (21). Federal land used for grazing is located in semiarid portions of the I I Western States and has low represents a decrease of 13 percent on land area grazed productivity. Nationally, Federal and other nonfarm in the last two decades, despite a 46-percent gain in grazing lands supply only a small part of total pasture cattle numbers. However, most of the decrease can be feed. In the Mountain and Pacific regions, however, attributed to a reduction in woodland grazed, including Federal range provides about an eighth of the livestock many areas of low forage productivity. feed utilized, with higher proportions locally. Many The total acreage of grassland pasture and range, ranchers in the Western States depend very heavily on which supplies practically all of the pasture feed public range as a source of feed or as a seasonal source produced, has remained virtually unchanged since of feed that complements or supplements other feed 1950. Cropland pasture, which supplies probably half supplies. of the pastureland needs, increased 31 million acres Among major types of pasture, cropland pasture is from 1964 to 1969, while permanent pasture on farms by far the most productive. Although it accounts for decreased 36 million acres. This increase in cropland only a tenth of pasture and range acreage, cropland pasture is greater than might have been expected. It pasture yields a very large share of total forage may be due partly to a change in census enumeration production. The 604 million acres of grassland pasture Table 6-Pasture and range by type and region, 1969 Cropland Grassland Forest land TotaJ4 Region pasture' pasture and pasture and Acreagepfercentage range' range' of land area ........ 1, 000 acres -------- Percent Northeast 3,669 3,162 2,238 9,069 8 Lake States 5,293 6,175 4,735 16,203 13 Corn Belt 16,886 13,948 11,975 42,809 26 Northern Plains 11,273 72,940 2,496 86,709 46 Appalachian 12,428 8,427 6,669 27,524 22 Southeast 5,634 10.498 13,619 29,751 24 Delta States 6,684 8,433 21,391 36,508 40 Southern Plains 16,833 111,349 26,341 154,523 73 Mountain 5,726 313,478 79,071 398,275 73 Pacific 3,755 52,594 29,084 85,433 42 48 States 88,181 601,004 t97,619 886,804 47 Alaska 3 1,624 111 1,738 S Hawaii 36 987 451 1,474 36 U.S. total 88,220 603,615 198,181 890,016 39 ' Land in the crop rotation which is used some years for cultivated crops and other years for pasture. ' Excludes cropland used for pasture. 'An approximation of the acreage grazed to some extent during the year. 4Excludes 57 million acres in Federal land that has little or no use for grazing but which is intermingled and managed with productive Federal range. Less than 0.5 percent. 8 and range account for two-thirds of the total acreage politan areas for fireplace wood. Even without rising grazed. Productivity of this grassland pasture and fuel costs, growth in the market for fuelwood is range varies greatly but averages much less per acre projected because of increases in income, population, than cropland pasture. Two-thirds of this acreage is in and residential construction. Wood plant residues also low-producing rangelands of the Mountain and South- are a source of fuel. About a fifth of primary plant ern Plains States where potential for improving land residues, a third of wood manufacturing plant residues, productivity is very limited. Grassland pasture in other and a fourth of the bark at sawmills and wood regions is more productive, particularly in the humid manufacturing plants are used for fuel (22). East, but still yields much less than cropland pasture. Present and prospective supplies of wood appear to provide for modest expansion of consumption. The Forest Land 1970 inventory of 6SO billion cubic feet of growing A third-754 million acres-of the Nation's total stock (trees available for present harvest or future land area, including Alaska, is in forests (table 7). growth) supported annual cuts and removals of 14 About a sixth of this area is in Alaska, where little billion cubic feet. Two-thirds of the Nation's growing timber is harvested for wood products. Of the 633 stock is softwood, supporting just over two-thirds of million acres of forest land in the 48 States, almost 80 the annual removals. This apparent close harmony of percent, or 493 million acres, is commercially produc- consumption with supplies masks potential problems tive. During the period 19SO-70, output of forest related to the regional distribution of timber species products increased 9.5 percent. Industrial wood con- and sizes. This problem is more severe for the Pacific sumption increased 30.5 percent while population region than for other regions (see the softwood increased 35 percent. The resulting trend is a per growing stock colunns of table 8). Softwood in the capita drop of 9.2 percent in industrial wood consump- Pacific region is the principal remaining source of tion. During this interval, net imports fell from 14 high-quality, large-size timber. These old forests are percent of consumption to about 8.5 percent. producing little or no growth. For some time growth The mix of industrial wood products consumed has has trailed annual cut, resulting in a 6.8-percent drop undergone considerable change since 1950. Lumber in growing stock. As old trees are harvested and now accounts for one-half, down from nearly two- replaced with vigorous young ones, and harvesting thirds. Pulp products have increased from 24 to 37 shifts to young stands, a better regional balance should percent; plywood, from 3.5 to 9.2 percent. Miscel- be achieved in the production of softwood material. laneous products have dropped from 7.8 to 4.3 percent However, size and quality of softwood timber tend to (18). be lower in young forests than in forests that presently Fuelwood consumption in 1972 was estimated at make up much of the harvest. billion cubic feet, a fourth of the amount so consumed Over 90 percent of U.S. hardwood supplies are in 1952. Other fuels have been substituted for use in located in the two eastern regions. These supplies are home cooking, heating, and industry. In recent years, presently underutilized, particularly in the North. Both however, substantial markets have developed in metro- the recent increases in growing stock and the ratios of growth to removals make this clear (table 7). Part of Table 7-Forest land, by region, 1970 the problem is due to the relative small size and low Forest land quality of these "second growth" forests. Another Total facet is the market emphasis on producing softwood Region Nonprodu tive land timber for construction material and pulp for paper. A tiv Productive' Total area e .r [R7wr7yedl HOther contributing factor also is the predominance of small Million acres ownership tracts in the East, which tends to inhibit North 178 4 4 186 628 efficient management and orderly marketing. Little South 192 2 18 212 513 improvement in the management of these forests can Rocky Mountains 62 8 68 138 555 be expected until better markets are developed for Pacific 61 3 32 96 204 small and lower grade trees. Alaska and Hawaii 7 1 114 121 370 Since 1950, timber growth has exceeded removals, Total Soo 18 236 754 2,270 resulting in an increase in total growing stocks. This 'Produces 20 or more cubic feet of useful wood growth per has gone a long way toward repairing the effects of acre per year. earlier exploitation and overcutting. These young 'Parks, etc. stands are rapidly approaching the time when a closer Source: (22). balance must be sought between cut and growth, 9 Table 8-DistributiOn of commercial forest land, softwood and hardwood growing stock, growth and removals, by region, 1970 Softwood growing stock (GS)' Hardwood growing stock (GS) Commercial Percentage Ratio of Ratio of Region forest net growth GS Percentage net growth GS land of total to removals, change, of total to removals, change, GS, 1970 197 02 1952-70 GS, 1970 19702 1952-70 Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent North 35.6 9.1 2.21 +40.8 53.7 2.30 +41.8 South 38.5 18.1 1.35 +42.3 37.4 1.29 +7.3 Rocky Mountains 12.3 20.3 1.38 +3.1 2.1 26.56 +13.8 PacifiC3 13.6 52.5 .64 -6.8 14.8 4.09 +42.2 U.S. total 1 100.0 100.0 1.11 +5.1 100.0 1.79 +26.1 'Growing stock is the net volume of live sawtimber and pole timber trees larger than 5 inches in diameter at breast height. 2 Net growth is change in volume of live sawtimber and pole timber trees. Removals include the net volumes harvested or removed by cultural operations and land clearing or from change in land use. 'Includes Alaska and Hawaii. Source: (22). especially for hardwoods. We could set an early goal to special uses) increased almost 2 million acres a year in increase hardwood harvest by 50 percent and still have the last decade. Virtually all of the increase was in a comfortable excess of growth toward improved recreation and wildlife areas, largely through reclassifi- future supplies. cation of public domain land. Approximately 10 million acres in Alaska were reserved for wildlife in a Special Uses single transfer. Apart from this action, recreation and A fifth of the Nation's land area, 456 million acres, wildlife areas increased only about I million acres a is not in agricultural or forestry uses. This includes 287 year. The latter rate of growth, regarded as more million acres of deserts, swamps, bare rock, tundra, realistic, is used in figure 6. and similar areas generally having low use value, and Acreage in public installations and facilities changed 169 million acres, or about 8 percent of total land little in the last decade, as small increases in State- area, in special purpose uses. These statistics do not include 9 million acres in farmsteads, farm roads, and Table 9-Acreage of land in special uses, related farm uses classified under special purpose use. 1959 and 1969' A third of special purpose land not in farms is in Special uses 1959 1969 1 Change intensive uses such as urban and transportation areas. Million acres Two-thirds is in extensive uses (with little change from Urban areaS2 27.2 34.6 7.3 previous use in the vegetative cover) and includes Transportation areaS3 24.7 26.0 1.3 parks, wildlife areas, and public facilities such as Recreation and wildlife military proving grounds. areaS4 61.5 81.4 19.9 Between 1959 and 1969, land in special uses Public installations increased 27 million acres, or almost 2.7 million acres and facilities' 27.5 27.4 -.1 a year (table 9). Urban areas grew at a faster rate than Farmsteads and farm roads 10.1 8.4 -1.7 population, and removed about 750,000 acres a year Total 151.0 177.8 26.8 from the rural environment. Rural transportation areas - utilized about 130,000 acres a year, some for airports 'Estimates are not strictly comparable. but mostly for interstate highway programs (fig. 7). ' Includes urbanized areas as defined by the Bureau of the Rural land taken by reservoirs (about 300,000 acres Census, and other incorporated and unincorporated places of 1,000 or more population. a year) is not reflected in the land use data because 'Rural land in highway, road, and railroad rights-of-way and this acreage is deducted from the total land area. If airports. land loss to reservoirs is combined with the rural land "Federal and State parks and related recreation areas and shift to urban and transportation uses, nearly 1.2 Federal and State wildlife refuges. million acres of rural land a year are shifting to 'Federal land used for national defense and atomic energy purposes, and State land in institutional sites and miscellaneous intensive special uses that preclude agricultural use. other uses. Extensive-type land use (two-thirds of the total in Source: (21). 10 RURAL LAND SHIFTED ANNUALLY TO OTHER USES, ACRES, 1959-69 Recreation, Wilderness Areas, Parks, and Urban Wildlife Development Refuges 740,000 1,000,000 Total Annual Reservoirs Shift and 2.2 Million Airports Flood Control Acres and 300,000 Highways Excludes one unusually 130,000 large area in Alaska k 14 k, H LVA U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS 8432-73(10) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICEJ Figure 7 administered areas were offset by attrition in national acres of rural land, with substantial effect on the defense land. Much of the latter acreage was assembled adjacent environment, both urban and rural. The social during World War 11 and may not be fully utilized and environmental impacts of highways and roads in now. urban areas are well documented; the impacts in rural The 34.5 million acres in urban places include the areas are less well known. They sometimes include central cities and adjacent suburban fringes, plus all such effects as disturbance of water courses and other incorporated and unincorporated places of 1,000 accelerated sediment delivery during road construction. or more population. Urban acreage includes residential, Limited access and road width limit lateral movement. transportation, industrial, and commercial areas, and Farm units sometimes are divided or isolated, size and some vacant land within urban boundaries. As cor- shape of fields are often altered, and the movement of porate boundaries are extended, they often enclose people, machinery, and livestock is restricted. In undeveloped land, either within developed areas or on addition, the movement and safety of wildlife is the margin of development. Urban areas are very affected. unevenly distributed, with high concentrations in the The rural airport area (1.8 million acres) excludes Northeast, across the heartland from Pittsburgh to military and small private strips, but includes vegetated Milwaukee, and on the west coast from San Francisco areas as well as runways. This use takes only about to San Diego. A more detailed discussion of rural land 35,000 acres a year from other uses. Some of the rural use near cities appears later in this report. airports serve large cities but are still classed as rural Transportation-The 21 million acres in rural high- because of low population density in the immediate ways and roads includes land in systems administered area. Most airports of this type are eventually over- by State and local governments-rights-of-way as well taken by urbanization. as roadbeds. Except for the interstate system, the road Outdoor Recreation-In recent years the Nation has acreage is stable, widely distributed, and reflects experienced a growing demand for outdoor recreation /' 11 S "ol Rese rv' and 0 Co @AF I d irports 0 and 3 00 '0 ig hwoys 30 '000 -7 historical settlement patterns where adjustments have opportunities. From 1965-72, participation more than already been made. doubled in such vacation activities as camping in The interstate highway system, started in the late remote or wilderness areas and in developed camp- 1950's, uses about a million acres, or 5 percent of the grounds, picnicking, canoeing, nature walks, swimming, land in roads. Each year the system takes 100,000 and fishing (23). Several reasons have been advanced to explain why demand for outdoor recreation has grown These areas are widely distributed in terms of numbers so rapidly. Among them are increased income, more but highly concentrated in area and quality. Three- leisure time, changes in taste, and response to environ- fourths of the 319 million acres of public recreation mental education efforts. To some extent the demand land, including many of the most spectacular natural derives from increased accessibility and utility of features, are located in the Western States, often in recreation areas brought about by improvements in sparsely populated areas. In general, recreation areas in transportation and facilities. the Eastern States are not distributed in close con- To accommodate the demand for outdoor recrea- formity with population. tion and preservation of unusual natural areas, govern- Many of the problems associated with public recrea- ments at all levels have made a large acreage available tion lands arise from uneven geographic distribution -of for public recreation use. The Federal Government resources, different intensity of use, accessibility, com- adirtinisters a particularly large acreage including most petition and conflicts between uses, and the need to of the areas considered to be of highest recreation use protect remaining resources having high recreation use quality. The aggregate acreage of public land available value. These problems are often interrelated. For for public recreation use totals 319 million acres (table example, the uneven quality md geographic distribu- 10). In addition, the private sector operates many tion of recreation areas relative to population leads recreation areas for public use and an even larger to underuse of some areas and overuse of others. acreage is available to some extent for public or Popular areas have become crowded to the point of semipublic recreation activities. diminishing enjoyment. At the same time, many people Not all of the public recreation area is uniformly have little or no opportunity to use remotely located available for recreation use. Limited use recreation recreation areas. areas such as some reservoirs and wildlife areas account The issue of accessibility to outdoor recreation areas for a high proportion of the public recreation estate. includes not only the problem of overcoming distancC These uses serve a variety of purposes other than but frequently involves difficulties in acquiring con- recreation. Thus, the total of 319 million acres is more venient rights-of-way to recreation areas. This problem inclusive than the 81 million acres shown in table 9, is particularly acute where increased recreation use which is limited to the land area specifically designated would conflict with the interest of neighboring land- as National and State parks or recreation, wildlife, owners. Problems relating to accessibility also may be wilderness, and primitive areas. associated with heavy visitor traffic and resultant The resource base for outdoor recreation is one of pressures to extend roads and other improvements into contrast, reflecting geographic locations and develop- valuable but limited natural areas. ment intensities. It includes municipal parks and Competition and conflicts between recreation and baseball diamonds as well as remote mountains, forests, other uses historically have not been severe except in rivers, lakes, beaches, shoreline, and similiar features. some localities. Due to different resource requirements, many of the natural areas valuable for recreation use Table 10-Public recreation acreage, 1972 were physically or locationally undesirable for agri- Administering Total T Pa7rkO Limited culture and most higher uses of land. More recently, jurisdiction area recreation use' conflicts between recreation and other uses have Million acres become more common as particular areas have Federal 266.7 19.1 247.6 increased in value for both recreation and various State 41.8 4.4 37.4 special uses. Problems of this nature usually arise in County 8.2 1.3 6.9 new recreation areas rather than in older areas where City 1.6 .7 .9 adjustments have already been made. Exceptions occur, Township .6 .1 .5 however, in areas such as the Everglades where an Other3 .3 .2 .1 established wildlife area is adversely affected by agri- Total 319.2 25.8 293.4 cultural, urban, and other activities beyond its bound- 'Area in national, regional, community, and neighborhood ary. Conflicts between recreation and agricultural uses parks; playgrounds and playfields, and similar areas. occur in various localities but the larger acreage of 'Area available for recreation in public forests, fish and game public recreation land has had no appreciable effect on areas, historic and cultural areas, wilderness and natural areas, total agricultural production. etc. ' Includes parks and recreational districts and regional coun- A final broad concern involves the need to protect cils. and conserve additional areas having special scenic, Adapted from (23, table 3-1). historic, or scientific value and other areas less 12 physically or historically attractive for recreation but Some 77 percent of the country's reserves which functional in terms of locational characteristics. In can be stripped economically lie in 13 States west of addition to preserving the inherent value of these the Mississippi (fig. 8). As utilities consume more low resources, efforts in this direction will diminish the sulfur coal, surface mining in the West could assume problems associated with unequal distribution of recre- major proportions, particularly if conversion of coal to ation resources and use. In the sense that problems gas should become extensive. The next largest concen- relating to accessibility and conflicting uses are tration of strippable coal is an area encompassing the becoming more acute, many of these problems would southern two-thirds of Illinois plus adjacent comers of be diminished by early protection and conservation Indiana and Kentucky. Since 1965, this region has led actions. in strip coal production. The third largest concentra- Public Installations and Facilities-Public installa- tion of strippable coal is in northern Appalachia, which tions and facilities include national defense areas (23 was the largest producer up to 1964. Although there million acres), Federal atomic development and test are large coal reserves in the Appalachian region, much areas (2 million acres), and State-owned land in of the easily stripped coal has been taken and institutional and other uses (2 million acres). Locally equipment in use today is not well adapted to the significant acreages of fertile, level land-particularly in Appalachian terrain. States east of the Rocky Mountains-have been taken Another implication of the energy situation is that for defense and atomic energy purposes. Acreage for pressures will build to locate generating facilities in these uses is not increasing, however, and only part is rural areas, so that chemical and thermal pollution of permanently lost to agriculture. Most of'the land in air and water can be diffused. The Office of Science this category is in areas of the West that have low and Technology in the Executive Office of the Presi- value for other uses. Individual areas set aside for dent has projected a doubling of large thermal gene- public installations and facilities usually include some rating plants (500 megawatts and up) from 237 in intensively used land, but a higher proportion is in 1968 to 492 in 1990 (11, p. 4). Some 60 percent of extensive-type use. This ratio is explained by the these would use fossil fuel and 40 percent, nuclear frequent use of land for buffer zones, particularly fuel. Of the 225 new sites, 100 would have capacities around defense and atomic energy installations. of 2,000 megawatts or larger. Many of these larger Surface Mining-Over 3 million acres of land have facilities may require cooling ponds of 2,000 acres or been disturbed by surface mining-about half for coal more to aid in dissipating surplus heat. mines. Only about a third of the land disturbed by Location of large plants away from urban concen- surface mining has been reclaimed, approximately half trations will mean more, and probably larger, trans- of it through natural processes. Every year about 100,000 acres of land are disturbed for coal mining. Table I I -Estimated original resouf ces of strippablecoal Surface mining of coal has expanded steadily in recent in beds lying less than 100 feet below the surface, years, and is expected to continue to grow due to 15 leading States increased energy needs and greater dependence on coal to meet these needs.2 State Billion short tons The expected future growth in surface mining of Montana 23.0 coal has several implications for rural land use and Illinois 15.5 environmental quality. The potential for surface dis- North Dakota 15.0 turbance is large, relative to the area disturbed so far. Wyoming 13.0 In 1951, 22 percent of all U.S. coal came from surface West Virginia 9.5 mines. By 1970, this share had risen to 44 percent. Pennsylvania 8.0 Originally, the United States had approximately 115 Kentucky 6.0 Ohio 5.0 billion tons of coal lying within 100 feet of the Indiana 3.5 surface. Less than 5 billion toris of this coal have been Texas 3.3 mined to date. Of the original total, 110 billion tons New Mexico 3.0 lie in 15 States with resources of over I billion tons Alaska 2.0 each (table 11). Over half of these resources lie Colorado 1.2 Virginia 1.0 west of the 100th meridian, about one-fourth in the Missouri 1.0 Midwest, and one-fourth in Appalachia. 