    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

       A RECOVERY PLAN                             F QR       MARINE TURTLES

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                                       RECOVERY PLAN for MARINE TURTLES

                                                  Prepared by

                                        The Marine Turtle Recovery Team

                                                   Edited by

                                                 Sally,R. Hopkins
         Lo
                                                       and

                                               James I. Richardson

                  Co-Leaders:

                        Sally R. Hopkins, S.C. Wildlife and Marine Resources Department

                        Peter C.H. Pritchard, Florida Audubon Society

                  Members:

                        Arthur E. Dammann, Caribbean Fisheries Management Council

                        Llewellyn Ehrhart,.University of Central Florida

                        Otto Florschutz, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                        Milton M. Kaufmann, Monitor International

                        Thomas M. Murphy, S.C. Wildlife and Marine Resources Department

                        Larry Ogren, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service

                        James I. Richardson, University of Georgia

                        Glenn Ulrich, S.C. Wildlife and Marine Resources Department

                        Ross Witham, Florida Department of Natural Resources

                   Date:                                Approved:
                                                                  William G. Gordvi
                                                                  Assistant Administrator
                                                                    for Fisheries
                                                                  National Marine Fisheries Service

                   Reviewing Consultants

                        George Balazs          National Marine Fisheries Service

                        Douglas Beach          National Marine Fisheries Service

                        Fredrick Berry         National Marine Fisheries Service

                        Karen Bjorndal         University of Florida

                        Charles Cowman         Georgia Department of Natural Resources

                        John Colburn           DESCO Marine, Inc.

                        Thomas Fritts          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                        Andreas Mager, Jr.     National Marine Fisheries Service

                        Nicholas Mrosovsky     University of Toronto

                        James O'Hara           Environmental and Chemical Sciences, Inc.

                        Charles Oravetz        National Marine Fisheries Service

                        James Pulliam          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services

                        Frank Schwartz         University of North Carolina

                        Michael Weber          Center for Environmental Education

                        Jack Woody             U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                        Kenneth Dodd           U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                    This Marine Turtle Recovery Plan has been approved by the National Marine

               Fisheries Service. it does not necessarily represent official positions or

               approvals of cooperating agencies, and it does not necessarily represent the

               view of all recovery team members who played the key role in preparing this

               plan. This plan is subject to modification as dictated by new findings and

               changes in species status and completion of tasks assigned in the plan.

                    This U.S. Goverment Recovery Plan identifies actions that can be taken

               to promote the recovery and conservation of sea turtles. Reference to marine

               turtle conservation in other countries is to assist with an understanding of

               required U.S. actions within U.S. boundaries relative to cross-national

               migratory species.

                                               Acknowledgements

                        The team wishes to thank its advisors, Ken Chitwood (FWS) and

                   Charles Oravetz (NMFS) for their support and encouragement during the

                   preparation of this plan.    We would also like to acknowledge Fritz

                   Aichele, cartographer, for the production of the maps, Pat Dupree for

                   typing the manuscript, and Karen Swanson for graphics. A special thanks

                   is due the staff at the Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, for

                   the typing and printing of the technical draft.

                        The artwork for the cover of this plan was provided by the Sea

                   Turtle Rescue Fund, a project of the Center for Environmental Education.

                   The artwork is based upon an original lithograph designed by Daniel

                   Gilbert, under Commision to the STRF/CEE, Miller Gilbert Publishing,

                   San Francisco, CA 1981.

                                                     iv

                                                 TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                                            PAGE

                       INTRODUCTION

                        1.1. Rationale and Objective of the Recovery Plan    ...............  I

                        .1.2. International Cooperation  ..................................   4

                        1.3. Evolutionary and Taxonomic Background    ......................  5

                        1.4. Geographic Definitions of Relevant Stocks   ................     7

                        1.5. Population Estimates of Relevant Stocks    .................... 11

                        1.6. Causes for Declines in Stocks   ..............................  16

                   2. GENERAL TOPICS

                        2.1. Population Models and Estimates   ............................  20

                        2.2. Tags and Tagging  ...........................................   38

                        2.3. Remote Sensing  ..............................................  43

                        2.4. Incidental Catch Overview   ..................................  48

                        2.5. Nesting Beach Management Techniques    ........................ 66

                        2.6. Hypothermic Stunning and Petroleum Impacts    ................. 74

                        2.7. Public Education  ...........................................   78

                        2.8. U.S. Federal Law  ............................................. 83

                   3., INDIVIDUAL RECOVERY PLANS

                        3.1. Loggerhead Turtle   ..........................................  90

                                   Introduction ...........................................  95

                                  Stepdown Plan  ........................................... 98

                                  Implementation Schedule  ................................  114

                                                         v

                                                                                            PAGE

                                   Nesting Distribution ................................... 117

                         3.2. Green Turtle  ............................................... 151

                                   Introduction ............................................ 152

                                   Stepdown Plan .......................................... 157

                                   Implementation Schedule ................................ 172

                                   Nesting Distribution ................................... 175

                         3.3. Leatherback Turtle   ......................................... 181

                                   Introduction ........................................... 182

                                   Stepdown Plan .......................................... 189

                                   Implementation Schedule ................................ 199

                                   Nesting Distribution ................................... 202

                         3.4. Hawksbill Turtle  ........................................... 207

                                   Introduction ........................................... 208

                                   Stepdown Plan .......................................... 214

                                   Implementation Schedule ................................ 223

                                   Nesting Distribution ................................... 226

                         3.5. Kemp's Ridley Turtle   ....................................... 227

                                   Introduction ........................................... 229

                                   Stepdown Plan .......................................... 236

                                   Implementation Schedule ................................ 247

                                   Nesting Distribution ................................... 250

                    4. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

                         4.1 Introduction   ............................................... 251

                         4.2 International Law   .......................................... 253

                         4.3. Olive Ridley Turtle   ........................................ 264

                                   Introduction ........................................... 265

                                                         vi

                                                                                          PAGE

                                 Stepdown Plan  .......................................... 269

                                 Nesting Distribution  ................................... 272

                        4.4 Regional Tabular Summary of National Statutory

                                  and Regulatory Prohibitions Pursuant

                                  to Marine Turtles  ..................................... 273

                   5. LITERATURE CITED   ................................................. 284

                   6. APPENDIX  ......................................................... 297

                             Agency Review Comments  ..................................... 298

                                                      vii

                                               1   INTRODUCTION

                  1.1 RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE RECOVERY PLAN

                        The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205) provides for

                  the  conservation, protection and propagation of species of wild fauna

                  and  flora actually or potentially in danger of becoming extinct.       All

                  but   one species of marine turtles have been listed as either

                  "endangered" or "threatened" under the Act, and the jurisdictional

                  responsibilities for them are administered jointly by the Departments of

                  Interior and Commerce.     The two categories are defined as follows:

                         "Endangered Species" means any species, subspecies or distinct

                          population segment of fish, or wildlife or plant which is in

                          danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion

                          of its range.

                         "Threatened Species" means any species, subspecies or distinct

                          population segment of fish, or wildlife or plant which is likely

                          to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future

                          throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

                        The endangered category is more restrictive than the threatened

                  category which permits exceptions to the protective prohibitions de-

                  scribed in the Act.     The status of discrete breeding populations of

                  listed species must be reviewed every five years and recommendations

                  made to the Secretary(ies) for delisting or reclassification if warranted

                  ,by biological data.

                        In recent years considerable evidence has indicated a decline in

                  the populations of marine turtles (Fed. Reg.; 1977).          Consequently,

                                                                                            2

                     three of the turtles, i.e. , Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), hawks-

                     bill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea)

                     were listed as endangered.    The Florida nesting population of the green

                     turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Mexican west coast nesting populations

                     of the green turtle and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) are also

                     endangered.   All of the remaining populations of green turtle, olive

                     ridley and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) are threatened.       The only un-

                     listed species is the locally protected Australian flatback turtle

                     (Chelonia depressa).

                          The Act requires the preparation of recovery plans for all listed

                     species, unless the Secretary(ies) makes a finding that a recovery plan

                     will not further the recovery of a particular species. It allows for the

                     formation of recovery teams responsible for developing recovery plans.

                     The objective of these plans is the survival and eventual recovery of

                     listed species or populations, so they may be removed from the

                     endangered or threatened list.    However, the species must be protected

                     after it is delisted. This Marine Turtle Recovery Plan describes manage-

                     ment programs that, if enacted, will foster the survival and recovery of

                     the remaining sea turtle populations.     These management programs also

                     include the conservation of habitat.

                          The marine turtles of the southeast region comprise six species of

                     five genera and two families.    They differ in their ecological needg as

                     well as in their survival outlook.    Therefore, this Recovery Plan con-

                     tains six recovery plans, one for each species.       Each plan describes

                     obj ectives and specific long and short range goals for preserving the

                     populations of marine turtles.      These objectives are compatible with

                     international agreements ratified by the U.S. and with all federal and

                                                                                         3

                  state laws, rules and regulations.    The first objective of the Recovery

                  Plan is to prevent extinction of any marine turtle species.          Where

                  possible, declining populations would be stabilized and then increased.

                       The priorities listed in the Implementation Schedules were derived

                  relative to a jjyf@n species.   No attempt was made by the Team to make

                  decisions on priorities between species.    Thus, it must be the agencies

                  decision on how best to partition their available resources between sea

                  turtle species and to use the Recovery Plan's suggested priorities

                  within each species.   The implementation of certain priority tasks will

                  impact several species, and such accumulative benefits should be con-

                  sidered.

                       The recovery procedure is based on a study of population dynamics,

                  habitat characteristics, and management methods.     Objectives are both

                  species -specific and general, but all develop methods for enhancing the

                  populations. These objectives are to:

                       1.   Obtain baseline data on population status for each species.

                       2.   Identify problems by establishing species -specific data bases

                            from available information.

                       3.   Set priorities for research necessary to describe the popu-

                            lation and habitat characteristics.

                       4.   Develop management recommendations.

                       5.   Reduce turtle mortality at sea and on land.

                       6.   Enhance production on the nesting beaches.

                       7.   Monitor the populations.

                       8.   Assess the success or failure of the applied management.

                       9.   Recommend changes in management.

                                                                                                    4

                            As new information becomes available, the Recovery Plan will be

                       updated.   Updating the Plan and monitoring the implementation of the

                       Plan will be a continuing responsibility of the Recovery Team until all

                       species of marine turtle can be removed from the endangered species

                       list.   Many recommendations have already been acted upon during the

                       course of preparing the Plan.

                       1.2 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

                            The primary purpose and focus of this Recovery Plan is to identify

                       actions to be undertaken within U.S.       boundaries by U.S. agencies and

                       citizens.   These actions are designed to prevent extinction of marine

                       turtle species and, where possible, to stabilize and increase their

                       populations.

                            However, conservation problems throughout the international range

                       of a species have been identified, because marine turtles are migratory

                       and may occupy territorial waters of more than one nation as well as

                       international waters.

                            Recovery actions outside U.S. jurisdictional waters and territories

                       are within the sovereign authority of 26 major political entities in the

                       area covered by the Plan.         It is hoped that nations in the Wider

                       Caribbean Region will work together in bilateral and multilateral

                       cooperation to achieve common marine turtle conservation objectives.

                       The U.S. is currently working cooperatively with many countries in the

                       region and desires to continue to work cooperatively within the context

                       of existing relevant international agreements and technical liaisons and

                       to consider further cooperative mechanisms as required.

                                                                                   5

                       Specifically, all references to actions which are under the

                  jurisdiction of other nations in the Plan area are actions which the

                  U.S. understands may be (1) underway or (2) contemplated or considered

                  desirable for the species in view of their migratory nature.         (See

                  Section 4.)

                  1.3 EVOLUTIONARY AND TAXONOMIC BACKGROUND

                       The principal evolutionary changes necessary for successful coloni-

                  zation of the marine environment were:

                       1.   A large body size, presumably as a defense against a wide

                            variety of marine predators.

                       2.   Paddle-like limbs for swimming.

                       3.   High reproductive potential (a hundred or more eggs per nest

                            and multiple nestings per season) to compensate for the un-

                            avoidably high predation upon the hatchlings in the littoral

                            and marine environments.

                       4.   A thick neck and non-retractile head in the interest of stream-

                            lining the anterior part of the body.

                       5.   Physiological respiratory mechanisms and electrolyte balance

                            for existence at sea.

                       The first marine turtles are known from the late Jurassic and the

                  Cretaceous periods of Europe and are included in the extinct family

                  Thallassemyidae. These turtles showed parallels with modern marine tur-

                  tles, but the limbs were relatively short and incompletely adapted for

                  the marine environment. Other marine turtle families flourished briefly

                  during the,early Cretaceous.   One of these, the Toxochelyidae, probably

                  was derived from the Thallassemyidae and included both littoral and

                                                                                             6

                     pelagic species.   Although the front flippers_were well developed, the

                     hind limbs were relatively unmodified from the primitive terrestrial

                     condition. Another marine turtle family, the Protostegidae, reached its

                     zenith in the early Cretaceous in the Niobrara Sea which occupied what

                     is now the central United States.      Earlier members of the subfamily

                     Chelospharginae were relatively small and had comparatively well ossi-

                     fied shells, although the more advanced genera, Protostega and espe-

                     cially Archelon, were very large.    Archelon ischyros, with a two meter

                     carapace and a skull nearly half that length, was one of the largest

                     turtles that ever lived.

                          Modern marine turtles beloag to the families Cheloniidae and Der-

                     mochelyidae.   The latter family includes only the highly divergent

                     leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and differs from other turtles in

                     numerous anatomical features including lack of scutes, scales and claws.

                          Some taxonomists recognize two subfamilies of the remaining marine

                     turtles, the Carettiinae and the Cheloniinae, with the former including

                     the loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and the two species of Ridley turtles

                     (Lepidochelys) and the latter including the green turtle (Chelonia

                     mydas) and the flatback turtle (Chelonia depressa). The position of the

                     hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is arguable; some taxonomists

                     place it closer to the loggerhead and some closer to the green turtle.

                          Although there are only seven modern marine turtle species, they

                     are not relicts from prehistoric times.     The-small number of species

                     testifies to the relative uniformity of marine environments rather than

                     to the group being unsuccessful or obsolete. Most species are distrib-

                     uted throughout all of the tropical oceans.      However, the loggerhead

                     occurs primarily in temperate latitudes, and the leatherback, although

                                                                                         7

                  nesting in the tropics, frequently migrates into cold waters at higher

                  latitudes (Bleakney, 1965) because of its unique physiology (Frair et al.,

                  1972).

                       From the viewpoint of their role in the marine ecosystem, marine

                  turtles show a wide range of ecological functions.      The green turtle

                  grazes on marine grasses and algae; the leatherback is a specialized feeder

                  upon jellyfish, and the hawksbill dwells on coral reefs and feeds principally

                  upon sponges. The loggerhead is primarily   carnivorous and has jaws well

                  adapted to crushing heavy-shelled molluscs and crustaceans and to

                  grazing on encrusting organisms attached to reefs, pilings and wrecks

                  (See Pritchard 1979a for discussion).

                       Until relatively recently, sea turtles existed in such huge popu-

                  lations that their function in marine ecosystems must have been highly

                  significant (Parsons, 1962).   Today, that function has been reduced in

                  most places.   Although marine habitats appear to be largely intact,

                  relative numbers of turtles have been reduced by turtle fisheries that

                  take turtles for food and other products and by other fisheries that

                  inadvertently kill turtles in the course of their fishing operations.

                  Most marine turtle species have not yet reached the point of no return;

                  they remain vigorous and potentially capable of recovering;     Hopefully,

                  if the measures in the Plan are carried out, they will recover.

                  1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DEFINITIONS OF RELEVANT STOCKS

                       The Recovery Plan addresses all stocks of marine turtles known to

                  spend any or all of their life cycle within the National Marine Fisher-

                  ies Service, Southeast Region, which inclu@es the Gulf of Mexico, the

                  Atlantic coast (as far north as and including North Carolina), Puerto

                                                                                                    8

                      Rico,, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and adjacent jurisdictional waters of the

                      Fishery Conservation Zone.    Turtles are migratory, and recovery plans

                      for-them must include recommendations for the Northeast Region of NMFS

                      and recommendations for liaison with foreign-countries where these species

                      might nest or forage.   This geographic region contains twenty-six major

                      political entities, and cooperation from these countries will have to be

                      obtained before a comprehensive recovery plan can succeed.

                           The Recovery Plan addresses the following taxa:*

                                1. Loggerhead (Caretta caretta)

                                2. Green turtle (Chelonia mvdas)

                                3.  Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys h@)

                                4.  Olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)

                                5.  Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata)

                                6.  Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea)

                           The Recovery Plan addresses West Atlantic stocks, as defined below

                           of these following taxa:

                           1.   The loggerhead throughout the eastern and Gulf of Mexico sea-

                                boards of the United States and the Greater Antilles.       Other

                                Caribbean nesting populations are also considered, including

                                those of the Guajira Peninsula (Colombia), scattered colonies

                                in Belize, the Albuquerque Keys (Colombia) and elsewhere.

                           2.   The green turtle nesting in Florida, the Caribbean (including

                                Costa Rica, Aves Island, and Quintana Roo, Mexico) and along

                                the South American coast as far as Guyana.         The decision

                                not to consider green turtle populations nesting beyond the

                                Guyana/Surinam border was reached because head-started green

                      'Subspecies   of    marine   turtles    are   imperfectly    defined    and
                      are omitted from this plan.

                                                                                        9

                              turtles released in Florida are known to travel as far as

                              Guyana.*  The Surinam nesting population is known to migrate

                              exclusively eastward to Brazil and apparently does not come

                              close to the United States Southeastern Region.

                        3.    The Kemp's ridley throughout its range.     Since the species is

                              critically endangered and an integral part of its feeding

                              range exists in Gulf and Atlantic waters of the United States,

                              the Plan will address the Kemp's ridley wherever the species

                              is found.

                        4.    Although olive ridleys are almost unknown in the Southeastern

                              Region, they are on the U.S. endangered species list.         Also,

                              occasional individuals have been recorded in the northern

                              Caribbean,   including    Puerto   Rico.     The   olive     ridley

                              nests in small numbers on Shell Beach, Guyana, and in larger

                              but sharply declining numbers at Eilanti, Surinam.          A few

                              individuals also nest at Bigisanti, Surinam, and at Silebache,

                              French Guiana, but these may not constitute separate nesting

                              colonies.   Since the Surinam population is declining, it is

                              felt that inclusion of this species within the Plan might aid

                              in its recovery.

                        5.    The hawksbill occurring in southeastern U.S. waters, the Gulf

                              of Mexico, the Caribbean and the Bahamas.        There are a few

                              nesting records for Florida, and stray animals have been

                   *One case of a head-started Florida green turtle recovered in Rio de
                   Janeiro.

                                                                                               10

                                reported as far north as New England. Some nesting takes place

                                on Vieques, Culebra and Mona Islands, Puerto Rico, and on the

                                U.S. Virgin Islands. Special emphasis is placed on recovery of

                                hawksbills nesting on Caribbean islands under United States

                                jurisdiction.

                          6.    The leatherback frequenting the entire Gulf of Mexico and the

                                eastern seaboard of the United States as far as Canada. Nest-

                                ing on the mainland is very rare, and mainly confined to the

                                Atlantic coast of Florida.       Small but important nesting

                                colonies are on St. Croix (U.S.V.I.) and on Vieques and

                                Culebra Islands, Puerto Rico.     The recovery plan addresses

                                discrete nesting populations on Caribbean islands under United

                                States jurisdiction. Broad geographical areas which appear to

                                contain significant numbers of non-breeding animals are also

                                considered.  The Plan includes leatherbacks nesting elsewhere

                                in the Atlantic system, since individuals from these colonies

                                are known to migrate occasionally to United States waters.

                          Major leatherback nesting colonies of interest in the western Atlantic

                     but not under United States jurisdiction are listed in order of magnitude:

                                French Guiana (Silebache-Point Isere)

                                Costa Rica (Limon to Parismina)

                                Surinam (Bigisanti and Marowijne beaches)

                                Panama (Chiriqui Gulf area)

                                Trinidad (Matura Bay, etc.)

                                Colombia (Golfo de Uraba)

                                Guyana (Shell Beach)

                 1.5 POPULATION ESTIMATES OF RELEVANT STOCKS

                       It is difficult to give even approximate numerical estimates for

                 any marine turtle population.   This difficulty results from large gaps

                 in the knowledge of population characteristics and is compounded by the

                 cyclic nature of nesting populations. Obviously the total number of all

                 individuals reaches a peak during or immediately after each hatching

                 season when large numbers of hatchlings are generated, but this number

                 is reduced as hatchlings are eliminated by predation and other factors.

                       Young turtles are largely inaccessible to census, and for this

                 reason no attempt is made to estimate total population size for any

                 species in the Recovery Plan.    Turtle populations are currently esti-

                 mated by counting nesting females.    Estimating total stock size from

                 these counts is difficult.     Some of the complicating factors are as

                 follows:

                       1. Nesting frequency varies within a season for individuals (Carr

                          et at., 1978).

                       2. Individuals do not nest in successive years for most species

                          of marine turtles (Carr et al., 1978; Hughes, 1976).

                       3. The number of turtles nesting on a given beach varies from one

                          year to another (Limpus, 1978).

                       4. Information on the sex ratio of marine turtle populations is

                          fragmentary, and some populations appear to deviate signifi-

                          cantly from a 1:1 sex ratio. Estimating the male segment of the

                          population from counts of nesting females is speculative.

                                                                                                12

                           Sufficient data on marine turtle nesting cycles are now available

                      to permit order-of -magnitude estimates for certain populations.         The

                      estimates are summarized below:

                           Loggerhead:   The nesting female population of the southeastern

                      United States (coasts of Florida to North Carolina), has most recently

                      been estimated to be about 14,150 (Murphy and Hopkins, 1984).

                      Populations   elsewhere   in  the western     Atlantic   currently   cannot

                      be estimated but are much smaller.

                           Green turtle:   It is unclear whether Florida ever had a large

                      nesting population of green turtles (Dodd, 1982) [19811, although there

                      is historical evidence that immature green turtles were once *common in

                      the state.   The fishery for immature green turtles was outlawed by

                      the Florida Department of Natural Resources in 1974.

                           Small numbers of green turtles have been reported during the last

                      two decades nesting on the Atlantic coast of Florida (Dodd, 1982 (1981]),

                      with one nest confirmed in Georgia (Litwin, 1980), false crawls reported

                      on Cape Romain, South Carolina (Hopkins, pers. obs.) and 5 nests at Camp

                      Lejeune, N.C. (Schwartz et al. , 1981). The population trend in Florida

                      has been increasing (Dodd, 1982 [19811; Ehrhart, 1979; Witham, pers. obs.).

                      Ehrhart (1979) suggests there may now be as many as 300-400 adult fe-

                      males in this population.

                                                                                           13

                       In the Caribbean, the largest green turtle colony is on Tortugero

                  Beach, Costa Rica, with an estimated average 24,692 adult females (Carr

                  et al., 1982).   The colony nesting on Aves Island is much smaller, with

                  an estimated number of about 1,000 adult females (Laiz Blanco, 1979).

                  Although Hurricane David removed the nesting beach sand in August of

                  1979, Cuellar (pers. comm.) reports the sand has been re-deposited and

                  nesting has returned to normal levels.

                       The size of the green turtle population in Quintana Roo, Mexico,

                  has not been established, but local fishermen captured 2200-2300 turtles

                  in 1960-62.  The catch declined to about 200 animals in 1963 and fewer

                  than 100 in 1971 (Rames, 1974).

                       There are other green turtle populations in the Caribbean that have

                  not been evaluated, including Shell Beach (Guyana), and the southern

                  coast of Cuba.   Scattered nesting by green turtles also takes place on

                  most of the islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles and on Little

                  Inagua Island (Bahamas), but the total number of animals involved is

                  probably small.

                       Kemp's ridley:   The single known colony of this species, almost

                  all of which nests near Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico, is severely

                  depleted and in danger of extinction.       An estimated 40,000 females

                  nested on a single day in 1947 (Carr, 1963), but since 1978 there have

                  been less than 1000 nests recorded per season (Pritchard, 1979b,80,81).

                  The species is known to nest in consecutive years but probably does not

                  always do so, and only a small proportion of females nest more than once

                  per season. If we assume that the individuals that nest twice in a season

                                                                                               14

                      equal the number of individuals that fail to.nest the following season,

                      the number of nests recorded per year is an approximation of the world-wide

                      population of breeding females. Therefore, the nesting female population of

                      Lepidochelys kempi is of the order of 800 individuals per season

                      (Bacon et al., 1984).

                           Olive ridley:   Schulz (1982) reports that 3,290 nests were made

                      in Surinam in 1968, 890-1270 per year from 1972-1977 and only 795 in

                      1979. It is assumed that a female lays on an average between 1.4 and 2.0

                      nests per season and that the mean interval between nesting seasons is

                      1.4 years.

                           Hawksbill: No estimates have been made of the numbers of hawksbill

                      in the southeastern region.     Estimates are exceedingly difficult to

                      make, as this species is not a colonial nester, and the usual population

                      census techniques cannot be applied (Witzell, 1983).

                           Leatherback:   The few leatherback nests observed in Florida and

                      Georgia are probably deposited by less than a dozen females annually.

                      It is not yet known if this is a Florida nesting population or if these

                      nesting individuals are strays from a larger population elsewhere. The

                      latter possibility is    feasible since individual leatherbacks in the

                      Guianas are capable of  laying widely dispersed clutches within a single

                      season (Schulz, 1975).

                                                                                             15

                       Nesting by leatherbacks in the U.S. Virgin Islands is regularly

                   observed on the beaches of St. Croix and Culebra (Towle, 1978; K.L. Eckert,

                   pers. comm.). Approximately 113 leatherback nests were recorded in 1983

                   (Eckert and Eckert, 1984).   Nesting by leatherbacks on the other Virgin

                   Islands is very rare.    An estimated 113 nests per year corresponds to

                   about twenty adult female turtles, assuming an average of 5.8 nests per

                   turtle per year (Eckert and Eckert, 1984).     Nesting on Vieques is less

                   frequent than on St. Croix, (Pritchard and Stubbs, 1982).

                       Other colonies, such as those on the Dominican Republic, have yet

                   to be quantified.    The nesting colony in French Guiana is very large;

                   Pritchard (1971) estimated about 15,000 adult females, with about 300

                   turtles nesting per night.    Preliminary data supplied by Carr and Ogren

                   (1959) indicate the population at Matina Beach to number at least 1000

                   animals.   The Surinam and Trinidad populations are smaller, perhaps

                   200-400 animals in each, although leatherbacks nesting in Surinam inter-

                   change fairly freely with those in French Guiana.       The Colombian and

                   Guyanese colonies are probably very small, perhaps less than 20 nesting

                   individuals in each.

                        The world population of a particular species of marine turtle

                   should not be viewed as a single entity. Because most species of marine

                   turtles apparently consist of several non-interbreeding populations, the

                   decline or extirpation of one po    pulation will not be demographically

                   reinforced by another (Carr, 1975; Carr and Stancyk, 1976).       Therefore,

                   the abundance of one nesting group may not benefit the whole complex,

                   and protection given to any one breeding unit will not necessarily

                   contribute to the survival of other units.

                                                                                                16

                     1.6 CAUSES FOR DECLINES IN STOCKS

                          Five factors have been listed as resulting in declines in marine

                     turtle stocks (Fed. Reg. Vol. 43, No. 146, pp.' 32800-32811).     They are:

                           1.   Destruction or modification of habitat:       This factor is a

                                major cause of decline in many endangered species, not just

                                marine turtles.     Coastal development, beach mining (sand

                                aggregate for construction) and natural erosion of beaches

                                and/or nests, along with erosion control structures, have

                                either made former nesting beaches unsuitable or have

                                eliminated them entirely.     For example, loggerhead turtles

                                have deserted some developed beaches in South Carolina and

                                Georgia but still utilize the heavily developed beaches on the

                                east coast of Florida along with green turtles.          Although

                                nesting may be successful on these beaches, disoriented

                                hatchlings are often killed on highways, by desiccation or

                                by subsequent predation when attracted away from the sea by

                                artificial lighting (MacFarlane, 1963).

                                     In the ocean, sea turtles may be adversely affected

                                by the following activities and substances (Coston-Clements

                                and Hoss, 1983):

                                A.  Pollutants from industrial and residential development.

                                    These include oil, pesticides, herbicides, radionoclides,

                                    PCB'-s heavy metals and sewage.   The effects of pollutants

                                    are difficult to detect and evaluate, except for oil and

                                                                                          17

                                 tar balls that are known to have killed sea turtles by

                                 fouling and/or ingestion.    The other contaminants may

                                 cause physiological problems that can reduce reproductive

                                 success.

                                 Exploratory oil and gas drilling.     These actvities may

                                 affect sea turtles by attracting them to lighted plat-

                                 forms where they may be susceptible to increased pre-

                                 dation; by disrupting feeding habitat when disposing

                                 of drilling muds and sediments; and by discharging oil

                                 which may contaminate turtles and cause irritation or

                                 permanent damage to eyes, affect respiration, and produce

                                 abnormal behavior.

                            C.   Disposal of garbage at sea.    Plastic and other foreign

                                 materials that are ingested by turtles may cause death.

                                 Also, turtles may be fouled by plastic which could

                                 adversely affect survival if the animals are unable to

                                 shed the plastic.    Additionally, turtles attracted to

                                 refuse may be subjected to more predators such as

                                 sharks which may also be attracted to the refuse.

                            D.   Dredge and fill.    These activities may affect habitat

                                 that turtles use or the equipment (e.g., dredge cutter

                                 head) may harm or kill turtles if encountered during

                                 the dredging operation.

                            E.   Power boats.  Power boats can injure or kill sea turtles.

                                                                                              18

                          2.   Overutilization for commercial, scientific or educational

                               purposes:  The commercial taking of turtles for meat, jewelry

                               and the curio trade is a cause for declines.         The green,

                               hawksbill and two ridley species have suffered from excessive

                               egg harvest. The impact of projects for scientific or educa-

                               tional purposes on nesting beaches is difficult to assess. As

                               more and more turtle colonies are actively managed or inten-

                               sively studied, the cumulative effects of such projects should

                               be carefully monitored.   The same caution should be exercised

                               when evaluating educational or public relation uses.

                          3.   Inadequate regulatory mechanisms:     Illegal marketing of eggs

                               is prevalent for all species.      Inadequate laws and law en-

                               forcement result in overutilization for commercial purposes.

                               The six species of marine turtles were only recently protected

                               by the U.S. Endangered Species Act and are still unprotected

                               in many countries throughout their range. Lack of personnel,

                               extensive and inaccessible coastlines, and incompatible manage-

                               ment programs among different countries make enforcement

                               difficult or impossible.

                         4.    Disease and/or predation:    These act as natural controlling

                               mechanisms on all marine turtle populations.       Nests can be

                               destroyed by a variety of factors such as plant roots, inver-

                               tebrate predators (ants, ghost crabs) and vertebrate predators

                               (raccoons, mongooses, feral hogs, foxes', rats, coatimundi, coyotes,

                                                                                        19

                           vultures and jaguars). Hatchlings may be destroyed on the beach

                           by nest predators or taken at sea by birds (gulls, jaegers, frigate

                           birds) and fish.   Juvenile and adult turtles are also vulner-

                           able to attacks by sharks and killer whales. The extent of egg

                           loss has been documented for some species, but mortality of

                           hatchlings, juveniles and adults in the marine environment is

                           unknown for all species.

                      5.   Other natural or man-made factors: Marine turtle populations

                           incur losses from pollution (Witham, 1978) and incidental

                           catch (Hillestad et al. , 1978).   Losses to. incidental catch

                           are particularly costly to the populations since the animals

                           involved are either adults or the larger juveniles which have

                           already survived most natural predators.

                      Factors which have brought about declines in marine turtle stocks

                 have affected all species to varying degrees.    It is not known whether

                 any one cause, acting singly, would have brought about the declines

                 noted above; however, it is doubtful if any species can withstand the

                 combined pressures of all factors acting together.

                                                                                      20

                      2. GENERAL TOPICS

                      2.1 POPULATION MODELS AND ESTIMATES

                           It is not the intention of this section to discuss marine turtle

                      tagging activities.   There are many reasons to tag marine turtles,

                      including the investigation of migratory destinations, incidental and

                      directed take and such behavioral phenomena as remigration intervals

                      and within-season multiple nesting.      This section deals with its

                      potential and limits to predictive population models of marine turtles.

                      Furthermore, not all marine turtle species and not all tagging projects

                      can obtain the comprehensive data required of population models.

                          Given limited funds and the directive of the Endangered Species Act

                      not to harass protected species without just cause, tagging efforts

                      should be directed toward filling the existing knowledge gaps. Certain

                      marine turtle species and certain populations will return more of

                      scientific value from tagging programs than other species. For instance,

                      nesting female loggerheads on U.S. beaches have been intensively tagged

                      for many years. Those who tag this segment of the loggerhead population

                      must evaluate what they have learned and direct their efforts toward the

                      remaining unanswered questions.   Anything less could be construed as

                      tagging for recreational purposes and not in compliance with the

                      Endangered Species Act (see Sec. 1.6, Number 2).

                          Population estimation is a fundamental tool of management programs.

                      The relative effect of directed and incidental capture, habitat loss,

                      predation and other extrinsic causes of mortality on a population of

                      sea turtles can be assessed most objectively if total population numbers

                      can be predicted.   In spite of intensive investigations for 25 years,

                                                                                              21

                  some marine turtle population parameters remain unknown or, at best,

                  conjectural.   Most notable among these elusive parameters are:        age at

                  breeding maturity, survivorship to maturity, years of reproductive

                  activity, recruitment to the nesting population, numbers of adult males

                  and turnover within the nesting population.

                       Sea turtles do not lend themselves to classical methods of popu-

                  lation analysis, such as mark-recapture and catch-per-unit-effort,

                  because such methods require a series of assumptions that cannot gener-

                  ally be met when sampling only nesting populations.           For example, a

                  population can be confidently measured only if it is closed b           etween

                  consecutive samples. In other words, there must be negligible mortality,

                  recruitment and moveme  nt of individuals into and out of the study popu-

                  lation.   Nesting." populations of sea turtles are not closed from season

                  to season (sample to sample). Since a single sample represents an entire

                  season of tagging records, many years of data would be needed for even

                  the most simple population estimate.

                        Current efforts to estimate sea turtle populations are limited to

                  small portions of the life cycle (Marquez and Doi, 1973; Carr et al. ,

                  1978; Bjorndal,   1980; Marquez et al. , 1981a,b; Meylan, 1981; Richardson

                  and Richardson,   1981; Richardson, 1982; Cornelius and Robinson, 1983;

                  Frazer, 1983).   It is possible to count numbers of nesting females along

                  a given length    of beach, and it is possible to measure the number of

                  hatchlings which   enter the ocean along the same section of beach. It is

                  even possible to  measure numbers of juvenile turtles observed along a reef

                  or caught per unit of tow time in a trawl net. The interrelatedness of

                  these measurements, however, is not known. Changes in recruitment of the

                  nesting stock cannot yet be predicted from knowledge of the number of

                                                                                               22

                      hatchlings entering the ocean per unit length of beach. To do so requires

                      the development of a comprehensive population model which considers all

                      aspects of a sea turtle life cycle.

                           The development of comprehensive population models for sea turtles

                      is still in its infancy.    A series of empirical observations have been

                      concluded from field studies, primarily of nesting females. Fragments

                      of population models have been derived from these observations. Missing

                      portions of the models could be estimated with the Delphi technique,

                      whereby a consensus of expert opinions is used in place of solid

                      measurements.   The reliability of the predictions from such completed

                      models would depend on the confidence of the observations and opinions

                      of the experts. Currently, sea turtle population modeling is exclusively

                      conceptual; it does not yet have predictive capability.

                           The most important mission of modeling efforts is to develop an

                      understanding of population means or average values. These include, for

                      example, average reproductive effort per turtle and average lifespan of

                      a nesting adult. Extreme values (oldest turtle, most nests for a turtle

                      in one season, etc.) indicate scope and potential; mean values provide

                      the foundation upon which future population models will be built.

                      Population modeling helps to integrate diverse categories of existing

                      data and to locate and define areas of knowledge.      Ultimately, popula-

                      tion models should be able to simulate observed population behavior- and

                      to predict population response to selected perturbations.       Sea turtle

                      recovery efforts must include a continuing effort to develop compre-

                      hensive population models with the predictive capability of assisting

                      the management process.

                                                                                                23

                   2.1.1   Empirical Observations:     In order to build a population model

                   the following attributes need to be known.

                    1. Clutch size (fecundity, in part)

                        The mean number of eggs per clutch is well documented for all

                   species of marine turtles. Mean clutch size for a given species appears

                   to differ slightly from one geographic locality to another, but varia-

                   tion in clutch size from a single locality is of sufficient magnitude

                   that statistical differences between localities are masked.

                   2. Clutches per turtle per season (fecundity, in part)

                        The average number of clutches per female per laying season, when

                   combined with clutch size, provides a measure of annual reproductive

                   potential or fecundity of a population.          Extremes of six or more

                   clutches for a single turtle in one season are well documented but

                   overemphasized in the literature.      The observed mean number of clutches

                   ,per turtle is directly related to the efficiency of the beach tagging

                   program.   Realizing this fact, there has been a tendency for tagging

                   programs to predict an unrealistically high mean number of clutches

                   per turtle by rationalizing that means derived from *observed data

                   are much too low because of incomplete beach surveys (missed nests).

                   Evidence suggests that the average number of clutches for loggerheads

                   and greens will range between two and three clutches per turtle per

                   season.   However, there is still no definitive answer to tag loss or

                   dispersed nesting outside of t    he study area, so current estimates of

                   clutches per season may change in the future.         The average number of

                                                                                               24

                      clutches per turtle per season is a potentially valuable parameter for

                      predicting total numbers of nesting females from direct nest counts.

                      Such a prediction must be adjusted to reflect the manner with which

                      females disperse their nesting effort along a beach.

                      3. Distribution of nesting efforts

                           A fundamental step in estimating population numbers is to define

                      the limits or boundaries of the population to be studied. For instance,

                      the population of greens nesting on Ascension Island has fully defined

                      boundaries.  A population of loggerheads nesting along 10 km of coastal

                      Florida is less easily defined. Existing tagging studies of loggerheads,

                      Kemp's ridleys, and greens are probably sufficient to permit the disper-

                      sal of nesting effort to be defined as a probability function of distance

                      from a known nest site. The smaller the unit of beach to be studied, the

                      more important it becomes to consider nesting overlap in population esti-

                      mates. It is not presently known if nesting site fidelity of individual

                      female turtles is stronger on continuous mainland shores or on stretches

                      of nesting habitat that is interrupted by features such as passes, sounds,

                      cliffs, mangroves, or rocks. The measurement of nesting dispersal along

                      various coastlines is a prerequisite for estimating total nesting females

                      from counts of nests.

                      4. Remigration intervals

                          Marine turtles, have reproduction cycles (remigration intervals) of

                      one to five years, with 2- and 3-year cycles being the most commonly

                      encountered. If a population of sea turtles maintains a stationary age

                                                                                       25

                 distribution (total numbers of individuals in each sex and age class remain

                 constant from year to year), the total number of nesting females can be

                 predicted from remigration intervals. Carr et al. (1978) provides a formula

                 for calculating total females, if the number of nesting females per year and

                 the distribution of remigration intervals are known. Approximately 36%

                 of adult West Caribbean green (Carr et al., 1978) and 40% of adult Georgia

                 loggerhead females (Richardson & Richardson, 1982) would be expected to

                 nest in any given season.

                 5. Remigration rates (years of reproductive activity)

                       The contribution of an individual turtle to its species reproduc-

                 tion effort may be defined, in part, by the number of years that the

                 turtle remains reproductively active.    Similarly, the mean number of

                 reproductive years play a role in determining a population's ability

                 to replace itself.   The probability that a turtle will return to nest

                 in subsequent seasons is its remigration rate.

                      Remigration rate has proved to be one of the most elusive of popu-

                 lation parameters because of serious tag loss and the scarcity of

                 intensive beach surveys. However, remigration rate remains an essential

                 parameter for calculating population turnover, i.e., the-ability of a

                 population to replace itself.   Remigrant turtles which have lost their

                 tags (calloused turtles) must either be returning for the first time

                 (neophyte when last observed) or for a second or subsequent time (not a

                 neophyte when last observed).   These two alternatives establish maximum

                 and minimum rates of remigration.   The selection of a mean remigration

                 rate, however, remains a subjective process.

                                                                                                 26

                      6. Age to sexual maturity (growth rates)

                           Age to sexual maturity determines, in part, the response time of a

                      population to changes in reproductive effort. In other words, the rate

                      with which a population can increase its numbers is significantly af-

                      fected by generation time.      Recent evidence suggests that generation

                      time in some sea turtle species is much longer than previously thought,

                      (Balazs, 1979; Frazer, 1982; Limpus,, 1979; Zug @@t         1983), although

                      captive reared turtles are known to mature in less than ten years (Wood

                      and Wood, 1980).

                           Growth rates of juvenile turtles in wild populations will have to

                      be determined before generation times can be calculated.        The ability

                      to predict the rate of a population's re&ponse to management efforts

                      will depend on the accuracy with which generation times are known.

                      7. Recruitment

                           Recruitment is the rate with which new animals are being added to a

                      population.   Recruitment is often measured by marking all individuals

                      present in the population at one time (saturation tagging) and then

                      monitoring the appearance of unmarked (new) animals into the population.

                      Recruitment to the adult female nesting population should theoretically

                      be measurable after approximately five years of intensive beach tagging

                      efforts given the remigration intervals measured for most species. -In

                      actuality, inefficient beach surveys, tag loss and nesting dispersal

                      combine to prolong this period for most tagging programs to at least ten

                      years.  For species other than sea turtles, recruitment can often be

                      measured by observing size classes or age classes, but indeterminate

                      growth rates prevent the application of this method to populations of

                                                                                        27

                 sexually adult sea turtles. Recruitment has not been measured for popu-

                 lations of juvenile sea turtles.

                      Recruitment, if measurable, could possibly indicate the efficiency

                 of hatchery and restocking programs or, alternatively, the efficiency

                 with which a natural population is replacing itself. If juvenile growth

                 rates prove to be as slow as is presently indicated, monitoring programs

                 and restocking efforts must be willing to wait many years for evidence

                 of recruitment to appear. Similarly, the impact of hatching success and

                 egg predation may also be delayed many years before the effects are

                 manifested in the number of adults entering the breeding population.

                      Recommendations for building population models using empirical

                 observations:

                 1. Determine clutch size from published and unpublished data.

                 2.  Re-examine existing data sets to determine mean numbers of clutches

                     per turtle per season.   The efficiency of the beach survey, differ-

                     ences in behavior between neophytes and remigrants and the degree

                     with which populations disperse their nesting effort along a beach

                     should be taken into account.   To maximize the quality of the data

                     collected, the scope (kilometers of beach patrolled) for each tagging

                     study should be adjusted downward such that the number of times a

                     turtle is encountered laying a clutch of eggs approaches 100% of the

                     total number of nests deposited within the study area.

                 3.  In order to refine the relationship of total nests to total turtles

                     along a given length of beach, tagging programs should include calcu-

                     lations of mean nesting dispersal.

                                                                                                     28

                        4.   Remigration intervals from various existing data sets should be

                             compared to determine if there are significant changes from one

                             geographical locality to another for each'species.

                        5.   The determination of the mean migration rate will only be achieved by

                             long term tagging studies in which tag loss is no longer a problem

                             (see Section II).

                        6.   Tagging studies of wild juvenile populations should be intensive

                             enough and maintained long enough to determine growth rates and,

                             thus, age to sexual maturity.

                        7.   Researchers desiring to obtain a measurement of recruitment must be

                             committed to intensive tagging programs of long duration.

                        2.1.2 Derived Parameters:

                        1. Turnover:   The rapidity with which a population replaces its members

                        is the turnover rate.      Turnover in the population of adult nesting

                        females can be derived from remigration rates and remigration inter-

                        vals.  An annual replacement of 16% of total adult females has been

                        observed in this manner for a population of Georgia loggerheads

                        (Richardson and Richardson, 1982).     Turnover time is the reciprocal of

                        turnover rate or 6.2 years for Georgia loggerheads.          In other words,

                        the number of adult nesting females currently being replaced in -the

                        nesting population every 6.2 years is equal to the estimated size of the

                        entire nesting female population at any one time.

                        2. Survival rate:    Survival rate is another population attribute which

                        can be derived from remigration rates and remigration intervals. Using

                                                                                         29

                  the example of the Georgia loggerheads, a predicted 20% of an initial

                  cohort of adult females would remain after ten years.    Only one out of

                  20 females would still be active after 17 years of nesting activity.

                  The acceptability or inacceptability of a derived survival rate, from a

                  management perspective, is a subjective decision not discussed here.

                       In conclusion, a word of caution is needed concerning the use of

                  models and predictions which are derived parameters. Models carry with

                  themselves an aura of res2ectability and correctness which usually goes

                  unchallenged by most observers.    Models predict population responses

                  with absolute finality, yet it is possible for the responses simulated

                  to have no resemblance at all to natural populations in the real world.

                  An accurate and precise population model is an elegant management tool.

                  Most models, however, fall somewhere short of this high ideal. They are

                  created as an intellectual exercise to organize diverse observations and

                  data into a conceptual framework and to suggest possible population

                  responses that can later be tested with empirical observations.    If an

                  incomplete or biased model is used to generate certain management deci-

                  sions, such as sustained yield or harvest quotas, the results could be

                  disastrous for an endangered species.   The development of a population

                  model is a rewarding and worthy endeavor for any management program,

                  but the uses to which the model is directed must never exceed the

                  capabilities of the model itself.

                  2.1.3 Standardization of Measurements

                       A serious problem with demographic studies of sea turtles is the

                  lack of standardized survey methods.   The following measurements proce-

                                                                                               30

                     dures, and the population parameters derived from them, are particularly

                     susceptible to misinterpretation caused by sampling errors.

                     1. Tagging programs with nesting females:

                          The efficiency of a tagging program on a nesting beach is directly

                     related to the proportion of nests within the study area which can be

                     identified with a female turtle of known tag number. Actual saturation

                     efficiencies of such tagging studies range from 99% of all nests to

                     below 50%.    Low efficiences usually occur when tagging programs start

                     after the beginning of the nesting season or when the nesting beach being

                     surveyed is greater in length than can be efficiently surveyed at regular

                     hourly intervals throughout each night of the nesting season.

                          A saturation tagging program to evaluate population dynamics and

                     develop models of nesting females is an intensive, demanding undertaking

                     which should not be attempted unless a thorough survey is achieved with

                     continuity over six (6) or more consecutive years of surveys.       If done

                     properly, the results of such an undertaking provide an understanding of

                     local population dynamics and a means for developing abbreviated

                     sampling procedures and conversion factors.       An abbreviated sampling

                     procedure might be the assessment of total numbers of nesting females

                     from selected 2-week sampling periods, and a conversion factor would

                     permit the assessment of total nesting females from daytime counts of

                     nests per kilometer of beach.    The future of sea turtle monitoring pro-

                     grams depends on the development of these simplified sampling techniques.

                                                                                                31

                         Recommended guidelines for a saturation tagging program sufficient

                    for population models are as follows:

                         Survey area:   Select a section of beach that can be entirely sur-

                               veyed on foot and on an hourly basis.          Intensive surveys

                               usually fail when motorized transportation breaks down or

                               high tides exclude vehicles from the beach, leaving a survey

                               area that is too extensive to cover by foot in the meantime.

                               Such an area is acceptable if alternate modes of transportation,

                               continuous access to the beach, and/or backup personnel are

                               available to the project as needed. Finally, the survey area

                               must remain available for replicated beach surveys for at

                               least six(6) consecutive seasons.        If the survey area is

                               shifted, year-to-year comparisons become invalid.

                         Survey schedule:    The survey schedule must bracket the nesting

                               season.  A survey f rom 15 May to 15 August would cover nearly

                               all nesting activity of southeastern U.S. loggerheads.        Other

                               species of sea turtle and other geographic areas would require

                               different survey dates.

                         Tagging techniques:    The best available tags should be employed

                               (see Section 2.2 - tags and tagging) to reduce the chronic

                               problem of tag loss.     Two or more tags should be applied to

                               each turtle until loss is reduced to manageable levels.        Sim-

                               ilarly, returning turtles with old tags should receive new tags,

                               if necessary. All tag numbers on a multiple tagged turtle should

                                                                                                   32

                                  be recorded at every sighting to reduce the frequency with

                                  which records are rejected because of recording errors and

                                  to determine rate of tag loss.      The problem of misread tags

                                  occurs with frustrating consistency with nearly all sea turtle

                                  tagging programs.

                            Essential field data:

                                  -Date for all nests in the study area.

                                  -Location of crawls within the study area.

                                  -Tag numbers of the nesting females for at least 90% of the

                                     nests within the study area.

                                  -A careful inspection of each turtle (first sighting) for old

                                     tags or evidence of previous tagging history (old tag

                                     scars).   This information is critical for measuring re-

                                     cruitment to the nesting population.

                            Desirable field data of less critical importance:

                                  -Tag numbers of females associated with false (non-nesting)

                                     crawls.

                                  -Climatological conditions associated with nesting

                                     activity.

                                  -Reasons for false crawls, if known.

                                  -Carapace measurements.     Over-the-curve and straight line

                                     carapace measurements appear to be sufficiently correlated

                                     to permit the derivation of one from the other. One or the

                                     other of the two measurement techniques should be consis-

                                     tently used and indicated on the records.

                            If nesting activity occurs adjacent to the study      area, two or more

                       years of intensive tag monitoring on either side of the study area are

                                                                                         33

                  highly desireable. Such information permits the calculation of nesting

                  dispersal by individual turtles across study area boundaries and a means

                  for correcting density estimates for this error.

                       Primary population parameters: (mean and variance)

                            -Fecundity (in part): clutches per nesting female per season.

                            -Density: nesting females per unit of beach.

                            -Recruitment: addition of adult females to the nesting popu-

                               lation.

                            -"Mortality": disappearance of adult females from the

                               nesting population.

                            -Remigration intervals: interval in years between consecutive

                               nesting visits.

                       Secondary population parameters: (mean and variance)

                            -Average linear distribution of nesting effort by individual

                               turtles.

                            -Dispersal of nesting females away from the nesting beach (tag

                               returns).

                            -Relative frequency of various mortality causes (tag returns).

                            -Growth rates of the adult females.

                  2. Daytime beach surveys of sea turtle nesting activity:

                       Agencies responsible for managing sea turtle nesting beaches should

                  establish a minimurn objective of surveying nesting activity. A properly

                  designed and replicated beach survey can provide valuable relative popu-

                  lation data.   When compared to tagging studies, beach surveys can be

                  converted to absolute population data.    Daytime beach surveys require

                                                                                               34

                     only part-time effort from a single individual, as opposed to        tagging

                     programs which are labor and equipment intensive. Beach surveys     provide

                     the ground truth needed for converting the relative data of aerial sur-

                     veys to absolute population estimates.

                          An efficient daytime beach survey of sea turtle nesting activity

                     should locate all nesting crawls and most false crawls which occurred

                     since the previous survey.    Recommended constraints for such a program

                     are as follows:

                          Survey area:   Select a section of beach that can be surveyed at

                                least every other day for its entire length, on foot.          if

                                motorized transportation fails or becomes otherwise unavail-

                                able, the continuity of the surveys need not be broken if

                                patrols can continue on foot.      If backup transportation is

                                available, a larger survey area is acceptable. A survey area

                                must also be permanently located (some beaches migrate from

                                year to year due to erosion/accretion cycles), so that compar-

                                ative replicate surveys may be taken from one year to the next.

                                If the survey area is shifted, year-to-year comparisons become

                                invalid.

                          Survey schedule: While daily surveys are best, standardized

                                sampling at selected days through the season can be used.

                                Nesting crawls and false crawls above high water should 'be

                                marked and numbered. Where predators or poachers are present,

                                care should be taken not to mark the exact site of a nest, but

                                rather a stake may be placed at a coded distance and direction.

                                Stakes or flags can be removed from false crawls when tracks

                                                                                          35

                            become faded.  Surveys should extend for the duration of the

                            laying season.

                      Observer bias:    It is not always easy to discriminate nesting

                            crawls from certain false crawls, and individual observers

                            may tend to overestimate or underestimate nesting crawls.

                            A statistically adequate sample of nests should be carefully

                            probed and reconcealed to permit the observer to adjust for

                            this bias.  Questionable false crawls should always be probed

                            for similpr reasons.   Obvious false crawls should be marked

                            but need not be probed.

                                 There is the continuing concern that probing can destroy

                            nests, if one or more eggs are punctured, with resulting

                            contamination of the remaining eggs.     This concern must be

                            weighed against the importance of the information gained.

                 3. Determination of hatching success:

                      Hatching success represents one segment of sea turtle life history

                 which is directly measurable.    Nest success can range from near zero on

                 heavily depredated beaches to near 100% where eggs are fully protected

                 from predators and climatological damage. The success of nests required

                 to maintain a population of sea turtles at a stationary level is still

                 unknown and, at the very least, will vary in response to the effects of

                 mortality rates on juveniles and adults. The determination of a minimum

                 acceptable nest success rate should be a top priority of present and

                 future modeling efforts.

                                                                                               36

                          Survey area:    Establish limits for the survey area (meters of

                                beach) and/or sample size (numbers of nests) in the same man-

                                ner as was done for monitoring beach nesting activity. Exper-

                                imental nests should be staked for easy reference.

                          Survey schedule:    Monitor fate of the eggs (predation, erosion,

                                compaction, etc.) for 75 'days following deposition.        Nests

                                should be checked during each survey and daily after the

                                fiftieth day of incubation. If possible, determine the extent

                                of predation by counting discarded shells of destroyed eggs.

                          Technique:   Excavate contents of nests 72 hours after the first

                                major hatch or 75 days after laying, whichever occurs first.

                                   -Count unhatched eggs, dead hatchlings, fetal abnormal-

                                      ities, etc.

                                   -Count egg shells left by normal hatchlings to determine

                                      the number of hatchlings which left the nest.

                                   -Calculate hatching percentage and hatchling emergence rate.

                     4. Aerial survey of nesting beaches:

                          A.    Optimize the number of flights according to the purpose of the

                                survey, but at least ten (10) should be completed for statis-

                                tical analysis and the results averaged. However,-one flight

                                is sufficient for discovering new nesting grounds.

                          B.    Use experienced observers, at least two observers (if pos-

                                sible), and a recorder.

                          C.    Fly low, slow, and during the early morning hours in a high

                                wing aircraft or helicopter aircraft, if possible.

                                                                                  37

                       D.   Concentrate on fresh (previous night) crawls.

                       E.   Use the aerial survey as a relative index, and calibrate

                            this against dependable ground truth data to obtain quan-

                            titative estimates.

                       F.   Record start and finish times, weather for previous 24 hours,

                            altitude and air speed and numbers of nests, false crawls and

                            fluncertain" crawls.

                       G.   Aerial surveys should be conducted as specified in Pritchard

                            et al. (1983).

                       H.   It is preferred that coordinated surveys of an entire state's

                            or region's nesting beaches be conducted.

                                                                                             38

                       2.2 TAGS AND TAGGING

                            No single factor has plagued the study       of sea turtle populations

                       more than the inability of the profession to develop an identification

                       tag with staying power.      The challenge is not a small one.       A turtle

                       tag must be resistant to salt water corrosion, intense solar radiation,

                       and acid dissolution associated with encrusting organisms and to physical

                       abuse from powerful swimming and feeding behavior of the turtles for

                       periods of many years between consecutive contacts with the tagged animal.

