[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]





                                      Science for Solutions



                                                                           Otvk'F OFF.
           NOAA COASTAL OCEAN PROGRAM
           Decision Analysis Series No. 2

                                                                           'r"4rcs Of



                  TECHNOLOGY AND SUCCESS IN RESTORATION,
                   CREATION, AND ENHANCEMENT OF SPARTINA
                 ALTERNIFLORA MARSHES IN THE UNITED STATES
                Volume I     Executive Summary and Annotated Bibliography

                                    Geoffrey A. Matthews
                                      Thomas J. Minello


                                         August 1994




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        1994                           Coastal Ocean Office
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                                The Decision Analysis Series has been
                                established by NOAA!s Coastal Ocean
                                Program (COP) to present documents for
                                coastal resource decision makers which
                                contain analytical treatments of major issues
                                or topics. The issues, topics, and principal
                                investigators have been selected through an
                                extensive peer review process. To learn
                                more about the COP or the Decision Analysis
                                Series, please write:

                                       NOAA
                                       Coastal Ocean Office
                                       1315 East West Highway, Sta. 15140
                                       Silver Spring, MD 20910

                                or phone 301-713-3338.










                                                 Science for Solutions



               NOAA COASTAL OCEAN PROGRAM
               Decision Analysis Series No. 2

                                                                                                       OF


                        TECHNOLOGY AND SUCCESS IN RESTORATION,
                         CREATION, AND ENHANCEMENT OF SPARTINA
                       ALTERNIFLORA MARSHES IN THE UNITED STATES
                      Volume 1 -- Executive Summary and Annotated Bibliography





                                                 Geoffrey A. Matthews
                                                   Thomas J. Minello



                                     NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                                        Southeast Fisheries Science Center
                                                 Galveston Laboratory
                                                    4700 Avenue U
                                                 Galveston, TX 77551


                                                 August 1994
   
   


                                      U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                                 Ronald H. Brown, Secretary
                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                               D. James Baker, Under Secretary
                                               Coastal Ocean Office
         
                                                    Donald Scavia, Director
                                                                                                                                                                                                   





















                                                         Library
                                                        NOAA/CCEH
                                                     1990 HOBS0N AVE 
                                                    CHAS. SC 29408-289




















                   This publication should be cited as:

                   Matthews, Geoffrey A. and Thomas J. Minello. 1994. Technology and Success in Restoration, Creation,
                   and Enhancement of Sparfina aftemiflora Marshes in the United States. Vol. 1 - Executive Summary and
                   Annotated Bibliography. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series No. 2. NOAA Coastal
                   Ocean Office, Silver Spring, MD.











                                      This publication does not constitute an endorsement of any commercial product or
                                      intend to be an opinion beyond scientific or other results obtained by the National
                                      Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). No reference shall be made to
                                      NOAA, or this publication furnished by NOAA, in any advertising or sales promotion
                                      which would indicate or imply that NOAA recommends or endorses any proprietary
                                      product mentioned herein, or which has as its purpose an interest to cause directly or
                                      indirectly the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this publication.







                Note to Readers


                The NOAA Coastal Ocean Program (COP) provides a focal point through which the agency,
                together with other organizations with responsibilities for the coastal environment and its
                resources, can make significant strides toward finding solutions to critical problems. By working
                together toward these solutions, we can ensure the sustainability of these coastal resources and
                allow for compatible economic development that will enhance the well-being of the Nation now
                and in future generations. The goals of the program parallel those of the NOAA Strategic Plan
                for 1995-2005.


                A specific objective of COP is to provide the highest quality scientific information to coastal
                managers in time for critical decision making and in a format useful for these decisions. To help
                achieve this, COP inaugurated a program of developing documents that would synthesize
                infon-nation on issues that were of high priority to coastal managers. To develop such documents,
                a three-step process was used: 1) to compile a list of critical topics in the coastal ocean through
                a survey of coastal resource managers and to prioritze and select those suitable for the document
                series through the use of a panel of multidisciplinary technical experts; 2) to solicit proposals to
                do research on these topics and select principal investigators through a rigorous peer-review
                process; and 3) to develop peer-reviewed documents based on the winning proposals.

                Seven topics and associated principal investigators were selected in the initial round. Technology
                and Success in Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement of Sj2artina alterniflora Marshes in the
                United States by Geoffrey A. Matthews and Thomas J. Minello of the NOAA National Marine
                Fisheries Service's Galveston Laboratory is the second document in this Decision Analysis Series
                to be published and is presented in two volumes. Information on Decision Analysis Series No. 1
                is shown on the inside back cover. Other volumes will be published over the next two years on
                the following topics: seagrass restoration technology, coastal watershed restoration, restoring
                streams and anadromous fish habitat affected by logging, eutrophication and phytoplankton
                blooms, and management of cumulative coastal 'environmental impacts.

                As with all of its products, COP is very interested in ascertaining the utility of the Decision
                Analysis Series particularly in regard to its application to the management decision process.
                Therefore, we encourage you to write, fax, call, or Internet us with your comments. Please be
                assured that we will appreciate these comments, either positive or negative, and that they will help
                us direct our future efforts. Our address and telephone and fax numbers are on the inside front
                cover. My Internet address is [email protected].







                                                            Donald Scavia
                                                            Director
                                                            NOAA Coastal Ocean Program















                VOLUME 1



     EXECUTIVE SUMMARY



     SECTION I-- ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
     OF SELECTED LITERATURE ON
     RESTORATION, CREATION, AND
     ENHANCEMENT OF SPARTINA
     ALTERNIFLORA MARSHES IN THE UNITED
     STATES

















           EXECUTIVE SUMMARY







                                      Technology and Success
                         in Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement
                                  of Spartina altemiflora Marshes
                                          in the United States



                                        EXECUTIVE SUMMARY



              Introduction


                    Extensive losses of coastal wetlands in the United States caused by sea-level
              rise, land subsidence, erosion, and coastal development have increased interest in the
              creation of salt marshes within estuaries. Smooth cordgrass Spartina altemiflora is the
              species utilized most for salt marsh creation and restoration throughout the Atlantic and
              Gulf coasts of the U.S., while S. foUosa and SaUcomia virginica are often used in
              California. Salt marshes have many valuable functions such as protecting shorelines
              from erosion, stabilizing deposits of dredged material, dampening flood effects,
              trapping water-born sediments, serving as nutrient reservoirs, acting as tertiary water
              treatment systems to rid coastal waters of contaminants, serving as nurseries for many
              juvenile fish and shellfish species, and serving as habitat for various wildlife species
              (Kusler and Kentula 1989). The establishment of vegetation in itself is generally
              sufficient to provide the functions of erosion control, substrate stabilization, and
              sediment trapping. The development of other salt marsh functions, however, is more
              difficult to assess. For example, natural estuarine salt marshes support a wide variety
              of fish and shellfish, and the abundance of coastal marshes has been correlated with
              fisheries landings (Turner 1977, Boesch and Turner 1984). Marshes function for
              aquatic species by providing breeding areas, refuges from predation, and rich feeding
              grounds (Zimmerman and Minello 1984, Boesch and Turner 1984, Kneib 1984, 1987,
              Minello and Zimmerman 1991). However, the relative value of created marshes
              versus that of natural marshes for estuarine animals has been questioned (Cammen
              1976, Race and Christie 1982, Broome 1989, Pacific Estuarine Research laboratory
              1990, LaSalle et al. 1991, Minello and Zimmerman 1992, Zedler 1993). Restoration
              of all salt marsh functions is necessary to prevent habitat creation and restoration
              activities from having a negative impact on coastal ecosystems.









               2                                                                                Executive Summary

                       This project was undertaken to provide resource managers, habitat researchers,
               coastal planners, and the general public with an assessment of the technology and
               success in restoration, enhancement, and creation of salt marshes in the United States.
               The objective was to be accomplished through the development of three products: 1)
               an annotated bibliography of the pertinent literature, 2) an inventory of restored,
               enhanced, or created Spartina altemiflora marshes, and 3) a directory of people
               working in salt marsh creation and restoration. This executive summary describes
               these products and provides an overall assessment of our understanding regarding
               restoration, enhancement, and creation of salt marsh habitats. In particular, we have
               stressed Spartina altemiflora marshes and habitat functions related to the support of
               fishes, crustaceans, and other aquatic life.


               Products


               Section 1. An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Literature on
               Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement of Spartina alterniflora Marshes
               in the United States.


                       What was included.       This annotated bibliography summarizes the literature on
               Preated Spartina altemiflora salt marshes, particularly for the last decade. Literature on
               planting techniques and the establishment of vegetation is included, along with assessments
               of habitat value and functional equivalency. Publications that involve other species of
               Spartina such as S. foliosa have been included if they discuss marsh functions. A
               particular effort was made to include all studies involving nutrients, sediment organics,
               infaunal populations, and utilization of created Spartina marshes by aquatic and fisheries
               species.


                       The annotations were written to assist in determining whether a paper is pertinent
               to one's needs. Annotations were much like abstracts or summaries, but also included
               some interpretation on our part, particularly for articles that discussed the use of created
               salt marshes by fishery or related aquatic organisms.


                       Articles and project reports were requested from everyone we identified working'in
               the field of salt marsh creation and restoration or conducting functional comparisons of
               created and natural marshes. Scientific literature was searched using Current Contents.








                   Executive Summary                                                                       3

                   Lists of reports from various organizations and agencies were searched for articles
                   concerning coastal marsh restoration activities. Articles were also obtained from
                   proceedings of symposia on wetlands restorations, particularly those sponsored each spring
                   by Hillsborough Community College in Florida, and those published by the Association of
                   State Wetland Managers.


                          Endnote Plus, a computer reference program (Niles and Associates, Inc. Berkeley,
                   CA), was used to create the directory. Entries are in alphabetical order according to the
                   first author's last name. The directory is available in hard copy or as an electronic data
                   file in Endnote Plus, Pro-Cite, Refer/BibIX, and text formats.


                          Limitations.   A natural limitation of this annotated bibliography is that some
                   important articles may have been missed, and new articles will have been published before
                   the bibliography is printed. A few entries were included although their subject matter was
                   tangential to the main focus. This distraction was considered more desirable than
                   excluding the articles, because the entries showed some of the directions that salt marsh
                   restoration activities were heading. Very few entries include quantitative comparisons of
                   faunal utilization in created and natural salt marshes. This paucity of published research
                   limits our ability to assess whether created marshes have attained functional equivalence;
                   fortunately such studies are increasing in number.


                          Potential Benefits. This bibliography provides a comprehensive collation of
                   literature on coastal salt marsh restoration, enhancement, and creation activities in the
                   U.S. Although the focus was on evaluation of created salt marshes, the bibliography also
                   covers construction techniques, mitigation requirements, sources of information about
                   regional requirements of salt marshes, nutrient requirements and nutrient pools, and even
                   a few articles on regional management practices for coastal zones. Thus, the bibliography
                   should serve anyone looking for documentation on various aspects of coastal salt marsh
                   restoration and coastal-zone wetlands restoration research needs.


                   Section 11. An Inventory of Restored, Created and Enhanced Spartina
                   alterniflora Marshes in the United States.


                          Development. This database contains information about restored, enhanced and
                   created salt marshes in the coastal U.S. and was created using Microsoft Excel. Available








            4                                                                      Executive Summary

            data on location, planting techniques, and success of each marsh was entered via 20
            variables. A total of 787 marshes was located and entered in the database over our 1-year
            study period. Each'marsh was assigned a unique inventory number and was also ranked
            in relation to the amount of available information on the marsh. These information
            rankings included 1) very little information available, a marsh was planned and permitted
            but may never have been constructed, 2) a marsh was planted but the location was not
            precisely identified, 3) a marsh was planted and the exact location is known, 4) a planted
            marsh was evaluated for successful establishment, 5) a marsh was successfully established
            and animal utilization was evaluated. The inventory also includes a few entries for
            marshes where no planting had been done, but restored tidal flow had allowed a marsh to
            develop (Information Ranking = RTE). Contractors throughout the U.S. provided
            information for the inventory on Spartina altemiflora marshes that they had designed or
            built. Site information on created marshes was also garnered from publications, reports,
            conference proceedings, and even assorted notes obtained from research ecologists
            working in this field. State environmental and fisheries agencies were consulted for their
            records about man-made salt marshes. Area and district offices of the U.S. Army Corps
            of Engineers (COE), Soil Conservation Service (SCS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
            and the Habitat Protection Branch of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) were
            also contacted for information about created Spartina altemiflora marshes in their
            respective coastal areas.


                   Limitations.    The people we contacted in the field of restoration science were
            generally receptive toward our requests and provided available information.     Frequently,
            however, data required to evaluate salt marsh construction and utilization by animals were
            never originally recorded, were incomplete, or were not readily available with a
            reasonable search effort. Thus, many of the marshes in the inventory have low
            information rankings. For example, some projects that were issued COE permits were not
            located, and it is unclear whether these marshes were failures or had never been
            constructed. In addition, we obtained some information from design or initial work plans
            for projects, and these plans may not have accurately described the actual planted marsh.
            In situations where we only suspected that a marsh had been created, the inventory entry
            was given an Information Rank of 1 (see frequency diagram below). For other marshes,
            only a general description of the marsh location was available (Information Rank 2).








            Executive Summary                                                                  5






                                            Marsh Inventory



                          300--

                          250--   229



                          150                    120
                      L6                                 Be
                          100 - -

                             50--                                18
                             0-      -t               . I .
                                   1       2      3              5      RTE

                                       Irdomellon-Filw* Categodes

                   (Rank categories are based on amount of information available [p.4., above],
                   with 5 representing marshes for which the most information was available. RTE
                   refers to marshes with restored tidal exchange.)


                   Information on created Spartina alterniflora marshes on the West Coast was not
            recorded. A few Spartina alterniflora marshes were planted in West Coast estuaries
            several decades ago, but this species is considered an exotic and is no longer used in that
            region.


                   Potential Benefits. Information on locations of created salt marshes is widely
            scattered, often making it difficult to study the progression of plant and animal populations
            and the functional development of these habitats. It may take many years for a created
            marsh to attain the functions of a natural marsh. After a few years, created marshes are
            often superficially identical to natural marshes, and precise location information is
            required to continue studying such sites for development of marsh functions. This
            computerized database is designed to help locate such marshes and to provide basic
            information about each marsh.









                 6                                                                     Executive Summary

                        Despite data-collection limitations, the number of marshes in the inventory
                 demonstrates the extent of marsh creation in the coastal areas of the United States. The
                 inventory also demonstrates the amount of data lacking for most of these created marshes.
                 In many cases, these data are relatively easy to record at marsh creation sites (for example
                 the exact location of the marsh), and perhaps the existence of an inventory may stimulate
                 better record keeping. Coastal managers should consider requiring such data records as
                 part of the permitting process. Much of the missing data on marshes included in the
                 inventory may be available somewhere, and we would like to solicit user's help in making
                 the inventory as complete as possible. We anticipate updating the inventory periodically
                 with the addition of new marshes and the inclusion of additional information on the
                 marshes already entered.


                 Section Ill. A Directory of Human Resources Involved in the Restoration,
                 Creation, and Enhancement of Spartina alterniflora Marshes.


                        Participants. Participation in the directory was strictly on a voluntary basis. Those. included,
                 therefore, have expressed their willingness to interact with the community of people interested in salt
                 marsh restoration. Authors of pertinent research articles were solicited, and many notable estuarine
                 ecologists are participating. The directory also includes staff of various federal permitting,
                 regulatory, and research agencies including: U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
                 Experiment Station, National Marine Fisheries Service, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service -
                 National Biological Survey, and the U. S. Department of Agriculture - Soil Conservation
                 Service. Staff of various state and municipal agencies involved in salt marsh restoration are
                 included. In addition, the directory includes many contractors and others with hands-on
                 knowledge of marsh design and construction. There are over 300 participants in the
                 directory.


                        Directory Structure.   An index lists individuals alphabetically by their last name,
                 but the main contents are organized alphabetically by state. Individuals are listed first in
                 each state, followed by companies and organizations. Each entry includes the person's
                 name, firm/institute/agency, address, telephone number, FAX number, position and
                 specialty, and a description of some of the participant's latest marsh related projects. The
                 directory was created using Endnote Plus, and is available in hard copy or as an electronic
                 data file in Endnote Plus, Pro-Cite, Refer/BibIX, and text formats.









                  Executive Summary                                                                            7

                         Limitations.     This directory is not a "complete" listing of all persons and
                  organizations involved in preserving and restoring salt marshes and coastal wetlands. A
                  large number of people were contacted and asked to participate. Not everyone chose to
                  participate, and undoubtedly we failed to contact some important potential participants.
                  The directory is dynamic and is intended to be updated periodically. We are still
                  soliciting additional participants and updates to entries., Keywords about each individual
                  were not included, but most reference programs can search all fields for descriptive key
                  words; one might focus on the "specialty" or "projects" sections of each person's entry.


                         Potential Benefits, This directory provides a nucleus of concerned people
                  involved in salt marsh restoration ecology. People from a variety of disciplines are
                  included, and they can provide information about how to manage coastal salt marsh areas,
                  how to create marshes, and how.to assess whether the marshes are fulfilling their
                  projected functions. The directory should facilitate information exchange among
                  ecologists working in this field, lay people and managers concerned about their local
                  estuary or marsh, coastal landowners interested in preserving their property from erosion,
                  and companies needing assistance with habitat mitigation.