'Data on surface mining are from the Bureau .of Mines as - 110.0 reported in (7). Source: (1, p. 23). 13 COAL FIELDS Val J. E@0 SOURCE: U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Figure 8 rrdssion lines transecting the countryside. Currently, about 70 percent of the U.S. population in the 48 over 300,000 miles of overhead transmission lines cross contiguous States (table 12). about 4 million acres of right-of-way. It is projected The 242 SMSA's gained 19.7 million people that about 100,000 miles of new lines on 1.5 million between 1960 and 1970-83 percent of the net acres of right-of-way will be constructed each decade increase of 24 million for the 48 States. Population for the balance of this century. Transmission lines may within the SMSA's is concentrated largely in the not remove much land from agricultural production urbanized parts, where population density averages but they impede farm operations where the support 3,137 persons per square mile. The rural parts of the poles and towers are placed on cropland. They also SMSA's average 42 persons per square mile, while contribute to a form of "visual pollution" of the population density outside the SMSA's averages 24 scenic qualities of rural landscapes. Thus, their impact persons per square mile. on agriculture may be greater than the mere taking of Gross statistics indicate that large areas of open land. space-cropland, pasture, woodland, other extensively Rural Land Uses Near Cities used land, and idle land-lie within or near the urban centers. Much of this land is beyond any practical Most of the increase in population between 1960 access by many urban residents, particularly those who and 1970 occurred in and around cities. The geo- live in the central cities. However, much of the graphic areas that best define the region in which cities underdeveloped land could be better utilized to pro- exhibit their most pronounced direct effect are the vide open space in urbanizing areas. SMSA's, defined -on page 1. At the time of the 1970 Land use in the SMSA's varies by region (table 13). census, there were 242 SMSA's in the 48 contiguous In the Appalachian, Southeastern, and Delta States, States, one in Hawaii, and four in Puerto Rico (fig. 9). more than half of the nonurban SMSA land is wooded. Except for Alaska, Vermont, and Wyoming, each State In. the Northeast States, the wooded share approaches had at least one SMSA. In 1970, the SMSA's had a 50 percent; in both the Lake and Pacific States, it is total population of almost 139 million people, or over one-third. Over 80 percent of the population of 14 STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS AREAS DEFINED BY OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET, FEBRUARY 1971 mug, 44 V XA@ -2D I US DEPAMENT OF WUNEKE Figure 9 Table 12-Population in SMSA's as a percentage of the east has about 30 percent of the total and the Pacific, total population, by region, 48 States, 1970 27 percent. In the Northern Plains, less than 3 percent Region Percentage of population in SMSA's of the land area is within SMSA's. Generally, average Northeast 80.4 Size of farms is smaller in the more urban counties Lake States 79.4 than in the surrounding counties. Corn Belt 70.8 About 14 percent of cropland harvested is found in Northern Plains 34.9 SM.SA's but the percentage of irrigated cropland in Appalachian 45.6 these areas is higher. This is particularly true of the Southeasi 56.0 Northeast and Pacific States and probably reflects the Delta States 38.3 Southern Plains 69.2 concentration of irrigated fruit and vegetable crops in Mountain 56.9 or near the population centers (table 14). Pacific 86.6 All of the major U.S. crops, measured in terms of 48 States .69.7 total value of production, are important in SMSA's. Source; (2). About 17 percent of the corn crop is produced in SMSA's. Vegetable production especially is concen- the Northeast, the most populous area of the country, trated near population centers. Ten years ago, about is in SMSA's. Yet more than 15 million acres, or 60 percent of the vegetables and 43 percent of the almost half of the entire region's SMSA acreage. is fruits and nuts marketed came from SMSA's. Only 16 woodland. percent of cropland in the Southeastern States is Half of the acreage in SMSA's in the Northern within SMSA's, but 66 percent of vegetables sold come Plains and the Corn Belt is in cropland. In the Lake from those areas. The Pacific and Northeastern States States, the share is over one-third. Pasture and other reported that 71 percent and (35 percent, respectively, open land (including mountains, deserts, and waste- of vegetables sold in 1964 came from SMSA's. lands) occupies over 70 percent of SMSA's in the The SMSA's have a little more than a proportionate Mountain States and almost half in the Southern Plains share of the better agricultural land-land use-capabil- and Pacific States. Figure 10 shows the average use of ity classes I-III. Overall, the SMSA's comprise 13 land within all SMSA's. percent of the land area of the 48 contiguous States Agricultural Production in the SMSA's and have a little less than 15 percent of the total land in these classes. With minor exceptions in the South- Altogether, about 13 percent of the land area of the east and Mountain States, a similar situation exists in 48 contiguous States lies within SMSA's. The North- the individual regions (table 15). Table 13-Average land use, SMSA's, 1970 Total Urban Rural part Region for SMSA, s part' Total I Cropland I Pasture-range )ther 1, 000 acres Northeast 614 116 498 134 35 288 41 Lake States 911 113 798 393 37 308 60 Corn Belt 763 104 659 387 62 104 106 Northern Plains 868 58 810 538 179 30 63 Appalachian 596 76 520 120 58 330 12 Southeast 874 94 780 124 75 510 71 Delta States 579 50 629 137 73 364 55 Southern Plains 1,211 106 1,105 3' 26 529 199 51 Mountain 2,377 78 2,299 216 947 343 2766 Pacific 2,605 170 2,43S 339 474 940 682 Average, 48 StateS3 1,044 104 940 250 198 336 156 'Includes "urbanized area" plus additional land in "urban places over 2,500 population." 'Includes some Federal land used as range. 1242 SMSA's. Source: (2) and (15). 16 STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA LAND USE, AVERAGE, 1970 Percent of-.Total Area CROPLAND 24% OTHER 15% URBAN PASTURE 19 7e 10% WOODLAND 32% PEOPLE PER SOUARE MILE - URBAN AREA 3,137 NONURBAN AREAS 42 SOURCE,U.S. CENSUSOF POPULATION, 1970 AND CONSERVATION NEEDS INVENTORY, 1967. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS8907-72(9) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 10 Table 14-Farming activity in SMSA's as a percentage of the total land area, by region, 48 States, 1969 Region Total Number Land Cropland IrTigated land land area of farms in far I harvested in farms Percent Northeast 30.3 41.7 33.7 37.9 64.6 Lake States 13.2 17.6 13.2 14.2 16.2 Corn Belt 18.0 19.4 16.1 18.9 12.0 Northern Plains 2.6 4.9 2.4 3.6 .5 Appalachian 10.5 10.2 9.4 10.7 14.5 Southeast 16.7 14.4 12.1 15.6 32.9 Delta States 9.2 7.4 8.2 7.2 8.4 Southern Plains 14.5 19.9 13.3 18.7 18.8 Mountain 6.1 11.8 6.0 7.2 8.5 Pacific 27.1 47.7 29.2 34.0 40.3 48 States 1 13.0 17.2 11.2 14.4 18.9 Source: (3). 17 Table IS-Quality of land resources within development. The total cost of development would SMWs, by region, 1967 include benefits foregone from converted forest and Percentage of Percentage of grasslands. Region total land area acreage in land use About an eighth of the Nation's cropland (50 in SMSA's capability classes I-III million acres) is considered suitable only for limited Percent cultivation because of erosion or climatic hazards. Northe ast 30.3 35.4 About 5 percent of the Nation's cropland (23 million Lake States 13.2 13.2 acres) is on land considered not suitable for cultivation Corn Belt 18.0 19.2 because of severe erosion hazards, and it is recom- Northern Plains 2.6 3.3 mended 1hat this land be shifted to more stable uses. Appalachian 10.5 11.5 The Conservation Needs Inventory indicates that Southeast 16.7 15.7 Delta States 9.2 10.4 additional conservation measures are needed 'on about Southern Plains 14.5 16.6 two-thirds of all the land in each of the land use Mountain 6.1 5.3 categories-cropland, pasture, and forest-to adequately Pacific 27.1 31.7 stabilize the soil. These conservation measures include 48 States 13.0 14.7 terracing, contouring, sod waterways, and strip crop- Source: (15). ping. Erosion not only impairs the soil base through loss of soil but' it is the source of silt and other Land Capability and Conservation Needs pollutants, which have various and appreciable environ- mental effects. The Conservation Needs Inventory, conducted by Water erosion is the dominant problem on 179 the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1967, inven- million acres of cropland and a secondary problem on toried the land capability and land treatment needs of an additional 50 million acres. Some 4 billion tons of all rural non-Federal land and estimated that 631 sed:[ment are washed into tributary streams in the million acres, or 44 percent, are suitable for regular United States each year. About one-fourth of this cultivation (table 16). Only 365 million acres of this sediment is transported to the oceans. At least half of total are now used as cropland. Of the remaining 266 the sediment originates on agricultural land (14). million acres suitable for regular cultivation, about half It is estimated that about 4 tons of soil loss per are in forest and a little less than half are in grass. acre (5 tons in deep sofls, 3 tons in other soils) could However, most of the land would require improve- be tolerated without impairing the soil base. About ment, including drainage or irrigation, some at such two-thirds of the cropland in the tillage rotation is great cost that it would be done only of extreme within this range. But of the total cropland, 19 percent necessity. Further, part of this land is in areas where loses 6 to 10 tons per year from the soil base, 9 the growing season is too short to produce crops with a percent loses 11 to 19 tons per year, and 4 percent high enough value to justify investments in land loses 20 or more tons per year (table 17). Table 16-Land capability and conservation treatment needed, 1967' Total Land use Item land inventoried kc -opland I Pasture For@st FO ther Land capability: Million acres Suitable for regular cultivation 631 365 117 126 23 Suitable for limited cultivation 180 so 60 65 6 Not suitable for cultivation 627 23 305 272 28 Total 1,438 438 482 462 56 Conservation treatment needed: Acreage 899 278 321 284 16 Percent Percentage of total 63 63 67 61 29 'Excludes Federal and urban land. Source: (15). 18 Table 17-Cropland erosion rates and soil losses: the 104 million acres reported as suitable for crop Average erosion loss per acre as share of total production but not being used for crops. One-half of land in tillage rotation, by soil loss class, 1967 this acreage lies in the Northeastern and North Central Soil loss Land in tillage rotation States and a fourth in the Southeastern States and the class Average erosion Percentage of Mississippi Delta. (tons) loss per acre Acreage I total acreage About 55 million acres, or 21 percent of all wet Million soils, occur in the coastal counties. Of this total, 11 Tons acres Percent million acres tue used for crops, 25 million are 0-5 3 298 68 potentially suitable for crops, and 19 million (classes 6-10 8 81 19 Vw-VIIIw) have no potential for crops. About two- 11-19 15 39 9 thirds of the 25 million acres of the potential cropland 20 or more 25 19 4 acreage is distributed along Ithe Atlantic and Gulf Total 1(6) 437 100 coasts. Most of the rest is in counties bordering the 'Calculate d. Great Lakes. Source: Soil Conserv. Serv., U.S. Dept. Agr. Contemporary Wetlands Development The Conservation Needs Inventory identified nearly 265 million acres, or about 18 percent of all rural Very limited information is available regarding the non-Federal land, as having a wetness problem (table annual rate of change in total wetland area and the 18). However, this classification includes 76 million kind of development and drainage occurring on these acres of land in capability classes 11 and 111, much of lands. The Council on Environmental Quality, in its which has been artificially drained and is highly second annual report in 1971, gave several partial productive cropland. From the standpoint of devel- estimates of agricultural and nonagricultural con- oping land for crop production, of primary interest are versions of wetland to commercial uses: Table 18-Lands with wetness problems, by capability class and region, 1967' Not used for crops Land resource Total Used for region wet soils crops2 Not suitable Suitable for cultivation' for cultivation' Million acres North: Northeastern 14.2 3.8 2.5 7.9 Northern Lakes 22.3 3.2 5.2 13.9 Southern Lakes 15.9 10.1 .2 5.6 North Central 50.0 38.8 2.4 8.8 Total 102.4 55.9 10.3 36.2 South: South Atlantic and Gulf Slope 48.9 8.5 14.4 26.0 Coastal Lowlands 61.6 14.9 21.8 24.9 Atlantic and Gulf Coast (30.9) (5.1) (14.3) (11.5) Florida Subtropical (15.2) (1.6) (5.0) (8.6) Mississippi Delta (15.5) (8.2) (2.5) (4.8) Total 110.5 23.4 36.2 50.9 Other regions 51.8 21.2 14.0 16.6 Total, all regions 264.7 100.5 60.5 103.7 ' Excludes Federal and urban land. 'Includes 2.9 million acres classified as unsuitable for cultivation (land capability classes VW-Vlllw). 'Land capability classes Vw-,VlIlw. '*Includes 76 million acres in 'land capability classes IIw-IIIw (suitable for regular cultivation) and 28 million acres in land capability class IVw (suitable for limited cultivation). Source: (15). 19 Between 1959 and 1966, nearly 138,000 acres of in south Florida is important because the water supply wetlands were drained each year for agricultural pur- of the entire overflow area, not merely the developed poses just in the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, part, has been affected to some extent. The truly and Minnesota. This loss of wetlands, however, has been partially offset by the creation of new wet- unique flora and fauna of the nearby Everglades is lands.... Urban and industrial development of wetlands dependent on periodic overflows from Lake Okeecho- has been particularly heavy in coastal States. From bee. Both the quantity of water and the time frame of 1954-1964, about 8 percent of coastal wetlands in the water supply have been modified by agricultural and Atlantic Coast States from Delaware northward was nonagricultural development. drained for development. (6, pp. 236-238) Water quality also is affected by the land drainage. Major concentrations of land draining. and clearing Chemicals and other pollutants entering the water for crop production are found in the lower Mississippi supply originate from both agricultural and urban Valley and southern Florida. The environmental effects areas. The entry points for these pollutants tend to be that accompany this development appear - to differ concentrated in the eastern portion of south Florida. somewhat between the two areas. Since the drainage pattern is southward, the eastern Lower Mississippi Valley-A recent ERS study of portion of the overflow area may be more seriously land use changes in the Lower Mississippi Valley found affected than the western portion. that 4.1 million acres of forested wetlands were cleared Agricultural Drainage-Many farm drainage systems and drained during 1969 (16). The forest cover was have been in place since before the turn of the reduced from 48 percent to 31 percent of the total century. New farm drainage systems include additions area. Several counties in the middle and upper reaches to total acreage drained and improvement and renova- of the Valley were further deforested to less than 10 tion of existing systems. The total acreage of farmland percent of their area. Most of the newly cleared land is with artificial drainage is large-nearly 60 million acres. used for soybeans. Over half of the drained acreage is in five States- The most obvious environmental change has been Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Indiana, and Ohio (4). In reduction in total wetlands. Drainage projects thus far 1969, 1.4 million acres were drained by new systems, appear not to have contributed significantly to of which more than 500,000 acres were in these same increased flooding downstream. Consequences of con- five North Central States. Minnesota and Iowa together tinued agricultural development in the Lower Missis- drained nearly 300,000 acres in 1969. Additions or sippi Valley could include movement of sediment and improvements in drained land of 50,000 acres or more agricultural chemicals, both of which would be detri- were made in Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North mental to marine life and related economic and Dakota, and Texas. recreational activities in the Gulf of Mexico. However, the alluvial portion comprises only a small part of the Ownership and Land Use total Mississippi drainage basin and consequently con- The land law of the United States was inherited tributes Iiitle to pollution discharged by the river. from Europe, almost entirely from the English. The Lake Okeechobee Area-Much of the wetland devel- English system of land holding emerged as a reaction opment in south Florida is concentrated around Lake to feudal tenures and reflects the spirit of personal Okeechobee, where about 6 million acres are subject to freedom which attended the organization of parlia- direct developmental pressures from either agricultural ments and the reformation of the church. Freedom or nonagricultural uses. Agricultural land developers in the Lake Okeechobee area are attracted more by the Table 19-Land use, Lake Okeechobee area, Florida, climate than the soils. In general, the soils tend to be 1965 and 1985 (projected) difficult to manage. The humid, near tropical condi- tions permit production of a variety of high-value Land use 1965 1985 Change crops, particularly tomatoes, sweet corn, snap beans, I (projected) and other vegetables for the winter market. 1,000 1,000 The accumulative and potential impact of agricul- acres Percent acres Percent Percent tural development in the Lake Okeechobee area is Urban 368 6 748 12 103 indicated by data on land use in 1965 and projections Cropland 739 12 1,143 19 55 of land use for 1985 (table 19). The net effect of Improved pasture 1,179 19 1,600 26 36 these land use changes would be to reduce the Undeveloped area 3,998 64 2,793 45 -30 undeveloped wetland area from 64 to 45 percent of Total 6,284 100 6,284 100 - the available area. The impact of wetlands development Source: (12, app. 11, tables 8-10, p. B-30A, mr-ial No. 310). 