                       It must also be minimally toxic and cause no physical disturbance to the

                       tagged animal.    Many tag designs have been tested, but the perfect tag

                       has not been found. The ultimate challenge is a hatchling tag that will

                       be identifiable at maturity; this has never been achieved.

                       Flipper Tags:    The most commonly used tag for sea turtle studies

                       is the flipper tag, usually placed on the trailing edge of the fore

                       flipper.   A variety of materials have been tested, but results differ

                       between species and between geographic areas.

                            1.    Style 4-1005 size 49 monel (T-400 alloy, 35 mil), manufactured

                                  by National Band and Tag Company (NBT), has been extensively

                                  used.   The standard bubble bridge locking mechanism proved

                                  adequate for nesting greens (Caribbean, Costa Rica) but falled

                                  for U.S. loggerhead work; the bridge corroded, releasing the

                                  tag within a two year period. A modified thru-the-tag locking

                                  mechanism (size 19) for the size 49 monel tag has had success

                                  on Georgia loggerheads; corrosion persists, but tag life now

                                                                                                39

                              exceeds three years, long enough to replace old tags with new

                              ones.  A smaller, size 681 monel tag has a standard thru-the-

                              tag locking mechanism.     This tag, also manufactured by NBT,

                              has been used on juveniles and headstart yearlings with con-

                              siderable success; its mean longevity on a wild turtle is not

                              known, but tag returns of more than 5 years and, in one case,

                              nearly 7 years have been obtained (Witham, 1980).

                        2.    Nylon "Jumbo" rototags, manufactured by Dalton Supplies, Ltd.

                              (distributed by Dalton and Nasco Co.), have had limited suc-

                              cess on southeastern U.S. loggerheads.      Corrosion is nonexis-

                              tent, but the halves of the tag will separate and be lost if

                              the tag is placed on a thick portion of the flipper, and

                              breakage is common. Abrasion of the surface, with concomitant

                              loss of readability, is also commonly encountered unless spec-

                            _ially deep imprinting is requested from the factory.              The

                              mid-sized "Rototag" and the small. "Mini" are also available.

                        3.    "Riese" size 2 tags, manufactured and distributed by Dalton

                              Supplies, Ltd., are a relatively new (1977) product cur-

                              rently being tested in Georgia.       The "Riese" is similar in

                              design to the Jumbo rototag, but the material of-the Riese has

                              retained its resiliency and not broken after two years at sea

                              on adult female loggerheads.     Readability of the initial tags

                              was poor, but the problem now appe    ars to have been corrected

                              with deeper imprinting at the factory. The Riese shows con-

                              siderable promise as a plastic sea turtle tag.

                   Future des.igns for flipper tags:     The best   plastic tag now available

                                                                                                     40

                       would appear to be the Riese, with deep imprinting of the numbers re-

                       quested.   However, Riese and nylon plastic tags do not form a closed

                       loop when the tag is in place, thus raising the possibility that the

                       tag will be lost if the tag hole in the flipper enlarges as a result of

                       irritation.   The best metal tag would be a size 681 or 19 Inconel (625

                       alloy, 45 mil) with a thru-the-tag locking mechanism, manufactured by

                       NBT.   The Inconel has been tested on Hawaiian greens for six years,

                       with no sign of corrosion.        An initial subsidy of at least $50,000

                       would probably be required for National Band and Tag Company to gear

                       up for the production of this tag, but its availability would revolu-

                       tionize the quality of all sea turtle research dependent on flipper

                       tags.   Titanium tags now in use on Australian turtles have shown no

                       sign of corrosion after several years on the animals and appear very

                       promising (C. Limpus, pers. comm.).        Recommendations for flipper tags:

                            1.    Investigate the possibility of funding the production of the

                                  Inconel "supertag".

                            2.    Position flipper tags carefully during application. Tag hole

                                  will tear if the tag is placed too close to the trailing edge

                                  of the flipper. Halves of tag will be forced apart if the tag

                                  is placed through a thickened portion of the flipper, too

                                  distant from the trailing edge.

                            3.    Always apply a minimum of two tags per turtle, use a variety of

                                  tag types, and replace old (2-3 year) tags with new, whenever

                                  necessary.

                            4.    Consider the rear flipper as a tagging location. Tags on the

                                  rear flipper wear less, but the application of a tag on the

                                                                                               41

                              rear flipper appears to be a more painful experience for the

                              animal.  A rear flipper application might be recommended for

                              any turtle captured onboard a vessel but not for an adult

                              female in the act of laying her eggs.

                   Carapace Tags:   There have been a number of efforts to develop a cara-

                   pace tag, with unconfirmed success.       Aluminum rivets in the marginal

                   scutes of captive greens caused extensive necrosis and were lost.

                   Preliminary efforts to bolt opposing stainless steel washers through the

                   marginal   scutes of South Carolina loggerheads appear promising

                   (Hopkins, HT Newsletter 1981). Identification number and return address

                   are stamped on the washers.

                   Internal Tags:   One solution to the continuing loss of extarnal tags

                   would be the development of an internal tag. Binary or color coded in-

                   ternal tags have been used successfully for US west coast salmon in-

                   vestigations (Jefferts et al., 1963) and also for prawns (Prentise and

                   Rensel, 1977). A similar technique is being developed for hatchling sea

                   turtles in North Carolina (Schwartz, 1981).

                         Internal tags are, in theory, superior to external tags if there

                   is no loss rate. Liabilities of the internal tag are as follows:

                         1.   Possible traumatic manipulation to hatchlings at a time when

                              dispersal and possible imprinting behavior would be most

                              sensitive.

                         2.   Difficulty to identify an internally tagged turtle at a later

                              date.

                         3.   Need to have radiographic equipment available for reading

                              tags.

                                                                                                     42

                            The development and use of internal tags for sea turtles is in

                       its infancy.    The internal tag is promising and should receive further

                       technical development at selected laboratories equipped for the work;

                       it should not be indiscriminately employed with endangered hatchlings

                       until more is known about potential harm to the tagged animals.

                       Mutilation Tagging: Domestic animals are commonly marked (tattooed, ear

                       clipped, etc.) for permanent identification. The concept has appeal for

                       sea turtles, but preliminary results have been discouraging.           Tattooed

                       green sea turtles lost their identifying marks within a year (Balazs,

                       1978).   Carapace notching of neonate sea turtles has value for short

                       term studies of hatchling dispersal but has not yet been proven effective

                       for long-term studies (Hughes, pers. comm.).          Mutilation tagging of

                       hatchlings is traumatic and potentially lethal during their dispersal

                       from the natal beach.     Mutilation tagging of large numbers of hatchings

                       should be avoided until trauma inherent in the technique has been elimi-

                       nated and long-term retention of the scars has been confirmed.

                            Grafting of shell plugs from pigmented to unpigmented areas and

                       vice versa appears to have merit and is being tested (Hendrickson and

                       Hendrickson, 1982; Mrosovsky, 1982). However, a drawback is the uniform

                       dorsal and ventral pigmentation of hatchlings of several sea turtle

                       species (Lepidochelys, Caretta, Eretmochelys).

                                                                                   43

                  2.3 REMOTE SENSING

                      Remote sensing techniques have been applied to marine turtle spec-

                  ies primarily to extend the kn owledge of pelagic movements and activi-

                  ties of turtles.   While conventional tagging has given us much infor-

                  mation on the nesting behavior of adult females, it has been a long and

                  difficult process to relate the information gained from these tag returns

                  to at-sea movements. Remote sensing is a technique "to extend the range

                  of man's observations" (Craighead and Craighead, 1965). When applied to

                  marine turtles, these techniques allow the accumulation of data while the

                  turtle is at sea and cannot be observed and identified by conventional

                  methods. The success of telemetric monitoring depends on the suitability

                  of the equipment to answer the question being asked and the resourceful-

                  ness and perserverance of the researcher. Under the proper circumstances,

                  an almost continuous flow of information can be made available to the

                  researcher.

                      Electronic tags, such as radio and acoustic (sonic) transmitters,

                  are part of the ontogeny of tags and tagging techniques which have been

                  employed in the study of marine turtles. Initially, general observations

                  of marine turtle species as to number, activity and location were under-

                  taken. This was followed by development of suitable tags which provided

                  identification of individual turtles (Schmidt, 1916; Harrison, 1956;

                  Caldwell, Carr, and Hellier, 1956).    There is now available a. variety

                  of electronic (telemetric) tags which greatly expand the ability to

                  locate marine turtles at sea and provide the opportunity to collect*

                  rapidly a variety of new data. However, electronic tags will not replace

                  flipper tags, just as flipper tags have not replaced general observation.

                                                                                            44

                      Each is a tool that has its own application to marine turtle recovery.

                      The use of telemetric equipment to solve problems in the recovery of

                      marine turtles should be carefully considered and prioritized, as there

                      are many costly pitfalls.      Electronic telemetric techniques provide a

                      volume of varied data, and the researcher should take care to have the

                      data collection priorities matched to the goals of the project.         It is

                      easy to lose sight of biological goals in lieu of research and develop-

                      ment of equipment.

                            Early studies (Baldwin, 1972; Soma and Ichihara, 1977) demonstrated

                      the feasibility of using electronic remote sensing equipment on marine

                      turtles.    While the equipment in these studies was constructed from

                      component parts, there is currently a variety of commercially available

                      transmitters and receivers which may be tailored for use with turtles.

                      The selection of the instruments to be used should be based on the

                      suitability of type, frequency, size, weight, cost, shape, range, color,

                      life expectancy, harness and placement of the unit. The basic types of

                      transmitters available are radio and sonic, both single and multiple

                      channel.   Many options are currently available to the researcher, from

                      activity and mortality sensors to aerospace satellite telemetry.           The

                      selection of type is generally dependant on need and budget.

                           The type of system selected should be suited to the expected use.

                      Radio telemetry is largely restricted to air-to-air or fresh water

                      transmission and is inadequate for transmission through a marine envi-

                      ronment.   Thus, the use of radio transmitters requires a harness and

                      trailer in order to receive the radio signal when the turtle surfaces or

                      is in shallow water.    Low frequency transmitters have excellent proper-

                      ties of penetration and low bounce or defraction.         They are, however,

                                                                                           45

                  limited by antenna size and the ground hugging characteristics of the

                  signal.   Higher frequencies are more easily miniaturized and have the

                  property of increased range when the antenna is elevated.

                       Acoustic or sonic transmitters are used for transmission through

                  water but have the disadvantage of high cost and sensitivity of the

                  signal to physical barriers. The sonic frequency selected should not be

                  audible to the instrumented turtle.     The weight, range and battery life

                  expectancy must be considered together, as each affects the other.          In

                  other words, extended range or life expectancy of a unit results in in-

                  creased size of the unit.      Thus, the needs of the researcher must be

                  matched to a balance of these three elements. This becomes increasingly

                  more important as the size of the instrumented turtle decreases.

                       The placement, size, shape and color of transmitters should be

                  com-Patable with the shape and habits of marine turtles.          The hydro-

                  dynamics of the equipment should be considered. Interference of normal

                  locomotion or reproduction must be avoided.       Abrasion of an animal by.

                  the transmitter package is sometimes a problem, and the area of instru-

                  mentation may be used by external parasites or-as a site for infection.

                  Transmitters should also be attached so as to avoid mechanical stranding

                  of the animal due to fouling of the instruments or harness with the

                  substrate.   The color of a unit should blend with the environment ac-

                  cording to the behavioral habits of the instrumented turtle.           It is

                  important that the instrument does not modify behavior, reduce competi-

                  tive ability or increase mortality.

                       The cost of telemetric equipment is highly variable depending on

                  the type used. Costs range from under $100 per unit, for a simple radio

                  location transmitter, to several thousand dollars per unit for a satel-

                                                                                              46

                      lite compatable transmitter. The price of radio receivers begins at $300

                      and may exceed $10,000, even for land based units.    The cost of sonic

                      equipment is slightly more than double the cost of radio equipment.

                      Considerable additional expense is also encountered in the collection of

                      data, such as fees for boats and aircraft and salaries.      The use of

                      computers for data analysis may also be expensive but desirable.

                           The recent application of remote sensing techniques to the problems

                      of management of marine turtle species has focused on the activities

                      around the nesting beach.    Ireland et al. (1978) monitored hatchling

                      green turtles with miniature acoustic transmitters, and Stoneburner

                      et al. (1982) reported on radio instrumented loggerhead hatchlings.

                      Hopkins and Murphy (1981) monitored the nesting and internesting activi-

                      ties of 37 adult female loggerheads by using a combination of sonic and

                      radio telemetry during three nesting seasons. Mendonca (1981) monitored

                      immature turtle activity in a Florida lagoon while Ireland (1980) moni-

                      tored homing and site tenacity of immature green turtles in Bermuda.

                      Satellite telemetry has been utilized by Stoneburner (1982) to monitor

                      internesting activity of loggerheads, and a cooperative project by the

                      National Fisheries Engineering Laboratory and the Denver Wildlife

                      Research Center monitored long distance, non-nesting movements of

                      loggerhead turtles in the Gulf of Mexico (Kolz, 1980).

                           Telemetric field work has also been accomplished by Pritchard- and

                      co-workers with Kemp's ridley (Pritchard, 1980; Gicca, 1979), Fletemeyer

                      used satellite telemetry to monitor activities of green turtles near

                      Ascension Island (Fletemeyer, pers. comm.), and Richard Byles (pers. comm.)

                                                                                         47

                  is using radio and sonar tracking in monitoring the sea turtles of Chesapeak

                  Bay. The National Marine Fisheries Service is also involved in sonic and

                  radio telemetric monitoring of loggerheads at Port Canaveral, Florida (Kemmerer

                  et al., 1983) and of head.-started Kemp's ridleys (Timko and DeBlanc, 1981).

                  Much of the work with telemetric monitoring of marine turtle species is

                  currently undergoing data analysis and is not yet published

                       It is clear that remote sensing techniques, when applied to ques-

                  tions of marine turtle biology, hold the promise of vastly extending our

                  knowledge and, in many cases, can answer specific questions dealing with

                  recovery in a short period of time.   Research employing remote sensing

                  techniques is needed:

                       1.   to determine the marine habitat used by turtles in order to

                            offer protection of these habitats and minimize negative

                            man-turtle interactions,

                       2.   to quantify periodicity of surface activity of marine turtles

                            and relate this to aerial survey counts of turtles,

                       3.   to evaluate management actions such as headstarting,

                       4.   to evaluate the impact of human activities such as channel

                            maintainance on marine turtle use,

                       5.   to evaluate turtle stocks and their management in light      of

                            migration routes documented by satellite telemetry,

                       6.   to monitor at-sea activities associated with nesting in order

                            to evaluate the effects of beach disturbance and alterations

                            as well as understand aspects of navigation and nest site

                            selection and tenacity, and

                       7.   to ultimately monitor hatchlings and their activities during

                            the "lost years".

                                                                                         48

                      2.4 INCIDENTAL CATCH OVERVIEW

                      Introduction

                           Incidental catch or take is defined as the capture of species other

                      than those towards which a particular fishery is directed.     Sea turtles

                      are threatened or endangered with extinction and protected by law; their

                      incidental   capture is of considerable biological and political

                      importance.  The following overview describes the incidental capture of

                      sea turtles, the species and size classes most frequently taken, and the

                      fishery(ies) and fishing gear involved.     Mortality rate, physiological

                      implications   of drowning,    and resuscitation techniques are also

                      discussed, as well as recent developments proposed to reduce or

                      eliminate accidental sea turtle mortality.

                          Primary sources of information regarding the incidental capture of

                      sea turtles range from fortuitous encounters of tagged turtles by fisher-

                      men to direct observation by fishery biologist/ observers stationed

                      on-board commercial fishing vessels. Interview data from vessel captains

                      provide additional  information on capture and mortality rates and on

                      areal and temporal distribution of captures.       Important life history

                      information can, in this manner, be obtained regarding turtle species,

                      size, behavior and environmental characteristics associated with time

                      and place of capture.

                          Commercial fishermen have been implicated in many, if not most, of

                      the carcass strandings on southeast U.S. beaches because of the docu-

                      mented history of incidental capture and mortality by the commercial

                                                                                              49

                   fishing industry.   Not all beach carcasses, however, are the result of

                   drowning in fish nets, and more needs to be done to determine the pre-

                   cise cause of death of these animals.

                        Turtles wash ashore, buoyed by the gases of decomposition and at

                   this stage are unfit for postmortem examination to determine cause of

                   death.  Death by drowning, according to pathologists, is difficult to

                   determine, even under ideal conditions.       For some of the carcasses,

                   natural causes of death are indicated. In a few instances, dead turtles

                   show signs of severe trauma or mutilation that can best be described as

                   deliberate acts by man and not caused by predators or collisions with

                   vessels.  For the most part, however, circumstantial evidence points to

                   drowning in fishing nets as the principal cause of mortality in beach

                   carcasses.

                   Species Involved and Marine Habitat

                        All of the six species of turtles discussed in this recovery plan

                   have, at one time or another, been captured incidental to fishing ef-

                   fort.  However, the hawksbill sea turtle appears to have the lowest

                   incidental capture rate of any of the sea turtle species.        The paucity

                   of records of incidental captures of hawksbills may be *attributed to

                   their preference for tropical reefs and insular habitats for foraging

                   and nesting and to their absence from areas more frequently fished by

                   trawlers and other vessels in search of pelagic and demersal fish stocks

                   (i.e. , not reef fish species).      It is apparent that the loggerhead,

                                                                                                 50

                      followed by Kemp's ridley and the olive ridley, is the most frequently

                      captured turtle.    The loggerhead is the most numerous turtle in U.S.

                      coastal waters and, therefore, would be encountered more frequently by

                      fishermen.   The coastal bays, sounds and nearshore waters inhabited by

                      the loggerhead overlap the area within which most of the southeast

                      region's fishing effort is directed, including the use of drag nets,

                      trawls, pound nets, beach seines and the gill-net fishery. Within this

                      narrow range, the loggerhead is further concentrated in areal distri-

                      bution by its foraging habits and preference for crabs and mollusks.

                      Feeding areas frequently coincide with the highly productive shrimp

                      grounds.   It appears probable that loggerheads are also being attracted

                      to areas of intense shrimping because of the quantities of bycatch

                      discarded during the sorting procedure; bycatch represents an array of

                      food items desired by the turtles.     The same is true for Kemp's ridley

                      and presumably for the olive ridley, although the latter may be more

                      pelagic in habits than previously believed.      The reported decrease in

                      incidental captures of adult Kemp's ridleys over the last decade is

                      probably the result of a declining population, indicated by the well-

                      documented population decline of the nesting females at Rancho Nuevo,

                      Mexico, over the last 15 years.

                           Incidental capture rates for the two remaining species, the green

                      and leatherback, are low because of their low relative abundance in this

                      region and because of their preferred habitat.         The leatherback is

                      usually pelagic, while the green is most frequently found in association

                                                                                               51

                  with shallow marine grass flats dissected by gulleys, scattered reefs,

                  and rock outcrops.    Juvenile green turtles are more frequently captured

                  than adults, perhaps   because they are more numerous, omnivorous and range

                  widely.   The green   turtle, as a primarily herbivorous adult, is less

                  likely to encounter fishing gear directed towards the capture of

                  demersal fish and shrimp.       The pelagic leatherback rarely encounters

                  trawlers, except when it ranges onto the continental shelf and inshore,

                  feeding on concentrations of medusae and ctenophores which. drift shore-

                  ward.   In recent years, it has been reported that leatherbacks are

                  frequently captured at certain times of the year by longlines set for

                  tuna and swordfish and are also caught and drowned in squid nets in the

                  south-central Pacific (Balazs, pers. comm.).

                  Size Classes

                       Sea turtles captured by fishing gear vary according to size and age

                  class.   Subadult or immature turtles account for the majority of inci-

                  dentally captured turtles taken in shrimp trawls.         The age class most

                  frequently captured is the larger, older immatures who have survived the

                  period of high mortality experienced by neonates and small juveniles.

                  They are important individuals that must be recruited into the present

                  breeding population.

                       The preponderance of captured immatures may simply be a reflection

                  of the size distribution of the population (if the capture method is

                  assumed to be random), or it may reflect differences in the habits of

                                                                                              52

                      young turtles as compared to adults.    The adults may be stronger swim-

                      mers and avoid capture by outdistancing the trawl.     Adult loggerheads,

                      except when breeding and nesting, apparently frequent deeper offshore

                      waters where they are found on reefs, wrecks, oil rigs or other bottom

                      irregularities usually avoided by the trawl fishery.

                           Neonate or hatchling turtles and small juveniles are considered to

                      be epipelagic in habits and, thus, should not be vulnerable to demersal

                      and mid-water trawls.   They are apparently not captured by surface nets

                      such as purse seines, being either absent from fishing areas or too

                      small to be confined by the larger meshes of the seine. It is generally

                      believed that neonates  swim directly out to sea after emerging from the

                      nest and remain as a pelagic animal for an undetermined length of time

                      until they return to coastal waters as midsized juveniles.

                      Fisheries Involved

                           In general, two types of fishing gear are involved in the inci-

                      dental capture of sea turtles. These can be classified as either active

                      or passive.   Active fishing gear is pulled through the water, a water

                      straining device.   Passive fishing gear is stationary, a trap, a set of

                      hooks or a net.   Incidental capture can also be described as occurring

                      in two types of fisheries, the finfish fishery and the shellfish fish-

                      ery.   The latter includes sedentary as well as nektonic or swimming

                      forms. Both fisheries use active and passive gear.

                           Of all the fishery methods currently employed in the southeastern

                      region, the trawl is believed to capture more turtles incidentally than

                      any other gear.   Not only is the trawl effective in capturing turtles,

                                                                                                  53

                   but the number of trawlers in the fleet is large.         In addition to these

                   factors, economic constraints recently placed on the shrimp industry

                   have concentrated the fishing effort along U.S. coastal waters. Rising

                   fuel costs, large inventories of cheaper imported shrimp, and exclusion

                   of U.S. fishermen from traditional overseas fishing grounds have exacer-

                   bated this problem.     The trawler is now one of the most common types of

                   fishing vessel operating in the coastal zone (more than 6000 shrimp

                   vessels operate in the southeastern U.S. alone). That fact and the pre-

                   viously mentioned occurrence of the loggerhead and ridley sea turtles in

                   commercial shrimping grounds probably accounts for the significantly

                   higher capture rate for this type fishing gear as compared to others.

                        Other fishing gear employing nets and involved in the incidental

                   capture of sea turtles are the seine, trammel net, gill net and pound

                   net.   These are utilized primarily in the shallow coastal waters and in

                   bays and sounds, with the exception of the gill-net fishery for coastal

                   pelagic f ishes.    All of the above nets, except the pound net, can be

                   either active (straining) or passive (stationary); the pound net is a

                   stationary gear.    The sturgeon net fishery has recently been implicated

                   in the capture of sea turtles, primarily loggerheads.              Other nets,

                   similarly located and set for shad and sharks, have been, implicated as

                   well.   If the spring sturgeon run is long, the nets may be intercepting

                   the shoreward movement of sea turtles from their wintering grounds.

                   Breeding adults begin to congregate in coastal areas prior to the onset

                   of the nesting season.

                                                                                                     54

                             The pound net f ishery of the Chesapeake Bay area is believed to be

                       responsible for mortalities of sea turtles. Deaths from this cause have

                       been reported more or less regularly for the past decade.           Recent in-

                       formation from biologists studying this problem in Chesapeake Bay have

                       determined that mortalities occur when the turtles become "gilled" or

                       entangled in the larger meshed lead nets that guide fish into the trap;

                       the lead net is not regularly inspected by the fishermen (Lutcavage,

                       1981).   Turtles that manage to enter the pound net are usually not

                       injured and can be released alive by the fishermen when they remove the

                       catch.

                            Turtles -have been captured with baited hook and line, including

                       sport fishing tackle.      In many cases it is apparent that the turtles

                       were attracted to the bait since they actually were hooked in the mouth.

                       However, leatherbacks are frequently captured in the longline fishery

                       for tuna and swordfish, where numerous hooks are suspended from the main

                       line which may extend for miles.       It would seem doubtful that the lea-

                       therback was primarily attracted to the fish/squid baited hooks, since

                       this species is thought to subsist almost entirely upon coelenterates

                       (cnidarians) and ctenophores.      Rather, the placement aad extreme length

                       of these longlines, set at the shelf break in a pelagic habitat shared

                       by the leatherback, simply entangle or snag them.            Leatherbacks are

                       particularly vulnerable to longline gear because they have the greatest

                       breadth or flipper span of any sea turtle and their epidermis is very

                       soft, not armored with thick scutes as in the other sea turtle species.

                                                                                            55

                       Trot lines set for seatrout and redfish in the shallow lagoons of

                  south Texas capture juvenile green turtles, though not necessarily

     4            because of baited hooks.   Artificial lures have been used in the past,

                  and many of the turtles were hooked in the body or tangled in the lines.

                  Pot warps (buoy lines) of crab and lobster traps ensnare several species

                  of turtle s. Encrusting organisms grow on the submerged portion of the

                  floats and warps, when'traps and their marker floats are left in the

                  water for long periods of time. The carnivorous turtle is attracted to

                  this food source as well as to crabs or lobsters within the trap. The

                  feeding turtle becomes entangled in the slack warp and. drowns.        Large

                  numbers of pots, with their attendant floats and warps set closely

                  together, can offer a serious obstacle to turtles swimming through the

                  area; the potential for entanglement is high in this situation.

                  Capture and Mortality Rate

                       Discontinuities in fishing efforts and sea turtle distributions

                  confound incidental capture and mortality statistics throughout the

                  southeastern U.S.   Furthermore, information collected by interviews is

                  frequently biased and increasingly difficult to obtain.           Widespread

                  publicity and sanctions against those responsible for killing turtles

                  are causing this information source to dry up as long as trawlers are

                  implicated.   However, reliable information regarding incidental catch

                  rates is being collected by onboard observers and scientists aboard

                  chartered trawlers and government survey vessels. Adequate sampling of

                  the deepwater trawling fleet (over 6,000 documented vessels in the

                  southea st), which includes an equal number of smaller "bay" shrimpers,

                  will require considerable effort and resources distributed over a large

                  geographic area.

                                                                                              56

                           Surveys in the south Atlantic and Gulf states have     produced pre-

                      liminary information that resulted in regional estimates    of total cap-

                      tures and mortalities (Hillestad et al., 1977; Hillestad    et al., 1982;

                      Ulrich, 1978).  Information from interviews suggests that   the predicted

                      uneven distribution of sea turtle populations reinforces the observed

                      uneven catch distribution among trawlers.     Some experienced fishermen

                      risk gear loss by dragging their nets close to underwater obstructions,

                      where they are rewarded by good catches of shrimp from isolated popu-

                      lations that have not been depleted.     These fishermen report frequent

                      captures of loggerheads at such sites.       The turtles are apparently

                      attracted to the reef-like habitat and bottom disconformities. Capture

                      rates of turtles per hour of trawling effort from these early surveys

                      have been estimated to be less than 0.1 for the Atlantic coast shrimp

                      vessels and less than 0.01 for the Gulf of Mexico fishery. Estimated

                      mortality rates for those turtles captured in both fisheries ranged

                      widely from less than 10% to over 40%.    Mortality estimates calculated

                      from interview data were usually much lower than observed mortalities.

                      Other factors could bias observed mortalities, such as the recapture of

                      dead turtles in heavily trawled areas, however.

                           Seasonal abundances of juvenile turtles also account for differ-

                      ences in catch rate.    The younger age classes are highly migratory,

                      moving between developmental areas and, seasonally, out of sha-Ilow

                      (colder) coastal waters in the winter months. For the Atlantic fishery,

                      encounters with turtles appear more or less evenly distributed along

                      nearshore waters.   An exception would be Cape Canaveral, Florida, an

                      area where an unusual concentration of loggerheads is found in the Port

                                                                                            57

                  Canaveral ship channel.    The turtle population of the Gulf of Mexico

                  consists primarily of immature turtles, now that the large nesting

                  aggregations of Kemp's ridley have been reduced in size. Concentrations

                  of adult loggerheads have been seen off Western Florida (Ogren, pers.

                  comm.).

                       Continuing efforts by the NMFS observer program provided additional

                  incidental catch statistics for shrimp trawlers operating off the south-

                  eastern U.S.   The annual catch of sea turtles, primarily loggerheads,

                  was estimated to be over 45,000.     The average mortality rate was esti-

                  mated to be about 27%, or over 12,000 turtle deaths per year (NMFS,

                  draft regulations (withdrawn)).    Despite the greater number of trawlers

                  fishing in the northern Gulf of Mexico, capture rate was lower.         This

                  may reflect a lower sea turtle density in the Gulf as compared to the

                  south Atlantic coastal area.    Mortality rates were higher in the Gulf,

                  however, and may be the result of longer tow times recorded for this

                  fishery. Study and analysis continues to this date to determine what is

                  the actual range or numbers for the annual mortality of captured tur-

                  tles.

                       Capture and mortality rates for other fishing industries are less

                  well documented.   Several hundred loggerhead deaths are 'attributed to

                  the pound net fishery of Chesapeake Bay each season. The smaller stur-

                  geon fishery of South Carolina accounts for some loggerhead mortality,

                  but the duration of the sturgeon fishery is not as long as other fish-

                  eries. In the Gulf of Mexico, swordfishermen are accidentally capturing

                  leatherbacks.   Some believe the catch rate is high enough to cause

                                                                                                   58

                       concern.   Some of these captains report an incidental capture rate of

                       15-20 turtles per trip, but only during winter months, and some of the

                       turtles are released alive (Hildebrand, 1980).

                       Physiological Implications of Forced Submergence

                            Sea turtles tolerate the anoxic effects of prolonged submergence

                       during normal behavioral activities such as deep diving, resting

                       (sleeping) and winter refuging (dormancy).         In situations involving

                       forced submergence, such as capture by trawls or set nets, the exertion

                       to escape may lead to death.       The initial reaction of a turtle to a

                       trawl is to outswim the device.       This strenuous effort results in an

                       increase in oxygen consumption, with no -opportunity to replenish this

                       debt.  Once captured, the turtle will struggle to escape the webbing,

                       or, in the case of set nets, to free itself from entanglement.         If the

                       exhausted turtle is not released, it will soon drown.

                            The clinical diagnosis of death by drowning in sea turtles is not

                       completely understood but probably involves several physiological re-

                       sponses, including shock, asphyxia and seawater aspiration.           A pre-

                       liminary report investigating the cause of drowning in trawl-captured

                       turtles reported that the major trauma to these animals was exhaustion

                       from stress and that the length of the submergence period was secondary

                       (Lutz and Dunbar-Cooper, 1979).      However, a positive correlation -has

                       been found between trawl duration and mortality rate.        Thus, length of

                       submergence may be critical to the revival of comatose       turtles.    Addi-

                       tional research on the physiology of stress in sea          turtles will be

                       required before effective resuscitation techniques can be devised.

                                                                                            59

                       Besides directly related drowning deaths, mortalities of sea tur-

                  tles may involve a complex chain of events. For example, the traumatic

                  experience of being captured in a trawl could weaken the turtle and

                  increase its vulnerability to attack by pathogens, parasites or

                  predators.   Reports of periodic occurrence of moribund turtles far

                  offshore the south Atlantic coast, and, more recently, of weakened and

                  emaciated individuals washing ashore at Cape Canaveral, may be related

                  to multiple events, especially if premature arousal of winter dormant

                  turtles had occurred or trawl stressed turtles were involved (Carr et

                  al., 1980).    Whether or not turtles weakened by disease are more

                  susceptible to "drowning" in trawls or, conversely, exhausted turtles

                  released or escaped from trawls are predisposed to disease related

                  illness and death remains to be determined.       Severely traumatized sea

                  turtles may live for months before they become moribund, accumulating

                  an epibiota and parasite load uncharacteristic of normal turtles as they

                  passively drift in tidal and oceanic currents which is uncharacteristic

                  of normal, more active turtles.

                        Trawlermen believe that turtles, exhausted from a previous capture,

                  are more susceptible to drowning if they are recaptured the same day.

                  Foreign turtle fishermen must remove their catch from tangled nets

                  shortly after capture to have live animals for market.           Apparently,

                  netted turtles soon become comatose or drown.      Up to 50% of all green

                  turtles caught in tangle nets drown when nets are only checked twice'per

                  day (Pritchard, pers. comm.).

                                                                                            60

                     Other Marine Activities

                          Unusually dense aggregations of sea turtles occur in certain marine

                     or coastal localities because of man-made structures or activities.

                     Aggregations involving natural occurrences of breeding, feeding or

                     migrating turtles will not be discussed here.    Loggerheads and perhaps

                     Kemp's ridleys and greens congregate near seafood processing plants

                     where offal is discarded in adjacent tidal creeks.       Crab processing

                     plants sited on the bays and sounds in Georgia are typical examples.

                     Other man-induced feeding aggregations occur wherever the trawlers cull

                     their catch, especially in Georgia and South Carolina where specific

                     inshore sounds are used regularly by shrimpers for this purpose.

                          Turtles occur in the Port Canaveral, Florida, navigation channel at

                     densities much higher than natural sounds and channels.     The man-made

                     channel may enhance feeding, but the main attraction is believed to be

                     the water depth (;;50 feet) and steep-sided profile that affords a reef-

                     like habitat for winter refuging and escape from cold temperatures, a

                     loafing area for the turtles during the remainder of the year and an

                     internesting habitat for reproductively active loggerheads (Ogren and

                     McVea, 1982).    The presence of several seafood processing plants

                     (both fish and shellfish) in the Canaveral area and the proximity to

                     shrimping activity with its attendant culling operations may well be an

                     important additional attraction. In short, the Canaveral bight mayhave

                     been an area of average importance for feeding and overwintering turtles

                     in the past, but now the habitat has been altered for these species by

                     man's activities. The highest incidental catch rates ever reported have

                     occurred in the Port Canaveral navigation channel.

                                                                                          61

                  Solutions to the Problem

                       Changes in the existing rules and regulations, as pertaining to the

                  Endangered Species Act of 1973, have been proposed in order to reduce or

                  eliminate the incidental capture of sea turtles in the southeastern

                  United States. Progress in gear technology has resulted in refining the

                  existing excluder design(s) and enhancing the efficiency of the trawl.

                  Results of comparative gear trials were very promising. A 97% reduction

                  in sea turtle captures was achieved with a 7% increase in shrimp catch in

                  the trawls equipped with the excluder device (Easley, 1982). In addition,

                  the TED considerably reduces by-catch.

                       The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) has created a paradoxical

                  situation for both endangered species and people and does not lend

                  itself to recovery efforts for the species.    In some instances, special

                  regulations permitting "first aid" for threatened sea turtles taken

                  incidentally have been written and implemented. These regulations do not

                  apply to endangered species and, therefore, possession of an endangered

                  species without a permit is a violation of federal law (ESA). Prior to 1982,

                  regulations could not be written for endangered species, only for threatened

                  species. Thus, if a fisherman took an endangered species in his trawl, he

                  legally could not take action to attempt to save the animal, nor could   he

                  report or provide the specimen to an authorized third party.        Rather

                  than leave the endangered species on deck to see if the animal revives,

                  he must immediately return the turtle to the sea where survival chances

                  are slim in its weakened condition. Amendments were made to the Endangered

                  Species Act in 1982 that may correct this problem. Under Section 10(a) 1(A)

                                                                                                      62

                     of the ESA, if certain conditions are met such as preparation of a specific

                     conservation plan, it may be possible to legally allow the incidental take

                     of an endangered species.     The Services have 'not yet issued regulations

                     implementing these amendments.      This should be done promptly to allow

                     for the resuscitation and gathering of biological data on endangered

                     sea turtles.

                     Resuscitation Techniques

                           Regulations originally set forth by NMFS stated that sea turtles

                     taken incidentally must be handled with care and returned to the water

                     immediately, whether dead or alive.        However, resuscitation must be

                     attempted on comatose turtles by turning the turtle on its back and

                     pumping its plastron by hand or foot.        Recent regulations now include

                     the previous instructions, additional actions required to effect a safe

                     release, and an alternate revival technique.         All turtles are to be

                     released over the stern only after the trawls are out of the water, the

                     vessel is in neutral gear and the vessel is in an area where recapture

                     is unlikely. In addition to the plastral-pumping method, comatose turtles

                     may be placed on their plastrons and posteriorly elevated from one to

                     twenty-four hours until they revive.       All turtles must be returned to

                     the water before the vessel reaches port. All turtles held on deck should

                     be shaded from direct sunlight and kept moist.

                           These instructions, if followed, may save many of the turtles

                     incidentally captured that appear lifeless when taken from nets or

                     trawls.   Preliminary findings from field and laboratory investigations

                     on other air-breathing aquatic vertebrates suggest that additional

                                                                                             63

                  methods may be applicable in resuscitating "drowned" turtles.             For

                  example, if an acid/base imbalance is involved in drowning deaths,

                  appropriate measures to buffer this condition could be recommended.

                  Although it may not be practical for fishermen to apply all methods,

                  biologists on research vessels, as well as other professional and/or

                  government personnel associated with the fishing industry, could be

                  easily trained and equipped to do so.

                       It is conjectural whether comatose turtles should be held on deck

                  belly up or belly down or whether one position inhibits normal venti-

                  lative movements more than the other.      Former Florida commercial fish-

                  ermen routinely revived "lifeless" turtles by placing them belly down in

                  the bilge of their boat and elevating the posterior end.            Once the

                  turtles became active, they were turned upside down to immobilize them

                  while being held for market.       However, these animals were primarily

                  small, sub-adult green turtles well below 100 pounds.           Historically,

                  mature green turtles were kept alive for long periods of time, belly up

                  in the holds of fishing and transport vessels.        These were primarily

                  large specimens immobilized with their flippers tied together.           Con-

                  versely, captured greens in the Baja California region of Mexico were

                  routinely kept belly down in dry, sandy pens until they were either

                  shipped to canneries or butchered locally.      Research on the physiology

                  of stress and resuscitation technology should be given high priority if

                  we are to develop methods to prevent unnecessary mortalities of inci-

                  dentally captured sea turtles.

                       Up-to-date instructions to southeastern U.S. fishermen regarding

                  recommended procedures for resuscitating sea turtles accidentally caught

                  in an apparent lifeless (comatose) condition have been prepared by NMFS

                                                                                                 64

                      for distribution.    These instructions are temporary and have evolved

                      empirically rather than from scientific facts.

                           A.    When a Sea Turtle is brought on board a fishing vessel (in a

                                 net or on a line), observe it briefly for activity.

                           B.    If the turtle is actively moving, return it to the water

                                 without harm or damage (away from prop, or with vessel in

                                 neutral) in an area where recapture is unlikely.

                           C.    If the turtle is not moving or is apparently lifeless (comatose),

                                 it must be returned to the water, BUT FIRST follow this pro-

                                 cedure:

                                 1.   Place the turtle on its belly (plastron).

                                 2.   Prop up the rear end of the turtle (several inches,

                                      higher up with larger turtles).

                                 3.   Keep the turtle shaded and wet or moist.

                                 4.   If the turtle recovers and begins to move actively, re-

                                      turn it to the water according to instruction B above.

                                 5.   If the turtle does not move within several hours (up to

                                      24, if possible), it is presumed dead.      Then the turtle

                                      must be returned to the water.

                           D.    Important Information:

                                 1.   Sea turtles caught and held under water are physiologi-

                                      cally stressed and often become comatose and apparen-tly

                                      lifeless.  These stressed turtles may appear to be dead,

                                      but death cannot usually be determined by the turtle's

                                      appearance or lack of movement.      When the turtle has a

                                      chance for the lungs to drain, it often recovers to an

                                      active state. This recovery may require one or two or up

                                                                                                65

                                    to 24 hours.    Throwing a comatose turtle into the water

                                    will drown it.

                               2.   Some sea turtles that    are caught in nets or on lines may

                                    have been dead for some time before being brought on

                                    board.   These turtles will usually be extremely bloated

                                    and have a strong and bad smell.         Return them to the

                                    water immediately.

                               3.   All records of captured or killed sea turtles are impor-

                                    tant. Records of loggerhead sea turtles caught (includ-

                                    ing where, when, and how caught and released) should be

                                    kept and made available to scientists upon request.

                               4.   Do not return to dock or shore with any sea turtle on

                                    board without a Federal or State Permit--this is illegal.

                               5.   The above applies to loggerhead sea turtles, the most

                                    common species in U.S. waters.      At present it is illegal

                                    to catch ridley, hawksbill or leatherback sea turtles

                                    and Florida breeding populations of green sea turtles.

                                                                                             66

                      2.5 NESTING BEACH MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

                      Introduction

                           A number of environmental and man-induced influences affect sea

                      turtle eggs and, thus, the recruitment potential for a given beach.

                      Factors affecting hatching success -and possible management techniques

                      for maximizing the reproductive potential of threat      ened and endangered

                      species of sea turtles are reviewed in this section.

                      Physical Environmental Factors Affecting Hatching Success

                           Excessive rainfall floods turtle nests and destroys, eggs (Ragotskie

                      1959, Kraemer and Bell 1980). Ackerman (1975) inferred that heavy rain-

                      fall, even if it does not result in actual flooding of the nest, can

                      affect incubation time and decrease hatching rates by interfering with

                      necessary gas exchange within the nest.       Saltwater inundation of nests

                      by spring or storm driven tides adversely affects egg survival. Salt,

                      per se, may not be toxic to the eggs; deleterious effects may be caused

                      by decreased gaseous diffusion to the nest because of beach waterlogging.

                           Erosion is a serious problem on some high-energy beaches.            Large

                      quantities of partially developed turtle eggs may be washed into the

                      surf when wave action cuts into the beach platform.

                      Biotic Factors Affecting Hatching Success

                           Natural and introduced predators:       A variety of predators such as

                      raccoons,   mongooses,   feral hogs,     peccaries,    dogs,  coyotes,    rats,

                      vultures, coatimundi and ghost crabs prey on the eggs of sea turtles.

                      In addition to the destruction of developing eggs, certain predators may

                                                                                            67

                  take considerable numbers of hatchlings just prior to or upon emergence

                  from the sand.    In remote sections of the Tortuguero beach, the white-

                  lipped peccary is particularly devastating to hatchlings just under the

                  sand's surface prior to emergence (Carr, 1967).

                       High Density Nesting:     On major turtle beaches, the intensity of

                  nesting on certain stretches of beach may be such that many nests are

                  destroyed by the digging activities of subsequent laying females. This

                  is particularly a problem for populations of olive ridley turtles that nest

                  in arribadas.   It is also suggested by Ackerman (1975) that, even when

                  nests are not physically disturbed, gas exchange within nests may be

                  .adversely affected if nests are too close together.       The build up of

                  organic materials in the sand, over time, may increase bacteria and

                  fungi to levels detrimental to embryo survival.

                  Man's Impact

                       EU Collection:     A widespread and serious impact of man on sea

                  turtles is the harvesting of eggs for food or profit.      On some beaches

                  this is an illegal activity, but many important turtle beaches are in

                  remote areas where law enforcement is difficult.       In some areas (i.e.

                  Surinam), the harvesting of eggs is sanctioned and supervised by the

                  government to provide      a   needed protein     source  and traditional

                  subsistence income for local Indians.

                       Heavy Equipment and Foot Traffic:       The use of mechanized beach

                  cleaning equipment, off-road vehicles and heavy human foot traffic poses

                                                                                                68

                      a significant threat to turtle nests on certain Florida beaches.      Mann

                      (1978) found that nests on fine grained beaches were less susceptible to

                      damage from pedestrian and heavy equipment traffic because nest

                      excavations were more resistant to collapse.    Cattleand horses walking

                      on nests may be more deleterious than human foot traffic because of the

                      smaller foot size relative to body weight of the se animals.

                           Beach Nourishment Projects:    Beach nourishment projects may ad-

                      versely affect hatching success.      If conducted during the nesting

                      season, excessive sand may be deposited over existing nests, increasing

                      the difficulty of the hatchling's route to the surface.       Furthermore,

                      gaseous diffusion in the nest is controlled by sand grain size; fine

                      grained sands have the poorest diffusion rates (Ackerman, 1975).       The

                      applied overburden in a beach nourishment project should match the

                      existing substrate on nesting beaches so that nests will not be

                      adversely affected by reduced gas exchange. Additional adverse effects

                      which may potentially result from beach nourishment projects include:

                      (1) scarp development at the edge of the beach fill rendering the beach

                      inaccessible to nesting turtles, (2) entrapment of hatchlings in vehicle

                      tracks, (3) compaction or cementation of beach sediments, (4) altera-

                      tions in moisture levels or other aspects of the micro-habitat within

                      the nest cavity, (5) alteration of unknown beach signature components

                      which may disrupt nest site fidelity, (6) alteration of the native

                      physical beach characteristics (slope, dome shape, etc.) such that

                      nesting attempts are reduced, and (7) the possibility of short repetitive

                      maintenance intervals which could effectively eliminate all natural

                      nesting for a given beach.

                                                                                            69

                  Management Techniques

                       It should be the goal of beach management to maximize reproductive

                  potential of threatened or endangered marine turtles, in a cost-

                  effective manner.    Prior to implementing a management plan, possible

                  adverse effects, such as interference with beach imprinting mechanisms

                  of the hatchlings or alteration of sex ratios, should be thoroughly

                  considered.   The following discussion lists activities that might be

                  used to increase recruitment of hatchlings, with comments on their

                  advantages and disadvantages.

                       Protection of Nests in Situ:    The use of wire enclosures, chemical

                  repellents, and aversion conditioning of predators have been suggested

                  as possible means of preventing predation of turtle nests.           Lithium

                  chloride was not    effective in preventing racoon predation in South

                  Carolina   (Hopkins & Murphy, in press). Only the use of wire screening

                  or enclosures have  been demonstrated to be effective for most types of

                  predators.  Minimal disturbance to nests is the major advantage of this

                  technique. Incubation and hatchling emergence are not affected. It is,

                  however, quite labor intensive, requiring nightly or daily beach patrol

                  as it has been shown that loss to predators is extensive for the first

                  two nights after the eggs are laid. In situ protection is-not effective

                  in preventing losses to erosion and human poaching; however, moving

                  nests a few yards has been successful in detering human poaching.

                       Hatcheries:   Hatcheries have been used for a number of years to

                  prevent predator and erosion losses and provide semi-controlled hatching

                  conditions for sea turtle eggs. Hatcheries are of two basic types: (1)

                                                                                             70

                     those in which eggs are placed in hand-excavated nests in the beach sand

                     within a fenced enclosure and (2) operations using styrofoam boxes or

                     plastic buckets as a substitute nest. Such egg containers are kept in a

                     building, usually at ambient air temperature, although hatching under

                     controlled temperature and humidity has been done.

                          When beach hatcheries are used, incubation and emergence conditions

                     most closely resemble natural nests.      However, they are subject to

                     mortality from excessive rainfall on poorly drained sites.    The use of

                     styrofoam containers, incubated inside of a hatchery building, elim-

                     inates this problem, and operations of this type are capable of con-

                     sistently high hatch rates.   The recently raised question of the effect

                     of incubation temperatures on hatchling sex ratios (Mrosovsky, 1982)

                     should be answered before this method receives wide-spread use. Investi-

                     gation of the temperature modulated sex ratio question should not rely

                     solely on laboratory, constant-temperature incubation experiments (Yntema

                     and Mrosovsky, 1980; Wood & Wood, 1982) but should also include the

                     temperature regime and sex ratio of natural nests (Mrosovsky & Yntema,

                     1980; Morreale et al., 1982; Mrosovsky et al., in press). Determination

                     of in situ hatchling sex ratios and their relationship with environmental

                     parameters may make it possible to adequately control hatchery incubation

                     conditions to produce the desired sex ratios. Work is currently in progress

                     to provide data on natural parameters and resultant sex ratios and should

                     continue until these unknowns are determined.

                                                                                        71

                       Hatchery operations should insure that release of the hatchlings

                  mimics the natural situation as closely as possible, so as not to in-

                  terfere with possible beach imprinting and hatchling dispersal mechan-

                  isms or to attract abnormal numbers of marine predators to the vicinity

                  of the release point.   Hatchlings should be released close to natural

                  emergence times, usually around midnight. Hatchlings should be allowed

                  to crawl a moderate distance to the water, and their release point

                  should be dispersed along the nesting beach.

                       The operation of hatcheries and the protection of nests in situ

                  would be most economically feasible if operated in conjunction with a

                  re search/ tagging project incorporating beach patrols.  This would make

                  optimum use of man-power and insure that the maximum number of nests is

                  found and protected.

                       Predator Reduction Programs:     In ' terms of cost effectiveness,

                  predator reductions would seem the most viable approach to increasing

                  hatchling production on many nesting beaches, particularly if the re-

                  moval operations could be conducted prior to onset of turtle nesting and

                  continued throughout the season as needed. This approach would be effect-

                  ive for animal predators resident to the beach areas and not for opportun-

                  istic arrivals from inland populations, i.e., coyotes and dogs. Predators

                  of the latter type would have to be removed throughout the nesting season.

                       Increased Law Enforcement:    In areas where egg poaching occurs,

                  additional law enforcement activity is needed to reduce illegal egg

                  loss.

                                                                                                     72

                            "Head-Starting" Techniques:      An additional management technique

                      that may be used in certain cases is the rearing of hatchlings under

                      controlled conditions for 6-12 months before 'release, commonly referred

                      to as "head- starting".     The rationale for using this technique is to

                      reduce first year hatchling predation, i.e., holding the animals until

                      they are large enough to be less susceptible to most natural predators.

                      The use of head-starting is a costly program which should only be con-

                      sidered for clearly endangered species such as a Kemp's ridley.

                           Potential Problems Associated With Head-Starting:            Head-starting

                      remains an unproven technique for increasing recruitment to the target

                      population.   There is adequate evidence that head-started turtles can

                      and do survive under natural conditions and become widely dispersed from

                      the release location (Witham, 1976; Witham and Futch, 1977; Witham,

                      1980).    However, there has been no positive return of a head-start

                      turtle to a.nesting beach as a breeding adult, but sufficient time has

                      not elapsed for maturation.      This may be due to deficiencies in present

                      tagging methodology, but head-starting should be considered an experi-

                      mental technique until recruitment of head-started turtles to the

                      breeding population has proven to be greater than that of natural

                      recruitment.    Until then, only a limited percentage of a local popu-

                      lation's annual egg production should be utilized for such experiments.

                      Pritchard has recommended that this percentage be no more than 10%.

                           An understanding of hatchling behavior dispersal patterns and

                      habitat requirements should be known if head-starting is to have a

                                                                                          73

                  reasonable chance of success.   Head-start turtles should be released in

                  areas where turtles of that size normally occur.     Release of yearling_

                  turtles from the nesting beach may be asynchronous with their life

                  cycle, but another choice may not be available if wild stocks of related

                  size cannot be located.   Until the concept of imprinting to the natal

                  beach is resolved, the potential of "head- starting" to disrupt this

                  process must be considered.    Several currently employed methodologies

                  which address this problem are as follows:

                       1.  Incubate transferred eggs in sand taken from the natal beach.

                       2.  Allow emerging hatchlings to descend the natal beach and enter

                       the water before transferring them to headstart facilities.

                       3.  Allow yearling headstart turtles to descend the beach at time

                       of release.

                       Rearing head-start turtles under high-density culture conditions

                  makes these animals susceptible to group contamination and mortality

                  from a variety of disease organisms, another reason for committing only

                  a small percentage of annual egg production to head-starting.

                  Facilities for conducting head-starting should have an adequate supply

                  of clean sea water, either a high volume flow-through system or a closed

                  or semi-closed system with treatment and filtration.       -A system for

                  isolating and treating diseased animals should be available, and the

                  services of a veterinary pathologist are desirable for disease diagnosis

                  and treatment.

                                                                                                   74

                      2.6 HYPOTHERMIC STUNNING AND PETROLEUM IMPACTS

                      2.6.1. Hypothermic Stunning

                            Marine turtles in the bays, sounds and lagoons of the eastern

                      U.S. are infrequently stunned by low water temperatures during periods

                      of extremely harsh winter weather.         Kemp's ridleys and occasionally

                      other species are found in a cold stunned condition in winter in the New

                      England area. Turtles may drown or die of exposure to the elements when

                      in this condition.    The species perhaps most severely affected by these

                      conditions in Florida is Chelonia mydas.        The loss of relatively few

                      individuals may be significant because its numbers are so low in

                      U.S. waters.     Although the need will be extremely infrequent, the

                      small U.S. populations of the species dictate the need for organized

                      rescue efforts.    Procedures set forth below are addressed to Chelonia

                      mydas but can be applied to other species of cold-stunned marine turtles.

                            Dealing With One or a Few Individuals

                            1)  Immerse the animal in fresh or salt water to about half shell

                      depth.

                            2)  Support the head slightly so that it is roughly in alignment

                      with longitudinal axis of the body (water will bathe the underside of

                      the head but not cover the mouth).

                            3)  Allow the animal to warm gradually, preferrably to 15-17'C.

                      Higher temperatures will cause increased activity and create the need

                      for feeding.    Ordinarily, confinement should be of short duration and

                      feeding should not be necessary.

                            4) Replace the water daily or when it becomes soiled.

                                                                                         75

                       5) Release the turtle to the wild when water temperatures in the

                  habitat approach 15'C (green turtles have been known to survive and

                  thrive when released into water at 13*C).

                       Massive Cold-stunning Episodes

                       1)  Subdivisions of the various state natural resource (conser-

                  vation) agencies charged with responsibility for sea turtles should be

                  aware that abnormally harsh winter weather can cause marine turtles to

                  be stunned and killed by low water temperatures.

                       2)  A procedure for monitoring and reporting water temperatures

                  during extended cold spells should be established.

                       3)  If water temperature falls to the 9-11*C range or lower on two

                  successive nights, officers and agents on routine patrol should be

                  alerted to the possibility that turtles may be stunned and begin to

                  float at the surface.    Additional reconnaissance should be arranged

                  where personnel and vehicles are available.

                       4)  If stunned turtles are sighted and if overnight temperatures

                  continue in the 9-11'C range or lower, systematic reconnaissance of the

                  affected waters should be organized.   This can be done by boat and from

                  shore (the wind drives the immobilized animals against the leeward

                  shore) but aerial reconnaissance is the most effective method for

                  .locating turtles where large numbers are involved. Stunned turtles are

                  generally visible from the air, and locations can be transmitted to

                  surface vehicles to facilitate retrieval.   Stunned turtles may drown or

                  succumb to exposure if not rescued.

                       5)  Where possible, rescued turtles 'should be taken to local

                  aquariums or other institutions with facilities for handling marine

                                                                                               76

                      vertebrates.   In most cases such facilities will be unavailable.         In

                      such cases the turtles can be kept on their backs or upright in         open

                      shade or indoors for two or three days.      They should be splashed   with

                      water f requently.   If possible, they should be held at temperatures

                      ranging from 15'C to 17*C, for reasons given above.

                           6)   On about the third day evidence of dehydration (especially

                      wrinkling of the plastron scutes) appears and, if confinement continues

                      much beyond that length of time, arrangements should be made to permit

                      total immersion of the animals in a pond, swimming pool or other water-

                      filled enclosure.   Plans for the recapture and removal of the animals

                      (feasibility of draining, availability of capture nets, etc.) should be

                      made prior to their introduction to the enclosure.       The water can be

                      fresh or saline and, again, temperatures in the 150-170C range are

                      desirable.

                           7) As above, turtles should be recaptured and released when tem-

                      peratures in the natural habitat approach 151C.