                  Conclusions and Recommendations


                         Smooth cordgrass Spartina altemiflora is the dominant salt marsh vegetation along
                  shorelines of Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. Techniques for seeding,
                  planting, and transplanting S. altemiflora have been sufficiently developed so that the
                  establishment of vegetation is highly likely when the prescribed conditions are met
                  (Woodhouse 1979, Knutson et al. 1981, Webb and Newling 1985, Allen et al. 1986,
                  Earhart and Garbisch 1983, Broome et al. 1988, Broome 1989, Nailon and Seidensticker
                  1991). The following key factors havebeen identified for successfully establishing S.
                  altemiflora. 1) Young healthy plants should be used and should be obtained from as close
                  to the planting area as possible. Plants from the project vicinity have the best chance for
                  survival and good growth because they are adapted to the local conditions. 2) Planting .
                  should be conducted early in the growing season to provide an adequate length of time for
                  establishment. 3) The soil must contain adequate nutrients. Graded down upland soils
                  often need additions of fertilizer to supply sufficient nutrients, while dredged material or
                  natural bay sediments usually have sufficient nutrients already. 4) Proper elevation









               8                                                                         Executive Summary

               (0.2-0.5 m above Mean Low Water) at the site is critical. Reference should be made to
               the nearest flourishing natural marsh whenever possible. Smooth cordgrass will grow
               over a wider tidal range than where it grows best. Success has also been achieved when
               plants are placed at the higher end of the elevation range and allowed to grow into lower
               elevations on their own. 5) A gentle slope of 1-10% grade provides sufficient width and
               drainage for the marsh to develop. This slope should continue seaward from the planted
               area to reduce wave height and erosive forces. 6) Good water flow and tidal exchange are
               needed to supply nutrients and to prevent salt build-up in the sediment. 7) Protection
               from waves is particularly important for a new planting. The fetch should be less than 2
               km; shorter fetches are required if the shoreline faces the direction of high winds during
               stormy weather. 8) Protection of the new plants from pests such as herbivorous fish,
               insects, small mammals, and man is often needed. Each marsh has a unique suite of
               potential pests. 9) Protection from activities on adjacent lands has become increasingly
               important as coastal development continues, and monitoring such activities can protect
               newly planted marshes from destructive abuse. Although following these nine guidelines
               and sound planting principles should result in the successful establishment of a S.
               alterniflora marsh, consultation with local experts will often provide technical refinements
               that will facilitate and insure a greater probability of success.


                      Above-ground biomass in created Spartina altemiflora marshes quickly reaches parity
               with natural marshes if these basic conditions for marsh establishment and survival are met
               (Cammen 1975, Webb et al. 1978, Seneca et al. 1985, Webb and Newling 1985, Broome et
               al. 1986, Broome 1989, and LaSalle et al. 1991). The presence of vegetation in itself is
               generally sufficient to provide the functions of erosion control, substrate stabilization, and
               sediment trapping (Knutson et al. 1982). The nutrient-rich sediments trapped by smooth
               cordgrass aid in maintaining and extending the vegetative zone for the species (Allen and
               Webb 1982). Apart from above-ground biomass, however, created salt marshes appear to
               differ from natural marshes in a number of characteristics. Created marshes generally have
               lower sediment organic content, below-ground biomass, densities of benthic infaunal prey
               organisms, and densities of nekton on the marsh surface. There is some evidence that these
               characteristics are linked, and that trophic support for nekton is relatively low in newly
               created salt marshes.


                       Below-ground biomass and sediment organic content appear to develop slowly in
               created salt marshes, and levels may take years to become comparable to natural marshes








                Executive Summary                                                                         9

                (Cammen 1975, Webb et al. 1978, Lindau and Hossner 1981, Craft et al. 1988, Sacco 1989,
                Langis et al. 1991, LaSalle et al. 1991, Moy and Levin 1991, Minello and Zimmerman
                1992). The origin of the sediment used to create the marsh is important, and organic content
                is generally lower in graded down uplands and sandy dredged material compared with fine-
                grained dredged material. Low initial levels'usually increases the time to reach parity with
                natural sediments.


                       The density of benthic infauna such as annelid worms, insect larvae, and small
                crustaceans is generally lower in created marshes than in natural marshes. These prey
                organisms are important in supporting the food web of estuarine nekton. In Atlantic coast
                marshes Cammen (1976), Sacco (1989), and Moy and Levin (1991) found lower densities
                and generally different species composition for infaunal organisms in created salt marshes.
                In Texas, Minello and Zimmerman (1992) found that mean amphipod densities in
                transplanted marshes were only 20-40% of densities in natural marshes, and diversity of
                infaunal organisms was significantly lower in the transplanted marshes. Although polychaete
                densities in their study were not significantly different between the natural and transplanted
                marshes, there was some indication that the abundance of this group was related to the age of
                the marsh; differences from natural marshes were greatest for the youngest transplanted
                marsh (2 years old) and smallest for the oldest transplanted marsh (5 years old). LaSalle et
                al. (1991) also reported a positive relationship between the density of benthic infauna and
                marsh age. In most of the above studies, a positive relationship was observed between
                sediment organic content or macro-organic matter and the density of benthic infauna.


                       Quantitative sampling of nekton densities in salt marsh vegetation is difficult
                (Zimmerman et al. 1984, Kneib 1991, Rozas 1992), thus comparisons of surface utilization
                between created and natural marshes are limited. Relative abundance in pit traps or Breder
                traps is unreliable in making such comparisons, because the sampling area of these devices
                cannot be accurately defined. Minello and Zimmerman (1992) used a drop sampler to
                compare springtime densities in three created and three natural S. altemiflora marshes (3-5
                years in age) on the Texas coast and found overall densities of large macrofauna and decapod
                crustaceans were significantly lower in the transplanted marshes. These differences were due
                mainly to daggerblade grass shrimp and young brown shrimp. Diversity of decapod
                crustaceans was also higher in the natural marshes. Densities of fish (mainly the darter goby
                and pinfish) as a group were not significantly different between natural and transplanted
                marshes. In addition, fish diversity was consistently higher in the transplanted marshes. In a









              10                                                                     Executive Summary

              larger study of ten created salt marshes (3-15 years in age) in Galveston Bay, Texas, Minello,
              and Webb (1993) also found reduced densities of commercially important crustaceans (brown
              shrimp, white shrimp, and blue crabs) when the marshes were compared with five natural
              marshes. In North Carolina, Meyer et al. (1993) used block nets to compare densities of
              fishes, shrimps, and crabs in a planted and natural Spartina altemiflora marsh. Two years
              following planting, overall mean densities of shrimp (mainly daggerblade grass shrimp and
              brown shrimp) were about three times higher in the natural reference marsh compared with
              the planted marsh, but differences were not statistically significant apparently due to high
              sample variability. Mean crab densities were two to three times higher in the created marsh,
              but again the differences were not significant. Fishes collected included spot, mummichog,
              pinfish, and pigfish, and the mean density for total fish was twice as high in the natural
              marsh as in the created marshes. This difference was statistically significant during two of
              the three sampling periods. These conflicting results in marsh utilization patterns may be the
              result of different sampling gears and techniques or may reflect regional differences in the
              way salt marshes function for nektonic organisms. The results may also be attributable to
              the natural variability in populations of organisms that occur from year to year and the
              natural variability in carrying capacity of habitats. Until a substantial number of such
              quantitative comparisons are available, it will be difficult to assess functional parity between
              created and natural salt marsh habitats.


                     Understanding the functional development of created marshes requires an
              understanding of how natural salt marsh systems function. There is evidence, for
              example, that salt marshes function differently for shrimp, crabs, and fishes in different
              coastal regions. Direct exploitation of the marsh surface is extensive in many marshes of
              the northern Gulf of Mexico (Zimmerman and Minello, 1984, Thomas et al. 1990, Baltz et
              al. 1993, Rozas and Reed 1993, Peterson and Turner 1994), thus densities of decapods
              and fishes and their prey on the marsh surface should reflect habitat value for marshes in
              this region. Direct use of the marsh surface may be lower in marshes along the Atlantic
              coast, and nekton densities in these marshes appear to be substantially lower than in the
              Gulf (Hettler 1989, Mense and Wenner 1989, Kneib 1991, Fitz and Wiegert 1991).
              Atlantic coast marshes have relatively less edge, higher elevations, and different tidal
              inundation patterns, and all of these factors may affect utilization patterns of nekton
              (Rozas 1993). These regional differences increase the necessity for functional studies
              comparing natural and transplanted salt marshes in various parts of the country.








                  Executive Summary                                                                          11

                          Indications of long-term retarded functional development in created salt marshes
                  suggest that some habitat functions may never fully develop. However, under the
                  assumption that most created marshes can eventually develop into fully functional habitats,
                  there has been considerable interest in methods for stimulating marsh development rates.
                  The correlative relationships identified between sediment organic content and infaunal
                  populations have inspired work on the addition of organic amendments to sediments before
                  planting. This work has shown promise for increasing the rate of marsh development, but
                  success may be related to local and regional conditions (Currin, C.; Zedler, J.; Broome,
                  S.; personal communications). The value of increasing sediment organic matter through
                  the addition of soil amendments may depend upon the causal relationships between
                  infaunal abundance and the development of marsh sediments. For example, if infaunal
                  populations increase because sediment organic matter is used as food by deposit feeders,
                  the relative amount of refractory organic matter may be important. However, sediment
                  organics may also alter the physical structure of the sediment improving the habitat for
                  infauna. Thus, factors such as porosity, bulk density, size of detrital particles, and
                  inorganic grain size distribution may be important. In addition, the oxygenation of
                  sediments by live plant roots may be a factor in increasing infaunal abundance.
                  Controlling development rates of marsh sediments, therefore, may be difficult without a
                  better understanding of sediment/infaunal relationships. Other research on improving
                  functionality of created marshes indicates that the addition of edge through the
                  construction of channels and creeks can dramatically increase use of the marsh surface by
                  nekton (Minello et al. 1994). The value of adding edge, however, may also be a regional
                  phenomena, and adding edge in Atlantic coast marshes may not be beneficial. Natural salt
                  marshes in the northern Gulf of Mexico have relatively more edge and are apparently used
                  more extensively by aquatic animals than marshes along the Atlantic coast (Rozas 1993).


                          Despite a great deal of rhetoric regarding functional equivalency in created
                  marshes, quality research on the problem has been limited. Important questions that still
                  must be addressed center on how natural salt marshes function for fishery and aquatic
                  species and how these functions vary regionally. Without this basic understanding of salt
                  marsh ecosystems, comparisons of natural and created systems will continue to be limited
                  in scope. Comparisons of natural and created marsh use by fishery species and other
                  aquatic nekton are needed, but these comparisons must be based on quantitative samples in
                  marsh creeks and within the vegetation itself. The use of enclosure samplers is generally
                  required for measuring animal densities in these vegetated habitats. A variety of such








             12                                                                   Executive Summary

             devices have now been developed including throw traps and drop samplers (Kushlan 1981,
             Zimmerman et al. 1984), flume and block nets (McIvor and Odum 1986, Hettler 1989),
             and lift nets and flume weirs (Rozas 1992, Kneib 1991). Comparisons of functional
             equivalency in created and natural marshes may also require experimental measurements
             of animal growth and predation risk in these habitats.


                    A basic and pervasive problem in functional comparisons is a limited replication of
             study marshes. The development of our marsh inventory may be useful in this regard by
             helping to identify additional created marshes for analysis. Sound inferences concerning
             relative functioning of marshes require an estimate of variability among both natural
             marshes and created marshes. If for example, only one created marsh is examined in the
             study area, conclusions can only be made regarding that marsh and not created marshes in
             general. In a similar manner, variability among natural marshes is often great and should
             also be assessed. Data on spatial variability within marshes and seasonal and annual
             variability are also important (Zedler et al. 1986), but information on marsh to marsh
             variability will be most useful in assessing the overall value of created marshes compared
             with natural marshes.








             Executive Summary                                                                     13

             Literature Cited


             Allen, H. H., S. 0. Shirley, and J. W. Webb Jr. "Vegetative stabilization of dred.L7ed
             material in moderate to high wave-energy environments for created wetlands." In:
             Proceedings of the thirteenth annual conference on wetland restoration and creation. in
             Hillsborough, F , edited by F. J. Webb, Hillsborough, FL: Hillsborough Community
             College, 19-35, 1986.

             Allen, H. H. and J. W. Webb Jr. "Influence of breakwaters on artificial salt marsh
             establishment on dredged material." In: Proceedins of the ninth annual conference on
             wetland restoration and creation. in Tampa, FL., edited by F. J. Webb, Hillsborough
             Community College, 18-35, 1982.

             Baltz, D. M., C. Rakocinski, and J. W. Fleeger. "Microhabitat use by marsh-edge fishes in
             a Louisiana estuary." Environ. Biol. Fishes 36 (1993):,109-126.

             Boesch, D. F. and R. E. Turner. "Dependence of fishery species on salt marshes: the role of
             food and refuge." Estuaries 7 (1984): 460-468.

             Broome, S. W. "Creation and restoration of tidal wetlands of the southeastern United
             States." In: Wetland Creation and Restoration: The,Status of the Science. Part 1. Region
             Review., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 37-72. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, Inc.,
             1989.

             Broome, S. W., E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse Jr. "Long-term growth and
             development of transplants of the salt-marsh grass Spartina alterniflora." Estuaries 9 (1986):
             63-74.


             Broome, S. W., E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse Jr. "Tidal salt marsh restoration."
             Aquat. Bot. 32 (1988): 1-22.

             Cammen, L. M. "Accumulation rate and turnover time of organic carbon in a salt marsh
             sediment." Limnol. Oceanogr. 20 (1975): 1012-1015.

             Cammen, L. M. "Abundance and production of macroinvertebrates from natural and
             artificially established salt marshes in North Carolina." American Midland Naturalist 96
             (1976): 487-493.

             Craft, C., S. Broome, and E. Seneca. "The role of transplanted marshes in processing
             nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon in estuarine waters." In: Increasing our wetland
             resources. proceedings of a conference, Natl. Wildl. Fed., eds. J. Zelazny and J.
             Feierabend. 327-332. Washington, DC.: 1988.

             Earhart, H. G. and E. W. Garbisch Jr. "Habitat development utilizing dredged material at
             Barren Island, Dorchester County, Maryland." Wetlands 3 (1983): 108-119.









               14                                                                      Executive Summary

               Earhart, H. G. and E. W. Garbisch Jr. "Beneficial uses of dredged materials at Barren
               Island, Dorchester County, Maryland." In: Proceedings of the thirteenth annual conference
               on wetlands restoration and creation, in Hillsborough.     , edited by F. J. Webb Jr.,
               Hillsborough, FL: Hillsborough Community College, 75-85, 1986.

               Fitz, H. C. and R. G. Wiegert. "Utilization of the intertidal zone of a salt marsh by the blue
               crab Callinectes sapidus - Density, return frequency, and feeding habits." Mar. Ecol. PLO
                                                                                                          Z.
               Ser. 76 (1991): 249-260.

               Hettler, W. F. "Nekton use of regularly-flooded salt marsh cordgrass habitat in North
               Carolina, USA." Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 56 (1989): 111-118.

               Kneib, R. T. "Patterns of invertebrate distribution and abundance in the intertidal salt marsh:
               causes and questions." Estuaries 7 (1984): 392-412.

               Kneib, R. T. "Predation risk and use of intertidal habitats by young flshes and shrimp."
               Ecology 68 (1987): 379-86.

               Kneib, R. T. "Flume weir for quantitative collection of nekton from vegetated intertidal
               habitats." Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 75 (1991): 29-38.

               Knutson, P. L., R. A. Brochu, W. N. Seelig, and M. Inskeep. "Wave damping in Spartina
               alterniflora marshes." Wetlands 2 (1982): 87-104.

               Knutson, P. L., J. C. Ford, M. R. Inskeep, and J. Oyler. "National survey of planted salt
               marshes (vegetative stabilization and wave stress)." Wetlands 1 (1981): 129-157.

               Kushlan, J. "Sampling characteristics of enclosure fish traps." Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 110
               (1981): 557-562.

               Kusler, J. A. and M. E. Kentula, eds. Wetland Creation and Restoration. The Status of the
               Science. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1989.

               Langis, R., M. Zalejko, and J. B. Zedler. "Nitrogen assessments in a constructed and a
               natural salt marsh of San Diego Bay." Ecol. A
                                                              Xpl. 1 (1991): 40-51.

               LaSalle, M. W., M. C. Landin, and J. G. Sims. "Evaluation of the flora and fauna of a
               Spartina altemiflora marsh established on dredged material in Winyah Bay, South Carolina."
               Wetlands 11 (1991): 191-208.

               Lindau, C. W. and L. R. Hossner. "Substrate characterization of an experimental marsh and
               three natural marshes." Soil Sci, Soc. Amer. J. 45 (1981): 1171-76.

               McIvor, C. C. and W. E. Odum. "The flume net: A quantitative method for sampling flshes
               and macrocrustaceans on tidal marsh surfaces." Estuaries 9(3) (1986): 219-224.








                Executive Summary                                                                    15

                Mense, D. 1. and E. L. Wenner. "Distribution and abundance of early life history stages of
                the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, in tidal marsh creeks near Charleston, South Carolina."
                Estuaries 12 (1989): 157-68.

                Meyer, D. L., M. S. Fonseca, D. R. Colby, W. J. Kenworthy, and G. W. Thayer. "An
                examination of created marsh and seagrass utilization by living marine resources." In:
                Coastal Zone '93. Volume 2. Proceedings of the 8th Symposium on Coastal and Ocean
                Management., eds. 0. Magoon, W.S. Wilson, H. Converse, and L. T. Tobin. 1858-1863.
                New York.: American Society Of Civil Engineers, 1993.

                Minello, T. J. and J. W. Webb Jr. "The development of fishery habitat value in created salt
                marshes." In: Coastal Zone '93, Volume 2. Proceedines of the 8th Symposium on Coas
                and Ocean Management., eds. 0. Magoon, W.S. Wilson, H. Converse, and L. T. Tobin.
                1864-1865. New York: American Society Of Civil Engineers, 1993.

                Minello, T. J. and R. J. Zimmerman. "The role of estuarine habitats in regulating growth
                and survival of juvenile penaeid shrimp." in: Frontiers in shrimp research., eds. P.
                DeLoach, W. J. Dougherty, and M. A. Davidson. 1-16. Amsterdam: Elsevier Sci. Publ.,
                1991.


                Minello, T. J. and R. J. Zimmerman. "Utilization of natural and transplanted Texas salt
                marshes by fish and decapod crustaceans." Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 90 (1992): 273-285.

                Minello, T. J., R. J. Zimmerman, and R. Medina. "The importance of edge for natant
                macrofauna in a created salt marsh." Wetlands (in press) (1994):

                Moy, L. D. and L. A. Levin. "Are Spartina marshes a replaceable resource? A functional
                approach to evaluation of marsh creation efforts." Estuaries 14 (1991): 1-16.

                Nailon, R. W. and E. L. Seidensticker. "The effects of shoreline erosion in Galveston Bay,
                Texas." In: Coastal wetlands, ed. H. S. Bolton. 193-206. New York: Amer. Soc. Civil
                Engineers, 1991.

                Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. A manual for assessing restored and natural coastal
                wetlands with examples from southern California. California Sea Grant RpRort No. T-
                CSGCP-021. La Jolla, California: 1990.

                Peterson, G. W. and R. E. Turner. "The value of salt marsh edge vs interior as a habitat for
                fish and decapod crustaceans in a Louisiana tidal marsh." Estuaries 17 (1994): 235-262.