20 was closely associated with landownership in England. schools, for drainage and transportation, to railroads, In colonial America and later, when independence was and to individuals-largely for agriculture. Land declared and a new Constitution was formed, sole disposal actions currently involve only small acreages, proprietorship was given a high station in land policy. except in Alaska, where a transfer of large grants of Jefferson's view that land ownership should be dis- land from the Federal Government to the State is in tributed widely was as much a reflection of his time as progress. of his personal ideas. Jefferson was influential and Data about the number and other characteristics of articulate, and thus was able to translate his philoso- private landownership are seriously inadequate. With phy into a land policy that was expansionist, develop- few exceptions, neither regulatory nor service agencies, mental, egalitarian, and laissez-faire. Jefferson's policy nor offices of recorders and assessors, can assemble gave the dominant role in land ownership to the States aggregated data on landownership, area, or value. The rather than to the Federal Government. Consequently, last national survey of rural landownership in the widely distributed landownership has been an under- United States was undertaken in 1946. In the late lying objective of the Nation's land policy throughout 1950's a study was made of landownership in, the most of our history. Great Plains States, and in 1960 -a similar study was The basic pattern of the U.S. land system was conducted in the Southeast States. established by the Constitution and the Northwest and Based on a 1966 Census of Government survey, it is Southwest Ordinances. The land policy that emerged estimated that about 81.6 million "parcels" (as defined favored the distribution of land from public to private for tax purposes) of property were on tax assessment ownership as quickly and extensively as possible, free rolls in 1971. Ownership of several parcels by one alienability and easy transfer of land, minimal govern- owner, and common interests of several owners in a mental restrictions on holding, the recovery or control single parcel, obscure the picture of the actual number of land by eminent domain or police power, and the of landowners in the United States. Excluding joint right of States only to tax land. Programs favoring owners and corporation stockholders, there are proba- settlement included the Preemption Acts- of the 1830's bly no more than 50 or 60 million landowners. Most and 1840's and the Homestead Act of 1862. These of these ownership parcels are located in urban areas, were supported later by research, extension, and credit as might be expected. Perhaps 50 million parcels are programs initiated in the late 1800's and continued to used for housing units. Rural recreation or second the present. Inevitably, our inherent attitude toward homes are growing in importance and have generated the desirability of widespread landownership must another 1.5 million parcels; they are mostly owner- come to terms with the fact that farmers now used and many are in rural areas. constitute only 5 percent of the population, instead of 95 percent as in colonial days. Farmland Ownership and Use Categories of Ownership Farm operators totaled 2.7 million in 1969. For the About two-fifths of the land area of the United most part, the land they farm or graze livestock on is States is government owned and three-fifths (1.3 privately owned (table 20). There are 2.4 million farm billion acres) is held by individuals and corporations. operators who own at least some of the land they farm The Federal Government holds 50 million acres in (as full or part owners). It is not known how many trust for Indian tribes and individuals. There are 897 other people own farmland but do not operate it million acres of public lands, divided into 763 million themselves (i.e., nonoperating landlords) but the num- acres of Federal land and 134 million acres of State, ber probably does not exceed 1.4 million. Thus, there county, and municipal land (table 20, fig. 11). Nearly are less than 4 million people who own farmland. two-thirds of the Federal lands and over half of In 1969, there were slightly over I billion acres of the State-owned lands are located in the West. land in farms (1,063 million acres). About half (52 The proportions of total area owned by major classes percent) of the land was operated by part owners, that of owners, public and private, have been remarkably is, persons who own some of the land they farm and stable for the past 50 years. rent some. Over a third (35 percent) of the land in Most of the present public lands were acquired as a farms was operated by full owners. About 13 percent result of original territorial expansion. Approximately was operated by tenants-farm operators who do not 55 million acres were later acquired and added to the own any of the land they farm (fig. 12). Altogether, public domain. Large parts of the original public lands farm operators owned about 68 percent of the total were disposed of in grants to States for support of land in farms. 21 Table 20-Major classes of land, by use and ownership, 1969 Grassland Forest Special use Total Ownership Cropland pasture land and land and range other land2 area Million acres Federal 1 165 278 319 763 State and other publiC3 2 41 38 53 134 Indian4 2 32 13 3 50 Private' 467 366 425 59 1,317 472 604 754 434 2,264 'Includes reserved forest in parks and other special uses. 2Includes urban and transportation, recreation, wildlife, public facilities, farmsteads, and farm roads, and swamp, mountain, and desert areas. 3Excludes State-grant land in process of transfer from the Federal public domain to the State of Alaska. 4 Trust land held by tribes and individual Indians. About 4.7 million acres of federally owned land, located mainly in Alaska, are also used by Indians. 'Federal, State, local government, and Indian land acreages are based on public records and reports. Private land is the residual of the land area in each major use. Source: (21). Concentration of Fann1and Ownership of the operators (1.7 million) operate 86 percent of the and Operating.Units farmland and account for 98 percent of all farm sales. One unit by which concentration can be measured Currently at issue is the concentration of control over is ownership of farmland. In many cases, ownership agricultural resources, particularly land, and the associ- and control are synonymous; the holder of legal title ated distribution of economic power, income, and to a parcel of land also holds the authority to make wealth in agriculture. According to the 1969 Census of decisions concerning the use of the land. This author- Agriculture, direct managerial control of the land is in ity may be delegated but, ultirnately, control of land the hands of some 2.7 million farm operators. Among rests with ownership. operators, however, resource ownership and control are The 1946 ownership survey estimated there were further concentrated. For example, less than two-thirds approximately 5 million private owners of farmland in LAND OWNERSHIP IN THE 50 STATES, 1969 INDIAN TRIBES AND INDIVIDUALS 2% STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS 1 1 6% N 34 58% FEDERAL PRIVATE R P OWNE SHIP OWNERSHI TOTAL AREA 2.3 BIL. ACRES 94 PERCENT IS IN HE ELEVEN WESTERN-MOST STA TES AND ALASKA. A&0U T50 PERCENT 15 IN ALASKA. U.L DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS B433-72 (9) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure I I 22 FARMS AND LAND IN FARMS, BY TENURE OF OPERATOR, 1969 TENANTS' TE=NANTS 12.97 RT ,q ERS:: .::PART OWNERS: 7-@ FARMS' LAND IN FARMS NEG. ERS U50-72 (8) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 12 the United States. About half of these owners farms in 1935 and 1969. In 1935, nearly 50 percent of accounted for less than 10 percent of all the farmland, farmers operated farms that were under 70 acres in and 95 percent owned less than half the land. size, accounting for about 9 percent of the total Conversely, owners of the largest tracts made up only farmland. But 30 percent of the land was held 5 percent of all owners but they accounted for over 50 by only 88,000 farmers (1.3 percent), who operated percent of the land. A similar distribution was found farms of more than 1,000 acres. By 1969, the number in the Great Plains in 1958. The distribution in the of farmers had declined 4.1 million and average farm Southeast in 1960 was only slightly less concentrated. size had increased from 155 acres to 389 acres. In Data on the concentration of farm operating units that year, some 151,000 farmers (5.5 percent of are more abundant than data on ownership. Table 21 all operators) operated more than 1,000 acres and ac- shows the distribution of farm numbers and land in counted for over half (54.4 percent) of all land in farms. Table 2 1 -Number of farms and percentage distribution of farms and land in farms by size classes, 1935 and 1969 1935 1969 Size of farm (acres) Number of Distribution Number Of Distribu ion farms Farms I Acres farms Farms I Acres Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Under 10 571 8.4 0.3 162 5.9 0.1 10-49 2,128 31.2 5.3 473 17.4 1.2 50-69 581 8.5 3.2 177 6.7 1.0 70-99 863 12.6 6.7 283 10.1 2.2 100-139 754 11.1 8.2 279 10.2 3.0 140-179 684 10.1 10.2 263 9.7 3.9 180-219 294 4.3 5.5 165 6.0 3.1 220-259 212 3.1 4.8 142 5.2 3.2 260-499 473 6.9 15.6 419 15.4 14.0 500-999 167 2.5 10.8 216 7.9 13.9 ix6 and over 88 1.3 29.4 151 5.5 54.4 Total 1 6,812 100.0 100.0 2,730 100.0 100.0 Source: (3). 23 A measure of the concentration implied in these farmland among farm operators may be visualized is in figures is expressed by concentration coefficients, changes in the size distribution of farms (fig. 14). The which measure relative degrees of equality or inequality greatest decline by far in farm numbers has occurred in the distribution of land or other assets. If land were among farms under 100 acres. 'The number of farms equally distributed among all farm operators, the between 100 and 259 acres has also declined. concentration ratio would be zero. If one person The number of farms exceeding 260 acres in size operated all the land, the ratio would be 1.0. Figure has held steady or increased. Most of the increase in 13 shows the trends in farm concentration since 1900. the number of large farms has resulted from the The ratio for the concentration of farmland among combination and merging of smaller units, as operators farm operators was 0.57 in 1900. It dropped to about of these units expanded operations or left agriculture. 0.53 in 1910 and then rose steadily until 1954. Since The dramatic decline in numbers of farms under 260 1954, the ratio has been around 0.71. The ratio for acres since 1935 was an important factor in the rise in farn-dand ownership in the 1946 survey was 0.68. concentration ratios. The number of these small farms There is little doubt that concentration of farm has now diminished to the point that changes in their operations increased from 1900 through the mid- numbers since 1954 have had relatively little influence 1960's. Since 1954, the trend toward further concen- on concentration ratios. tration among farm operators appears to have abated. Relationship of Ownership and However, this concept of concentration tends to be conservative because it refers only to the distribution Control of Farmland of land among operators at a particular time. Since In the past, small;- independent ownership units 1954, the number of farm operators has declined by 2 predominated in U.S. agriculture. This was the setting million. Thus, in terms of absolute numbers of farm for the concept of the "tenure ladder" by which a operators, concentration of operating control of farm- man could eventually achieve full ownership of his lands has continued. farm. Today, resource control, rather than resource One way in which the changes in concentration of ownership, appears to be the operational concept of TREND IN FARM CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION COEFFICIENT .70 .65 .60 .55 iiiiiii ..11 lill ILI Hiiiii ki I 111 111411 1 luidiffil .50 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 @44 1 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG. ERS8898-72 (9) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 13. 24 NUMBER OF FARMS, BY SIZE THOUS. FARMS- A 4,000 Loss than 100 acres ,200 2,AOO 100-259 acres 1,600 INC 800 260-499 acres 1,000 acres and *Vol, 500-999 acres L 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 U.S. DEPARTMENT 01 GRICUL'UnE NEG. ERS segg-72 (91 EcoNomic RESEARCH SERVICE, Figure 14 many farmers. This is especially true for land most part, the rented land is owned by nonoperator resources. In 1969, persons who own part and rent landlords. Landlords outnumber both part owners and part of the land they farm accounted for 24.6 percent tenants. In 1964, nearly a fourth of the part owners of all farms, and 5 1.8 percent of the land in farms. In rented from two landlords, and about anotherfourth addition, tenant operators increasingly are associated rented from three or more landlords. Many large with high-valued commercial farm operations. A com- tenant operations are also assembled on land rented parison of the number of farm operators in each from several landlords. Many landlords are widows, tenure group and the amount of land operated by each retired farmers, heirs, investors, and others who have no group is shown in figure 12. intention of becoming active farmers. Nevertheless, '@y renting land, a tenant or part owner may be able these landlords are a very important source of capital to gain operating control (for the period of the lease) to the operating farmers. The value of farmland and or more land, or of more valuable land, than if he had buildings rented from nonfarm landlords was estimated to purchase the land. Data from the 1969 Census of at one-third of the total market value of real estate Agriculture indicates that about 38 percent of all land assets in farming in 1969. in farms is rented. Because of the greater emphasis on rental land by Another relatively unknown group of resource larger operators, control of farmland is more concen- owners in agriculture are the landlords. Some farm trated than ownership; this, in turn, has implications operators also rent land to other farmers but, for the for the concentration of economic power within @3 N.7, 25 agriculture. In the 1930's there was considerable for large and family-sized farms in the Midwest noted concern about the rise in farm tenancy. To many, this that of the 3.1 million farms enumerated by the 1964 rise was associated with the concentration of economic Census of Agriculture, 142,000 were economic class I power in the hands of landlords, bankers, and other farm units (gross sales of $40,000 or more) and suppliers of capital, and many of the remedial pro- p.rovided nearly 44 percent of the value of all products grams were designed to provide low-cost capital to sold (table.22). Class I farms probably produced over active farmers. Today, the balance of power may be half the U.S. output in 1969. swinging in the opposite direction. The decline from The number of large farms increased sixteenfold 6.8 million farms in 1935 to a total of 2.7 million during 1929-64. In 1929, there were less than 8,000 farms (1.7 million commercial farms) in 1969 means farms with $30,000 or more in value of products sold. that, on the average, there is now one active farmer This sales value is equivalent to $48,450 per farm in where formerly there were three or four. The advent 19,54, when adjusted by the index of farm prices of large-scale, rubber-tired equipment has given farmers received. An estimated 126,000 of the class I units had greater mobility and has made contiguous farm units sales this high in 1964. less essential, particularly for crop farming. In this Production of several farm products now appears to situation, the well-capitalized part owner or tenant be concentrated in a few large firms (table 22). In may be in a superior bargaining position to the 1964, six of the 12 census types of farms had over 60 prospective landlord. percent of the output produced by farms with, gross sales of $40,000 or more: vegetable, 81 percent; other Farmland Control by Type of Organization field crops, 74 percent; poultry, 68 percent; fruit and Individual or family proprietorship is the predomi- nut, 68 percent; miscellaneous, 65 percent; and nant form of farm business organization in the United ranches, 64 percent. The same types of farms with States. Such farms account for about 85 percent of all sales of $100,000 or more accounted for 38-67 farms with farm product sales of $2,500 or more and percent of the production. 72-.5 percent of the land. Partnerships account for 12.8 The increase in number and the market dominance percent of the farms and 18 percent of the land. Farm by large farms is part of the general trend associated corporations totaled 21,500 or 1.2 percent of all with the decline in farm numbers and the increase in commercial farms, but accounted for nearly 9 percent of the land operated. Over 90 percent of the farm Table 22-Distribution of farm production on large farrns, corporations were "closely held" by 10 or fewer as a percentage of total farms, by type and size shareholders. There were less than 1,800 farming of farm, 1929, 1959, and 1964 corporations with more than 10 shareholders, but they operated 14.3 million acres of land (1.6 percent) and Type of farm 1929, 1959, 1964 accounted for 3 percent of sales from all commercial Large' Class I" Large' Class P farms in 1969. Percent The top farm corporation States were California, Vegetable 20.0 73.3 67.1 81.4 Florida, and Texas with some 4,800 corporate farms of Other field crops 5.1 55.8 49.1 73.7 all types. These three States also claimed more than a Poultry 3.3 55.4 38.0 67.9 fourth of the farm corporations with more than 10 Fruit and nut 19.9 45.1 46.7 67.6 shareholders. About half of all corporate farms in these Miscellaneous 1.0 62.1 44.6 65A States had sales in excess of $100,000. Ranches 29.2 59.8 46.5 64.0 Cotton 1.4 46.8 31.3 55.2 Several States, including North Dakota, Kansas, Livestock 2.1 33.9 26.8 46.8 Minnesota, and Texas, 'place restrictions on farm General .2 20.7 18.3 33.6 corporations. Corporations also tend to be less preva- Cash grain 1.8 16.7 6.4 23.9 lant outside the major agricultural areas. Large-scale Dairy 3.0 15.3 9.9 23A farming corporations (those with sales over $100,000) Tobacco - 3.9 3.9 8.2 are engaged mainly in cattle feeding, poultry and Total 32.8 24.8 43.7 livestock ranches, and in fruit and nut farms. 'Farms with sales of $30,000 or more in 1929, which is comparable with $48,600 in 1959 and $48,450 in 1964. Concentration of Agricultural Output I Class 1: Census of Agriculture farms with sales of $40,000 Concentration of control and economic power may or more. -'Farms with sales of $100,060 or more. They are part of the also be viewed in terms of agricultural output. A total number of class I farms. recent ERS study on the economic status and potential Source: U 7). 