                      2.6.2. Petroleum and Petroleum Residue Impacts

                          Sea turtles of most species have been adversely impacted by

                      petroleum and its tar residue (Witham, 1978 unpublished data; Fritts and

                      McGehee, 1982). The affected turtles found on Florida beaches have been

                      in the 7.5 to 15.0 cm carapace length range. Turtles, being non-selective

                      feeders, ingest floating tar. While the immediate effect of ingesting tar

                      appears to be mechanical in that it seals the mouth shut and may clog the

                      nostrils, the crude oil phase may have a toxic effect.

                          Most of the petroleum impacted turtles have been found on beaches.

                      They apparently become comatose, float at the surface and are carried

                                                                                  It-.

                                                                                                77

                   ashore by prevailing winds and currents. It is likely that some may die

                   at sea after being impacted, should winds and currents carry them away

                   from beaches.     Cooperating agencies, organizations and individuals

                   should be alerted to this type of impact and be ready to rescue turtles

                   as needed.

                        Tar impacted turtles, if recovered soon enough, are amenable to

                   treatment, but it is not known if those impacted by liquid oil can be

                   treated.   1) Excess tar should be gently scraped off.     The residual tar

                   or oil can be removed from the body and mouth by using vegetable oil,

                   mineral oil or a mechanic's waterless hand cleaner.      2) A cotton tipped

                   swab should be used to clean the mouth, and care should be taken to

                   determine that the nostrils are clear.      3) After cleaning with one or

                   another of these materials, the turtle(s) should be rinsed with a mild

                   detergent, followed by a clean water rinse. 4) If the turtle(s) appear

                   to have swallowed-any of the petroleum, a small dose (1-2 ml) of mineral

                   oil may be administered. 5) Following cleaning, the turtle(s) should be

                   kept in an aquarium until they have fully recovered and are actively

                   feeding and swimming before being released.

                                                                                                  78

                      2.7 PUBLIC EDUCATION

                           The wide distribution of     the six specie's of marine turtles       con-

                      sidered in the Recovery Plan      and the relatively few law enforcement

                      agents stationed throughout the management area, necessitate a volun-

                      tary effort on the part of the public to reduce detrimental human/

                      turtle interactions.    Most people will show concern for a threatened or

                      an endangered species and will take appropriate action not to harm it if

                      they are given an appropriate action to take.        Thus, an aware and en-

                      lightened public is important to the recovery of marine turtles.

                           This section addresses the informational needs for recovery and the

                      various modes by which this information can be transferred to the public

                      at large and to special interest groups.           Terrestrial and pelagi     c

                      aspects of sea turtle management are discussed with regard to these

                      individual groups, along with suggestions for reaching them through re-

                      sponsible agencies and private organizations.       Some of these needs have

                      already been met during the course of preparing this plan.

                      Terrestrial Aspects

                           A majority of human/turtle interactions occur on the nesting

                      beaches because turtles nest in temperate regions during the high use

                      summer season or in tropical regions where beach use can be high all

                      year.   Permanent beach residents could provide a core group to

                      disseminate information to reduce the negative impacts of turtle/human

                      interactions on the beach.     These adverse impacts may be caused- by the

                      residents themselves, by transient renters, or indirectly from lights

                      and sea walls.   There is also a need to create an attitude among beach

                                                                                             79

                  users which will result in involvement in the prevention or prosecution

                  of violations.

                  Modes of implementation: The following are suggested procedures for

                  public education:

                        1.   Displays at visitor centers in national and sta     te parks and

                             refuges.

                        2.   Signs posted at beach access points and near nesting areas.

                        3.   Posters at shopping centers, real estate offices, and in beach

                             rental units.

                        4.   Public service announcements on T.V., radio, newspapers, maga-

                             zines or bumper stickers.

                        5.   Sanctuary signs at town limits.

                        6.   Turtle patrols for the non-technical monitoring of strandings

                             through organized stranding networks.

                        7.   Speakers bureaus,   including movies and slides for school and

                             civic groups.

                        8.   Brochures for beach users, both permanent residents and

                             transients.    These brochures should contain the following

                             information:

                             a)   Beach use and its effects on nesting females, nests and

                                  hatchlings.

                             b)   Beach alteration and its effect on nesting females, nests

                                  and hatchlings.

                             c)   The detrimental effect of trade in turtle products.

                             d)   Identification of degree of threat, reasons for threat-

                                  ened or endangered status and value of the species.

                                                                                                      80

                                  e)   Prohibited acts and reporting of violations (See section

                                       11321C in loggerhead stepdown plan).

                            The modes of implementation should be conducted by Fish and Wild-

                      life Service, National Park Service, National Marine Fisheries Services,

                      state agencies, non-governmental organizations and schools.           Assistance

                      could be provided by Youth Conservation Corps, Young Adult Conservation

                      Corps and interested civic groups and private organizations.

                      Marine Aspects

                            Incidental catch, boat collisions, and malicious target shooting

                      are sources of negative human/turtle interactions in the marine environ-

                      ment. Some may be more serious than others, depending upon the specific

                      area and species involved.       There is a need to inform the commercial

                      fisheries sector on the causes and significance of incidental take

                      mortality.     Information on gear modifications, resuscitation and

                      handling techniques, new rules and regulations and reporting i         ncidental

                      catches need to be made available to commerical fishermen (See Section

                      2.4).    There is also a need to educate the boating public to reduce

                      mortality from collisions and firearms.

                      Mode of implementation:

                            1.    Posters and brochures provided to all commercial fishermen.

                            2.    Incidental catch logs provided on selected boats in commerc-ial

                                  fleets.

                            3.    Speakers' bureau to explain and/or demonstrate new gear or

                                  regulations.

                                                                                         81

                       4.  Post signs on speed limits in areas where necessary.

                       The majority- of implementations would be by NMFS and state

                 agencies.

                 General Public

                       There is a need to raise the awareness of the public at large to

                 the plight of marine turtles.    Broad-based public support by non-user

                 groups, as well as those with direct contact, is needed to attain the

                 support necessary for recovery.   This same support is needed to reduce

                 fashion acceptance and provide peer pressure against the commerciali-

                 zation of turtle products.

                 Modes of implementation:

                       1.  Full color identification poster of all marine turtlespecies.

                       2.  Displays at state museums and at the Smithsonian Institution.

                       3.  Displays at the new National Aquarium in Baltimore. Displays

                           at the Miami Seaquarium and Sea World, Orlando are good ex-

                           amples.

                       4.  Displays at airports and cruise ship terminals to make

                           tourists aware of illegal turtle products and the penalties

                           for importation of these products.    These displays should be

                           bilingual (English and Spanish).

                       5.  Brochures provided on airlines and cruise ships with similar

                           information.

                       6.  A series of marine turtle stamps issued by the U.S. Post

                           Office.

                       7.  Turtle "awareness" months declared by state governments.

                       8.  Programs by private organizations, such as National Wildlife

                                                                                              82

                                Week; TV spots featuring marine turtles; booklets for school

                                distribution.

                           9.   Other agencies 'within the context of this plan should be

                                encouraged to develop similar information campaigns.       These

                                modes of implementation could be. conducted by N ational Marine

                                Fisheries Service, Fish and Wildlife Se   rvice, State Depart-

                                ment, Customs Service, Post Office and private organizations.

                           The ideas presented here should not be regarded as the only means

                      to bring about education and public awareness.    Each agency or private

                      group should call upon the talents of its own personnel for developing

                      materials in its particular area or targeted at a particular interest

                      group.

                                                                                          83

                  2.8 UNITED STATES FEDERAL LAW

                  1.   Endangered Species Act of 1973 as ammended (ESA)

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The ESA is federal legislation which provides for acquisition and/or

                  protection of turtle nesting habitat, for turtle protection and for funding

                  of sea turtle research and protection through cooperative agreements with

                  the states. The ESA also protects endangered and threatened species from

                  import, export, sale, offer for sale, take, transport, etc.     The only

                  exemptions to the above for endangered species are for scientific research

                  and enhancement of survival of the species.      For threatened species

                  exemptions include scientific research, enhancement of survival of the

                  species, zoological exhibition, educational purposes, and special

                  purposes that are consistent with the Act. All species of sea turtles,

                  except the Australian flatback are protected in the United States under

                  the ESA.

                       The ESA is one of the most advanced statutory statements of en-

                  vironmental ethic in the world.     Fully utilized in conjunction with

                  other USA statutes, state statutes, and international agreements which

                  the U.S. has ratified,    it provides a solid legal basis for U.S. re-

                  covery activities (See p. 1).

                  2.   Pelly Amendment to the Fisherman's Protective Act

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The importance of this statute is that it provides economic sanc-

                  tions for the U.S. Government to use in trying to influence other govern-

                                                                                            84

                     ments to conduct f ishing operations in a manner which will not decrease

                     the effectiveness of an international fi  shery program.   This includes

                     not only programs for the conservation of fish but also those pertaining

                     to any "living resource of the sea."

                          Implementation:

                          Although this act has not been invoked, the threat of its use has been

                     an effective tool in support of cetacean conservation.

                          Actions Required:

                          The Departments of Commerce and/or Interior should recommend use of

                     the Pelly Amendment to the President, when appropriate, to insure that

                     Parties to the international agreements comply with stated or implied

                     agreement objectives to protect endangered and threatened species of sea

                     turtles.

                     3.   Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972

                          Scope and Provisions:

                          The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was enacted to encourage and

                     assist coastal states and territories in dealing with the increasing and

                     competing demands for the use of the Nation's coastal resources. The Act

                     has as its objective "to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible,

                     to restore or enhance the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this

                     and succeeding generations."    To achieve this objective, it provides

                     federal financial and technical assistance to coastal state and territorial

                                                                                             85

                  governments to establish and administer Coastal Zone Mangement (CZM)

                  programs that meet federal objectives, including protection of natural

                  resources.

                        Implementations:

                        All 35 coastal states and territories have participated in the CZM

                  program.   Of these, 28 have federally-approved management programs and

                  one, Virginia, is expected to submit a program for approval in FY -1984.

                        Required Actions:

                        The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration should encourage

                  coastal states and territories with f ede ral ly- approved CZM programs to

                  develop and implement measures to protect sea turtle nesting areas and

                  foraging water areas within their coastal zones.

                  4.    Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976

                        Scope and Provisions:

                        It establishes an exclusive fishery conservation zone 200 miles

                  wide.   The Act asserts exclusive management authority in the zone over

                  fish and "all other forms of marine life..."         The Act permits, on a

                  discretionary basis, gear restrictions, area closures, and limitations

                  on incidental catch.

                        Implementation:

                        Some fishery Management Plans have been produced for the Plan area.

                        Actions Required: Department of Commerce

                        Fishery Management Plans could be amended to incorporate TED use,

                  area closures, etc.

                                                                                               86

                      5.   Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

                           Scope and Provisions:

                           The objective of the Act is to create marine sanctuaries out of

                      water areas above the continental shelf, out to the edge of the con-

                      tinental shelf, for the purpose of preserving or restoring such areas

                      for their conservation, recreational, ecological, or aesthetic values.

                           Implementation:

                           Three sanctuaries have been designated which potentially protect sea

                      turtle habitat, including the Key Largo and Looe Key Sanctuaries of Florida

                      and Gray's Reef Sanctuary of Georgia. La Parguera, Puerto Rico is proposed

                      for designation as a marine sanctuary.

                           Action Required:

                           The Department of Commerce should continue to use the sea turtle

                      habitat protection potential of the Act to establish protection for the

                      sea turtles in areas of high concentration as well as foraging areas.

                      6.   The Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965

                           Scope and Provisions:

                           Although originally designed for generating and distributing re-

                      venues for outdoor recreation purposes, it has funded many projects of

                      substantial benefit to wildlife.    A substantial amount of the funding

                      for the Fish and Wildlife Services land aquisition program for endan-

                      gered and threatened species has come from this source.

                           Actions Required:

                           The Department of the Interior should make maximum use of this Act

                      to provide funds to aquire land and water areas needed as protection for

                      sea turtles.  Funds provided to coastal states under this Act should be

                      similarly used.

                                                                                         87

                  7.   The National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 and

                       -the Refuge Recreation Act of 1972

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The Act of 1966 consolidated all of the various federal wildlife

                  refuges into a single system.   It left unchanged the Act of 1962 which

                  authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to acquire and protect land for

                  the conservation of threatened and endangered species.

                       Actions Required:

                       The Department of the Interior should utilize the provision of

                  these Acts, as appropriate to acquire and protect sea turtle nesting

                  habitat.

                  8.   Statutes of Coastal States in the Plan Area, Puerto Rico and U.S.

                       Virgin Islands

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       It is recommended that legislation be reviewe.d for possible

                  strengthening to improve habitat protection and management.

                       Action Required:

                       Departments of Commerce and Interior, in cooperation with the

                  states, should make an inventory of states' statutes, to identify gaps

                  in state legislation.

                  9.   Lacey Act Amendments of 1981

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The Lacey Act is a catchall federal statute which makes it unlaw-

                  ful to import, export, transport, sell, etc., in interstate or foreign

                                                                                           88

                     commerce any unlawfully taken, transported or acquired wildlife. These

                     prohibitions apply to violations of federal, state or foreign laws. The

                     statute also makes it unlawful to transport any wildlife taken in violation

                     of any federal law.  In this case, no interstate commerce is required.

                          Action Required:

                          U.S. Customs Service and the Departments of Commerce and Interior

                     should make maximum use of this Act to curtail the unlawful importation

                     of sea turtle products.

                                                                                         89

                                                     3.1

     I                                LOGGERHEAD TURTLE RECOVERY PLAN

                                                                                            90

                                                  INTRODUCTION

                         One of the world's largest concentrations of loggerheads (Caretta

                    caretta) nests on the beaches. of the southeastern U.S.(Ross, 1982).

                    Major nesting concentrations may be- found on the coastal islands of

                    North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia and on the Atlantic and

                    Gulf coasts of southern Florida.     In addition, scattered examples of

                    loggerhead nesting are found north to New Jersey and along most of the

                    Gulf and Caribbean shoreline.

                         The life cycle of a loggerhead, like other species of sea turtles,

                    is easy to conceptualize (Figure 1) but difficult to measure.        Adult

                    females appearing on nesting beaches from May through August can be

                    counted and tagged.   Tagging studies reveal that some females, restrict

                    their nesting activity to a few kilometers of "home" nesting beach.

                    They lay from one to seven clutches of eggs per season (average of two

                    clutches) at approximately 13-day intervals and females usually return

                    to nest on 2-year and 3-year intervals. However, small percentages nest

                    either annually or at intervals greater than three years. An average

                    clutch contains approximately 120 eggs, although individual clutches

                    will commonly vary from 60 to 180 eggs.

                         A well drained dune with clean sand and scattered grassy vegetation

                    provides an ideal nest site.     If the eggs escape predation and con-

                    ditions remain sufficiently stable to allow for a 60-day incubation

                    period, hatchlings will emerge and crawl to the sea, usually during

                                                                                       91

                 Figure 1. Schematic drawing of loggerhead life cycle stages partitioned

                 according to terrestrial and pelagic phases.

                                                                                   92

                                         TERRESTRIAL
                                              STAGES

                                                NESTS

                                                                        HATCHLINGS

                      NESTING
                     FEMALES

                                                                             HATCHLINGS

                     ADULT
                    FEMAL S

                 ADULT                                               EARLY
                 MALES               sue-                          JUVENILE
                                  ADULTS AND                        STAGES
                                  IMMATURES

                                             PELAGIC
                                              STAGES

                                                                                           93

                  hours of darkness. The majority of hatchlings from a normal nest emerge

                  as a group from the nest cavity within a period of two to three minutes.

                  This onset and continuation of frenzied departure activity may be

                  critical to the timing of life cycle events; hatchlings restrained

                  during the evening hours and released the following day may suffer a

                  reduction in fitness and in survival potential. Early morning releases

                  may increase the predation hazard.

                       The terrestrial stage of the loggerhead life cycle ends when the

                  hatchlings enter the sea and contact with them and associated management

                  options are reduced. Most hatchlings apparently become pelagic, because

                  loggerheads smaller than 50cm are rarely seen on the U.S. coast.      The

                  occurrence of juveniles smaller than this category in eastern North Atlantic

                  waters indicates a dispersed, pelagic existence during the "lost years".

                       Turtles, with a carapace length of 50-90 cm, common in coastal U.S.

                  waters from April to October and year-round in Florida, are presumed to

                  be the hatchlings reappearing from their "lost years." However, there

                  is no measure of the years required for a hatchling to reach this size.

                  Furthermore, a subadult cannot be identified with its natal beach. For

                  example, the majority of subadults on the South Carolina coast may

                  represent recruitment from Florida rookery beaches or -South Carolina

                  beaches or both.    Finally it is not known if hatchlings return as

                  adults to nest at their natal beach. For these reasons, the loggerhead

                  life cycle has not been quantified.     Our understanding of loggerhead

                  population dynamics must improve before we can predict population re-

                  sponses.

                                                                                                     94

                            The loggerhead recovery plan identifies some possible mortality

                       factors. At some future date, sustainable losses may become predictable

                       and manageable, and the loggerhead may be removed from threatened

                       status.   Until then, known mortality factors must be mitigated until

                       their individual and collective effects on population numbers can be

                       measured.   A series of potential indices of population numbers and

                       vitality  (numbers of nesting females, numbers of hatchlings per kilo-

                       meter of nesting beach, numbers of subadult carcasses appearing on

                       beaches, etc.) should be monitored.     Taken collectively, they represent

                       the best available approach to measuring loggerhead population vitality

                       and response to management efforts.

                                                                                         95

                 Introduction to the Loggerhead Stepdown Plan

                      For the loggerhead, there are four major components in the stepdown

                 plan, shown on the following page.    These components are: terrestrial

                 limiting factors, monitoring of beaches, marine limiting factors, and

                 monitoring at sea.   Sections of the flow diagram are combined with each

                 section of the stepdown plan to give a more cohesive presentation of the

                 loggerhead turtles' problems and their solutions.     The final level of

                 the flow diagram is the "action needed" box.     Each of these boxes is

                 then elaborated in the stepdown plan with specific recommendations

                 Rj=.    While this is not the usual way stepdown plans are shown, the

                 Team feels this will reduce repetition and be clearer to the reader.

                 The Implementation Schedule places priorities at the level of the

                 "action needed" boxes.

                                         1. Primary Objective: To prevent further declines
                                                               in green turtle stocks by
                                                               reducing limiting factors
                                                               and to effect an upward
                                                               trend in monitored stocks of
                                                               nesting females

               Mitigate factors affecting                                             14. Assess and monitor population
               terrestrial mortality and/                                                  levels in estuaries and
               or stress                                                                   marine waters

                           12. Assess and monitor population         13. Mitigate factors affecting estuarine
                                levels on beaches                         and marine mortality and/or stress

                                                                                                                11.   Mitigate factors affecting
                                                                                                                      terrestrial mortality an
                                                                                                                      or stress
                                                                                F

                                                                                  alterat                                                                                112. Predation

                                                         F                                                                                                    1121.   Natural         1122.   Feral
                                                 1111.    atural                             1112. Man-induced

                                                                                                                                                         11211. Implement nest    protection commensurate
                                                                                                                                                                   with
                          F                                                                                                                                            degree of  predation
                     Sand accumulation                                     11113. Vegetatio

                                         111111. Manage natural beat

                                                                                       Pollution           11122. Deve

                                                  111211.   Regulate petrochemical industry               111221.  Regulate lights, ORV's, foot
                                                            and bilge pumping                                      traffic, beach cleaning equip-                                113.  Human take
                                                                                                                   ment, sea walls and rip rap,
                                                                                                                   grains and Jetties, and beach
                                                                                                                   nourishment projects
                                                                                                           F222.      Inform and educate beat
                                                                                                                      users and residen ts                   1131                                1132. illegal take

                                                                                                                                                               lie               11321. Incr&ase active law enforcement
                                                                                                              11311.   Promote legal protection throughou   t t                         to prevent illegal harves  t
                                                                                                                       range of the species by encouraging
                                                                                                                       protective management by means of treaties,
                                                                                                                       conventions, or councils with other nations

                                                                                                    98

                                                Loggerhead - Stepdown Plan

                                  Primary Objective:   To maintain the loggerhead population at

                                  current levels by reducing limiting factors until a stable or

                                  upward trend can be determined, based on the quantitative

                                  criteria listed in the plan.

                                  Mitigate   factors   affecting   terrestrial   mortality     and/or

                                  stress.

                                  Manage natural beaches.

                                  Natural processes on some beaches may prove to be a signi-

                                  ficant source of mortality to nests in the range of the logger-

                                  head.

                                  A.   Assess the vulnerability of nests.

                                  B.   If nest sites are poor (below the MHW line, on the edge

                                       of scarped dunes, in vegetation or in swales with poor

                                       drainage), then nests may be transferred to a better site

                                       or to a hatchery (see section 2.5).

                                  C.   Natural sand accumulation is not considered a significant

                                       factor.

                                  Certain forms of exotic vegetation (e.g., Casuarina) present

                                  problems for nesting beach habitat management.          They form

                                  impenetrable root mats which prevent nest cavity excavation.

                                  D.   Remove trees from potential nest sites on important

                                       nesting beaches.

                                  E.   Prevent further spread by removing seedlings and by dis-

                                       couraging plantings.

                                                                                                   99

                              F.    Maintain all undeveloped beaches, currently used for

                                    nesting, in a natural condition.

                   111211.    Regulate petrochemical industry and bilae pumping.

                              Nesting beaches are susceptible to oil spills from tankers

                              and from bilge pumping offshore.        This problem could become

                              more serious if Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil production

                              is begun on the southeast embayment.

                              A.    Conduct research to determine effects of petrochemical

                                    spills, clean up methods (including detergents) and bilge

                                    effluents on developing eggs.

                              B.    Establish a monitoring program to document spills.         (See

                                    green turtle stepdown plan).

                              C.    Incorporate turtle nests into spill contingency planning

                                    by federal and state agencies, including effects of

                                    detergents. (See green turtle stepdown plan).

                   111221.    Regulate lights, ORV's, foot traffic, beach cleaning equip-

                              ment, sea walls and rip rap, groins and jetties, and beach

                              nourishment projects.

                              Lights disorient hatchlings and cause them not to reach the

                              sea, and lights may discourage adults from nesting.

                              A.    Determine effects of various wavelengths of lights,

                                    screening devices and light intensities on hatchling

                                    behavior.

                              B.    Prohibit lights on undeveloped beaches, and     develop means

                                    of screening already installed lights.

                              C.    Restrict use of beach lights during the nesting and

                                    hatching seasons.

                                                                                                    100

                                 D.    Develop hatchling rescue contingency plans with agencies,

                                       organizations, or individuals in areas where hatchlings

                                       are likely to become disoriented.

                                 ORV's, foot traffic and beach cleaning equipment compact sand,

                                 crush nests and make ruts which can trap hatchlings.

                                 E.    Restrict ORV's and beach cleaning equipment on nesting

                                       beaches during the nesting and hatching seasons.

                                 F.    Transfer nests to a better site or to a hatchery if

                                       protection of natural nests is impossible (see section

                                       2-5).

                                 Sea walls and rip rap prevent adults from nesting by destroy-

                                 ing the dune system and by eliminating access to nest sites.

                                 G.    Prohibit the construction of sea walls and rip rap on

                                       important nesting beaches.

                                 Groins, jetties, and wave attenuation breakwaters, including

                                 spoil areas, divert currents and restrict natural sand move-

                                 ment.   This could alter the suitability and accessibility of

                                 nesting beaches.      There is also considerable interest in

                                 attempting to control beach erosion by the use of wave

                                 attenuation    techniques.     These   techniques    may    include

                                 plastic   seaweed,   or,   conceivably,   "hard" materials such

                                 as concrete.     Each suggested material should be evaluated

                                 for its possible impact upon sea turtles.            Impact might

                                 involve eating, attempting to eat, or becoming a physical

                                 barrier to beach access.

                                                                                          101

                            H.   Careful evaluation of these effects should precede the

                                 permitting and construction of such structures.

                            Beach nourishment is conducted by two means:           hydraulic

                            pumping and mechanical transfer of sand with heavy equipment.

                            Pumping conducted during the nesting season smothers nests.

                            Sand removal may be detrimental if its source degrades adja-

                            cent nesting areas.   Hydraulic pumping may create or improve

                            nesting beaches; however, this activity is not advocated.

                            Sand-moving equipment used to maintain artifical dunes can

                            disrupt existing nests or result in an excessive overburden

                            over others.

                            1.   Prohibit to the extent possible all beach nourishment

                                 projects on nesting beaches during the nesting and hatching

                                 season.

                            J.   Evaluate sites of sand source so as to avoid detrimental

                                 effects on the nourished and adjacent nesting beaches.

                            K.   Determine the suitability of replacement sand for nest-

                                 ing, and modify texture and cohesive nature if necessary.

                            L.   Maintain or enhance all currently used nesting beaches.

                            M.   If prohibition of beach nourishment is impossible, relocate

                                 eggs to a safe area or hatchery.

                  111222.   Inform and educate beach users and residents. (see section 2.7)

                                                                                                    102

                       11211.     Implement nest protection commensurate with degree of pre-

                                  dation.

                                  Predation on nests and hatchlings varies in severity through-

                                  out the range of the species.       Research or management plans

                                  should address specific predators and intensity of predation.

                                  A.   Quantify the nature and extent of predation on major

                                       nesting beaches.

                                  B.   Design and implement plans to*mitigate nest losses to

                                       predators.    Management might include screening, aversion

                                       conditioning, hatcheries, nest transplants or predator

                                       reduction programs.      Utilize approved nest management

                                       techniques (see section 2.5).

                       11311.     Promote legal protection throughout the range of the species

                                  by encouraging protective management by means of treaties,

                                  conventions, or councils with other nations (see 1.2, 2.8

                                  and 4.4).

                       11321.     Increase active law enforcement to prevent illegal harvest.

                                  At this time, Federal law enforcement efforts are strained to

                                  cover needs throughout the'range of the species. More coordi-

                                  nation with state law enforcement agencies could alleviate

                                  this strain.

                                  A.   Determine through surveillance and undercover operations

                                       the areas and extent of illegal take of eggs and adult

                                       turtles.

                                                                                       103

                         B.   Schedule basic law enforcement actions (night patrols,

                              daytime patrols, aerial patrols, cooperative patrols with

                              other agencies) to curtail illegal activity.

                         C.   Conduct public relations campaigns with other agencies to

                              publicize the laws and the status of turtles (see section

                              2.7).

                                                                                             104

                              12. Assess and monitor population
                                   levels on beaches

              121. Beach recruitment                    122. Nesting      and/
                                                              or nests

                 1211. Determine
                      productivity

                                          1221. Tag or mark         1222. Count nests by aerial
                                                 adult                     or ground'surveys

                                                                                             105

                   12.        Assess and monitor turtle population levels on beaches.

                   1211.      Determine productivity.

                              An important segment of loggerhead life history is the two

                              month incubation period which begins with the laying of the

                              eggs and ends with the departure of the hatchlings to the

                              ocean. Unlike most of a sea turtle's life history, incubation

                              can be monitored easily. The minimum desirable production for

                              a nesting beach should be:      50% of the nests to hatch, and of

                              these nests, 70% hatchability overall.

                              A.   Establish reasonably limits for area (km of beach) and/or

                              size (numbers of nests) of the proposed monitoring program.

                              B.   Mark experimental nests.

                              C.   Evaluate productivity based on above goal.

                   1221.      Tag or mark adult females.

                   A.   Undertake tagging programs for nesting loggerheads

                        following recommendations in Sections 2.1 and 2.2.

                              B.   Establish limits for the sample area and conduct surveys

                                   of nesting females (see section 2.1 - tagging programs of

                                   nesting females).

                              C.   Employ the best available tagging technology (see section

                                   2.2 - tagging technology).

                              D.   Continue    replicate surveys for a minimum of six

                                   consecutive years.

                   1222.      Count nests by aerial or ground surveys.

                              There is no established format at the present moment for an

                              aerial survey which will produce a statistically quantitative

                              measure of nesting turtles and/or nests.         There is, however,

                                                                                                    106

                       no other reasonable method for obtaining a first approximation of these

                       data   for   extended    areas   of   coastline.    (See   Section 2.1      for

                       standardization of methodology).        Accurate' ground nest counts along

                       selected portions of beach are probably the best low cost means of

                       estimating population numbers. Ground counts also provide the essential

                       ground truth data for quantifying aerial surveys.

                                  A.   Select survey area and survey schedule (see section 2.1 -

                                       survey of nesting activity).

                                  B.   Monitor nesting activity each season, and replicate sur-

                                       veys for a minimum of six (6) consecutive seasons.

                                  C.   Use running 3-year average to determine changes in nest-

                                       ing effort.

                                                                                                       Mi7i It. factors affecti            ea
                                                      131. Habitat alteration                            d_.9:1i.e mortality and,or sLiess
                                                                                                                                                                    132. Human take

                            1311. Physical alteration                          1312. Chemical alteratiod

                             F_
                     13111. Natural                 M n-induced                                                                          1321. Di ected take

                  131111. Cold-stunn7lg
                                                                     13121. Regulate petrochemical industry, bilge
                                                                            pumping and industrial effluents
        [1311-111. Develop contingency plans
                     to prevent nortality
                                                                                                     13211. Promote legal protection throughout    the               1322. Incid:ntal and
                                                                                                              range of the species by encouraging  pro-                      accidental take
                                                                                                              tective management by means of treaties,
                             131121. Regulate spoil dumping, oil  development                                 convention, or councils with other nations
                                      sea floor mining, and trawler tows and
                                      any other activities which would cause                                                                                                  Boat c
                                      deterioration of essential habitat                                                                                             13223.
                                                                            F_                                                                                    r 132231.Regulate boat N@sp-ed
                                                            F
                                                              13221,  Fixed gear and  lr_p@_                        13222. Towed 9
                                                                _

                                                                                                                                                    13224. Entrainment in ind                                  nt by
                                                                                                                                                            water intakes                              dragheads
                                                                                                                                                                                              F 322 5. 'Entrapme
                                                                                  F32211. Regulate fishing methods,
                                                                           T131;2 @Chemi     gear, areas and seasons
                                                                                                   77
                                                                                       1322111. Educate and info                                                     132241. Investigate and implement
                                                                                                 fishermen                                                                   meanr of mitigating mortality
                                                                                                                                                                             from dragheads and Industrial
                                                                                                                                                                             water intazes

                                                                                                 108

                               Mitigate factors affecting estuarine and marine mortality

                               and/or stress.

                    1311111.   Develop contingency plans to prevent'cold-stunning mortality

                               (see section 2.6).

                    131121.    Regulate spoil dumping, oil development, sea floor mining,

                               and trawler tows and any other activities which would cause

                               deterioration of essential habitat.

                               Spoil disposal and oil development, if done on live bottom

                               habitats, may destroy turtle feeding areas by smothering the

                               benthic organisms with sediments and drilling muds.

                               A.    Evaluate disposal sites of these materials to avoid live

                                     bottom habitats.

                               Sea floor mining and trawler gear may disrupt the configura-

                               tion of bottom relief, thus destroying cover, loafing and

                               feeding areas.

                               B.    Locate areas of high turtle utilization that are vulner-

                                     able to destruction.

                               C.    Regulate or prohibit these activities on essential habi-

                                     tat.

                    13121.     Regulatepetrochemical industry, bilge pumping, and industrial

                               effluents.

                               Compounds associated with these sources of pollution could

                               affect turtles directly or indirectly through the food chain.

                               These effects can be insidious and difficult to prove, since

                               they often result in reduced reproductive effort.          Mortality

                               is also difficult to detect in the open ocean and impossible

                               to quantify.

                                                                                              109

                             A.   Determine the affects of sewage and industrial effluents,

                                  both chronic and acute, on turtles.

                             B.   Regulate effluent dumping in estuarine and pelagic areas

                                  of high turtle utilization.

                             C.   Encourage enforcement of provisions of Laws of the Sea

                                  regarding  oceanic pollution and dumping.

                  13211.     Promote legal protection throughout the range of the species

                             by encouraging protective management by means of treaties,

                             conventions or councils with other nations (see sections 1.2,

                             2.8 and 4.4).

                  132211.    Regulate fishing methodsi gear, areas and seasons.

                             Incidental take of marine turtles during commercial fishing

                             activities has been identified as a cause of mortality.

                             Towed gear, Fixed gear and Traps

                             A. Develop resuscitation, handling and relocation methodology

                                  for incidentally caught turtles and implement by rule and

                                  regulation (see Section 2.4),

                             B.   Investigate and implement fishing methodologies, such as

                                  reduced tow time, or curtailment of night fishing, to

                                  mitigate mortality if TED is not used.

                             C.   Actively promote volunteer use of the TED through a compre-

                                  hensive goverriment-industry-conservation community

                                  educational program.

                             D.   Prioritize areas for critical habitat designation.          Re-

                                  strict or prohibit certain types of fishing methods in

                                  above designated areas.

                             E. Prohibit certain types of fishing during specified seasons.

                                                                                                 110

                     1322111. Educate and Inform Fishing Industry        (see sections 2.4 and

                                2.7).

                     132231.    Regulate boat speed.

                                Boat collisions are a source of mortality in areas of high

                                use by both people and turtles.

                                A.   Regulate speed in areas where collisions with turtles are

                                     likely.

                     132241.    Investigate and implement means of mitigating mortality from

                                dragheads and industrial water intakes.

                                Turtle entrainments and mortalities have been observed in

                                water intakes at power plants.

                                A.   Assess the extent of the entrainment and mortality.

                                B.   Develop excluder mechanisms.

                                C.   Investigate turtle behavior modifications to exclude

                                     turtles from areas where they may be drawn to the intake

                                     pipes.

                                Turtles are entrapped and crushed on the dragheads of com-

                                mercial and government dredges.

                                D.   Investigate and develop modifications to the draghead to

                                     exclude turtles.

                                E.   Remove turtles from the vicinity of dredging operations.

                                F.   Investigate turtle behavior modifications (see step

                                     132241 C.).

                                G.   Prioritize   areas for critical habitat designation, in-

                                     cluding Port Canaveral Ship Channel.       Mitigate mortality

                                     from dredging in areas where turtles are likely to be

                                     taken.

                                                     14. Assess and monitor population
                                                          levels in estuarine and
                                                          marine waters

                                 141. Coastal stocks                                       142. Open shelf stocks

                                                                                  1421. Assess aerial or other methodologies
                                                                                        and implement if feasible

                  1411. Monitor strandings        1412. Monitor incidental capture           1413. Conduct survey
                                                                                                    where feasible

                                                                                        112

                  14.       Assess and monitor population levels in estuarine and marine

                            waters.

                  1411.     Monitor strandings.

                            An undetermined proportion of loggerheads die in nearshore

                            waters and wash onto coastal beaches.      Stranded carcasses

                            represent a complex interaction of nearshore population den-

                            sities and mortality from disparate causes, such as cold

                            stunning and drowning in trawl nets. Counts of stranded car-

                            casses provide indices of local mortality, particularly when

                            followed from year to year.

                            A.   Determine the relationship between beached carcasses and

                                 total mortality at sea.

                            B.   Determine cause of death, when possible.

                            C.   Continuously monitor the numbers of dead turtles on

                                 beaches by standardized stranding network procedures

                                 which guard against counting individual carcasses more

                                 than once and make data available through publication.

                  1412.     Monitor incidental captures.

                            On-board monitoring of incidentally caught loggerheads is the

                            most direct and logical approach to assessing the impact of

                            specific fisheries on sea turtle populations.

                            A.   Establish a statistical sampling program which considers

                                 the various fishing industries, their localities, and

                                 their seasons of activity.

                            B.   Monitor capture rates of sea turtles.

                                                                                                   113

                              C    Consider the possibility and reliability of voluntary

                                   self -monitoring, such as incidental catch logs, as op-

                                   posed to the mandatory placement of observers on-board

                                   fishing vessels.

                  1413.       Conduct aerial survey where feasible.

                              Concentrations of' nearshore loggerhea      ds may be quantifiable

                              with aerial surveys in areas where turbidity of the water is

                              low.   Other methods such as SCUBA and net capture can be

                              considered.

                              A.   Investigate the application of various surveys methods

                                   for monitoring nearshore stocks in selected areas.

                              B.   Assess nearshore stocks by aerial survey, where feasible.

                  1421.       Assess aerial and other methodologies and iTplement if feas-

                              ible.

                              Loggerheads are distributed across the western North Atlantic,

                              particularly the area of U.S. jurisdiction which includes the

                              continental shelf eastward to the Gulf Stream.            The distri-

                              bution of turtles within this area is not uniform, however,

                              and much work remains to be done before shelf aerial surveys

                              can provide quantitative data.

                              A.   Continue current investigations into offshore aerial

                                   surveys as a quantitative sampling technique, including

                                   behavioral studies to determine the surface/ submergence

                                   time ratios of sea turtles.

                              B.   Assess offshore stocks by aerial survey, if feasible.

                                                                                                  114
                                        Loggerhead Implementation Schedule

                  Plan Section                     Lead Agency       Cooperators             Priorities

                  111111 Manage beaches                 FWS          SCA, NPS, U, PI,             3
                                                                     DOD, NASA, CG

                  111211   Regulate Petro-              FWS          PWRC, USCG, SCA,             2
                           .chemical Industry                        EPA, I, MMS

                  111221   Regulate Beach               FWS          SCA, CZM, COE,               1
                           Disturbance and                           LG, NPS, EPA
                           Manipulations

                  111222   Educate Beach Users          FWS          SCA, NPS, SG, U,             2
                                                                     CG, LG

                  11211    Nest Protection              FWS          SCA, NPS, U, DOD9            1
                                                                     PL, NASA, CG, LG

                  11311    International Agreements     FWS          DS, CG, NMFS                 4

                  11321    Law Enforcement              FWS          SCA, USC, NPS                2
                                                                     NMFS, USCG

                  1211     Determine Productivity       FWS          SCA, NPS, U, PL,             1
                                                                     DOD, NASA, CG

                  1221     Mark Adult Females           FWS/NMFS     SCA, NPS, U, PL,             1, 3*
                                                                     DOD, NASA, CG

                  1222     Count Nests                  FWS          SCA, NPS, U, PL,             1
                                                                     DOD, NASA, CG

                  1311111  Cold-Stunning                NMFS         SCA, U9 CG, LG,              3
                                                                     FWS, NPS, NASA

                  131121   Regulate Sea-Floor           NMFS         COE, SCA, MMS, 1             3
                           Disturbance                               CZM9 CEQ

                  13121    Regulate Industrial          NMFS         COE, MMS, CZM, EPA,          2
                           Dumping                                   USCG, CEQ, U, I, SCA

                  13211    International                NMFS         DS, CG, FWS                  .3
                           Agreements

                  132211   Regulate Fishing             NMFS         FI, SCA, CG, FWS             1
                           Methodology

                  1322111  Educate Fishing              NMFS         SCA, SG, U, FI, CG           I
                           Industry

                  132231   Regulate Boat                NMFS         SCA, LG, USCG                4
                           Speed

                  *Long-term tagging studies are #1     priority.    New tagging programs lower
                  (0) priority.

                                                                                                115

                  Plan Section                      Lead Agenc      Cooperators                  Priorities

                  132241 Draghead & Water              NMFS         COE, SCA, I, DOE                 3
                           Intakes

                  1411     Monitor Standings        NMFS & FWS      SCA, CG, U, PI, NPS,             I
                                                                    DOD, NASA, LG, USCG

                  1412     Monitor Incidental       NMFS & FWS      I, -U                            2
                           Captures

                  1413     Conduct Surveys          NMFS & FWS      USCG' MMS, 11                    3

                  1421     Asses Survey                NMFS         U, MMS, USCG, FWS                3
                           Methodologies

                  Priorities: 1=highest, 2=high, 3=moderate,       4=low

                                                                                           116

                                                        DEFINITIONS

                    FWS = Fish and Wildlife Service                   SG = Sea Grant

                    NMFS =  National Marine Fisheries  Service          U =  Universities

                    DOD  =  Department of Defense                     CG  =  Conservation Groups

                    MMS  =  Minerals Management Service                 I =  Industry

                    COE  =  Army Corps of Engineers                   LG  =  Local Governments

                    NASA =  National Aeronautics and Space Admin.     FI  =  Fishing Industry

                    USCG =  United States Coast Guard                 PI  =  Private Individuals

                    NPS  =  National Park Service

                    CEQ  =  Council on Environmental Quality

                    DS   =  Department of State.

                    PWRC =  Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

                    USC  =  United States Customs Service

                    DOE  =  Department of Energy

                    SCA  =  State Conservation Agencies

                    CZM  =  Coastal Zone Management

                    EPA  =  Environmental Protection Agency

                                                                                      117

                 Explanatory note for nesting distribution maps and tables:

                      1. Density symbols on maps are based on data through

                          1980. Additional years of data were added to tables

                          where possible.

                      2.  Densities which are defined as nests/km on maps

                          should be interpreted as nests/km year. Densities

                          which are defined as Density km in tables should

                          also be interpreted as nest/km year.

                                                                                            TABLE 1. MARYLAND - VIRGINIA
                                                                                        Loggerhead Turtle Nesting Activity

                                         Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density K        Reference and Remarks
                                   Assateague NS, Md.         1977          32              32                1               1            0.03        Chincoteague NWR, Ayles,
                                                                                                                                                       Prog. Rpt. #11

                                                              1978          32              32                0               1            0.03        Florschutz

                                                              1979          32              32                0               1            0.03        If
                                   Chincoteague NWR, Va.      1975          16              16                2               2            0.13        Chincoteague NWR, Appel,
                                                                                                                                                       Prog. Rpt. #7 & #11

                                                              1976          16              16                0               1            0.06        Florschutz

                                                              1977          16              16                0               1            0.06

                                                              1978          16              16                0               1            0.06

                                                              1979          16              16                0               1            0.06

                                                              1980          18              15                0               0            0.00        Chincoteague NWR, Ayles
                                   Wallops Island, Va.        1975          a                8                1               1            0.13        Chincoteague@ NWR, Appel,
                                                                                                                                                       Prog. Rpt. #7 & #11

                                                              1976          8                8                0               1            0.13        Florschutz

                                                              1977          8                8                0               1            0.13        It

                                                              1978          8                8                0               1            0.13        is

                                                              1979          8                8                1               1            0.13        Chincoteague NWR, Ayles
                                                                                                                                                       Prog. Rpt. #11

                                                              1980          8                8                0               0            0.00        Chincoteague NWR, Ayles
                                   Paramore Island, Va.       1979          13              13                1               2            0.15        Nature Conservancy, Truitt,
                                                                                                                                                       Florschutz, VIMS

                                                              1980          13              13                0               0            0.00        Nature Conservancy-
                                                                                                                                                       Hennessey, Vims-Byles

                              Table 1 continued

                                    Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.     Density K        Reference and Remarks

                              Other Va. Banks owned      1979           63              8                 0               4            0.06       Florschutz, Nature
                              by Nature Conservancy                                                                                               Conservancy

                                                         1980           63              63                 0               0           0.00       Nature Conservancy,
                                                                                                                                                  Hennessey, VIMS, Byle5
                                                                                                                                                  weekly aerial surveys

                              Back Bay NWR, Va.          1976           7               7                 1               1            0.14       Refuge Files, Holland, Prog.
                              including Fisherman                                                                                                 Rpt. #8,9,10 & 11, Florschut
                              Island NWR

                                                         1977           7               7                 0               1            0.14       Refuge Files, Holland, Prog.
                                                                                                                                                  Rpt. #9,10 & 11, Florschutz

                                                         1978           7               7                 0               1            0.14       Refuge Files, Bond, Prog.
                                                                                                                                                  Rpt. #10 & 11, Florschutz

                                                         1979           7               7                 1               1            0.14       Refuge Files, Bond, Prog.
                                                                                                                                                  Rpt. #11

                                                         1980           9h              8                 1               1            0.13       Back Bay NWR, Bond &
                                                                                                                                                  Poetter

                              False Cape St. Park,       1977           9               9                 0               1            0.11       Florschutz
                              Virginia

                                                         1978           9               9                 0               1            0.11

                                                         1979           9               9                 1               1            0.11       Prog. Rpt. #11, Bond

                                                         1980           9               9                 0               0            0.00       Back Bay NWR, Bond &
                                                                                                                                                  Poetter, VIMS

                                                                                       TABLE 2. NORTH CAROLINA
                                                                                  Loggerhead Turtle Nesting Activity

                                  Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density Km       Reference and Remarks

                            Currituck Banks, Va.       1979          74              74                1               3            0.04       N.C. WRC Aerial Census,
                            Line to CHNS                                                                                                       Schwartz, Florschutz

                                                       1980          74              74                0               1            0.01       FWS, Crouse-WRC aerial
                                                                                                                                               survey *

                            Cape Hatteras National     1977          99              99               11              11            0.11       Shabica,  NPS
                            Seashore (Whale Bone
                            Junction to Ocracoke       1978          99              99               12              12            0.12       N.C. WRC  Aerial Survey
                            Inlet excluding Pea                                                                                                Shabica,  NPS
                            Island NWR)                1979          99              99               11              11            0.11       N.C. WRC  Aerial Survey
                                                                                                                                               Shabica,  NPS

                                                       1980          99              99               15              25            0.25       Crouse-WRC,* Florschutz

                            Pea Island NWR             1971          21              21                1               5            0.05       Refuge Files, N.F. Williamson,
                                                                                                                                               Jr., Turtle Transplant Study
                                                                                                                                               Prog. Rpt.  #3

                                                       1972          21              21                9              10            0.48       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#4

                                                       1973          21              21                5               7            0.33       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#5

                                                       1974          21              21                2               4            0.19       FWS Pefuge  tiles, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#6

                                                       1975          21              21                7              10            0.48       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#7

                                                       1976          21              21                8              10            0.48       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#8

                                                       1977          21              21                5               7            0.33       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt.#9

                                                       1978          21              21                7              10            0.48       FWS Refuge  Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                               Transplant  Study Prog. Rpt. #10

                                                                                                                                                                                           0

                             Table 2 continued

                                   Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.     Density          Reference and Remarks

                                                        1979          21              21                 9               9            0.43       FWS Refuge Files, Turtle
                                                                                                                                                 Transplant Study Prog. Rpt.
                                                                                                                                                 #11, Mike Elkins

                                                        1980          21              21               12               12            0.57       Crouse-WRC,* NWR** Hight

                             Core Banks North, CLNS     1978          39               0                 1              25            0.64       NPS, Hoggard, Florschutz

                                                        1979          39              39               24               30            0.77       NPS, Hoggard

                                                        1980          39              39                 5               7            0.18       Crouse-WRC,* NPS,** Florschutz

                             Core Banks South,          1978          23               7                 4              20            0.87       NPS, Hoggard. Florschutz
                             excluding Cape Lookout,
                             CLNS                       1979          30              30               19               24            0.80                   to

                                                        1980          30              30               11               15            0.50       Crouse-WRC,* NPS,** Florschutz

                             Cape Lookout, CLNS         1978            6k             6h              23               25            3.85       NPS, Hoggard, Stoneburner

                                                        1979          10h             10k              23               23            2.19                   to

                                                        1980          10h             10h              30               30            2.86       NPS,* Crouse-WRC*

                             Shackleford Banks,         1978          14h              0                 0               5            0.34       NPS, Hoggard, Florschutz
                             CLNS
                                                        1979          14h             14h                6               8            0.55       NPS, Hoggard

                                                        1980          14k             14h                4               6            0.41       Crouse-WRC,* NPS, Florschutz

                             Bogue Banks                1975          39              39                 6               6            0.15       Schwartz

                                                        1976          39              39               12               12            0.31

                                                        1977'         39              39                 6               6            0.15       .0

                                                        1978          39              39                 8               8            0.21       N.C. WRC Aerial Survey,
                                                                                                                                                 Schwartz

                                                        1979          39              39                 8              10            0.26                   .4

                                                        1980          39              39               14               14            0.36       Schwartz

                            Table 2 continued

                                   Area                Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density K         Reference and Remarks

                            Bear & Brown Islands       1975          11              11               23              30             2.73      Hammocks Beach   State Park,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz, Camp   Lejeune

                                                       1976          11              11               35              42             3.82      Hammocks Beach   State Park,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz, Camp   Lejeune

                                                       1977          11              11               43              50             4.55      Hammocks Beach   State Park,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz, CaMD   Lejeune

                                                       1978          11              11               22              37             3.36      Hammocks Beach   State Park,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz, Camp   Lejeune

                                                       1979          11              11               62              62             5.64      Hammocks Beach   State Park,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz, Camp   Lejeune

                                                       1980          11              11               38              60             5.45      State Parks,"    USMC,**
                                                                                                                                               Crouse-WRC

                            Onslow Beach               1974          ilk             6h               54              54             8.31      Camp Lejeune, Wooten,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1975          ilk               6h             45              45             6.92      Camp Lejeune, Wooten,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1976          ilk               64             23              23             3.54      Camp Lejeune, Wooten,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1977          Ilk               6h             21              21             3.23      Camp Lejeune, Wooten,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1978          Ilk             Ilk              35              40             3.48      Camp Lejeune, Peterson,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1979          Ilk             Ilk              52              57             4.96      Camp Lejeune, Peterson,
                                                                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                       1980          ilk             ilk              64              64             5.57      Camp Lejeune, USMC
                                                                                                                                               Beach Police, Schwartz, USMC

                               Table 2 continued

                                      Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                               Topsail Island              1975          35               13                 2              10             0.77        Surf City & New Topsail
                                                                                                                                                       Beach Police, Schwartz,  USMC

                                                           1976          35               13                 6              10             0.77        Surf City & New Topsail

                                                           1977          35               35                18              21             0.60        Surf City & New Topsail
                                                                                                                                                       Beach Police, Schwartz,  USMC

                                                           1978          35               35                22              22             0.63

                                                           1979          35               35                12              12             0.34        Surf City & New Topsail
                                                                                                                                                       Beach Police, Schwartz, USMC

                                                           1980          35               35                 0              35             1.00        Crouse-WRC,* Florschutz

                               New Topsail Inlet to        1975          38                 A                1                2            1.33        Schwartz, USMC
                               Carolina Beach Inlet
                                                           1976          39                 A                0                2            1.33

                                                           1977          38                 A                0                2            1.33

                                                           1978          38                 13,              0                2            1.33

                                                           1979          38                 A                0                2            1.33

                                                           1980          38               38                 0              35             0.92        Crouse-WRC,* Florschutz

                               Carolina Beach Inlet        1977          20                 3                1                2            0.67        N.C. Marine Resources
                               to Corncake Inlet                                                                                                       Center, Schwartz

                                                           1978          20                 3                                 2            0.67        11

                                                           1979          20                 3                                 2            0.67        It

                                                           1980          20               20                 0                6            0.30        Crouse-WRC,* Florschutz

                              Table 2 continued

                              -     Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density Km       Reference jnd Remarks

                              Baldhead Island            1977          10               4                9              16            4.00       Baldhead Corp., McPherson,
                              (Smith Island)                                                                                                     Schwartz

                                                         1978          10               4                13             20            5.00

                                                         1979          10               4                13             20            5.00

                                                         1980          13              13                72             86            6.62       Crouse-WRC,*
                              Cape Fear River to         1977          21               5                4               6            1.20       Long Beach Police Dept.,
                              Lockwood Folly Inlet                                                                                               Schwartz

                                                         1978          21               5                4               6            1.20

                                                         1979          21               5                4               6            1.20

                                                         1980          21              21                0              28            1.33       Crouse-WRC*, Florschutz
                              Holden Beach               1977          12               0                0               0            0.00       Kinlaw, Johnson, Schwartz
                              (Lockwood Folly Inlet
                              to Shallotte Inlet)        1978          12               0                0               0            0.00

                                                         1979          12               0                0               0            0.00

                                                         1980          12              12                0              11            0.92       Crouse-WRC*, Florschutz
                              Shallotte Inlet to         1977          14h              2                3               5            1.43       Ocean Isle Beach Shrimp
                              Little River                                                                                                       House, Schwartz, Worthington
                              (S. C. Line)

                                                         1978          1A               A                3               5            1.43

                                                         1979          14h              A                3               5            1.43

                                                         1980          14h             14@               0              12            1.14       Crouse-WRC*, Florschutz

                                  Aerial surveys by N.C. Wildlife Resources Comm.      Flown 2-3 times a week for 25 flights.     All crawls were recorded and ground
                              truth determined approximately one half the crawls resulted in nests (Crouse).        This ratio,was used on all beaches in N.C. which were
                              not ground truthed.

                                 Beaches which had ground truth for aerial surveys.

                                                                                                                                125

                                                                                 PTZ-,

                                              NESTING
                                                                                                              0.25
                                              DENSITIES
                                              lLoggerheadsl

                                                                                                      %
                                                            T Y R    E L L'
                                                                                             R  E

                                                                                                                  0.38

                                                                                                                OL15

                                                            A

                                                                                                     c- H_

                                                                  ..........