                Race, M. S. and D. R. Christie. "Coastal zone development: mitigation, marsh creation, and
                decision-making." Environ. Manag, 6 (1982): 317-328.

                Rozas, L. P. "Bottomless lift net for quantitatively sampling nekton in intertidal marshes."
                Mar. Ecol. Proe. Ser. 89 (1992): 287-292.








             16                                                                  Executive Summary

             Rozas, L. P. "Nekton use of salt marshes of the Southeast region of the United States." In:
             Coastal Zone '93, Volume 2. Proceedings of the 8th SymWsium on Coastal and Ocean
             Management., eds. 0. Magoon, W.S. Wilson, H. Converse, and L. T. Tobin. 528-536. New
             York: American Society Of Civil Engineers, 1993.

             Rozas, L. P. and D. J. Reed. "Nekton use of marsh-surface habitats in Louisiana (USA)
             deltaic salt marshes undergoing submergence." Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 96 (1993): 147-157.

             Sacco, J. Infaunal communi1y development of artificially established salt marshes in North
             Carolina. Ph.D. Thesis, North Carolina State University- Raleigh: 1989.

             Seneca, E. D., S. W. Broome, and W. W. Woodhouse Jr. "Comparison of Spartina
             alterniflora Loisel. transplants from different locations in a man-initiated marsh in North
             Carolina." Wetlands 5 (1985): 181-190.

             Thomas, J. L., R. J. Zimmerman, and T. J. Minello. "Abundance patterns of juvenile blue
             crabs (Callinectes sapidus) in nursery habitats of two Texas bays." Bull. Mar. Sci. 46
             (1990): 115-125.

             Turner, R. E. "Intertidal vegetation and commercial yields of penaeid shrimp." Trans. Am.
             Fish. Soc. 106 (1977): 411-16.

             Webb, J. W., J. D. Dodd, B. W. Cain, W. R. Leavens, L. R. Hossner, C. Lindau, R. R.
             Stickney, and H. Williamson. Habitat development field investigations, Bolivar Peninsula
             marsh and upland habitat development site, Galveston Bay, Texas, Appendix D: Propogation
             of vascular plants and p2s1propogation monitoring of botanical, soil, aquatic biota, an
             wildlife resources, Tech. RQt. D-78-15. Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
             Waterways Experiment Station, 1978.

             Webb, J. W., Jr. and C. J. Newling. "Comparison of natural and man-made salt marshes in
             Galveston Bay complex, Texas." Wetlands 4 (1985): 75-86.

             Woodhouse, W. W., Jr. Building salt marshes along the coasts of the continental United
             States. S=ial Rqport No. 4. Fort Belvoir, VA: U.S. Army Corps Eng., Coastal Eng. Res.
             Cent., 1979.

             Zedler, J. B. "Canopy architecture of natural and planted cordgrass marshes: selecting
             habitat evaluation criteria." Ecol. A12pl. 3 (1993): 123-138.

             Zedler, J. B., J. Covin, C. Nordby, P. Williams, and J. Boland. "Catastrophic events reveal
             the dynamic nature of salt-marsh vegetation in southern California." Estuaries 9 (1986): 75-
             80.

             Zimmerman, R. J. and T. J. Minello. "Densities of Penaeus aztecus, P. setiferus and other
             natant macrofauna in a Texas salt marsh." Estuaries 7 (1984): 421-433.








              Executive Summary                                                                      17

              Zimmerman, R. J., T.- J. Minello, and G. Zamora. "Selection of vegetated habitat by brown
              shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, in a Galveston Bay salt marsh." Fish, Bull.. U.S. 82 (1984): 325-
              336.































I



                 SECTION I



          ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF
            SELECTED LITERATURE ON
          RESTORATION, CREATION, AND
          ENHANCEMENT OF SPARTINA
         ALTERNIFLORA MARSHES IN THE
                UNITED STATES











                Foreword



                                Coastal development, sea level rise, and land subsidence have resulted in
                extensive losses of estuarine salt marsh habitat throughout much of the United States.
                Concomitant with this habitat loss is the loss of salt marsh functions. These functions
                include the stabilization of shorelines, prevention of erosion, flood control, sediment
                trapping, nutrient cycling, and removal of toxic wastes in watersheds. In addition, salt
                marshes provide valuable habitat for estuarine animals including economically important
                fishery species.

                                Efforts to implement a "no net wetland loss" policy in the United States will
                require a continuation and expansion of programs to restore and create salt marshes in
                regions of deteriorating coastal wetlands. These restoration projects frequently involve
                transplanting marsh vegetation on graded-down uplands or on dredged material. Although
                many of these efforts have failed, the establishment of vegetative growth in this manner often
                has been successful, and marsh planting techniques have been developed for a variety of
                coastal conditions.


                                Replacing or creating vegetative cover, however, is only the first step in
                creating a functional salt marsh. Habitat functions such as providing food, protection from
                predators, and reproductive sites for estuarine animals must also be replaced. The
                development of these habitat functions does not appear to parallel the growth of macrophytes,
                yet it is the growth of the plants that has been the usual measure of marsh creation success.
                This retarded functional development has raised serious questions about the relative value of
                created salt marshes. Few direct studies of animal growth, survival, or reproductive success
                have been conducted in created salt marshes. The abundance of animals in a salt marsh is
                generally used as an indicator of relative habitat value, although valuable habitats do not
                always support high densities of animals. Comparing animal abundance in natural and
                created salt marshes, however, is in itself a difficult problem, and the importance of
                collecting quantitative samples in assessing use of salt marshes by fishery and other aquatic
                organisms cannot be overemphasized. Sampling techniques often include the use of breeder
                traps, seines, trawls, or simple qualitative visual estimates. These techniques are generally
                not quantitative, and thus results based on their use must be weighed accordingly.

                                Resource managers, habitat researchers, and coastal planners need assistance
                in developing marsh restoration projects. The literature documenting efforts in this area is
                scattered and not readily available, and a synthesis of these data should be valuable for
                determining the most appropriate restoration and creation techniques applicable to different











               iv                                                                                      Foreword


               coastal conditions. Of special interest is an analysis of the importance of regional differences
               in successful restoration techniques. In addition, an assessment of whether these projects
               have replaced salt marsh functions is of primary importance.

                              This annotated bibliography is intended to summarize the literature on created
               Spartina alternij7ora salt marshes. Although papers that deal with planting techniques and
               the establishment of the vegetation itself are included in the collection, special emphasis is
               placed on publications that assess habitat value and investigate the replacement of natural salt
               marsh functions. Some papers that involve other species of Spartina such as S. foliosa have
               been included in the bibliography if the papers relate to functional values. We tried to
               include all studies involving nutrients, sediment organics, and infaunal populations and
               studies that examined utilization of created. Spartina marshes by fishery species or other
               aquatic or terrestrial fauna. The annotations was written to assist the reader in determining
               whether a paper was pertinent for their needs; annotations were not designed to substitute for
               reading the papers themselves. In contrast to abstracts or summaries, the annotations include
               some interpretation on our part. This is especially true in relation to the use of created salt
               marshes by fishery or related aquatic organisms. In the annotations, we have adopted the
               practice of abbreviating elevation references using the capitalized first letter of each word,
               included are: MHW for mean high water, MHT for mean high tide, MSL for mean sea
               level, MLT for mean low tide, MLW for mean low water, MLLW for mean lower low
               water, MTL for mean tide level, and NGVD for national geodetic vertical datum. These
               abbreviations are defined in a glossary of terms in the Tide Tables 1994 High and Low
               Water Predictions, East Coast of North and South America Including Greenland
               DOC/NOAA/NOS, Washington, DC).

                              This bibliography is not totally comprehensive, rather it contains a wide
               selection of papers that we thought were important in advancing the science of salt marsh
               restoration. Undoubtedly, we have missed some significant contributions to the literature.
               The reader may wish to consult annotated bibliographies by Wolf et al. (1986) and by the
               U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service (see Miller et al. 1991); these bibliographies are much
               broader in. scope and cover most studies involving created wetlands.











              Acknowledgments


                            Creating this bibliography was greatly facilitated by the many scientists who
              kindly sent us reprints of their articles and reports of their projects, and who discussed the
              projects with us when possible. We are very grateful for their aid and interest. Four
              regional assistants helped obtain much of the gray literature reviewed here, and we thank
              them for their work: Chris L. Sardella (Northeast Coast), Andrew L. Bunch (South Atlantic
              Coast), Joseph L. Staton (Gulf of Mexico), and Russell E. DiFiori (West Coast). Thanks are
              also extended to Mark E. Pattillo who also reviewed articles and wrote their annotations.
              This work was funded by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science
              Center, and by a Resource Information Delivery grant from NOAA Coastal Ocean Program.





























      I

        Table 'of Contents



        Section I -- Annotated Bibliography

                FOREWORD    ..........    iii


                ACKNOWLEDGMENTS     ...    v


                BIBLIOGRAPHY  ........     1


                AUTHORINDEX   ........    63


                SUBJECTINDEX    .......   67









                  Bibliography



                         Allen, H. "Biotechnical stabilization of dredged material shorelines." In:
                  Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material, ed. M. C. Landin. 116-128. January 1988.
                  Baltimore MD: US Army Corps of Engineers, 1988.
                                 This review covers the efforts of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer's
                  Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi to develop biotechnical techniques
                  for the stabilization of dredged material shorelines. Biotechnical stabilization combines the
                  use of mechanical structures with biological elements (plants). Mechanical structures,
                  including breakwaters and biodegradable mats, are useful in high energy (fetches over 9 km)
                  environments for reducing erosion until plants such as Spartina altemiflora can become
                  established.
                                 Breakwaters are only necessary for 2-3 years until plants become established.
                  The use of sand bags, floating tires, and tire-pole breakwaters is discussed. These techniques
                  reduced shoreline energy under proper conditions. Other devices useful in the stabilization
                  of plant stems include fibrous erosion control mats and burlap plant rolls. Techniques
                  employing these devices are described and show promise in allowing the establishment of
                  plants in high-energy areas. In general, the use of mats and plant rolls is more economical
                  than breakwaters.


                         Allen, H. H., E. J. Clairain, R. J. Diaz, A. W. Ford, L. F. Junt, and B. R.
                  Wells. "Habitat development field investigations--Bolivar Peninsula Marsh and upland
                  habitat development site, Galveston, Texas: summary report." 73. City: U.S. Army
                  Corps Eng. Waterways Experiment Station, Environmental Lab., 1978.
                                 This report described an experiment to establish salt marsh and upland
                  vegetation on a 2-yr old dredged material deposition site of about 7.3 ha on the Galveston
                  Bay side of Bolivar Peninsula, Texas. The report also described the construction of a
                  sandbag dike to reduce wave impacts, and a fence to keep large mammals out, including
                  goats, raccoons and people out.
                                 Most of the grading and sand moving on the site was accomplished with a
                  small bulldozer and a rubber tire frontend loader. Intertidal planting were in 3 elevation
                  tiers. Winter, spring and summer plantings, various fertilizers and application methods,
                  several plant species, and planting techniques were tried. Monthly samplings recorded
                  changes in plant height, density, # stems/plant, # of stressed plants, # of stable plants, %
                  foliar cover, vegetative reproduction, # of plants with flowers, seed heads and new growth,
                  and above and below-ground biomass.








              2                                                                                    Bibliography

                             Spartina alterniflora grew best in 0.06-0.21 m above MSL. At this elevation,
              tidal inundation occurred 69-87 % of the time from Feb. -Aug'77. Spartina patens grew best
              at 0.37 m. above MSL; inundation was less than 30% of the time. Sprigging was much more
              successful thanseeding, but seeding (more economical) was used successfully in the upper
              third of the intertidal zone, where inundation frequency was low but soil remained moist, and
              there was less washing out by even small waves. Fertilizers were not particularly effective.
              It was thought that the nutrient-rich fine sediments that became deposited in the marsh
              planting area promoted enough growth to mask the action of the fertilizers.
                              Sampling for fish and aquatic animals was conducted before and after marsh
              construction. No major changes were detected in fish diversity or abundance after marsh
              planting, however, no adequate sampling devices were available for sampling the marsh grass
              at that time. Increases were noted in the polychaetes and oligochaetes in the benthos in the
              marsh area protected by the dike, After marsh construction, some increases in bird and
              mammal use of the area were noted. More marsh birds were noted once the cordgrasses
              developed. Also, more rats and mice were noted when sufficient leaf growth was established
              to provide covered habitat. Marsh rabbits ate the new growth, but did little damage.
                             The overall results from this marsh establishment project were that a salt
              marsh could be created on dredged material, and that it could function like a natural marsh
              provided certain precautions were taken. Wave energy had to be greatly reduced to prevent
              erosion of plants, and new growth had to be protected from foraging mammals.

                     Allen, H. H., S. 0. Shirley, and    J. W. Webb, Jr. "Vegetative stabilization of
              dredged material in moderate to high wave-energy environments for created wetlands."
              In: Proceedings of the thirteenth annual conference on wetland restoration and
              creation. in Hillsborough,      , edited by F. J. Webb, Jr. Hillsborough, FL:
              Hillsborough Community College, 19-35, 1986.
                              This paper reports the results of several attempts to stabilize shorelines using
              Spartina alterniflora. High wave energy erodes shoreline vegetation, and special devices to
              reduce waves must be used before cordgrass can be established to reduce erosion. Two
              breakwater designs and four planting enhancement treatments were tested using four test
              locations. The breakwaters were a 3-tier floating tire fence and a fixed tire-pole design that
              was two tires high by two tires wide. The enhanced treatments were: (1) multiple stemmed
              clumps, (2) roots and lower stems of clumps were wrapped in a piece of burlap, (3) a "plant
              roll" was made by rolling a 3.7 x 0.9 m burlap cloth around sandy soil with six clumps of
              Spartina spaced in it at 0.5-m intervals, and (4) single stems of Spartina sprigged in a
              woven natural fiber mat which was then anchored to the substrate. Results showed a
              breakwater was needed if a transplant project was to be successful in areas of high wave
              energy. Clumps proved as effective as the other more expensive treatments behind the
              breakwaters. Plant rolls functioned to protect single stems planted to landward of the rolls in
              areas of only moderate wave energy.

                     Allen, H. H. and J. W. Webb, Jr. "Influence of breakwaters on artificial salt
              marsh establishment on dredged material." In: Proceedings of the ninth anjaua
              conference on wetland restoration and creation. in Tampa, FL., edited by F. J. Webb,
              Jr. Tampa, FL.: Hillsborough Community College, 18-35, 1982.









              Bibliography                                                                                3

                             Cordgrass was transplanted to a site with high wave energy to stabilize a
              dredged material dike and to provide marsh habitat. The site was located on the northwest
              side of a recently deposited dredged material island situated in the center of Mobile Bay,
              Alabama. Wind fetches were 4.8 to 6.4 km. An unprotected planting of 1.5 ha with
              Spartina altem@flora single stems on 1.0-m centers was a complete failure. A second
              planting was made in the same area, this time behind two types of wavebreaks. Two months
              after planting there was a 55% survival behind the floating-tire-breakwater, and a 24%
              survival behind a fixed-fence-breakwater. The fixed-fence-breakwater, however, was coming
              apart, and additional losses of transplants were expected due to washout. Use of a fertilizer
              during the planting did not appear to be of benefit. Spacing of transplants was also tested.
              Transplants set on 1.0-m centers yielded 34% survival versus 22% survival for those set on
              0.5-m centers. A reason for the difference in survival was not offered.
                            In areas with significant wave energy, transplanting success will depend on a
              functional breakwater. The floating tire breakwater design appears to be successful though
              somewhat costly (about $126 per linear meter). This breakwater can be partially
              disassembled, moved to another location and reassembled to protect another transplanting,
              thus making it a little more cost-effective.
                            Although the area receiving transplants on 1.0-m centers had slightly better
              survival, it did not have the coverage afforded by the area planted on 0.5-m centers.
              Coverage on the latter area was twice that of the 1.0-m centers. It depends on how fast one
              needs coverage as to which density of transplanting one should use. If you can wait three or
              four years for a stand to form, the 1.0-m center regimen would be less expensive and faster
              to plant.

                     Allen, H. H. and J. W. Webb, Jr. "Bioengineering methods to establish salt
              marsh on dredged material." In: Coastal Zone '93 in New Orleans, LA, edited by S.
              Laska and A. Puffer, New Orleans, LA: Amer. Soc. Civil Eng., 118-132, 1993.
                            This paper describes a test of low-cost wave stilling devices along with five
              transplanting treatments, all for use in establishing a fringe Spartina alterniflora marsh along
              a shoreline that is subject to moderate to high wave action (energy). The study was done on
              Bolivar Peninsula in the Galveston Bay area, Texas. Two breakwaters were used, one was
              a modified floating tire design (FTB) and the other was a fixed tire design. Transplanting
              treatments, were: single stem, multi-stem clumps, multi-stem clumps wrapped in burlap,
              multi-stem clumps on 0.5-m intervals in a burlap roll with substrate between, and single
              stems planted through slits in an erosion control fiber mat that was anchored in the substrate.
              Only single stems were planted behind the breakwaters. Four test plots of each of the
              planting treatments were done outside the breakwaters.
                            Planting occurred in July 1984. In a January 1985 census only about 8% of
              the plants in the plots outside the breakwaters were surviving, and most was in two of the
              erosion control mat plots. However, 2.5 years later, there was at least a 25% cover in 3 mat
              plots, 2 multi-stem plots, and 1 burlap wrapped multi-stem plot. Growth continued in these
              plots, but the shoreline receded, leaving them as small islands out from shore. The fixed tire
              breakwater failed after about a year, and the 50% cover that had become established
              disappeared after about four years. The FTB, worked well, and the stand of Spartina









              4                                                                              Bibliography

              expanded well beyond the initial Plot by the end of five years, despite an initial sediment
              build-up behind the FTB which buried many transplants.

                     Athnos, D. L. "Compensatory mitigation in the Gulf coast states: Can we
              achieve "No net loss" of wetlands?" City: Inst. for Coastal and Estuarine Research,
              Univ. W. Florida, 1993.
                            This report summarizes wetland laws and regulations for each of the Gulf
              coast states, assesses the success of these regulations in achieving no net loss of wetlands
              through a review of recent literature, and presents recommendations which would help attain
              a "no net loss" status. Federal and state laws and regulations governing wetlands along the
              Gulf of Mexico coast were succinctly and clearly presented. Because the nation and many
              states do not have comprehensive laws protecting wetlands, wetlands are tentatively protected
              under the Clean Water Act, Section 404, which is under the administration by the U.S.
              Army Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protection Agency.
                            The author concluded the system appeared to be failing and wetlands were
              being lost. A major portion of the loss was due to activities that are exempt for the 404
              permitting process. But the process was not replacing the loss even when mitigation was
              available. The author offered 15 recommendations to assist in wetlands protection.