26 per farm inputs of land and capital. Some midwestern The major uses of forest land are for timber and farms now approach equity levels of $500,000 or grazing. Public forest lands are mostly managed by more. Nationwide, the average value of assets used in policy and planned decisions to provide for multiple agricultural production in 1970 was $54,100 per use. Water is often considered a byproduct of forest farmworker and $91,700 per farm. Just three decades land, and management rfiay be modified to protect earlier, the figures were $3,300 and $6,200, respec- water quality and flow. Other uses of forest land tively. The growth of these large, highly capitalized, include recreation, mining, and fish and wildlife habi- and efficient units is one reason the average American tat. Various uses are often compatible to some degree farmworker can now supply himself and about 50 other with each other and occur on the same area. For people. The converse of these trends, however, is that example, recreation may be combined with manage- farming opportunities for people seeking a livelihood ment for timber, forage, and/or water. However, by from the soil continue to decline. law or policy, recreation may be the only purpose for These data suggest both opportunities and potential forest management, particularly on some public problems in formulating land use policies affecting land. agricultural lands. Since farm population and farm Data on commercial forest land (about two-thirds of operators now comprise such a small share of the U.S. the 753 million forested acres) are assembled from population, it should be possible to implement pro- periodic inventories made by the U.S. Forest Service gram and policy changes more easily than would have (table 23). Commercial forest land is capable of been the case when a considerable share of the producing at least 20 cubic feet of usable wood per population was engaged in agriculture, On the other acre each year. Noncommercial forests (254 million hand, the large acreage and high capital investment acres) are located predominantly in the western moun- associated with today's typical commercial farm make tains and dry lands and in Alaska (112 million acres). it imperative to consider the consequences of program About four-fifths is in public ownership. Some 16 or policy changes on the viability of agricultural firms million of these acres are legally withdrawn for and opportunities for people in rural areas. National and State parks and wilderness areas. Nearly Not all farms are large-scale commercial operations, three-fourths, or 500 million acres, of the commercial of course. In 1969 about I million farms had annual forest land is privately owned. Eighty percent of this sales below $2,500. These include many semiretirement land is east of the Great Plains. Nationally, about 19 or part-time operations. The general presumption is percent of the private commercial forest land is owned that these small operators probably do not consider by industrial owners, 36 percent is in farm woodlots, farming their major source of livelihood. and 45 percent is owned by "other" (nonfarm, Noncommercial farming does not necessarily imply nonindustrial) individuals. These distributions of pri- poverty or deprivation. Operators may include, in vate ownerships vary considerably by regions. In the addition to the semiretired and the part-time farmers, Pacific States, industrial ownership predominates; in the the hobby farmer and farmowners with other income Southern and Northeastern States, small farm and sources. These farinowners may present special oppor- other private ownership units prevail. tunities for implementing land use policies. For To the extent that potential problems of forest land example, they may be particularly attuned to the idea use can be identified with ownership, it appears that of land stewardship and the need for land and water increased wood production in the East depends heavily conservation. Furthermore, they may be in better on the management decisions of small-tract owners. In financial position to bear or share the costs than other the western regions, management decisions will be farmowners. They may also manage their farms in a dominated by public agencies together with industrial way that preserves open space and scenic amenities owners. that a monoculture, highly mechanized type of agri- Over the last two decades forest ownership patterns culture cannot provide. have changed considerably (table 24). Changes have Ownership and Use of Forest Land been greatest in the two small ownership categories in the North and South regions, which account for nearly Forest land is widely distributed over the United three-fourths of the total forest land. Clearly, forest States. Unlike cropland, a sizable portion is publicly industry and especially the ownership categories classi- owned. Thus our needs for the products and services fied as "other" have expanded at the expense of farin of forest land must be met through a combination of forests. Some of the apparent losses in farm forest public and private decisions. ownership are due to a change in definition of farms 27 Table 23-Commercial forest land: Area and percentage distribution by ownership and region, 1970 Area Region Total Public forest Private forest commercial National Forest forest forest Other industry Farm Other Total 1,000 acres North' 177,902 10,458 21,453 18,168 51,023 76,799 145,990 South' 192,542 10,764 6,S15 35,325 65,137 74,801 175,263 Rocky MountainS3 61,632 39,788 7,181 2,234 9,379 4,051 14,664 Pacific' 67,622 30,915 9,047 12,219 6,602 8,839 27,660 Total, United States 499,698 91,925 44,196 67,946 131,141 164,490 363,577 Distribution Total Public forest Private forest commercial National Other Forest Farm Other Total forest forest industry Percent North 100 5.9 12.0 10.2 28.7 43.2 82.1 South 100 5.6 3.4 18.3 33.8 38.9 91.0 Rocky Mountains 100 64.6 - 11.7 3.6 13.6 6.6 23.8 Pacific 100 45.7 13.4 18.0 9.8 13.1 40.9 Total, United States 100 18.4 8.9 13.6 26.2 32.9 72.7 'All States east of the Great Plains lying north of the approximate line running east along the south border of Kansas to the Atlantic Ocean, except Virginia. 'Remainder of Eastern States, including Texas. 3All States west'of the Great Plains and east of the Pacific States. 'Pacific States-those bordering the Pacific Ocean, including Alaska and Hawaii. Source: (22). since 1950. Nevertheless, a sizable share of this change timber production and frequently lack planning for represents an increasing trend toward absentee owner- sustained production. In some regions, especially in the ship of woodlands, and toward ownership essentially North, markets are very limited for small-sized and for nonfarm purposes. low-grade hardwood trees, which make up a large part Typically, public and industrial forests are managed of growing stock. Many owners have difficulty mar- for long-term sustained yields of wood of high quality keting small volumes from scattered small tracts and volume. Management purposes on the small owner- because of high harvesting costs. Many absentee owners ships are highly diverse. They may range from high- have little understanding of forest management with intensity management for wood to total reservation of the result that many tracts are cut over destructively forests for recreation or wildlife uses. Farm woodlots or held without any intention of cutting. Undoubtedly, are typically understocked with trees suitable for many of these tracts are held partly for speculative Table 24-Percentage changes in commercial forest area, by ownership classes, 1952-70 Total Public forest t- Private forest Region commercial National Othei Forest Farm Other Total forest forest industry Percent North +4.5 +1.1 -2.6 +28.6 -23.2 +34.1 +5.9 South +.2 +3.4 -1.8 +10.2 -28.7 +44.1 +1 Rocky Mountains -6.3 -9.5 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 Pacific -1.7 +1.4 -13.4 +9.0 -11.2 -4.1 -1.8 Total, United States +.6 -3.0 -4.1 +13.9 -24.5 +34.3 +2.2 'Less than 0.05 percent. Derived from preliminary data in U.S. Forest Service 1970 inventory, Dec. 31, 1952, to Jan. 1, 1970. 28 reasons, with little incentive to manage for any land. Administration of this land is distributed among purpose. Small-tract owners-farmers and others-have 37 Federal agencies. Management is complicated by the varied objectives for their forest land. It often appears diversity of the land, its location, and the multiagency that such owners use their forest land primarily for administration. recreation or for wildlife habitat rather than to Most of the Federal lands are located in the Western produce merchantable timber. In fact, timber harvest, States; nearly half of the area is in Alaska (table 25). recreation, and wildlife habitat are not mutually Over 90 percent of the Federal land outside of Alaska exclusive, but can often be combined on a given area is in the I I Western States. In those States where the over time. Federal Government is a principal landowner, how the Forest ownership purposes are probably most stable land is managed and used significantly affects State for the two large owner categories, public and indus- and local economies. trial. Wood production dominates on most acres, Nearly 100 million acres of Federal land are classed although multiple use is a management objective on as commercial forest, mostly managed to maintain a most of the public lands. Uses for recreation, forage, continuous yield of timber. This area represents about and water probably do not seriously reduce timber 20 percent of the total commercial forest land. Nearly production. However, reductions could occur later, 40 percent of the Nation's supply of merchantable especially in western national forests, if a major shift timber and over 60 percent of its softwood sawtimber in requirements for recreation should occur. are located on Federal land. Public Land Use and Management Domestic livestock grazing, the most widespread economic use of Federal lands, occurs on more than a Over 755 million acres, one-third of the land area of third of the area, including unproductive areas inter- the United States, is federally owned. This land is mingled and managed with the productive range. diverse in character, ranging from the tropical soils and Although Federal lands provide only about 3 percent vegetation of Florida and Hawaii to the tundra of of the total forage consumed by U.S. livestock-, they Alaska. Each State contains some federally owned provide at least seasonal grazing for over 4 million Table 25-Comparison of federally owned land with regional land areas, 1970 Total Federally Federally owned Region land owned land as share area land of region 1,000 acres Percent Northern: Northeast 112,285 2,352 2.1 Lake States 122,709 8,S11 6.9 Corn Belt 16S,284 3,306 2.0 Northern Plains 194,877 6,923 3.6 Total 595,15S 21,092 IS Southern: Appalachian 124,450 8,048 6.5 Southeast 124,069 7,693 6.2 Mississippi Delta 92,690 S,767 6.2 Southern Plains 212,305 4,428 2.1 Total 5532614 25,935 4.7 Western: Mountain 548,449 270,321 49.3 Pacific 204,499 89,144 43.6 Alaska 365,482 348,467 95.3 Hawaii 4,106 397 9.7 Total 1,122,535 708,330 63.1 Total, 48 contiguous States 1,901,716 359,466 18.9 Total, 50 States 1 2,271,304 755,357 33.3 Adapted from State data in (10, app. F). 29 cattle and 9 million sheep, or about 30 million the remaining 2 percent is distributed among more animal-unit months of grazing. The importance of than 30 separate agencies. Federal grazing land varies greatly by States and local Lands acquired by many Federal agencies are areas. For example, Federal lands provide about 45 devoted to specific purposes, administered under spe- percent of the total feed requirements for beef cattle cific legislation, and present few management options. and sheep in Nevada and 30 percent in Utah. In some Examples are military- installations, public works facili- areas, many ranches would cease to be economic ties, research installations, and Federal building sites. operating units if public rangQ use were prohibited. Problems and opportunities for management alterna- Federal lands are an important source of minerals. tives and public use of federally owned land center on In 1968, over 64 million acres were under lease for oil the over 700 million acres administered by the Bureau and gas, and over 6 percent of the Nation's oil of Land Management, Forest Service, National Park production came from Federal lands. More than 8,200 Service, and Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife. producing mineral leases generated over $92 million in For the most part these lands are managed within the royalties to the Federal Government. Much of the multiple-use concept. This is not a precise concept; national production of copper, nickel, silver, lead, however, it recognizes that public lands produce a molybdenum, potash, and mercury comes from Federal variety of valuable products for public consumption, land. Deposits of oil shale, located principally on and it implies that management should maximize "net public lands, are of great potential strategic importance public benefits." and pose unique resource management problems in Public lands ard a vast reserve of potential resource guiding their development and utilization. benefits to the American people. The enjoyment of Over 33 million acres of federally owned land- these benefits for future generations will require national parks, monuments, scenic and wild rivers, management policies which safeguard resources from wilderness areas, and seashores-are truly unique in deterioration, recognize public choice and desires in terms of scenic or natural attributes. These lands products produced, and anticipate and respond to constitute a tremendous resource for outdoor recrea- changing public demands over time. A critical part of tion and require special management policies and such a system is a program that will explore and practices. Much of the remaining Federal land, especi- display the supply potential of public lands in terms of ally in National Forests, is also used or available for both single-product and multiproduct alternatives. outdoor recreation. The Government, by reserving and Public choices and desires, based on this information, managing lands for recreational purposes, may be can then be translated into management policies and considered the Nation's principal supplier of outdoor multiproduct mixes that will maximize the utility of recreation facilities. Federal lands provide not only our federally owned resources. much of the fish and wildlife habitat but also much of the access to fishing and hunting in the United States. Other Ownership and Use Categories Seventeen million acres are set aside for resident game of Rural Land species, and 9 million acres are designated as migratory A comprehensive accounting of major landowner- bird refuges. Big game depends largely on Federal lands ship or use categories would be difficult. Changing for habitat. habits, life styles, and occupational composition of our Federal lands, mainly the National Forests, are the population have radically altered the relative impor- principal source of water in much of the and West, tance of agricultural and nonagricultural land. Small providing about three-fifths of the natural runoff in holdings no longer farmed may provide residence for the I I conterminous Western States. Water quality, urban workers. In terms of land area occupied, rural sedimentation, erosion, and distribution of runoff are housing may not occupy much land but such use may significantly affected by management practices on be expensive in terms of providing government services these lands. or protecting the environment. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Depart- In determining future policies for rural land use, ment of the Interior, administers over 60 percent of all nonfarm parceling promises to increase in importance. Federal lands (fig. 15). About two-thirds of the HLM In recent years large shifts have occurred in the land is in Alaska. The Forest Service administer@ about ownership of private forest lands from the category of one-fourth of the Federal lands. Smaller acreages are "farm" to "miscellaneous private" in the Atlantic and administered by the Department of Defense and by the Gulf Coastal States. For the five coastal States from Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Park Virginia through Florida, the "miscellaneous private" Service, Department of the Interior. Administration of acreage increased approximately 21h times in 17 years. 30 ADMINISTRATION OF FEDERAL LANDS BY AGENCY, 1968 1 1 1 MILLIONS 50% OF ACRES TOTAL 755.4 FEDERAL LAND BUREAU 0 62% 470.4 LAND MANAGEMEN FOREST 25% 186.9 SERVICE DEPARTMENT 4% 30.7 OF DEFENSE FISH AND WILDL:FE 4% 26.6 SERV CE NATIONAL PARK 3% 23.3 SERVICE OTHER 2% 17.5 AGENCIES SOURCE: PLLRCSTUDYINVENTORYINFORMATION OF PUBLIC LANDS, TABLE A2a, 1969. Figure 15 How this shift related to purposes of ownership and rest as cottages. Over 90 percent had electricity, 58 levels of management is largely unknown. In response percent had complete plumbing, and 36 percent had to the growing demand for land for recreation and some type of heating system. second homes close to urban areas, and the demands The land area involved in recreation subdivisions for public parks and reservoirs, sizable acreages are and second homes is not known precisely. Probably 2.5 likely to be removed from timber and commercial to 3.0 million acres are used as sites for second homes. agricultural uses. According to the census survey of 1967, 12 percent of The Council on Environmental Quality, in its first the second homes and recreation subdivision lots were annual report to Congress, noted that the growth of 10 acres or more in size. Private estimates indicate vacation homes is the instrumental force in the 650,000 or more recreation lots were sold in 1972. development of the Nation's coastal lands. Shorefront Approximately 100,000 second houses are built each homes account for over 68 percent of the total year on lots already in the hands of owners. A recreational property values along the coasts and the continuation of the current energy shortage could lead Great Lakes. They occupy over 90 percent of the to a sharp reduction of demand for second homes and recreational land on developed coasts. Only 6 percent development of recreation subdivisions. of the land that can be classed as recreation shoreline In view of the large number of rural parcel sales for is in public ownership and not all of that is accessible second home and recreation home sites, serious service to the public (5). and environmental impact problems could develop in Data on second-home ownership is limited. In 1967, the future. Often there is little or no preplanning in according to a Bureau of Census sample survey, 1.7 consideration of environmental impacts and service @ 4% 4 million households, or nearly 3 percent of the total, needs of contemporary urban life, and the fragmenta- owned second homes. Nearly 80 percent of these tion of land ownership will complicate future planning second homes were within 200 miles of the primary for land use. Water supplies and waste disposal for the home and about a third were within 50 miles. A third Nation's rural homes and small communities already were classified as houses, 9 percent as cabins, and the are difficult problems. Many areas do have good water 31 and waste disposal systems, but elsewhere, including zoning ordinances and subdividion regulations; adjust- both recreation subdivision and long established rural merits of both income and property taxes; and organi- communities, domestic waste disposal is inadequate zational forms such as special purpose districts. and a source of water pollution. This section focuses on the regulation of land use The boom in rural recreation and second home through the police power. With minor exceptions, the developments is also creating new demands on public police power is among the powers reserved to the States lands. Many recreational developments are being under the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution. State located on private lands adjacent to National and State governments, therefore, have the inherent authority to parks and forest lands, thus adding to the already regulate land use. Historically they have delegated this heavy use-demands on the public lands. authority to local governments. However, recent devel- opments suggest there is a trend toward direct exercise Public Controls Over Private Land Use by the States of certain of their land use regulatory In 1940, Ely and Wehrwein, in Land Economics ' powers. The major land use regulatory devices under the stated in regard to policies of public control over land: police power are zoning, subdivision regulation, and the official map. Other more limited but widely used types Insofar as land and resources are affected by public of regulation are building codes, housing codes, and interest, no landowner holds title to land to the health regulations. exclusion of the rights of the public, including future as The delegation of power to regulate rural land use well as present generations. Our political philosophy varies widely among the States. But, in general, county must give meaning and content to the vague idea of "public vs. private rights" to land. The right to control governments are in control in the South and West, land uses exists and lies in the sovereign power of the towns or townships in the Northeast, and both counties state and may be exercised through the police power, and towns or townships in the Lake States. Figure 16 eminent domain, and taxation. The real question is breaks down rural zoning legislation by States. All 50 whether the people are willing to make use of these States authorize the zoning of some unincorporated or powers within the rule of reasonableness, as decided by the courts and American traditions. (8) rural areas. Rural land in three-fourths of the Nation's 3,000 counties can be zoned 'by some unit of local This statement can hardly be improved upon today. government (19). If government spending is added to those powers Information on enabling legislation presents only part enumerated by Ely and Wehrwein, we have a full of the picture, however. Enabling acts generally leave to listing of forces that can be used to implement land local government units the decision whether or ifot to policy. What the statement does not specify, however, adopt land use regulations. National statistics on the is that these powers or forces are variously distributed numbers of local governments regulating land use are among different levels of government in our system. not regularly or systematically collected. The only Until public attention began to focus recently on the information currently available was collected in a sample issue of a national land use policy, little official effort survey conducted by the Governments Division of the was made to integrate the powers available at different Bureau of the Census in 1967 and reported by Allen D. levels of government to address land use problems. Manvel of the staff of the National Commission on In general, the powers of government may be Urban Problems (9). Table 26 summarizes part of that characterized as follows: The Federal Government has report. immense power to tax and spend; the State govern- While there has been a significant increase in rural ments have lesser powers to tax and spend, but they land. use planning and regulation during the last 10 have broad regulatory power; and the local govern- years, the survey shows that rural local governments lag ments have more limited power to tax and regulate, considerably behind urban jurisdictions in these activi- but they have a unique opportunity to hear or express ties. In 1967, for example, 80 percent of the county the views of individual citizens. governments within SMSA's had planning boards, com- In addition to alternate sources of constitutional pared with only 48 percent of the counties outside authority available to governments for asserting the SMSA's. Within SMSA's, 49 percent of county govern- public interest