                                                   A                       *0.53

                                                                                               LEGEND
                                                                 an                          LESS THAN I NEST/Km.
                                                                           N                 -10

                                                                                             0-25
                                                                                             25-30

                                                                                             50-100

                                                                                             100-200

                                                                                             OVER 200

                                                           N.C.
                                                                  @E

                                                                                        'o"L

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    tell.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            ac         ille
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   tier
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      0
                                                                                                                                                                                              11                                            ney                                                          let
                                                                                                                                                                                                         P.dg'Ij                 n.                                  Creek
                                                                                                                                                                            .p
                                                 NESTING                                                                                                                                                                                    I     Let
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   In/.
                                                 DKIVI'SITIES
                                                                                                                                                 u             4@             R-                         I I'            MOO-                                                                                  E3
                                                                                                                                                                     H,11,     &Ofll      Sw'mP
                                                    Loggerheads]                                                                    St H     8                 it,-                                      I\I,                                h,d,,ck ACIe
                                                                                                                                                                                                        %              dg
                                                                                                                                                        nt.n                            Edzecombe                              nd.ng
                                                                                                                    'C.'                   ky P..                                                  V. .                                                                             4.3
                                                                                                                       L  n                                    10                                                S.'f City                                44
                                                                                                                                   'ks                         21                Woodside            I
                                                                                                                                                               _CZ                                           Point
                                                                                                       C.           ;                ,                                               it-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       5.1
                                                                                                                                            lbo,                                       -f
                                                                                                                                                                      "
                                                                                                                                                                           st d                      opsad i3each                           0
                                                                                                                                                                              7
                                                                                                                                                                          p
                                                                                             he el"   d                              I'll, "lyn
                                 CcIn,                                                       A    is                                                                        e.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       AL
                                                                                                                                                   ay                   uk          'h Inf.,
                                                             c                                     Met,.
                                                                    aw
                                                                                                                    Let.
                                                                  @S                                                                                                                                                                          0.69
                                                                                                                    IN    b-                                   to
                                                                                                                                                                        light"ille Beech
                                                                                                                           iii-le               P
                               k     vl-                                                                                                                           -nb- In'.'
                                                                                                                                                                 nboro
                                                                                                                    y
                                                                                                     Wnnabo.                                                   1, G-1

                                                                                                                    M.11 C ... h
                                                                                                                                 rl..                                                 0                      1.3
                                        A@h                                                                                K
                                                                                       P-G-@@
                                                                                                                                           3
                                                                                                                                                        .lmis 8 ... h
                                                                                                                                   -d
                                                                                                          flng Sty,
                                                                                                                                                               !t.n Re-h
                                  d                                                                                                               KuIe Revc                                                                                 N
                                                                   al         S-Y Alli
                                                                                                                                                                                     0.58
                                                                                                                                             --I e W.,
                                                                                             "I.,                   Ft C.
                                                                    Ws B-I,
                                                                                                                                             ith I
                                                                       G                     4

                                                                                         0.92                       1.2
                                                              1.4
                                                                                                                                                    5.2

                                                                                                                                                                                                                 0
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 SCAL E        1: 500, 000

                                                                                Table 3. SOUTH CAROLINA
                                                                           Loggerhead Turtle Nesting Activity

                                    Area                Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                              Grand Strand              76*          71.0            71.0                                -            0.7        Stancyk unpub. aerial
                                                                                                                                                 survey

                                                        77**         71.0            71.0               -                -            0.2

                                                        78***        71.0            71.0               -                -            0.3

                              Debidue Island            76            7.1             7.1               -                -            6.1

                                                        77            7.1             7.1               -                -            3.5

                                                        78            7.1             7.1               -                -            5.8

                              North Island              76*          13.5            13.5               -                -           21.0

                                                        77           13.5             9.0               79              100          11.1        Hopkins et al. 1978

                                                        78***        13.5            13.5               -                -            9.5        see Stancyk above

                              Sand Island               76*           4               4                 -                -           31.3           includes South Island

                                                        77            4               3                 163             200          66.7        Hopkins et al. 1978

                                                        78            4               3                 247             260          86.7        Hopkins et al. 1981

                                                        79            4               3                 252             275          91.7        of

                                                        80            4               3                 150             175          58.3        Hopkins unpub. ground survey

                                                        81            4               3                 272             300          100.0

                                                        82            4               3                 239             250          83.3

                            Table 3 continued

                                  Area                Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.   Density           Reference and Remarks

                            South Island              76*           5               5                  -               -           31.3        see Stancyk above
                                                                                                                                               includes Sand Island

                                                      77            4               3                 91              91           30.3        Hopkins et al. 1978

                                                      78            4               3                163             163           54.3        Hopkins et al. 1981

                                                      79            4               3                123             123           41.0

                                                      80            4               3                133             133           44.3        Hopkins unpub. ground survey

                                                      81            4               3                162             170           56.7

                                                      82            4               3                ill             115           38.3

                            Cedar Island              76*           4.3            4.3                -               -            27.9        Stancyk unpub. aerial
                                                      77            4.3            4.3                -               -            23.0        11 - ground survey
                                                      78            4.3            4.3                -               -            25.8        it - ground survey
                            Murphy Island             76*           9.0            9.0                -               -              9.0       Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                      77**          9.0            9.0                -               -              3.9       01

                                                      78***         9.0            9.0                -               -              8.6

                            Cape Island               75            8.0            8.0              1248            2654          331.7        G. Garris, Cape Romain NWR
                                                                                                                                               ground survey

                                                      76            8.0            8.0               907            2359          294.9

                                                      77            8.0            8.0               352            1329          166.1

                                                      78            8.0            8.0               580            1596          198.3

                                                      79            8.0            8.0              1093            1093          136.6

                                                      80            8.0            8.0               856             856          107.0

                                                      81            8.0            8.0              1043            1043          130.4

                                                      82            &0             8.0              1087            1087          135.9

                                                                                                                                                                                     Go

                            Table 3 continued

                                   Area                Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density Km       Reference and Remarks

                            Raccoon Key                75           9.0             9.0                20               80           8.9

                                                       76           9.0             9.0                25             100           11.1

                                                       77           9.0             9.0                22               88           9.8

                                                       78           9.0             9.0                36             109           12.1

                                                       79           9.0             9.0                23             206           22.9        It

                                                       80           9.0             9.0                26             104           11.5        11

                                                       81           9.0             9.0                35             140           15.6        it

                                                       82           9.0             9.0                24             102           11.3        It

                            Bulls Island               75          10.5            10.5                28               85           8.1        G. Garris, Cape Romain NWR
                                                                                                                                                ground survey

                                                       76          10.5            10.5                30               90           8.6        1.

                                                       77          10.5            10.5                20               60           5.7

                                                       78          10.5            10.5                28               55           5.3

                                                       79          10.5            10.5                 7               25           2.4

                                                       80          10.5            10.5                15               45           4.3

                                                       81          10.5            10.5                30               80           7.6

                                                       82          10.5            10.5                27               77           7.3

                            Capers Island              76*          5.2             5.2                -                -            1.2        Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                       77**         5.2             5.2                -                -            1.5

                                                       78***        5.2             5.2                -                -            5.6

                            Oewees Island              76*          4.0             4.0                -                -            1.9

                                                       77**         4.0             4.0                -                -            0.7

                                                       78***        4.0             4.0                -                -            2.3

                               Table 3 continued

                               -     Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density K         Reference and Remarks

                               Isle of Palms              76*           10.0            10.0                                -           0.9

                                                          77**          10.0            10.0                -               -           0.2

                                                          78***         10.0            10.0                -               -           2.1

                               Sullivan's Island          76*           6.3              6.3                -               -           0.0

                                                          77**          6.3              6.3                -               -           0.0

                                                          78***         6.3              6.3                -               -           0.0

                               Morris Island              76*           5.4              5.4                -               -           0.9

                                                          77**          5.4              5.4                -               -           0.9

                                                          78***         5.4              5.4                -               -           0.9

                               Folly Beach                76*           10.4             10.4               -               -           0.2

                                                          77**          10.4             10.4               -               -           0.0

                                                          78***         10.4             10.4               -               -           0.7

                               Kiawah Island              72            15.8             15.8               -               -          12.4        Talbert et al. 1980
                                                                                                                                                   ground survey

                                                          73            15.8             15.8               -               -          12.3

                                                          74            15.8             15.8               -               -          12.9

                                                          75            15.8             15.8               -               -           8.5

                                                          76            15.8             15.8               -               -           2.4

                                                          77            15.8             111; 8             39.             -           2.4        Kiawah Is. Corp. unpub.

                                                          78            15.8             15.8               55              -           3.4

                                                          79            16.4             16.4               82              -           5.2

                                                          80            16.4             16.4               84              -           5.3

                                                          81            16.4             16.4              165            175          10.7

                                                          82            16.4             16.4              141            150           9.2

                            Table 3 continued

                                  Area                 Years    Km of Beach   Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density K        Reference and Remarks

                            Seabrook                   76*            5.6             5.6               -               -           1.9         Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                       77**           5.6             5.6               -               -           1.0

                                                       78***          5.6             5.6               -               -           5.5

                            Oeveaux Bank               76*            4.0             4.0               -               -           0.8

                                                       77**           4.0             4.0                               -           0.4

                                                       78***          4.0             4.0               -               -           0.7

                            Botany Bay Island          76*            7.2             7.2               -               -          10.5

                                                       77**           7.2             7.2               -               -           3.5

                                                       78***          7.2             7.2               -               -          14.0

                                                       81             7.2             4.3              114             127         29.5         Starck & Mundell unpub.
                                                                                                                                                ground sur,.ey

                                                       82             7.2             4.3              120             120         27.9         10

                            Eddingsville Beach         76*            2.9             2.9               -               -          10.1         Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                       77**           2.9             2.9                                           3.8

                                                       78***          2.9             2.9               -               -          15.4

                                                       81             2.9             2.4               55              65         27.1         Starck & Mundell unpub.
                                                                                                                                                ground survey

                            Edisto Beach               76*            8.2             8.2               -               -           6.2         Stancyk et al. 1979

                                                       77**           8.2             8.2                                           2.0

                                                       78***          8.2             8.2               -               -           4.7

                                                       81             8.2             2.1               40              55         26.2         Starck & Mundell unpub.
                                                                                                                                                ground survey

                                                       82             8.2             8.2              140             180         22.0

                               Table 3 continued

                               -     Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.   Density Km        Reference and Remarks
                               Pine Island                78***         4.1             4.1              -               -            2.3        Stancyk unpub. aerial

                               Otter Island               76*           4.3             4.3              -               -           14.7

                                                          77**          4.3             4.3              -               -           10.4

                                                          78***         4.3             4.3              -               -           20.6

                               Harbor/Hunting Island      76*           9.0             9.0              -               -            3.9

                                                          77**          9.0             9.0              -               -            3.1

                                                          78***         9.0             9.0              -               -            7.6

                                                          81            9.0             6.0              89             100          16.7        Reed unpub. ground survey

                                                          82            9.0             6.0              ill            115          19.2
                               Fripp Island               76*          6.0             6.0                               -            7.4        Stancyk unpub. aerial
                                                          77**         6.0             6.0                                            3.4

                                                          78***        6.0             6.0               -               -            5.8

                                                          81           6.0             4.0               125            130          32.5        Smoak unpub. ground survey

                                                          82           6.0             4.0               117            120          30.0
                               Pritchards Island          76*          4.0             4.0               -               -           18.9        Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                          77**         4.0             4.0                                            4.0        11

                                                          78***        4.0             4.0               -               -           20.0        of

                                                          82           4.0             4.0               50              75          18.6        McCullum & Cain unpub.
                                                                                                                                                 ground survey
                               Little Capers Island       76*          4.0             4.0               -               -           13.9        Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                          77**         4.0             4.0                                            5.3

                                                          78***        4.0             4.0                                           18.6

                              Table 3 continued

                                     Area                Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.   Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                              St. Phillips/Bay Point     76*          6.3              6.3               -                -           11.5

                                                         77**         6.3              6.3               -                -           6.7

                                                         78***        6.3              6.3               -                -           18.5

                              Hilton Head Island         76*          29.0           29.0                -                -           2.4

                                                         77**         29.0           29.0                -                -           1.0

                                                         78***        29.0           29.0                -                -           2.1

                                                         81           29.0           29.0                39               50          1.7        Polk & Rupert unpub
                                                                                                                                                 ground survey

                                                         82           29.0           29.0                64               80          2.8

                              Daufuskie Island           76*          8.1              8.1               -                -           0.2        Stancyk unpub. aerial

                                                         77**         8.1              8.1               -                -           0.4

                                                         78***        8.1              8.1               -                -           1.7

                              Turtle Island              76*          4.0              4.0               -                -           0.8

                                                         77**         4.0              4.0               -                            0.1        it

                                                         78***        4.0              4.0                                            0.2

                                1976--Flights on 7-8 day intervals,   one  observer.   Ground Truth from Kiawah (daily),   Capers and Dewees (weekly), and Cape Island
                                (Refuge staff). Counted all visible tracks.

                                Estimated nests       tracks with Body Pits) x (% Body Pits that were Nests (1977-1978) x (inverse of % of Ground Truth Nests
                                spotted from air).

                              **1977--Flights every 5 days,   two observers.   First half of season, resumed 1976 methods (counted all visible tracks, distinguish
                                between Body Pits and False   Crawls).   Second half of season, counted only fresh tracks, relied oe@-tirely on Cedar and Cape Ground
                                Truth for N/False crawl ratio.

                                Estimated nests = (# tracks seen during summer) x (% Ground Truth tracks that were nests) x (inverse of % of total Ground Truth
                                tracks spotted from the air). Two halves of season computed separately due to change in technique.
                              ***1978--Flight every 4 days, two'observers.     Counted fresh tracks only, no separation of N and false crawls.       N/False ratios from
                                daily Cedar/Cape Ground Truth.    Equation as noted above.

                                                                                                                                                                                                         E
                                                                                                                                                                                                                         N                  MA ION
                                                                                                           -NESTING                                                                            @11
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                NA IONAL,                FO E
                                                                                                           DENSITIES
                                                                                                            fLoggerheadsi

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         CAPE ROMAIN
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             BAY        W             V
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         ILDLIFE REF 6
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              W.        8@
                                                                                                                                                                                              C,.k
                                                                                                                                                                                        R                                                                      M.,th ... t Pt

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Pyk. 1.1.9
                                                  0            5             10                        20mi.                                                                                                                                            Island
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           C-Pers InW
                                                                  SCALE =1:500,000                                                                                                                                                        D-s Island
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        De-es Inlef                             5.7
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   * 2.8

                                                                                                                                                                                                             El .... ...     a.
                                                                                                                                                                    S_fO'                                      C"". P                                       01.6

                                                                                                                                                                                    OHNS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Inhu                             1.1 (isle of PaIrT
                                                                                                                                                                                                              .-,is IM
                                                                                                                                                                                             IS A
                                                                                                                                                           w                   Is   NO                      oily Isla                       *o.o (Sullivans is.)
                                                                                                                              0                                                                                                         0.9
                                                                                                                                -                        .,3                                 Sandy Ist
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          * 0.3
                                                                                                                                                                       abmk
                                                                                                                                                                    Island
                                                                                                                                        0 Is
                                                                                                                                                                                                    09.7
                                                                  RT OYAL                                                                                                           o2.8
                                                                                     n      Wand                    ST HELENA
                                                                                    IS AN     gOR                    SOUND                                                            0.6                                                                                        L
                        C                                   0
                                                                                                                                                                       0170(Botany Bay Isl.)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        LESS THAN I
                                                                                                                                                          122.      14.1(Eddingsville Bch.)
                            v                          "P                                                             Island                                                                                                                            1-10
                                                                                                                     Fripp 11,                   2.3 (Pine               Is.)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        10-25
                                                                       PORT RO@A
                                                                                                    Pit                                            15.2 (Otter Is)
                                                                          '\SOUVD                       1                                                                                                                                               25-50
                                                                                                   Wd. 1.1.1                                10. 1
                                                                                                                          \0 15.8(Fripp Is)
                                 t          A,4 I,  It                TO                                                                                                                                                                                50-100
                                                        ou
                                                      Is
                                                      Isla
                                                                                                                       \0 14.3(Prichards)
                        ,DL,rE PFFU                                                                                                                                                        S.C.
                                                                                                                       10 12.6 (Lit. Capers Is)                                                                        t                                100-200
                                                   B -,dv P@                               1.8                    12.2 (-St. Phillips/ Bay Pt                               .  Is)
                                                Island                        0.8 Woufuskie Is)                                                                                                                                                         OVER 200
                                                                          0.4
                                       J)

                                                                                                                                                                  135

                             NESTING
                             DENSITIES
                                                                                                  1                       39-
                              fLoggerheadsi
                                                                                                                       9

                                                  1      13

                                                  .38
                                                                   SPA                                                                      N

                               BRITTON
                                  ECK

                                                                I)NT_        m

                                                                     51A

                             261              ce

                                                      0
                          Carv rs
                                                                                                    0.4

                 a.
                                                                                                                 LEGEND

                           51                                                                                      LESS THAN I
                                                                                                                   1-10

                      eto
                        '20"                                                                                       10-25
                 rnpit R
                         17   Ito                        *5.1                                                      25-50
                       701                       North Inlet
                                      Quau
                                   CAT -     z                  013.9                                              50-100
                                  ISLAA: D
                                                                                                                   100-200
                                                     -075.8
                                        W                            (Sand Is)
                          U            San ie Pt        042.5                                                      OVER 200
                                                    025.6
                         Cape
                         Island

                                         SEE
                         Romain        NEXT MAP                                  S,C,

                                                                                                               0           5             10
                                                                                                                              SCALE =1.500,000

                                                                                             TABLE 4. GEORGIA
                                                                                   Loggerhead Turtle Nesting Activity

                                   Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                             Tybee Island               77             5.7              5.7                1*                          .5**      Hillestad et al. 1977
                                                                                        I                                                        aerial survey

                             Little Tybee  Island       77             9.0              9.0             11",                           3**       it

                             Wassaw Island              74            10.6            10.6              77                             7         FWS unpub.

                                                        75            10.6            10.6              56                             5

                                                        76            10.6            10.6              56                             5         It

                                                        77            10.6            10.6              76                             7         to

                                                        78            10.6            10.6              64                             6         It

                                                        79            10.6            10.6              54                             5

                                                        80            10.6            10.6              50                             5         it

                             Pine and Little            77             3.8              3.8                7*                          5**       See Hillestad above
                             Wassaw Island

                             Raccoon Key                77             1.8              1.8             36*                            55**

                             Ossabaw Island             74            18.8            14.2                               86***         6         Ossabaw Island Found. unpub.

                                                        75            18.8              7.9                              29***         4

                                                        76            18.8

                                                        77            18.8            14.2                               86***         6

                                                        78            18.8            14.2                               106***        7

                                                        79            18.8            14.2                              124***         9

                                                        80            18.8              7.9                              55***         7
                             St. Catherine Isla@d       77            21.2            21.2              29*                            4**       See Hillestad above

                             Table 4 continued

                                    Area               Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density K        Reference and Remarks

                             Blackbeard  Island        68            12.4            12.4             172                          14          FWS unpub.

                                                       69            12.4            12.4             221                          18

                                                       70            12.4            12.4             210                          17

                                                       71            12.4            12.4             226                          18

                                                       72            12.4            12.4               17.1                       14          it

                                                       73            12.4            12.4             105                           8          is

                                                       74            12.4            12.4                             162          13          it

                                                       75            12.4            12.4             186                          15

                                                       76            12.4            12.4             149                          12

                                                       77            12.4            12.4             231                          19

                                                       78            12.4            12.4             202                          16          It

                                                       79            12.4            12.4             195                          16          11

                           .Sapelo Island              77             9.8             9.8               16*           -             5**        Hillestad et ;al. 1977
                                                                                                                                               aerial survey

                             Wolf Island               77             5.7             5.7             18*             -             9**

                             Little St. Simons         77            11.4            11.4             23*             -             6**

                             Sea Island                77             9.7             9.7               8*            -             2**

                             St. Simons  Island        77             6.6             6.6               0*            -             0**        It

                                                                                                                                                                                        -@j

                              Table 4 continued

                                    Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored       Nest Observed      Nest Est.    Density K         Reference and Remarks

                              Jekyll Island              72            14.7              4.2              -              127***         30         Coastal Audubon Society unpub.

                                                         73            14.7              4.2              -               70***         17

                                                         74            14.7              4.2              -              106***         25

                                                         75            14.7              4.2              -               74***         18

                                                         76            14.7              4.2                              59***         14

                                                         77            14.7              4.2                              53***         13

                                                         78            14.7               . 2                             38***           9

                                                         79            14.7              4.2                              78***         19

                              Little Cumberland          70             5.9              5.9                             146***         25         Little Cumberland Island
                                                                                                                                                   Association, unpub.

                                                         71             5.9              5.9                             192***         33

                                                         72             5.9              5.9                             247***         42

                                                         73             5.9              5.9                             118***         20

                                                         74             5.9              5.9                             120***         20

                                                         75             5.9              5.9                             137***         23

                                                         76             5.9              5.9                             103***         18

                                                         77             5.9              5.9                             106***         18

                                                         78             5.9              5.9                             143***         24

                                                         79             5.9              5.9                                            23

                                                         80             5.9              5.9                             105***         18

                                                                                                                                                                                             U.)
                                                                                                                                                                                             00

                              Table 4 continued

                                    Area                 Years   Km of Beach    Km MonlLured      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density          Reference and Remarks

                              Cumberland  Island         74            29.8             8.1                             144'          18         National Park Service unpub.

                                                         75            29.8             8.1                             148***        19

                                                         76            29.8             8.1                             120***        15

                                                         77            29.8             8.1                               97***       12

                                                         78            29.8             8.1                             215***        27

                                                         79            29.8             8.1                             173***        22

                                                         so            29.8             8.1                             142***        18

                                                         so            29.8             29.8            234                             8        Nat. Park Serv. unpub.

                              *Nest counts are summed over 14 flights, flown on 3 day intervals (26 June - 31 July).

                              **Density = (aerial density)/.57 The figure of .57 is derived by comparing aerial counts to ground truth on Wassaw, Blackbeard,
                                and Little Cumberland Islands.

                              ***Estimated nests    (turtles observed) (1.9 nests/turtle)

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    140

                                                                                                                                               61    e. .... .
                                                NESTING
                                                                                                                                      lk               @'�rft&
                                                DENSITIES
                                                                                                                                                                                                            *0.5 (Tybee Is.)
                                                                                                                                                                 1:ji 7A
                                                 [Loggerheadsl

                                                                                                                  R.-...                                               "t   Wit-.                  3 (Little Tybee Is.)
                                                                                                                                                  v         SkidaWa@
                                                                                                                                                                              So""'
                                                                                                                                                   -0
                                                                                                                                            K
                                                                                                                                                                                              5.7
                                                                                          molh                                                                   So nd
                                                                                                                  zz
                                                                                                                                                        *z                       *    5    (Pine Ek Little Wassaw)
                                                                                               T
                                                                                      .5                          Do chesw@
                                                                                                                  Sunbury                         Is4rid                               55 (Raccoon Key)
                                                                    ,W.1 ho-Ile
                                                      G                                                           or
                                                                                                     R.           a`b
                                                                                                                      N                                                      65.5
                                                                                                                                           S1   atherines Sound
                                                                                                                  .at        14
                                                                                                                           71.

                                                                                                                                  T
                                                                                                                    N-,
                                                                                                                  South 13,
                                                                                                                  Ne.oort         z
                                                                                                                                                                  4
                                                                                                                         lima

                                                                                       To-send
                                                                                                                                       @@apeifo Sound
                                                                                                                                                                                                 N
                                                                                                                  \0n                 /",c    .....
                                                                                      C        I                  T"                    1
                                                                                C                                                                             15
                                                                                                                                     co
                                                                                                                            Sivew   alan
                                                          t          Everett
                                                                                                                                                         5
                                                                                                                             OL
                                                                                                                  R1 V&E    NA:.ItL@@GE
                                                                                                                  R
                                                                                                                                               0 9
                                                                                                                          hamaha Sound
                                                                 -arm
                                                                                                                  I

                                                                                            .-h
                                                                                                                  r,. Fo                        6        Lit. St Simons)
                                                                                                                  it
                                                                                                                  v                                                                  LEGEND
                                                                                                                                          2
                                                                                                                  t Sinnonit ISland                         it
                                                                                                                                                                               LESS THAN I NEST/Krn.
                                                                                                                                      0                                        1-10
                                                                                                                                                           6                   10-25
                                                                                         'x
                                                      w
                                                        hit. Oa
                                                                                          :@h 7,@ %
                                                                                                                                                                               25-50
                                               LA                        RIY@     '       'r@ , -1
                                                                                               St A                              18
                                                                                                 4 I'd,           Sound
                                           W-d
                                       C                                                                                                                                       50-100
                                                                  D E-W.                                                   24(Lit.
                                                                                                                                    Cumb.)
                                                                                                                                                                               100-200
                                                                                                                  18.7
                                                                    C'00.d     11-11 - 11
                                                                                                                                 8
                                                 K,ng,l,nd                                                                                                                     OVER            200

                                                                                                                  ary

                                                                                                                         Ga.

                                                                                                                                                         0            5            10                       201ri
                                                                                                                                                                        SCALE = 1: 500,000

                                                                                             TABLE 5. FLORIDA
                                                                                   Loggerhead Turtle Nesting Activity

                                   Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                             Little Talbot Island       79             8                8                 32             32             4         Fla. DNR 1979

                                                        80             8                8                 32             32             4         Fla. ONR 1980

                             Fort Matanzas              80             0.8              0.8               3                3             3.6

                             Volusia County             80             8.0              8.0             392             392            49         " (D. Stoneburner)

                             Cape Canaveral             75            50                8.0               -             254            31.8       " (L. Ehrhart)

                                                        76            50               34                 -            1350            39.7

                                                        77            50               34                 -            1285            37.8

                                                        78            50               34                 -            2232            65.8

                                                        79            50               34                 -            2674            53.5

                                                        80            50               50               1261           1624            32.5

                             Port Canaveral to          80            21               21               265             265            12.6       Fritts pars. comm.*
                             Patrick AFB
                                                        82            27               27                 -             459            17         L. Ehrhart pars. comm."

                             Patrick AFB to             80            19.3             19.3             670             670            34.7       Fritts pars. comm.*
                             Melbourne Beach
                                                        82            13               13                 -            1677           129         L.Ehrhart pars. comm."

                             Melbourne Beach  to        80            23               23              2951            2951           128         Fritts pars. comm.*
                             Sebastian Inlet
                                                        82            20               20              4425            8980           449         L. Ehrhart pars. comm.**

                             Indian River and           80            36.8             36.8             726              -                        f R. Witham pars. comm.
                             St. Lucie Counties

                             Hutchinson Island          75            36.3             11.25           1490            4808           132.5       Applied Biology, 1979

                                                        77            36.3             11.25            930            3001            82.7

                                                        79            36.3             11.25           1449            4676           128.8

                                                        80            36.3              5.0             528              -            105.6       Fla. DNR 1980

                             Table 5 continued

                                    Area                Years    Km of Beach     Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density Km        Reference and Remarks

                             Hobe Sound   NWR           75              6.4             6.4               894              -           139.7        Hobe Sound NWR unpub.

                                                        76              6.4             6.4              1058              -           165.3

                                                        77              6.4             6.4               962              -           150.3

                                                        78              6.4             6.4              1029              -           160.8

                                                        79              6.4             6.4              1316              -           205.6

                                                        80              6.4             5.6              1104              -           197.1        Fla. DNR, 1980
                             Jupiter Island             79             12.3            12.3              2086              -           169.6        Lund and White unpub.

                                                        80             12.3            12.3              2194            2394          194.6        1.

                             Juno Beach                 79              1.6             1.6               295                          184.3        Fla. DNR 1979

                                                        80              1.6             1.6               384              -           240.0        Fla. ONR 1980

                             Lost Tree Village          80              2.8             2.8               189                           67.5        It

                             Highland Beach             so              4.5             4.5               511                          112.3        It

                             Boca Raton                 77              4.2             4.2               238                           56.7        Wagner, 1978
                                                        78              4.2             4.2               335                           79.9        Wagner, 1979

                                                        79              4.2             4.2               452                           88.8        Fla. ONR, 1980

                                                        80              4.2             3.2               127                           39.7

                             Broward County             78             37              19                 352             538           28.3        Fletemeyer, 1979

                                                        79             37              36                 654            1086           30.0        11

                                                        80             37              37                 555             888           24.6        Fla. ONR,.1980

                             Miami Beach                80             16.1            16.1                 10             10            0.62

                             Key Biscayne               80              5.0             2.4                 67             67           13.4        Tropical Audubon 1980
                                                                                                                                                    Fla. DNR, 1980

                             Table 5 continued

                                    Area                Years   Km of Beach     Km Monitored      Nest Observed      Nest Est.     Density K        Reference and Remarks

                             Everglades National        72             56.5            56.7             1644                           29.0       Davis & Whiting, 1977
                             Park (Cape Sable)

                                                        73             56.7            56.7             1068             -             18.8

                             Cape Romano                75             4.8             4.8                35             35            7.3        Caretta Research, Inc. unpub.

                                                        76             4.8             4.8                45             45            9.4        11

                             Naples Beach               75             6.4             6.4              30               30            4.7        Caretta Research, Inc. unpub.

                                                        76             6.4             6.4              35               35            5.5
                                                        7@             6.4             6.4              38               38            5.79

                                                        78             6.4             6.4              40               40            6.3

                                                        79             6.4             6.4              55               55            8.9

                             Vanderbilt Beach           75             8               8                35               35            4.4

                                                        76             8               8                30               30            3.8

                                                        77             8               8                45               45            5.6

                                                        78             8               8                38               38            4.8

                                                        79             8               8                45               45            5.6

                             Bonito Beach               75             9.7             9.7              40               40            4.1

                                                        76             9.7             9.7              44               44            4.5

                                                        77             9.7             9.7              32               32            3.3

                                                        78             9.7             9.7              40               40            4.1

                                                        79             9.7             9.7              52               52            5.4

                             Wiggins Pass               80             13.4            13.4             22               22            1.6        Fla. DNR, 1980
                             Cayo Costa                 79             8.0             6.4              12               12            1.9        Fla. DNR, 1979

                                                        80             8.0             8.0              19               19            2.4        Fla. DNR, 1980

                               Table 5 continued

                                      Area                  Years     Km of Beach     Km Monitored       Nest Observed        Nest Est.     Density Km         Reference and Remarks
                               Sanibel Island               75             18.5              17.7              120               120             6.8       Caretta Research, Inc. unpub.

                                                            76             18.5              17.7              100               100             5.7

                                                            77             18.5              17.7               90                90             5.1

                                                            78             18.5              17.7              115               115             6.5

                                                            79             18.5              17.7               86                86             4.9       It

                                                            80             18.5              18.5               65                65             3.5       11

                               Manasota Key                 75             16.1              16.1              150               150             9.3       It

                                                            76             16.1              16.1              160               160             9.9

                                                            77             16.1              16.1              140               140             8.7

                                                            78             16.1              16.1              150               150             9.3

                                                            79             16.1              16.1              180               180           11.2

                                                            80             16.3              11.3               80                80           7.1         Fla. DNR, 1980
                               Casey Key                    75              6.4               6.4               32                32           5.0         Caretta Research, Inc. unpub.

                                                            76              6.4               6.4               63                63           9.8

                                                            77              6.4               6.4               37                37           5.8

                                                            78              6.4               6.4               46                46           7.2

                                                            79              6.4               6.4               50                50           7.8         Fla. DNR, 1979
                                                            80              6.4               6.4               56                56           8.7         Fla.  DNR,  1980
                               Longboat Key                 79              5.8               5.8               15                15           2.6         Fla.  DNR,  1979
                                                            80              5.8               5.8               17                17           3.0         Fla.  DNR,  1980
                               St. Vincent N.W.R.           79             -11.3             11.3               16                16           1.4         Fla.  ONR,  1979
                                                            80             11.3              11.3                 6                 6          0.5         Fla.  DNR,  1980

                           Table 5 continued

                              Survey every two weeks.

                              Survey for 28 days only in July.

                              Estimate for 17 May to 23 August 1982.

                                                                                                                                                 146
                                                                                              NESTING
                                                                                              DENSITIES
                                                                                              lLoggerheadsl
                                                                         4 (Little Talbot is)

                                                 A

                                                             Ns'                                              LEGEND
                                                           stj
                                                                                                              LESS THAN I NEST/Km.
                                                                                                              1-10

                                                                                                              10-25

                                                                                                              25-50

                                                      lo                                                      50-100

                                                                                                              100-200

                                                                                                              OVER 200

                                                                          R                                      N

                                                                                       d Be"

                                                               WCO             s 1                      0         '0

                                                                                                                49 (South Volustio0o.)

                                                                                                                            Cape
                                                                                                                          Carmeral
                                                                                                                           043.5

                                                                                                                 C- B-h
                                                                                  Fla.
                                                                                                                            017
                                                                                                                             Patrick
                                                                                                                              AFB
                                                                                                           0                     4491

                                                                                                                                                                 147

                                                                                            449
                                                                                            Melbourne
                                                                                            Beach               NES=G
                                                                                                                DENSIMS
                                                                                                                 I Loggwheads I

                                                                                          NO ESTIMATE

                                                                                                           1112-4                        Fk.

                                                                                                               169B (H*e SwW
                                                                                   (T
                                                                          A R   @T                                   NWR)
                                                                                                                   182(Jupiter W
                                                                                       I  A I
                                                                                                                                               N

                                                                                                                           212(Juno Bch.)

                                                                                                                           675 (Lost Tree
                                                                                                                                 Village)

                                                                                      C H

                                                                                                                         112.3

                                                                                                                        66.3
                                                                                                                        (Booo Rolon)

                                                          B\ R     0- ._w    A R                                -OZ76               LEGEND
                                                                                                     FORT
                                                                                                     LAUDEP  LE                       LESS THAN I /km.
                                                                                                                                      1-10

                                                                                                                                      10-25
                                                                                 cam                                                  25-50

                                                                                                                                      50-100

                                                                                                                    4# CL6
                                                           4@0                                                                0       100-200
                                                                                                                                      OVER 200

                                                                                                                    013.4
                                                                                            4i

                                                               A           E

                                                                                      Mdo
                                                                                      OfF RT
                                                                                                      0
                                                                                                     LAU'p

                                                           A

                                                                                                                                                    v         s     ATI   AL     A
            NESTING
             DENSITIES
             I Loggerhea& I
                                                                                                                 E=.1jes
                           N                                                                                             fok 23.90
                                                                                                                  (Cape Sable)
                                                                                                                                                                       -.4-T   ;
                                                                                                                                                        t, *A'T

                                                LEGEND

                                          2     LESS THAN I/ Ion.
                                                1-10                                                                     46,,__q  . ... . .. J.
                                                                                                                          .1 %6 , 01
                                                10-25                                                                                      AATAAA

                                                25-50                                           "EAT                                                   rm

                                                50-100

                                                                               At                                                      ID
                                                100-200           i                                                                           .-
                                                                           \77                             - --- ----
                                                                                                              F
                                                OVER 200

                                        smi Tsmoft

                                                                                                                                                        149

                                                                           .20
                          FIretl Myers                    Estero
                               Beach
                               Estero Island                                                           NESTING

                                                  Co onut
                                                                                     0-                 -DENSITIES
                  (Bonito          4.3     0                   Bo ita Springs_
                                                                                                        (Log&ft
                                                                                                                      6,erheadsl
                     Beach)

                                                Naples  r

                                                                              . . ....................
                                                           0 ,                                                                                N
                                                          41 u
                 (Vanderbi It 4. 8
                      Beach)          6.30           ap S.       E st Naples

                                                Gordo Pass

                                                                                                     .5
                                                                              6                        2 8           29          eronne
                                                               Mal                     27      'N   r4AflAA#l                       30
                                                                                                                     Copeland

                                                                                                                                         cho ee

                                                                                G    I   N                          0   29     v
                                                                                   BAY                                     Evq17fRffa5'!es
                                                                              Cape Romano
                                                          8.4                                                                    0     kee

                                LEGEND

                                                                                                                                -o
                                      LESS        THAN 1/km.                                                        Paviliofi,@7,
                                                                                                                                                            A
                                      1-10
                                                                                                                                         0
                                      10-25                                                                                                Cb
                                      25-50                                                                                                          Lostoops
                         0            50-100                                                                                                            Key
                                                                                                                                                        McLau
                                                                                                                                          Highlan\d Pt
                                      100-200                                                                      Fla.

                                      OVER 200

                       0           5            10                    20mi.
                                      SCALE     1:500,000

                                                                                                                                                                                      150

                                                           McGill Island
                                    PASSAGE KEY E.
                    NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE
                                        Anna Maria         Pal                                          @M a , 4,,           NESTING
                                      Holmes Beach                                            t n
                                        Bradenton Beach          rte                            31 -41                       -DENSITIES
                             N                   Longbeach                    0   co 70         Wood airK     N              [Loggerheadsl
                                                                                    h ii'l Esta          Orraine
                                                                         0
                                                                                                          Braden lZ
                                                                                           lie ast
                                              2.8                               V3            Beverly rerrace
                                                                                             rasota
                                                                                                   'Fr Atville

                                                                            Sies                                         Lake 116-akka
                                                                                                    e    i e
                                                                     Sarasota Beac         Coral C             72         37
                                                                            Siesta Key OSP9      0                    0                                                Fla.
                                                                                                                           8                                 1
                                                                                                                             R A             0
                                                                                                       L rel
                                                                         74                                 om

                                                                                                          enice

                                                                                                                   th Vmice
                                                                                                                           41

                                                                                                                                                             ock
                                                                                                                                                                              Harbour
                                LEGEND                                                                                                                                         Heights
                                                                              9.30                                                                                           tte
                                                                                                                                                         ii in
                                            LESS THAN Am.                                                       r,      Englewood                                                    V
                                                                                                                                                                                            le
                                                                                                                                     76          h:.                              A a       a
                                                                                                                                                 h:.
                                                                                                                                                 h
                                                                                               Punta Gorda Beach                                Be:.
                                                                                                                                                             Hog      00
                                            1-10                                                                                                             Island
                                            10-25
                                                                                                                                                                   19;1
                                            25-50                                                                                           ida
                                                                                                                                             0
                                                                                                                                                             AND BAY
                                                                                                                                                             TIONAL
                                            50-100                                                                  0asparilla Island                   WILDLIF'E REFUGE
                                                                                                                        Boca Grande                    t,@7-
                                                                                                                                                    0r6
                                            100-200                                                                                        GIA               Bokeelie

                                                                                                                                                                                        Norl
                                                                                                                          Lacoste, Island
                                            OVER 200
                                                                                                                                                   xA                        ptlacha

                                                                                                                               North Cap i
                                                                                                                                       Islan
                                                                                                                             PINE ISLAND N R
                                                                                                                                                                         T ' CHA PAS  5 L
                                                                                                                                                                             NWII,
                                                                                                           3.5                                             (p                   Ca
                                                                                                                                                                                   pe oral

                                                                                                                                           C
                                                                                                                                             ,pt,va                     OM
                                                                                                                                            a                %                              Ic
                                                                                                                                                                              San
                                                                                                                                    Captiva Isan,,
                                                                                                                                                        St Ja4s       y      &atob
                                                                                                                                                                              say
                                                                                                                                    SANIBEL NArl       NAL                        anil el
                                                                                                                                                                                   Fc rt My
                                      0              5             10                        20mi.                 5.4       0        WILDLIFE RE      LIGE                               Be@
                                                      SCALE         1:500,000                                                                   SA    IBEL   ISLAND                       Es,

                                                                                               151

                                                      3.2
     I

                                          GREEN TURTLE RECOVERY PLAN

                                                                                                 152

                                                    Introduction

                         The green turtle ha   s the unique ability among marine turtles to

                   digest plant material. However, the species is not strictly herbivorous

                   because hatchlings and yearlings are primarily carnivorous and mature

                   specimens eat marine animals, particularly cniderians whenever they are

                   available.

                        Atlantic green turtles are characterized by a single pair of pre-

                   frontal scales on the head and usually four costal scutes on the smooth

                   carapace.   Carapace pigmentation varies among adults from light to dark

                   olive-brown with superimposed darker streaks, rays,        and spots.     Normal

                   carapace color for hatchlings is black.          Plastron  color is white to

                   yellowish.   The body shape is generally oval, and         in adults the head

                   appears to be somewhat small in comparison to body         size.  Each paddle-

                   shaped flipper usually has one claw.

                         Nesting beaches are distributed widely in tropical and subtropical

                   regions and as far north as the Cape Canaveral area of Florida.              The

                   eastern limit of the nesting range is Ascension Island, and the southern

                   limit is apparently French Guiana.         Mature turtles appear to remain

                   within the geographic area from the southeastern United States to

                   Ascension Island and Brazil.      Young turtles are dispersed very widely,

                   and small green turtles are found from Massachusetts to the eastern

                   Atlantic and southward to Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil.

                        Turtles nest in the northernmost part of their range from June

                   through August (occasionally from late May through early September). In

                   Costa Rica, turtles nest from July to September, in Surinam from

                   February to July, at Aves Island from March to December, and at

                   Ascension Island from February to April.        Courtship and mating occur in

                                                                                           153

                   the vicinity of nesting beaches and possibly enroute to nesting beaches.

                   As in other species of sea turtles, green turtle nesting is the most

                   readily observed part of the life cycle.     Individuals do not usually

                   nest annually but on varying cycles of two, three, or four years, with

                   three years being the predominant cycle. Nesting occurs at night, with

                   an hour or more being required to complete the nesting process. Within-

                   season nesting frequency is variable; some individuals lay one clutch

                   and others lay several.   Clutch size ranges from less than 100 to over

                   200 eggs.  High energy beaches are preferred, and nesting requires sand

                   deep enough for deposition of eggs below one meter.      Incubation times

                   vary greatly depending on temperature and vary from 48 to 70 days.

                       Mature green turtles demonstrate navigational ability by returning

                   to their nesting beaches. The longest known migration is from Brazil to

                   Ascension Island.   Establishing nest site specificity may result from

                   natal beach imprinting or may be learned coincidentally with subadult

                   migrations or with nesting migrations of experienced adults already

                   familar with a specific beach.

                        Hatchling dispersal seems more likely to be a response to wave

                   forces and ocean currents in their subsequent movements rather than

                   migration.

                        Green turtles are considered the most palatable of all sea turtles,

                   and they became a prime source of meat for mariners      and settlers of

                   colonial America.   If we assume correct identification from historical
                   reports, the @pecies was once so abundant that one of Columbus' early

                   voyages reported "flotillas" of them near Grand Cayman Island. Nesting

                   in some areas may have been eliminated by overuse of the resource from

                                                                                              154

                    commercial harvest by fishermen.      Depletion was rapid, and by 1620

                    Bermuda passed a law against the taking of sea turtles.

                         Estimates of historic population densities are made more difficult

                    by misidentification of species.    Some early observers may have incor-

                    rectly associated nests and species and, thus, misidentified nesting

                    beaches.   The most valid evidence of population declines appears from

                    captures of turtles by fishermen. The first such reported declines were

                    from Bermuda. Records show drastic declines in the Florida catch during

                    the late 1800's.    Similar declines occurred in other areas.        Current

                    problems for the green turtle include coastal development of nesting

                    beaches and other human activities, which are harmful to turtles of all

                    sizes.

                         Green turtles were listed as Threatened/Endangered under the Endan-

                    gered Species Act in 1978.    The species is also listed in Appendix I of

                    the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and

                    Fauna (CITES).    In the United States the species is also protected by

                    state laws in coastal states.     Other countries protect these turtles,

                    but enforcement is variable and sometimes ineffective.         All of the

                    Atlantic green turtle populations are Threatened except those turtles

                    which nest on Florida beaches which are listed as Endangered.

                                               1. Primary Objective:  To prevent further declines
                                                                      in green turtle stocks by
                                                                      reducing limiting factors
                                                                      and to effect an upward
                                                                      trend In monitored stocks of
                                                                      nesting females

                      Mitigate factors affecting                                             14. Assess and monitor population
                      terrestrial mortality and/                                                  levels in estuaries and
                      or stress                                                                   marine waters

                                  12. Assess and monitor population        13. Mitigate factors affecting estuarine
                                       levels on beaches                         and marine mortality and/or stress

                                                                                                             11. Mitigate factors affecting
                                                                                                                  terrestrial mortality and/
                                                                                                                  or stress
                                                               111.   Habitat alteratio]                                                                               112.   Pie

                                                                                                                                                           1121. Natural            112     Feral

                                              1111. Natural                               1112. Man-induced

                                                                                                                                                       11211.   Implement nest protection commensurate
                                                                                                                                                                with degree of predation

                  Sand accumulation          11112.   Erosion           11113.   vegetat
                                                                                         Toni

                                    F111111. Manage natural beaches

                                                                            11121.  Pollution            11122.   Development

                                                 1211. Regulate petrochemical industry                 111221.    Regulate lights, ORV's, foot
                                                         and bilge pumping                                        traffic, beach cleaning equip-
                                                                                                                  ment, sea walls and rip rap,                                           an take
                                                                                                                  groins and jetties, and beach
                                                                                                                  nourishment projects
                                                                                                        F22. inform and educate beach
                                                                                                                   users and residents                     1131. Legal take                 Lii-LiLgal take
                                                                                                             11311.  Promote legal protection throughout the                  11321. Increase active law enforcement
                                                                                                                     range of the species by encouraging                              to prevent illegal harvest
                                                                                                                     protective management by means of treaties,           L
                                                                                                                     conventions, or councils with other nations
                                                                                                                                                           11 3 1*  Lega,
                                                                                                                                                       :
                                                                                                                                                           t the
                                                                                                                                                           g
                                                                                                                                                           trea ties
                                                                                                                                                                ti  a
                                                                                                                                                       'h.u@
                                                                                                                                                       g in
                                                                                                                                                       -f
                                                                                                                                                       the na on

                                                                                                   157

                                                 Green Stepdown Plan

                     Primary Objective:    To prevent further declines in green turtle stocks

                     by reducing limiting factors and to effect an upward trend in monitored

                     stocks of nesting females.

                     11.        Mitigate   factors    affecting   terrestrial    mortality and/or

                                stress.

                     111111.    Manage natural beaches

                                Natural processes may prove to be a significant source of

                                mortality to nests on some beaches in the range of the green

                                turtle.

                                A.    Assess the vulnerability of nests.

                                B.    If nests sites are poor (below MHW line, on edge of

                                      scraped dunes, in vegetation, or in swales with poor

                                      drainage), then nests may be transferred to a better site

                                      or a hatchery (see section 2.5).

                                C.    Natural sand accumulation is not considered a significant

                                      factor.

                                Certain forms of exotic vegetation (e.g., Casuarina) present

                                problems for nesting beach management. They form impenetrable

                                root mats which prevent nest cavity excavation.

                                D.    Remove trees from potential nest sites on important

                                      nesting beaches.

                                E.    Prevent further spread by removing seed-lings and by

                                      discouraging plantings.

                     111211.    Regulate petrochemical industry and bilge pumping.

                                                                                                 158

                                Nesting beaches are susceptible to oil spills from offshore

                                wells, tankers and bilge pumping.

                                A.   Conduct research to determine effects of petrochemical

                                     spills, clean-up methods (including detergents) and bilge

                                     effluents on developing eggs.

                                B.   Establish spill monitoring programs to coordinate with

                                     agencies responsible for sea turtle management.         Estab-

                                     lish spill monitoring programs where none exist.

                     111221.    Regulate lights, ORV's, foot traffic, beach cleaning equip-

                                ment, sea walls and rip rap, groins and jetties, and beach

                                nourishment projects.

                                Lights cause hatchlings to become disoriented so that they may

                                not reach the sea, and such lighting may discourage nesting

                                females.

                                A.   Determine effects of various wavelengths, light intensi-

                                     ties, and light screening devices on hatchling behavior.

                                B.   Discourage use of lights on nesting beaches during the

                                     nesting season.

                                C.   Develop hatchling rescue contingency plans with agencies,

                                     organizations or individuals in areas where hatchlings

                                     are likely to be disoriented.

                                ORV's, foot traffic and beach cleaning equipment compact

                                sand, crush nests and make ruts which can trap hatchlings.

                                D.   Restrict ORV's and beach cleaning equipment on nesting

                                     beaches during the nesting and hatching seasons.

                                                                                                 159

                                E    Transfer nest to a better site or to a hatchery if pro-

                                     tection of natural nests is impossible (See section 2.5).

                                Sea walls and rip rap prevent adults from nesting by destroy-

                                ing the dune system and eliminating access to nest sites.

                                F.   Prohibit the construction of sea walls and rip rap on

                                     important nesting beaches.

                                Groins, jetties and wave attenuation breakwaters, includ-

                                ing spoil areas designed for that purpose, divert cur-

                                rents and     restrict   natural sand movement.       This could

                                alter   the    suitability    and   accessibility     of    nesting

                                beaches.

                                G.   Careful evaluation of these effects should precede the

                                     permitting and construction of such structures.

                                Beach   nourishment   is   conducted by two means; hydrolic

                                pumping of sand and mechanical transfer with heavy equip-

                                ment.    If   nourishment   is   conducted during the nesting

                                season,   nests will be      smothered.    Sand removal may be

                                detrimental    if   its   source   degrades    adjacent    suitable

                                nesting areas.     Nourishment may create or improve nesting

                                beaches.    However,   this activity is not advocated.         Sand

                                moving equipment to maintain artificial dunes can disrupt

                                existing   nests   or   result in excessive overburden over

                                others.

                                                                                                    160

                                H.   Prohibit to the extent possible all beach nourishment

                                     projects on nesting beaches during the nesting season.

                                I.   Evaluate sites for sand source so to avoid detrimental

                                     effects on the nourished and adjacent nesting beaches.

                                J.   Determine the suitability     of replacement sand for nest-

                                     ing, and modify texture and cohesive nature, if neces-

                                     sary.

                                K.   If prohibition of beach nourishment is impossible relocate

                                     eggs to a safe area or hatchery.

                     111222.    Inform and educate beach users and residents.

                                (See section 2.7).

                     11211.     Implement nest protection comensurate with the degree of pre-

                                dation.

                                Predation on nests and hatchlings varies in severity through-

                                out the range of the species.        Research or management plans

                                should address specific predators and intensity of predation.

                                A.   Quantify the nature and extent of predation on major

                                     nesting beaches.

                                B.   Design and implement plans to mitigate nest losses to

                                     predators.     These might include:       in situ screening,

                                     aversion conditioning, hatcheries, nest transplants or

                                     predator reduction programs. Utilize approved nest man-

                                     agement techniques. (See section 2.5)

                     11311.     Promote legal protection and research throughout the range

                                of the species by encouraging protective management by means

                                of treaties, conventions or councils with other nations. (See

                                sections 1.2, 2.8 and 4.4).

                                                                                                     161

                       11321.     Increase active law enforcement to prevent illegal harvest.

                                  At this time, Federal law enforcement efforts are strained to

                                  cover needs throughout the range of the species.            Increased

                                  coordination with state law enforcement agencies could allevi-

                                  ate this deficiency.

                                  A.    Determine through surveillance and undercover operations

                                        the areas and extent of illegal eggs and turtles.

                                  B.    Schedule basic law enforcement actions (night and day

                                        patrol, aerial patrols, cooperating patrols with other

                                        agencies) to curtail illegal activities.

                                        Conduct public relations campaigns with other agencies to

                                        publicize the   laws  and status of turtles.      (See section

                                                                                        162

                          12. Assess and monitor population
                               levels on beaches

           121. Beach recruitment                    122. Nesting     and/
                                                           or nests

              1211. Determine
                   productivity

                                                               I

                                       1221. Tag or mark         1222. Count nests by aerial
                                              adult                     or ground surveys

                                                                                                     163

                       12.        Assess and monitor turtle population levels on nesting

                                  beaches.

                       1211.      Determine productivity.

                                  An important segment of the green turtle's life history is the

                                  incubation period which begins with egg laying and ends with

                                  the departure of the hatchlings to the sea. Unlike most of a

                                  sea turtle's life history, the incubation period can be real-

                                  istically monitored.

                                  A.   Establish limits for area (km of beach) and/or size

                                       (number of marked nests) of the proposed monitoring

                                       program (see section 2.1 -estimating hatching success).

                                  B.   Determine hatching success.

                       1221.      Tag or mark adult females.

                                  A tagging program.for nesting green turtles must be rigorously

                                  defined and implemented, or the results of the program will be

                                  of little statistical value.

                                  A.   Establish area limits and conduct survey of nesting

                                       females (see section 2.1 - tagging programs for nesting

                                       females).

                                  B.   Use the best available tagging technology (see section

                                       2.2 -tagging technology).

                                  C.@  Continue surveys for a minimum of six years.

                       1222.      Count nests by aerial or ground surveys.       (See 2.1 for Stan-

                                  dardization of methodology).

                                                                                                   13. Mitigat ' factors affecting estuarine
                                                                                                               L
                                                                                                        and marine mortality and/or stress

                                                       131. Habitat alteration                                                                                       132. Human take

                           [131T Physical alteratt   on                        1312.   Chemical alteratiod

                             F                                                                                                            1321. Di ected take
                     13111.  Natura:1       13112. Man-induced
                             I .
                  131111.  Cold-s____j
                                 tunning
                                                                      13121. Regulate petrochemical industry, bilge
                                                                             pumping and industrial effluents

            3111,11. Develop contingency plans
                     to prevent mortality
         F                                                                                            13211. Promote legal protection throughout the                   1322. Incide tal and
                                                                                                              range of the species by encouraging pro-                        accidental take
                                                                                                              tective management by means of treaties,
                              131121. Regulate spoil dumping, oil development                                 convention, or councils with other nations
                                      sea floor mining, and travler-tova and
                                      any other activities which would cause                                                                                                         Oil
                                      deterioration of essential habitat

                                                                                                                                                                   F132231.Regul-te boat speed]
                                                                             F_
                                                              132T]. Fixed gear and                                  13222. Towed gear
                                                            F                            p .1                                                                                      F

                                                                                                                                                   F3224.    Ent inment in ind                  13225. Entrapment by J
                                                                                                                                                             W.trea intakes                             dragheads
                                                                                   F
                                                                                      32211. Regulate fishing methods,
                                                                                             gear, areas and seasons

                                                                                        1322111. Educate and inform                                                      241. Investigate and implement
                                                                                                 fishermen                                                                    means of mitigating mortality
                                                                                                                                                                              from dragheads and industrial
                                                                                                                                                                              water intakes

                                                                                                  165

                     13.        Mitigate factors affecting estuarine and marine mortality

                                and/or stress.

                    1311111.    Develop contingency plans to prevent cold-stunning mortalities

                                (See section 2.6).

                                Where cold-stunning is likely to occur, personnel and facili-

                                ties should be identified for the rapid rescue and holding of

                                turtles.  Such turtles should be held for release until water

                                temperatures are appropriate, or they should be delivered to

                                a suitable area for release.

                     131121.    Regulate spoil dumping, oil development, sea floor mining,

                                trawler tows and any other activities which would cause

                                disruption of essential habitat.

                                Spoil disposal and oil development, if done on grass bed

                                habitats, may destroy turtle feeding areas by smothering

                                plants with sediments or drilling muds.

                                A.   Evaluate sites for disposal of these materials and regu-

                                     late to avoid grass bed habitats.

                                Sea floor mining and trawler gear may disrupt bottom habitat,

                                thus destroying cover, loafing and feeding areas.

                                B.   Locate areas of high turtle utilization that possess a

                                     potential for alteration.

                                C.   Regulate or prohibit these activities on essential

                                     habitats.

                                D.   Establish priorities for areas to be designated as

                                     critical habitat.

                                                                                                166

                   13121.     Regulate petrochemical industry, bilge pumping, and industrial

                              effluents.

                              Compounds associated with these sources of pollution could

                              directly affect turtles or indirectly affect them through the

                              food chain.    These effects can be insidious and difficult to

                              prove, since they often result in reduced reproductive effort.

                              Direct mortality is also difficult to detect in the open

                              ocean.

                              A.   Determine the effects of sewage and industrial

                                   effluents, both acute and chronic, on turtles.

                              B.   Discourage effluent dumping in estuarine and pelagic

                                   areas of turtle utilization.

                              C.   Encourage enforcement of provisions of Laws of the Sea

                                   regarding oceanic pollution and dumping.

                   13211.     Promote legal protection throughout the range of the species

                              by encouraging protective management by means of treaties,

                              conventions or councils with other nations (see Sections

                              1.2, 2.8 and 4.4).

                   132211.    Regulate methods, gear, areas and seasons.

                              Incidental take of marine turtles during commercial fishing

                              activities has been identified as a cause of mortality.

                              A.   Develop resuscitation, handling and relocation metho-

                                   dology for incidentally caught turtles and implement by

                                   rule and regulation (see section 2.4).

                              B.   Investigate and implement fishing methodologies (such as

                                   reduced tow time or curtailment of night fishing) to

                                   mitigate mortality.

                                                                                              167

                             C    Require TED (turtle excluder device) commensurate with

                                  the level of turtle mortality.

                             D.   Establish priorities for designation of critical habitat.

                             E.   Restrict or prohibit certain fishing methods in desig-

                                  nated areas.

                             F.   Prohibit certain types of fishing during specified seasons.

                  1322111.   Educate and inform fishing industry. (see section 2.7)

                  132231.    Regulate boat speed.

                             Boat collisions are a source of mortality in areas of high use

                             by people and turtles.

                             Regulate speed in areas where collisions with turtles are

                             a factor.

                  132241.    Investigate and implement means of mitigating mortality from

                             dragheads and industrial water intake.

                             A.   Assess the extent of entrainment. and mortality.

                             B.   Develop excluder methods.

                             C.   Investigate turtle behavior modifications to exclude

                                  turtles from areas where they may be drawn into intake

                                  pipes.

                             Turtles are entrapped and crushed by the dragheads of com-

                             mercial and government dredges.

                             D.   Investigate and develop modifications to the draghead to

                                  exclude turtles.

                             E.   Remove turtles from the vicinity of dredging operations.

                             F.   Investigate turtle    behavior modification (see step C.

                                  above).

              1                                                                          168

                             G.   Prohibit dredging in areas where turtles are likely to be

                                  taken, and establish priorities for areas to be desig-

                                  nated as critical habitat.