                     Baca, B. J. and T. W. Kana. "Methodology for restoring impounded coastal
              wetlands." In: Proceedings of the thirteenth annual conference on wetlands restoration
              and creation. in Hillsborough, FL, edited by F. J. Webb, Jr., Hillsborough, FL:
              Hillsborough Community College, 36-44, 1986.
                            This paper emphasizes the importance of water flows and tidal elevations at
              which various species of marsh plants are found, as the important factors to consider when
              restoring impounded intertidal areas. South Carolina has about 70,000 acres of coastal
              impoundments, and many of these could be reclaimed for tidal wetlands in the near future.
              Appropriate plants should be selected based on elevation and Rushing patterns at a site.

                     Banner, A. "Revegetation and maturation of restored shoreline in Indian River,
              Florida." In: Proceedin2s of the fourth annual conference on restoration of coastal
              veeetation in Florida. in Tampa,     , edited by R. R. Lewis, III and D. Cole, Tampa,
              FL: Hillsborough Community College, 13-42, 1977.
                            Restoration activities at a site just north of Vero Beach, Florida, are described.
              This was mitigation for destruction of natural waterfront and a slough. Spartina alterniflora
              (smooth cordgrass), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Lagunculatia racemosa (white
              mangrove), and Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) were transplanted to the site the same
              day they were dug from nearby donor sites along the Indian River. The substrate at the site
              was a coarse yellow sand that was mined locally, transported and dumped on the site, and
              smoothed to a slope of 7.5 %. A breakwater was built to prevent erosion by storm waves.
              Plugs, 15 cm in diameter containing 30 cm tall cordgrass plants were planted on 0.5-m
              centers. Mangrove seedlings 40-90 cm tall were used. Planting was done in May, 1976.
                            Within two months after transplanting, about 75% of the red and black
              mangroves had lost their leaves. These plants never recovered. Mangrove plants continued
              to die through the remainder of the year. The four white mangrove seedlings that were








                Bibliography                                                                                    5

                transplanted survived. On the other hand, Spartina transplants survived and grew, and by
                November many had set seed. in December, young Spanina seedlings were found on
                control (bare) areas and on areas where mangroves had been planted but had died. The
                seedlings were volunteers from the seed.from nearby natural marshes. Although the
                combination planting of red mangroves with cordgrass did not help the red mangroves
                survive, the following year red mangrove propagules colonized the cordgrass stands.
                               Halodule and Halophila developed lush beds just subtidal to the mitigation site
                but on the coarse yellow sand. These were not planned, but offered a chance to observe bed
                development.
                               This simple experimental restoration project showed Sparrina alterniflora was
                a valuable plant for stabilizing bare intertidal shoreline. Cordgrass grew rapidly and spread,
                forming stands that also assisted in the establishment of red mangroves by trapping and
                holding the propagules. Mangrove transplants were not as hardy nor as useful for shoreline
                stabilization.


                        Beeman, S. "Techniques for the creation and maintenance of intertidal
                saftmarsh wetlands for landscaping and shoreline protection." In: Proceedings of the
                tenth annual conference on wetlands regoration and creation. in Tampa,              , edited by
                F. J. Webb, Jr. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough Community College, 33-43, 1983.
                               This paper describes techniques for establishing and maintaining an intertidal
                salt marsh along the Atlantic coast of Florida, based on literature and 10 years of experience
                (make that 20 years today) in the field of marsh creation. Factors considered important
                included: soil composition, elevation and slope of the shoreline, size of the plants used,
                planting density, time of year of installation, and proper choice of plant species.
                               Best results were achieved where a breakwater was constructed at the MLW
                seaward edge of the flattened slope, and a berm was constructed above the planting site to
                prevent erosion due to upland runoff. An intertidal marsh slope between 50 and 15' and a
                high marsh slope between 15' to 25' were recommended. Large plugs (rather than single
                sprigs) of Spartina alternoora were planted on I-ft centers between MLW and MHW.
                Plugs of Spartina patens were planted above MHW, and plugs of Distichlis spicata and
                Sporobolus virginicus were planted at even higher elevations. These elevations matched the
                zonation of natural marshes in the area. Planted areas filled in within 2-3 months, and were
                able to prevent erosion. Planting of mangroves was not necessary, because natural
                recruitment usually became established within three years.
                               Maintenance action was recommended to prevent the natural 3-4 yr cycle of
                growth and die-back. Actions consisted of removing flotsom wrack (prolonged shading by
                wrack killed cordgrasses), creeping vines, and dead tops after seed set.

                        Benner, C. S., P. L. Knutson, R. A. Brochu, and A. K. Hurme. "Vegetative
                erosion control in an oligohaline environment, Currituck Sound, North Carolina."
                Wetlands 2 (1982): 105-117.
                               Nine species of coastal marsh plants were tested for their use in stabilizing a
                shoreline in an oligohaline bay in North Carolina. Plants were sprigged (0.9-m interval)
                along transects from the shore-berm out 30.5 m into the intertidal zone. Two side-by-side








              6                                                                                   Bibliography

              transects of each species were planted in four adjacent, replicating plots on a block of bare
              beach. A similar and adjacent bare area was used as a control.
                             Only four species survived (7ypha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Juncus
              roemefianus, and Spartina altemiflord). Once they became fairly established, they were
              joined by 20 volunteer species that increased the vegetative cover substantially. As plant
              cover increased, erosion of the area decreased. Additional plant cover led to accretion of
              sediments and expansion of the marsh. A balance between erosion and accretion was finally
              established, and a year's net gain or loss of sediments then varied as weather and water
              conditions varied. The bare control area only experienced erosion through the eight years of
              the study.

                     Berger, J. J. ed. Ecological Restoration in the San Francisco Bay Area.
              Berkeley, CA: Restoring the Earth, 1990.
                             This is an excellent compendium of restoration projects of all types of habitats
              in the counties bordering San Francisco Bay. Plus, it contains a directory (Appendix A) of
              people, companies, and organizations (including governmental) that are involved in
              restoration activities and regulations.
                             Habitats covered include forests, grasslands, coastal dunes and prairies, mined
              lands, creeks, lakes, and marshes. Other restorations focused on wildlife such as fish,
              butterflies, birds, and mammals, and some focused on native plants. Each restoration project
              was summarized as to location, beginning date, current status, site characteristics, purpose of
              the project, procedures used, results to date (1990), monitoring activities, future plans,
              support, budget, contact people, and volunteer needs.
                             Appendix E explains how to create a restoration directory including a database
              of projects. This is a useful guide that can be used for many different types of directories.

                     Bernstein, P. G. and R. L. Zepp, Jr. "Evaluation of selected wetland creation
              projects authorized through the Corps of Engineers Section 404 program." 80. City:
              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Permits/Licenses Branch, Annapolis, MD, 1990.
                             The goal of this study was to evaluate the success of mitigation for lost
              wetlands. Each of 66 randomly chosen mitigation projects located in the Baltimore, Norfolk,
              and Philadelphia Districts of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers were reviewed, visited and
              evaluated. A short written report was included for each.
                             Four projects of the 66 permitted had not been done (no mitigation required),
              44 of the 62 remaining were deemed failures according to the permit specifications, 9 were
              deemed successes, and 9 were still under construction. Among the failures were partial
              success--projects where wetlands were established but were inadequate to fulfill the permit
              requirements.
                             The authors concluded the permitting system was losing wetlands under its
              current system of operation. It needed modification if it was to preserve our wetlands. One
              recurring problem was the lack of thorough planning. Rarely was an approved design for the
              mitigated wetland (to be created or restored) submitted at the time of the permit request.
              Recommended improvements for the system were: (1) Standardize permitting requirements
              for all projects requiring compensation. (2) Implement a tracking system for all permits
              requiring mitigation.   (3) Require a greater than 1:1 replacement ratio for some critical








             Bibliography                                                                              7

             types of wetland habitat. (4) Require routine follow-up investigations including comparisons
             of pre-construction and post-creation data. (5) Enforce permit requirements with
             prosecution.

                    Blair, C. "Successful tidal wetland mitigation in Norfolk, VA." In: Coastal
             Wetlands., ed. H. S. Bolton. 463-476. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers,
             1991.
                           In 1984, a 2.8 ha man-made Spartina altemiflora marsh (Monkey Bottom
             marsh) was created on a scrape-down area connected to Willoughby Bay in Norfolk, VA.
             This mitigation area had four lateral ditches that drained into one main canal that connected
             with the bay via a culvert. Planting of S. altemiflora was done on 2-ft centers and at
             elevations that ranged above and below the expected marsh establishment zone.
                           The mitigation marsh was evaluated as to its sediments, vegetation,
             invertebrates, fish and birds four years after its construction. A comparison of Monkey
             Bottom marsh with two local natural S. altemiflora marshes found no significant differences
             in density, cover and standing crop of S. altemiflora among the three. Fish and crabs were
             found in abundance, though not quantitatively compared. Mugil and Callinectes accounted
             for 55 % and 20 % of the catch by numbers, respectively, at Monkey Bottom. Brevoortia
             Fundulus and Menidia were the dominants at the natural marsh, where mullet were seen but
             not captured. Hard, soft and razor clams were the three main benthic organisms at Monkey
             Bottom, but polychaetes were also common. The control marsh had many fiddler crabs and
             nematodes. Bird utilization was similar for the marshes, with the exception of more
             suburban species frequenting the control marsh which was surrounded by a long-established
             residential neighborhood. The overall conclusion was that the mitigation marsh was a
             success, and was functioning as a typical estuarine marsh.

                    Bolton, H. S., ed. Coastal Wetlands. Coastlines of the World. New York:
             American Society of Civil Engineers, 1991.
                           This is a collection of papers presented at Coastal Zone '91 held in Long
             Beach, CA. Topics run from political and legal considerations of coastal wetlands to
             environmental design and monitoring considerations.

                    Bontje, M. P. "The application of science and engineering to restore a salt
             marsh." In: Proceedings of the fifteenth annual conference on wetlands restoration and
             creation. in Tampa, FL, edited by F. J. Webb, Jr. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough
             Community College, 16-23, 1988.
                           The report compares the use of a 63-acre man-made Spartina altemiflora
             marsh by-birds, mammals and fish, to that of a 113-acre neighboring, Phragmites communis
             (common reed) marsh. The report also briefly describes the creation of the Spartina marsh.
                           The cordgrass marsh was established by clearing the common reed by spraying
             with glyphosate, excavating and grading the area by digging wide, gently sloping, canals.
             Excavated material was piled into raised berms, for shrubs and trees. Once the surface was
             at the proper slope and elevation (0. 15-0.45 ft below mean high water), Spartina altemiflora
             was seeded into the area. The canals were connected with Mills Creek of the Hackensack
             River. Within a few growing seasons the cordgrass was well established.









              8                                                                             Bibliography

                            Birds, mammals, fish and water were sampled for 11 months. Monthly bird
              counts were made by walking or boating through the entire site for 1-hr. Mammals were
              trapped with bait for 24-hr each month. Tracks and burrows were also recorded. Fish were
              collected bimonthly by pulling a 3-m seine once for 15 m.
                            Based on this sampling regime, results showed twice the diversity and seven
              times the abundance of birds were using the Spartina marsh as were using the larger
              Phragmites marsh. Muskrat burrows were twice as dense in the Spartina marsh as in the
              Phragmites marsh. Fundulus heteroclitus was the common fish in both areas. Fish diversity
              was low, reportedly due to poor water quality in the adjacent rivers and creeks where
              diversity was also low. Benthos was three times as plentiful and twice as diverse in the
              Spartina marsh as in the Phragmites marsh. Water quality was nearly identical for the two
              marshes.
                            The goal to improve wildlife habitat in the area was achieved by removing the
              common reed and establishing a cordgrass marsh. The cordgrass marsh apparently
              developed quite quickly in the area which had minimal wave stress, proper elevation, and a
              good inundation-drainage design.

                     Bontje, M. P. "A successful salt marsh restoration in the New Jersey meadow-
              lands." In: Proceedini!s of the eiahteenth annual conference on wetlands restoration
              and creation. in Tampa,     , edited by F. J. Webb, Jr. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough
              Community College, 5-16, 1991.
                            This article provided a detailed account of a salt marsh restoration/creation
              project in Lyndhurst, NJ. An old dredged material deposition site had become overgrown
              with Phragmites australis. Wetland creation required killing the reed, decreasing the
              elevation of the site to match marsh levels, improving drainage across the site, and planting
              and establishment of Spartina alterniflora.
                            Innovative techniques were described that solved unforeseen problems that
              developed during the project. Rodeo was used to kill the Phragmites, via two aerial
              sprayings and one hand spraying of recruits. Earth moving was done by backhoes and dump
              trucks, saving money which would have been spent on specialized equipment.
                            This was a 14 acre site, in which about 9 acres of salt marsh, 2 acres of tidal
              channels, and 3 acres of upland berm were established. The salt marsh was established on a
              1 % slope that drained about 80 % at low tide; only a few inches of water remained in the
              channels. At high tide only the dike and a central ridge were not submerged. Spartina
              altemiflora was planted as peat pots (3-4 stems/pot) on 3-ft centers. Fertilizer was added to
              the holes before the peat pots were inserted. No significant mortality occurred, and plant
              growth was good.
                            No scientific studies were done to test for use of the marsh by aquatic or land
              animals, but increased use of the area by birds was noted.

                     Boyd, M. J. I'Salt marsh faunas: colonization and monitoring." In: Wetland
              restoration and enhancement in California. in Hayward, CA, ed. M. Josselyn,
              Hayward, CA: University of California Sea Grant College Program, 110, 1982.
                            This paper presents an overview of the marsh fauna found in California coastal
              marshes, and presents the needs for monitoring changes in the fauna at a restoration site.








               Bibliography                                                                                        9


               Several species of invertebrates and vertebrates are listed. Detecting significant differences
               in population densities of various species was expected to require extensive sampling--well
               beyond what would be logistically or financially possible given current constraints. But some
               such assessment is needed if a restoration project is to be judged successful or not. A
               suggestion, by a participant in the discussion, was made to possibly use an indicator species.

                      Broome, S. W. "Creation and restoration of tidal wetlands of the southeastern
               United States." In: Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Part
               1. Rezional Review., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 37-72. Washington, D.C.:
               Island Press, Inc., 1989.
                              This chapter includes descriptions and brief discussions of many facets of tidal
               salt marsh restorations and creations beginning with marsh functions, then project plans, and
               finally an evaluation of the success of a project. Smooth cordgrass, Spartina altemij7ora, is
               one of the most important plants used in salt marsh restorations, particularly in the intertidal
               zone along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U.S. The functions of these marshes are
               many, but the major ones eliciting restoration activities are shoreline erosion control,
               sediment stabilization, and fisheries and wildlife habitat development or replacement.
               Careful planning is required for success in such projects. Attention must be paid to elevation
               at the site, water circulation into and through the area, protection from erosive wave action,
               and adverse actions by pests, herbivores and man's activities in and around the site. Timing
               of the planting, health of the transplants, and fertility of the soil are also important factors.
               Monitoring is important for documenting the success of a technique. A photographic record
               can be valuable. Future research is needed on site selection, design and preparation, on
               plant propagation and culturing techniques, and on documentation of marsh development.
               Information and advice are offered on most of these subjects, and are based on the author's
               many years of first hand experience and reading.

                      Broome, S. W., S. M. Rogers, Jr., and E. D. Seneca. "Shoreline erosion control
               using marsh vegetation and low-cost structures." (1992).
                              This report describes the use of smooth cordgrass, Spartina altemiflora, marsh
               to control shoreline erosion. Suitable sites had a substantial tidal range and a regular diurnal
               tidal rhythm, and a gentle slope in the intertidal area. They were in estuaries where salinity
               ranged between 5 and 35 96 , wave action was light or reducible at least while plants are
               becoming established. Planting in the spring to obtain a full growing cycle the first year was
               recommended, as was the use of a time-released fertilizer. Selection of other plant species
               was recommended for elevations above the normal tidal zone.


                      Broome, S. W., E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "Establishing
               brackish marshes on graded upland sites in North- Carolina." Wetlan 2(1982):152-
               178.
                              The objectives of this study were to determine: 1) the most suitable marsh
               plant species to use in a marsh creation project; 2) each specie's elevation requirement; 3)
               the effectiveness of several fertilizers; and 4) which methods were most effective when more,
               than one process was possible. The study was done at a Texasgulf Chemical Co. phosphate









                 10                                                                                     Bibliography

                 mining site adjacent to Bond Creek, a tributary of the Pamlico River estuary near Aurora,
                 NC. The site was a series of borrow pits that were graded to suitable elevation (matching a
                 local natural marsh) and slope, and connected to Bond Creek. Diurnal. tidal flows were
                 minimal, wind being a dominant force of water height change.
                                A great variety of plantings and tests were done over three years. Because of
                 the lack of tidal fluctuation in water levels, plant species were limited to narrow elevation
                 bands. Spartina alterniflora ranged from 0.06 to 0.43 rn above mean sea level (MSL). S.
                 patens, and S. cynosuroides were limited to 0. 18 to 0.43 m above MSL. For transplanting,
                 greenhouse grown seedlings of S. patens and S. cynosuroides grew better than field dug
                 plants, but no such difference was found for S. alterniflora. Survival was 80-100% when
                 plants were planted at the proper elevations. Direct seeding was only partially successful;
                 irregular water levels during germination and seedling growth were damaging.
                                Some fertilizers were of benefit, some were not, and some were detrimental.
                 The application of fertilizer directly to the planting hole caused root bum. Residual fertilizer
                 benefits could be found even into the second growing season. When all was working well, it
                 took 2-3 yr for the planted marshes to equal the above-ground production of the natural
                 marshes.