in private land use, an almost limitless merits had a zoning ordinance., but this was true for variety of tools or devices exists for expressing this only 19 percent of those outside SMSA's. In a great many authority. These include various forms of public cases, the failure of local governments to act in these areas ownership; fee ownership, fee ownership with lease- cannot be explained by lack of legislative authority. back, or easements; contractual arrangements such as The decision by a local government to plan and those used in cost-sharing; regulatory devices such as regulate land use is an important first step; however, the 32 RURAL ZONING ENABLING LEGISLATION January 1, 19.71 - MR. N 00 so 0 A@AS@A HA.All 00 92> EMPOWERED TO ZONE SOUR( E OF OAT- APPENDIX All counties *Any city, extraterritorially TABL.: 2, CHAFTER Selected or classes of counties OSelected cities, extraterritoriaily All towns or townships 0 Specified State agencies Selected towns or townships A Organized boroughs U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Regional planning gen,iesNEG. ERS 3145-72 @ 2) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 16 effectiveness of these activities may be determined by land use had any full-time employees engaged in this commitments of resources to execute and administer activity in 1967. The pattern of part-time employment them. According to the 1967 survey, almost $300 in planning and regulatory activities was particularly million is spent annually by local governments in significant in rural areas. For all governments outside planning and regulatory activities. Of this amount, over SMSA's, 70.5 percent of total employment was part- $42 million is spent by governments outside SMSA's. time; within SMSA's, it was 28 percent. While these figures are impressive, they account for The reason frequently given for our current land use only a small part of total local government expendi- problems is the inherent inadequacy of the tools or tures-less than I percent in urban areas. Total planning devices available to the public for controlling land use. and regulatory expenditures are also small compared Although tools could and should be improved, a more with the property values and dimensions of the real general problem, particularly in rural areas, is failure to estate development industry that is to be regulated. use the tools available. Further, those local govern- As might be expected, areas outside SMSA's spend ments using the tools apparently do not devote less per capita for regulatory activities than areas sufficient resources to make them effective. within SMSA's. The average for all regulating govern- In the decade ahead, the need to plan and regulate ments outside SMSA's is only one-third of the average land use will increase as greater emphasis is placed on expenditure within SMSA's (fig. 17). meeting environmental quality standards. This will In addition to the problem of level of expenditure require greater coordination and integration of the is the problem of level of employment; less than powers available to the various levels of governments in one-fourth of all jurisdictions attempting to regulate our Federal system. WATER RESOURCES Water Supplies and Uses conterminous States is 30 inches, or about 4.2 trillion Water is a renewable and mobile resource. The gallons per day. Some 70 percent of the precipi- average annual basic supply of precipitation for the 48 tation,.or 21 inches, evaporates or is transpired from 33 Table 26-Number and percentage distribution of governments with planning, zoning, and building regulation activities, by SMSA location, and type and size of government, 1968 Type of Within SMSA's government Number Any and 1960 of Planning Zoning Subdivision Building Housing building population' governments board ordinance regulation code code regulation' Number Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Municipalities: 50,000 or more 314 98.4 98.7 92.7 98.7 85.3 100.0 5,000-49,999 J,303 92.9 97.0 90.0 91.8 53.3 99.9 Under 5,000 3,360 54.9 54.0 47.7 57.4 37.8 79.5 New England-type townships: 5,000 or more 765 79.1 81.0 74.0 58.7 22.7 91.5 Under 5,000 1,463 45.7 44.8 44.0 33.5 20.4 63.3 Counties 404 80.0 49.3 62.9 39A 18.6 86.1 Outside SMSA's Number Planning Zoning Subdivision Building Housing Any of board ordinance regulation code code building governments regulation' Number Percent Pereen t Percent Percent Percent Percent Municipalities: 5,000-49,999 1,352 91.8 90.5 81.9 73.5 54.4 98.4 1,000-4,999 1,675 56.5 52.9 31.3 51.3 27.6 89.3 New England-type townships: 5,000 or more 333 79.3 73.9 72.7 52.9 16.2 84.4 1,000-4,999 2,399 37.9 20.1 18.8 15.2 7.9 69.4 Counties 2,645 48.1 19.4 23.9 9.7 5A 54.7 Total Within SMSA's 7,609 65.2 68.3 59.3 59.5 36.5 82.3 Outside SMSA's 10,384 55.4 42.3 34.4 36.8 20.5 75.3 All governments 17,993 59.6 53.3 44.9 46.4 27.3 78.3 'Data relate to governments subject to sample survey representation, and thus omit (a) all municipalities and townships of less than 1,000 population located outside of SMSA's; and (b) township governments located in States where the governments lack municipal-type powers. 'Data cover units reporting any of the other specified types of activity or a local building-permit system. Adapted from (9, p. 14). 34 PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR PLANNING, ZONING, AND BUILDING REGULATION ACTIVITIES, 1967 1 1 1 ALL LOCAL GOVERNMENTS 70 SMSA's COUNTIES fm Out side SMSA,? MUNICIPALITIES 2.19 .08 NEW ENGLAND- TYPE TOWNSHIPS 0 0.50 1.00 1.50 '2.00 2.50 DOLLARS DATA SOURCE: LOCAL LAND AND DUMOING REGULATIONS. RESEARCH REPORT No. s, NATIONAL COMMISSIOM ON URBAN IROOLEMS, WASHING TON, D.C. 196s. *srANDANDMErROPOLiTANSTAritriCAL AREAS. U.,..E., ARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEG.ERS6848-72(8) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Figure 17 vegetation. Roughly two-fifths of this evapotranspi- But even in areas of high precipitation and runoff, a ration is a natural loss. The other three-fifths provides series of dry years may occur, resulting in serious the Moisture for four-fifths of our supply of food and drought problems such as those in the Northeast from fiber and nearly all of our forest products. 1961 to 1966. The remaining 30 percent of the precipitation, or 9 Floods and droughts of varying severity and dura- inches, is natural runoff. This is equivalent to 1.2 tion occur sporadically across the country. As might be trillion gallons per day for the 48 States and can be expected, flood damage is heavy on intensively devel- considered the effective renewable supply. But sub- oped flood plains; but historically, the bulk of the stantial accumulated groundwater, a stock resource, total damage has actually occurred in numerous, less augments this effective supply. Groundwater reserves, intensively developed areas. The adverse effects of not all of which can be economically tapped, are equal droughts are particularly felt in areas that use a high to about 30 years of runoff. portion of their water supply each year, or where Alaska's water resources represent- the largest block storage and distribution facilities are inadequate to of undeveloped water supply for the United States. meet prolonged shortages or increased water require- The natural runoff is about 580 billion gallons per day, ments. almost half that of the 48 States. While ground water use is vital to the economy of The time and spatial distribution of water resources, some areas, its mining will decrease as pumping from while contributing to the unique and varied character greater depths becomes uneconomic or local reserves of different parts of the country, poses important are exhausted. Desalination, although presently in management problems. For any one region or location, limited use, may become an economically feasible rainfall can vary widely from season to season and means of augmenting local water supplies in some from year to year. Even greater variations occur in areas. Increasing precipitation and runoff through runoff and streaffiflow and thus in the dependability of weather modification offer some possibilities for the the effective supply of water actually available for use future, but many questions remain to be answered by at a particular time and place. The dependability of further trials and research. Other opportunities for runoff can be expressed by comparing the runoff in more effective regulation of runoff include watershed the driest year in, say, 20 years, with the average for management,, snowpack management, evaporation sup- 20 years. In general, the areas of greatest dependability pression, and elimination of undesirable forms of in runoff are the Northwest, the Northeast, and the vegetation. Southeast. The areas of greatest variability or least Water quality must also be considered in discussing dependability are the Southwest and the Great Plains. water supply. Natural water quality is affected by 35 geologic, hydrologic, and biologic factors. The most reuse. The returned water may be altered very signifi- important natural impurities are sediment and dissolved cantly or very little in quality, depending on its use minerals. The natural quality of surface or ground and treatment before return. These are the principal water varies considerably from one area to another, reasons for focusing on water uses that require with- and in some situations the water is unsuitable for most drawal in assessing use trends and pressures on avail- uses. Moreover, man-caused pollution has seriously able supplies. impaired water quality over wide areas. This pollution Table 27 indicates the national trends in water consists primarily of waste discharges from domestic withdrawals, and the relationship of withdrawals to the and industrial sources; salinity of irrigation return average annual supply of runoff that replenishes both flows; sediment and other diffused wastes in runoff streamflow and ground water. Withdrawals in 1970 in from urban, mined, industrial, and agricultural lands; the 48 conterminous States totaled about 323 billion and sediment from logging operations and roadway gallons pet day. This was 27 percent of the available construction. supply in those States. Withdrawals in 1970 were about 2.8 times the 1940 volume, and net c6nsump- National Trends in Water Withdrawal tion in 1970 was about 2.3 times the 1940 volume. and Consumption Rural uses accounted for 85 percent of all consump- Water uses may be classified as instrearn or with- tion in 1970. This was due to the large demand for drawal. Instream uses such as navigation and fishing are water in irrigated agriculture, which, on the average, not considered in this report. Withdrawal includes uses up about 60 percent of the water withdrawn for water taken from surface or underground supplies. that purpose. Withdrawal for uses with low rates of Consumptive use is the portion of withdrawal that is consumption (industrial, municipal, steam-electric not directly returned to surface or ground supplies cooling) increased faster than withdrawal for uses with because of evaporation, transpiration from plants, high rates of consumption, such as irrigation. This absorption, or incorporation with animal, plant, or accounts for the lower increase factor for consump- manufactured products. tion. Withdrawal uses involve some 'actual consumption or The final column of table 27 indicates roughly the dissipation, but may return large quantities of water to degree to which water use impinges on the quantity stream courses or ground water where it is available for and quality of our available supplies of streamflow and Table 27-Water supplies, withdrawals, and consumption, 1940-70 Share Share Ratio of con- Year Annual Total Total Relative consumed consumed sumptive use runoff withdrawaIS2 consumption' to 1940 in urbaii in rural and with- areaS4 areass drawals' ---- Billion gallons per day ----- ----- Percent ---- 1940 1,793.8 11S.2 38.1 100 7 93 2/6 1945 1,793.8 142.8 42.8 112 8 92 2/8, 1950 1,793.8 171.4 S2.0 137. 8 92 3/10 1955 1,793.8 214.3 S6.8 149 10 90 3/12 1960 1,793.8 256.2 64.9 170 11 89 4/14 196S 1,793.8 269.6 77.7 204 13 87 4/15 1970 1,793.8 326.8 86.S 227 15 8S 5/18 Proportion of precipitation reaching streams or recharging ground water. 'Includes gross diversions or pumping for any purpose. 'Proportion of gross actual withdrawals not available for subsequent withdrawal. Includes transpiration from irrigated vegetation, biological transpiration, and some evaporation. 4MaWy water consumed by municipal water systems, self-supplied industrial or manufacturing uses, and steam-electric power plants. 5 Includes farm domestic water use, livestock consumption, and irrigation consumption. 'Ratio of consumptive use and withdrawals as a percentage of annual runoff supply. The latter indexes can range over 100, in which case they mean that annual runoff supplies in the region are normally inadequate to service all withdrawal needs, and there must be reliance on return flows and runoff originating in other regions. Sources: Data for 1940-60 are mainly from the Bureau of the Census, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Economic Research Service as described in (13). Data for 196S and 1970 are mainly cited or derived from (25). Data should be interpreted as orders of magnitude than as precise figures. 36 additions to ground water. Net consumption and total proportionate use of ground water. Although the withdrawals are expressed as percentages of the total changes are not radical, they are nevertheless steady. ninoff supply. Water consumption for the entire We can expect an increasing relative emphasis on United States in 1970 was 5 percent of annual groundwater management in agriculture, as well as an supply, and withdrawals were 18 percent of total increasing emphasis on the problem of surface water supply. Both indexes have increased over time but the supply and treatment in the nonagricultural sectors. relationship between them has changed little. As will be shown further on, the regional pattern of consump- Regional Supplies, Withdrawal, and tion and withdrawal, and the relationship between Consumption of Water them, varies between regions, reflecting great dif- Water supplies and uses differ greatly among the ferences in water supplies and the development of the water resource regions of the conterminous States, and supplies. Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (table 29 and fig. 18). Water Withdrawals-Source of In some regions, notably the Lower Mississippi and Lower Colorado and Rio Grande, more @iater is Supply and Purpose withdrawn than is normally available from runoff, From a policy and management standpoint, we need indicating that there must be reliance on return flows to know how the different uses of water impinge on and runoff originating in other regions. In four other different sources or forms of supply. In 1970, two- regions-Great Lakes, Texas-Gulf, Great Basin, and thirds of all U.S. withdrawals were from fresh surface Califomia-total withdrawals are half or more of total sources, one-fourth were from ground sources, and annual runoff su@ply. The percentage of runoff supply about one-tenth were from saline sources (table 28). that is consumed also ranges widely and, where it is The heaviest users of saline water are steam-electric highest, is generally indicative of regions where there power generation plants, which require water mainly has been major development of water supplies. for cooling purposes. Fresh surface water provides two-thirds of all rural Special Importance of Agricultural Water water needs, which in turn account for one-third of Use and Development the water withdrawn for all purposes. Ground water is used for more than a third of our rural water needs; Agriculture accounts for at least half and in many agricultural pumping accounts for about three-fifths of cases fo- nearly all water consumption in 13 of the 18 the ground water pumped for all purposes in the water resource regions of the 48 conterminous States, United States. Despite problems of overdraft in some not counting evapotranspiration from nonirrigated regions-the Texas High Plains and California, for crops, pasture, range, and forest land. Urban con- example-the general trend is for agriculture to increase sumptive use predominates in the North Atlantic, its use of ground water, relative to surface supplies, Great Lakes, Ohio, and Tennessee regions, although and for municipalities and industry to decrease their gross withdrawals are primarily for urban uses in all Table 28-Water withdrawals: Principal uses and sources of supply, 1970 Principal withdrawal Volume Water withdrawals from- uses of water withdrawn Fresh Ground Saline es perday surface sources sources sourc Bil. gaL ---- Percent ---- Rural domestic 2.391 15 85 0 Livestock 1.942 42 58 0 Irrigation 119.184 65 35 0 Total rural 123.517 64 36 0 Municipal 27.028 67 33 0 Self-supplied industrial 55.944 65 17 18 Steam-electric power 120.311 73 2 25 Total urban 203.283 70 10 20 Total withdrawal uses 326.800 66 24 10 Derived from (25). 37 Table 29-Regional water supplies, withdrawals, and consumption, 1970 Annual Total Share Share Ratio of con- Water resource runoff Total consumed consumed sumptive use region* supply, withdrawaIS2 tion' in urban in rural to with- I consump areaS4 aicass drawals' .... Billion gallonsIday - - ---- Percent ---- North Atlantic 163.0 43.3 2.3 81 19 1/26 South Atlantic-Gulf 197.0 31.4 2.9 30 70 1/16 Great Lakes 63.2 32.7 1.4 82 18 2/51 Ohio 125.0 32.7 1.3 71 29 1/26 Tennessee 41.5 7.9 .4 68 32 1/19 Upper Mississippi 64.6 10.4 .9 40 60 1116 Lower Mississippi 48.4 7.9 2.0 28 72 1/16 Souris-Red-Rainy 6.2 .6 .1 20 80 2/10 Missouri 54.1 20.6 11.4 3 97 21/38 Arkansas-White-Red 95.8' 12.0 6.7 12 88 7/12 Texas-Gulf 39.1 20.6 8.0 20 80 20/52 Rio Grande 4.9 7.6 4.5 5 95 86/155 Upper Colorado 13.5 4.6 2.2 2 98 16/34 Lower Colorado 3.2 7.4 3.7 9 91 26/231 Great Basin 5.9 5.7 2.6 6 94 37/96 Columbia-North Pacific 210.0 33.6 11.5 3 97 5116 California 65.1 43.6 23.7 12 88 34/66 Alaska 580.0 .3 .1 92 8 0/0 Hawaii 13.3 1.9 .6 10 90 5/14 Puerto Rico NA 2.0 .3 17 83 NA Total, all regions 1,793.8 326.8 86.5 15 85 5/18 Total, 48 contiguous States 1,200.5 322.6 85.6 15 85 7/27 NA = not available *See figure 18. Water resource regions as currently delineated by the Water Resources Council do not correspond exactly with those used for the First National Assessment. The New England and Middle Atlantic regions were formed from the North Atlantic region and several smaller boundary adjustments were made. ' Proportion of precipitation reaching streams or recharging ground water. 'Includes gross diversions or pumping for any purpose. 'Proportion of gross actual withdrawals not available for subsequent withdrawal. Includes transpiration from irrigated vegetation, biological transpiration, and some evaporation. 'Mainly water consumed by municipal water systems, self-supplied industrial or manufacturing uses, and steam-electric power plants. 'Includes farm domestic water use, livestock consumption, and irrigation consumption. 'Ratio of consumptive use and withdrawals as a percentage of annual runoff supply. The latter indexes can range over 100, in which case they mean that annual runoff supplies in the region are normally inadequate to service all withdrawal needs, and there must be reliance on return flows and runoff originating in other regions. Derived from (25). the eastern regions. In the western regions and Hawaii, irrigation accounted for 81 percent of the total water withdrawals are mostly for irrigation and other rural uses. consumption. Although total withdrawals for irrigation About 10 percent of the farms and ranches in the will continue to fall relative to withdrawals for United States are irrigated. In the West, irrigation is self-supplied industrial, municipal, or steam-electric often the difference between low production and power purposes, irrigation is expected to remain the uncertain income, and high production and good farm principal consumptive use of water. In contrast to income. In the humid East, irrigation can prevent crop industrial uses, where continued gains in water use failures, increase yields, and improve product quality efficiency are expected, efficiency in irrigation is even in average years. Irrigation is also used for frost expected to improve only modestly. But in many areas protection and to control high temperatures on spe- now being irrigated, greater efficiency in water use cialty crops. may be the only economic means of providing ade- Water withdrawals for irrigation accounted for quate water for optimum crop growth and for good about 36 percent of all U.S. withdrawals in 1970, but use of water supplies. 