                                                                                                      -N

                                                      14. Assess and monitor population
                                                           levels in estuarine and
                                                           marine waters

                                 141. Coastal stocks                                        142. Open shelf stocks

                                                                                   1421. Assess aerial or other methodologies
                                                                                         and implement if feasible

                  1411. Monitor stran7di@ne@s      1412. Monitor incidental capture           1413. Conduct survey
                                                                                                     where feasible

                                                                                                                                ON

                                                                                                    170

                     14.         Assess and monitor population levels in estuarine and pelagic

                                 waters.

                      1411.      Monitor strandings

                                 An undetermined proportion of green turtles which die in

                                 nearshore waters wash ashore as bloated carcasses.            Carcass

                                 stranding numbers represent a complex interaction of nearshore

                                 population densities and mortality from such disparate causes

                                 as cold stunning and drowning in trawl nets.         Counts of car-

                                 cass strandings provide indices of local mortality, particu-

                                 larly when followed from year to year.

                                 A.   Determine the relationship between beached carcasses and

                                      various causes of death, particularly the proportion of

                                      carcasses resulting from each cause of death.

                                 B.   Monitor continuously the numbers of dead turtles on

                                      beaches, using stranding network procedures which guard

                                      against counting individual carcasses more than once.

                                 C.   Develop a model for total mortalities at sea from strand-

                                      ings.

                      1412.      Monitor on-board captures,

                                 On-board monitoring of incidental captures of green turtles is

                                 the most effective and logical approach to assessing the

                                 impacts of specific fisheries on sea turtle populations. This

                                 will require a solution to the "self incrimination" problem.

                                 A.   Establish     a    statistical    sampling     program     which

                                      considers     the   various    fishing     industries,     their

                                      localities and their seasons of activity.

                                 B.   Monitor capture rates of sea turtles.

                                                                                             171

                           C     Consider the possible, use and reliability of voluntary

                                 self-monitoring, such as incidental take logs, as opposed

                                 to the mandatory placement of observers on-board fishing

                                 vessels.

                1413.      Conduct aerial surveys where feasible.

                           Concentrations of estuarine and pelagic green turtles may be

                           quantifiable with aerial surveys in areas where turbidity of

                           the water is low.

                           Investigate the application of aerial surveys for monitor-

                           ing estuarine and pelagic populations.

                1421.      Assess aerial or other methodologies, and implement if feas-

                           ible.

                           Green turtles are widely distributed in the North Atlantic.

                           The distribution of turtles within their range is not uniform,
                           however, and various methods of estuarine and pelagic survey-

                           ing need to be considered.

                           A.    Continue investigations into aerial surveys as a quanti-

                                 tative off-shore sampling technique.

                           B.    Investigate other methodologies such as SCUBA, submersi-

                                 bles, and underwater cameras for estuarine' and pelagic

                                 sampling.

                                            Green Turtle Implementation Schedule                  172

                    Plan Section                    Lead Agency       Cooperators              Priorities

                    111111 Manage Beaches                   FWS       SCA, NPS, U@ PI)             3
                                                                      DOD, NASA, CG

                    111211   Regulate Petro-              FWS         PWRC, USCG, SCA,             2
                             chemical Industry                        MMS) I, EPA

                    111221   Regulate Beach               FWS         SCA, CZM, COE,               1
                             Disturbance and                          LG, NPS, EPA
                             Manipulations

                    111222   Educate Beach Users          FWS         SCA, NPS, SG, U,             2
                                                                      CG, LG

                    11211    Nest Protection              FWS         SCA, NPS, U, DOD,            1
                                                                      PL, NASA, CG, LG

                    11311    International Agreements     FWS         DS, CG, NMFS                 4

                    11321    Law Enforcement              FWS         SCA, USC, NPS                2
                                                                      NMFS, USCG

                    1211     Determine Productivity       FWS         SCA, NPS, U, PL,             1
                                                                      DOD)  NASA, CG

                    1221     Mark Adult Females           FWS/NMFS    SCA,  NPS, U, PL,            1, 3*
                                                                      DOD,  NASA, CG

                    1222     Count Nests                  FWS         SCA,  NPS, U, PL,            1
                                                                      DOD,  NASA, CG

                    1311111  Cold-Stunning                NMFS        SCA,  U, CG, LG,             3
                                                                      FWS,  NPS, NASA

                    131121   Regulate Sea-Floor           NMFS        COE), SCA, MMS, 1)           3
                             Disturbance                              CZM)  CEQ

                    13121    Regulate Industrial          NMFS        COE,  MMS, CZM, EPA,         2
                             Dumping                                  USCG) CEQ, U, I, SCA

                    13211    International                NMFS        DS, CG, FWS                  3
                             Agreements

                    132211   Regulate Fishing             NMFS        FI, SCA, CG, FWS             1
                             Methodology

                    1322111  Educate Fishing              NMFS        SCA, SG, U, FI, CG           1
                             Industry

                    132231   Regulate Boat                NMFS        SCA, LG, USCG                4
                             Speed

                    *Long-term tagging studies are #1     priority.   New tagging programs lower
                    (0) priority.

                                                                                                  173

                   Plan Section                      Lead Agency      Cooperators                  Priorities

                   132241 Draghead & Water              NMFS          COE@ SCA, I, DOE                 3
                            Intakes

                   1411     Monitor Standings        NMFS & FWS       SCA, CG, U, PI, NPS,             1
                                                                      DOD, NASA, LG, USCG

                   1412     Monitor Incidental       NMFS & FWS       I)- U                            2
                            Captures

                   1413     Conduct Surveys          NMFS & FWS       USCG, MMS, U                     3

                   1421     Asses Survey                N11FS         U, MMS, USCG, FWS                3
                            Methodologies

                   Priorities: 1=highest, 2=high, 3=moderate,       4=low

                                                                                            174

                                                  DEFINITIONS

                    FWS = Fish and Wildlife Service                   SG = Sea Grant

                    NMFS =  National Marine Fisheries Service           U =  Universities

                    DOD  =  Department of Defense                     CG  =  Conservation Groups

                    MMS  =  Minerals Management Service                 I =  Industry

                    COE  =  Army Corps of Engineers                   LG  =  Local Governments

                    NASA =  National Aeronautics and Space Admin.     FI  =  Fishing Industry

                    USCG =  United States Coast Guard                 PI  =  Private Individuals

                    NPS  =  National Park Service

                    CEQ  =  Council on Environmental Quality

                    DS   =  Department of State

                    PWRC =  Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

                    USC  =  United States Customs

                    DOE  =  Department of Energy

                    SCA  =  State Conservation Agencies

                    CZM  =  Coastal Zone Management

                    EPA  =  Environmental Protection Agency

                                                                                        175

                  Explanatory note for nesting distribution maps and tables:

                       1. Density symbols on maps are based on data through

                           1980. Additional years of data were added to tables

                           where possible.

                       2.  Densities which are defined as nests/km on maps

                           should be interpreted as nests/km year. Densities

                           which are defined as Density km in tables should

                           also be interpreted as nest/km year.

                                                                                                 TABLE 6.   FLORIDA
                                                                                          Green  Turtle Nesting Activity

                                       Area                 Years    Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Density           Reference and Remarks

                                 South Volusia Co.,         1980            8               8                4                4           0.5        FDNR 1980
                                 Canaveral National
                                 Seashore                   1975          50                8                2                2           0.3        Ehrhart, 1976

                                                            1976          50              34                 4                4           0.1        Ehrhart, 1990

                                                            1977          50              34                 2                2           0.1

                                                            1978          50              34                23              23            0.7

                                                            1979          50              50                18              18            0.4        Ehrhart, 1979

                                                            1980          50              50                33              33            0.7        FDNR, 1980

                                 Port Canaveral to          1980          21              21                 2                -           0.1        Fritts piers. comm.t
                                 Patrick AFB

                                 Patrick AFB to             1980          19.3            19.3              15                            0.8        Fritts pers. comm.t
                                 Melbourne Beach

                                 Melbourne Beach  to        1980          23              23                107                           4.7        Fritts pers. comm.t
                                 Sebastian Inlet
                                                            1982          20              20                38                            1.9        L. Ehrhart pers. comm.ft

                                 Indian River and           1980          36.8            36.8              65(*)                         1.8        Witham pers. comm.
                                 St. Lucie counties.

                                 Hutchinson Island          1975          36              36                37              37            1.0        Applied Biology, 1979

                                                            1976          36              36                10              10            0.3        FDNR unpubl.

                                                            1977          36              36                 5                5           0.1        Applied Biology, 1979

                                                            1978          36              36                61              61            1.7        FDNR unpubl.

                                                            1979          36              36                15              15            0.4        Applied Biology, 1979

                                                            1980          36              11                14                            1.3        FDNR, 1980

                             Table 6. continued

                                    Area                Years   Km of Beach    Km Monitored      Nest Observed       Nest Est.    Densit Km        Reference and Remarks
                             Hobe Sound NWR             1975        6.4             6.4                20              20             3.1       Hobe Sound NWR unpubl.

                                                        1976        6.4             6.4                  0              0                0

                                                        1977        6.4             6.4                  3              3             0.5

                                                        1978        6.4             6.4                16              16             2.5

                                                        1979        6.4             6.4                  9              9             1.4

                                                        1980        5.6             5.6                23              23             4.1
                             Jupiter Island             1979        12.3            12.3               13              13             1.1       F. Lund unpubl.

                                                        1980        12.3            12.3               39              39             3.2
                             Juno Beach                 1979        1.6             1.6                  7              7             4.3       FDNR unpubl.

                                                        1980        1.6             1.6                  2              2             1.2       11
                             Lost Tree Village          1980        2.8             2.8                16              16             5.7       FDNR, 1980
                             Highland Beach             1980        4.5             4.5                34              34             7.6       11
                             Boca Raton                 1977        4.2             4.2                  0              0                0      Wagner, 1978
                                                        1978        4.2             4.2                17              17             4.1       Wagner, 1979
                                                        1979        4.2             4.2                  6              6             1.4       FOR, 1979
                                                        1980        4.2             4.2                  2              2             0.7       FDNR, 1980
                             Broward Co.                1978          19              19                 1              1             <0.1      Fletemeyer, 1979
                                                        1979          36              36                 6              6             0.2       Fletemeyer, 1980
                                                        1980          37             37.               21              21             1.8       FDNR, 1980

                                  July only; maihly south end of section.
                             Ot)  Estimate for 17 May to 23 August 1982.
                                  Survey every two weeks; total nests not estimated.
                                                                                                                                                                                          @j

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                178
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                179

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                                                                                             181

                                                      3.3

                                       LEATHERBACK TURTLE RECOVERY PLAN

                 I

                                                                                                182

                                                    Introduction

                          The leatherback is the largest living turtle and is so distinctive

                     that it is placed in a separate family, Dermochelyidae.           All other

                     living sea turtles are in the Ch.eloniidae.     The median carapace length

                     in the western Atlantic is approximately 155 cm long, though lengths of

                     close to 183 cm have been recorded.     Unconfirmed records of 240-270 cm

                     leatherbacks are undoubtedly incorrect.       The average adult weight is

                     approximately 360 kgs, and the maximum is about 590 kgs.

                          Whereas other sea turtles have bony plates covered with horny

                     scutes on the carapace, the carapace of the leatherback, distinguished

                     by a rubber-like texture, is somewhat flexible but has seven hard

                     longitudinal ridges.   No sharp angle is formed between the carapace and

                     the much softer plastron, resulting in the animal being somewhat barrel-

                     shaped.  The front flippers are very long and may span 270 cm in an

                     adult specimen.   Both front and hind flippers lack claws. The dominant

                     color of this turtle is black, with varying degrees of white spotting.

                     The undersurface is mostly pinkish-white.

                          Internal anatomy of the leatherback sea turtle is also distinctive.

                     The skeleton of an adult retains many embryonic characteristics found

                     only in hatchlings of other species. For example, the limb bones retain

                     extensive cartilaginous ends, and the skull and pelvis contain so much

                     cartilage that these parts fall apart when the skeleton is dried. The

                     "shell" of the leatherback is about 4 cm thick, and is made primarily of

                     tough, greasy cartilage.    Immediately beneath the carapace skin of an

                     adult  leatherback is     a  continuous   layer of mosaic bones a few

                     millimeters thick; these    bones are enlarged and thickened along the

                     longitudinal ridges.

                                                                                           183

                       Although sometimes seen in nearshore waters, leatherbacks show

                  several pelagic adaptations.    Leatherbacks have anatomical adaptations

                  that could enable them to dive into the cold depths of the ocean or live

                  in near polar latitudes.    Other soft-skinned turtles can exchange gases

                  through their skin.   Leatherbacks probably have the same ability, since

                  they have sphincter muscles in the pulmonary arteries capable of

                  diverting blood from the lungs to the skin.      This species has such an

                  extensive network of superficial capillaries on the underside that the

                  unpigmented areas often ap    .pear pink.   Some evidence indicates the

                  leatherback can maintain its body temperatures considerably above

                  ambient temperature.    In one instance, the deep body temperature of a

                  leatherback was 18*C (32.4'F) above that of the water from which it was

                  taken (Frair et al. 1972). The barrel-shaped body, small surface/volume

                  ratio relative to other sea turtles, and thick cartilaginous shell

                  (which functions as insulation) favor heat retention from muscular

                  activity and minimize heat loss.

                       The oil found within both the skeleton and flesh of the animal is

                  another interesting feature, and several theories about the purpose of

                  this oil have been formulated., A likely explanation is that, as in

                  certain whales, the oil lessens decompression problems during rapid

                  diving and resurfacing.

                       The diet of the leatherback consists primarily of soft-bodied

                  animals such as jellyfish and tunicates, together with associated juve-

                  nile fishes, amphipods and other organism    s.  Attempts to raise hatch-

                  lings artificially and to keep adults in captivity have been largely

                  unsuccessful.   Feeding captive animals is a major problem - starved

                  captives often survive longer than those which are fed.      If given fish

                                                                                                 184

                     to eat, these turtles may become fatally packed with undigested food.

                     In the early 1970s, the Miami Seaquarium maintained leatherback hatch-

                     lings for several months (Witham, 107). Their diet consisted entirely

                     of jellyfish (Cassiopea), and the turtles ate about twice their weight

                     in jellyfish daily.    Phillips (1976) maintained three leatherbacks for

                     eight months on a diet of minced chicken livers. The Seaquarium turtles

                     died, but Phillips released his into the Gulf of Mexico.

                          Another problem with captive leatherbacks is their proclivity for

                     swimming into the walls of the pool or tank in which they are kept.

                     Hendrickson (1980) successfully raised hatchlings to weights of over 9

                     kgm and stipulates that the turtles be kept in a soft-walled tank to

                     prevent serious injury and that all skin injuries be treated with gen-

                     tian violet.   He also specified feeding the young turtles soft food; he

                     suggested chopped squid.    Hendrickson also suggested keeping the tem-

                     perature at a constant 801F (26.7*C), saying that lower temperatures

                     also can lead to death due to intestinal impaction.       However, Phillips

                     kept his specimens at 73.4*F (23'C), saying that it prevented injuries

                     from too much activity.

                          The life history of the leatherback is poorly known since juvenile

                     turtles are rarely observed.

                          Courtship and mating are believed to occur in water adjacent to the

                     nesting beaches just prior to the time of egg laying, but no systematic

                     search for mating pairs during the nesting season has been conducted.

                     Nesting habits of the leatherback turtle are very well known since

                     nesting is the only part of the life cycle easily observed by

                     researchers.   In the northern Atlantic, nesting begins in March and

                     continues into July. Renesting occurs about every ten days and commonly

                                                                                                185

                   occurs six or seven times a season.        Certain females have nested nine

                   times per season (Eckert & Eckert, 1983).      Data on the intervals between

                   nesting seasons is less abundant, but evidence points to alternate year

                   nesting as the norm.

                         Female leatherbacks nest. at night, even in rainy weather, and are

                   not easily perturbed, and they can sometimes be tagged as they first

                   come up out of the sea. Usually the time on shore is lk to 2 hours. In

                   Surinam and French Guiana, an average of 86 normal eggs is laid, plus an

                   average of about 30 smaller yolkless eggs.          The incubation period is

                   about 60 days, and the hatchlings emerge "explosively," usually shortly

                   after dark.

                         Within the Region, leatherbacks nest on St. Croix, Vieques, Culebra

                   Islands and the mid-Atlantic coast of Florida, and there are recent

                   isolated nestings reported from Georgia to North Carolina.               Because

                   leatherback sea turtles are rarely seen away from the nesting beaches,

                   very little is known of their movements.         They occur with sufficient

                   frequency off the Maritime Provinces of Canada, that there may be some

                   migration to these areas.       There have been very few long-distance re-

                   coveries, from tagged individuals.      However, five females, tagged while

                   nesting in Surinam and French Guiana, were recovered later, four near

                   the coasts of New Jersey, South Carolina, Texas and Mexico and one off

                   the coast of Ghana, West Africa, 6,800 kilometers away (Pritchard, 1976).

                   A female tagged on St. Croix was recovered on the coast of New

                   Jersey, 80 days later (R. Boulon, pers. comm.).

                         The deliberate taking of adults constitutes a threat to the spe-

                   cies.   Although their flesh is considered less palatable than that of

                   other turtle species, leatherbacks are eaten in some areas, and a large

                                                                                                   186

                       percentage of nesting turtles are killed for food in the Dominican

                       Republic. Killing leatherbacks for food was a problem in Trinidad until

                       very recently.    Leatherbacks are killed and rendered for oil to treat

                       boat timbers in Arabia and India and for oil to treat respiratory

                       ailments in the British Virgin Islands.       The oil is still bottled and

                       sold by the interisland trading vessels at their ports of call.

                            Wanton slaughter of leatherback sea turtles apparently occurs in

                       Guyana, where the nesting turtles are killed simply because they are

                       believed to be "useless."

                            The greatest threat to this species is egg collecting.        In Mexico,

                       egg collecting is illegal but commonly occurs.        Eggs are harvested in

                       Trinidad, and subsistence take of eggs is high in the Dominican

                       Republic. The    large French Guiana nesting population is thought to be

                       relatively safe  because the beach is inaccessible and few people subsist

                       off the land.    Populations in Surinam, which have adequate protection,

                       have increased   in recent years though for the most part are following

                       erosion of the adjacent French Guiana beaches.              Other causes of

                       mortality for    leatherbacks    are   longlines   (Hildebrand,   1980)    (see

                       section on Incidental Catch) and ingestion of indigestible materials

                       such as plastics (Mrosovsky, 1981).

                            The leatherback turtle was listed as an endangered species by the

                       U.S. Department of Interior in 1970. It is also listed on Appendix I of

                       the Convention on. International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

                       Fauna and Flora (CITES).      This species is protected by law in most of

                       the countries where nesting occurs; however, enforcement of these laws

                       varies with the country.

                                                                                        187

                     1. Primary Objective:   To maintain the leatherback population
                                             at current levels by reducing limiting
                                             factors until a stable or upward trend
                                             can be demonstrated for the St. Croix
                                             population.

              11. Mitigate factors affecting              12. Assess and monitor population
                   terrestrial mortality and/                  levels on beaches
                   or stress

              13. Mitigate factors affecting              14. Assess and monitor population
                   estuarine and marine                        levels in estuarine and marine
                   mortality and/or stress                     waters

                                                                                  11. Mitigating factors affecting
                                                                                       terrestrial mortality and/or
                                                                                       stress

                                                 111. Habitat alteration                                112. Predation

                                       F_                                                        F121- Protect hatchlings
                                1111. Natural]                           1112. Man-induced               during eme
                          F_       --I                                          T            I -
                         Entra              11112. Erosion                          11122. Developmentl                    F
                                                                                                                    11131. Legall                1 1132.  Illegal
                                                          F11121. Exotic vegetation

                                                                                                                                                 1321. Provide active law enforcement
                                              T                                                                                               F         to protect eggs and adultR'
                                 111111. Manage nesting beaThe,

                                     111221. Inform and educate            111222. Control lighting                 11311. Promote legal p;otection throughout the
                                             tourists and other                     nesting beaches                       range of the species by encouraging
                                             potential buye a                                                             protective management by means of treaties,
                                                                                                                          conventions, or councils with other nations

                                                                                                                                                                                  00
                                                                                                                                                                                  00

                                                                                             189

                                            Leatherback Stepdown Plan

                             Primary Objective:   To maintain the leatherback population at

                             current levels by reducing limiting factors until a stable or

                             upward trend can be demonstrated for the U.S. nesting beaches.

                             Mitigate   factors   affecting   terrestrial    mortality and/or

                             stress.

                             Manage nesting beaches.

                             Natural processes sometimes are deleterious to turtle nesting

                             beaches.   An accumulation of storm tossed sand on high energy

                             beaches may bury nests or, conversely, storm waves may expose

                             nests.    South American nesting leatherbacks are sometimes

                             trapped by soft expanses of mud and/or mangrove roots.

                             A.   Assess the vulnerability of nests on St. Croix.

                             B.   Transfer nests on St. Croix to a better site or to a

                                  hatchery if these nests are endangered.

                             C.   The Fish and Wildlife Service should purchase as soon

                                  as possible Sandy Point, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands,

                                  as a refuge for nesting leatherbacks.

                             A great many species of tropical plants are now circumtropical

                             because of the actions of man.       Some of these provide dense

                             masses of roots -or deep shade.     Either of these factors-can

                             interfere with nesting.

                             D.   Monitor for future problems on St. Croix, and control

                                  invasion by such plants.

                             E.   Monitor conservation program established for Vieques

                                  Island as     stated  in the     1981 Sec.   7 Consultation

                                  Proceedings between the Department of Defense, U.S. Navy

                                                                                                       190

                                        and the FWS and NMFS with regard to potential adverse

                                        impacts on the bombing-gunnery range.

                        111222.    Control lighting on nesting beaches.

                                   Development is often detrimental to nesting beaches and pro-

                                   bably poses the greatest threat to the St. Croix and other

                                   populations of leatherbacks.

                                   D.   Develop a plan for handling disoriented hatchlings on St.

                                        Croix beaches.

                                   E.   Control lights and development which affect turtle

                                        nesting beaches.

                        111221.    Inform and educate beach users and residents

                                   (See section 2.7).

                        1121.      Protect hatchlings during emergences.

                                   Predation varies greatly from one geographic region to an-

                                   other.   Populations which nest on oceanic islands have fewer

                                   natural predators than those which nest on mainland beaches or

                                   islands close to the mainland.       The particular problem should

                                   be analyzed and handled by any appropriate means.

                                   Protect hatchlings, as        they    emerge   on   the St. Croix

                                   nesting beaches, with beach patrols.

                        11311.     Promote legal protection throughout range of the species

                                   by encouraging protective management by means of       treaties,

                                   conventions, or councils with other nations.

                                   See Loggerhead step 11311.        The Virgin Islands Code should

                                   be amended to conform with federal law.

                                                                                                 191

                   11321.     Provide active law enforcement to protect eggs and adults.

                              In the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, efforts of FWS

                              agents and NMFS agents can be greatly enhanced by cooperating

                              with the local environmental enforcement staffs.           See 11311

                              above for the need for legislative change.

                                   12. Assess and monitor nesting beaches
                                        and their population levels

                    F121. Beach recruitment                    122. Nesting      and/
                                                                     or nests

                F
                 1211, Determine hatching success

                                             1221. Tag and/or mark               1222.  Count nests by aerial or
                                                    adult                               ground surveys

                                                      1223. Estimate nesting habitat
                                                             by analyzing available data
                                                             and initiating new data gathering
                                                             methodologies

                                                                                                  193

                   12.         Assess and monitor population levels on beaches.

                               The beach at Sandy Point,           St. Croix, offers the best

                               opportunity for an intensive population study because of

                               its location and the resources that are available to do the

                               work.   It is recommended that the population using this beach

                               be used as an "index" for the success of such efforts.           Other

                               beaches in the U.S. Caribbean must be surveyed.

                   1211.       Determine hatching success.

                               Implement a long term project on Sandy Point:

                   1221.       Tag and/or mark adult females.

                               A.   Tag or mark all nesting females on St. Croix.

                               B.   Compile tagging and recapture data.

                               C.   Tag turtles, if possible, that are in the marine Critical

                                    Habitat area.

                   1222.       Count nests by aerial or ground surveys.

                               Aerial counts    may be the most cost ef fective way to count

                               nests in some other geographic areas. The technique has been

                               tried on the Virgin Islands, and an analysis of its

                               effectiveness should be carried out.

                               A.   Survey remote beaches in U.S. jurisdictional area for

                                    presence of nesting.

                               B.   Survey Vieques Island to document all leatherback nests

                                    and to evaluate Naval activities upon nesting success.

                   1223.       Estimate available nesting habitat by analyzing available

                               data and initiating new data gathering devices.

                                                                                     13. Mitigate factors affecting
                                                                               --j        estuarine and marine mortality
                                                                                          and/or stress

                                                                                                                                                  132. Human take

                                                                                                                               1321. DIrect7,d 7tk,-]

                                                                                                                    13211.  Promote legal protection throughout
                                             131. Habitat alteration                                                        the range of the species by
                                                                                                                            encouraging protective management
                                                                                                                            by mans of treaties. conventions
                                                                                                                            or council* with other nations
                                                                                                                            (Section 11311)

                                            1311. Physical alteration                                                                                            1322. Incidental and
                                                                                                                                                                        accidental take

                          13111. Natural
                                                                                                13221. Towed ge-j 113222. Fixed gear & traps
                                                                                                                                                                13223. Boa collisions

                        131111. Storm damage                           13112.
                    1311111. No  Itor coastal               131121. Regulate spoil dumping, a   floor                                                       1.132231. Regulate boat peedl
                                n!                                   mining. harmful fishing p
                             pr.-esses                               and oil spills          ;.actlcts             132211. Regulate methods, gear.
                                                                                                                            areas and seasons
                                                                                                                                                         F-
                                                                                                                                               13224. Entrainment In        13225-  Ear.pZt
                                                                                                                                                                                          She.]
                                                                                                                                                       Industrial                   by dra    d.
                                                                                                                                                       water Intakes

                                                                                                                                                    F132241.  Icnvestigate and monitor the
                                                                                                                                                          I
                                                                                                                                                              a currence of mortality from
                                                                                                                                                     132251   these factors

                                                                                                195

                   13.        Mitigate factors affecting estuarine and marine mortality

                              and/or stress.

                   1311111.   Monitor coastal processes of critical habitat area.

                              Determine    the   beach   dynamics    (lateral sand transport,

                              source of beach renourishment, etc.) of critical habitat

                              areas   to  allow prediction of time necessary for beach

                              rebuilding after destructive effects of sand mining and

                              hurricanes.

                   131121.    Regulate spoil dumping, dredging, seafloor mining, harmful

                              fishing practices and oil spills.

                              The large industrial complexes upstream from critical habitat

                              require channel dredging, maintenance dredging, and spoil

                              disposal.    They also produce large amounts of hot water

                              effluents and occasional oil spills.

                              A.   Prepare a contingency plan between sea turtle pro-

                                   grams and existing plans which have been prepared by the

                                   industries.

                              B.   Enforce the Virgin Islands Code prohibiting the use of

                                   explosives for fishing.

                              C.   Monitor the use of explosives which might occur in the

                                   industrial areas.

                   13211.     Promote legal protection throu&hout the range of the species

                              by means of treaties and conventions or councils shared with

                              other nations

                              (See section 1.2, and section 4).

                   132211.    Regulate methods, gear, areas and seasons.

                                                                                                      196

                                   There are no known interactions between leatherbacks and

                                   fishing gear     in the American Caribbean since there is

                                   virtually no fixed gear and no towed gear used in the local

                                   fisheries.   However, interaction with fixed gear such as long

                                   lines, pot warps and fish traps have been demonstrated in many

                                   other area-s, such as New England.

                                   Address   the    problems    on   an   international    scale     (see

                                   Sec. 13211).

                        132231.    Regulate boat speed.

                                   It is known that boats sometimes kill marine turtles, although

                                   incidents involving leatherbacks in the American Caribbean are

                                   not documented.

                                   Control the speed of boats within the critical habitat

                                   area during the main nesting period.

                       132241.     Investigate and monitor the occurrence of mortality from

                         &         entrainment and entra2ment.

                       132251.     Although both industrial water intakes and the use of drag

                                   heads exist near the critical habitat, no turtle mortalities

                                   from them are documented, but monitoring should take place, as

                                   entrainment of live leatherbacks has been reported in Florida.

                                                        14. Assess and monitor population
                                                             levels in estuarine and marine
                                                            waters

                                   141. Coastal stocks                                   142. Offshore stocks from
                                                                                               10 to the 100
                                                                                               fathom isobath

                                                                                       1421. Assess feasibility and
                                                                                              implement or continue
                                                                                              aerial surveys
                1411. Monitor strandings         1413. Conduct aerial survey
                                                        where feasible

                                 1412. Monitor inci
                                        captures

                                                                                                              198

                         14.         Assess and monitor population levels in estuarine and

                                     marine waters.

                                     No true estuaries occur in the American Virgin Islands, but

                                     some do exist in Puerto Rico.             The clarity of the oceanic

                                     waters in the region makes the possibility of such monitoring

                                     more feasible than in some regions.

                         1411.       Monitor strandings.

                                     Few strandings are observed, but the efforts in sea turtle

                                     conservation by FWS/NMFS and local governments should include

                                     a system for recording these.

                         1412.       Monitor incidental captures.

                                     There is very little chance that a turtle on-board any boat in

                                     the American Caribbean would be there "accidentally."

                                     Enforce laws.

                         1413.'      Conduct aerial survey.where feasible.

                                     Over much of the region the 10 fathom isobath occurs within a

                                     few yards of shore.

                                     A.    Evaluate the effectiveness of aerial surveys.

                                     B.    Combine all available data sources to quantify and map

                                           available feeding areas.

                         1421.       Assess feasibility and continue (or complement) aerial

                                     surveys.

                                     The entire shelf area within the 100 fathom isobath occurs

                                     within a few miles of shore in the American Caribbean, and it

                                     might well be feasible to utilize such means.

                                     Evaluate the data from previous aerial surveys conducted

                                     by the government of the Virgin Islands.

                                                                                                199

                                  Leatherback Implementation Schedule

             Section                       Lead Agenc             Cooperators           Priorities

             111111    Manage nesting         FWS                 DCCA, NMFS,  HOVIC,        2
                       beaches                                    M/M, DNR

             111221    Inform and             DCCA                DCCA, NMFS,  HOVIC,        2
                       educate beach                              M/M, DNR
                       users and
                       residents

             111222    Control lighting       DCCA                FWS, NMFS, HOVIC,          3
                       on nesting beaches                         M/M, DNR

             1121      Protect during.        DCCA                FWS, NMFS                  1
                       emergences

             11311     Promote legal pro-     USDOS               FWS, NMFS                  1
                       tection throughout
                       range of the species
                       by encouraging pro-
                       tective management
                       by means of conventions,
                       treaties, or other
                       councils with other
                       nations.

             11321     Provide active law     FWS                 NMFS, DNR, USDOS,          1
                       enforcement to                             DCCA
                       protect eggs and
                       adults

             1211      Determine hatching     DCCA                FWS, NMFS                  I
                       success

             1221      Tag and/or mark        DCCA                FWS, NMFS, DOS             1
                       adult females

             1222      Count nests by         DCCA, DNR           FWS, NMFS, DOS             .1
                       aerial or ground
                       surveys

             1223      Estimate available     DCCA, DNR           FWS, NMFS, DOS             1
                       nesting habitat by
                       analyzing available
                       data and initiating
                       new data gathering
                       methodologies

                                                                                                 200

                 Section                           Lead Agency        Cooperators           Priorities

                 1311111    Coastal processes       DCCA, DNR         FWS, NMFS                  3
                            of critical habitat

                            area

                 131121     Regulate spoil          DCCA, DNR         FWS, NMFS, HOVIC,          2
                            dumping, dredging                         M/M, ACE, EPA
                            seafloor mining
                            harmful fishing
                            practices and oil
                            spills

                 13211      Promote legal pro-      USDOS             NMFS, FWS                  1
                            tection throughout
                            the range of the
                            species by means of
                            treaties and conven-
                            tions or councils
                            shared with other
                            nations

                 132211     Regulate methods,       DCCA, DNR         NMFS, USCG,                4
                            gear areas and
                            seasons

                 132231     Regulate boat speed     DCCA, DNR         NMFS, USCG,                4

                 132241     Investigate and         DCCA, EPA,        ACE) 1                     2
                   +        monitor the occurance       DNR
                 132251     of mortality from
                            entrainment and
                            entrapment

                 1411       Monitor strandings      FWS, NMFS         DCCA, DNR                  4

                 1412       Monitor incidental      DCCA, DNR,        USCG                       3
                            captures                NMFS

                 1413       Conduct aerial          DCCA, DNR         NMFS, FWS, USCG            2
                            survey where feasible

                 1421       Assess feasibility      DCCA, DNR         TJSCG                      4
                            and continue (or
                            complement) aerial
                            surveys

                                                                                        201

                                                 DEFINITIONS

                              PRIORITIES ranked 1-4 with 1 being the highest

                           NMFS = National Marine Fisheries Service

                           FWS = Fish and Wildlife Service

                           USCG = U.S. Coast Guard

                           DCCA = Department Conservation & Cultural Affairs
                                  Virgin Islands Government

                           DNR =  Department of Natural Resources
                                  Government of Puerto Rico

                           HOVIC= Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corporation

                           M/M =  Martin Marietta

                           USDOS= U.S. Department of State

                           ACE =  Army Corps of Engineers

                           USN =  U.S. Navy

                           EPA =  Environmental Protection Agency

                                                                                            202

                      Explanatory note for nesting distribution maps and tables:

                           1. Density symbols on maps are based on data through

                               1980. Additional years of data were added to tables,

                               where possible.

                           2.  Densities which are defined as nests/km on maps

                               should be interpreted as nests/km year. Densities

                               which are defined as Density km in tables should

                               also be interpreted as nest/km year.

                                                                                                          TABLE 7. FLORIDA
                                                                                                 Leatherback Turtle Nesting Activity

                                       Area                 Years         Km of Beach      Xm Monitored         Nest Observed          Nest Est.           Reference and Remarks
                                Indian River-               1980                36.8             36.8                  2
                                St. Lucie Co.                                                                                                              Witham
                                Sebastian Inlet S.P.        1975                13.7             13.7                  1                   1               Caretta Research, Inc.
                                Hutchinson Island           1975                36.3             36.3                  .1                  1               Applied Biology, 1979
                                                            1977                36.3             36.3                  2                   2
                                                            1979                36.3             36.3                  7                   7
                                                            19,90               11.3             11.3                  4                   4               Florida ONR, 1980
                                Hobe Sound NWR              1977                6.4              6.4                   4                   4               Hobe Sound NWR
                                                            1978                6.4              6.4                   2                   2               ff
                                Jupiter Island              1979                12.3             12.3                  3                   3               F. Lund, unpub.
                                                            1980                12.3             12.3                  1                   1
                                Juno Beach                  1979                1.6              1.6                   2                   2               Florida DNR,  1980
                                                            1980                1.6              1.6                   1                   1
                                Boca Raton                  1977                4.2              4.2                   1                   1               Wagner, 1978
                                                            1979                4.2              4.2                   7                   7               Florida ONR, 1980
                                Lost Tree Village           1980                2.8              2.8                   3                   3

                                    R. Witham, pers. comm. Nest counts every two weeks; not estimated.

                                                                                                                                                                               204

                                                                                                          NESTING
                                                                                                          FREQUENCIES
                                    @2 -Ew-              PELICAN ISLAND NA110MAl
                                        @N                WILDLIFE REI(M                                  (Leatherbacksl
                                        ki.
                         a 4rOS
                                  -                             GdCh                0      2    Indian River to St Lucie Co.)
                                           I V
                                                L    Gill,
                                 317     --38        39
                                            I  @e re 10 ie@i c h
                                                                                                                             LEGEND
                                                          Del

                                                           Vi                                                                   0-2 NESTS/YR.
                                                              Luca          Pierce I'dw                                    0 2.1-3 NESTS/YR.
                                                         or
                                                                c
                                                               A                                                                3.1-4 NESTS/YR.

                                                                                            103.5
                                                                 C y           -t

                                                                                         all

                                                                                                         3 (Hobe Sound N W R)
                                                   -K-R        T              Gom. q,
                                                                                 RAP, T
                                                                                                Sound

                                           Ind fine
                                                                             rA

                                         May-.
                                                                                                  Jupiter Ink I coldiry
                                                                                          Ju
                       OBEE

                         Canal Posn,'                                                                u                 1.5
                        Paholiev,                                                                                          3(Lost Tree
                                                                       L   HArCHEE                     IN  Im Beach
                                                                            SLOUCH                    ke ark                  Village Beach)
                                                                                    -7                 vie Beach
                                                                                                k

                                                                               WE               AC
                                                                                                       Pat I Beach
                              Bel  G                   CA                                                                                      N
                                                                                       Lake I
                                                                             H
                                                                                 1.      ity           ked orth
                           in"An'.                                              G.              ree  I   III
                                                                                                      P.1- 8-h

                                                                                                      Maine intent
                                                                     NA 0 AL                          Seea, L- WI
                                                                                                      [.Art
                                                                                                     Ocian Fhda.

                                                                                                     ulf Stn am

                                                                                                      Iray Beach
                                                                                                                               0        5        10               20MI.
                                                     Fla.                                          Highland Beach                        SCALE= 1: 500,000
                                                                                                                           4 (Boca
                                                                                                  oca atcn
                                                                                                  18?-                        Raton)
                                                                                   17-117-           rfield-Peac
                                                                                                          in
                                                                                                k.01.   as
                                                                              RDT.n   Ua

                                                                                           TABLE B. PUERTO RICO AND U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
                                                                                                  Leatherback Turtle Nesting Activity

                                       Area                  Years         Km of Beach      Km Monitored         Nest Observed           Nest Est.           Reference and Remarks

                                 Sandy Point,                1981                2.4              2.4                   31                 129               Eckert, S.A., et al. 1983
                                    St. Croix, USVI

                                                             1982                2.4              2.4                   86                  86

                                                             1983                2.4              2.4                   113                113               Eckert, S.A., and
                                                                                                                                                             K.L. Eckert pers. comm.

                                 Playa Brava                 1983                1.6              1.6                   37                  -                Caribbean Islands NWR
                                    Culebra NWR                                                                                                                  memorandum of 5 Dec. 1983

                                 Playa Resaca                1983                1.6              1.6                   22
                                    Culebra NWR

                                 Isla Mona                                       ---              ---                   --                                   Pritchard, P.C.H., pers. comm.
                                    Puerto Rico***

                                 Isle Vieques***             ----                ---              ---                                                        Pritchard, P.C.H., pers. comm.
                                    Puerto Rico

                                     continuous nightly patrols

                                      22 daytime patrols distributed from 31 March to 10 July

                                       detailed information on nesting is unavailable

                                                                                                                                                                                                   0
                                                                                                                                                                                                   Ln

                                                                                                                                                     01118 Hooo Loft klood

                                                                         ISLA DE CULEBRA                             S.If C.1
                                                                P..ft do M.11".V%. Marto                                                          C""Lo
                                                                                                                                                                        CR6 BAY
                                                                                                10 0 Co.".                  SAINT
                                                                                                                             THOMAS                 L-9          I,        pl.
                                                                                                                                                                LIM SWM
                                                                                                                                                               J- I..     SAINT JO
                                                                                 Pwto diN Soldodo

                                                                                      p ato

                                                                                         pooft too

                                           r                    ISLAND OF VIEQUES                                                                                N

                                                                  The
                                             VIRGIN ISLANDS
                             NESTING LOCATIONS for
                                                LEATHERBACKS

                                                                                                                                                           SAINT CROIX

                                                                                                                                               FREOERIKSTKO
                                                                                                                                    - @01
                                                                                                                                                                      C G"
                                                                                                                                                                           :,. ` zp`

                                    Ile,

                                                                                                                                             S..d, Pf                pf,

                                                                                             207

      1

                                                    3.4

                                      HAWKSBILL TURTLE RECOVERY PLAN

     I

                                                                                              208

                                                     Introduction

                           The hawksbill has a circumglobal distribution, with separate though

                      inadequately defined subspecies occurring in the tropical waters of the

                      Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans, mostly on coral reefs.       Within the

                      region, it is extremely rare north of southern Florida.

                           This small turtle averages about 45 kg when mature and uses its

                      strong, narrow beak to feed on both plant and animal material.         Like

                      other marine turtles, it sometimes feeds on jellyfish and often on

                      sponges and other sessile organisms.

                           The hawksbill, more than any other species, has been implicated in

                      poisonings of people who eat turtle flesh both in the Atlantic and

                      Indo-Pacific regions. The clinical symptoms as well as the temporal and

                      geographic distribution of such outbreaks are very similar to the fish

                      poisoning known as ciguatera.    Most researchers hypothesize that some

                      item (algae or sponges) in the diet of the turtle produces the toxin.

                           Hawksbill migrations are poorly known.      Carr and Stancyk (1975)

                      suggest that at Tortuguero beach in Costa Rica the female hawksbill

                      "probably nests at least twice during a given season and then returns

                      to foraging grounds."   The scarce data do not permit estimation of the

                      internesting period but do suggest that the period may be more than two

                      weeks, longer than the internesting period of any other sea turtle.

                      Carr's tag recoveries indicate female hawksbills move long distances,

                      but recoveries are too few to answer questions about migrations.

                                                                                         209

                      Hawksbills throughout most of their range (at least in the Atlantic

                 subspecies) nest on small islets and on isolated mainland shores.

                 Females may clamber over reefs, rocks or rubble to nest among the roots

                 of trees and bushes on the chosen beach.    This isolated nesting offers

                 some degree of protection from predation. Few large, easily discernible

                 nesting colonies are known. Somewhat heightened nesting density, amount-

                 ing to incipient aggregation, occurs in a few places, such as the San

                 Blas Islands and Bastimento region of Panama (Carr et al., 1982 and Tovar,

                 1971), islets off the Coast of Nicaragua (Nietschmann and others, pers.

                 comm.), Isla de Pinos, Cuba (Ubeda, 1973), perhaps Mona Island off Puerto

                 Rico (T. Carr, 1974; Jean Thurston, pers. comm.) and the Grenadines

                 (Melvin Goodman and others, pers. comm.).     At Tortuguero, Costa Rica,

                 nests are somewhat less frequent than they are to the south between

                 Puerto Limon and the Panamanian border, but the Tortuguero nesting ground

                 is fairly typical of the Caribbean shore as a whole.

                      The demand for the highly attractive shell is the most serious

                 threat to the hawksbill.    The most intensive threat to the hawksbill

                 comes from the harvest of adult hawksbills for the Japanese tortoise

                 shell trade, (T.Carr, 1974).      Since 1965, the Japanese imported a

                 minimum of 370,000 kg of hawksbill shell from wider Caribbean countries.

                 Between 1981 and 1983, over 45,000 kg were imported from 21 different

                 countries (see Table 9).   Prices paid for preferred shell in Japan have

                 been as high as $225 per kilogram.     The shell of one adult hawksbill

                 weighs between 1.5 and 205 kg.     A more recent threat comes from the

                 growing curio trade in stuffed juvenile hawksbills.

                                                                                           210

                           The meat and eggs of hawksbill are eaten almost everywhere, but it

                      is the international demand for the shell and whole, stuffed specimens

                      that threatens the existence of this species.

                                                                                                  211

                                                      Table 9

                            Japanese and West German Imports of Raw Hawksbill Shell
                                        from Wider Caribbean Countries*

                                                           Quantity (kilograms)

                   Country of Export          1981             1982              1983       Total

                   ------------------------------------------------------------------------

                   Antigua and Barbuda            0                0                49         49
                   Bahamas                        29             728                 0        757
                   Barbados                       0               11                 0         11
                   Belize                         0              702               538      1,240
                   Cayman Islands             3,022            2,258                 0      5,280
                   Dominica                       60              39                40        139
                   Costa Rica                   234               79                 5        318
                   Cuba                       2,650            6,933             5,017      14,600
                   Dominican Republic           357              872               248      1,477
                   Fr. West Indies              231              215                 0        446
                   Grenada                        7                0                 0            7
                   Haiti                        892            1,188             1,788      3,868
                   Honduras                     481              636             1,886      3,003
                   Jamaica                      487            1,652               709      2,848
                   Mexico                         0                0                36         36
                   Nicaragua                    475              417                 0        892
                   Panama                     3,011            2,243             3,889      9,143
                   St. Lucia                    267              270               362        899
                   St. Vincent                    4               85               108        197
                   Trinidad                       0                0               329        329
                   United States                  0                0                22         22

                   ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   Total                      12,207           18,328            15,026     45,561

                   *Sources: Boeki Geppyo, Ministry of Finance, Japan
                              1981 and 1982  West German CITES Annual Report**

                        1981 West German CITES Annual Report listed imports of 4 kg. from
                        St. Vincent and 68 kg. from Jamaica.
                        1982 West German CITES Annual Report listed imports of 49 Kg. from
                        St. Vincent and 153 kg. from West Germany.

                                                                                            212

                            1. Primary Objective: To restore and maintain Hawksbill
                                                  populations commensurate with
                                                  existing habitat

               11. Mitigate factors affecting
                   terrestrial mortality and/or                12. Assess and monitor population
                   stress                                          levels on beaches

               13. Mitigate factors affecting                  14. Assess and monitor population
                    estuarine and marine                            levels in estuarine and marine
                    mortality and/or stress                         waters

                                                                              11. Mitigating factorT,;ffecting
                                                                                   terrestrial morta  y and/or
                                                                                   stress

                                              11.  Habitat                                         112. Predation

                                                                                              1121. Protect hatch
                                                                     1112. Man-induced              during emerge
                                                                                                                            F113.

              11111. Entrapment         11112. Erosion                         11122. D velopment

                                                                                                                1131. Legal                   1132. Illegal
                                                       11121. Exotic vegetation

                                                                                                                                                  to protect eggs and adultil'
                                                                                                                                         F  321. Provide active law enforcement
                               1111. Manage nesting beache
                          F-11

                                 111221. Inform and educate            111222. Control lighting on              311. Promote legal protection throughout the
                                         tourists and other
                                         potential buyers                       nesting beaches                      range of the species by encouraging
                                                                                                                     protective management by means of treaties,
                                                                                                                     conventions, or councils with other nations
                                   La t_r. I

                                                                                                        214

                                                     HAWKSBILL STEPDOWN PLAN

                         1.         Primary Objective:     To restore and maintain hawksbill popu-

                                    lations commensurate with existing habitat.

                                    The attainment of this objective requires the following in-

                                    formation:    1) The amount of existing habitat in terms of

                                    feeding areas and/or nesting areas, 2) the carrying capacity

                                    of the habitat and 3) population estimates that indicate the

                                    relationship of populations to the habitat.

                         11.        Mitigate factors affecting terrestrial mortality and/or

                                    stress.

                         111111.    Manage nesting beaches.

                                    Hawksbills probably are naturally resilient to entrapment,

                                    erosion and other natural habitat alterative factors.

                                    Monitor the extent to which entrapment and erosion occur

                                    in a manner that affects the hawksbill.

                         111221.    Inform and educate tourists and other potential buyers.

                                    (See section 2.7).

                         111222.    Control lighting on nesting beaches.

                                    (See leatherback step 111222).

                         1121.      Protect hatchlings with beach patrols during emergences.

                                    (See leatherback step 1121).

                                                                                                215

                   11311.     International Efforts.

                              Human take is the single most devastating factor in the

                              decimation of hawksbills.     The economic value of its shell is

                              such   that controlling      its  commercialization in foreign

                              countries will be even more difficult than controlling the

                              poaching of ivory (see sections 1.2, 2.7, 2.8 and 4).

                   11321.     Provide active law enforcement to protect eggs and adults.

                              In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as the

                              continental U.S., local enforcement officers are well equipped

                              to cooperate with Fish and Wildlife Service and National

                              Marine Fisheries Service special agents in the field. The most

                              important and cost effective protection can be provided by

                              U.S. Customs Agents.     In areas which are not under the U.S.

                              jurisdiction, the problems are much more complex and must be

                              solved through regular diplomatic channels.

                                     12. Assess and monitor nesting beaches
                                          and their population levels
                                   r                     I                                                            I.
                     E121- Beach recruitmen7]t                      122. Nesting       and/
                                                                          or nests

                  1211. Determine hatching success

                                                1221. Tag and/or ma.                   1222. Count nests by aerial or
                                                        adult                                  ground surveys

                                                         11223.  Estimate nesting habitat
                                                                 by analyzing available data
                                                                 and initiating new data gathering
                                                                 methodologies
                                -T

                                                                                                                                          Ila

                                                                                                217

                     12.       Assess and Monitor Nesting Beaches and Their Population Levels.

                     1211.     Determine hatching success.

                               A. Select certain "indicator" sites where resources exist

                                   to carry out long range monitoring programs in the

                                   American Caribbean and at Tortuguero (Costa Rica).

                               B.  Incorporate monitoring efforts with research programs

                                   in the American Caribbean and at Tortuguero and Panama.

                     1221.     Tag and/or mark adult females.

                               (See 1211 above).

                     1222.     Count nests by aerial or ground surveys.

                     1223.     Estimate available nesting habitat by analyzing available data

                               and initiating new datagathering methodologies.

                               A.  Gather statistical information through international

                                   conferences.

                               B.  Investigate remote sensing techniques (satellite and

                                   aircraft) to inventory habitat.

                                                                                              13. Mitigate factors affecting
                                                                                                   estuarine at, d Mari...
                                                                                                   and/or stress

                                                                                                                                                                 132. Human take

                                                                                                                                13211.   promote legal protection throughout
                                                   131. Habitat alteration                                                               the range of the species by
                                                                                                                                         encouraging protective management
                                                                                                                                         by mans of treaties, conventions
                                                                                                                                         or councils with other nations
                                                                                                                                         (Section 11311)

                                                  1311. Physical alteration                                                                                                      1322. Incidental and
                                                                                                                                                                                         accidental take

                            113111. Natural                                                               113221.   owed ge       13222. Fixed gear & trapal
                                      I     :j                                                                                                                                  13223. Boat collisions
                          [131111.    Storm da                                 13112. Man-I ducaJ                   I                           I                                           I
                                      I                                                  I                                                                                  FL 32231. Regulate7@7t 7,pedl
                       1311111. Monitor coastal                    131121. Regulate spoil dumping. a   ;a floor
                                 p
                                      -esses                                 mining. harmful fishing   p
                                    ro,                                      and oil spills            rac'tib.                132211. Regulate methods. ge
                                                                                                                                         areas and sea

                                                                                                                                                                24. Entrainment in                    Entr;apment
                                                                                                                                                                      Industrial                      by d gbea
                                                                                                                                                                      water Intakes         F@

                                                                                                                                                                    132241. Inve tigate and monitor the
                                                                                                                                                                      &       occu:rence of mortal Ity from
                                                                                                                                                                     132251.  these factors
                                                                                                                                                                                   32@21.n
                                                                                                                                                                                 I       .  ci
                                                                                                                                                                                           cc
                                                                                                                                                                            113223*      a  at

                                                                                                                                                                                                                  00

                                                                                                219

                   13.        Mitigate factors affecting estuarine and marine mortality

                              and/or stress.

                   1311111.   Monitor coastal processes affecting critical habitat areas.

                              See leatherback section 1311111.

                   131121.    Regulate spoil dumping, seafloor mining, harmful fishing

                              practices and oil spills.

                              (See leatherback step 131121).

                   13211.     Enhance local law enforcement efforts and promote legal pro-

                              tection throughout the range of the species by means of

                              treaties and conventions or councils with other nations.

                              Taking of hawksbill for shell products is the most serious

                              factor in the depletion of this species. In much of its range,

                              its economic value is a major component of fishing efforts.

                              In the American Caribbean, the high value of the shell encourages

                              poaching and smuggling. The nearby non-U.S. islands offer easy

                              markets for illegal shell (see sections          1.2, 2.8   and 4).

                   132211.    Regulate methods, gear, areas and seasons.

                              A.    Investigate incidental catch and other. potential losses.

                              13.   Take appropriate actions at local and international

                                    levels, as needed.

                   132231.    Regulate boat speed.

                              Sea turtles are sometimes killed in nearshore waters.

                              Enforce    harbour and inland water regulations on boat

                              speeds..

                                                                                                    220

                       132241.    Investigate and monitor the occurrence of mortality from

                         +        entrainment and entrapment.

                       132251.    All states with approved Coastal Zone Management Plans should

                                  investigate entrainment and entrapment.

                                  Modify structural designs and initiate control measures,

                                  as needed.

                                                          14. Assess and monitor population
                                                               levels in estuarine and marine
                                                               waters

                                                                                             142. Offshore stocks from
                                   141. Coastal stocks                                             10 to the 100
                                                                                                   fathom isobath

                                                                                           1421. Assess feasibility and
                                                                                                   implement or continue
                                                                                                   aerial surveys
                1411. Monitor str=andings                 Conduct aerial survey,
                                                         where feasible

                                  1412. Monitor incide6tal
                                        captures                                   14131. Estimate the feeding
                                                                                     &     areas by analyzing available
                                                                                   14211.  information and initiating new
                                                                                           data gathering methodologies

                                                                                                       22.2

                       14.        Assess and monitor population levels in estuarine and marine

                                  waters.

                       1411.      Determine the need to monitor strandings.

                       1412.      Determine the need to monitor incidental captures.

                       1413.      Conduct surveys if feasible.

                                  Of all marine turtle species this one offers the best chance

                                  for such assessment and monitoring. The shallow reef habitat

                                  and unusual clarity of reef waters, coupled with narrow in-

                                  sular shelves, lend themselves to the possibility of assess-

                                  ment from the air and in estuarine and marine waters, particu-

                                  larly the reefs off West Palm Beach, Florida, the waters off

                                  Mona Island, Puerto Rico, and the Magens Bay area off Saint

                                  Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands (see step 1223 and leather-

                                  back plan).

                       1421.      Assess feasibility and implement or continue aerial surveys

                                  (see leatherback steps 1413 and 1421).

                       14131      Estimate the feeding areas by analyzing available information

                         +        and initiating new data gathering methodologies.

                       14211.

                                                                                                 223

                                         Hawksbill Implementation Schedule

                    Section               Lead Agency         Cooperators               Priorities

                    111111  Manage nesting     FWS          DCCA, DNR, HOVIC, M/M              4
                            beaches

                    111221  Inform and         FWS          NMFS, DCCA, DNR, HOVIC/            1
                            educate tourists                DOSY M/M
                            and other
                            potential buyers

                    111222  Control light-     FWS          NMFS, DCCA, DNR, HOVIC             3
                            ing on nesting                  DOS, M/M
                            beaches

                    1121    Protect hatch-     FWS          NMFS, DCCA, DNR,                   I
                            lings with beach                DOS
                            patrols during
                            emergencies

                    11311   International      DOS          NMFS-FWS                           I
                            efforts

                    11321   Provide active     FWS          NMFS-DCCA, DNR,                    1
                            law enforcement                 DOS
                            to protect eggs
                            and adults

                    1211    Determine          FWS          NMFS-DCCA, DNR-DOS                 1
                            hatching success

                    1221    Tag and/or         FWS          NMFS-DCCA, DNR-DOS                 I
                            mark adult
                            females

                    1222    Count nests        NMFS         FWS-DCCA, DNR-DOS                  1
                            by aerial or
                            ground surveys

                    1223    Estimate           NNFS         FWS-DCCA, DNR-DOS                  I
                            available nesting
                            habitat by analyzing
                            available data and
                            initiating new data
                            gathering methodologies

                    1311111 Monitor coastal NMFS            FWS-DCCA, DNR                      3
                            processes affecting
                            critical habitat

                            areas.