                        Broome, S. W.9 E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "The effects of
                 source, rate and placement of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers on growth of
                 Spailina afterniflora transplants in North Carolina." Estuaries 6 (1983): 212-226.
                                This study evaluated the effects of fertilizer rate, type of fertilizer material,
                 and application methods on growth and survival of Spartina alterniflora transplants. Changes
                 in erosion rates of planted and unplanted shoreline were also noted. The test plots were
                 along the Neuse River near Oriental, NC. Soil tests of the area showed no organic matter in
                 the compacted sandy clay loam, a pH of 5.17, and low nutrient concentrations. Tidal
                 fluctuation was wind dominated, and salinity varied from 5 to 23 76 . A previously
                 attempted planting of S. alterniflora in the area showed fertilization was necessary for
                 survival and growth, and that surface applications of fertilizers were ineffective. Subsurface
                 application of fertilizers was tested in a randomized complete blocks design. Osmocote (3-4
                 month release), Mag Amp (medium texture), ammonium sulfate, urea, urea-formaldehyde,
                 diammonium phosphate, concentrated superphosphate, and rock phosphate were used.
                 Results showed the Osmocote fertilized plants survived significantly better than the others,
                 and grew fastest. Plants with Mag Amp were slower to get started, but were doing well
                 after 11 weeks. Test results also showed that both N and P were needed for satisfactory
                 growth, and that K was not needed (probably enough was being supplied in the estuarine
                 water). Phosphorous applied at a rate of 49 kg/ha produced maximum growth when
                 adequate N was supplied. The maximum rate of N applied was 224 kg/ha, and growth
                 continued to improve to this maximum. The most -efficient and economical method of
                 fertilizing was the time-released form of N144-N combined with concentrated superphosphate,
                 both applied underground but not necessarily in the planting hole. Some carry over of
                 fertilizers was noted during the second year of growth. A top-dressing of N and P
                 fertilizers after a stand has become established was said to be beneficial. Roots have
                 developed which can take up the nutrients before they are washed away. With the








                Bibliography                                                                                11

                establishment of the plants, sediment accumulated along the landward margin of the stand.
                This build-up stimulated additional plant growth.

                       Broome, S. W., E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "Ung-term growth
                and development of transplants of the salt-marsh grass Spaylina aftemiflora." Estuaries
                9 (1986): 63-74.
                              This paper reports about the effect of transplant spacing on growth and
                development of a Spartina altemiflora marsh, following the marsh development for 10 years,
                and comparing it with a nearby natural marsh. The test site was a Pine Knoll Shores, NC,
                on the barrier island of Bogue Banks. Spartina alterni)7ora plants of field (dug I I km away)
                and greenhouse origins were planted on 45-, 60-, and 90-cm centers in three 15xl2-m plots
                that were set in a randomized blocks design. Above-ground vegetative characteristics were
                measured from several 0.25 m? quadrats taken each October. Below-ground biomass was
                usually sampled by taking cores.
                              Results showed that 45- and 60-cm treatments were better for establishing a
                marsh in a marginal environment. Transplant survival rates at the end of the first growing
                season were 72%, 69% and 49% for the 45-, 60- and 90-cm treatments, respectively.
                Above-ground vegetation among the treatments was indistinguishable after two growing
                seasons, except that two of the 90-cm blocks had eroded away by the second year's
                monitoring. By the end of the fifth year, the planted marsh was as densely vegetated (above
                600 stems/m2) as the natural control marsh that was 200 m to the west. Below-ground
                biomass increased fastest in the 45-cm treatment. It reached an equilibrium around 2 kg/M2
                by the end of the third year, and was matching the natural marsh.
                              The failure of the two 90-cm spacing blocks reaffirms the need to plan a
                marsh planting based on the harshness of the environment. A thicker planting will be more
                effective in breaking the erosive action of waves, but of course, the cost will be higher as
                many more plants will be required.

                       Broome, S. W., E. D. Seneca, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "Tidal salt marsh
                restoration." Aguatic Bglgny 32 (1988): 1-22.
                              This article summarized the techniques to restore Spartina altemiflora salt
                marshes in the Southeastern U.S. Results showed that the site must be at the proper
                elevation--between MSL and MHW, and have a gentle slope--less than 10%, preferably less
                than 5%. Although salt marshes occurred in a variety of substrates, a sandy substrate was
                easiest for restoration planting; fertilizer was usually needed as sandy substrates were often
                nutrient poor.
                              Vegetation was usually restored by transplanting sprigs or plugs, or by
                seeding. Young plants were commonly available from nearby, healthy, natural donor
                marshes, or from nursery stocks. Labor costs ran about 100 man-hours per hectare for
                manual planting of sprigs on 1-m centers, and half of that for mechanical planting. Timing
                of planting was important, and was best scheduled for early in the growing season (April-
                June). Restoration of an oil-contaminated marsh should not proceed for at least six months
                even if the oil was removed.
                              Because salt marshes are very valuable habitats that serve many functions, the
                authors recommended that policies to protect marshes and restore damaged ones should be








              12                                                                                  Bibliography

              strengthened. Restoration work should be guaranteed, and replanting should be required
              when deficiencies are detected during monitoring. Each project should be monitored for 3-5
              years to determine its success. Documentation should be made of successes and failures,
              with reasons for failure being documented and discussed so future projects would not repeat
              mistakes.


                     Broome, S. W., W. W. Woodhouse, Jr., and E. D. Seneca. "The relationship of
              mineral nutrients to growth of Spailina aftemtflora in North Carolina. H. The effects of
              N, P, and Fe fertilizers." Soil Science SocLely American ProceediUs 39 (1975): 301-307.
                             Little is known about the effect of mineral nutrition on Spartina alterniflora.
              This study was initiated to evaluate the influence of N, P, and Fe on primary productivity by
              applying these nutrients to plots in natural marshes and on S. alterniflora seeded and
              transplanted on dredged material. In a marsh growing on a sandy substrate, additions of N
              alone increased yields of aboveground shoots significantly, and when P was also added, the
              yield increased about threefold. In a marsh growing on finer textured sediments, N fertilizer
              doubled the yield of short S. altemiflora, but there was no response to P. There was no
              growth response to applications of Fe to support previous speculation that iron nutrition
              might be a particularly important factor causing the chlorotic appearance of short Spartina
              and reducing its productivity. The results indicate that primary productivity of some S.
              altemiflora marshes is limited by the availability of N. When N is added, lack of P may
              become the factor limiting growth, particularly when the substrate is coarse in texture,
              indicating the importance of sediment as a factor in P supply to S. altemiflora. Lack of N is
              apparently one of a combination of factors which is responsible for producing the short form
              of S. alterniflora. The fact that N and P are the limiting factors in growth of S. alterniflora
              in some salt marshes has several ecological implications. Marshes may be, acting as buffers
              for estuarine systems by providing sinks for excess nutrients from such sources as sewage
              and land runoff. The excess nutrients would produce increased growth of S. alterniflora thus
              providing and increased supply of food energy and nutrients to the detritus food chain of the
              estuary rather than altering energy pathways. The ability of salt marshes to utilize excess N
              and P may be important in managing estuarine systems. Nutrient-rich waste effluent dumped
              in marshes would have less impact on estuaries than that dumped in open estuarine waters.
                             Fertilization may be beneficial in propagating S. altemiflora on dredged
              material since establishing a full vegetative cover rapidly is important. Applications of N
              and P fertilizers enhanced growth of seedlings and transplants, but the response of S.
              altemfflora to fertilizer will depend on the inherent fertility of the substrate material.

                     Callaway, J. C. and M. N. Josselyn. "The introduction and spread of smooth
              cordgrass (SpaiVna altemif7om) in south San Francisco Bay." EstuarigS 15 (1992): 218-
              226.
                             Spartina altemiflora was first introduced into south San Francisco Bay in the
              1970's. Since that time it has spread to new areas within the south bay and is especially well
              established at four sites. The spread of this introduced species was evaluated by comparing
              its vegetative and reproductive characteristics to the native cordgrass, Spartinafoliosa . The
              characters studied were intertidal distribution, phenology, aboveground and below-ground
              biomass, growth rates, seed production, and germination rates. Spartina altemiflora has a









              Bibliography                                                                             13

              wider intertidal distribution and was more productive than the native cordgrass in all aspects
              studied. These results indicate that the introduced species becomes established more readily
              in new areas than the native species, and once established, S. altemiflora spreads more
              rapidly vegetatively than S. foliosa, thus out-competing it. S. altemiflora is likely to
              continue to spread to new areas in the bay and displace the native species. This introduced
              species may also affect sedimentation dynamics, available detritus, benthic algal production,
              wrack deposition and disturbance, habitat structure for native wetland animals, benthic
              invertebrate populations, and shorebird and wading bird foraging areas due to its different
              physical and ecological characteristics. The evaluation of the extent of these impacts,
              however, can only be made after S. altemiflora has become widely established and very
              difficult to eradicate.


                    Cammen, L. M. "Accumulation rate and turnover time of organic carbon in a
              salt marsh sediment." Limpology and Oceanography 20 (1975): 1012-1015.
                            Organic carbon in the sediments was measured near Drum Inlet, North
              Carolina in a natural Spartina alterniflora salt marsh and on both unvegetated dredged
              material and dredged material planted with S. altemiflora. The planted marsh was about 1
              year old at the time of sampling. Grain size analyses indicated that sediment texture was
              sandy and similar among the three sites. Above-ground Spartina biomass in the planted
              marsh was comparable to the natural marsh, but below-ground biomass in the planted marsh
              was between 19 % (unfertilized) and 43 % (fertilized) of the natural marsh. The annual
              accumulation rates of organic carbon (g/rrf) in the upper 13 cm of sediment were 80.3 in the
              bare sediment, 87.0 in the planted marsh, and 96.8 in the planted and fertilized marsh.
              Organic carbon in the natural marsh sediment was 362.7 gln-e. The data suggest,that the
              dredged sediments would be comparable to the natural marsh sediment within 3-5 years, and
              that the presence of Spartina altemiflora did not appreciably increase the rate of organic
              matter accumulation. Bare sediment had accumulated almost as much organic carbon as
              planted dredged material, and the increases were attributed to detrital matter carried by tides
              and to benthic algae.

                     Cammen, L. M. "Abundance and production of macroinvertebrates from natural
              and artificially established salt marshes in North Carolina." American Midland
              Naturalist 96 (1976): 487-493.
                            Abundances of macro-infauna taken in core samples were studied from natural,
              man-made Spartina alterniflora marshes, and adjacent bare areas at two locations, one near
              Drum Inlet and one near Snow's Cut, North Carolina. At each location, a permanent set of
              sites were established along transects. The planted area transect ran from the upper extent of
              the cordgrass down the elevation gradient to the middle of the tidal creek at Drum Inlet, and
              to just above MLW at Snow's Cut. Transects through the bare areas ran parallel to the
              transect through the planted area. A similar transect crossed each natural marsh. Replicate
              samples, I m apart, were taken at each site with a piston corer that covered a surface area of
              70.9 cm' and reached a depth of 13 cm.
                            Macro-infauna differed with the location. At Drum Inlet, insect larvae
              (Dolichopodidae) dominated the fauna in the bare and planted areas, while polychaetes
              (Heteromastus filifonnis and Capitella capitata) dominated the natural marsh. At Snow's









                14                                                                                 Bibliography
                Cut, poly.chaetes (Laeonereis culvefi, H. filiformis and C. capitata) dominatedthe fauna in
                the bare area, while amphipods (Lepid"tylus dyfiscus and Gwnmarus palustis) and
                Dolichopodidae larvae dominated the fauna in the planted area. The natural marsh macro-
                infauna at Snow's Cut was dominated by polychaetes (L. culveli and Nereis succinea), an
                isopod (Cyathura polita), and a bivalve mollusk (Arcuatuld (= Modiolus) demissa).
                              Annual macrofaunal production (excluding Uca spp.) was estimated to be
                equal to the maximum standing stock of the insect population, and twice the average standing
                stock of the rest of the macro-infauna. Production values (g dry wt./n-f/yr) at Drum inlet were
                1.4 for the bare area, 1.2 for the transplanted area, 7.7 for the natural marsh, and 23-34 in the
                adjacent tidal creek bottom. At Snow's Cut production values were 13.8 (bare), 0.5
                (transplanted), 5.7 (natural marsh), and 8-17 (tidal creek).
                              The low faunal diversity at the sites was partly attributed to infrequent
                sampling. It is also possible that the habitat was not developed enough at that time to
                support other less opportunistic species. Winter sampling was not conducted, and would
                have been useful for improving accuracy of annual production estimates.

                       Cammen, L. M. "Macroinvertebrate colonization of SpaiVna marshes artificially
                established on dredge spoil." Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science 4 (1976): 357-372.
                              This study investigated population dynamics of macro-infauna taken in core
                samples from natural and man-made Spartina altemiflora marshes, and adjacent bare areas.
                Two location were studied, one near Drum Inlet and one near Snow's Cut, North Carolina.
                At each location, replicate core samples were taken at permanent sites that were established
                along transects that crossed the elevational plane from subtidal to the landward margin of the
                marsh.
                              Particle size analysis showed that the dredged material at the Drum Inlet was
                very similar to the natural marsh sediment. The dredged material at the bare and planted
                areas near Snow's Cut were similar to that at Drum Inlet, but differed from the natural
                marsh nearby. The natural marsh at Snow's Cut had much higher coarse-sand and silt-clay
                fractions.
                              The above-ground and below-ground biomass of Spartina differed for planted
                and natural marshes. The above-ground biomass values in g/m2were 709 (planted) and 1056
                (natural) at Drum Inlet, and 984 (planted) and 637 (natural) at Snow's Cut. At each
                location, the planted marshes had only half the below-ground biomass that the natural
                marshes had, 605 and 2371 (planted) and 3169 and 4966 (natural) and the respective
                locations.
                              Macro-infauna differed between locations and among areas at the same
                location. At Drum Inlet, the macrofauna in the bare and planted areas had similar biomass,
                species composition, and numbers of taxa per sample. The bare area had higher densities of
                organisms during three of the five samplings. The natural marsh had a higher density,
                biomass, and diversity for two of the three dates when all three areas were sampled. At
                Snow's Cut, the macrofauna in the bare area consistently had greater biomass and density per
                date sampled. The natural marsh was only sampled once at Snow's Cut. The macro-infauna
                in the natural marsh had a greater density and diversity than the dredged material sites, but it
                had a biomass slightly less than that of the bare area and slightly greater than that of the
                planted area. Neither sediment characteristics nor the presence of Spartina were deemed








              Bibliography                                                                                     15

              sufficient causes for these differences found in the fauna. Elevation levels, however, were
              different and were likely the cause of the infaunal differences.
                             Sufficient support for separating causes of differences in macro-infauna and in
              establishing statistically significant differences would have required an increase.in sampling.
              Although the abundances of Uca spp. were not included, their presence could have impacted
              infauna abundances.


                      Cammen, L. M. 111be macro-infauna of a North Carolina salt marsh." American
              Midland Natural 102 (1979): 244-253.
                             The community dynamics of the macro-infauna of a healthy Spartina
              altemiflora marsh near Beaufort, NC, were studied for one year. Monthly sampling
              involved taking at least 6 cores randomly in,the marsh. These were processed through a 0.8
              x 0.6-mm mesh sieve; the animals, macro-detritus and roots were caught and preserved in
              formalin. Greatest abundance was found during the late winter and early spring. Lowest
              abundance was during the summer and early autumn. Numbers of individuals ranged from
              2200 to 15500 le. There were 32 taxa identified in the samples, but only four dominated
              the community. These were: Nereis succinea, Streblospio benedicti, Capitellidae and
              Oligochaeta. They were present in over 93 % of the cores. They accounted for 96 % of the
              number of individuals caught, and averaged 85% of the monthly biomass. The low summer
              biomass was thought to be due to predation by juvenile fish and to mortality due to spring
              spawning. These taxa were also among the dominants in several other marshes in NC. The
              high numbers of infauna suggest that most of the marsh surface sediment and. detritus is eaten
              and processed each year.

                             Chabreck, R. H. "Creation, restoration, and enhancement of marshes of
              the northrentral Gulf coast." In: Wetland creation and restoration: The status of the
              science. Volume 1: Reeional overviews, EPA/600/3-89/038., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E.
              Kentula. 127-144. Corvallis, OR: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989.
                             Coastal marshes of the northcentral coast of the Gulf of Mexico encompass an
              estimated 1.2 million hectares. This is about half of all coastal marshes in the U.S.,
              excluding Alaska. These coastal marshes are being threatened by subsidence, sea level rise,
              and erosion by wind generated waves. Efforts to protect and enhance the marshes in the
              northcentral Gulf involve use of dredged material and river water with its sediment. Weirs,
              dikes, and levees are also used around freshwater and brackish water marshes to protect them
              from saltwater intrusion. Information is given about things to consider when attempting to
              create or restore coastal marshes. Location, topography, hydrology, type of substrate,
              salinity, and wind and wave climates are all important factors to be considered in the
              planning process. Monitoring of a project is suggested to be a two level process. The first
              level is just a qualitative look to see if the project is developing as planned. The second
              level is a quantitative investigation of the project to assess the level of success attained.
                          . Research is needed for developing marshes using diverted Mississippi River
              water. Opening channels in the banks of the larger delta channel of the river could allow
              mini-delta formation which could be planted or allowed to vegetate naturally. Dredged
              material use in marsh enhancement needs to be researched. Thin-layer deposition of dredged









               16                                                                                   Bibliography

               material may improve marshes that are deteriorating because of subsidence, but methods for
               this need to be developed.

                      Cobb, R. A. "Mtigation evaluation study for the south Texas coast, 1975-1986."
               City: Corpus Christi State University and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987.
                              This report presents an evaluation of the level of acceptance, implementation,
               and success of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's recommendations made to preserve fish
               and wildlife habitat, or to mitigate its loss along the south Texas coast. For 59 permitted
               waterfront projects, the USFWS; recommendations were unconditionally accepted in 78%,
               rejected in 5 %, and modified in 16 %; 1 % were unresolved. However, most of the accepted
               recommendations were those to avoid impact to wetlands or to assure adequate water quality
               within excavated canals. Projects requiring habitat compensation had more modifications,
               and they had more non-compliance by the permittee. Non-compliance with permit conditions
               was found at 31 % of the sites inspected--78 % of this was unfulfilled mitigation requirements
               and 22% was additional work performed beyond that permitted.
                              In the proposed mitigation work involving marsh restoration or creation there
               was substantial variation in describing the substrate elevations where Spartina alterniflora
               was to be planted. Rarely were details of the planting (stems/m@, as-planted maps, etc.)
               provided in a report. Monitoring was never done by the permittee, and only once by the
               Texas General Land Office and Corps of Engineers. Completion reports were rarely filed.
               Only one performance bond was required. Of the 15 projects investigated, 6 were deemed
               failures, 4 were partial successes,- and 5 were fully successful according to the permit
               requirements.
                              Many of the usual reasons for failure of transplanted marshes were found
               among these failed projects including: (1) no soil conditioning, (2) incorrect elevation, (3)
               excessive slope, (4) excessive wave action and inadequate protection, (5) bad weather, (6)
               poor drainage and excessive salinity, (7) human disturbance, and (8) improper site
               preparation. In a few cases where failure was due to insufficient plant cover within the
               specified time (two years), the marshes have since developed sufficiently to be rated
               successful.
                              Although almost 90% of the recommendations proposed by the USFWS were
               incorporated in the permits, the overall final results after implementation yielded a net loss of
               wetlands--only 50% were recovered through mitigation. The report offers 21
               recommendations to enhance the chances of successful marsh restoration. And 21 more are
               given for seagrass restoration projects.