38 WATER RESOURCE REGIONS SOuris-Rad-Rainy Pacific --------------- r-------------- Missouri Great ...... ----- --------- ------------- Great upper ------I P"lant'. asin 11 missis sippi --------- ----- Upper ---------------- C.19rado Calif sou,,Ornia_ Pacific ---- -- ---- -------------- ----- --------- -- - ---------- LO er Arkansas- T nnes ------ C@O, White-Red 1 ------- O@ 16 .0 South Lower Atlantic-,Gulf -Mississippi Rio Texas-Gulf -7 Hawaii 4@ *DELINEATED BY THE WATER R SOURCES COUNCIL FOR THE SECOND NATIONAL ASSESSMENT. C:@ U.S. DEPARTMENT 0' AGRICULTURE Puerto Rico S@ARC. SNIJE Alaska NEG. ERS 5649-73(8) ECONOMIC Figure 18 Because of urbanization, there is a decided trend viduals, firms, local government bodies, and the public. toward increased use of water for nonagricultural The acquisition, exercise, transfer, and loss of water purposes in nearly all regions. The trend is not sharp, rights have been primarily governed by such laws. however. Considering its current role, the agricultural While all water supplies may be more or less inter- sector will probably remain the principal consumptive related, rights to use them may vary according to their user of water for many years, and management and particular classification for various purposes. development of water resources in the rural sector of The riparian doctrine accords rights to the use of a the economX will continue to be important issues in natural watercourse to particular land on the basis of public policy. the land's contiguity to the supply. The owner of a Water Rights and Regulation tract of land adjoining the watercourse has certain rights to use the water in place, or on the riparian land. Federal, State, and local levels of government In several States the owner may divert any water he exercise control over water resources. Authority may needs for domestic use, but for irrigation and other stem from constitutional provisions, statutory legisla- purposes the use ordinarily must be reasonable with tion, or judicial decisions. Federal authority is limited respect to the requirements of others under the to powers expressly granted or reasonably implied by particular circumstances. In some instances, elements *e Constitution. Within the sphere of delegated of the natural flow doctrine may be employed. These power, the Federal authority is paramount. All principles may pertain to both the quantity and remaining powers are reserved to the States or to the quality of the water. In water pollution cases, the people. nuisance doctrine also may be applied. Water storage Insofar as it is consistent with Federal, interstate, may be permissible during high-flow periods for use and international limitations, each State may adopt its during low-flow periods if this causes no damage to own system of water law. State laws have established others. But liability may arise if water is impounded property rights in water, as well as conditions for the during low-flow periods. The law is unsettled in these use, development, and management of water by indi- and other respects in a number of States. 39 Riparian land usually must adjoin the watercourse, duration and effect. The permitted water use has been lie within its watershed, and be one contiguous restricted to riparian lands in some States but pot in ownership tract. Some courts have added that it may others. Most Eastern States have at least some permit not exceed the tract originally acquired from the requirements, such as those regarding dams. Some have Government and if a nonadjoining part is separately rather comprehensive water-use permit systems. Some conveyed to another, that part may lose its riparian have provided for State agency regulation of water use status unless a contrary intention has been shown. A in. portions of the State only when and where number of States allow limited use of the water on regulation is shown to be needed by certain criteria. nonriparian land if the rights of riparian owners are Moreover, some States allow or require local govern- not adversely affected or, in a few States, if such use is ment regulation of water use. reasonable under the circumstances. The riparian doctrine is recognized in varying degree The riparian doctrine usually applies to both navi- in. the tier of six Western States extending from the gable and nonnavigable watercourses, but the exercise Dakotas to Texas and in the four States bordering the of riparian rights may be subject to uses of navigable Pacific. It exists along with ancient water rights in watercourses by the public for navigation, fishing, or Hawaii. Riparian water use rights are not generally other purposes. Definitions of a navigable watercourse applicable in the other eight, generally more arid, may vary from State to State. Western States. The appropriation doctrine applies in Under the appropriation doctrine, the earliest right these States, and in varying degree in most of the 19 to water from a particular watercourse usually has Western States. Elements of the doctrine also exist in priority over later rights, regardless of the location of some Eastern States, notably Mississippi. one's land with respect to the stream. Each appropri- Other common features of western water laws ator may be limited to the amount of water needed include provisions for mass adjudications of water for his beneficial use without unnecessary waste. rights and for State officials to issue permits and However, several appropriation doctrine States have licenses and to physically distribute the water. Com- preference lists which usually give domestic and muni- plicating factors in Western and Eastern States may cipal use the highest preference. In several States, include prescriptive water rights and the permissible domestic use is exempt or treated as a vested right. use of voluntary contractual agreements and eminent Irrigation often is next in fine on such lists and domain powers. In two States, California and New industrial and other uses often are lower, although this Mexico, pueblo water rights of certain municipalities ranking may vary by States. These preference provisions have been recognized. A municipality which is a may operate in one or more of the following three successor of a Spanish or Mexican pueblo has a situations: (1) when there are two or more applications priority right for its inhabitants to use water occurring pending for thi same water, (2) when a shortage of naturally within the old pueblo limits. water. develops for holders of appropriative rights, and Underground streams ordinarily are governed by the (3) when one's appropriative right is desired by same principles as surface watercourses. But ground another for a superior use. In the second and third water is presumed to be "percolating" ground water situations, payment of compensation is usually rather than an undergtound stream, unless there is required. sufficient evidence to the contrary. Appropriative rights usually . attach to specified The English "absolute-own.ership" type of rule is quantities of water and often to specific times, places, still followed in some States, both Eastern and and methods of diversion., The right ordinarily is of 'Western. But it has been replaced in many States by unlimited duration, but it may be lost through nonuse the American rule of reasonable use or by the rule of for a certain period in most States. The right usually correlative rights. The appropriation doctrine applies to attaches to particular lahd. Th place of use or point percolating ground water in a number of Western States, of diversion usually may not be changed if it would be although in some it only applies to watercourses. Eastern detrimental to other water rights. Some States have States may have various permit requirements. rather severe restrictions on such changes. So-called "diffused surface water" primarily includes The riparian doctrine is generally applied to natural rainwater which has not reached a natural watercourse. watercourses in the 31 States lying east of Texas and Most cases on diffused surface water have dealt with the Dakotas. Permit requirements and minimum the drainage of such water, rather than rights to use it. strearnflow or lake-level provisions are superimposed in Most of the relatively few cases in point suggest that a some cases upon the basic riparian system. Perrhits landowner originally may impound and make use of issued often have been of rather limited or uncertain such water about as he wishes. 40 Each of the principal doctrines and related laws private and public water use and related land use, may present varying degrees and kinds of ease or watershed or river basin management and development, difficulty, security or insecurity, and flexibility in and the quality of water and the environment. acquiring, exercising, and regulating water use and In addition to applicable State laws, there are related rights and permits for particular kinds of use various Federal regulatory provisions (particularly and development. Each may have certain advantages regarding navigable waters of the United States) and and limitations for various purposes, depending on other Federal laws and programs that affect the their structure and application in particular States. For exercise of water rights. Sources of enabling authority example, the riparian reasonable use principle, as well for Federal activities provided in the Constitution as some permit systems, may be more flexible but not include the commerce power, the proprietary power, as definitive as the prior appropriation principle. The the war power, and the general welfare power. Federal riparian doctrine generally is more restrictive than the regulatory functions include regulation of the erection appropriation doctrine regarding the use of water from of structures or other activities affecting the navigable a watercourse on distant lands, but the appropriation capacity of waters, licensing non-Federal development doctrine may restrict changes in the place of use or of power, and administration of Federal water quality point of diversion. provisions. General State statutes and court-made rules often Conversely, some Federal programs and projects are intended to serve a variety of purposes in the more may be affected by the operation of State laws. or less uncertain future. Some other laws are more Federally built improvements on navigable waters or specifically designed to facilitate, regulate, or inhibit on Federal property often may be the least affected particular types of activities, or to pertain to certain by, although they may affect, the operation of State areas. Modifications of such laws or their operation water rights laws. However, any State or local partici- may be needed in various States, within State and pation in such projects may depend materially on State Federal constitutional limitations, so as to incorporate laws. The respective roles of Federal and State Govern- features that are more likely to attain desired purposes. ments in regard to water rights and related laws have Some broad and interrelated issues may concern the been a subject of controversy. respective roles of courts, governments, and administra- The operation of State water laws also may be tive agencies; the timing, level, and organization of limited or otherwise affected by interstate and interna- government regulation; which kinds of water allocation tional arrangements or considerations such as com- and pollution control measures to adopt; the coordina- pacts, treaties, applicable Federal laws, differences in tion of water allocation with pollution control, water State laws, and U.S. Supreme Court decisions in development, water conservation, and drainage interstate disputes. Such considerations may be particu- measures; private versus public water rights; and the larly significant in dealing with the interrelated prob- coordination of rights in or regulation of intercon- lems of a large river basin or region in which several nected water resources and interrelated land and water States and the Nation, and perhaps an adjoining use. These issues may have implications in regard to country, may have important stakes. PROSPECTIVE LAND AND WATER RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS AND POTENTIALS Sound planning is oriented to the future and the Baseline projections of these indicators were pre- best path to it. Planning for future use of land and pared in connection with economic and water resource water resources requires the most accurate estimates planning studies administered by the U.S. Water possible of future supply and demand factors: trends Resources Council and developed jointly by the in population growth, economic activity, technology, Departments of Commerce and Agriculture (26). The crop yields, imports and exports of agricultural pro- studies included projections of land and water use ducts, and the resource requirements of other uses that under specified conditions. Alternate projections have compete for land and water resources. Projections of since been developed to incorporate the effects of these factors have several uses: They serve as a basis recent changes in population and export demand. for estimating future needs for land and water; they aid in identifying emerging problems in resource use, Assumptions and Economic Framework ,conservation, and development; and they provide a The baseline projections prepared for the Water framework for evaluating resource development mea- Resources Council were based on longrun trends in sures that will be used over long periods of time. those factors that affect the supply and demand for 41 land and water resources. Major assumptions under- factors, and the many other factors which influence lying these projections were a low rate of population agriculture demand and land use patterns. growth (the Census Bureau Series E, December 1972 Agricultural Projections population projection), a high level of employment, no foreign conflicts, and a 3-percent annual growth in Baseline agricultural projections of resources were labor productivity. An implied assumption was that derived from projected national demands for food and total demand would be sufficiently strong to maintain fiber. It is assumed that shortages or sharp increases in high employment. Principal economic indicators for prices of agricultural products relative to other con- selected years are summarized in table 30. sumer products, such as those experienced in 1972 and Total U.S. population was projected at about 264 1973, will not be sufficient over the projection period million for the year 2000, an increase of more than 30 to materially change patterns of consumption, and that percent over the estimated 1969 population. In the exports will continue to increase after 19"80. same period, total personal income was projected to Under the assumed economic framework, the increase by about three times and per capita personal domestic use of farm products should rise approxi- income by about two and a half times. The value of mately 35 percent in the next three decades. This crop and livestock output, measured in 1967 dollars, would provide for the projected population increase of was projected to increase by 31 and 36 percent, 30 percent and a small increase in total per capita use respectively, while the gross national product should of food. With a projected per capita increase of 140 nearly triple. percent in real income by the year 2000, a continued Two alternative projections were developed to esti- upgrading of the diet and a change in the structure of mate the sensitivity of cropland requirements to the per capita use of food could be expected. The variations in food and fiber demand. The expected continuation of recent trends suggests an increase in impact of reduced total demand for crop production per capita red meat and poultry consumption and a resulting from a continuation of lower birth rates slight decline in the consumption of wheat, Irish observed since the late 1960's (the Census Bureau potatoes, noncitrus fruit, and dairy products (table Series F, December 1972 population, projections) is 31). reflected in the first alternative. The second alternative Other categories of agricultural production are reflects a higher level of export demand for farm export market uses and domestic nonfood uses. Non- products, consistent with market conditions that food uses consist mainly of seed, livestock feed, and appeared after 1972. Except for population and export manufacturing. Other nonfood uses of agricultural levels, assumptions on supply and demand factors are products except for livestock feed are projected to the same in the alternative and the baseline projec- grow at a slower rate than food uses. tions. No consideration was given at this time to the Livestock feed uses are projected to rise in relation- impacts of the current energy crisis, environmental ship to the increased demand for livestock products (table 32). Feed concentrates should increase faster than roughage because of the extensive gain in beef Table 30-Selected U.S. economic indicators, historic and and veal requirements and the increasing importance of projected, 1959-2000 beef production from fed cattle. Some improvement in I Projected feeding efficiency, predicated on improved technology Item 1959 1969 - and better management, is projected. Pasture and range 1 1980 2000 FluuUCtion to meet grazing requirements should Population, mil. 177.1 201.9 224.1 264.4 increase over the projection period but at a lower rate Total personal income, bit. 1967 dot. 432.3 689.7 1,072.6 2,158.8 than concentrates. Per capita income, 1967 dot. 2,441 3,416 4,786 8,165 Timber Demand and SupplieS3 Total employment, mil. 66.4 81.0 99.3 120.9 Timber supplies from U.S. forests in the year 2000 Index of crop production are projected to be 19.0 billion cubic feet (11.6 (1969 = 100) 94 100 117 131 Index of livestock pro- billion, softwood and 7.4 billion, hardwood). Three duction (1969 = 100) 90 100 115 136 alternate projections of demand were made. Assuming Index of major manufac- constant relative prices for wood products, total turing production consumption is estimated at 22.8 billion cubic feet (1969 = 100) 66 100 158 341 Source: (26). 'All data in this paragraph are from (22). .42 Table 3 I-Per capita consumption of selected farm products, are great and some selected uses such as recreation can averages 1963-65 and 1968-70, and projections for be achieved through multiple-use management of land. 1980 and 2000 Some land uses, such as for private recreation or for Product Average Average Projected public purposes, cannot be related easily to a national 1963-65 1968-70 economic framework, since they are related more Pounds - closely to social goals of the population. Beef and veal 103 115 130 135 Cropland Requirements Poultry 39 47 59 63 Projected cropland requirements were derived from Dairy 627 570 475 450 Citrus fruit State estimates of output and yields of individual 66 88 110 118 Noncitrus fruit 102 101 99 92 crops. The projected trend of land used for crops shows Potatoes 110 117 110 110 a decrease of nearly one-fourth from 1949 to 2000. Wheat 158 153 150 141 From 1969 to 2000 a decrease of one-tenth is Source: (26). projected (table 1). These acreages include cropland harvested, crop failure, and cultivated summer fallow. (15.9 billion, softwood; 6.8 billion, hardwood). This The distribution of crops grown is projected to would require net imports of 3.8 billion cubic feet, all change substantially between 1969 and the year softwood. Assuming prices of wood products rise 2000. Much of the expected change in the acreage of annually relative to other goods by 1.5 percent for crops harvested over this period is in the decrease in lumber, 1.0 percent for plywood and particle board, acreage required for roughage and food grain pro- and 0.5 percent for pulp and paper, consumption duction, each down by around 10 million acfes. The would be slightly less than projected supplies. A more total acreage is projected to decrease by 14.7 million conservative estimate for rising relative prices would acres. Offsetting a larger downtrend are oil crops, bring about a near balance, with a slight shortfall for principally soybeans, which are projected to increase softwood. The latter two assumptions of rising prices by 7.8 million acres. Nationally, all of the other are expected to result in only small supply responses in major crop groupings show minor changes in total U.S. production. Deficits are presumed to be made up acreage harvested (table 33). from increased net imports, entirely of softwood. If The area of land available and required for future prices are to be held relatively constant, there must be agricultural uses depends, in part, on the extent to rapid improvements in utilization of underused hard- which improvements in technology and resource devel- woods (with some substitution for softwood), recycling opiment increase land productivity. The availability of of paper wastes, as well as improved timber manage- land for agriculture also is influenced by other com- ment, especially on small ownerships. Table 33-Acreages of crops harvested, 1969, and baseline Agricultural and Forest Land Projections projections for 1980 and 2000 The land use projections that follow focus mainly Crop 1969- 1 1980- 1 20002 on the cropland base and its uses, additions to the Million acres cropland base from resource development, and with- drawals of cropland as it is converted to nonagri- Feed crops: Grains 95.6 102.9 91.1 cultural uses. Estimates of pasture and forest land Roughage 74.3 68.8 64.4 reflect the available acreages if other uses occur as Food crops: projected. Possibilities for substitution among land uses Grains 51.0 44.0 40.3 Table 32-Index of projected US. livestock feed Vegetables, fruits, consumption, by feed component, 1980 and 2000 and sugar 8.5 9.0 9.1 Other 3.3 3.1 3.0 (1962-66 = 100) Other crops: Oil 45.0 53.0 52.8 Feed component 1980 2000 Cotton, tobacco, and Concentrates 134 151 miscellaneous 1 11.9 14.8 14.4 Roughage 110 122 Total crops harvested 3 1 289.8 295.6 275.1 Total feed 120 134 1(20). 2(26). Source: (26). 'Exceeds cropland harvested because of double-cropping. 