                                                                                                      224

                       131121   Regulate spoil     DCCA-DNR     NMFS-ACE                           2
                                dumping, seafloor
                                mining, harmful
                                fishing practices
                                and oil spills

                       13211    Enhance local      DOS          NMFS-FWS                           I
                                law enforcement
                                efforts and promote
                                legal protection

                       132211   Regulate           NMFS         DCCA-FWS                           4
                                methods, gear,
                                areas and seasons

                       132231   Regulate boat      NMFS         DCCA-FWS                           4
                                speed

                       132241   Investigate and NMFS            DCCA, DNR, ACE                     4
                                monitor the occur-
                                rence of mortality
                                from entrainment
                                & entrapment

                       1411     Determine          NMFS         DCCA-DNR                           4
                                the need to
                                monitor strand-
                                ings

                       1412     Determine the      NMFS         DCCA-DNR, DOS                      4
                                need to monitor
                                incidental captures

                       1413     Conduct surveys NMFS            DCCA-DNR, DOS                      1
                                if feasible

                       1421     Assess feasi-      NMFS         DCCA-DNR,DOS                       1
                                bility and
                                implement or
                                continue aerial
                                surveys

                       14131    Estimate           NMFS         DCCA-DNR, DOS                      3
                          +     Feeding Areas
                       14211

                                                                                        225
                                                  Acronyms

                              PRIORITIES ranked 1-4 with I being the highest.

                 NMFS = National Marine Fisheries Service

                 FWS   = Fish and Wildlife Service

                 USCG  = U.S. Coast Guard

                 DCCA  = Department Conservation & Cultural Affairs
                         Virgin Islands Government .

                 DNR   = Department of Natural Resources
                         Government of Puerto Rico

                 HOVIC = Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corporation

                 M/M   = Martin Marietta

                 DOS   = U.S. Department of State

                 ACE   = Army Corps Engineers

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                                                                                         227

                                                     3.5

                                    KEMP'S RIDLEY TURTLE RECOVERY PLAN

                                                                                               228

                                                     Introduction

                           Nesting Kemp's ridleys concentrate at a single beach.      This beach

                      is adjacent to Barra Coma, a sandbar on the coast of the Mexican State

                      of Tamaulipas near the village of Rancho Nuevo, Municipio de Aldama.

                      Almost the entire reproductive effort of Kemp's ridley occurs within

                      four miles north and one mile south of Barra Coma. The location of the

                      nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo is 23*10'00" to            23*18'10" north,

                      97*45'30" to 97045'45" west.

                           Records of nesting away from this area are rare.       However, a few

                      individuals have nested on Padre Island, Texas (e.g. Werler 1951), and

                      Carr (1961) reported sporadic nesting in the vicinity of Alvarado,

                      Nautla, Anton Lizardo, and Montepio, Veracruz, Mexico.      Even though an

                      individual, tagged while nesting at Rancho Nuevo on 28 May 1966, atypi-

                      cally nested again on 16 June 1971 at Playa de Guachaca, Colombia

                      (Chavez and Kaufmann, 1974), there is considerable doubt about this

                      record and the nesting range of Kemp's ridley undoubtedly is effectively

                      limited to the immediate vicinity of Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico as

                      described above.    No concrete data indicate that Kemp's ridleys ever

                      nested except rarely at Padre Island; however, Hildebrand (pers. comm.)

                      reported unsubstantiated rumors of aggregated nesting at -that location

                      around the turn of the century.         In exceptional years, when the

                      population of this species numbered at least in the tens of thousands,

                      sections   of   the   main  nesting aggregation--or even       the   entire

                      aggregation- -possibly responded to unusual current or climatic condi-

                      tions or simply missed the usual cues and beached on Padre Island.

                      However, Padre Island probably never harbored a discrete nesting colony

                      genetically isolated from the group that nests near Rancho Nuevo.

                                                                                             229

                        The abiotic environment of the nesting beach appears conducive to

                   nesting success.   In a few areas, turtles probably encounter and have

                   difficulty ascending low cliffs.    Some  parts of the beach are scattered

                   with small rocks and boulders, but these are minor factors and probably

                   never prevent eventual egg laying.     Similarly, the offshore environment

                   appears satisfactory.   The beach is generally stable, and loss of eggs

                   by erosion is not known.

                        The vegetation of the berm of the nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo

                   consists of railroad vine (Ipomoea) and other primary succession

                   specie3.  The dune itself is well vegetated with a climax community of

                   shrubs, scrub and some small trees.       However, neither berm nor dune

                   vegetation appears to hinder nesting turtles.

                        No data are available on destruction of Lepidochelys nests by

                   excessive rainfall or saltwater inundation at Rancho Nuevo, but

                   hurricane generated tides flooded the hatcheries in 1982 and 1983.

                   Mexican conservation crews have at times felt that eggs in the

                   kempi hatchery were liable to suffer from dehydration when surface

                   sand became exceedingly desiccated during drought conditions, and in

                   some cases applied fresh water to the sand surface to remedy this.

                   But both the problem and the solution were intuitive rather than

                   demonstrable.

                        The two primary biotic factors affecting the nesting success of

                   turtles on the beach are:       1) egg predation, especially by coyotes

                   (Canis latrans) and 2) egg predation by humans.        Efforts to mitigate

                   both of these factors began about 1965.      Since 1978 U.S. personnel and

                   equipment havr@   assisted with these      efforts.    If a nest is not

                   translocated to the protected hatchery area, one of these predators is

                                                                                                  230

                      likely to destroy the nest. However, under appropriate wind conditions,

                      some natural nests survive at Rancho Nuevo.        For example, in 1979, 23

                      nests could not be located for transplant and apparently were not

                      destroyed by predators.

                           Rancho Nuevo is a wilderness beach, so there are no problems with

                      beach clean-up equipment, beach nourishment or human foot traffic.

                      Under the present management policies of moving eggs, problems with

                      roots of plants encroaching on nest cavities, or nest destruction by

                      later nesting turtles, do not arise.      Presently there are no buildings

                      on the beachfront except the turtle conservation camp at Barra Coma,

                      situated behind a high sand dune.      Agricultural practices, grazing and

                      charcoal burning near the beach have not affected the suitability of the

                      beach for turtle nesting.      Cattle walking on the beach, however, may

                      represent a sporadic or localized effect to nests still in situ.

                            The present management technique of moving eggs to a protected

                      hatchery and maintaining beach patrols every day of the season appears

                      to be adequate, but such measures cannot be relaxed in the foreseeable

                      future.    For example, when observers were late getting to the beach

                      in 1983, poaching again became a problem until the patrols were set up

                      and aerial flights were again used to monitor the beach. I

                            Juveniles of Kemp's ridley are more often seen in U.S. waters

                      than the adults.     Indeed, for many years only subadults were known to

                      the scientific world.      Young Kemp's ridleys are sometimes lost when

                                                                                            231

                  they fail to remain in or close to the Gulf Stream and drift across

                  the Atlantic, where they may be washed up on the shore of Ireland,

                  Great Britain, and northern Europe (Brongersma, 1972). Such individuals

                  probably never return to the breeding population, and although live

                  specimens are sometimes found, the majority are feeble or dying, particu-

                  larly in the winter months. Some areas of regular occurrence of juvenile

                  Kemp's ridley in U.S. waters are known, but this phase of the life history

                  requires extensive further investigation.

                       Juvenile and subadult Kemp's ridleys may die during cold spells,

                  though quantitative information on natural cold-stunning on this is not

                  currently   available.    However, Ehrhart (in press) documents the

                  hypothermic stunning of two Kemp's Ridleys, in Banana River and Mosquito

                  Lagoon, Florida, in 1977 and 1981. Lazell (1976) attributes mortality of

                  several juvenile ridleys in New England waters to trawler drownings, and

                  Carr (1957) mentions a virtual hegira of subadult ridleys from Vineyard

                  Sound in the 1930s, dozens of which died on Woods Hole beaches.

                       Juvenile ridleys probably are caught regularly by shrimpers, but

                  recent data on this are hard to quantify since shrimpers stand in viola-

                  tion of the law even if they catch a ridley accidentally.           Offshore

                  essential habitat--a "no-trawling zone"--is vitally important.       Such a

                  zone was declared off of Rancho Nuevo in 1978, but its limits were

                  arbitrary and violated frequently.      Fewer trawlers have been seen in

                  recent years, a probable reflection of economic conditions.

                                                                                                 232

                           Lepidochelys kempi enjoys complete legal protection in both        coun-

                       tries in which it occurs (Mexico and the United States).        Stray  indi-

                       viduals may be found in other countries.        However, these are     never

                       adult, are few in number, and probably are irrelevant to the overall

                       species and its survival.

                            Since the sole nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo is patrolled, poaching

                       of nesting turtles is rare. However, a few individuals, possibly total-

                       ing less than ten altogether, were taken by poachers on the beach during

                       the 1978-1979 seasons.   Adults of @@ also may be sold in very small

                       numbers in markets of cities along the Gulf Coast, e.g. , Ciudad del

                       Carmen, Campeche.    Nevertheless, the directed catch of adult kempi

                       appears extremely low.   Few individuals have been found dead of natural

                       causes on the beach at Rancho Nuevo. Natural but undocumented predation

                       on the adult turtles doubtlessly occurs.           Probably the greatest

                       documented loss of adults in recent years has been accidental drowning

                       in shrimp trawls. Recent trawl captures of tagged ridleys have not been
                       published, but data as of 1973 are summarized by Pritchard and Ma'rquez

                       (1973) and Marquez (pers. comm.).

                            The Mexican equivalent of Critical Habitat Designation would be

                       important for future protection of both the Rancho Nuevo -nesting beach

                       and offshore waters.   A proposal of this kind was made by Rene Marquez,

                       head of the Mexican turtle conservation program, in 1976.       Its current

                       status and enforceability need clarification.

                                                                                          233

                      Tag returns have shown that the coast of Campeche, Mexico, is an

                 important destination for post-nesting Kemp's ridleys. The catastrophic

                 blow-out of the offshore oilwell IXTOC I   in 1979 may have caused serious

                 negative impact upon adult Kemp's ridleys, either returning from Rancho

                 Nuevo or resident there throughout a nonbreeding year.             However,

                 documentation of this is lacking.

                      Since the present document will not be updated annually, the Kemp's

                 ridley recovery plan described on pages 226, et. seg., describes

                 recovery actions in relatively general terms. It is included primarily

                 to describe actions already started under binational agreements between

                 U.S. and Mexican agencies, and to establish a policy framework under

                 whose aegis a binational committee will prepare detailed work plans

                 each year for restoration of this critically endangered species.

                                       1. Primary Objective: To restore the Kemp's ridley population
                                                               to a level comparable to that of the
                                                               1940's

              11. Mitigate factors affecting                                                          15. Assess populations at
                  terrestrial mortality and/                                                               sea if feasible
                  or stress

                          12. Assess and monitor popu-                               14. Mitigate factors affecting
                               lation levels on beaches                                  marine mortality and/or
                                                                                          stress

                                                           13. Prevent extinction

                                                                                  11. Mitigate factors affecting
                                                                                       terrestrial morta  ity and/
                                                                                       or stress

                           F
                                 111. Man-induced habitat                                 112. Predation                                           113. Human take
                                _      alterations
                                                                                                                                                          T_

                                                                          1121. Natural                    1122.  Feral             1131.   Illegal                 1132.  Legal

                   1111. Pollution                     1112.   Development

                                                                                                    11211. Use hatcheries
                                                                                                             and head-starting

                                               11121. Maintain the integrity of
                                                       the preserve by regulation
                                                       of cattle, wood gathering,                                            11311. Maintain and augment
                                                       road construction etc.                                                        beach patrols

                        T                                                                                             F_
                         Regulate               11112. Develop oil                                  F321                                        11322. Maintain highly conservative
                         petrochemi                     spill contin-                                    P'.vide active law enforcement                take for scientific purposes
                         industry                       gency plan                                         protect eggs and adults
                                                                                                         to

                                                                                                                                                                                       L,n

                                                                                                      236

                                                Kemp's Ridley - Stepdown Plan

                        Recognizing that Kemp's Ridley nests entirely within the Mexican

                        jurisdictional area, the following recommendations are made in hopes of

                        furthering the on-going Mexican-American cooperative activities.

                        1.         Primary Objective:    To restore the Kemp's ridley populations

                                   to a level comparable to that of the 1940s.

                                   The decline of Kemp's ridley, from an estimated 40,000 turtles

                                   in one nesting arribada in 1947 to approximately 1000 nests

                                   per season at present, is more clearly defined than that of

                                   any other sea turtle species.      The objective is therefore to

                                   restore the population to a level comparable with that ob-

                                   served in the photographically documented nesting group of

                                   June 18, 1947.

                        11.        Mitigate factors affecting terrestrial mortality and/or stress,

                        11111.     Regulate petrochemical industry (see loggerhead step 111211).

                        11112.     Develop oil spill contingency plan.

                                   The IXTOC I oil spill in 1979 demonstrated the susceptibility

                                   of the Rancho Nuevo nesting beach to oil pollution. Measures

                                   to prevent recurrence of such an event, plus -maintenance of

                                   clean-up and "turtle rescue," are vital.

                                   A.   Develop contingency plan for transferring nests to clean

                                        sand areas or artificial incubation in the event of a

                                        major oil spill at Rancho Nuevo.

                                   B.   Develop contingency plans for protected captive main-

                                        tenance or air-lifting of @atchlings to clean release

                                        areas.

                                                                                                237

                   11121.     Encourage the regulation of cattle, wood gathering and road

                              construction, and maintain the integrity of the preserve.

                              The Rancho Nuevo nesting site is 'free of any       form of beach-

                              front development, a   nd none is foreseen in the immediate

                              future since the beach and its vicinity currently have reserve

                              status.

                              A.   Recommend posting the   reserve area.

                              B.   Eliminate habitat destruction of the dunes and adjacent

                                   land areas by prohibiting herding cattle on the beach

                                   during the nesting season.

                              C.   Discourage access to the beach by eliminating road

                                   improvements.

                   11211.     Use hatcheries and head-starting.

                              There is intensive predatory pressure on ridley eggs at Rancho

                              Nuevo from coyotes, other animal predators, and local people.

                              A.   Continue egg transfers to safe nesting sites (either a

                                   beach hatchery or to incubation boxes) until natural

                                   nests can be protected in situ.

                              B.   Determine sex ratios to evaluate hatchery techniques by

                                   minimizing destructive sampling and/or rearing captive

                                   animals.

                              C.   Continue headstarting program with a percentage of the

                                   annual production from Rancho Nuevo (5% or less).

                   11311.     Maintain and augment beach patrols.

                              Poaching pressures are such that a single season's laxity in

                              patrols would be a serious setback to the restoration effort.

                                                                                            238

                               A.    Maintain a thorough patrol of the beach through

                                     binational efforts.

                               B.    Utilize aircraft to spot single or grouped nesting

                                     turtles well away from the main beach.

                     11321.    Maintain total ban on commercial, recreational or subsistence

                               take.

                               Both the United States and Mexico currently offer total legal

                               protection to Kemp's ridley.

                               Continue ban on all types of take.

                      11322.   Maintain highly conservative take for scientific purposes.

                               While certain experiments on Kemp's ridley that have relevance

                               to the development of restoration techniques should be per-

                               mitted, issue of such permits should be extremely conserva-

                               tive.

                               A.    Maintain tight control of numbers of hatchlings submitted

                                     to "head-starting".

                               B.    Restrict biochemical studies on adult turtles to the

                                     careful extraction of fluid samples from live animals by

                                     highly skilled personnel.

                               C.    Prohibit experiments on this species that -do not have a

                                     direct or indirect relevance to development of recovery

                                     techniques.

                              12. Assess and monitor popu-                                       13. Prevent extinction
                                   lation levels on beaches

              121. Beach recruitment                 122. Nesting     and/                       131. Establish captive
                                                           or nests                                    breeding colonies

             1211. Determine hatching
                    success

                                     1221. Tag or mark                   1222.  Count nests by aerial
                                           adult                                or ground surveys

                                                                                                       240

                       12.         Assess and monitor population levels on beaches.

                                   Monitoring of all aspects of the terrestrial activities of

                                   Kemp's ridley on the nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo,

                                   Tamaulipas, Mexico, must be continued.

                       1211.       Determine hatching success.

                                   Monitor nests annually as an index to the population and

                                   to quantify productivity by hatching success.

                       1221.       Tag or mark adult females.

                                   Monitor   the    number of      different    females    tagged each

                                   season as an index to the population.

                       1222.       Count nests by aerial or ground surveys.

                                   A.   Record nestings away from the Rancho Nuevo environs.

                                   B.   Conduct interviews regularly with residents of western

                                        Gulf shores from Padre Island, Texas, south to southern

                                        Veracruz.

                                   C.   Survey by aircraft during the nesting season (mid-April

                                        to   late June) to document additional nesting or

                                        strandings.

                                                                                             241

                  13.        Prevent extinction.

                  131.       Establish captive breeding colonies.

                                  Kemp's ridley is the one sea turtle species that is now

                             so rare and so localized in its breeding habits, that the

                             possibility of total extinction of the wild population cannot

                             be discounted.

                                  The closed-cycle captive -breeding project for the Kemp's

                             ridley is considered to be a priority 1 activity in view of

                             the extremely depleted status of this species and the

                             impossibility of offering the wild stock adequate protection

                             except while the adults are actually on the nesting beach.

                             Despite full legal protection by both the United States and

                             Mexico, factors such as incidental catch, the IXTOC oil spill,

                             and other stresses make the future of the species questionable

                             even if the beach patrols result in good protection of both

                             nesting turtles and their eggs.

                                  Because of the prolific nature of sea turtles, initial

                             stock for captive breeding can be obtained with minimal impact

                             upon wild populations by taking hatchlings rather than adults,

                             and perfecting captive culture techniques as these hatchlings

                             mature.   Various options are available once the colony starts

                             to produce fertile eggs. These can be hatched and the young

                             raised in captivity; they can be hatched and the young

                             released either immediately or head-started before release; or

                             the eggs can be taken to the natural nesting beach at Rancho

                             Nuevo before they hatch so the young turtles can enter their

                             natural post-hatching ecosystem immediately, and presumably

                                                                                               242

                                 follow normal developmental movements and habitat changes

                                 subsequently. Even with relatively few captive-produced nests

                                 annually, it may be possible to pursue each of these different

                                 options simultaneously.

                                 A.   Establish   captive   breeding    colonies   at     suitable

                                      facilities provided with aquatic and artificial nesting

                                      beach facilities, expert curatorial personnel, and pros-

                                      pects of long-term existence.

                                 B.   Utilize existing captive animals or modest numbers of

                                      wild hatchlings or head-started animals for initial

                                      stock.

                                                                                                                                                                15. Assess populations at
                                                                      14. Mitigate factors affecting                                                                 sea If feasible
                                                                           marine mortality and/or
                                                                            stress

                                                                                                                                                           151. Determine feasibility of
                                                                                                                                                                 aerial and other means of
                                 141. Habitat alterations                     142. Human take                      143.  Unknown mortality                       at-sea population monitoring
                                                                                                                         factors

                                                                                                                                                  1431. Determine these factors,
                                                                                                                                                         if any, and take appropriate
                                                                                1421.   Directed           1422,   Tncidental                             action
                                                                                                         F

                             1411. Physical                 @1412. Chemical            14211. Maintain and enforce                                            14221. Regulate methods, gear,
                                                                                                ban on take through-                                                   area and seasons in U.s.
                                    I                                           I               out the range                                                         waters
                           F
                14111. Natural           F14112. Han-induced-                                                                                          14222.   Recommend adjustments to
                                                                                                                                                                Mexican no trawling zone
                                                                                                                                                                as needed
                                                  T
                 14111. Cold                141121. Regulate spoil dumping,
                        stunning                      sea floor mining and                                                               14223. Recommend regulations for
                                                      trawl tows                                                                                  method, area, gear and
                                                                                                                                                  season in Mexican waters

                    41111.   Develop contingency
                                    Phy@.ial

                             plans to prevent
                             mortality                                                14121.    Regulate petrochemical industry,
               F,                                                                               bilge pumping, and industrial
                                                                                                dumping

                                                                                                    244

                      14.        Mitigate factors affecting marine mortality and/or stress.

                      1411111.   Develop contingency plans to prevent mortality.

                                 Winter behavior of ridleys is poorly known, but juveniles of

                                 the species are regularly found as far north as New England

                                 waters.

                                 Implement    procedures     for enhancing      survival    of    cold-

                                 stunned sea turtles (see section 2.6).

                      141121.    Regulate spoil dumping, sea floor mining and trawl tows.

                                 The effects of these activities on Kemp's ridley habitat have

                                 not been documented, but common sense precautionary measures

                                 should be taken before any such activities are permitted in

                                 the known habitat of Kemp's ridley.         See loggerhead account

                                 for details (step 121121).

                      14121.     Regulate petrochemical industry, bilge pumping and industrial

                                 dumping.

                                 This is an international problem which should be addressed

                                 within the context of the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in

                                 Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean of the Convention

                                 for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment

                                 of the Wider Caribbean Region.       The primary feeding areas of

                                 adult ridleys (in the Louisiana coast in the USA and the

                                 Campeche coast in Mexico) are areas of intensive offshore oil

                                 drilling, with   regular and occasionally massive spills having

                                 unknown effects on the turtles (See Loggerhead Section 13121).

                                 A.    Undertake  spill control technology exchange between oil

                                       companies  in the US and Mexico.

                                                                                                245

                              B    Enforce safety inspections to avoid oil spills in the

                                   Gulf of Mexico.

                   14211.     Maintain and enforce ban on take throughout the range.

                              See step 11321.

                   14221.     Regulate methods, gear, area and seasons in U.S. waters.

                              Documentation of the degree and location of incidental capture

                              of Kemp's ridleys by the U.S. fishing industry (especially

                              shrimp trawlers) is lacking.        Such data are essential if

                              appropriate protective measures for the species are to be

                              prepared.

                              A.   Provide a legal solution to the incidental take problem

                                   as soon as possible (see section 2.4).

                              B.   Obtain anonymous reports from- fishermen as to location

                                   and times of incidental catch of ridleys.

                   14222.     Recommend adjustment to Mexican "no-trawling" zone as needed.

                              It is possible that the present "no-trawling" zone is

                              adequate, since dead ridleys have not been recorded stranded

                              at Rancho Nuevo in recent years, though the possibility of

                              incidentally caught turtles being retained for food cannot be

                              discounted.'

                              A.   Continue radio-tracking experiments at Rancho Nuevo to

                                   define the area frequented by turtles between their

                                   nesting emergences.

                              B.   Recommend adjustments to the "no-trawling" zone to

                                   include as much of this zone as possible.

                                                                                          246

                     14223.    Recommend regulations for methods, area, gear and season in

                               Mexican waters.

                               Those regulations will be of the type described in loggerhead

                               section 122211, but their development and implementation in

                               Mexico will depend upon political and economic factors in

                               Mexico entirely beyond the control of the United States.

                               Recommendations can only be made.

                     1431.     Determine unknown mortality factors, if any, and take appro-

                               priate action.

                               Obviously, no specifics can be recommended in this area.

                               However, the decline of Kemp's ridley during the last thirty

                               years has been so massive that it remains possible that other

                               factors than the known causes of decline have been at work.

                     151.      Determine feasibility of aerial and other means of at-sea

                               monitoring.

                               Based on two seasons of aerial surveys, aerial monitoring of

                               Kemp's ridley populations is unlikely to be very productive

                               since this species does not appear to spend significant

                               amounts of time at the surface at any stage of its life cycle

                               (Pritchard, 1980).

                               A.   Gather information from shrimp trawlers, recreational

                                    fishermen, and others who may catch ridleys incidentally

                                    to fishing efforts for other species.

                               B.   Monitor both population trends and magnitude of overall

                                    mortality by incidental capture.

                                                                                                247

                                         Lepidochelys kempi

                                       Implementation Schedule

            Plan Section                    Lead Agency           Cooperators            Priority

            11111  Regulate petrochemi-     NMFS, FWS             MMS, DOE, SCA,             3
                   cal industry             ;G, PE, USCG

           .11112  Develop oil spill                              NMFS                       2
                   contingency plan

            11121  Maintain integrity       DP                    FWS,  SCA, CG              I
                   of the preserve

            11211  Use hatcheries and       NMFS                  FWS,  CEM, CG,             1
                   head-starting                                  TPWD, KPS

            11311  Maintain and augment     FWS, INP, SEDUE                                  I
                   beach patrols

            11321  Maintain.total ban       NMFS, DP, FWS,        SCA                        1
                   on commercial, recre-
                   ational or subsistence
                   take

            11322  Maintain highly          FWS, INP, SEDUE       NMFS                       2
                   conservative take for
                   .sckentific purposes,

            1211   Determine hatching       INP                   FWS, CG                    2
                   success

            1221   Tag or mark adult        INP                   FWS, CG                    2
                   females

            1222   Count nests by           FWS, INP, SEDUE       CG                         2
                   aerial or ground
                   surveys

            131    Establish captive        NMFS                  CEM
                   breeding colonies

            141111 Develop contingency      FWS, INP, SEDUE       NMFS, U, SCA, CG, PI       2
                   plans-to prevent
                   mortality

                                                                                                248

              Plan Section                     Lead Agency           Cooperators            Priority

              141121   Regulate spoil          NMFS, EPA             DP, FI, MMS, USCG          I
                       dumping, sea floor
                       mining and trawl
                       tows

              14121    Regulate petro-         USCG                  MMS, FWS, NMFS, CZM, 1 2
                       chemical industry,
                       bilge pumping and
                       industrial dumping

              14211    Maintain and enforce NMFS                     DP, FWS, SCA               I
                       ban on take through-
                       out the range

              14221    Regulate methods,       NMFS                                             2
                       gear, area and
                       seasons in U.S.
                       waters

              14222    Recommend adjust-       FWS                   DP, NMFS, CG               2
                       ment to Mexican
                       11no-trawling" zone
                       as needed

              14223    Recommend regula-       NMFS                  DP, DS                     2
                       tions for methods,
                       area, gear and season
                       in Mexican waters

              1431     De'termine unknown      NMFS                  FWS, U, FI, PI, SCA        3
                       mortality factors,
                       if any, and take
                       appropriate action

              151      Determine feasibil-     NMFS                  U, CG, USCG                2
                       ity of aerial and
                       other means of at-sea
                       monitoring

                                                                                           249

                                                  DEFINITIONS

                  NMFS = National Marine Fisheries Service

                  MMS   = Minerals Management Service

                  SCA   = State Conservation Agencies

                  LG    = Local Governments

                  INP   = Instituto Nacional de Pesca

                  DP    = Departmento de Pesca (Mexico)

                  TPWD  = Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

                  U     = Universities

                  F1    = Fishing Industry

                  I     = Industry

                  FWS   = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                  DOE   = Department of Energy

                  PE    = PEMEX (Mexican Oil Industry)

                  TJSCG = United States Coast Guard

                  CG    = Conservation Groups

                  CEM   = Commercial Exhibit and Mariculture

                  NPS   = National Park Service

                  PI    = Private Individuals

                  CZM   = Coastal Zone Management

                  DS    = Department of State

                  SEDUE = (Mexico's) Secretary,for Ecology and Urban Development

                                                                                                                              250

                                                                                       WESTERN
                                                                                 GULF of MEXICO-
                                                                                     NESTING of
                                          ISOLATED NESTINGS                       YCEMPS RIDLEY
                                             (WERLER, 1951)

                                            ISOLATED NESTINGS

                          'N
                                      *----SINGLE OBSERVATION OF
                                             SMALL GROUP NESTING IN                           SCALE IS APPROXIMATELY
                                             1979 (MARQUEZ, PERS. COMM.)                              1:4,000,000
                                                                                                       I%-64mi. (approx.)

                                                                                             0         64        128ml.

                                       SPORADIC NESTING (AERIAL SURVEY)

                                       ZONE OF CONCENTRATED NESTING

                     TAMAUUPAS

                      v

                                                       ZONE OF OCCASIONAL SINGLE NESTINGS
                                                         (CARR and CALDWELL, 1958)

                                                                                SOLATED NESTINGS
                                                                                 (MARQUEZ MS)

                                                                                  251

                                      4. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

                 4.1 INTRODUCTION

                          Sea turtles are migratory, occupying national and.international

                 waters; therefore, a comprehensive recovery plan including many nations

                 throughout the western Atlantic area is desirable.    The range.of each

                 population needs to be cooperatively treated as a geographic management

                 unit by countries within the range.

                     All conservation actions which have been identified in this plan

                 are consistent with the intergovernmental and international documents

                 listed below:

                          1. World Conservation Strategy.

                          2.   IUCN Strategy for the Conservation of Living Marine

                               Resources and Processes in the Caribbean and the IUCN

                               Program Document.

                          3.   The Caribbean Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment

                               Program. UNEP Regional Seas Program.

                          4. Action Plan, World Sea Turtle Conservation Meeting.

                     Effective international planning and cooperation requires a foun-

                 dation of international and. related national law.   The existing legal

                 foundation to support national and international sea turtle survival

                 actions is inadequate.   Insufficient use has been made by nations of

                 existing relevant international conventions to develop national and

                 international agreements, statutes, and regulations. National legisla-

                 tion is frequently nonexistant or insufficient to cope with the problem.

                 Where it does exist, mechanisms for international cooperation have not

                 been adequately developed. Enforcement is part icularly difficult due to

                                                                                              252

                      turtle exploitation taking place at sea or on remote beaches, and trade

                      in turtle products under The Convention of International Trade in

                      Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is inadequately con-

                      trolled.

                           The purpose of this section is to identify recovery actions designed

                      to fill lacunae in the existing legal structure as well as to strengthen

                      existing law.  The objective of this plan section is to outline what is

                      needed to bring into existence the legal foundation for recovery of sea

                      turtles in the Western North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean

                      Sea which includes many political entities.

                           As appropriate, this section discusses each international agreement

                      as it relates to legal mechanisms for sea turtle protection and recovery.

                      Needed actions and responsible entities are identified.

                                                                                           253

                  4.2 INTERNATIONAL LAW

                       An important element of the U.S. "Caribbean Initiative" should be

                  support of a Wider Caribbean environmental protection program.         This

                  should include:    (1) U.S. active participation (as a Party) in the

                  Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment

                  of the Wider Caribbean Region and (2) U.S. support for the negotiation

                  of a Wildlife Conservation Protocol (with a Marine Turtle Annex) to the

                  Convention.

                       Twenty countries in the Plan Region signed. This Plan, the scienti-

                  fic proceedings of the International Oceanographic Commission Association

                  for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOCARIBE) , intergovernmental

                  Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium (July, 1983) and other relevant Wider

                  Caribbean marine turtle documents, can provide an informational and con-

                  ceptual base for the development of a draft Wider Caribbean Marine Turtle

                  Conservation Annex to a Wider Caribbean Wildlife Conservation Protocol.

                       In addition there are in force two global conventions and a regional

                  convention which are directly relevant to conservation of sea turtles in

                  the Plan area:   (1) The Convention on International Trade in Endangered

                  Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), (2) the Convention on the Conser-

                  vation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and (3) the Convention on

                  Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere.

                  The U.S. is a party to the first and third but not the second.        Other

                  existing international agreements relevant to marine turtle conservation

                  are discussed in this Section.

                                                                                           254

                     1    Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the

                          Western Hemisphere.

                          Scope and Provisions: This regional Convention'has as its purpose

                     the protection and preservation in their natural habitat of representa-

                     tives of all species and genera of the native flora and fauna of the

                     American Republics in sufficient numbers and over areas extensive enough

                     to assure them from becoming extinct.   It is designed to be applicable

                     to the conservation of species identified in the Annex to the Convention.

                     This Annex lists species whose protection is declared to be of "special

                     urgency and importance." "Species included therein shall be protected

                     as completely as possible, and their hunting, killing, capturing, or

                     taking shall be allowed only with the permission of the appropriate

                     government authorities." The Convention also provides for the establish-

                     ment of necessary measures, such as the issuing of permits "to,control

                     and regulate the importation, exportation and transit of protected fauna

                     of flora or any part thereof." The only turtle species currently on the

                     Species Annex by the U.S. is the green turtle. Other countries such as

                     Mexico have listed other species.

                          Implementation: This Convention has been in force since 1940, and

                     ten countries in the Plan region are party members of the Convention.

                     During its 40 years of existence, little has been done until recently to

                     implement the Convention; however, there have been developments since

                     1976. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 directed the President to take

                     appropriate U.S. initiative to begin to implement the Convention of

                     Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere.

                                                                                                 255

                   Subsequent amendments have provided further emphasis to implement the

                   convention.    During the period 1977-1979 the Organization of American

                   States (OAS) convened five technical meeting's designed to activate the

                   Convention. At one of these meetings it was stated:

                         "The chief causes of the continued decline of sea turtle populations
                   are (1) over-exploitation generated by inadequate laws and regulations;
                   (2) defective enforcement of existing laws and regulations; and (3) the
                   incidental taking of turtles in trawls by the expanding shrimping
                   industry." I/

                         This regional Convention has a great potential for furthering marine

                   turtle survival and recovery, and every effort should be made to resume

                   the momentum developed since 1976 by the five Organization of American

                   State (OAS) Technical Meetings.

                         In summary, this Convention, along with the new Convention for the

                   Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Carib-

                   bean Region, seems to have the potential for providing the best inter-
                   national law foundation to undergird sea turtle conservati@n in the Plan

                   area.

                         Actions Required: State Department

                         Explore with Parties to the Convention and other states in the area

                   the feasibility of negotiating bilateral and/or multilateral agreements

                   on survival and recovery of sea turtles under the umbrella of the Conven-

                   tion. The agreements should seek to be consistent with this Recovery Plan

                   and the Sea Turtle Conservation Strategy Action Plan, World Conferedce on

                   Sea Turtle Conservation held at State Department, Nov. 26-30, 1979,

                   Washington, D.C. 2/

                   1/  P. 49 OAS, Technical Meeting on Conservation of Migratory Animals of
                       the Western Hemisphere and their Ecosystems, Panama, Republic of
                       Panama, June 4-8, 1979.
                   2/  Sea Turtle Conservation Strategy, World Conference on Sea Turtle Conser-
                       vation, Nov. 26-30, 1979, Washington, D.C. -

                                                                                            256

                          Encourage Organization of American States (OAS) Parties to implement

                     the recommendation of the five OAS Technical meetings utilizing the Inter-

                     national Union for the Conservation of Native and Natural Resources and

                     other international entities as appropriate.

                          U.S. Embassies should work to increase perception among Caribbean

                     countries of the biological, economic and social realities of declining,

                     threatened and endangered stocks of sea turtles and the consequent dis-

                     appearance of remaining turtle resources.

                          Actions Required: Department of the Interior

                          Establish National Park Service and Fish and Wildlife Service

                     cooperative sea turtle scientific research, management, training and

                     informational exchange programs with other countries in the Plan area.

                          Actions Required: Department of Commerce

                          Seek to add all sea turtle species in the Plan area to the Annex to  the

                     Convention.

                          As a top priority, work cooperatively with the International Union

                     for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to insure rapid technology trans-

                     fer through United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and Food and

                     Agriculture Organization (FAO) on National Marine Fish Service trawling

                     efficiency device modifications to all countries with trawl, net fisheries

                     in the Plan area.

                                                                                              257

                  2.   Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

                       Fauna and Flora (CITES)

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The Convention is not a comprehensive wildlife conservation convention

                  but is limited to controlling international trade in species threatened

                  with extinction or species potentially threatened with extinction. With-

                  in this important functional area of controlling international trade

                  in sea turtles and international agreement. However, unlike the previous

                  convention, it has nothing to say about protection within national

                  territories and waters and protection of habitat.

                       Species protected by CITES trade controls are placed on one of three

                  appendices, only two of which are commonly used.         Appendix I species

                  are those species threatened with extinction, which may or may not be

                  affected by trade.    Accordingly, Appendix I species are provided with

                  the strongest protection; with very limited exemptions, commercial and

                  tourist trade is prohibited. All sea turtle species are on Appendix I.

                  Species on Appendix II are those species which are, not necessarily now

                  threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in such species

                  is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible

                  with their survival.      International trade in Appendix II species is

                  allowed provided that the country of export grants approval for such

                  trade.   Species not fitting the above criteria may also be included in

                  the Appendices in order to ensure that trade in more vulnerable species

                  is brought under effective control (e.g., look-alike-species).

                                                                                              258

                           Implementation:

                           CITES came into force in 1975 and has become an effective mechanism

                      for controlling international trade in most endangered species. However,

                      trade in products derived from hawksbill and olive ridley, and to a much

                      lesser extent, green sea turtles still continues in the wider Caribbean

                      region because of three major factors:

                           1.  Only 18 of the 32 geopolitical units in the region are members

                      of CITES. Some of the non-member geopolitical units trade internationally

                      in sea turtle products.

                                CITES Members                       Non-members

                      ------------------------------------------------------------------------

                      Brazil                                        Antigua
                      British Virgin Islands                        Barbados
                      Cayman Islands                                Belize
                      Colombia                                      Dominica
                      Bahamas                                       Dominican Republic
                      Bermuda                                       Cuba
                      Guyana                                        Grenada
                      Costa Rica                                    Honduras
                      French Guiana                                 Jamaica
                      Guadeloupe                                    Mexico
                      Martinique                                    Haiti
                      Montserrat                                    St. Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla
                      Nicaragua                                     St. Vincent
                      Panama                                        Turks and Caicos
                      St. Lucia
                      Surinam
                      Venezuela
                      United States

                           2. Some member countries have taken "reservations" on sea turtles.

                      Surinam has a reservation on green and leatherback sea turtles.       Until

                      January 1984, France, and France's overseas departments (French Guiana,

                      Martinique, Guadeloupe) had reservations on hawksbill and green sea

                      turtles.

                                                                                          259

                       3. Some member countries have not effectively enforced CITES trade

                  controls.

                       Actions Required: State Department

                       Encourage all sea turtle trading countries in the plan area, not

                  yet party to CITES, to join without reservation (e.g., Mexico, Dominican

                  Republic, Cuba, Haiti).

                       Encourage Surinam to withdraw its CITES reservations for sea

                  turtles.

                       Encourage all Parties to CITES to fully implement and enforce

                  CITES import and export controls (e.g., Panama, Cayman Islands).

                       Actions Required: Departments of Commerce and Interior

                       Determine major markets and sources of turtle products, and dis-

                  courage nations conducting this trade with trade tariffs, quotas, stiff

                  penalties for violations, etc.

                  3.   Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The Migratory Species Convention was negotiated and signed by 22

                  nations in Bonn, Germany, in June, 1979. The U.S. did not sign        The

                  only countries with territories in the Plan area who signed are the

                  United Kingdom and France.

                       This convention makes all migratory species and regions of the world

                  eligible for consideration and is designed to stimulate the negotiation

                  of further migratory species conservation agreements, as well as obli-

                  gating member states to unilaterally protect endangered migratory species.

                                                                                              260

                     Appendix I lists endangered species.      Parties that are range states

                     agree to prohibit the taking of endangered animals (with some exceptions)

                     within their national jurisdictions. Appendix II lists migratory species

                     which have an unfavorable conservation status and which require inter-

                     national agreements for their conservation and management.          Parties

                     which are range states of Appendix II species agree to endeavor to con-

                     clude agreements covering these species.      Appendix I currently lists

                     Kemps ridley and leatherback and Appendix II includes all Cheloniidae

                     and Dermochelyidae.   Thus, all Parties within the actual range of these

                     species are obligated to participate in their conservation.

                          Because there is no immediate prospect that most of the countries

                     in the Plan area will ratify this Convention, and only three are Parties,

                     its potential value lies in providing principles and concepts which can

                     be used in developing bilateral and multilateral agreements for the Plan

                     area under the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation

                     in the Western Hemisphere and the Convention for the Protection and

                     Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region.

                     During the negotiations, the U.S. agreed to the inclusion of sea

                     turtles on Appendix I and II and expressed a desire to cooperate

                     with the Convention Parties.

                          Actions Required:

                          Same as for previous convention.

                     4.   Draft Law of the Sea Treaty

                          Scope and,Provisions:

                          The draft Law of the Sea has already changed concepts of interna-

                     tional law relating to the sea, and coasta     1 states are now claiming

                                                                                          261

                  jurisdiction for two hundred miles out from their coasts to include

                  marine species.   Conservation of marine species has not been a major

                  objective of the Law of the Sea negotiations; however, a coastal state

                  now has the option of unilaterally putting into effect conservation

                  measures within its exclusive economic zone.

                       Implementation:

                       The U.S. has not signed the Convention.

                  5.   Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and

                       Natural Heritage

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The objective of the Convention is to preserve natural areas having

                  Ifuniversal value" and the preservation of cultural monuments.        One

                  category of natural area included in a "precisely delineated area which

                  constitutes the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of

                  outstanding universal value from the point of-view of science or conser-

                  vation."  It is the responsibility of a Party to unilaterally designate

                  such areas and to issue regulations.

                       A World Heritage Committee is established by the Convention which

                  has the power to provide assistance to Parties which designate natural

                  areas. This ability to provide financial aid to less developed countries

                  is an important provision of the Convention. Otherwise, it is of minor

                  value for sea turtle protection because of the lack of protective

                  standards.

                                                                                             262

                          Implementation:

                          Brazil, Guyana, Costa Rica, Panama and the U.S. have ratified the

                     Convention.

                          Actions Required: State Department

                          Encourage other states in the Plan area to ratify the Convention.

                          Actions Required: State, Commerce and Interior Departments

                          Identify sea turtle nesting beaches and water habitat areas that are

                     candidates for being designated as "natural areas" under the convention,

                     and encourage the World Heritage Committee to enter into discussions with

                     Parties to achieve such designation and provide financial support as

                     appropriate.

                     6.   International Fisheries Agreements

                          Scope and Provisions:

                          Existing international fisheries agreements do not address the prob-

                     lem of incidental take or the need to conserve sea turtles as a natural

                     resource.

                          The following organizations have the potential for supporting sea

                     turtle recovery:    The Western Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission

                     (WECAFC), International Oceanographic Commission Activities in the Cari-

                     bbean (IOCARIBE), Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute (GCFI), Man and

                     the Biosphere Program (UNESCOMAB) and the National Marine Fisheries

                     Service International Fisheries Program in the Western Central Atlantic,

                     the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico have the potential for supporting

                     sea turtle recovery.

                                                                                    263

                     Actions Required:

                     These programs need to focus on and expand their activities

                directly or indirectly toward sea turtle 'conservation.  Negotiations

                should be entered into as necessary to amend terms of reference or

                agreements to permit these actions to be taken.

                                                                                           265

                                                     INTRODUCTION

                       This Recovery Plan deals only with populations of Olive Ridley in

                  the Western Atlantic.     Since this population is of recent discovery

                  (Schulz, 1964; Pritchard, 1966), it is not possible to assess the former

                  breeding range of the species in the area.

                       Almost all Western Atlantic olive ridleys nest at Eilanti Beach,

                  Surinam, 5' 50'N, 540 3'W, near the mouth of the Marowijne River. This

                  beach is only about one km in length and is bordered by mangroves at the

                  eastern end and by a lagoon at the western end.        The topography and

                  outline of the beach vary greatly from year to year (Schulz, 1975).

                       Some olive ridleys nest in other parts of Surinam, including larger

                  beaches towards and in the mouth of the Marowijne River, east of

                  Eilanti.  These beaches are Pruimenboom, Galibi and Baboensanti. Other

                  olive ridleys nest on Bigisanti, 6*00'N, 54'50'W.     Bigisanti is one of

                  the most mobile beaches known, and its sandy areas move toward the west

                  at a rate of several kilometers per year.       Nesting has also been re-

                  ported from Shell Beach, Guyana (Pritchard 1969), and from the beaches

                  in western French Guiana (Point IseYe, Sil@bache).

                       To the casual eye, Eilanti appears to be an extremely marginal sea

                  turtle nesting beach. The sand stretch is so short that egg destruction

                  by later-nesting turtles is potentially a serious problem.      Beach ero-

                  sion is so severe that many nests are likely to be lost, and the beach

                  is fronted at low tide by at least a kilometer of exposed soft mud.

                  Thus, turtles are forced to nest by high tide, and those that linger too

                  long on the beach face a seaward trek of hundreds of meters over the

                  mudflat.

                                                                                                  266

                            Agencies in Surinam (Landsbosbeheer and Stinasu) maintain beach

                       patrols, and eggs laid too close to the sea are moved to more protected

                       locations.  Turtles found nesting so late that they will have to return

                       to the sea over the mud flat are kept in the shade until rising tide.

                       The real threats to this population appear to lie in the marine phase of

                       the turtles' existence rather than on the nesting beach.

                            Eggs of the olive ridley at Eilanti, when allowed to hatch in situ,

                       are subject to the usual tropical beach predators - ghost crabs, crab-

                       eating raccoons, etc. However, these are probably not a serious factor.

                       Until 1967, predation on the eggs by local Carib Indians, who gathered

                       them for sale primarily to Indonesians in Albina and Paramaribo, was

                       virtually 100%.  However, this devastating loss has now been curtailed,

                       and the beach is fully protected by the Surinam Forest Service.

                            Existing beach protection and patrols in Surinam appear adequate,

                       and it is essential that they continue.      The TED (turtle excluder de-

                       vice) should be demonstrated to government fishery departments in the

                       countries of northern South America, especially Surinam and Guyana, so

                       that recommendations can be considered for trawlers operating in those

                       waters.

                            Live juvenile olive ridleys are virtually unknown, in spite of the

                       vast populations of this species in parts of the East Pacific. As long

                       as this phase of the life cycle remains cryptic, no data can be given on

                       mortality of subadult olive ridleys.

                            Lepidochelys olivacea has been legally protected in Surinam since

                       1967. Adults are not known to suffer anthropogenic or natural mortality

                       on or close to the nesting beaches.      However, in neighboring Guyana,

                       ridleys nesting on Shell Beach are regularly killed by people from the

                                                                                                267

                  Pomeroon and Waini areas for food.

                       Adult olive ridleys are also caught in the French West Indies

                  (especially Guadeloupe) where the shells are sold as souvenirs.            How-

                  ever, the magnitude of this catch is not known.

                        The  greatest source of loss to adult individuals is incidental

                  catch by trawlers.      Of the 3359 'olive ridleys tagged in Surinam by

                  Pritchard (1976), nearly all of the 72 tag returns were made by trawler-

                  men, and in most such cases the turtle was dead.           Capture of Surinam

                  ridleys at sea by both commercial and research trawlers is further

                  documented by Caldwell e     -t al.    (1969).   It is probably this loss,

                  combined with recruitment failure following years of almost total egg

                  collection,    that    caused   the   population at Eilanti to decline

                  precipitously even following complete protection since 1967.

                                                                             1. Primary Objective: To reverse declines in nesting on Surinam beaches
                                                                                                     and to restore the population to a level commensurate
                                                                                                     vith existing habitat

                                     Mitigate factors affecting             12. Assess and monitor population             13. Mitigate factors affecting                 14.   Assess population at sea
                                     terrestrial mortality and/                 levels on beaches                               marine mortality and/or                        If feasible
                                     or others                                             T                                    stress

                                                               121. Bea@_h TecTuitment                      122. Nesting
                                                                                                                   and/or nests                                        141. Determine feasibility of
                                                                                                                                                                               erial and other means of
                                                                                                                                                                               t-sea population monitoring

                                 111.  Promote continuation of
                                       the Surinam beach pro-
                                       tection program                                                                     31, Quantify I
                                                                                                                                catch
                                                                                                                       F,

                                                              1211.   Determine hatching                                                              132.  Promote the use
                                                                      success                                                                               of the TED
                                                                                                                                                            throughout the range
                                                                                                                                                            of the species
                                                                                    F
                                                                        221.  Tag or ma@@                             1222-  Count nests by aerial
                                                                   F,                                                        or ground survey

                                                                                         269

                                        Olive Ridley - Stepdown Plan

                                 The team recognizes the efforts that are already underway

                            in Surinam to protect the Olive Ridley.          The following

                            recommendations may be redundant to those efforts, but they

                            are included here for information and because this species

                            appears on the U.S. Lists of Endangered and Threatened Flora

                            and Fauna.

                  1.        Primary Objective:  To reverse declines in nesting on Surinam

                            beaches and to restore the population to a level commensurate

                            with existing habitat.

                  11.       Mitigate factors affecting terrestial mortality and/or stress.

                  III.      Promote continuation of the beach protection program.        The

                            beach protection efforts at Eilanti and Bigisanti, Surinam,

                            are considered adequate but must be continued since the

                            protection of eggs for the last thirteen years has not

                            resulted in measurable increase in recruitment to the nesting

                            population.

                            A.   Protect nesting females and their eggs on the beaches in

                                 Guyana.

                            B.   Continued good protection of the Surinam colony.

                  12.       Assessment of population status by terrestrial monitoring.

                  1211.     Determine hatching success.

                            A.   Continue to monitor Eilanti Beach, Surinam.

                            B.   Monitor and make estimates of numbers of nesting ridleys

                                 on other beaches      including Shell Beach (Guyana),

                                 Silebache Beach (French Guiana), and Bigisanti (Surinam).

                                                                                                           270

                                     C.    Investigate additional beaches in Surinam which are

                                           rumored to have nesting olive ridleys.

                                     D.   Evaluate hatching success at Eilanti and elsewhere in the

                                          South Atlantic.

                         1221.       Tag or mark adult females.

                         1222.       Count nests by aerial survey.

                         13.         Mitigate factors affecting pelagic mortality and/or stress.

                         131.        Quantify incidental catch.

                                     Most of the tag returns from Surinam have been obtained by

                                     shrimp trawlers operating in the area between Trinidad and the

                                     Oyapoque River. It is possible that incidental catch has been

                                     a significant factor in the decline of the species from 1967

                                     to the present.

                                     Quantify and document, by interviews with shrimp captains

                                     and other techniques, the capture and fate of olive rid-

                                     leys in trawls.

                         132.        Promote the use of proven excluder trawl technology throughout

                                     the range of the species.

                                     The need for this is obvious if step 131 (above) reveals

                                     ongoing significant levels of incidential catch mortality.

                         14.         Assess populations at sea if possible.

                         141.        Determine feasibility of aerial and other means of at-sea

                                     monitoring.

                                     Routine monitoring of olive ridleys at sea in the Western

                                     Atlantic may prove infeasible because they are only caught

                                     sporadically and usually incidentaily to other fishery opera-

                                     tions (e.g., by shrimp trawlers). The olive ridley in the East

                                                                                        271

                           Pacific spends a great deal of time floating on the surface in

                           a potentially countable fashion, although there is no evidence

                           that olive ridleys in Surinam and adjacent waters do this.

                           A.   Conduct exploratory surveys to confirm pelagic basking

                                behavior.

                           B.   Record and assess data from observations and catches of

                                olive ridleys at sea.

             NORTHERN SOUTH AMEELILICA
                     NESTING of the OLIVE RIDLEY
                     in WESTERN ATLANTIC

                            Single nesting record
                            (Matura Beach)

          VENEZUELA                 Low density nesting (Shell Beach)
                                      Occasional nesting (Dauntless Pt, Leguan Island)
                                                       Regular nesting (Bigisanti,etc.)
                                                          /-High density nesting (Ellanti Beach)
                         GUYANA                             $---Low density nesting (Silebache/Organabo)

                                        SURINAM
                                                      I.FRENCH
                                                        GUYANA

                                                              BRAZIL

                                  4.4   STATUATORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                                                HARVESTING OR TAKING                         EXPORT               IMPORTATION

                                                                                             Exclusive
                                  Political       Turtles         Eggs       Territorial     Economic                     from Other    International           Notes on Nesting,
                                    Entity        on Beach     on Beach          Sea            Zone                       Countries       Waters           Foraging, Density, etc.

                                  Antigua       Partially     Partially      Partially                                                                   Some Hawksbill nesting
                                                prohibited    prohibited     prohibited                                                                  A few Greens ocassionally
                                                                                                                                                         nesting.
                                  Barbados                                                                                                               Some Hawksbill nesting.
                                                                                                                                                         A few Greens occasionally
                                                                                                                                                         nesting.

                                  Belize                                                                   Prohibited     Prohibited    Prohibited       Belizeans take eggs assiduously
                                  (Br.)                                                                                                                  for aphrodisiacs. Belizean
                                                                                                                                                         Government has no eftective
                                                                                                                                                         patroliar, capability. Turtle
                                                                                                                                                         jaws sold to tourists   -
                                                                                                                                                         Loggerhead, Hawksbill and
                                                                                                                                                         Greens nest at low densities.

                                  Bermuda       Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited    Prohibited      Prohibited     Prohibited    Prohibited       Nesting beaches restocked
                                                                                                                                                         with Costa Rican eggs since
                                                                                                                                                         late 1960s. Caribbean Conser-
                                                                                                                                                         vation Corp assisting gov't
                                                                                                                                                         of Bermuda. Major problem:
                                                                                                                                                         dwindling stretches undeveloped
                                                                                                                                                         coastline. Intermittent
                                                                                                                                                         poaching. Green foraging in
                                                                                                                                                         area. Hawksbill foraging,
                                                                                                                                                         no nesting.
                                  Brazil                                                                   Prohibited     Prohibited    Prohibited       Green foraging; nests on
                                                                                                                                                         Trinidad. Loggerhead nests
                                                                                                                                                         in southern Brazil (Espirito
                                                                                                                                                         Santos); otherwise sporadic
                                                                                                                                                         nesting only.    Hawksbill and
                                                                                                                                                         Olive Ridley are rare.

                                                                                                                                                                                                  _J

                                   4.4    STATUATORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                                                  HARVESTING OR TAKING                         EXPORT               IMPORTATION

                                                                                               Exclusive
                                    Political       Turtles        Eggs        Territorial     Economic                    from Other     International          Notes on Nesting,
                                     Entity         on Beach     on Beach          Sea            Zone                       Countries       Waters           Foraging, Density, etc.

                                   British                                                                   Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited       Hawksbill nests
                                   Virgin
                                   Islands   Or.)

                                   Canada                                                                    Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited       Leatherback - regular, no
                                                                                                                                                           nesting.
                                                                                                                                                           Other species - accidental
                                   Cayman         Partially     Partially      Partially                     Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited       Possession of' eggs, taking or
                                   Islands        Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited                                                                  molesting a female in any way
                                   (Br.)                                                                                                                   (May through Sept.) prohibited.
                                                                                                                                                           Licensee may have eggs of tur-
                                                                                                                                                           tle bred in captivity or eggs
                                                                                                                                                           taken in accordance with li-
                                                                                                                                                           cense or female turtle bred
                                                                                                                                                           in captivity under license.
                                                                                                                                                           Subsistence taking in terri-
                                                                                                                                                           toFial sea permitted. Little
                                                                                                                                                           enforcement of taking of nest-
                                                                                                                                                           ing turtles and eggs.

                                   Colony of      Prohibited    Prohibited                                                                                 Probably Green and Hawksbill.
                                   the Turks                                                                                                               No high density nesting.
                                   and Caicos                                                                                                              U.K. excluded Turks and
                                   Islands (Br.)                                                                                                           Caicos in ratifying CITES.

                                   Colombia                                                                  Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited       Loggerhead nests Santa Marta.
                                                                                                                                                           Hawksbill nests on San Andres.
                                                                                                                                                           Leatherback nests.
                                                                                                                                                           Green foraging in area.

                                   Common-        Prohibited    Prohibited     Partially      Partially      Prohibited                                    Low density nesting of
                                   wealth                                      Prohibited     Prohibited       to U.S.                                     green, hawksbill, logger-
                                   of Bahamas                                                                                                              head, extensive foraging.