                      Courtney, F. X., S. A. Peck, and M. 0. Hall. "Post-harvest recovery of a donor
               Spaylina alternij7om marsh." In: Proceedings of the eighteenth annugl conference on
               wetlands restoration and creation. in Tampa, FL, edited by F. J. Webb, Jr., Tampa,
               FL: Hillsborough Community College, 23-31, 1991.
                              A previously transplanted salt marsh at Spoil Island 2-D in Hillsborough Bay,
               Tampa Bay, FL, was used as a donor site for 300 tn@ of Spartina alterniflora. The harvest
               was made from 1/2 m or 1 m wide transects that were oriented either parallel or
               perpendicular to the shoreline. The cordgrass was hand pulled from the substrate. One half
               of the 24 harvest transects were fertilized shortly after harvest. After 17 months, mean culm








               Bibliography                                                                                     17

               densities in donor transects were similar to those of the undisturbed marsh. Fertilizer made
               shoots more robust, but not more numerous. Limited harvest of planting material appears to
               cause only temporary damage to the vegetation of the donor marsh. No studies were done to
               assess changes in marsh utilization by aquatic fauna.

                       Covin, J. D. and J. B. Zedler. "Nitrogen effects on Spadina fou0sa and
               Salicomia Wiginica in the salt marsh at TUuana Estuary, California." Wetlands 8
               (1988): 51-66.
                              Nitrogen effects were examined by experimentally enriching plots of pure
               Spartinafoliosa and mixed Spartina-Salicornia virginica at Tijuana Estuary, California.
               Even.with large inputs of organic nitrogen from sewage spills during the experimental
               period, plants responded to experimental urea enrichment. In pure plots, the addition of
               nitrogen increased Spartina growth (as measured by total stem length and August biomass)
               and foliar nitrogen (TKN) concentration. However, this effect is eliminated if increased
               foliar nitrogen stimulates insect predation resulting in heavy plant mortality. In mixed plots,
               enrichment had no apparent effect on Spartina but increased the growth of Salicornia. The
               lack of an enrichment effect on Spartina may be due to underground rhizomes and roots of
               Salicomia continuing to take up nitrogen through connections with plants outside the removal
               plots. The experimental removal of Salicornia from mixed stands increased Spartina
               production, but removal of Spartina did not affect Salicornia. Thus, there was a strong
               competitive effect. In mixed stands, urea additions are detrimental to Spartina because
               Salicornia has a greater response capacity. Salicomia is a superior competitor for nitrogen
               and checks the growth of Spartina in enriched and unenriched conditions. These experiments
               show that nitrogen, through its complex effects on growth and competition, is an important
               cause of spatial and temporal variability seen in long term observations of Spartina.

                       Craft, C. B., S. W. Broome, and E. D. Seneca. "Nitrogen, phosphorus and
               organic carbon pools in natural and transplanted marsh soils." Estuaries 11 (1988): 272-
               280.
                              The ob ectives of this study were to compare the nutrient and organic pools of
               transplanted and natural coastal saline marshes. Marsh sediments were studied in five
               created and nearby natural marshes in diverse locations in North Carolina. A couple of the
               marshes compared differed. in their vegetation. The created marshes ranged in age from 1 to
               15 years. Sediments were sampled using an 8.5 cm diameter corer. Ten to 20 cores, 30 cm
               deep, were taken randomly from each marsh. Macro organic matter (MOM) was separated
               from the sediments by sieving on a 2-mm mesh sieve. MOM and soil nutrient reservoirs
               were smaller in transplanted marshes than in the nearby natural marshes. About 12% and
               20% of the net primary production of emergent vegetation was buried in sediments of the
               regularly flooded and irregularly flooded transplanted marshes, respectively. MOM pools
               developed rapidly in transplanted marshes, and were expected to match the pools in natural
               marshes in 15-30 years. Soil nutrient pools in transplanted marshes, however, developed
               slowly and were expected to take much longer to match those of natural marshes.









             18                                                                              Bibliography

                    Craft, C. B., E. D. Seneca, and S. W. Broome. "Porewater Chemistry of
             Natural and Created Marsh Soils." Journal of Experimental Marine Hiologj and
             Ecology 152 (1991): 187-200.
                           Physical and chemical properties of soils and porewaters were compared from
             a natural marsh and a man-made marsh that was created from graded down upland.
             Porewaters were sampled monthly for a year from established wells set in the marshes.
             Water level, temperature, salinity, DO, pH, Eh, Fe, Mn, organic C, N, P, N114, N03, and
             P04concentrations were monitored in the pore water.
                           The created marsh soil had about 1 % organic matter compared with about
             50% for the natural marsh. DO, Eh, Fe, Mn and N03-N concentrations were significantly
             higher in the created marsh pore waters, but the dissolved organic C and N, N114-N, P04-P,
             and pH concentrations were lower. Even five years after creation of a saline estuarine
             marsh, the soil characteristics remained typical of the upland soil from which it was made.
                           This study suggests that we should not expect mitigated wetlands created on
             upland soils to gain characteristics of a natural marsh within even a decade. The authors
             recommended avoiding damage to natural wetlands because wetland soils are not readily
             replaced.

                    Crewz, D. W. and R. R. Lewis, M. "An evaluation of historical attempts to
             establish emergent vegetation in marine wetlands in Florida." 113 pp. Florida Sea
             Grant, Univ. of Florida,, 1991.
                           The authors' objectives were: (1) to compile a database of past marine
             wetland projects, (2) to then survey the sites for elevation and plant cover based on a random
             selection of sites from the database, and (3) to provide guidelines based on the observations
             made at the sites. These guidelines should help increase the success rate of marine wetland
             creation projects where emergent vegetation is planted. Objectives 1 and 2 were dismissed
             due to lack of available information and lack of access.
                           For objective 3, 33 sites were visited where salt marsh or mangroves had been
             planted. The sites were chosen based on accessibility (physical and legal), accuracy of site
             location information, species planted, and geographic location. All sites were visited in 1986.
             Twenty sites had been planted with Spartina altemij7ora along with other species. Plant
             densities were measured along transects that extended from the seaward edge to the upland
             edge of the marsh or mangrove area. Transects were spread about 25 m apart.
                           Results of the survey showed that marsh establishment was at least partially
             successful in 65% of the cases. Planted Spartina altemiflora survived from +0.2 - +0.6 m
             NGVD. Older natural marshes nearby ranged down to -0.1 m NGVD. Marsh failures were
             attributed to: (1) poor design and planning, (2) poor planting technique, (3) poor monitoring
             and remedial action, and (4) insufficient regulatory review. Critical factors found for
             establishing a salt marsh were: elevation, slope, drainage, substrate, plant selection,
             installation techniques, fetch, wave climate, marine connection, and elimination of pests from
             the site (including humans). Monitoring the development of a planted marsh was
             recommended because problems could be quickly identified and corrected.
                           The authors commented that despite advances in planting techniques, continued
             poor planning and planting led to failures of mitigated marshes. It was highly recommended
             that degradation of natural marshes should be avoided whenever possible. It was also









               Bibliography                                                                                        19

               recommended that a strong monitoring program should be part of any wedand restoration or
               creation project.

                       Earhart, H. G. and E. W. Garbisch, Jr. "Habitat development utilizing dredged
               material at Barren Island, Dorchester County, Maryland." Wetlands 3 (1983): 108-119.
                               The objectives of this project were to stabilize a low island created by
               deposition of dredged material by planting Spartina alterniflora and to create a habitat for
               fish and wildlife. The project was done in the fall of 1981, in Chesapeake Bay just off the
               northeastern tip of Barren Island, Dorchester County, Maryland. About 135,831 m, of fine-
               grained sediments were hydraulically deposited in a single unconfined location. The
               discharge pipe remained at a site until the water depth reached 1.8 m above MLW, then the
               outlet was moved to an adjacent lower portion of the site. The dredge material was allowed
               to consolidate for about five months (Nov. - April) before Spartina alterniflora was seeded
               over 8.4 ha at a rate of 96 seedS/M2.   The seeded area was fertilized a month later. Peat pots
               of Spartina patens were planted on a 0.6-m grid over about 2 ha at elevations above the S.
               alterniflora. During the winter about 460 V of oyster shell was placed in the center of the site to
               create nesting habitat for the least tern.
                               After eight months of growth, the shell island was nearly surrounded by 4.5 ha
               of flowering Spartina alterniflora at elevations ranging from 0.2 - 0.5 rn above MLW, and
               1.6 ha of Spartina patens at 0.4 - 0.7 m above MLW. A 4. 1-ha pond, a 1.9-ha stretch of
               bare non-vegetated flatland, and a 0. 1 -ha area of oyster shell (tern nesting habitat) were also
               created.
                               This project required careful Planning and diligence by the project team to
               keep the project on target. Constant monitoring by the project team was needed to keep the
               dredged material directed to the correct place. The project succeeded in creating Spartina
               alterniflora and S. patens marsh, plus some non-vegetated tern nesting habitat, but it did not
               create as much as was planned. When the project was completed, 69% of the designed
               marsh had become established. This paper provided a good comparison of project
               construction theory and construction reality, and it showed that even with a well planned
               design, circumstances during the construction phase can control the final success or failure of
               a project.

                       Earhart, H. G. and E. W. Garbisch, Jr. "Beneficial uses of dredged materials at
               Barren Island, Dorchester County, Maryland." In: Proceedings of the thirteenth
               annual conference on wetlands restoration and creation. in Hillsborough,               , edited by
               F. J. Webb, Jr., Hillsborough, FL: Hillsborough Community College, 75-85, 1986.
                               Spartina alterniflora stems and clumps have been planted in dredged material
               to stabilize the material and establish salt marsh, but planting of large areas with sprigs of
               cordgrass can be very expensive. This paper describes a successful creation of 1.6 ha of S.
               alterniflora marsh using seeds. Judicious placement of the dredged material to specified
               elevations was required. This entailed constant monitoring of the additions of dredged
               material to the area. Spartina alterniflora marsh was made by broadcasting seed from an
               all-terrain-vehicle (ATV) during low tide over 5.3 ha. Broadcasting was followed by
               cultivating the substrate and seed by dragging a spiked metal mesh over it at low tide using
               the ATV. The site was fertilized four times during the summer. Seeding and fertilization









                20                                                                                    Bibliography

                costs were only about one fifth those of single stem transplanting. Ruppia maritima
                voluntarily invaded the shallow waters between dredged material islands, establishing about
                2.8 ha of Ruppia mafitima beds. Natural beds were nearby.

                       Eleuterius, L. N. and J. 1. Gill. "Long-term observations on seagrass; beds and
                salt marsh established from transplants." In: Proceedings of the eighth annual
                conference on wetlands restoration and creation. in Tampa, FL., edited by R. H.
                Stovall, Tampa, FL.: Hillsborough Community College, 74-86, 1981.
                               This paper reviews seagrass and saltmarsh transplant projects that were
                initiated five to ten years earlier in Mississippi. The projects involved transplanting a wide
                variety of seagrass and salt marsh species. In seagrass projects, Halodule beaudettei,
                Thalassia testudinum and Cymodocea manatorum were transplanted. Only about 30% of the
                transplants survived at the end of one year, but 80% of these survivors had begun spreading.
                Halodule beaudettei survived best, and spread rapidly. As the beds grew, they constantly
                changed shape. At these particular test sites the seagrass beds spread only westward, leaving
                their original planting sites empty as the eastern shoots died. This migration occurred within
                only a few growing seasons and was attributed to the predominant westward current in the
                area.
                               In salt marsh studies, growth and spread of transplanted Panicum repens,
                Spartina alterniflora, Juncus roemerianus, Spartina cynosuroides, Spartina patens, Distichlis
                spicata, and Phragmites conununis were measured over various periods up to 10 years.
                Propagation trials showed that preliminary rooting of these marsh plants in peat pots was
                unnecessary. Individual shoots successfully grew into stands in 60 and 80% of the marshes
                transplanted from November to February. In random plot tests Panicum repens, Spartina
                alterniflora, Spartina patens, and Distichlis spicata formed closed stands within a year.
                Spartina cynosuroides and Phraginites communis survived but did not spread during the
                three years of the tests, apparently because they were out competed by other plants. Juncus
                roemerianus was a slow grower and spreader, but it continued to spread even when crowded
                by other species. Juncus formed closed stands in five years when planted on 1.2-m centers.
                Stands of each species were found to move due to competition with each other and to the
                local changes in environmental conditions. After about seven years the mosaic pattern of the
                natural saltmarshes in the area was attained at the test site.
                               In another study of transplanted Spartina alterniflora, all transplants in the
                lower elevations died due to wave action and sediment erosion. The transplants in the upper
                zone survived and flourished. Observations of the stand eight years later found Spartina
                alterniflora had invaded the lower zone and was now growing well, even at the lowest
                elevation that had originally been planted. This spread extended 15 m down the intertidal
                slope in about eight years. From this observation, a transplanting principle was formed:
                plant the upper portion of the intertidal zone and allow the cordgrass to invade the lower
                portion on its own.

                       Espey Huston & Associates Inc. "Monitoring of transplanted SpaWna afterniflora
                on an unconfined dredged material disposal site, Chocolate Bay, Texas." Espey, Huston
                and Associates, Inc. DACW64-87-D-0002, 1988.








               Bibliography                                                                                 21

                              A Spartina altemiflora marsh was planted on 8.09 ha of unconfined dredged
               material in Chocolate Bay of the Galveston Bay System, Texas. Sprigs were obtained from a
               nearby marsh (control marsh) in Halls Lake, and planted on 1-m centers in June 1983.
                              Sampling to monitor marsh development was performed March - August and
               October 1984, April, June and October 1985, April, July and October 1986, and October
               1987. Percent cover, stem density and height, and above-ground biomass were measured at
               8 sites along each of 3 elevational transects through each marsh.
                              By 1986, the planted marsh had increased to an average of 79% cover and 382
               stems/m2 that averaged 29 cm in height. The control marsh had fallen to an average of 64%
               cover and 297 stems/rre that averaged 22 cm high. In October 1987, average cover was
               down slightly at 66% and 44% for the planted and control marshes respectively. Total
               number of stems averaged 436 and 348 stems/nf, 37 and 34 cm high, respectively.
                              Surveys made for wildlife found periwinkles, fiddler crabs, oysters, and birds
               to be common in both marshes. Observations on marsh use, however, were very limited.

                      Espey Huston & Associates Inc. "Monitoring of transplanted Spattina afterniflora
               on an unconfined dredged material disposal site, Pelican Spit, Galveston Bay, Texas."
               Espey, Huston & Associates, Inc. DACW64-89-D-0003, 1990.
                              This report describes the results of a salt marsh creation. In April, 1987,
               about 2.6 ha of shoreline were planted with Spartina altemiflora on 1-m centers on recently
               deposited unconsolidated dredged material at Pelican Spit in Galveston Bay, Texas. Planting
               was done between +0.5 and +0.9 m MLW. Planted and nearby donor (control) marshes
               were monitored in Nov. 1987, Nov. 1988 and Oct. 1989 for vegetative growth and general
               marsh development.
                              The planted marsh increased to 91, 258 and 210 stems/m? compared with the
               405, 145 and 150 stems/m2 in the control marsh in 1987, 1988 and 1989, respectively.
               Marsh periwinkles (Littofina irrorata) were the only typical marsh invertebrates observed at.
               the planted marsh, while fiddler crabs, blue crabs and periwinkles were found at the control
               marsh. Sampling for invertebrates was only qualitative.

                      Faber, P., A. Shepherd, and P. Williams. "Monitoring a tidal restoration site in
               San Francisco Bay- the Muzzi Marsh." In: Urban wetlands: Proceedings of the national
               wetland symposium. in Oakland, CA, eds. J. A. Kusler, S. Daly, and G. Brooks,
               Oakland, CA: Assoc. State Wetland Managers, 331-335, 1988.
                              Observations on tidal channel formation, sedimentation, and revegetation are
               reported for the Muzzi Marsh at Corte Madera, Marin County, California. A 53-ha portion
               of the marsh was opened to tidal flows in 1976 by breaching the seaward dikes.
               Revegetation was slow, and was thought to be due to a lack of tidal flows to the landward
               portion of the marsh. In 1981 additional channels were dug to increase tidal flows to the
               interior and peripheral areas. Revegetation rates increased, and a substantial coverage of the
               flats by Salicomia Wrginica and of the channel banks by Spartinafoliosa developed. Seed
               source was a nearby natural marsh.









             22                                                                            Bibliography

                    Faber, P. M. "The Muzzi marsh, Corte Madera, California: long-term
             observations of a restored marsh in San Francisco Bay." In: Coastal Wetlands., ed. H.
             S. Bolton. 424-438. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1991.
                           This article reports on observations made of drainage channel formation,
             sedimentation, and revegetation of the 53-ha portion of the Muzzi Marsh at Corte Madera,
             California, on San Francisco Bay. The Muzzi Marsh was a 81 ha natural coastal marsh that
             was diked in 1959. Subsequently, the marsh dried out, killing all the marsh vegetation. In
             1976, 28 ha were further diked to retain dredged material, but another 53 ha were opened
             for tidal circulation by breaching the dikes in two areas. Periodic observations and studies
             showed the development and spread of drainage channels across the flat plain. The
             deposition of sediments was greatest just outside these channels. Saficomia virginica and
             Spaninafoliosa became established fairly rapidly from the water born seeds that were
             generated by the plants growing on the bayside of the dikes and in the 27-ha natural marsh
             just to the north of the Muzzi marsh. There was constant competition between Salicomia
             virginica and Spartinafoliosa along the MHW elevation. The competition was influenced by
             yearly rainfall. In wetter years Spartinafoliosa became established at slightly higher
             elevations, but in drier years Salicornia iftinica invaded lower elevations.