43 peting uses. Historically, the effects of technological have been explored. A higher level of exports was advance and resource development on yields and land based on assumed freer trade policies and continued use have outweighed the effect of other competing growth in world meat consumption '4 For this report, uses. This relationship continues to exist in the crop@and needed to produce enough food and fiber to projections made for the Water Resources Council. meet the same baseline domestic market but at the Some conversion of forest and pasture to cropland higher export demand was estimated. Exports assumed is projected to continue in the Delta and Southeast for the baseline projection and for the high export and in some Corn Belt States. However, no net land level were valued in constant dollars. It appears that resource development for crops is assumed for the New about 6-7 million acres of harvested cropland would England or Middle Atlantic States. Little land resource be required for each billion dollars of farm exports development for agriculture has taken place recently in above that assumed for the baseline projection. these areas, and land in farms has decreased steadily Prices associated with the high export level for the for many years. Irrigation development in the Central projected yields of major export crops were (1967 and Western regions on areas currently not cropped prices): wheat, $3.11 per bushel; corn, $1.13 per will tend to maintain the available cropland near bushel; soybeans, $4.04 per bushel; and cotton, 23 present levels. cents per pound. Nationally, a net increase of 13 million acres -in - Total acreage of harvested cropland at the high total cropland due to land development and irrigation export level would be approximately 304 million acres is projected to the year 2000. This increase is offset by in 1980, and 309 million acres in 2000. It is expected projected conversions of 13 million acres of cropland that much of the increased acreage of cropland would to other competing uses. Most land development by be planted to soybeans and feed grains. Total acreage clearing and drainage will occur in the South, while in food crops, especially wheat, would not decline to irrigation development will continue mainly in the tfie extent shown in the baseline (table 33). Techno- West. Increases in conversion of cropland to nonagri- logical changes not reflected in historical trends, such cultural uses are generally projected over the entire as development of hybrid varieties of soybeans, could Nation in areas where major population growth is alter the expected need for additional cropland. How- expected, or in response to major resource develop- ever, the projection of 309 million acres is well within ments such as for surface mining. the projected supply of cropland. The range between As mentioned previously, alternative projections of the lowest projections based on low (Series F) birth harvested cropland were prepared in order to illustrate rates and a moderate increase in exports, and the the effect of changes in population growth and export highest projection, based on higher (Series E) birth demand. Under the baseline projections, population rates and higher exports, is 48 million acres in 2000. would grow from 204 million in 1970 to 224 million in 1980 and about 264 million in the year 2000. Series Pasture and Rangeland F projections are based on birth rates more nearly The long-term trend in total acreage available for approximating 1973 levels. Population would be just grazing will decline slightly from the current acreage if under 222 million in 1980 and about 251 million in other projected nonagricultural uses are fulfilled (table 2000. About 292 million acres of cropland would be 1). The current inventory acreage does not take into harvested in 1980 and 272 million in 2000 under the account the extent to which land now grazed is fully baseline population projection, compared with 294 utilized or land which could be converted to grazing. million acres in 1972. With the Series F population, Projection of continued increases in per capita meat 291 million acres would be harvested in 1980 and 261 consumption implies a need to improve pasture and million in 2000. range productivity, more fully utilize land now avail- The baseline projections of cropland are consistent able for grazing, and increase pasture acreage by with exports which continue to increase throughout converting woodland and idle farmland to pasture. If the projection period. The 1968-70 average is valued these management procedures for carrying larger num- at $7.5 billion; 1980 shows a 50-percent increase and bers of beef cattle are not economically feasible, other 2000 a 65-percent increase from the 1968-70 average means of increasing beef production might be used, when valued with constant prices. The dramatic rise in such as greater substitution of feed grains for range or exports in fiscal year 1973 emphasizes the need to consider long-term increases of major proportions. 4 Rojko, A. S. Future Prospects for Agricultural Exports. Alternative levels of future export demand for farm Paper presented at Midwest Agricultural Outlook Conference, products and the associated cropland requirements Purdue University, Aug. 15-16, 1973. 44 pasture forage, devising livestock management practices shifts of land to nonagricultural uses. Whether future to increase weight gains of cattle being grazed, and conversion of rural lands will have a noticeable impact further research to maintain high range and pasture on agricultural production will depend on the use and productivity. The possibility of improving livestock quality of land that is converted. breeds and feeding efficiency through research is a More land will be required for recreation, parks, potentially important means of increasing beef produc- wilderness areas, defense facilities, and other public tion without large-scale conversion of land to pasture. purposes. To some extent, these requirements may be met by reclassification and reservation of public lands Forest and Woodland now in other uses, or by multiple uses of land; Acreage of total forestland is estimated to decline in however, total acquisitions of land for these uses is the future if other uses occur as projected (table 1). projected to be over 20 million acres by 2000. Much Improved forest management will be necessary to meet of the land will be acquired for recreation use. forest product needs. In recent years, the area of Water Requirements commercial forestland has declined as land has been converted to urban development, highways, airports, Total renewable water supply for the 48 con- reservoirs, parks, wilderness areas, and cropland. The terminous States is estimated at 1.2 trillion gallons per trend is expected to continue and to intensify the day. Water requirements against this supply were problem of meeting the Nation's need for timber. projected for 1980 and the year 2000 by the U.S. Wood production from some commercial forests may Water Resources Council in its 1968 National Water also be reduced to meet mounting demands for wildlife Assessment (table 34). Withdrawal in 1965 was esti- protection, recreation, and wildlife habitat. The pro- mated at 22 percent of annual runoff supply, and is spective shortage of timber will mean increasing com- projected to rise to 37 percent in 1980 and to 67 petition for available supplies and rising prices. Steps that percent in 2000. Withdrawal uses include water for can be taken to raise forest productivity include reducing public supplies, irrigation, rural use, self-supplied losses from fire, insects, and disease; increased salvage of industrial use, and water power. Water power is dead timber; planting improved species; improving timber included because water is diverted through the turbines utilization; improving timber stands, fertilization, and and frequently affects streamflow. forestation; and improving access and logging methods. Water consumption in 1965 was estimated to be 6 Nonagricultural Land Requirements percent of total annual runoff supply, and is projected to be 9 percent in 1980 and I I percent in the year By the year 2000 urban and related intensive land 2000. Consumptive use includes the water discharged uses are projected to increase by 20 million acres, a into the atmosphere or used by growing plants, in food 40-percent increase over 1969 (table 1). Included are processing, or incidental to an industrial process. While residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation quality changes may occur during the use of water, uses for metropolitan area expansion, and outlying consumptive use is only concerned with the loss or land uses required to support this expansion. Interstate depletion of water in processes or activities that highways and airports are required to meet emerging generally bring about an economic gain. transportation and communication needs. Reservoirs Although a comparison of national requirements for water supplies, flood control, and recreation have and supplies indicates an adequate water supply, there required even more land in recent years than roads and are and will continue to be severe problems in airports. The amount of land disturbed by surface localized areas. Problems of water quality and quantity mining is estimated to increase to 170,000 acres could constrain growth of the regional economy in annually by the year 2000. The environmental impacts several areas of the country. Water quality problems of these uses will become even more important in the are serious in parts of the Northeast and in some areas future because of the greater concentration of popu- of the West; limited water supplies are a threat in the lation and intensity of land use that is implied by West and Southwest. These potential problem areas can expected urban, industrial, and transportation devel- be alleviated somewhat by treating waste water prop- opment. Heretofore, these uses have not significantly erly, recycling water in industrial plants, supple- affected the total amount of land used to produce menting existing supplies through desalinization, and farm and forest products. Only a part of the land building additional storage and treatment facilities. required for urban and related intensive land uses has Water resource development has had a profound been taken from operating farms, and agricultural land effect on the location and productive capability of use adjustments have, on the whole, greatly exceeded U.S. agriculture. For instance, cotton production has 45 Table 34-Estimated water withdrawals by type of use, 1965, and projected requirements, 1980 and 2000 Withdrawals Consumptive use Type of use Used Projected Used Projected requirements requirements 1965 - 1965 @000 1980 Billion gallons per day Rural domestic 2.4 2.5 2.9 1.6 1.8 2.1 Municipal (publicsupp lied) 23.7 33.6 50.7 5.2 10.5 16.5 Industrial (self-supplied) 46.4 75.0 127.4 3.8 6.1 10.0 Steam-electric power: Fresh 62.7 134.0 259.2 .7 1.7 4.5 Saline 21.8 59.3 211.2 .2 .5 2.0 Agriculture: Irrigation 110.8 135.8 149.8 64.7 81.6 90.0 Livestock 1.8 2.4 3.4 1.6 2.2 3.1 Total 269.6 442.6 804.6 77.8 104.4 128.2 Source: (24). shifted from the Southeastern States to the Mississippi 1969 in 17 Western States and in Mississippi, Arkansas, Delta, the High Plains of Texas, and Arizona and Louisiana, and Florida. This area is projected to California. Irish potato production has shifted from increase by nearly 5 million acres by 1980 and by 7 Maine and other Eastern States to the Pacific North- million acres in the year 2000, as authorized Federal west because of the comparative advantage that irriga- projects and privately financed irrigation systems are tion has given this region. Irrigation development will installed. One of the consequences of irrigation devel- continue to influence the regional patterns of agricul- opment, of course, is that additional agricultural tural production and land and water use. production capacity is created; at the same time, Changes in future water requirements are implicit in competition among Water uses is intensified as urban, the land use projections discussed earlier. Slightly more industrial, and recreational demands for water grow. than 36 million acres of cropland were irrigated in CURRENT PROBLEM AREAS AFFECTING LAND USE POLICY Efforts to bring about a better use of land to deal more frequently with insufficient demand and invariably identify conflicting needs. Decisions about surpluses than with short supplies of agricultural present uses of land also affect the ability to supply products. In the early 1950's, a USDA publication, future needs. Economic and environmental aims con- 77te Fifth Plate, discussed our ability to meet national flict in many resource use decisions. We seek more food production needs in view of expected growth in amenities as well as necessities of life from our natural population. Within a few years that "fifth plate" was resources. The growing demand and tight supply of filled to overflowing, and the Nation was concerned energy has many implications for land use and environ- with crop surpluses. More recently the rate of popula- mental quality. tion growth has dropped, and the growth rate projected Land use problems differ among States, but some for domestic demand for food and fiber ha -s slowed. occur widely or have widespread impact. These prob- Of course, population changes are not the only lems, several of which have already been discussed in factors affecting the demand for food. Changes in some detail, are basic to much of the current interest consumer income and preferences also must be con- in land use policy. sidered. As incomes rise, consumers upgrade their diets, eating more animal protein and less high calorie, low Changing Demand for Food and Fiber protein foods. Recent developments in the interna- U.S. agricultural policy in the 20th century has had tional markets have had a significant effect on demand. 46 How the export market develops and how public only 10 percent of the SMSA area-an average density policy responds will have a major impact on future of five persons per acre. In the remaining 90 percent demand and supply. All of these factors affect the of the SMSA area, there is only one person to each 16 structure of agriculture and the way it uses its acres. A considerable amount of agriculture and much resources, including land. open space is found in the SMSA's. The Nation has been fortunate in having an abun- In the rural portions of the SMSA's, half of the dance of land for its needs. Perhaps even more land is still in farms and half of the farmland still important is the intrinsic management ability of Amer- produces crops. SMSA farms account for 14 percent df ican farmers. Part of this good fortune, however, is the all U.S. cropland harvested, 60 percent of all vegetables result of public investments in agricultural research and sold, 43 percent of all fruit and nuts sold, 27 percent rapid application of new technology to farm produc- of dairy income, and 24 percent of farm income. In these tion. Fertilizer, improved crop varieties, and more areas the problem is to maintain agricultural produc- productive strains of livestock have all contributed tion while providing land for living, recreation, and significantly to the increase in yields per acre and per open space for the expanding urban population. unit of livestock, poultry, and dairy animals over the Recreation-Open Space years. In effect, there has been an increase in the supply of agricultural land. With our rising standard of living has come an The upward trends in productivity per unit of input increasing demand for leisure time activities, including are expected to continue, although possible at a lower recreation in rural areas. It is estimated there were over rate than in recent years. These trends, along with an a billion visits to public areas in 1965-about half to abundance of land with potential for agricultural use, Federal land and half to State and county land. This make us confident that we can continue to provide an number does not include visits to local areas, which abundance of food and fiber for the domestic'market were largely in urban locations; and it does not include and still have land available for other uses through the the billion visits to the 132,000 private recreation remainder of this century. The export market will play areas. Large rural acreages are involved-an estimated a key role in the determination of total demand, and a 81 million acres are in Federal and State parks, large export market can bring about full utilization of recreation areas, and wildlife refuges. The number of available agriculture resources, including land, capital, visits to public areas increased 50 percent from 1960 technology, and management. to 1965. By the year 2000 the Bureau of Outdoor Recre- ation projects that the demand will be about three times Competing Uses for Land the present level. Much of the Federal acreage is relatively Urban Growth remote from population centers, and receives less use per acre than State and county areas. Critical land use problems- "ribbon" development, Open space in urban areas-small parks, recreation unmet open space and recreation area needs, transpor- areas, or simply vacant land between buildings-is tation deficiencies, and inefficient public services-exist receiving increasing emphasis and attention as a neces- in the environs of growing metropolitan centers. These sary factor in the well-being of people living in problems, caused in part by skip-development, pro- congested areas. Most agricultural uses of land are foundly affect the quality of the environment for compatible with open-space use. Land use planning urban residents. Urban growth's impact on the rural decisions should include provision for both recreation economy has created an entirely different set of and open space. problems associated with unplanned urban encroach- ment. They include speculative idling of productive Second Homes and Parceling of Land agricultural land, isolation of farming enterprises, rising Various problems have their origin in the rapidly land values with associated high taxes, unsightly urban increasing sales of rural parcels of land for second waste installation, and various other land use incom- homes or recreation purposes. By 1965, about 2 patibilities. million second homes had been constructed. Problems During the last decade, population in SMSA's of pure water supply and hygienic waste disposal are increased by 20 million people. (See discussion on page serious in some areas because of isolation and scat- 14). The net increase for the United States as a whole tering of developments. Rural parcel sales are up was 24 million people. SMSA's now include about 70 sharply, particularly in recreation areas or within percent of the total population but only an eighth of commuting distance of population centers. Many par- the land area. Eighty-nine percent of the people live in cels are held merely for speculative purposes. To a 47 large extent, there has been no preplanning in con- southeastern coastal area. From 1944 to 1964, about sideration of environmental impact or service needs, 2.6 million acres of land were reclaimed for cropland such as water and sewer requirements. use in Florida and the Delta. Large acreages of Land Needs for Rural Deveiopment wetlands remain in these regions, but there is some thought that continued draining and dredging activities In 1971, farming provided only about 11 percent of Will result in a net loss in ecological values. This loss the earnings of persons employed outside SMSA's-less must be weighed against the need for land and other than half the 26 percent provided by manufacturing uses. jobs. The Rural Development Act of 1972 underscored Flood control programs have various impacts on the national policy of stimulating the development of land use. Water impoundments which flood land job opportunities in rural America. Development of upstream also permit agricultural use of land down- nonfarm business in rural areas will require rural stream. The modification of' water levels and flows people to face many of the same issues of reconciling often affects land use. The trade-offs between develop- conflicting uses for land that now confront urban ment needs and environmental concerns will influence areas. Expansion of employment in new or existing decisions for land use plans. rural towns may result in increased conversion of farmland for housing, expansion of business and Alternative Timber Harvesting Systems commercial activities into fon-nerly agricultural areas, In some areas, timber harvesting and management is and similar problems. Effective development of rural conducted by clearcutting. Elsewhere timber is har- areas may require planning on a multicounty scale and vested by selective cutting procedures. Each method force difficult decisions-locating industries in areas has its merits and its disadvantages. Which method is which may create commuting problems for workers, employed is a function of the particular physical and for example. All of these issues will raise new problems biological conditions present and of trade-offs between for nonmetropolitan local government and those economic and esthetic goals. In some cases, clear- responsible for land use planning. cutting is the only practical way to perpetuate forests Environmental Concerns and Rural Land Use of commercially desirable species that demand a high degree of light. Clearcuts can be esthetically undesir- Environmental problems and goals weigh heavily in able, particularly when done in large blocks or geo- current discussions about land use. Some urgent envi- metric shapes, or if they are incorrectly designed or ronmental problems originating in rural areas have a located. Various types of selection cutting result in close relationship to land use. reproduction of more shade tolerant trees, sometimes the most commercially