                                                                                                                                                                                                 N.)

                                                                                                                                                                                                 41-

                                   4.4 STATUATORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                                                  HARVESTING OR TAKING                        EXPORT               IMPORTATION

                                                                                              Exclusive
                                    Political       Turtles        Eggs       Territorial     Economic                    from Other    International           Notes on Nesting,
                                     Entity         on Beach     on Beach         Sea            Zone                       Countries       Waters          Foraging, Density, etc.

                                   Commonwealth        -                                                                                                 Some nc--ting of Hawksbill
                                   of Dominica

                                   Dominican*          -        Prohibited    Partially                     Special                                      Leatherback, possibly Green
                                   Republic                                   Prohibited                    Certificate                                  in area.   Hawksbill, some
                                                                                                            Required                                     nesting.

                                   Cooperative         -                                                    Prohibited    Prohibited    Prohibited       Green nests.    Leatherback
                                   Republic of                                                                                                           nests., Hawksbill nests.
                                   Guyana                                                                                                                Olive Ridley nests.

                                   Costa Rica--* Prohibited     Prohibited    Partially      Partially      Prohibited    Prohibited    Prohibited       Green nests.   Hawksbill nests.
                                                                              Prohibited     Prohibited                                                  Leatherback nests.

                                   Cuba                                                                                                                  Hawksbill nests. Olive
                                                                                                                                                         Ridley nests. Loggerhead
                                                                                                                                                         nests.

                                   Dept. of       Prohibited    Prohibited    Partially                     Prohibited    Prohibited    Prohibited       Leatherback nests. Green
                                   French                                     Prohibited                                                                 nests.   Hawksbill nests,
                                   Guiana                                     Taking leather-                                                            very rare. Olive Ridley
                                                                              backs prohibited                                                           nests.

                                   Guadeloupe     Prohibited    Prohibited    Partially                     Prohibited    Prohibited    Prohibited       Olive Ridley foraging.
                                                                              Prohibited                                                                 Hawksbill, Green nests
                                                                              Taking leather-                                                            occasionally.
                                                                              backs prohibited

                                      Size limit of 5; 50 cm shell length. Closed seasons May-July; Sept-Oct.
                                   -*All types protected by international treaties except green.

                                                                                                                                                                                                 _j
                                                                                                                                                                                                 Un

                               4.4 STATUATORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                                            HARVESTING OR TAKING                      EXPORT              IMPORTATION

                                                                                       Exclusive
                                Political      Turtles       Eggs       Territorial     Economic                  from Other   International         Notes on Nesting,
                                 Entity        on Beach     on Beach        Sea           Zone                      Countries     Waters          Foraging, Density, etc.

                               Martinique    Prohibited   Prohibited    Partially                   Prohibited    Prohibited   Prohibited      Hawksbill, Green nest
                                                                        Prohibited                                                             occasionally
                                                                        Taking leather-
                                                                        backs prohibited

                               Guatemala                                Prohibited                  Prohibited    Prohibited   Prohibited      Very short Caribbean Coast

                               Grenada                                                                                                         Grenada one of Grenadines.
                                                                                                                                               Hawksbill throughout.
                                                                                                                                               Grenadines. Green less
                                                                                                                                               common.

                               Guyana        Prohibited   Prohibited                                Prohibited                                 Nesting reported by hawks-
                                                                                                    for CITES                                  bill, olive ridley, leather-
                                                                                                    Appendix I                                 back and green sea turtles.
                                                                                                    species

                               Honduras      Prohibited   Prohibited    Prohibited                  Prohibited                                 Hawksbill, leatherback nests.

                               Jamaica       Prohibited   Prohibited    Prohibited     Prohibited   Prohibited    Prohibited                   Hawksbill nests.   Leatherback
                                                                                                                                               nests rarely. Populations
                                                                                                                                               concentrated on west and
                                                                                                                                               south coast.

                               Mexico                                                                                                          Olive nests (possibly).
                                                                                                                                               Green nests - Quintana Roo
                                                                                                                                               Hawksbill nests - Yucatan
                                                                                                                                               peninsula. Leatherback
                                                                                                                                               nests - extremely rare.
                                                                                                                                               Loggerhead nests Yucutan,
                                                                                                                                               Campeche.

                               Montserrat (Br.)

                                                                                                                                                                                       0%

                                   4.4 STATUATORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                                                   HARVESTING OR TAKING                      EXPORT            IMPORTATION

                                                                                              Exclusive
                                   Political        Turtles         Eggs         Territorial Economic                    from Other     International       Notes on Nesting
                                     Entity         on Beach       on Beach          Sea         Zone                    Countries         Waters        Foraging, Density, etc.

                                   Nicaragua                                     No harvest       -         Prohibited   Prohibited     Prohibited       Leatherback nests commonly.
                                                                                                                                                         Green-feeding grounds.
                                                                                                                                                         Hawksbill nests. Loggerhead
                                                                                                                                                         nests rarely on Pacific coast.

                                   Panama           Restricted     Prohibted     Restricted   Restricted    Prohibited Prohibited       Prohibited       Hawksbill nests on San Blas
                                                                  May 11-Sept                                                                            Islands. Turtles nest in
                                                                                                                                                         Colon, Veraguas, and Bocas
                                                                                                                                                         del Toro provinces.

                                   Portugal-                                                                                                             Leatherback and some Green
                                   Azores,                                                                                                               foraging.
                                   Madeira

                                   Republic         Prohibited       Partially   Partially                                                               Green foraging.    Hawksbill
                                   of Haiti                         Prohibited Prohibited                                                                foraging. Sea turtle popu-
                                                                                                                                                         lation very low due to pre-
                                                                                                                                                         vious nonapplication of
                                                                                                                                                         conservation laws.

                                   Republic of               All harvesting prohibited                      Prohibited Prohibited       Prohibited       Leather6ack nests. Green
                                   Trinidad &                    Mar. I - Sept. 15.                                                                      nests rarely. Loggerhead
                                   Tobago                                                                                                                Ridley-occasionally at sea.
                                                                                                                                                         Hawksbill nests occasionally.

                                   St. Kitts        Prohibited     Prohibited    Partially                  Partially    Partially      Partially        Hawksbill nests.   Green nests
                                   Nevis                                         Prohibited                 Prohibited Prohibited       Prohibited       rarely. Leatherback nests
                                   Anguilla                                                                                                              very rarely.

                                   St. Lucia        Partially      Prohibited    Partially                  Prohibited Prohibited       Prohibited       Some Hawksbill, fewer Green
                                                    Prohibited                   Prohibited                                                              in area.

                        4.4 STATUTORY AND REGULATORY PROHIBITIONS    PURSUANT TO SEA TURTLES

                                               HARVESTING OR TAKING                            EXPORT               IMPORTATION

                                                                              Exclusive
                         Political       Turtles      Eggs       Territorial  Economic                        from Other     International       Notes on Nesting
                          Entity         on Beach    on Beach       Sea         Zone                          Countries        Waters         Foraging, Density, etc.

                        State of                                                                                                              Probably some Hawksbill in
                        St. Vincent                                                                                                           area.
                        and the
                        Grenadines

                        Surinam          Prohibited Partially Prohibited                    Prohibited        Prohibited     Prohibited       Olive nests.   Green nests.
                                                      Prohibited                                                                              Leatherback nests. Hawksbill
                                                                                                                                              nests very rarely.

                        Venezuela
                                                                                            Prohibited        Prohibited     Prohibited       Leatherback in area. Logger-
                                                                                                                                              head nests. Hawksbill nests
                                                                                                                                              on islands off shore. Green
                                                                                                                                              nests on Aves Island; abundant
                                                                                                                                              foraging near mainland, especially
                                                                                                                                              in west. Olive Ridley foraging
                                                                                                                                              in east, Isla Margarita and
                                                                                                                                              Trinidad area.

                                                                                                                                                                                ca

                                  4.4   continued

                                        POLITICAL                    STATUTES AND/OR                                 INTERNATIONAL
                                         ENTITY                         REGULATIONS                                   AGREEM ENT S                            NOTES

                                  Antigua              The Turtle Ordinance, 1927; No. 17 of 1927                       NPWPWH            Prohibits taking or selling of turtles
                                                                                                                                          or eggs I June-30 Sept. No taking of
                                                                                                                                          turtles under 20 lbs. at any time.

                                  Barbados

                                  Belize               Fisheries Regulations 1967
                                  (Br.)

                                  Bermuda              1972 Fisheries Act                                                                 1972 Fisheries Act prohibits taking or
                                                                                                                                          molesting turtles on nesting beaches.
                                                                                                                                          1978 order extends prohibition to
                                                                                                                                          200 mile exclusive fishing zone.

                                  Brazil               Law N,-). 5197 1967 - Protection of the Fauna                    NPWPWH
                                                       Portario, No. 3 481 -DN Lists Oficial De Especies                CITES
                                                       Animals                                                          PWCNH

                                  British              Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance, 1979.                CITES             Makes provisions for establishment of
                                  Virgin               Endangered Animals and Plants Ordinance, 1975                    CCMA              Marine parks which may afford turtle
                                  Islands                                                                                                 protection. Has potential value for
                                  (Br.)                                                                                                   future.

                                  TPGST  = Tripartite Agreement to Protect Green Sea Turtles. (Not in force)
                                  CITES  = Convention on International Trade in Threatened and Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora.
                                  NPWPWH = Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere.
                                  PWCNH  = Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage
                                  CCHA   = Convention On the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Signed - Convention not in force)

                                  4.4 continued

                                        POLITICAL                     STATUTES AND/OR                               INTERNATIONAL
                                         ENTITY                         REGULATIONS                                  AGREEMENTS                              NOTES

                                  Canada                                                                                CITES            As party to CITES, Canada denies all
                                                                                                                                         nonscientific turtle permit applications.

                                  Cayman                The Marine Conservation Law, 1978 (Law 19 of 1978)              CCMA             Possession of eggs, taking or molesting
                                  Islands               The Marine Conservation (Turtle Protection) Regula-             CITES            a female in any way (May through Sept.)
                                  (Br.)                 tions, 1978.                                                                     prohibited. Licensee may have eggs of
                                                        The Marine Conservation Regulations, 1979                                        turtle bred in captivity or eggs taken
                                                        The Endangered Species Protection Law, 1978 (Law 21                              in accordance with license or female turtle
                                                        of 1978)                                                                         bred in captivity under license. Sub-
                                                                                                                                         sistence taking in territorial sea per-
                                                                                                                                         mitted. Little enforcement of taking
                                                                                                                                         of nesting turtles and eggs.

                                  Colony of             Fisheries Protection Ordinance, 1949.                           CCHA             Prohibited from taking Hawksbill under
                                  the Turks             Fisheries Protection Regulations, 1976.                                          17" a.l., Green under 15"c.l.
                                  and Caicos                                                                                             Taking of any marine life requires li-
                                  Islands (Br.)                                                                                          cense. Ordinance provides authority
                                                                                                                                         for establishing a closed season.

                                  Colombia                                                                              CITES

                                  Commonwealth          Chapter 25, Subsidiary Legislation, Revised Edition             CITES            GCOB states implemntation should stop
                                  of Bahamas            1965 - The Marine Fisheries Products (Fisheries) Rules                           importation and exploitation of sea tur-
                                                                                                                                         tles and products. Proposed regulations
                                                                                                                                         will establish from April I to end July
                                                                                                                                         closed season for all sea turtles, coin-
                                                                                                                                         ciding with closed crawfish season.

                                  Commonwealth
                                  of Dominica

                                  Dominican             Executive Degree No. 600                                        NPWPWH           Prohibited from taking turtles less
                                  Republic                                                                                               than 50cm in territorial waters.

                               4.4 continued

                                     POLITICAL                  STATUTES AND/OR                              INTERNATIONAL
                                      ENTITY                      REGULATIONS                                 AGREEMENTS                           NOTES

                               Cooperative          Fisheries (Aquatic Wildlife Control) Regulations,           CITES           Informal cooperation with Surinam on
                               Republic of          1966, 1973, issued under Section 33, Chapter 71.08          PWCNH           research and conservation.    License
                               Guyana               of the Fisheries Act. Maritime Boundaries Act, 1977                         required under Fisheries Act to take
                                                                                                                                any "prescribed aquatic wildlife"
                                                                                                                                which includes sea turtles

                               Costa Rica           Ley De Pescay Caza Maritimas 1949                           CITES           Massive poaching has been reported.
                                                                                                                NPW`PWH         President taking security measures.
                                                                                                                                Reportedly, turtles are taken under
                                                                                                                                guise of allowed taking for domestic
                                                                                                                                consumption and illegally exported to
                                                                                                                                Panama. Hunting beyond 12 mile limit
                                                                                                                                permitted for domestic consumption.
                               Cuba

                               Dept. of                                                                         CITES
                               French Guiana                                                                    CCHA

                               Guadeloupe           Arrete Portant Rqglementation De L'Exercise De La           CITES
                                                    Peche Marine Cotiere Dana Les Eaux                          CCMA
                                                    Du Departement De La Guadeloupe (1979) No 79-6 AO/3/3

                               Martinique                                                                       CITES
                                                                                                                CCMA

                               Guatemala                                                                        CITES
                               Grenada              Birds and Other Wildlife (Protection of) Ordinance          NPWPWH
                                                    (1957) (As amended)

                                                                                                                                                                                 00

                                  4.4 continued

                                        POLITICAL                     STATUTES AND/OR                                 INTERNATIONAL
                                         ENTITY                         REGULATIONS                                    AGREEMENTS                              NOTES

                                  Honduras              Decree Law 154 Honduras 1959 Fishing Law. Resolution                               Honduran Fishing law bars taking sea
                                                        No. 007-78 of Honduran Directorate General of Renewable                            turtles 112 days each year. Bans commer-
                                                        Natural Resources, March 7, 1978.                                                  cial taking of eggs and offspring.
                                                                                                                                           Resolution No. 007-78, bans capture,
                                                                                                                                           industrialization, trade of sea turtles
                                                                                                                                           for indefinite period of time. Enforce-
                                                                                                                                           ment capabilities of Honduran authorities
                                                                                                                                           at best limited. Not party to inter-
                                                                                                                                           governmental agreements. Permission to
                                                                                                                                           export required from Direccion General
                                                                                                                                           de Recursos Renovables, Min. Nat. Res.

                                  Jamaica               Wildlife Protection Law, 1960                                                      Ban on taking, selling, possessing
                                                                                                                                           turtle eggs. Jamaica may ban taking of
                                                                                                                                           all turtles throughout year. Apparent
                                                                                                                                           decline in turtle catches.

                                  Mexico                                                                                 NPWPWH

                                  Montserrat            Decreto Regiemento La Explotacion Y Prohibe La                   CITES
                                  (Br.)                 Destruccion De La Tortugas (1958)

                                  Nicaragua             Fishing Laws, Chap. V Pages 16, 51 Closed Season,                NPWPWH            Closed season
                                                        P. 66                                                            CITES             Licensing required during open season.
                                                                                                                         TPGST

                                  Panama                Decreto Ejecutivo No. 104 Por    El Cual Se Adiciona; 1974       NPWPWH
                                                        El Decreto Ejecutivo No. 23; Jan. 30, 1967,-Resolution           CITES
                                                        Dir.   002-80;Law 14 of Oct. 29, 1977                            PWCNH
                                                                                                                         TPGST

                                  Portugal-
                                  Azores,
                                  Madeira

                                                                                                                                                                                                 00

                                    4.4 continued

                                          POLITICAL                   STATUTES AND/OR                             INTERNATIONAL
                                           ENTITY                       REGULATIONS                                AGREEMENTS                           NOTES

                                    Republic of          Comprehensive GOH Fishing Law, Oct. 27, 1978                 NPWPWH          Enforcement lax. HawksbI1 taking pro-
                                    Haiti                                                                                             hibited May to Oct. (egg laying season)
                                                                                                                                      Gathering of Green eggs within terri-
                                                                                                                                      torial waters. Taking Hawksbill and
                                                                                                                                      Green on shore.

                                    Republic of          Fisheries Ordinance (1916 as Amended to 1975)                CITES
                                    Trinidad and                                                                      NPWPWH
                                    Tobago
                                    St. Kitts Nevis      Turtle Ordinance, 1948                                                       Ban on taking turtles or eggs June
                                    Anguilla                                                                                          through Sept. Total ban on taking tur-
                                                                                                                                      tles under 20 lbs. Ban June through
                                                                                                                                      Sept. on killing, selling, possessing
                                                                                                                                      turtles, meat or eggs.

                                    St. Lucia            Turtle, Lobster and Fish Protection Act 1971                 CITES           Enforcement not possible due to budgetary
                                                                                                                                      constraints.

                                    State of             Birds and Fish Protection Ordinance (1901)                                   Ban on taking turtles and turtle eggs
                                    St. Vincent and                                                                                   May through Aug. Ban on turtle nets
                                    the Grenadines                                                                                    within 100 yds. of shore. Ban, same
                                                                                                                                      same period, on sale, disposal, buying
                                                                                                                                      or possessing turtles, meat or eggs.
                                    Surinam              Hunting Act (1954)                                           CITES           Taking of turtle on beach prohibited
                                                                                                                      (Reservations   and enforced within beach preserve.
                                                                                                                      on greens &     Controlled taking of eggs is permitted
                                                                                                                      leatherbacks)   in some areas.

                                    Venezuela                                                                         NPWPWH
                                                                                                                      CITES

                                                                                                                                                                                       [,a
                                                                                                                                                                                       00

                                                                                                           284

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                    WOOD, J.R. and F.E. WOOD.   1980. Reproductive biology of captive green
                         sea turtles Chelonia mydas.  Amer. Zool. 20:499-505.

                    YERGER, R.W. 1965. The leatherback turtle on the Gulf Coast of Florida.
                         Copeia 1965(3):365-366.

                    YNTEMA, C.L. and N. MROSOVSKY. 1980. Sexual differentiation in hatch-
                         ling loggerheads (Caretta caretta) incubated at different control-
                         led temperatures. Herpetologica 36(l):33-36.

                    ZUG, G.R., C. RUCKDESCHEL and A. WYNN. 1983. Age estimates of Cumber-
                         land Island loggerhead sea turtles.      Marine Turtle Newsletter
                         25:9-11.

                                                                                          297

                                                    APPENDIX

                    Agency review comments were received from:

                    The Fish and Wildlife Service

                    Minerals Management Service

                    U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District

                    National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Washington)

                    National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Kennedy Space Center)

                    National Ocean Service

                    Environmental Protection Agency

                    National Science Foundation

                    Florida Department of Natural Resources

                    Georgia Department of Natural Resources

                    South Carolina Coastal Council

                    Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

                    Virginia Institute of Marine Science (Musick & Byles)

                    NOVA Oceanographic Center (Menzies & Kochinsky)

                    University of Toronto (Mrosovsky)

                    The Center for Environmental Education, Sea Turtle Rescue Fund

                    Environmental & Chemical Sciences, Inc.

                    Kenneth Dodd, Jr.

                    Orren Merren

                    Fred Berry

                    Edward F. Klima

                    Most of the comments were incorporated into the plan. Those that were not
                    would have required substantial rewriting of the plan or were considered
                    not to be substantive enough to require a plan revision. Comments are
                    included here so that readers will have the benefit of any divergent
                    views.

                                                                                            298

                 %,41 Of
                                                                                  ISO OKMY "Crat TO:
                                                UNITED STATES
                                      DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
                                           FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

                                                  POST WFICE 0= 1306
                                             AIJLQSCRWC* NEW NOICO W103

                                                 APR 2 0 1984

                  Mr. Charles Oravetz
                  National Marine Fishery Service
                  9490 Koger Blvd.
                  St. Petersburg, Florida 33702

                  Dear Chuck:

                  Subject plan has been reviewed by a wide spectrum of Fish and Wildlife
                  Service (FWS) offices and individuals. I have attempted to assemble these
                  comments in a logical manner to assist the National Marine Fishery Service
                  (NMFS) and the Recovery Team in reviewing and deliberating FWS comments.

                  I believe I'm correct in assuming this current draft is in the "Agency
                  Review" stage, the technical review having-already occurred. However, you
                  will find that a number of our comments are of a technical nature and hope
                  you will give these full consideration and, whenever possible, incorporation
                  into the appropriate sections of the draft.

                  The plans organization is quite different than that used by the FWS for the
                  past 9 or 10 years and, frankly", we believe that certain reorganizations of
                  the plan would help considerably to focus more attention on recovery tasks
                  rather then general type information-or details of implementation. The plan
                  should state what needs to be done, not how. Today's methodology will not
                  necessarily be tommorrowls. It will save time and effort on future plan
                  revisions if we stay away from the "how." We suggest the following oraniza-
                  tional changes which we believe will help to better focus the plan on the
                  primary purpose of identifying and justifying recovery tasks.
                                                  k
                  1.  Section 1.5, "Population Estimates of Relevant Stocks" should be deleted
                      and the information incorporated into the appropriate species section.

                  2.  Sections 2.1 - 2.6 and 2.8 provide excellent information but should be
                      included in the plan as appendices and referenced in the appropriate
                      species sections. Section 2.7 should be deleted and some of the narra-
                      tive used irr the Step-down Outline to justify various public education/
                      information tasks.

                  3.  The Step-down Outlines are complex and difficult to use. Attached is a
                      Step-down Outline for'the loggerhead which we prepared.and feel more
                      logically displays needed recovery actions. This same format could be
                      used for all the other sea turtles with minor modifications. Each task
                      should have a narrative explanation which briefly justifies the need and
                      importance of the task.

                                                                                        299

              We still have a major concern with the scope of the plan in that it covers
              populations outside of the U.S. While it is logical and helpful to a
              population throughout its range, we feel it is presumptuous and perhaps
              counterproductive to specify recovery actions in other countries that have
              had no input into the plan. It would be more.appropriate for the plan to
              identify a recovery task to develop agreements or encourage cooperation with
              particular countries to address populations which have life stages in other
              countries. Actually, recovery efforts in these instances should, perhaps,
              be identifed and contained in the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Recovery Plan.

              It is also for these reasons that werecommend the plan not include sections
              for the olive and Kemp's ridley. We believe a recovery plan for the Kemp's
              ridley should be developed jointly with the FWS, NMFS, and Mexican partici-
              pation. Since olive ridleys do not occur in U.S. waters in any abundance,
              there is no reason to include it in the plan; in any case it will likely be
              addressed by the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Recovery Team.

              We also note that the recovery plan priority system for recovery actions is
              different from the one employed by the FWS. It cannot be used for comparing
              priorities between sea turtle species or any other species, which is a
              distinct shortcoming. Therefore, we suggest that this plan utilize the FWS
              recovery action priority system to enhance its usefulness for budgetary or
              other planning purposes (FWS Endangered and Threatened Species Recovery
              Planning Guidelines).

              Section 3 should incorporate the population data from Section 1.3 for the
              respective species. The species accounts need to clearly address specific
              threats to the U.S. populations. We also feel that the Step-down Outline
              does not adequately address some spec:Lfic habitat protection and research
              needs of some species (see attachment).

              Certain management practices and needs, including R&D, are common to all sea
              turtle species. Many of these needs are touched on prior to getting into
              the individual species plans, but no where are these needs pulled together,
              prioritized, and assigned, nor do they appear in species plans. This is a
              shortcoming and we would suggest that this common factor be addressed,
              probably as an addendum and referenced in the appropriate species sections.
              As an example, we have no way to age any wild population of sea turtles.
              Until this question is solved, we have little or no basis upon which to
              intelligently understand or manage most species, much less rationally judge
              impacts of commercial harvest or analyze recruitment and turnover. Any
              population models remain little more than conjecture.

              The discussion on tags and associated marking problem is a similar universal
              need. The plan discusses plastics, monel, inconel, etc., but none of these
              have really proven satisfactory except in very short term instances (we note
              that the draft discussion on tags does not mention titanium tags). R&D
              needs in this aspect are not really identified, yet thousands of hours and
              dollars are spent annually with too often questionable results-due to the
              lack of a reliable marking technique.

                                                  _7_

                                                                                               300

                  Following are a number of items, by page number, which we submit for
                  consideration:

                  P.1    The definitions of endangered and threatened given here are not pre-
                         cise in terms of the Endangered Species Act. For.instance, the word
                         .. race" should not be used, as the Act uses "subspecies." This should
                         be rewritten to reflect the legal definitions.

                  P.1    The secretaries must review the status of listed species every 5
                         years, but recommendations for reclassification or delisting are made
                         only if the biological data warrant such. This should be clarified in
                         the next to last paragraph.

                  P.12   The references to Dodd (1981) are incorrect both on this page and in
                         the literature cited. The date should be 1982 (the reprints had the
                         incorrect date).

                  P.13, paragraph 4, line 2 - Typographical error - "Surinan should be
                  "Surinam."

                  P.14   The population data needs to be updated on the number of leatherbacks
                         nesting-..,in the USVI. Scott Eckert gave slightly different figures at
                         the Widecast meeting in Puerto Rico.     Culebra Island was omitted,
                         sentence should read: "Nesting on Vieques and Culebra is
                         less ...........

                  P.16   Add coatis to the list of predators. Vertebrate predators also in-
                         clude foxes in North Carolina;

                  P.19   (Top) Add the numbers of adult 'males as an elusive parameter*

                  P.19   Both Marquez and Van Dissel (1982, Netherlands J. Zool. 32:419-425)
                         and Steve Cornelius (various reports to USFWS) have also described
                         their methods to estimate the number of females nesting on the beach,
                         although with olive ridleys. These should also be referenced.

                  P.34   Aerial survey of nesting beaches: While some states have well orga-
                         nized, comprehensive aerial surveys, others participate only sporadi-
                         cally and do not obtain complete coverage; for instance, in some area
                         aerial surveys are done by several different agencies without coordi-
                         nation of efforts. The resulting inconsistency of results could be
                         avoided if efforts were aimed at coordinated surveys of an entire
                         State or region's nesting beaches.

                  P. 64-65    We believe that the discussion under the heading, Man's Impact,
                              in section 2.5 (Nesting Beach Management Techniques) should be
                              strengthened to include (1) a broader list of potential adverse

                                                                                              301

                            impacts resulting from beach nourishment projects, and (2)
                            address the basic issue of reserving valuable undeveloped nesting
                            beaches in a natural state. We suggest the following language:

                            Add to the paragraph heading Beach Nourishment Projects:

                                 "Additional adverse effects which may potentially result
                                 from beach nourishment projects include: (1) near shore
                                 turbidity resulting in disorientation or interference with
                                 nesting attempts, (2) scarp development at the edge of the
                                 beach fill rendering the beach inaccessable to nesting tur-
                                 tles, (3) entrapment of hatchlings in vehicle tracts, (4)
                                 compaction or cementation of beach sediments, (5) altera-
                                 tions in moisture levels or other aspects of the micro-
                                 habitat within the nest cavity, (6) alteration of unknown
                                .beach signature components which may disrupt nest site
                                 fidelity, (7) alteration of the native physical beach char-
                                 acteristics (slope, dome shape, etc.) such that nesting
                                 attempts are reduced, and (8) the possibility of short
                                 repetitive maintenance intervals which could effectively
                                 eleminate all natural nesting for a given beach."

                            Add a paragraph to the section, Man's Impact, which begins on
                            page 64:

                                 "Beach Development; Intensive development of ocean front
                                 property on high density nesting beaches results in an
                                 eventual "need" for erosion control measures such as beach
                                 nourishment, construc@_tion of groin fields, riprap, etc., and
                                 in manifestation of intensive human beach uses such as
                                 mechanized beach cleaning. Impacts resulting from these
                                 types of activities could be controlled or eliminated if
                                 ocean front development can be directed in such a way as to
                                 be compatible with the physical dynamics of barrier islands
                                 and their natural erosion and accretion processes."

                This will then support paragraphs 111111 (F) and 111221 (E,F,G,H) in the
                loggerhead step-down outline and similar sections for other species.

                P.68  Increased Law Enforcement, should address not only egg poaching, but
                      the unlawful taking and sale of meat, shells and skulls, the impor-
                      tation of sea turtle products from foreign countries, the taking of
                      marine turtles by trawlers and other commercial means and the har-
                      assment of egg-laying turtles on the beaches.

                P. 68   line 26 - Typographical error - "is" should be deleted.

                                                     -4-

                                                                                                  02

                 P. 79   82  It is advisable to include the Lacey Act. The Lacey Act is a
                             catchall federal statute which makes it unlawful to import,
                             export, transport, sell, etc., in interstate or foreign commerce
                             any unlawfully taken, transported or acquired wildlife. These
                             prohibitions apply to violations of Federal, State or foreign
                             laws. The statute also makes it unlawful to transport any wild-
                             life taken in violation of any Federal law. In this case, no
                             interstate commerce is required.

                             In recognizing the importance of enforcing the international
                             trade laws, import and exports, Customs is referred in the plan
                             as having the greatest impact on unlawful trade in turtle prod-
                             ucts. It should be recognized that the wildlife inspection
                             program of the FWS with the cooperation of the U.S. Customs
                             Service, has been instrumental in curtailing the unlawful impor-
                             tation of turtle products and continues to seize illegal ship-
                             ments at the designated parts for the importation of wildlife.
                             Prosecutions of such cases are handled by the FWS.

                 In addition to the above, we are enclosing approximately 50 pages from the
                 draft where we are recommending changes, corrections, or additions. We ask
                 that you carefully consider these in the revisions. We note that a number
                 of comments submitted in the technial review stage have not been incorpo-
                 rated or addressed in this agency review draft. Many of these comments we
                 deemed appropriate to both technically strengthen and clarify the plan.

                 We note that sections of the plan appear dated-it does not incorporate more
                 recent management efforts, research, and problems. This and certain other
                 oversights are more a problem of the plan being somewhat "dated" due to the
                 5 years or so it has been in preparation. It's not deemed necessary to
                 include many of the latest developments unless NMFS decides to maintain
                 those general informational sections which we have suggested are more appro-
                ,priate as appendices.

                 A major concern of the FWS is that, other then Kemp's ridley, no measure of
                 recovery is given. Even in the Kemp's plan we don't agree that recovery
                 will not have occurred until we again have single arribadas of 40,000
                 females. If we could ever reach 5,000 nesting Kemp's in a.season, we would
                 certainly consider a down listing, other factors being equal. Those agen-
                 cies and others involved in recovery efforts must have an idea of what they
                 are shooting for-population/habitat objectives must be established to
                 cle-arly state when a species/population has recovered to the point of down
                 listing to threatened or delisted entirely, depending on the current listing
                 status. Certainy Kemp's does not have to reach numbers projected for the
                 mid 1940's to biologically be eligible for down listing to threatened sta-
                 tus. This holds true for all the populations under the team's purview. As
                 an agency, FWS must know what numerical or other definable objectives are
                 for each species or population. Recovery must be defined and measurable.

                                                                                       303

               We do appreciate this opportunity to again review and comment on the draft.
               The team has put a tremendous amount of work into preparation of the docu-
               ment and certainly deserve all our thanks for this monumental effort.
               Please convey our compliments to all the team members for a basically very
               good document.

                                                   S ncere y yours,,

                                                   ja      Woody
                                                   N tional Sea Turtle Coordinator

               Enclosures:
               1. Suggested Step-down
               2. Recovery Plan Mark-up
                                                    incerely

                                                           W
                                                   J@a

                                                                                           304
                 LST Op
                             United States Department of the Interior

                                       MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE
                                              RESTON, VA. 22091

                 In Reply Refer To:
                 LMS-Mail Stop 644

                                                          MAY 2 1 1984

                 Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                 Regional Director, Southeast Region
                 U.S. Department of Commerce
                 9450 Koger Boulevard
                 St. Petersburg, Florida 33702

                 Dear Mr. Brawner:

                 We appreciate the opportunity @o comment on the draft Marine Turtle
                 Recovery Plan. The document represents a serious attempt by the Marine
                 Turtle Recovery Team at examining the many Possibilities for rehabilitating
                 the populations of the various endangered and threatened marine turtle
                 species. We offer the following to aid in improving the.Plan.

                 In general, the Table of Contents and information discussed under most of
                 the subheadings adequately cover the relevant topics and the steps needed
                 to allow for recovery of these species. In particular, the Stepdown
                 Plans and Implementation Schedules g1ve more detailed guidance on Agency
                 responsibilities than we have seen in most documents of this kind. On
                 the other hand, the responsibilities or support functions indicated for
                 the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and presumably other Agencies'
                 require clarification before a fair'evaluation can be made and
                 concurrence obtained. We do concur with the basic concepts and major
                 objectives, but headings in the Implementation Schedules such as
                 "Regulate Petrochemical Industry" are not well-defined, nor are Agency
                 responsibilities indicated in the text of the plan.

                 On a more specific level, all references to the Bureau of Land
                 Management (BLM) should be changed to MMS. In May 1982, components of
                 BLM with Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) responsibilities were transferred
                 to a new Agency, MMS, which now has all OCS responsibilities within the
                 Department of the Interior. We also note a lack of Agency
                 responsibilities in the Implementation Schedules for the Environmental
                 Protection Agency (EPA). It is the responsibility of the Federal
                 Government under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, the
                 Ocean Dumping Act Amendments of 1972, and the Clean Water Act Amendments
                 of 1977 to preserve, protect, and restore ocean water quality and to
                 regulate dumping of all materials into the ocean. The EPA is the lead
                 Agency in these mandates and should have some role in the Recovery Plan.

                                                                                          305

                 Mr. Jack T. Brawner                                                      2

                 The Implementation Schedules are actually Agency responsibility
                 assignments and do not indicate timing of actions. The Plan would be
                 enhanced by infusing some type of temporal perspective on the various
                 objectives and tasks. An Implementation Schedule was not included for
                 the Olive Ridley Turtle.

                 Our final point relates to the research and regulatory role that MMS
                 currently performs. We feel that MMS is currently meeting, in whole or
                 part, the first five objectives on page 3 of the draft Plan through its
                 Environmental Studies Program and through the development of lease
                 sale-specific mitigating measures. We have conducted aerial surveys and
                 methodology assessments in the North Atlantic in'the Cetacean and Turtle
                 Assessment Program conducted by the University of Rhode Island. Field
                 population estimation has its drawbacks, and we have-decided to invest
                 our research money in studies that can give us specific technical
                 answers. For instance, it is  alleged on pages 72 and 73 of the Plan that
                 turtles ingest floating tar.  The extent and effect of such activity is
                 poorly understood, and we are.currently conducting a study with the
                 University of Florida to examine this possibility. We intend to continue
                 to direct research funds at specific issues helpful to our regulatory
                 decisionmaking requirements. Conducting field surveys is a low priority
                 for MMS right now, and we note that the Plan also assigns lower priority
                 to surveys and methodology assessment.

                 We hope these comments provide some help in revising thedraft Recovery
                 Plan and look forward to reviewing the next version. If we can be of
                 further help, please feel free to contact us.

                                                             Sincerely,

                                                             Direc or
                                                                  tor

                                                                                              306

                                        DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
                                     JACKSONVILLE DISTRICT. CORPS OF ENGINEERS
                                                   P. 0. BOX 4970
                                           JACKSONVILLE. FLORIDA 32232

                                                 June 7, 1984
                        REPLY TO
                        ATTENTION OF
                      Environmental Resources Branch
                      Planning Division

                      Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                      Regional Director
                      National Marine Fisheries Service
                      9450 Koger Boulevard
                      St. Petersburg, Florida     33702

                      Dear Mr. Brawner:

                            We have examined the Agency Review, Draft of the Recovery Plan
                      for Marine Turtles and offer the-following comments:

                            1. The recovery plans for loggerhead turtles and green turtles
                      are inconsistent. For the former, a recommendation is made (page
                      96) to "Prohibit all beach nourishment projects on nesting beaches
                      during the nesting and hatching season." The green turtle plan
                      (page 154) includes the same recommendation, but also allows an
                      agency to "Relocate eggs to a safe area or hatchery if beach
                      nourishment during (the) nesting season cannot be prevented."

                            2. A rationale and statutory authority should be provided for
                      recommending prohibition, since State and Federal wildlife agencies
                      have been accepting nest relocation as adequate mitigation for
                      some time. If nest relocation is fraught with hazards, should not
                      "head-start" programs also be circumscribed?

                            3. The Corps attempts to schedule beach nourishment outside
                      the turtle'nesting and hatching season. However, it should be
                      recognized that, for many beaches in Florida, nourishment would be
                      excessively expensive and perhaps not economically feasible except
                      during  summer months, when seas are calm enough for a pipeline
                      dredge  to work. A prohibition during this period could eventually
                      result  in a severely eroded beach incapable of supporting. any
                      turtle  nesting. "Prohibit" and "prevent", therefore, seem unneces-
                      sarily  dogmatic choices of words. Nothing in the Endangered Species
                      Act or  other legislation cited in the document authorizes such a
                      general rohibition. In fact, the governing regulation (50 CFR
                      402.04M) specifically makes it the "responsibility of the Federal
                      agency to determine whether to proceed with the activity or program
                      as planned."

                                                                                     307

                                                -2-

                       4. The recovery plan (pages 96 and 153) recognizes that
                  "Hydraulic pumping may create or improve nesting beaches", but
                  then goes on to state that "however, this activity is not
                  advocated." Without conditioning this-statement, the plan pre-
                  sents the position that no efforts should be made to maintain,
                  restore or manage beaches for increased turtle nesting. By
                  ignoring this opportunity to create, maintain, restore or manage
                  nesting habitat the recovery plan is much less than it could have
                  been.

                       Thank you for the opportunity to comment.

                                                 Sincerely,

                                                 A. J. Salem
                                                 Chief, Planning Division

                                                                                        308

                                           June 7, 1984

                  Environmental Resources Branch
                  Planning Division

                  Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                  Regional Director
                  National Marine Fisheries Service
                  9450 Koger Boulevard
                  St. Petersburg, Florida   33702

                  Dear Mr. Brawner:

                       We have examined the Agency Review Draft of the Recovery Plan
                  for Marine Turtles and offer the following comments:

                       1. The recovery plans for loggerhead turtles and green turtles
                  are inconsistent. For the former, a recommendation is made (page
                  96) to "Prohibit all beach nourishment projects on nesting beaches
                  during the nesting and hatching season." The green turtle plan
                  (page 154) includes the same recommendation, but also allows an
                  agency to "Relocate eggs to a safe area or hatchery if beach
                  nourishment during (the) nesting  season cannot be prevented."

                       2. A rationale and statutory authority should be provided for
                  recommending prohibition, since State and Federal wildlife agencies
                  have been accepting nest relocation as adequate mitigation for
                  some time. If nest relocation is fraucht with hazards, should not
                  "head-start" programs also be circumscribed?

                       3. The Corps attempts to schedule beach nourishment outside
                  the turtle nesting and hatching season. However, it should be
                  recognized that, for many beaches in Florida, nourishment would be
                  excessively expensive and perhaps not economically feasible except
                  during summer months, when seas are calm enough for a pipeline
                  dredge to work. A prohibition during this period couiTd eventuall-v
                  result in a severely eroded beach incapable of supporting any
                  turtle nesting. "Prohibit" and "prevent", therefore, seem unneces-
                  sarily dogmatic choices of words. Nothing In the Endangered Species
                  Act or other legislation cited in the document authorizes such a
                  generalzrohibition. In fact, the governing regulation (50-CFR
                  402.04( ) specifically makes it the "responsibility of the Federal
                  agency to determine whether to proceed with the activity or program
                  as planned."

                                                                                       309

                        4. The recovery plan (pages 96 and 153) recognizes that
                   "Hydraulic pumping may create or improve nesting beaches", but
                   then goes on to state that "howeverv this activity is not
                   advocated." Without conditioning this statement, the plan pre-
                   sents the position that no efforts should be made to maintain,
                   restore or manage beaches for increased turtle nesting. By
                   ignoring this opportunity to create, maintain, restore or manage
                   nesting habitat the recovery plan is much less than it could have
                   been.

                        Thank you for the opportunity to comment.

                                                  Sincerely,

                                                  A. J.2"Salem
                                                  Chief, Planning Division

                 NASA                                                             310

                 National Aeronautics and
                 Space Administration
                 Washington, D.C.
                 20546

        :Zeoly to Attn of: EBT(84-38)

                 Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                 Regional Director, Southeast Region
                 National Marine Fisheries Service
                 National Oceanic
                   and Atmospheric Administration
                 9450 Kroger Boulevard
                 St. Petersburg, FL 33702

                 Dear Mr. Brawner:

                 In response to your request of February 22, 1984, the following
                 comments are provided concerning the proposed Marine Turtle
                 Recovery Plan and NASA's participation in the Plan. The need to
                 take action to promote the survival and recovery of these turtles
                 is clearr and I applaud the efforts of those involved in
                 initiating the program described in the proposal.

                 I agree with the feasibility and suitability of the outlined
                 proposal in terms of the goal ofaiding the survival of these
                 animals, and assume a more compl-ete management plan and schedule
                 of activities will be developed.@once you have identified the
                 participants' roles.

                 In your proposal, you have identified NASA as a "cooperative"
                 agency in the protection of two turtle speciest Caretta caretta
                 and Chelonia mydas, that nest on beaches that include those in
                 the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) area. KSC has been involved in
                 marine turtle survey efforts to a limited degree for the'past
                 several years as an element of the ongoing NASA environmental
                 impact assessment of Shuttle launches at KSC. The NASA-sponsored
                 activities consist of monitoring two to three miles of KSC beach
                 during the summer to assess any adverse effect of Shuttle
                 launches on turtle nesting habits or numbers. This information
                 has been,and will continue to be, provided to interested
                 groups--the National Marine Fisheries Service and the Fish and
                 Wildlife Service and others--for integration into their overall
                 tracking data and turtle protection plans. Other activities
                 proposed in the draft plan for possible NASA suppo rt, including
                 protecting nests, managing beaches, tagging animals, etc., are
                 neither within NASA's scope nor capability.

                                                                          311

                                                                      2

            I, therefore, offer the continued use of the KSC beaches, as well
            as the data we continue to collect, as part of Shuttle
            environmental impact assessment activities to any of the
            participants in your "Recovery Plann when it is implemented.

            Sincerely,

                  Edelson
            Associate Administrator for
            Space Science and Applications
           @A s

                   National Aeronautics and
                   Space Administration
                   John F Kennedy Sows Center
                   Kennedy Space Center. Roncla 32899                                    312

                                                                       APR 17 1984

         R@* w Ann at DF-EMS

                  .National Marine Fisheries Service
                   Attn:   Mr. Jack Brawner, Regional Director,
                   Southeast Region
                   9450 Koger Boulevard
                   St. Petersburg, FL 33702

                   Subject: The Marine Turtle Recovery Plan

                   This office concurs with the basic plan as outlined in the document, and
                   has had the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, (FWS) under a land manage-
                   ment agreement, review the draft. The USFWS comments that are enclosed
                   represenY the concerns of Kennedy Space Center (KIJC) on this matter.
                   Currently, portions of KSC are managed as a wildlife refuge by the
                   USFWS. Any recovery activities that may take place on KSC-Tand must be
                   reviewed by both this office and the USFWS. If we can be of further
                   assistance in this matter, please contact Mr. Kirby K. Key at AC 305
                   867-4049.
                  A twe /A4
             <P@   Director of Engineering Development
                   Enclosure

          CAM March 22, 1984
       Nam' If ra                                                                   313
        A*"" Opp: Refuge Manager, Merritt.Island NWR Complex

        $Umjg:c,r 3Review of the Marine Turtle Recovery Plan

           'Too Regional Director, FWS, Atlanta, GA (SE)

                With the understanding that marine turtle ecology is in its infancy,
                overall the recovery plan provides a very good understanding of the
                problem, and some broad strategies on accomplishin g recovery. One
                obvious weakness throughout is a non-standardization of methods and
                non-coordination of activities.  Interest in sea turtle management
                has significantly increased in the past eight years. With this interest
                has been the implementation of many research and management projects
                most of which are site specific. Coordination of these projects into
                a systematic approach would be very valuable. This recovery plan may
                help in the coordination effort, however it is only a strategic plan
                of the overall recovery effort.

                Following approval of the recovery plan it may be beneficial to
                develop some action plans dealing with each section of the implementation
                schedule. These action plans could standardize management and research
                projects, coordinate activities, and organize section recovery efforts.
                The lead agency responsible -for each plan section would develop these
                action plans.

                The implementation schedules correctly identifies lead agency respon-
                sibility as related to jurisdiction. Past experience has shown however,
                that the agency which is most ccincerned about a problem or which is
                geographically closest to the problem takes the lead (f.e. 1977 and
                1981 cold-stunning episodes on MINWR). The above mentioned action
                plans may help.  The priority levels established conform to those
                mentioned in the Regional Resource Plan and being implemented on the
                MINWR with respect to the loggerhead and green sea turtle. -

                Although most recovery plans provide cost estimates, none were provided
                in this draft. It may be beneficial for these cost estimates to be
                developed. The Regional Resource Plan does provide some annual cost
                estimates for each preferred strategy. Time schedules for accomplish-
                ments would also be helpful.

                Marine turtle ecology is a complex problem.. The recovery plan is a good
                initial step in that it recognizes basic problems and assigns responsibilities.
                Perhaps more complex than the marine turtle ecology is the systematic organ-
                ization and coordination of all federal , state and private organizations
                to carry out the plan.

                                                       Stephen R. Vehrs

                   KSC - M

                                              "41 Of co                                    314
                                                        UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                                        National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                                        NATIONAL OCEAN SERVICE
                                               P479S ot OFFICE OF OCEAN AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
                                                        Waihington, D.C. 20235

                                                                               N/ORM4: VA

                                            March 26, 1984

            Mr. Jack T. Brawner
            Southeast Regionil Director
            National Marine Fisheries Service
            9450 Koger BI vd.
            St. Petersburg, Florida 33702

                       Re: Marine Turtle Recovery Plan

            Dear Mr. Brawner:

            The Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM) appreciates the
            opportunity to review this Plan. Our comments are limited to Part 2.8.3,
            page SO- on the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972. This section
            is badl; outdated. We cannot require state CZM programs to designate
            sea turtle nesting areas as areas of particular concern (APCs).   All we
            have ever required is that states develop an approvable process and criteria
            for designating APCs. The use of this process to designate specific areas
            is up to each state CZM program.

            With these points in mind, we suggest the following rewording of this
            section:

                       3. Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972

                       Scope and Provisions:

                       The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was enacted to
                       encourage and assist coastal states and territories in
                       dealing with the increasing and competing demands for
                       the use of the Nation's coastal resources. The Act.has
                       as its objective "to preserve, protect, develop, and
                       where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of
                       the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding
                       generations." To achieve this objective, it provides
                       Federal financial and technical assistance to coastal
                       state and territorial governments to establish and
                       administer Coastal Zone Management (CZM) programs that
                       meet Federal objectives, including protection of natural
                       resources.

                                                                                        315

                                                 2

                       Implementation:

                       All 35 coastal states and territories have participated in the
                       CZM program. Of these, 28 have Federally-approved management
                       programs and one, Virginia, is expected to submit a program
                       for approval in FY 1984.

                       Required Action:

                       The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration should
                       encourage coastal states and territories with Federally-
                       approved CZM programs to develop and implement measures to
                       protect sea turtle nesting areas and foraging water areas
                       within their coastal zones.

             If you have any questions concerning these comments, please do not hesitate
             to contact us agai n.

                                                      Sincerely,

                                                      Peter L. Tweedt
                                                      Director

                                                                        316

                 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                                      REGION IV

                                  345 COURTLAND STREET
                                  ATLANTA.GEORGIA30365

          MAR 0 6 1984

           4 PM- EA/RG

           Mr. Jack T. Brawner
           Regional Director
           National Marine Fisheries Service
           9450 Koger Blvd.
           St. Petersburg, Florida 33702

           Dear Mr. Brawner:

           The Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV has reviewed
           the subject report titled "Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles."
           Most of the programs over.which we have immediate purview
           should not negatively impact.populations of the involved
           species. However, certain industrial and domestic discharges
           over which EPA has either direct or indirect permitting
           authority could impact turtles-in the coastal portion of
           their range. From a practical standpoint the utilization of
           specific estuaries and bays by turtles should be determined
           before modifications to discharde permits are considered. If
           it is or becomes known that certain coastal waters exhibit
           significant utilization by marine turtles, the effects of the
           permitted discharges there on these species should be examined.

           we appreciate the oppotunity to review and comment on this
           important issue.

           Sincerely yours,

            4ep rd N. Moore, Chief
           Environmental Review Section
           Environmental Assessment Branch
           d4epolrd t

                                     NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION                           317

                                          WASHINGTON D C   _'O' 50

                                                    March 20, 1984

                    Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                    Southeast Regional Director
                    National Marine Fisheries Service
                    9450 Koger Boulevard
                    St. Petersburg, Florida 33702

                    Dear Mr. Brawner:

                    In response to your request of 22 February 1984 for comments on
                    the implementation aspects of the draft Recovery Plan for Marine
                    Turtles,-I have had the draft reviewed in our Division of Biotic
                    Systems and Resources, which handles endangered species matters
                    for the Foundation.

                    Our review finds that the distinguished co-leaders of the Recovery
                    Team (Ms. Sally Hopkins and Dr. Peter Pritchard) and the other
                    equally knowledgeable members-and consultants of the team have
                    done a commendable job. They established a reasonable-and
                    realistic implementation plan for protecting and enhancing the
                    populations of the six threatened and endangered species of sea
                    turtles occurring within U.S. boundaries. The plan fully
                    summarizes all of the relevant da-ta on sea turtle stocks and
                    the probable causes for the declines thereof, while offering
                    feasible plans for protection and recovery of the stocks with
                    the least disturbance to legitimate commercial marine activities.
                    Both the implementation and step down schedules are well considered
                    and based on the best available information and analyses.

                    We congratulate the Recovery Team and its consultants on a job
                    well done.

                                                    Sincerely yours,

                                                    Robert Rabin
                                                    Acting Assistant Director
                                                    Biological, Behavioral,
                                                    and Social Sciences

                                                                                       318
          State of Florida

          Department of Natural Resources                     Interoffice Memorandum

          16 March 1984

          TO:     Jack Brawner

          FROM:   Ed Joyce

          RE:     Attached comments on Turtle Recovery Plan.

                  I thought you might like to see Ross Witham's comments.
                  Thanks for letting us review the plan.

                  Best regards.

          EJ/hj

          Attachment

              12 March 1984                                                                 319

              MEMORANDUM

              To: Ed Joyce

              From: Ross Witham

              Subject: Recovery Plan Comments.

              Having read the plan several times, including the attached version, I
              think that it is generally a good work. My,- suggestions for modification are
              as follow.

                  1.  With the development of Seascape and other such beach erosion
                      control techniques, there is a need to include a new part in the
                      2. GENERAL TOPICS section. This should probably replace the present
                      2.6 section and be entitled Nearshore Installations Designed for
                      Beach Erosion Control. The present nos. 2.6, 2,7 a 2.8would then
                      become 2.7, 2.8 & 2.9.

                      Wording suggested for the new 2.6 is: There is considerabAe interest
                      in attempting to control beach erosion by the use of wave attenuation
                      techniques. These techniques may inelude.plastic seaweed, or, conceiv-
                      ably, "hard" materials such as concrete.-Each.suggested material should
                      be evaluated for its possible impact upon sea turtles. Impact might
                      involve eating, attempting-to eat, or becoming a physical barrier to
                      beach access.

                  2.  The 3.5 Kemp's Ridley Turtle-Recovery Plan is viewed by some as an
                      intrusion into the Mexican government's aria of concern. While Kemp's
                      ridleys'ibL U. S. waters shouldIe provided as much protection as possible,
                      discussion of.@matters pertaining to nesting beach management in Mexico
                      might better be-avoided.

                                                                                            320
                                                @Beyartmrnt af Natural @Resaurces
                                                          COASTAL RESOURCES DIVISION
                                                              1200 GLYNr4 AVENUE-
                     AII                                BRUNSWICK. GEORGIA 31523-9990
                                                                (912) 264-7218
               ice 13. Zwntr
                 COMMISSIONER
                amt 31arrw
                  DIRECTOR
                                                    20 April 1984

                 Mr. Charles A. Oravetz
                 Chief, Protected Species Management Branch
                 9450 Koger Boulevard
                 St. Petersburg,,Florida 33702

                 Dear Mr. Oravetz:

                     I have reviewed the "Recovery Plan for Marine Turtle s" and wish to
                 congratulate the writers for their thorough job. As the loggerhead,
                 leatherback and green are known to occur in my local, I've restricted
                 my coments to these species.

                 Page Number                                Comment

                     94                    Item 111211. Probably helpful; however, why
                                           not develop-clean-up methods that are effective
                                           yet don't harm developing eggs?

                     94                    Item 111221. Good item, but idealistic. Would
                                           require a very strong, active lobby to go up
                                           against the developers and a lot of public edu-
                                           cation for support.

                     102                   Items 131121 and 13121. Lobby for a stronger,
                                           more potent EPA.

                     103                   Item 132211. Stress use of TEDs;.doubtful on
                                           success of prohibiting fishing due to incidental
                                           turtle catch.

                     As the recovery plans for the other species are so similar, these com-
                 ments pertain to the appropriate sections of their plans too. If you have
                 any questions or further requests, please don't hesitate to contact me.

                                                    Sincerely,

                                                    Nick Nichol son
                                                    Sanctuary Coordinator

                 NN11w

                                                                                          321
                                   South Carolina Coastal Council

                                   James M. Waddell, Jr.               H. Wayne Beam, Ph.D
                                   Chairman                            Executive Director

                                                   May 16, 1984

            Mr. Jack T. Brawner
            Regional Director
            U.S. Dept. of Commerce
            National Marine Fisheries Service
            9450 Koger Boulevard
            St. Petersburg, Florida   33702

            Dear Mr. Brawner:

                The South Carolina Coastal Council appreciates the opportunity to review
            the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles and will support the management plan for
            nesting areas on the beaches of South Carolina. The staff of.the Council will
            work closely with the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department
            to utilize the best management practices to protect critical nesting habitat
            in South Carolina. However, the Council has the responsibility to weigh the
            public benefits and all aspects of a project and consequently, must retain
            final authority in permit action.

                                                   Sincerely,

                                                   Duncan . Newkir
                                                   Permit Administrator

            DCN:0032J
            cc: Senator James M. Waddell, Jr,
                Dr. H. Wayne Beam
                                                   Duncan C. @Newkir

                                                                                                                                                                              322

                                                                                              TEXAS
               COMMISSIONERS                                     PARKS AND WILDLIFE OEPARTMENT
               EDWIN L. COX@ JR                                                 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744                                       CHARLES 0. TRAVIS
                 Chairman, Athens                                                                                                                                   Executive Director

               GEORGE R BOLIN
                 Vice-Chairman, Houston

               WM. 0. BRAECXLEIN               May 18, 1984
                 Dallas

               WM. L. GRAHAM
                 Amarillo                      Mr. Jack T. Brawner
               RICHARD R. MORRISON, III        Regional Director
                 Clear Lake City               United States Department of Commerce
               W, a. OSBORN. JR,               Southeast Region
                 Santa Elena                   9450 Koger Boulevard
               PERKINS 0. SAMS                 St. Petersburg, Florida                                 33702
                 Midland
                                               Dear Mr. Brawner:
               DR. RAY E. SANTOS
                 Lubbock                       This is in response to your letter of February 22, 1984
               WM. M. WHELESS, III             regarding the agency review draft "Recovery Plan for
                 Houston
                                               Marine Turtles."