                    Florida Department of Environmental Regulation. "Report on the effectiveness of
             permitted mitigation." Florida Department of Environmental Regulation. 1991.
                           As of 1984, any alteration of a wetland area in Florida required a permit from
             the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER). Between January 1, 1985 and
             December 6, 1990, FDER issued 1,262 permits involving a loss of 3,305 acres and a
             preservation of 7,587 acres of natural wetlands. The permits also required creation of 3,345
             acres and enhancement of 7,301 acres of wetlands. An evaluation was made of the success
             rate of the mitigation process.
                           A sample of the permits was drawn which included about 10% from each
             wetland category. Each project was examined for compliance with permit specifications, and
             for ecological success. Compliance was poor. Only 6% of 63 examined projects were in
             full compliance, and 34% of the mitigation projects had not even been attempted. Ecological
             success among the projects being constructed was projected to be about 27%. Success rates
             were lower (12 %) for freshwater projects than for coastal marsh projects (45 %).
                           As FDER concluded, the permitting policy needed revising if the wetlands
             were to be preserved, or "no net loss" were to be achieved. Permits that were granted
             needed to be monitored and enforced. Such changes would do much to safeguard wetlands.

                    Fowler, B. K., G. R. Hardaway, G. R. Thomas, C. L. Hill, J. E. Frye, and N.
             A. lbison. "Vegetative growth patterns in planted marshes of the vegetative erosion
             control project." In: Proceedings of the 1welfth annual conference on wetlands
             restoration and creation. in Tampa, FL, edited by F. J. Webb, Jr. Tampa, FL:
             Hillsborough Community College, 110-120, 1985.
                           This paper reports some of the results of the Vegetative Erosion Control
             Project, a study of 24 marsh plantings in the Chesapeake Bay system in Virginia. Sites were
             chosen to maximize diversity of conditions, mainly fetch and direction faced. Seven sites
             were classified as having low wave energy (average fetch exposure < 1.8 km), 10 sites were








                Bibliography                                                                                 23

                classified as having medium wave energy (average fetch exposure from 1.8 to 9.2 km), and
                seven sites were classified as having high wave energy (average fetch exposure > 9.2 km).
                Spartina alterniflora was planted on 0.5-m centers from MHW to just below MSL. Spartina
                patens was planted above S. alterniflora at a few sites. About 30 ml of Osmocote fertilizer
                having a 14-5.2-11.6 slow release formula, was placed in each hole just before each culm
                was planted. Osmocote was scattered over the marsh surfaces one or twice each summer to
                encourage vigorous growth of vegetation.
                              Growth comparisons through time and with natural marshes nearby showed
                that marshes on low energy shorelines were more productive than those on high energy
                shorelines. S. alterniflora was more productive in the higher intertidal zone than the lower
                intertidal zone, particularly when marshes were getting started. Stem densities were slightly
                greater in marshes that faced south, i.e. the sunniest side and the leeward side (strongest
                winds usually came from the northeast).
                              Several recommendations were given to improve chances of successful
                establishment of fringe marshes. 1) A breakwater should be used to protect a planting if the
                fetch is greater than 6 km. 2) The fringe marsh should be made as wide as possible from
                MSL to MHW. 3) S. patens should be used on bare beach areas above the S. alterniflora
                zone. 4) Maintenance planting for a new marsh should be done early in each growing
                season. 5) Newly developing marshes should be fertilized twice each summer using a slow
                release type fertilizer like Osmocote.

                       Frenkel, R. E., and L. M. Kunze. "Introduction and spread of three Spallina
                species in the Pacific Northwest." In: Annual Meeting of the Association of America
                Geographers in Washinglon. DC, Washington, DC: Assoc. Amer. Geographers 1984.
                              This paper describes the introduction and spread of Spartina alterniflora, S.
                patens, and S. anglica in the Washington and Oregon estuaries. The potential spread of
                Spartina and the consequent loss of intertidal mudflats are also discussed. Spartina
                alterniflora appears to have been accidentally introduced into Willapa Bay prior to 1911,
                perhaps associated with some facet of the oyster industry that was established there in 1904.
                S. alterniflora was purposefully transplanted to enhance duck habitat in Thorndyke Bay,
                Gibson Spit, Kala Point, and Padilla Bay, Washington. These colonies are well established,
                but are spreading slowly.
                              Spartina patens appears to have been introduced at Cox Island, Oregon,
                probably in the early 1920's. First records were of a small patch at that time, but present
                records show it has expanded exponentially to cover about 3000. m2. S. patens has since
                spread to the Dosewallips River in Washington.
                              Spartina anglica C.E. Hubbard, was planted on the eastern shore of Port
                Susan Bay near Stanwood, Washington. It has since spread to Livingston Bay, Iverson Spit,
                Triangle Cove, and Skagit Bay. S. anglica (sometimes call S. townsendi) is a fertile cross
                between S. alterniflora and S. madtima and is a vigorously spreading cordgrass. These three
                species are potential threats to native salt and brackish marsh plants in the Northwest, and to
                the bare mud and sand flats in the estuaries that are used by migratory birds.








               24                                                                                     Bibliography
                      Gallagher, J. L. I'Salt marsh soil development." In: Rehabilitation and creatio
               of selected coastal habitats: proceedinpj of a worksh9p. eds. J. C. Lewis and E. W.
               Bunce, U.S. F1sh Wildl. Serv., 28-34, 1980.
                               This article reviews soil attributes that need be considered for successful
               planting of a salt marsh. The physical and chemical compositions of the soil are described in
               relation to five characteristics: stability, acidity, moisture, salinity and nutrients, with notes
               on interactions.
                               Stability is greater in sandy soils than in silt and clay oozes, but the latter can
               sometimes be improved by de-watering. Increasing stability increases the chance of plants
               staying in place and becoming established. Acidity was noted as a potential problem.
               Acidity is often caused by oxidation of the iron sulfides in dredged material when the
               material is pumped out and mixed with air and water. This is one reason for letting fresh
               dredged material sit and "age" for several months before planting; the acidity has a chance to
               be neutralized. Moisture content influences oxygenation of the soil. Soil, that was always
               saturated, became anaerobic. Plants capable of existing under anaerobic conditions (Spartina
               altemiflora being one) will grow in zones according to the lowest level of oxygen they can
               tolerate. Soil salinity influences plant establishment and zonation. Tidal inundation, salinity
               of the estuarine water, elevation, drainage, evapotranspiration and rainfall, all influence soil
               salinity. Nutrients are frequently limiting for plant growth in new marshes. Coarse sandy
               soils hold less nutrients than finer textured substrates, and fertilizers are often required to
               promote healthy plant growth when starting a marsh.

                      Gallagher, J. L., G. F. Somers, D. M. Grant, and D. M. Seliskar. "Persistent
               differences in two forms of Spaylina alternylom: A common garden experiment."
               Ecology 69(4) (1988): 1005-1008.
                               This paper provides a good review of the controversy around whether tall and
               short forms of Spartina altemiflora are genetically distinct, or whether these phenotypic
               differences are caused by environmental factors. Both tall and short form plants were
               transplanted from a Delaware salt marsh into common backyard garden plots also in
               Delaware. The plots were irrigated three times each week during the growing season with
               water (15-30 96 ) from a tidal creek. Initially the tall form was 30% to 100% taller than
               the short form. Differences between the height of the two forms persisted even after 9 years
               in the gardens. In addition, other morphological differences such as stem density, root-to-
               shoot ratios, and culm diameter varied between the two forms in a manner comparable to
               the differences in natural stands. Differences in productivity and underground reserves were
               also observed. The authors concluded that the phenotypic differences between tall and short
               form S. altemiflora are at least partially due to genetic differences between the forms. The
               possibility was also discussed that the forms are genetically similar, but certain genetic
               characters are turned on by environmental factors at the seedling stage, and that these
               differences persist despite long-term exposure to different environmental conditions.

                      Garbisch, E. W., Jr., P. B. Woller, and R. J. McCallum. "Salt marsh
               establishment and development." Fort Belvoir, VA.: U.S. Army Corps Eng., Coastal
               Eng. Research Center, Tech. Memo. 52, 114, 1975.








               Bibliography                                                                                 25

                             This study tested survival and growth of peat-potted Spartina alterniflora, S.
               patens, S. cynosuroides, Distichlis spicata, and Ammophila breviligulata seedlings that had
               been raised in a greenhouse. Seedlings were planted at inter-tidal and supra-tidal elevations.
               Grow-out sites were on natural beaches, sand and mud flats, and on dredged material
               beaches. Elevations, fertilizer applications, and planting dates were also investigated for
               influence on plant survival. Additional objectives were to determine shoreline stabilization
               potentials and sediment trapping potentials of the plants, and to determine the rate of
               macrobenthos colonization of the dredged material sites.
                             Seeds were harvested from natural stands near Assateague Island, VA during
               October, and grown out in sand filled peat pots the next spring. Spartina alterniflora w     'as
               planted on 0.9-m centers; the others were planted on 0.6-m centers. All were in 10-cm
               diameter peat pots containing about five seedlings each. Plantings were made at four sites
               within a 40 kni radius of St. Michaels, Maryland. All sites had gentle slopes of 1-6 degrees.
               Macrobenthos was sampled along four elevation contours at sites A, B, and #4. Elevations
               were +43 cm MLW (= MHW), +21 cm MLW (= MTL), MLW, and -15 cm MLW (=
               subtidal). Ten cores were taken at 0.5-m intervals along each elevation contour at each site.
               Cores were taken to a 15-cm depth using a corer with either a 21-cv or a 46-cv cross-
               sectional area. Organisms were separated from the substrate by washing the samples on 4.0,
               1.0 and 0.5 mm sieves.
                             Results showed Spartina patens, Distichlis spicata, and Ammophila
               breviligulata all survived well at supratidal. sites. Spartina cynosuroides, planted at MTL
               was completely killed within two years, most likely due to too much inundation. Spart        ina
               alterniflora suffered 60-90% mortality in areas from MHW to below MTL due to strong
               wave action. Those seedlings planted above MHW suffered about 10-40% mortality.
               Fertilizer applications to smooth cordgrass in moderate wave energy sandy areas increased
               net production 135-860 %. Net production of smooth cordgrass in the unfertilized dredged
               material area was similar to that in the fertilized sandy areas.
                             Macrobenthos invaded the dredged material area.rapidly. After only three
               months, intertidal macrobenthos at the transplant site was as dense as that in the nearby
               natural marsh. There were four dominant taxa which accounted for about 90% of the
               intertidal macrobenthos by number: Laeonereis culvefi, Macoma balthica, Tubulanus
               pellucidus, and Tubificid oligochaetes. Densities of macrobenthos tended to increase with
               time of inundation, i.e. from MHW to subtidal regions.
                             The use of peat pot plants in transplanting was recommended. This technique
               extends the planting season, reduces impacts on natural donor marshes, and allows transplant
               preparation. An important factor in transplant preparation is the acclimation of plants to site
               specific salinities prior to transplanting.

                      Hardaway, C. S., G. R. Thomas, B. K. Fowler, C. L. Hill, J. E. Frye, and N.
               A. Ibison. "Results of the vegetative erosion control project in the.Virginia Chesapeake
               Bay system." In: Proceedings of the twelfth annual conference on wetlands restoration
               and creation. in Tampa,        ed. F. J. Webb, Jr. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough Community
               College, 144-158, 1985.
                             This paper reports some of the results of the Vegetative Erosion Control
               Project conducted by the Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences. This was a study of 24









              26                                                                                 Bibliography

              marsh plantings in the Chesapeake Bay system in Virginia. Sites were chosen to maximize
              diversity of conditions, mainly fetch and direction faced by the marsh. Spartina alterniflora
              was planted on 0.5-m centers from MHW to just below MSL. Spartina patens was planted
              above S. alterniflora at several sites. Osmocote fertilizer, a slow time-release type, was
              used; 30 ml was placed in the hole when each culm was planted. Osmocote was also
              broadcast into the marsh later when plants had started growing.
                             Results showed a fringe of marsh grass could be established with little or no
              maintenance on low energy shorelines, areas where the fetch was less than 1.8 km. Where
              wave energy was moderate (1.8-6.3 km fetch), the upper margin of the fringe marsh should
              be protected by establishing S. patens to trap sand and sediments, and preserve the back area
              from winter storm erosion. Areas with average fetches of 6.3-10 kin need to be protected by
              a wave stilling device (breakwater). Fringe marshes should not be considered for beaches
              with average fetches greater than 10 km unless the beach is protected by a headland or spit.
              Also, maintenance planting of wash-out and die-back areas of the marshes should be required
              and anticipated.

                     Hartman, R. D., R. N. Reubsamen, P. M. Jones, and J. L. Koellen. "The
              National Marine F"isheries Service habitat conservation efforts in Louisiana, 1980
              through 1990." Mar. Fish. Rev. 54 (1993): 11-20.
                             This article reviews the NMFS efforts to conserve habitat for fisheries and
              associated organisms in Louisiana from 1980 through 1990. During these years, NMFS
              reviewed 14,259 public notices to dredge, fill, or impound wetlands in Louisiana. The
              Habitat Conservation Division (HCD) of NMFS provided recommendations to the Corps of
              Engineers on 962 permit projects which would impact 240,000 ha of tidal influenced
              wetlands. Avoidance was recommended for about 113,000 ha, and mitigation was
              recommended for 63,5000 ha. Revisions or denials were recommended by HCD on only
              12% of all proposed actions. The remaining permit applications were considered to have
              only minor impacts on marine fisheries. On a permit basis, 43 % of HCD recommendations
              were accepted by the Corps, 34% were partially accepted, and 23% were rejected. Most of
              the permits involved oil and gas activities, followed by shoreline modifications, and then
              pipeline activities. A breakdown of permits and areas involved was given by drainage
              basins.
                             There is a need for greater awareness of coastal wedand loss through the
              Corp's Section 10/404 permitting program. An accurate continuing account of permitted
              wetland alterations and mitigation measures is needed to guide future decisions that will help
              preserve this important habitat.

                     Hoffman, W. E. and J. A. Rodgers. "A cost/benerit analysis of two large coastal
              plantings in Tampa Bay, Florida." In: Proceedings of the seventh annual conference on
              wetlands restoration and-creation. in Tampa, FL, ed. D. P. Cole, Tampa, FL:
              Hillsborough Community College, 265-278, 1980.
                             This study compared costs of establishing a Spartina alterniflora marsh to
              those of establishing a mangrove stand. On the dredged material extension of Sunken Island
              in Hillsborough Bay of the Tampa Bay system, Florida, a 1.64 ha area was planted with
              smooth cordgrass using 12-cm diameter plugs planted in rows on 1.0-m centers with the








                Bibliography                                                                               27

                rows being 2 m. apart. This effort required 995 man-hours/ha, and a total cost of about
                $4,565/ha. About 93 % survival was obtained, and after 14 months the plants had spread
                enough to almost hide the original planting layout. The mangrove planting was on a 0.52 ha
                plot on another dredged material island called CDA-D, also in Hillsborough Bay. Here
                Avicennia gerininans (63 %) and Lagunculaila racemosa (37 %) were planted on 2-m centers.
                Transplants were 30-190 cm tall. Survival was about 73% after 13 months. This planting
                required about 2541 man-hours/ha, and a total cost of about $11,459/ha. Ubor costs were
                about 70% of the total cost of each planting, but did not include planning and supervision.
                              An interesting point made in this study was that the Spartina donor marsh had
                fully recovered within 12 months. Plants had been removed from the donor marsh at about 1
                plug/m'. Another feature that was unusual was the clipping ofthe cordgrass to leave only 10
                cm above the substrate once the stems had been transplanted. Clipping was done to reduce
                transpiration and possible shock due to root damage. Impacts on mangrove donor stands can
                be longer lasting, but no particular mention was made of this study's donor stand.

                       Josselyn, M. J., ed. Wetlgnd restoration and enhancement in California. 12
                Jolla, CA: California Sea Grant College Program, 1982.
                              This report includes eight presentations presented at a California wetlands
                restoration workshop held in February 1982 at the California State University, Hayward,
                CA. Seven of the presentations were followed by panel and audience discussions through
                which concerns about restoration gains and losses were voiced. Presentations reviewed past,
                current and future wetland restoration actions and potentials including development of
                regional wetland restoration goals and legal (and institutional) constraints. Design strategy,
                engineering features of circulation, sedimentation and water quality, techniques for restoring
                vegetation and for monitoring were also presented and discussed. Poster session abstracts
                and an ample bibliography were also valuable inclusions.
                              Many of the problems and concerns voiced at this workshop are still valid
                though a decade has passed. It appears there will-always be confrontation between ecological
                action to preserve a clean environment and the lure of economic riches possible through
                residential and municipal development of wetlands.

                       Josselyn, M. N., J. B. Zedler, and T. Griswold. "Wetland mitigation along the
                Pacific coast of the United States." In: Wetland creation and restoration: The status of
                the Science. Part 1. Regional review., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 1-36.
                Washington, DC: Island Press, 1989.
                              This article reviews west coast wetland types, reviews considerations that aid
                in making restorations successful, and reviews the kinds of projects that have been done.
                Some critical features of restoration plans are described, including: site history, topography,
                water control structures, hydrology, flood events, sediment budget, edaphic characteristics,
                existing wetland characteristics (vegetation and wildlife), and adjacent site features and
                conditions. Two levels of monitoring are recommended: (1) the enforcement monitoring to
                make certain implementation is following permit requirements, and (2) environmental
                monitoring to see if the design was correct and the functions are being realized. Several
                restoration projects are profiled including successes and significant findings.









             28                                                                            Bibliography

                    Kentula, M. E., R. P. Brooks, S. E. Gwin, C. C. Holland, A. D. Sherman, and
             J. C. Sifneos. An Approach to Improving Decision Making in Wetland Restoration an
             Creatio . Corvallis, OR: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
             Research Laboratory, 1992.
                           The objective of this book is to provide a guide that assists people in
             conserving, restoring, and creating wetlands successfully. The book presents a technique for
             analyzing an area of the country to determine types and amounts of existing wetlands, and
             the types of wetlands needed. An approach for their successful restoration or creation of
             wetlands is recommended along with variables to be monitored to determine the least harmful
             environmental impacts and best chances for project success.
                           Restoration projects should include: (1) precise objectives, (2) detailed plans
             including scheduled actions, (3) detailed maps or diagrams of the site, and (4) a checklist of
             variables to be monitored. Variables that should be monitored relate to morphometry,
             hydrology, substrate, vegetation, fauna, and sometimes water quality.
                           The authors also recommended the establishment of a permanent database that
             contains the important information for evaluating the success of each project. Data suggested
             to be entered regarding each project included: permitting agency, permit number, date of
             permit, type of mitigation, location of the mitigation site (state, county, city and address),
             date construction began, date construction was completed, map showing the as-built
             conditions, name of the contractor/builder, name of the contracting company, and specific
             objectives of the project. Entries should be included for mid-course evaluation of the
             construction and for corrections made based on the evaluation. Entries should also be
             included that describe conditions found during a final evaluation after planting was
             completed. Additional data to add would be expected to come from monitoring reports that
             evaluate the development of the plant and animal communities in the wetland at various
             intervals (six months to a year) after planting was completed.