desirable species in a particular Restrictions on Agricultural Chemicals area. Selection cuttings also result in smaller openings Restrictions on agricultural use of pesticides and With a correspondingly reduced visual impact. Identifi- commercial fertilizers would tend to lower both crop cation of ecologic and economic results of alternative yields and quality of product, and to increase produc- cutting practices under specific conditions is necessary tion costs. Farmers have turned to pesticides and to evaluate their relative merits. fertilizers to increase output and to reduce land, labor, and other farming costs. Restrictions or shortages Animal Wastes as a Land Use Problem could slow down or even reverse this trend. Alterna- Animal wastes contribute to environmental and land tively, research could seek to develop safe substitutes use problems because of the huge amounts of waste for restricted chemicals. Economic information about produced, because animals are increasingly found at costs of production, land development, and conserva- central production facilities, and because the wastes tion is essential for the thorough analysis of this pollute air as well as water. Animal production results issue. in 2 billion tons of waste annually, a third of which is liquid. Agricultural Use of Wet Soils When agriculture was :more Widely dispersed, and Flood Plains animal waste was a minor problem; it was According to USDA's Conservation Needs Inven- returned to the land as fertilizer. An increasing tory, 265 million acres of private and Federal cropland proportion of the waste now comes from central have an excess of water, which limits their suitability points- feedlots holding more than 100,000 animals, for regular cultivation. Much of this land is located in and poultry operations involving more than 250,000 the Delta and northern Lake States regions and in the birds. A feedlot with 10,000 head of cattle produces 48 260 tons of manure a day. Manure which finds its way regulations on land use is needed to guide land use into streams is a serious pollutant because of its high plans. biological oxygen demand. Economic restrictions pre Surface Mining and Land Use vent hauling manure long distances to use as fertilizer. Legal restrictions are being considered to preclude The impact of mining on the rural environment is spreading manure on frozen ground to avoid surface causing increasing concern because of the mounting movement into water courses. Potential air and water problem of slag heaps from pit mining, and particularly pollution from animal wastes may influence the loca- because of the rapid increase in surface mining of coal. tion of the livestock feeding industry away from About 600 million tons of coal are produced annually populated centers. Decisionmakers need information on in the United States. Surface mining now accounts for the potential for relocating feeding facilites as well as more than a third of total coal production, and is for developing plans to minimize environmental prob- gaining because of economic and safety factors. In lems. addition to serious pollution effects, such as acid mine drainage into streams, almost 2 million acres of rural Solid Waste Disposal on Rural Lands land have been disturbed, creating unsightly scars that Residential, commercial, and institutional solid affect much greater areas. Because of our increasing waste totals some 250 million tons a year. About 190 need for energy and because our coal reserves are so million tons or nearly 1 ton per person are collected huge relative to other energy sources, rural acreage annually. Three-fourths of this waste goes into 14,000 disturbed by surface mining could total 5 million acres open dumps, mostly in rural areas. Since these dumps by 1980, and may involve an area equal in size to the average 34 acres in size, they occupy a total land area State of Maryland by 2000. With adequate informa- of about 476,000 acres. Their environmental impact is tion, planners can minimize the land use problems much greater than the area they occupy, however, associated with surface mining. because their locations are so scattered. Hence, they Energy Supplies and Land Use have esthetic effects over large areas. Solid waste also pollutes land, water, and air. Three-fourths of the Modern agriculture relies on relatively cheap power, dumps are classed as unsightly, and 57 percent are in particularly petroleum and electricity, to support farm areas of active agriculture. At the present rate of mechanization, greater use of chemicals, manufactured filling, about 500 new dumping sites will be needed inputs, and transportation services. With the decline in each year. This is in addition to other unsightly uses of use of horses and mules (feed and pasture requirements rural land, such as automobile graveyards, which mar for these animals have dropped from 80 million acres the landscape. Planners need information on how to to 5 million acres), energy needs have soared. Mechani- include landfills and related facilities in their land use zation has brought about more effective use of labor plans. and land on farms and a resultant steady decline in total farm employment; only 2 percent of the total Sediment population today is engaged in farming. Cutbacks in The sediment load in our waterways is at a energy supplies or sharp increases in energy pfices are troublesome level because it causes silt problems, certain to have far-reaching effects on land use in this carries plant nutrients which cause eutrophication, and highly complex economy. For example, reduced fer- contaminates drinking water. About 3 billion tons of tilizer supplies emanating from energy shortages could sediment are carried by rivers to the ocean. About half lead to lower crop yields and a reduction in overall of the sediment is estimated to come from cropland. output unless acreage planted to crops can be increased. Sediment is a serious problem not only because of Other rural land uses, such as for outdoor recrea- deposition in streams but also because of the loss of tion, transportation, and urban expansion, will also be topsoil from our cropland base. It is estimated that soil affected by reduced energy supplies and price loss is excessive on about a third of our cropland. In increases. But other factors are already affecting these time, the land's productivity will be seriously impaired. land uses, notably State and local government policies Conservation practices can be applied that will deter about urban growth and recreation land use, credit erosion, but their adoption is not always profitable for availability, construction costs, costs of public services, individual farmers. Regulation of land use to control and environmental requirements. Additional assess- sediment could result in marked changes in cropping ments of all these factors are needed to provide patterns and production practices, particularly on information for decisionmaking by property owners sloping lands. Information on the effects of sediment and public officials. 49 Institutional Change Citizen participation in setting objectives for land use and acceptance of measures to achieve these Many institutions-laws, practices, and contractual objectives, including State and local planning, is a vital arrangements-and market forces interact to influence ingredient to land use policy. Countless examples can decisionmaking about use, ownership, and management be given of the conflicts between public goals and of resources. Changes in existing institutions and new private gain that result from land use decisiors. arrangements are sometimes necessary to achieve Economic criteria alone cannot resolve these issues, desired objectives. One such example is enactment of even though economic considerations are often upper- land use planning legislation by States. Local govern- most in community and individual objectives for land ments, mainly municipalities, have been engaged in use. land use planning for many years, but interest in land A broad base of citizen participation in -setting and use planning on the State level is comparatively recent. achieving the objectives for using land and other Legislation has been introduced in the Congress which natural resources is an important addition to the would provide assistance to States in developing state- institutional structure for making decisions about -land wide land use planning processes and programs. The use. The demonstrated broad interest in environmental legislation also would require State and Federal coordi- iniprovement, which directly touches on many land use nation of land use planning. decisions, is cause for optimism about obtaining similar There are many techniques for guiding land use interest in land use planning-particularly when it decisions, ranging from full public ownership to volun- concerns immediate problems. Broad participation also tary agreements with individual owners. Within this is needed in addressing longer term problems, such as broad range are many regulatory and incentive mea- coordinating objectives for land use with objectives for sures. Zoning and land use regulation, which restricts economic growth, environmental quality, trans- specific uses or designates areas for certain activities, is portation, and soil and water conservation. The objec-, used both by local and State governments. Highways, tives for resource use cannot be static. An,important water and sewer systems, and other public facilities are aspect of the institutional structure for resource deci- recognized as having major influences on area sionmaking is to continually renew support for the development. Several States offer property tax relief as process. Ideally, through this continuing renewal, there an incentive to retain land in agricultural, forestry, and will be review and updating of objectives and improve- other open-space uses. Tax incentives also have been used ment in the techniques used. to encourage desired land and economic development. 50 LITERATURE CITED (1) Averitt, Paul (14) 1970. Stripping-Coal Resources of the United 1968. Wastes in Relation to Agriculture and States-January 1, 1970. U.S. Geol. Survey, Bul. Forestry. Agr. Res. Serv., Misc. Pub. No. 1065, Mar. 1322. (is) (2) Bureau of the Census 1971. Basic Statistics-National Inventory of Soil 1971. U.S. Census of Population 1970. "Number of and Water Conservation Needs, 1967. Soil Inhabitants." Final Rpt. PC (1) - Al, United States Conserv. Serv., Statis. Bul. No. 461. Jan. Summary, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D.C., (16) - Dec. 1971. Land Use Changes in the Southern Mississippi (3) Alluvial Valley, 1950-69: An Analysis Based on 1972. Census of Agriculture 1969. "Area Reports." Remote Sensing. Econ. Res. Serv., Agr. Econ. Rpt. Vol. 1, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. No. 215, Oct. (4) (17) 1973. Census of Agriculture 1969. "Irrigation and 1971. The Competitive Potential for Large Drainage on Farms." Vol. 11, Ch. 9, U.S. Govt. Midwestern Corn Farms. Econ. Res. Serv., Agr. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. Econ. Rpt. No. 216, Nov. (5) Council on Environmental Quality (18) - 1970. Environmental Quality, The First Annual 197 1. The Demand and Price Situation for Forest Report. Washington, D.C., Aug. Products, 1970-71. Forest Serv., Misc. Pub. No. (6) 1195, May. 1971. Environmental Quality, The Second Annual (19) Report. Washington, D.C., Aug. 1972. Rural Zoning in the United States: Analysis of (7) Enabling Lesislation. Econ. Res. Serv., Misc. Pub. 1972. Environmental Quality, The Third Annual No. 1232, July. Report. Washington, D.C., Aug. (20) - (8) Ely, Richard T. and George S. Wehrwein 1973. Agricultural Statistics 1972. U.S. Govt. Print. 1940. Land Economics. The Macmillan Company, Off., Washington, D.C. New York. (21) (9) Manvel, Allen D. 1973. Major Uses of Land in the United States, 1968. Local Land and Building Regulation. The Summary for 1969. Econ. Res. Serv., Agr. Econ. National Commission on Urban Problems, Res. Rpt. No. 247, Dec. Rpt. No. 6. (22) 1973. The Outlook for Timber in the United States. (10) Public Land Law Review Commission Forest Serv., Forest Res. Rpt. No. 20, Oct. 1970. One-Third of the Nation's Land, A Report to (23) U.S. Department of the Interior the President and to the Congress. U.S. Govt. Print. 1973. Outdoor Recreation-A Legacy for America. Off., Washington, D.C., June. Bur. of Outdoor Recreation, Nov. (11) Resources for the Future, Inc. (24) U.S. Water Resources Council 1970. Resources. No. 33, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1968. The Nation's Water Resources: Summary (12) U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers (25) Report. Washington, D.C., Dec. 1968. Water Resources for Central and South 1968. The Nation's Water Resources: The First Florida. Survey-Review Rpt. on Central and National Assessment. Washington, D.C., Dec. Southern Florida Proj., Mar. (26) - (13) U.S. Department of Agriculture 1974. 1972 OBERS Projections; Regional Economic 1962. Land and Water Resources: A Policy Guide. Activity in the U.S. Series E Supplement. Washing- May ton, D.C., Apr. 51 APPENDIX UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY WASHINGTON, 1). C. 20250 October 26, 1973 SECRETARY'S MEMORANDUM NO. 1827 Statement on Lan& Use Policy 1. PURPOSE The Department recognizes that major agencies, more than 3,000 conservation districts, responsibility for land-use policy (planning and research centers of all State Land Grant Universities, and regulation) rests with local and state governments. The cooperative efforts with State Forestry and State Department also recognizes the rights and Agriculture Departments. At local and state levels, the responsibilities of landowners and users in making Department has unparalleled working relationships with land-use decisions within this framework. Fifty-eight decision-makers. The Department has capability to percent of America's land is in private hands, 75 percent obtain new land-use information (research), to deliver held by farmers and ranchers. Another 8 percent in the information to those who can use it (education and National Forests and National Grasslands is managed by action programs) and permit the Department to the Department, while 6 percent is owned by state or administer effectively technical, consultive and financial local governments. Through its agencies the Department assistance to local and state units of government. administers some 80 programs that influence private as 4. DEFINITION. Land-use policy is a facet of our well as governmental landholders' land-use general decision-making pnocess on the use of our decisions-urban as well as rural. This memorandum resources. It is a too] to carry out governmental establishes Departmental policies to help assure sound development policies evolving from decisions on public policy to maintain and improve the nation's interrelated policies arising from economic, social, or natural resources. environmental problems. Land-use policy and its 2. BACKGROUND. Land, water, and air are basic consequences provide a focal point to identify and assets to be used and managed wisely to protect, resolve conflicts growing out of competing land uses. cons-rve, and enhance their productivity and quality for Land-use policy is the expression of society's all Americans. Public interest in these basic assets calls determination of how its resource, land, is used. for an effective planning and decision-making Land-use policy refers to the total of all those national, mechanism that complements local governments' state, and local laws, ordinances, and attitudes affecting responsibilities for land-use limitations. The nation is the short-term or long-term uses of land, private or challenged to reconcile competing uses for land, and the public, through such mechanisms as ownership, impacts of such uses on water and air to assure the inheritance, taxation, condemnation, zoning, maximum possible advantage to the nation. redevelopment, building regulation, master planning and 3. DELIVERY SYSTEM. The Department's legislative fiat. research, educational, technical, and financial assistance 5. POLICY. The Department will: services are available in every county and state of the nation. Its agencies now assist all levels of government in Adapt present pertinent programs to help land-use planning and implementation efforts. The enhance and perserve prime agricultural, range, and Department's nationwide delivery system for land-use forest lands for those uses. infon-nation includes several thousand county offices of L-Promote and help influence the management of 52 rural lands to assure adequate sources of high questions concerning agricultural, forestry, and quality water. other rural land uses. Also analyses of factors Intensify establishment of permanent soil and producing land-use changes. water conservation on the erosion-vulnerable lands Identification, location, and productivity returned to cultivation to help increase production ratings of farm, range, and forest land. of crops and livestock. Research on emerging issues concerning land Expand the Department's efforts to assure resource and water use, supplies, and wider understanding of how its programs and requirements. In so doing take into account responsibilities contribute to improved land uses. alternative environmental, institutional, and Cooperate fully with other Departments in demographic factors and both short- and long-term terms of responsibility for policy and leadership. national and international needs. Further coordinate the work of the 7. PROGRAM EMPHASIS. Department agencies Department's agencies at the state level to make all will direct their programs to the extent its land-use efforts relevant and harmonious. possible -including redefinition or modification of their Provide timely information and assistance policies-to: including non-farm interpretations of soil surveys, small watershed hydrologic data, and economic ... Increase production of detailed soil surveys. information to local, county, and state land-use ... Establish land-capability criteria to help decision makers. direct the flow of urbanization to land areas least Strengthen and expand the Department's suited to crops and forests. capabilities in harmony with others for surveying ... Help guide urban growth to preserve prime and monitoring land and related natural resources farm lands, minimize fragmentation of land and to provide resource condition evaluations to holdings, provide adequate water supplies, equalize local, county, state, and federal governmental taxes, dispose waste properly, and provide land-use decision-makers. adequate public health, recreation and safety Help protect rare and endangered plant and services. animal species and their ecological systems as well ... Plan and guide effectively land-use in the as historic, cultural, scientific and natural systems. r,iral-urban fringe areas, and in recreation or Help conserve and develop significant se@-,)nd home subdivisions. waterfowl habitat lands. ... Control erosion and reduce sedimentation. Assist in the reclamation of land surfaces used ... Minimize the impact of surface mining on for the extraction of non-renewable resources such rural land uses. as coal, minerals, oil, and gas. ... Locate sites for solid waste disposal as an Work with other agencies to discharge fully the increasingly important land use. responsibilities authorized and directed to the ... Give attention to need for small watershed, proposed Interagency Advisory Board on Land flood plain, wetlands, and coastal zone Use Policy. management programs based on comprehensive 6. LAND INVENTORYING AND MONITORING land-use planning incorporating ecological In providing additional resource information to considerations. local and state governments the Department will ... Encourage multiple-use management of expand at the earliest feasible time its surveys and forest lands to assure a continuous supply of forest studies to include: goods and services with environmental objectives. ... Manage farm, ranch, and forest practices to A nationally recognized system of land minimize adverse effects on the environment. classification. County, state, regional, and national inventories 8. IMPLEMENTA TION GUIDELINES. The of available soil, water, and related resources and Department and its agencies will be guided by the projections as to land-use potentials. following purposes in policy implementation: Guidelines to identify critical environmental problems to be considered in state and local (1) To conduct programs within state and Federal land-use policy planning. environmental standards. Physical, social, economic, and institutional (2) To conserve and improve land and related information for evaluating national policy resources. 53 (3) To enhance the amenities and social assets of (8) To continue to act in concert with Federal, state, rural America. multi-jurisdictional planning and development (4) To seek fair returns for farms, forests, and agencies and local agencies. Also with ranches as economic units. quasi-public and private organizations and (5) To support research and education on land-use individual landowners and operators. planning. (6) To promote economic development in the rural areas. -'e@"a e (7) To assist all citizens and agencies to obtain technical data needed for planning. Secretary of Agriculture 54 UNITED STATES DEPA4TMCNT OF AGRICULTURE WASHINGTON, D.C. 20250 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS AGRICULTURE AGR 101 tL&MML PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300 FIRST CLASS COASTAt ZONE' 3 6668 00001 3377