                                               The recovery plan appears to be a well-conceived por-
                                               trayal of the strategies needed to ensure-marine turtle
                                               survival and hopefully return these species to their
                                               former numbers. An elucidation of the authors' defi-
                                               nition of State Conservation Agency (SCA) would help.
                                               Many of the actions assigned to SCA on implementation
                                               schedules for the loggerhead, green, and ridley
                                               segments are under the jurisdiction of other agencies
                                               or are not authorized under current State legislation.
                                               Moreover, several of the actions would seem appropriate
                                               for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), but it
                                               is not listed either as a lead agency or a cooperator.

                                               Reference to this agency on pages 239 and 241 should be
                                               Texas Parks and Wildlife Department or TPWD as appro-
                                               priate. Also on pages 239 and 240, the column heading
                                               "Assisting Agency" should read "Lead Agency" so as to
                                               be consistent with other segments of the recovery plan.

                                               Finally, we were disappointed to learn that National
                                               Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) was terminating its
                                               ridley-rearinq activities at the Galveston Laboratory.
                                               Some clarification of the lead role assigned NMFS in
                                               the Priority 1, Step 11211, page 239, is needed
                                               concerning this project.

                                                                           323

                   Mr. Jack T. Brawner
                   Page 2
                   May 18, 1984

                   We appreciate the opportunity to comment on the
                   "Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles." Let us know if
                   we may be of further assistance.

                   Sincerely,

                   Charle D. Travis
                   Executive Director

                   CDT:FEP:aeh
                   hCharlke   /I

                                                                                               324

                                                  CHARTERED 1693                         V F. Op Ir
                                        COLLEGE OF WILLIANIAND MARY

                                       VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCE

                                            SCHOOL OF MARINE SCIENCE

                Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062   8 May 1984                     Phone (804) 642-2111

                 Andy Majors
                 NOAA
                 NMFS Regional Office
                 9450 Kroger Blvd.
                 St. Petersburg, FL 33702

                 Dear Andy:

                      Sorry we became so late with the response to the Draft Recover-y Plan.
                 We hope our comments will still be useful.

                      General comments have been made  by others and we will not echo them
                 now. A few specific comaents by page number follow and we are enclosing
                 a copy of our recent suwaary report and recommendations to NMFS Northeast
                 Region. for your perusal.                            I

                      We would appreciate any publication of the comments and copies of'the
                 Final Plan.

                      Comments:

                 PP. 48 Leatherback, Incidental Catch Overview

                      It is stated that capture rates are low because of "low relative
                 abundance in this region and because of their preferred habitat... usually
                 pelagic." Recent reports (CETAP) have shown leatherbacks to be much more
                 coastally oriented than thought before and no one knows the relative abundance
                 of leatherbacks migrating or foraging along the Atlantic Coast of'North
                 America.

                 PP. 103, Section 13221.of the Loggerhead Stepdown Plan

                      This section addresses fishing methods, gear, areas and seasons yet
                 completely ignores the problems and potential solutions for fixed gear.
                 Poundnets and gill nets have been implicated in turtle mortalities,
                 especially in the Chesapeake Bay, yet only towed gear is mentioned.
                 The habitat section is too 3eneral. No problem areas have@,been specifically
                 identified except Canaveral Channel.

                 PP. 107, Section 1421, Loggerhead Aerial Survey Assessment

                      There is a need to stress the importance of behavioral studies to
                 determine the surface/submergence time ratios of turtles. These data are
                 invaluable in providing better population estimates from aerial surveys by
                 estimating the numbers of unseen, diving turtles along the flight path.

                                                                                      325

             Andy Majors
             8 May 1984
             Page 2

             PP. 190, Section 132211, Leatherback Stepdown

                 This section ignores incidental captures along the Mew England coast.
             In fact, the entire Section 14 ignores the New England seasonal foraging
             stocks of leatherbacks and limits areal comments to the American Caribbean.

             PP. 221-240 Kemp's Ridley Stepdown

                 There are no recommendations that studies be supported on life history,
             and immature stages and habitats are largely ignored. No mention is made
             regarding developmental habitats, nursery areas or the migratory behavior
             patterns of juveniles.

                 For all the species covered in the plan, crucial data concerning the life
             histories, migratory behavior patterns and preferred habitat is lacking
             for i-ature life stages. How effective can any.management be if you don't
                                                             4-
             know where or how the species live for major por@ions of their lives?

                                                  Sincerely,

                                                  John A. Musick
                                                  Professor of Marine Science

                                                  Richard A. Byles
                                                  Graduate Research Assistant

             RAB/gbr

             Enclosure

                                                                                           326

                 Dr. Jack Brawner
                 Regional Director- Southeast Region
                 National Marine Fisheries Service
                 9450 Koger Blvd.
                 St. Petersburg, Fl. 33704

                 Dear Dr. Brawner,

                      We have received the "Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles" and

                 find it thorough but not without some omissions. The most import-

                 ant in our eyes is described below.

                 Commentary on "The Recovery Plan For Marine Turtles".-

                      The plan is basically comprehensive considering most of

                 the known facts on sea turtle biology. In some cases however

                 there is a tendency to lean on anecdotal and circumstantial

                 information.   An   important    case is consideration of        the

                 colonization potential of various sea turtle species. Consider

                 the following; although it is known that migration distances

                 are great and turtles tagged at diverse locations share common

                 foraging grounds, it is also known that females are repeat

                 nesters on the same beach year after year. The latter information

                 is given more weight in the Recovery Plans' reccomendations for

                 handling and brooding clutches as well as handling hatchlings.

                 That is, "repeat nesting" behavior is taken as a reflection of

                 natal beach homing of both sexes. This is clearly the more

                 conservative approach. However, since the colonization question

                 may be one of the most important to restocking activities it

                 should have been given greater attention in the plan. While

                 activities such as headstarting, temperature determination of

                 sex and various monitoring activities such as aerial surveys

                                                                                             327

               are clearly important, there is a clear need to know,whether

               natal beach imprinting occurs in both sexes and if it is possible

               to subdivide turtles into discrete management units.           Thus

               far tagging approaches have not provided this information.

               Therefore at least one item of high priority should be the

               need to develop alternative methodologies to answer this key

               question to both an understanding *of turtle biology and to the

               design of management and recovery plans.

                    We    would   like to suggest genetic approaches        as    a

               possibility.    These   could include protein       electrophoresis,

               immunological methodologies or DNA sequence or fingerprinting

               techniques. The first has been in use in our laboratory for a

               number of years and has been successful in distinguishing-between

               populations of spiny lobsters,        alligators and crocodiles.

               Preliminary studies aimed at the asFsessment of gene flow between

               green turtle populations has suggested differences           between

               animals from Atlantic Costa Rica and Florida (see enclosed

               abstract). These results are consistant with the observations of

               Smith et. al. (Trans 41st North Amer. Wildlife Nat. Res.

               Conf.,(1976)pll9).

                    The study with green turtles has been ongoing in our

               laboratory    since   1979 along with      similar   studies     with

               Pacific olive ridley and Atlantic loggerhead turtles. In the

               former case we have collections from both Mexico and Costa Rica.

               For loggerheads we are completing collections from various U.S.

               populations from South Carolina to the Gulf of Mexico.

                    We would be most happy to cooperate with the Recovery Team

                                                 2

                                                                                              328

                 in the pursuance of this and related questions.

                                                          Sincerely yours,

                                                          Robert A. Menzies
                                                          Professor of Biochemistry
                                                          and Oceanography

                                                          Lyle Kochinsky
                                                          Research Associate

                                                 3

                                                                                         329
                                       luiurrstIg Lit

                                          DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

      4AMSAY WRIGHT ZOOLOGICAL LAeORATORIES
      .5 HARBORO STREET
            M5S 1AI. ONTARIO. CANADA

                                                     March 13, 1984

                 Dr. Jack T. Brawner
                 United States Department of Commerce
                 Southeast Region        -
                 9450 Koger Boulevard
                 St. Petersburg, FL 33702
                 U.S.A.

                 Dear Mr. Brawner:

                      With respect to your letter of February 22, 1984, p. 66-67 of
                 the recovery plan for turtles discusses effects of hatcheries on
                 sex ratio. There are now actual data on this point (repri 'nt en-
                 closed), as opposed to speculations, and you may wish to refer to
                 them.

                      It is always a problem-keeping-abreast of recent work., I do
                 feel that some reference to the existence my book (Converving Sea
                 Turtles, see enclosed notice) should be in'cluded for the sake of
                 completeness. It is one of the few attempts to look critically
                 at some of our conservation techniques, whether one agrees with
                 it not.

                                                     Yours sincerely,

                                                                                     77":

                                                     Nicholas Mrosovsky

                 P.S. Methods (i.e. formulae) for estimating tag loss  in double
                       tagging,,,5tudies might be given somewhere.

                 NM/wl

                 Encl.

                                                                                            330

                                                        Sea Turde
                                                        Rescue
                                                        Ftmd

              May 8. 1984

              Chuck Oravetz
              NMFS-SE
              9450 Koger Blvd., Durval Bldg.
              St. Petersburgl,-.Plorida 33702

              Dear Chuck:

              RE: Review camients for A Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles

              Page 1.    Perhaps Plants should be included in the definitions of endangered and
                         threatened species.

              page 2.    (para 2 line 9) Perhaps "foster" should replace "assure".

              page 20.   (para 2., last sentence) This sentence can be (zaitted as it is not
                         relevant at this time.

              page 50.   (para 3#, line 4) should include the number of trawls in the fleet.

              page-58.   (para 1, line 8) Easley, 1982 not included in biblio.

              page 58.   Perhaps include a discussion an Section 10A of the ESA. (see
                         attachment)

              page 79.   (para 1)

                           Correction: (line 2) ESA does not provide for the establishment of
                           marine sanctuaries.

                           Add: ESA also protects endangered and threatened species from
                           irVort, export, sale, offer for sale, take, transport, etc. The
                           only eximpiions to the above for endangered species are for
                           scientific research and enhancement of survival of the species.
                           For threatened species exempticns include scientific research,
                                     t of survival of the speciesl, zoological exhibition,,
                             ucational purposes, and special purposes that are consistent
                           with the Act.

                           Add- All species of sea turtles, except the Australian flatback are
                           pro@e@ in the united States Luider the EsA.

              page 80. (para 3) Not all 30 coastal states have begun planning for the
                         developwnt of their management programs.

                                        Center for Environmental Educadon
                              624 9th SUeet NW Washington, DC 20001 (202) 737-3600

                                                                                             331

             page 81. (para 3, line 2) delete "as required by the ESA".

                         (para 5) Four marine santuaries :add La Parguera, Puerto Rico, to be
                         designated.

             page 86.    Add: The loggerhead sea turlte was listed as a threatened species by
                         the U.S. Department of Interior in 1979. It is also on Appendix I
                         of the Convention on International Trade In-Endangered Species of
                         Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

             page 97.    11311 add sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
                               change to "Pranote and maintain legal protection and    ...

             page 103.   13211 add sections 4.1,, 4e2j 4*3
                               change to "Promote and maintain legal protection and   ...

             page 108.   113U  change priority from 4 to 2.

                         13211 change priority from 3 to 2.

             page 147    (last para) This paragraph should be expanded. (see enclosure).

             page 154.   11311 add sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
                               change to "Promote and maintain legal protection and..."

             page 160.   13211 add sections 4.1, 4.2,   4.3
                               change to "Promote and maintain legal..."

             page 166.   113U  change priority  from 4 to 1*.

                         13211 change priority  from 3 to 1*.

                           Historical evidence  attributes the@tremendous decline in green sea
                         turtle populations in  this region to international trade.
                         Maintaining and prowting international protection (such as CITES)
                         for the green turtle should be a number one priority for this
                         species.

             page 183.   leatherback stepdown plan should mention the plastic bag problem.

             page 184.   113U change "See loggerhead step 1131111 to "See section 1.2, 2.8,
                                       4.1, 4.21 4.3, 4.4")

                               change to "Promote and maintain legal..."

             page 189.   13211. change to "Promote and maintain legal..."
                                add section 2.8

             page 203.   (Para 3)

                         Correction: The most intensive threat to the hawksbill canes from
                         the harvest of adult hawksbills for the Japanese tortoiseshell
                         trade-.

                                                                                         332

                          Cmit: "Turtles and tortoiseshell have traditional ceremonial value
                          in Japan,, and the rise in prosperity has increased the demand for
                          the shell." This statement is misleading; while some tortoiseshell
                          artifacts do have traditional value in Japan, the majority of crafts
                          produced today in Japan are modern day articles void of traditional
                          value (eyeglass frames, western wear jewelry, etc.).

                          Add: Since 1965, the Japanese imported a minimum of 370,000 kg. of
                          hawksbill- shell from wider Caribbean countries. Between 1981 and
                          1983, over 45,000 kg. was imported from 21 different countries (see
                          table 9).

                          Correction: Prices paid for preferred shell in Japan have been as
                                      .high as $225 per kilogram. The shell of one adult
                                      hawksbill turtle weighs between 1.5 to 2.5 kilograms.

                           Omit: Reference to Table 8 here, incorrect.

                           Add: A more recent threat comes from the growing curio trade in
                           stuffed juvenile hawksbills.

                           Enclosed is an updated table 9.

               page 207.  11311 Add section 2.8.

               page 212.  13211 Add section 2.8.

               page 216.  111221 Priority 1 ???

               page 233.  (para 3) This paragraph needs clarification. The wording in this
               paragraph gives no indication that it may be impossible to captive breed the
               Kemp's ridley altogether or in large numbers. The Cayman Turtle Farm, for
               example has not been able to breed any F2 hatchlings of green sea turtles and
               F1 production has been much lower than wild eggs hatched under the same
               conditions. In addition, F1 production from eggs that were originally taken
               from the wild (Captive-reared animals) has been extremelv low; most of the
               Farm's productivity comes from adults taken from the wild. This evidence does
               not support the statement "initial stock for captive breeding can be
               obtained.... by taking hatchlings rather than adults." A better title for this
               section way be "Establish the Feasibility of Maintaining Viable Captive
               Breeding Colonies."

               page 239. 131. Change to Establish the Feasibility of maintaining Viable
                          Captive Breeding Colonies.

               page 240. 14221 and 14223 should be changed from Priority 2 to    Priority 1.

                                                                                         333

             page 248. many errors. Below I have rewritten this section using the same
                        format.

             2. Convention  ..... Flora (CITES) (also known as the Washington Convention, or
                 the Convention)

                  Scope and Provisions:

                  The Convention is not a comprehensive wildlife conservation convention but
             is limited to controlling international trade in species threatened with
             extinction or species potentially threatened with extinction. Within this
             important functional area of controlling international trade in sea turtles and
             their products, this Convention currently is the strongest and most detailed
             international agreement. However, unlike the previous convention, it has
             nothing to say about protection within national territories and waters and
             protection of habitat.

                  Species protected by CITES trade controls are placed on one of three
             appendices, only two of which are acmmonly used. Appendix I species are those
             species threatened with extinction, which may or may not be affected by trade.
             Accordingly, Appendix I species are provided with the strongest protection;
             with very limited exemptions ccmmercial and tourist trade is prohibited. All
             sea turtle species are on Appendix I. Species on Appendix II are those species
             which are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but may become so
             unless trade in such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid
             utlization inccmpatible with their survival. International trade in Appendix
             II species is allowed provided that the country of export grants approval for
             such trade. Species not fitting the above criteria may also be included in the
             Appendices in order to ensure that trade in more vulnerable spi?cies is brought
             under effective control (e.g. look-alike-species).

                  Implementation:

                  CITES came into force in 1975 and has become an effective mechanism for
             controlling international trade in most endangered species. However,, trade in
             products derived from hawksbill and olive ridley, and to a much lesser extent,,
             green sea turtles still continues in the wider Caribbean region because of
             three major factors:

                  1. only _ a    'f the 26 countries in the region are members of CITES.
                     Scime of the non-member countries trade internationally in sea turtle
                     products.

                             Chuck I think you should change countries to geopolitical
                             units, as not all British territories and colonies are,
                             members of CITES. I = waiting for verification on Montserrat
                             and the British Virgin islands and will call you next week with
                             this information.

                                                                                      334

                      CITES Members         Non-members          Unsure

                      Brazil                Antigua              British Virgin Islands
                      Cayman Islands        Barbados             Montserrat
                      Colombia              Belize
                      Bahamas               Bermuda
                      Guyana                Dominica
                      Costa Rica            Dominican Republic
                      French Guiana         Cuba
                      Guadeloupe            Grenada
                      Martinique            Honduras
                      Nicaragua             Jamaica
                      Panama                Mexico
                      St. Lucia             Haiti
                      Suriname              St. Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla
                      Venezuela             St. Vincent
                      Canada                Turks and Caicos

                  2. Some member countries have taken "reservations" on sea turtles.
                     Suriname has a reservation on green and leatherback sea turtles.
                     Until Janaury 1984, France, and France's overseas departments (French
                     Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe) had reservations on hawksbill and green
                     sea turtles.

                  3. Some member countries have not effectively enforced CITES trade
                     controls.

                  Actions Required: State Department

                  Encourage all sea turtle trading countries in the plan area,, not yet party
                  to CITES, to join without reservation (eg. Mexico, Dominican Republic,
                  Cuba, Haiti).

                  Encourage Suriname to withdraw its CITES reservations for sea turtles.

                  Encourage all Parties to CITES to fully implement and enforce CITES import
                  and export controls (e.g. Panama,, Cayman Islands).

                  Actions Required: Departments of Commerce and Interior (leave as is)

             page 261-269. (see attachment).

             I hope you find these comments useful.

             Best r     S,

             Emi  ociatet Director
                   4gar

                                                                       335

                                       @AL S IENCES         9IN
        E         NvRoN@ENTAuL & cHE2mc
          CS@(X @Bo @13 Ad e @So     am    80 .(803)C652-7450 , (803) 65C2-2206@
                  P         k                2
                     x 93     n'  th c ina 9

                                       March 26j 1984

              Charles A. Oravetz, Chief
              Protected Species Management Branch
              National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
              National marine Fisheries Service
              Southeast Region
              9450 Koger Boulevard
              St. Petersburg, FL 33702

              Dear Chuck:

                  I have reviewed the recovery plan prepared by the marine
              Turtle Recove@/Team, I would like to compliment the recovery
              team and particularly Sally Hopkins and Peter Pritchard for an
              excellent and comprehensive document. This effort should be
              followed by sufficient agency commitment to establish funding for
              the recommended programs..

                  I was.delighted to see, on page 58, a statement regarding the
              paradox created by the Endangered Species Act which purports to
              protect the species but prohibits individuals from taking life-
              saving actions. This paradox has existed for years and the NMFS1
              FWS has been negligent in not r-esolving the problem.

                  Section 2.7 of the recovery plan deals with public education
              about the life history and protection of sea turtles. There is
              obvious advantage to having a public awareness of the adverse
              affects that humans can have on the sea turtle populations. How-
              ever, too often public awareness leads to increased beach traffic
              which can influence nesting behavior of the turtles. For
              example, beach parks, such as Edisto Park in South Carolina, have
              tours, led by knowledgeable staff, taking large groups along the
              beach to find nesting turtles. The benefit of this educational
              process is obvious. The cost, in terms of nesting disturbance,
              is unknown. Another example: I understand there is a town in
              Florida that advertises itself as a sea turtle capital and has
              radio announcements directing people to the nesting beaches. In
              this instance, the educational benefit is quite low compared to
              the potential influence of numerous people wandering the beaches.

                  On page 88 of the recovery plan, the statement is made that
              during egg-laying and incubation, eggs may be examined. I think
              it is misleading to imply that examination and disturbance during
              egg incubation is not harmful. I recommend deleting reference to
              disturbing nests during the incubation period.

                                                                    336

             Charles A. Oravetz
             March 26, 1984
             page 2

                 The loggerhead implementation schedule is a good one.
             However, I think some priorities should be changed to better
             reflect our pre-sent knowledge. The present beach surveys which
             mark adult females is a labor intensive effort conducted by
             numerous organizations which yields volumes of data of
             questionable value. The marking and mutilation of adult female
             turtles with tags that may last anywhere between I day 4nd 7
             years cannot yield reliable data. While the survey methodologies
             referenced in section 1421 are aerial surveys, it is all beach
             surveys being conducted in many ways by many people that need to
             be standardized and evaluated. I agree that long-term marking
             programs should be maintained, if only for data continuity. The
             plan section 1421 should be moved to the highest priority and
             implemented in connection with a program to develop both adult
             tags and a hatchling tagging method.

             Sincerely,

             LiamdIs O'Hara, Ph.D.
             Vice President

             JOH:mg

                                                                                      337

                                              February 9, 1984

                                              Dr. C. Kenneth Dodd Jr.
                                              1530 Northgate Square, Apt. 22B
                                              Reston, VA. 22090

               Mr. Charles Oravetz
               National Marine Fisheries Service
               9490 Koger Blvd.
               St. Petersburg, FL. 33702

               Dear Chuck:

                    I have finally had the opportunity to review the Sea Turtle Agency
               Review draft that you gave me in Puerto Rico. I appreciate the opportunity
               to look it over since I really wasn't involved in the-technical review. I
               would have to state that the following comments are solely mine and do not
               represent any Fish and Wildlife Service positions; I assume that FWS will
               submit comments through the Regional office.
                   'In general, I was rather impressed with the first section of the plan,
               although it is somewhat uneven in the depth into which topics are covered.
               Given the scope of the plan, perhaps this is not too serious a problem.
               The discussion involving the use and limitations of models (p. 27), popu-
               lation estimates (p. 18), and the uniquenessof individual populations (p.
               15) are important points that should be retained, and even could serve as
               references for other recovery plans.
                    I was less than enthusiastic about the individual species recovery
               plan sections as they are often far tocL vague about necessary recovery
               actions, including land acquistion, crt-tical habitat designation, research,
               and management. Again the scope of the plan may inhibit the type of de-
               tailed recommendations that we often see in our FWS recovery plans; however,
               there are other instances where specific actions could be recommended with-
               out seriously lengthening the plan. In the long run, in my opinion, it may
               indeed be necessary to rewrite the individual species accounts to reflect
               priorities for various conservation activities. That is, we may have to re-
               commend that Kemp's ridley be headstarted X amount of years, that critical
               habitat should be designated for the loggerhead on the east coast of
               Florida, that FWS and NMFS increase their law enforcement personnel in
               the Caribbean, and that trawling be restricted in certain areas during cer-
               tain times of the year. I realize that we don't have all the answers as
               yet; but we do have some and these should be incorporated.
                    To begin with, I make two recommendations. The first is that the Recovery
               Team review the sea turtle action plan developed by the World Conference on
               Sea Turtle Conservation in Washington to determine if any of these actions
               should be incorporated into the plan. The second is to recommend that the
               WATS Manual of Sea Turtle Research and Conservation Techniques be adopted
               by US, State, Territorial, and private researchers to lend some degree of
               standarization to sea turtle research. I might also add a strong recommen-
               dation be included in the plan that people who have endangered species
               permits be required to make their data available, either through publica-
               tion in an appropriate medium, or in reports submitted to a central sea

                                                                                      338

               turtle coordinating center (Univ. of Florida, NMFS, or ?) so that we are not
               faced with the situation where data- are taken for many years, yet no one
               sees any results, and hears only rumors. We need not point to names to know
               that this has been a chronic problem, and continues to be so in certain
               areas.
                    I was very glad to see the Plan call for the development of critical
               habitat for sea turtles, both in marine and on beach areas. There has been
               a strong pitch within FWS to do away with critical habitat, and while I
               readily agree that it is not advantageous in all circumstances to have it
               formally declared, I still think it works well for species like sea turtles
               which may be present in a particular habitat on a seasonal basis. In 1978
               I published what I think was the first attempt to tell where the various
               species nested (not referenced in the Plan I might add); I think this needs
               to be updated since we now have much better information, and I definitely
               think that certain areas need to be recommended for critical habitat designa-
               tion: the marine areas around Culebra, Isla Mona, and certain areas around
               the US Virgin Islands; the lagoonal system on the Florida east coast; and
               nesting beaches at Cape Romain, Cape Canaveral, Hutchinson Island, Hobe
               Sound, between Melbourne Beach and Sebastian Inlet, Cape Sable, and I'm sure
               a few others that I've left off in this brief list. I would like the Plan
               to give specific recommendations in this area.
                    As to specific comments on the Plan, there are a few typos that need to
               be corrected, but I'm sure that you will find them in the course of your
               review. I will make comments by page number as indicated below.

               P. 1. The definitions of endangered and threatened given here'are not precise
               in terms of the Endangered Species Act. For instance, the word "race" should
               not be used, as the Act uses "subspecies." This should be rewritten to re-
               flect the legal definitions.

               P. 1. The Secretaries must review the status.of listed species every five
               years, but recommendations for reclassification or delisting are made only
               if the biological data warrant such. This should be clarified in the next to
               last paragraph.

               P. 12. The references to Dodd (1981) are incorrect both on this page and in
               the literature cited. The date should be 1982 (the reprints had the incorrect
               date).

               P. 14. The population data needs to be updated on the number of leatherbacks
               nesting in the USVI. Scott Eckert gave slightly different figures at the
               Widecast meeting in Puerto Rico.

               P. 16. Add coatis to the list of predators.

               P. 19.(Top) Add the numbers of adult males as an elusive parameter.

               P. 19. Both Marquez and Van Dissel (1982, Netherlands J. Zool. 32:419-425)
               and Steve Cornelius (various reports to USFWS) Pave also described their
               methods to estimate the numbers of females nesting on the beach, although
               with olive ridleys. These should also be referenced.

                                                                                        339

                P. 22. 1 might question the statement that most reptifes reproduce
                on an annual cycle, as many factors may influence reproduction, including
                temperature regimes and food quantity and quality. Certainly not all the
                female crocodiles in a population reproduce annually, and I doubt that
                many turtles do either. Lizards and snakes-may be another matter however.
                Is there really any data to substantiate the "most" in this statement?

                P. 28. 1 understand the desire to have programs continue a minimum
                of six years- the females in at least one Georgia population "turn over"
                at this rate. However, six should be a minimum figure, and it could per-
                haps differ in other populations or with other species (as in greens
                discussed later). Useful data would only begin to be available at the
                end of six years, and it would be hoped that tagging programs really have
                a longer period in mind, say 10 years at least, as a target for operation.
                Six is thus only a minimum baseline figure, and may actually be too few
                years in some circdm-stances.

                P. 45. The Plan should note that Richard Byles of VIMS is also using radio
                and sonar tracking in monitoring the sea turtles of the Chesapeake Bay.
                (As long as all the others are mentioned.)

                P. 59. The problem of incidental catch and endangened species is not a
                question that can be addressed by FWS/NMFS through regulation. By law, you
                cannot have special regulations for species listed as endangered, even for
                conservation or research purposes. Therefore, to resolve the.question, there
                would have to be a change in the Act to accommodate incidenta-1 catch, and
                that has serious implications both fo-r sea turtles and other species. Jack
                Woody came up with an idea concerning incidental catch and how to handle it,
                but even with OES support, it got nowhere. Perhaps you should let Jack tell
                you about it. Otherwise, perhaps the T6am should address the question of
                amending the Act to address the incidental catch question. It is indeed a
                bit thorny and volatile issue.

                P. 64. 1 note that the increase in organic content of the nesting beach not
                only increases the number of microbes but also increases the potential for
                fungal contamination.

                P. 65. ORVs should be mentioned specifically as a growing threat to nesting
                beaches. Cite paper by Hosier et al. (1981, Environ. Conserv. 8(2): 158-161)
                and note the papers cited by that paper.

                P. 68. Suggest this wording " ... costly program which should be used for only
                clearly..."

                P. 72. Should cite the paper by Fritts and McGehee (1981, Contract 14-16-
                0009-80-946 [FWS/OBS_ 81/37]) when discussing potential threats of oil.

                P. 79. The Endangered Species Act does not per se provide for the establish-
                ment of marine sanctuaries. Perhaps the marine sanctuaries program of NMFS
                is more what they mean. We can declare marine critical habitats however.

                                                                                         340

               P. 81 . At one time, NMFS had several areas in Puerto Rico proposed as marine
               sanctuaries. What ever happened to them? Are they still pending? As I recall,
              ..OES supported the designation of these areas as sanctuaries because of their
               potential importance-to the hawksbill sea turtle.

               P. 102. Petroleum products may result in reduced reproductive effort; I know
               of no data yet that conclus-T-vely proves this in sea turtles.
               P. 104. Modifications concerning intake*pipes (high pitched sounds) have been
               used with some degree of suc'cess by the Florida Power and Light Company. I
               think Jim O'Hara has data on this but I have not been able to get a hold of
               his report. It might be worth referencing depending on the results.

               P. 106. Section 1411. A. may be realistically impossible for the near future.
               I would add in section 1411.C.: Publish or otherwise make such data generally
               available to those with an interest in sea turtle conservation.

               P. 108. 1 like and endorse these priorities.

               P. 147. "... from as low as one to over two hundred eggs." could be interpreted
               as 1-200 or 100-200. Clarify.

               P. 157. As I stated earlier, green turtles may have a different turnover rate
               than Georgia loggerheads. Therefore, what is the biological basis for this
               minimum rate? I think (without good data, just intuition) that this is too
               conservative and recommend at least 10- years for greens.

               P. 164. 1 agree with the statements on monitoring green turtle populations on
               board fishing trawlers. But again, how-do we deal with the Endangered Species
               Act and its restrictive provisions?

               P. 183. The Plan should come right out and say: We recommend that the FWS
               purchase Sandy Point as a refuge for nesting leatherbacks as soon as possible.
               As Sean Furness noted, there could be some hitches that need to be resolved
               in the immediate future if we are indeed going to pick up this important
               nesting beach.

               P. 199. Nesting of leatherbacks does occasionally occur on Isla Mona as well.
               Tom Wiewandt reported this to me, and Peter Pritchard claimed to have seen
               leatherback tracks on Mona this January. The beach certainly seems a likely
               place for occasional nesting.

               P. 202. The notion that hawksbills form demes in the Torres Straits has indeed
               been mentioned in the literature primarily by Bustard (not cited in Plan) and
               Carr and Stancyk (1975). However, this is probably not correc 't as Limpus et
               al. (1983, Australian Wildl. Res. 10:185-197 and pers. comm.) have pointed
               out. When an adequate sample size from a variety of locations throughout the
               year is available, the deme notion based on variations in scute colors breaks
               down.

               P. 204. 1 don't understand why these old data are included. Emily Roet has
               much more up to date information which should have been available to the
               authors of the Plan; these current data should be incorporated.

                                                                                           341

               P. 215. This is an example of where the Plan could have been made stronger
               by the inclusion of specific recommendations, such as " .... in estuarine
               and marine waters, particularly the reefs off West Palm Beach, Florida,
               the waters off Mona Island, Puerto Rico, and the Magens Bay area. off Saint
               Thomas in the US Virgin Islands."

               P. 223. Kemp's ridleys are more familiar? To whom? Each other? Purely a
               semantic observation. Juveniles are most often observed by people.

               P. 224. Poaching can still be a serious problem at Rancho Nuevo, despite
               the optimistic prose of the Plan. The Plan. cites data'from the late 7ns,
               but when US observers were late getting on the beach in 1983, poaching
               again became a serious problem until the patrols were set up and aerial
               flights were again used to monitor the beach. This underscores the still
               great importance of timely access to the beach immediately prior and
               during the nesting season.

               P. 246. 1 note that the only sea turtle listed by the US on the Western
               Hemisphere Convention is the green turtle. However, otT-er Latin countries,
               particularly Mexico, have listed other species. See Dodd (1978, Herpetol.
               Rev. 9:52-53). Also worth noting is that the 1982 amendments to the En-
               dangered Species Act gave further impetus to the US impl@menting the Con-
               vention, although I am not aware of any particular action.

               P. 248.  Suggest "...of the biological, economic, and social realities..."

               P. 248.  1 am not aware of the NPS-FWS-Cooperative Program. What I would
               like to  see is a cooperative program that brings latinos to the US to be
               trained  in sea turtle biology and conse-rvation techniques, similar to the
               program  underway to train Latin Americans in crocodilian biology.

               P. 249.  France, as part of the EEC, has now to my knowledge dropped its
               sea turtle reservations under CITES. Check with Emily Roet for update, but
               this section should be brought-up to date.

               P. 267. Add Kemp's ridley to the Mexican section.

               P. 269. Venezuela section. Sea turtles forage near the mainland, not on it.

               Literature Cited. I recommend referencing the extensive bibliography pre-
               pared by Peter Bacon for WATS as a source of many additional references to
               the published and unpublished literature on the sea turtles of the Western
               Caribbean. You might also mention my two bibliographies published by the
               Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service as sources of information,
              .and definitely include the WATS symposium and manual. Finally, I'll show
               my bias by saying please include my critical habitat paper on sea turtles
               in the US areas of jurisdiction (Bull. MD. Herp. Soc. 14: 233-240, 1978);
               for a first try at delineating sea turtle nesting, it wasn't a bad little
               paper (personal bias not perhaps shared by others!).

                                                                                        342

                    Well, I guess that those are my major points on specific matters. The
               plan can serve as a basis for meaningful action, especially more so if it
               centers on certain items that should be accomplished as soon as possible.
               I wish I would have had more imput into the plan, but that is the way it
               goes.
                    In any case, if I can be of further help, or if you need clarification
               of any of my comments, please let me know. Glad I could be of assistance.,

                                              Sincerely

                                              C. Kenneth Dodd Jr. Ph.D.

    0

                                                                 ORREN MERREN                                                 343
         arm Mom III                                            Bardster & Attorney                                        Of Council
         I  M M W                                                                                                         truman Bodden & Company
         pf  Ban of                                      701 Washington Building                                          P.O. Box 866
          & Wahm                                    at 15th Street and Now York Avenue NW                                 Grow cay"0M
         m WI and                                            Washington DC 20005 USA                                      ca Islands BWI
         natw Dc                                                 phone (202) 34724910                                     phone (809)94-92138
                                                                    cable "CAYLAW"                                         Yelfax 2438TRULAW CP

                                                                 1 June 1984

                        Ms. Patricia Carter
                        .N8O4A8A
                        National Marine Fisheries Service
                        Page Building #2
                        3300 White2h0ave0n Stre0et N.We
                        Was6hi8ngt0o4ng D.C. 20235

                        Dear Pat:

                               Enclosed please find a copy                of some suggested text for your
                        consideration to be added to the                 draft Having Turtle Recovery
                        plan for sea turtles that I understand you mail be finalizing
                        shortly.

                               As counsel for         the Cayman Islands Government I was given a
                        copy of the Marine Turtle Recovery Plan as guide to the
                        development of a U.S. - U.K.A (Cayman Islands) cooperative
                        agreement an sea turtle conservation.

                               The suggested text should be treated in light of that
                        objective and should be treated an addressing the obvious
                        omission in the draft Plan to deal with sea turtle culture
                        in a balanced way. Once the finalixed Plan is open for public
                        co0mentv the Cayman IsLands-Government-as-well as the Cayman
                        Turtle Farm (1983) Ltd. -,may wish to submit Documments at that time

                                                            Very      truly   yours

                                                            barrister & Attorney

         Enc:
                        cc:
                             Mr. James Winchester
                             Mr. 32G. Ray Arnett
                             Mr. Robert Jansen
                             Han. John B. McLean

    0

                                                                                           344

                                     Suggested Text to Add to Draft U.S.
                                      Recovenlan for Marine Turtles

                    1)    At the bottom of page 148 add the following

                          Green, turtles, because they are very desirable fair their
                    m8eat shell and other products and because they are herbiferous
                    and relatively sonagressive toward one & Gathers are considered t8o
                    be the beat sea turtle species for cuturing. A areas turtle
                    ranch, which collects fertilized eggs from the wild fair hatching
                    and rearing in captivity, is located In Surinam. The pioneer of
                    son turtle cultures the Cayman Turtle Faem is located an Grand
                    Cayman Island; since 1978, aLL of its green stock has been
                    produce,d through the captivo propagation of its brooding hard
                    without any further augmentation of turtles or eggs from the
                    wild, Both operations release a portion of their hatchlings to
                    the wild with the balance of their production being used for
                    research or fair commercial purposes.

                          The potential for commercial trade from these facilities
                    sithew-to replace wild turtles In trade or to stimulate demand
                    for wild tortles and under what coudtlans needs to be explored
                    further, Potential onforcoment-problems stemming from commercial
                    trade In cultured green turtle products also need to be examined
                    furthere & Long with proposed safeguards and solutions. However.
                    the very significant potential for research wild and captive
                    hatchliag releasest training as well as all other aspects of
                    recovery efforts for green turtles 4at sea turtle culture
                    facilities such as these should not be overlooked or Ignored*

                    2)    Just above the word "Impemenstion" on    page 249 add the
                    following

                          Appendix I species bred In captivity foe commercial purposes
                    are deimsed to be Appendix It species. Populations of Appendix I
                    species which are deemed by the Parties to CITES to be      so Long,@*
                    endangered and to benefit by ranching (i.e. rearing in
                    captivity specimens taken from the wild) my be moved to
                    Appendix It, Green turtles In Surinami and an Grand Caym Island
                    are the populations met likely to be affected by       .. these
                    provisions that allow regulated trade under the Convention,

                    3)    Replace the text immediately under the heading "Actions.
                    Required: Departments of Commerce and the Interior's on page 250
                    with the followings

                          Determine major markets and sources of turtle products and
                    discourage with trade tariffs, quotas, stiff penalties for
                    violations etc. nations not conducting this trade in accordance
                    with the Convention.

                                             ."I Or                                          345
                                                       UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                                       National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                                       NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE

                                                       Southeast Fisheries Center
                                                       75 Virginia Beach Drive
                                                       Miami, FL 33149-1099

                                                       June 22, 1984

                TO:        F/SER64   Chuck Oravetz

                FROM:      F/SECA    Fred Berr

                SUBJECT:   Sea Turtle Recovery    an, Agency Review Draft of February 1984
                           Suggestion

                     Three Attached pages show discrepancies   in data on sea turtle nests for
                Florida (only state so far compared) betwen    subject plan and the U.S.A.
                Natioml Report to WATS.

                     These should be fixed, or amelioratedo or explained, or excused.

                Attachments

                cc: Sally Hopkins, w/Attms.
                     F/SEC5 - Larry Ogren, w/Attms.
                     F/SECll - Nancy Thompson, w/Attms.
                     Ross Witham

                                                                                                       346

             FLORIDA: ESTIMATED NUMBER OF SEA TURTLE NESTS PER SEASON, BY EACH, BY SPECIES-
                        COMPARING WATS USA NATIONAL REPORT (Ist number in block) AND "MARINE" TURTLE
                        RECOVERY PLAN DRAFT (2nd number in block, in parentheses).

              NAME OF BEACH                   LENGTH (km)        LOGGERHEAD          GREEN         LEATHERBACK

              FLORIDA:

                   Ft. Walton Beach
              1.   (incl. Eglin AFB)                             6

                   T.H. Stone Memorial
              2.   St. Joseph State Pk. 19.2                     11

                   St. George Island
              3.   Recreation Area                               17

                   St. Vincent Island
              4.   National Wildlife        11.3                 10

                   Northern
              5.   Longboat Key              8.0 (5.8)           20     (16)

              6.   Casey Key _               7.6 (6.4)           50     (48)

              7.   Manasota Key             12.9 (16.1)          170    (150)

                   Cayo Costa State
              8.   Preserve                  8.0                 6

              9.   Sanibel Island           18.5                 100    (100)

                    Wiggens Pass State
              10. Recreation Area           13.4                 22

              11.   Vanderbilt Beach         8.0                 39     (38)

              12.   Bonito Beach             9.7                 42     (42)

                    Naples
              13.   Area Beaches             8.0 (6.4)           50     (40)

              14.   Cape Romano              4.8                 40     (40)

                    Fort Jefferson
              15.   National Monument        4.8                 65

                    Everglades Nat'l
              16.   Park Beaches            56.6 (56.5)        1200   (1350)

                                                                                                      347

             NAME OF BEACH                  LENGTH (km)         LOGGERHEAD          GREEN         LEATHERBACK

             FLORIDA:

                   Bahia Honda State
             17. Recreation Area           0.8                  1

             18.   Soldier Key            Not Recorded

                   Bill Baggs Cape FL
             19.   State Rec. Area         2.4                  57               2

                   Northern
             20.   Key Biscayne            9.6                  39      (67.)    2

                 Miami Bch. Surfside
             21. Bar Harbour Haulovei 16.1                      30               1

                   Broward
             22.   County Beaches         36.6  (37)         1193     (1021)     18 (32.9)        6

                   Boca Raton
             23.   Public Beach            4.2                 370                8   (6-9)       1 (4)

             24.   Highland Beach          4.5                 507                7 (34.2)        6

             25.   Palm Beach Shores      0.9                   54

             26.   1,6st Tree Village     2.8                  215               7 (17.)          3 (3)

             27.   Juno Beach             1.6                  340 (339.2)       3 (4.5)          1 (1.5)

             28.   Jupiter Beach          12.3               2108  (2238.6)      10 (25.8)        7

                   Hobe Sound Nat'l
             29.   Wildlife Refuge        5.6   (6.4)        1108  (1086.7)       8 (13.2)        3 (3)

                   St. Lucie Inlet
             30.   State Rec. Area        3.4

             31.   Hutchinson Island     36.0 (36.3)         3115  (4080.1)      10 (28.8)      11 (3.5)

                   Ft. Pierce Inlet
             32.   State-Rec. Area        3.2                   26

                   Sebastian Inlet
             33.   State Rec. Area        5.0                  297               2

                                                                                                    348

             NAME OF BEACH                  LENGTH (km)        LOGGERHEAD          GREEN        LEATHERBACK

             FLORIDA:

                  St. Lucie & Indian
             34.  River Counties        28.6 (36.8)          726 (1012)        65 (66.2)        2 (2)

                  South
             35.  Brevard County        50.2                 7000              60 (126.6)       3

                  Indialantic &
             36.  Melbourne Beach        9.3                 2000

                  North Brevard Co.
             37.  (Cape Canaveral)      50.0                2367 (2175)        10 (20.)

                  South
             38.  Volusia County         8.o                 392 (392)              (4.)

                  Flager Beach
             39.  State Rec. Area        0.7                   9               1

                  St. Johns
             40.  County Beaches        66.0                   50

                  Ft. Matanzas 1
             41.  National Monument      1.2   (0.8)           2 (13)

                  Anastasia State
             42.  Recreation Area        4.0                   2

             43.  Big Talbot Island      3.2                   9

                  Little
             44.  Talbot Island          8                     32

                                         .,01 <@W                                    349
                                         V         UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                                   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                                   NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE
                                                   SEFC Galveston Laboratory
                                                   4700 Avenue U, Galveston, TX 77550

                                                   June 19, 1984

                     To: F/SEC - Mr. Fred Berry

                   From: F/SEC6 - Edward F. Klima, Ph.D.

                 Subject: Sea Turtle Recovery Plan

                    Per your verbal request, the following comments are submitted and
                focus on Section 3.5 (Kemp's Ridley Turtle Recovery Plan), p. 220-242:

                      1.  p. 221 - There is a great deal of speculation in the second
                          paragraph concerning past importance of Padre island as a
                          nesting site. To down-play the past, albeit poorly docu-
                          mented, nesting activity of Kemp's ridleys on Padre Island,
                          using speculations about'unusual currents, unusual climatic
                          conditions, or failure of turtle guidance mechanisms, is
                          counter-productive and could seriously misguide the unin-
                          formed reader. This is a plan for recovery of a seriously
                          endangered species, and no clues to former nesting areas
                          should be down-played. In fact, much of the current head-
                          start project is focused on re-establishment of a nesting
                          population on Padre island. Such focus does not preclude
                          consideration of other possible locations. The paragraph
                          should be reworded.

                      2.  page 222 - The abiotic environment may be seriously
                          threatened by petroleum pollution (see items 1111, 11111 and
                          11112 on page 227). Contamination of the western Gulf of
                          Mexico and its beaches with oil and tar is documented.
                          Because of concerns about possible impacts of such polluti'on
                          on endangered species, MMS has initiated a series of studies
                          on effects of petroleum,on sea turtles. The Coast Guard at
                          Corpus Christi, Texas, claims that the tar coming onto the
                          beaches near Corpus Christi in spring and early summer each
                          year originates from the Ixtoc blowout (mentioned on page
                          225). Reports of oiled turtle strandings are increasing.
                          The effects of chronic petroleum pollution of the nesting
                          beaches is not known, nor are the effects of oiling of hatch-
                          lings, yearlings and adults. It is documented that Kemp's
                          ridleys die with tar in the esophagus. This has been
                          observed in turtles from two releases off Padre Island so-
                          far. One release (1982 year-class) was made about 4 miles
                          off the coast of Mustang and Padre Islands, and the other
                          (1983 year-class) about 20 miles off Mustang island.

                                                                                         350

                                                          2

                              The plan also'should mention concern about the impacts of
                              petroleum pollution (from whatever sources) on the Rancho
                              Nuevo nesting beach (as well as future nesting beaches) and
                              on the turtles themselves. For example, apart from the acute
                              effect@ of such pollution, it is well documented that hydro-
                              carbons can interfere with sensory mechanisms in marine
                              fauna. Chronic pollution of the gulf by petroleum could
                              interfere with chemical sensory mechanisms that the Kemp's
                              ridleys may use to locate the nesting beach. The paragraph
                              should be changed to reflect such concerns and considera-
                              tions.

                          3.  page 223 - Last paragraph - Archie Carr believes that Kemp's
                              ridleys that leave the gulf are lost from the population,
                              whether or not they cross the Atlantic to Europe. Yet, the
                              question is still open to debate, pro and con. Head-started,
                              tagged, and released Kemp's ridleys have shown.a recovery
                              pattern along the Atlantic coasts of North America and Europe
                              not unlike that in the published literature. It is probably
                              premature to conclude that none that escape the gulf return
                              to the gulf. The question should remain open, and the
                              paragraph should be changed to reflect this.

                          4.  page 224 - Second paragraph - Because of legal deterrents to
                              capture of sea turtles, the estimates of rates of capture of
                              Kemp's ridleys by shrimp trawlers probably are biased down-
                              ward. In other words, they are "best case" estimates, both
                              for turtles and for the industry. There may be need for
                              declaring "no trawling zones" in U.S. waters too, especially
                              where Kemp's ridleys are known to congregate.

                          5.  Page 225 - First paragraph - Watson & Seidel (1980) provide
                              some relevant data on mortality rates of trawl caught sea
                              turtles that might be wdrth mentioning, even though they do
                              not refer exclusively to Kemp's ridleys.

                          6.  Page 231   item 11322 - This section appears too restrictive.
                              I propose to inject tetracycline, and perhaps o'ther chemi-
                              cals, into head-started Kemp's ridleys to study their age and
                              growth. Such study would be prohibited under the current
                              wording of this section. The section needs to be less
                              restrictive.

                          7,  Page 233 - The recently reported (by Jim Woods) successful
                              nesting of two 5-year-old, head-started Kemp's ridleys at the
                              Cayman Turtle Farm should be emphasized. This major break
                              through in captive breeding adds significance and importance

                                                                                      351

                                                  3

                         to establishment of breeding colonies of Kemp's ridleys, and
                         it can probably be done over a much shorter time period than
                         was earlier supposed. Such breeding colonies could provide a
                         "safety-net" for the species, because they could provide a
                         continuous supply of hatchlings to be released into.the wild.
                         Head-starting is an ideal source of such brood stock-on a
                         continuing basis, because it provides for natural genetic
                         variability (because the source of head-started hatchlings is
                         wild stock). Captive breeding colonies should be established
                         in many suitable locations and their sizes increased. The
                         program to coordinate exchange of animals among breeding
                         colonies should be expanded. These comments should be incor-
                         porated into the'plan.

                     a.  page 237 - It seems incongruous that the plan calls for
                         studyin the incidental take in U.S. waters while recom-
                         mending more stringent measures (adjustments in the "no
                         trawling zone" and fishing regulations) for Mexican waters.
                         We know that Kemp's ridleys congregate in certain locales
                         within U.S. waters; e.g., Sea Rim State Park, Texas, and
                         Ponce de Leon Inlet, Florida. It is not premature to focus
                         on such areas as possible candidates for "no trawling zones."
                         our willingness to consider such actions would go a long way
                         in enhancing the interactions between the U.S. and Mexico in
                         the Kemp's ridley recovery program.

                     9.  page 238 - item 151 - I agree that broad-based aerial surveys
                         are not productive. However, aerial surveys of turtles and
                         shrimp trawling activities should be conducted at carefully
                         selected sites where Kemp's ridleys and shrimpers are known
                         to congregate (e.g., Rancho Nuevo, Sea Rim State park, Ponce
                         de Leon Inlet, and perhaps others). A "rifle" approach, not
                         a "shotgun" approach, is needed. Coupled with ship-board
                         observer surveys, site-dpecific surveys would be very produc-
                         tive in assessing Kemp's ridley abundance and catch rates
                         where ridleys congregate.

                    10.  p. 239 - Lead agencies should be corrected and priority
                         rankings added to the implementation schedule (from recovery
                         plan) as follows:

                                                                                          352

                                                         4

                                                             Priority
                                    Activity                 Ranking          Lead Agency
                              Regulate spoil dumping, sea
                              floor mining and trawl tows       1                 NMFS

                              Maintain and enforce ban on
                              take throughout the range         I                 NMFS

                             -Use hatcheries and
                              head-starting                     1                 NMFS

                              Maintain total ban on com-
                              mercial, recreational or
                              subsistence take                  I                 NMFS

                              Establish captive breeding
                              colonies                          1                 NMFS

                              Develop oil spill contingency
                              plan                              2                 NMFS

                              Regulate methods, gear, areas
                              and seasons in U.S. waters        2                 NMFS

                              Recommend regulations for
                              methods, areas, gear and
                              seasons in Mexican waters         2                 NMFS

                              Determine feasibility of                        NMFS (was
                              aerial and other means of at-                   incorrectly
                              sea monitoring                    2             listed as FWS)

                              Regulate petrochemical                        FWS (was incor-
                              industry                          3           rectly listed
                                                                            as NMFS)

                              Determine unknown mortality
                              factors, if any, and take
                              appropriate action                3                 NMFS

                              General - Overall, I suggest a major shift in your Kemp's
                              Ridley Turtle Recovery Plan from a passive approach to an
                              active one. I suggest the following:

                              a.   Cooperative planning with major partners    Conduct a
                                   planning meeting and workshop in July or August 1984, in

                                                                                     353

                                                  5

                             Galveston, Albuquerque or Santa Fe, New Mexico, or El
                             Paso, Laredo or Brownsville, Texas, to permit Mexican
                             scientists to engage actively in the planning workshop.
                             It is important that such a cooperative effort be ini-
                             tiated at the onset of planning*of this recovery
                             program. Your draft fails to recognize the important
                             contributions made by the Instituto Nacional de la
                             Pesca, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park
                             Service, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, the
                             Gladys Porter Zoo and the Florida Department of Natural
                             Resources in the recovery of the Kemp's ridley sea
                             turtle. These organizations play major roles. Without
                             their contributing significantly to the planning effort,
                             it will simply be planning in a vacuum. Participants
                             should include appropriate representatives of the NMFS
                             Southeast Fisheries Center, the Southeast Regional
                             Office and the agencies already mentioned, as well as
                             invited outside turtle biologists such as Drs. Archie
                             Carr, Peter Pritchard, Jim Wood, Dave Owens and John
                             Hendrickson. The product of the workshop would be an
                             agreed upon Kemp's ridley sea turtle action plan.

                        b.   The Kemp's ridley recovery plan should focus on efforts
                             to step-up restoration of the Kemp's ridley population,
                             through cooperative actions between Mexico and the
                             United States. These efforts should include the
                             following:

                             (1) on-site research and restoration activities at
                                  Rancho Nuevo (FWS and INP)

                                    -   protecting and tagging adult nesting female
                                        turtles.
                                    -   protectifig nests and eggs.
                                    -   protectingand tagging hatchling turtles.
                                    -   analysis of Kemp's ridley stock trends.

                             (2) on-site observations of behavior and distribution
                                  of Kemp's ridleys off Rancho Nuevo (NMFS)

                                    -   detailed observations using satellite- and
                                        radio-tracking devices on adult sea turtles
                                        during the nesting season.

                                    -   observations on distribution and survival of
                                        hatchling sea turtles off Rancho Nuevo.

                                                                                        354

                                                     6

                                        -  on-site collection of data on sea turtles
                                           using observers on-board vessels.

                                        -  aerial surveys and observations of sea turtles
                                           from Tampico to Brownsville during nesting
                                           season.

                                 (3) on-site observations of behavior and distribution
                                      of Kemp's ridleys at selected sites (e.g., Sea Rim
                                      State Park, Ponce de Leon Inlet) (NMFS)

                                        -  atrial surveys and observations of sea
                                           turtles.
                                        -  on-site collection of data on sea turtles
                                           using observers on-board vessels and directed
                                           fishing activities for collection
                                        -  tagging and release of captured sea turtles
                                           using flipper tags and radio-transmitters.
                                        -  detailed observations using satellite- and
                                           radio-tracking.

                                 (4) Head-starting of Kemp's ridley sea turtles (NMFS)

                                        -  head-starting of Kemp's ridley sea turtles
                                           at Galveston.
                                        -  expansion of captive breeding colonies.
                                        -  expansion of research on hatchling turtles to
                                           determine growth, nutrition, fitness, and
                                           health. -
                                        -  research on proper diets for brood stock
                                           turtles.
                                        -  develop and test new tagging/marking methods.

                                 (5) Mitigate factors affecting marine mortality and
                                      stress (NMFS)

                                           increase TED technology transfer to Gulf of
                                           Mexico waters.

                                 (6) At-sea Kemp's ridley population movements (NMFS)
                                        -  coordin@te area-wide tagging effort.
                                        -  develop tags that have longer longevity and
                                           better recognition for both yearlings and
                                           adults.
                                        -  test tags for hatchlings.
                                        -  use satellite- and radio-tracking.

                                                                                        355

                                                     7

                                (7) Collect information on incidental take of sea
                                     turtles

                                          amend permits to shrimp fishermen to allow
                                          collection and transfer of incidental capture
                                          data to NMFS.

                      I feel that it is important that we initiate the cooperative phase
                 of action planning for the Kemp's ridley recovery program as soon as
                 possible. The workshop with the other agencies and individuals should
                 be held in either mid-July or mid-August to develop the action plan for
                 the Kemp's ridley recovery program, identifying our partners and what
                 roles they and we will play.

                      The major thrust of the expanded Kemp's ridley recovery program
                 should be to identify the factors that affect survival and distribu-
                 tion of adults as well as hatchlings at the Rancho Nuevo nesting site.
                 This can be done through a series of experiments that need to be
                 planned cooperatively with the Mexican government and FWS. Further, a
                 major effort needs to be initiated in areas where Kemp's ridleys
                 congregate, such as Sea Rim State Park, Texas, and Ponce de Leon
                 Inlet, Florida. There may be otfier such sites and these need to be
                 identified. The idea would be to obtain (from strandings, etc.) and
                 to capture turtles, and to hold, tag and release them with radio
                 transmitters and satellite tags, so as to provide additional infor-
                 mation on distribution of these animals. The next major effort would
                 be head-starting research, to continue this effort at Galveston and to
                 expand the captive breeding populations and cooperative exchange acti-
                 vities. And finally, and very importantly, transfer of the TED tech-
                 nology to the fishermen in the Gulf of Mexico should be facilitated.
                 Work also should be carefully outlined with the Mexican government to
                 place TED's on-board selected vessel in Mexico.

                 cc:
                 F/SECx4    Dr. Richard Berry
                            (Attn: Brad Brown)
                 F/SER     chuck oravetz
                 F/SEC6    Charles Caillbuet
                           Clark Fontaine
                           Jorge Leong

                                     *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1984 - 544-923

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