                    Kiraly, S. J., F. A. Cross, and J. D. Buffington. The federal effort to evaluate
             coastal wetland mitigation: A report by the National Ocean Pollution Policy board'
             habitat loss and modification working gLoup. NOAA Technical Memorandum
             CS/NOPPO 91-2. 10 p. plus Appendices., 1991.
                           This report summarizes results of a workshop on wetland mitigation, held at
             San Diego State University in January 1991. Federal efforts to evaluate coastal wetland
             mitigation were assessed including analyses of functional values in created wetlands and
             follow-up studies for federally-permitted mitigation projects. Conclusions were that federal
             efforts in these areas should be improved. Additional research should be conducted on
             understanding how coastal wetland ecosystems function. A system should also be established
             for evaluating the success (including functional success) of permitted mitigation projects.

                    Knutson, P. L., R. A. Brochu, W. N. Seelig, and M. Inskeep. "Wave damping
             in S
                pailina afterniflora marshes." Wetlan 2 (1982): 87-104.
                           Field experiments were conducted to test a model of wave damping and to
             determine how well a marsh can dampen waves. The model has been used to explain how a
             marsh damps waves and reduces waves' erosional forces. Two Spartina altemiflora marshes
             in Chesapeake Bay in Virginia were chosen as test sites: Wescoat Cove north shore marsh








               Bibliography                                                                                     29

               (the oldest known man-made cordgrass marsh, planted in 1928 by Mr. Wescoat) and Kings
               Creek north shore marsh. The marsh vegetation was characterized by clipping 0.25 rn@ areas
               of'vegetation out of the marsh where each sensor was to be placed. Stem density, length and
               thickness ranged from about 180-350 stems/nP, 20-30 cm (stem length was about half the
               plant's total height), and 5-6 mm in diameter, respectively. In each marsh, wave sensors
               were placed along a transect. Sensors were placed at the seaward edge and 2.5, 5, 10, 20 or
               30 rn in towards shore. The research vessel, Virginia Dare, generated waves for the tests;
               waves ranged in height from 0.06-0.30 m. Controls were run on an adjacent non-vegetated
               beach.
                              Analyses indicated the model worked well, only requiring minor changes in
               the coefficients to adjust for the plants. Results also showed the marshes significantly
               reduced wave height and erosional energy. Wave height was reduced by about 50% within
               the first 5 rn of marsh, and by about 95 % after crossing 30 m of marsh. Wave energy was
               reduced in these cases by 65% and nearly 100%, respectively.
                              In theory, marshes are most effective at damping waves when waves were less
               than plant height (the condition during the tests) but would not be during storm tides. Under
               storm conditions, when water levels rise and waves frequently exceed plant height, marshes
               would be less effective against erosion by waves.

                       Knutson, P. L., J. C. Ford, M. R. Inskeep, and J. Oyler. "National survey of
               planted salt marshes (vegetative stabilization and wave stress)." Wetlands 1 (1981): 129-
               157.
                              This study describes a technique for evaluating a coastal site's potential for
               vegetative stabilization based on the site's shoreline characteristics that relate to wave-climate
               severity. Results were based on the study of 104 salt marsh plantings in 12 coastal states.
               All marshes studied were exposed to wind waves, were located in brackish and salt water
               environments, were planted with Spartina alterniflora or S. foliosa at least one year prior to
               the survey, and had no rubble or man-made structures in the planted areas.
                              Results of correlation analyses indicated that sediment grain size in the swash
               zone, longest or average fetch, and shore configuration were useful indicators of a site's
               suitability for vegetative stabilization. There was an 80% success rate in establishing a
               fringe marsh when sediment grain size was 0.4 mm or less, and there was an 80% failure
               rate when sediment grain size was 0.8 mm or greater. Failures increased when fetches
               increased. Successes increased as protection increased, with the greatest success rate found
               in coves.  Another recommendation was that the site should have at least 6 ni of intertidal
               widthand be planted over 60% of this area; this. should cause sufficient wave dampening to
               prevent erosion during most of the year. On the basis of these observations, a site evaluation
               form was developed to predict the success of a Spartina planting to control an area's erosion.
               This form was named the Vegetative Stabilization Site Evaluation Form.

                       Kraus, D. B. and M. L. Kraus. "The establishment of a fiddler crab (Uca
               minax) colony on a manmade Spaylina mitigation marsh, and its effect on invertebrate
               colonization." In: National wetland symposium: mitigation of impacts and losses in
               Berne, NY, eds. J. A. Kusler, M. L. Quammen, and G. Brooks, Berne, NY: Assoc.
               State Wetland Nlanagers, 343-348, 1986.









               30                                                                                   Bibliography

                             The objective of this study was to establish fiddler crab populations in a man-
               made Spartina alterniflora marsh at the Mills Creek mitigation site, and to compare the
               macrobenthos at this marsh with that in a natural marsh area on Sawmill Creek, both in the
               Hackensack River basin in northeast New Jersey. Fiddler crabs (Uca minax) were collected
               from a colony at Moonachie Creek (also in the Hackensack River basin), transported to the
               test sites (7-m2 sites in the developing marsh), and deposited one crab per artificial burrow
               during 29-30 May 1986. Artificial burrows were made about 50 cm deep on 25-cm centers
               using a broom handle. Censuses of the number of burrows, types of burrows, and crabs
               seen in each of the two test sites (= colonies) were made in June, July, August and
               September. Benthic macrofauna were sampled at each colony, two control sites (30 rn to
               the side of each colony), and in a Phraginites marsh using a bulb corer (300 ml) to a depth
               of 10 cm. Replicates were taken in May (before the crabs), June, July and September.
               Animals were separated from the cores using a 1 mm mesh sieve.
                             Results of censuses showed that many of the crabs remained in each test site,
               forming two colonies. One month after transplanting the crabs, about 42 % of the burrows
               were occupied. A month later a few additional burrows were noted, and the presence of
               small burrows indicated that recruitment may have occurred. By September, colony densities
               achieved those of natural colonies elsewhere in NJ. Benthic macroinvertebrates were five to
               ten times more abundant in the developing marsh and natural marsh than in the crab colonies
               or in the Phraginites marsh. Although sampling was not robust, fiddler crabs appeared to
               decrease the number of benthic invertebrates in the substrate of the colonies, perhaps through
               predation.

                      Kruczynski, W. L. "Salt marshes of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico." In:
               Creation and restoration of coastal plant communities, ed. R. R. Lewis, M. 71-88. Boca
               Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1982.
                             Salt marshes along the northeast coast of the Gulf of Mexico are generally
               similar to those along the Atlantic coast and the rest of the Gulf coast. However, Juncus
               roemetianus is more important along the northeast coast where it displaces much of the
               Spartina alterniflora normally found in the intermediate marsh. Descriptions of marshes in
               the northeast Gulf include marsh plant zonation and productivity, marsh animal communities,
               and marsh destruction. Salt marsh creation activities are summarized, as are the related uses
               of the various dominant plant species for restoration purposes. Species reviewed are:
               Spartina alterniflora, Spartina patens, Spartina cynosuroides, J. roemefianus, Distichlis
               spicata, Phraginites conununis, Panicum repens, Panicwn amarwn, Uniola paniculata, and
               Ammophila breviligulata. Although Juncus is an important species in natural marshes of this
               area, it is not easily transplanted. Best success has been achieved by transplanting clumps of
               Juncus, rather than single sprigs.
                             Additional information was given on handling transplant materials, use of
               fertilizers, planting methods, and factors affecting successful establishment of a transplanted
               marsh. The most important factors to consider for success were erosion control (water and
               wind) and soil characteristics (soil water, soil salinity, and soil nutrients).








               Bibliography                                                                                31

                       Kusler, J. A. and M. E. Kentula, eds. Wetland Creation and Restoration,
               Status of the Science, Washington, DC: Island Press, 1989.
                              This book is a collection of chapters that summarize the status of the
               restoration science for various wetland types. The executive summary describes the
               adequacy of our scientific understanding concerning wetland restoration and creation, offers
               recommendations for needed scientific research to fill the information pages, and gives
               recommendations to wetland managers as to restoration and creation potential based on
               current scientific knowledge.
                              Scientific knowledge and data has been developing, but much is still unknown.
               Some blame should be placed on poorly specified goals and the lack of monitoring for many
               of the early, and even current, restoration/creation projects. Some wetlands appear to be
               easier to restore than others, as are some of the wetland functions. Rarely is a restoration a
               complete success, with all functions of a natural system being obtained, but partial successes
               that restore some of the wetland functions are beneficial and may lead to additional functional
               development in the future. The long term success of a wetland restoration is even more
               uncertain than the short term success. Both often depend upon our abilities to manipulate the
               site and its surrounding land, to maintain close supervision during all phases of a project, and
               to keep pests and intruders away from sensitive areas. Fourteen recommendations are
               offered to wetland managers to assist them in creating and maintaining wetlands:
                              1. Wetland restoration must be viewed with some cynicism, particularly where
               promises are made to create a natural system in exchange for a permit to destroy or degrade
               a natural system that already exists.
                              2. Multidisciplinary expertise in planning and project supervision is needed in
               all project phases.
                              3. Clear, site-specific project goals should be established first.
                              4. A detailed plan concerning all phases of a project should be prepared in
               advance to help regulatory agencies evaluate the probability and achievement of success.
                              5. Site-specific studies should be done for the original system prior to wetland
               alteration.
                              6. Careful attention to wetland hydrology is needed in the project design.
                              7. Wetlands should be designed to be self-sustaining systems and persistent
               features in the landscape.
                              8. Wetland design should consider relationships of the wetland to water
               sources, other wetlands in the watershed, and adjacent upland and deep water habitats.
                              9. Buffers, barriers, and other protective measures are often needed for a
               successful restoration or creation of a wetland.
                              10. Restoration should be favored over creation.
                              11. A project should incorporated monitoring and methods for mid-course
               corrections when needed.
                              12. Long term management is needed for some types of wetland systems.
                              13. Risks inherent in restoration and creation of wetlands should be carefully
               evaluated and be reflected in project design.
                              14. Restoration action for artificial or already altered systems requires special
               evaluation as to regional needs.








             32                                                                                   Bibliography

                     Landin, M. C. and J. W. Webb, Jr. "Wetland development and restoration as
             part of Corps of Engineer programs: Case studies." In: National Wetland Symposium:
             Mitigation of ImpaCts and Losses, in New Orleans, LA. eds. J. A. Kusler, M.
             Quammen, and G. Brooks, New Orleans, LA: Association of State Wetland Managers,
             388-391, 1986.
                            This paper presents an overview of the Corps of Engineers' work to use
             dredged material constructively, generally to create, restore or enhance wetlands. It also
             presents short reviews of seven projects. Since about 1970, over 130 wetland sites have
             been constructed using dredged material. Many of the sites were in coastal saline and
             brackish waters. Sites ranged in size from 0.4 to thousands of hectares. Results showed that
             most man-made wetlands were at least partially successful. These wetlands required about 3-
             5 years to develop into habitats comparable to natural marshes. Although above-ground
             vegetation generally could be established in the marshes within a couple of growing seasons,
             sediment organics and root biomass required more time, perhaps 10 years or more, to
             approach the conditions found in neighboring natural marshes.

                     lAngis, R., M. Zalejko, and J. B. Zedler. "Nitrogen assessments in a constructed
             and a natural salt marsh of San-Diego Bay." Ecological Applications 1 (1991): 40-51.
                            Differences in nitrogen content in soil, soil water, and plant stems and leaves.
             were, studied at a natural marsh (Paradise Creek) and a man-made marsh (Connector Marsh)
             in the San Diego Bay area, CA. Soil N pools and organic carbon were lower in the
             constructed marsh than in the adjacent natural marsh. Above-ground biomass and foliar N of
             Spartinafoliosa were also lower in the constructed marsh. Rates of N fixation were lower in
             the surface (1-cm) sediments of the constructed marsh than the natural marsh, but not in the
             deeper sediments (down to 10 cm). Addition of organic matter to the soil increased N
             fixation rates in both marshes, more so when glucose was used than when ground-up dry
             Spartina plants were used. Nitrogen mineralization rates were high in both marshes. Results
             in general pointed to low import of nitrogen from tidal or stream flows, and high nitrogen
             demands by the marsh plants and ecosystem. Without a source of organics and nitrogen,
             constructed marshes will take a long time to develop production equivalent to natural marshes
             in the San Diego Bay area; longer perhaps than was estimated for Gulf and Atlantic coastal
             created marshes with Spartina alterniflora and S. patens.

                     1APerriere, A. J. and M. M. Farmer. "Recent wetland restoration/creation
             actions in the New York District." In: Proceedines of the sixteenth annual conference
             on wetlands restoration and creation. in Plant City, FL., ed. F. J. Webb, Jr. Plant City,
             FL.: Hillsborough Community College, pp. 97-108, 1989.
                            Preliminary results of four New York District Corps of Engineers enforcement
             actions resulting in the restoration of one palustrine and three saltwater marshes are reported.
             The three saltmarsh restorations involved illegal fill being removed from sites in south
             central Long Island. At Site 1 (2.2 ha), the fill was removed within a few weeks of
             deposition, and was removed carefully so that about 25% of the original root mat was left
             intact and alive. At Site 2 (0.5 ha), the fill was removed a year after deposition, and all
             marsh plants and root matter had died. At Site 3 (0.04 ha), fill was removed two months
             after deposition, but conditions were such that the marsh was dead by the time removal was








              Bibliography                                                                                  33

              complete. At all three sites, substrate elevations matching those present prior to filling were
              carefully restored and the areas were allowed to revegetate naturally.
                             Revegetation was estimated subjectively to be 50% coverage during the first
              growing season at Site 1. During the second growing season, transects with 1-rn, plots
              established at 30.5-m intervals were established in each site. Percentage cover by each plant
              species was estimated and all were summed for a total coverage percentage. Percentages of
              total cover for Site 2 and Site 3 after one growing season were about 37%. For Site I after
              two growing seasons, total cover was about 67%.
                             This paper showed how enforcement of wetland regulations, coupled with
              planned restorative action, can be effective. It also showed that in some cases, expensive
              transplanting operations may not always be necessary.

                     LaSalle, M. W., M. C. Landin, and J. G. Sims. "Evaluation of the flora and
              fauna of a Spa&na allernij7ora marsh established on dredged material in Winyah Bay,
              South Carolina." Wetlands 11 (1991): 191-208.
                             The objectives of this study were to compare floral and faunal characteristics
              of 4 and 8 year old Spartina alterniflora marshes that developed naturally on unconfined
              dredged material deposited in Winyah Bay, SC. Both marshes were tall form S. altemiflora,
              and samples were collected in September of 1988. Most samples were collected at 10
              randomly chosen sites along a 50-m transect in each marsh. Above-ground vegetative
              characteristics were assessed from a 0.25 rif quadrat at each site. Sediment, benthos, and
              below-ground biomass were sampled by coring at these sites. Large (1 to 2 cm)
              macrobenthos were collected from adjacent I m' quadrats. Fish, shrimp and crabs were
              collected only in the 4-yr old marsh with Breder traps and block nets.
                             Marsh sediments were similar, and substrata were mainly silts and clays. The
              percent organics in all sediments examined was about 11 %. Percent cover by Spartina
              alterniflora was about 50% in both marshes. Stem density (257 vs. 199 stems/rw), below-
              ground biomass (3061 vs. 2204 g/m2) and total biomass (3692 vs. 3061 g/nv) were greater in
              the older marsh, but stem height (40 vs. 66 cm) and above-ground biomass (631 vs. 856
              g/rw) were greater in the younger marsh.
                             Total density of benthic macrofauna from sediment cores was significantly
              greater in the 8-yr old marsh compared with the 4-yr old marsh, with mean values of 150 vs.
              35 organisms/75 cnv. Species composition in the two marshes was similar, and the infauna.
              was dominated by oligochaetes. Differences in infaunal density between the two marshes
              were attributed to marsh age, although the authors acknowledged that other factors such as
              distance to open water may have affected the populations.
                             The fish and shellfish collected from the 4-yr old marsh in Breder traps were
              typical estuarine fauna reported by others for the natural marshes in Georgia and North
              Carolina. The mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus, and the daggerblade grass shrimp,
              Palaemonetes pugio, were the dominants. Block net data were not presented, but apparently
              confirmed that large numbers of mummichogs and daggerblade grass shrimp were present in
              the marsh channels along with blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus. Gut contents from
              mummichogs indicated that Uca and insects were dominant prey items.









                34                                                                                     Bibliography

                       Lewis, R. R., M. "Creation and restoration of coastal plain wetlands in
                Florida." In: Wetland creation and restoration: The status of the Science. Part 1.
                Regional review., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 73-102. Washington, DC: Island
                Press, 1989.
                               This chapter reviews past activities related to salt marsh and mangrove
                restoration in Florida. Restoration and creation projects were generally initiated to mitigate
                destruction of natural wetlands, to enhance existing habitat, and to stabilize eroding
                shorelines. Despite hundreds of restoration and creation efforts, there are few reports from
                which to draw information to make restorations a science rather than an art. The more
                successful projects had paid attention to many factors including: location, wave climate,
                tidal range, salinity, shading, time of planting, substrate quality, condition of the transplants,
                buffer zones, and monitoring with mid-course corrections if needed. On the basis of critical
                review of projects and of the sparse literature, five factors appeared to be the most important
                to successful restorations: correct elevation, adequate drainage, protection from wave
                damage, appropriate plant material, and protection from human impacts. Future needs are
                seen as: a centralized data bank for restoration projects, research on natural recruitment
                versus transplanting, rates of faunal recruitment to restoration sites, and regional planning for
                restorations.


                       Lewis, R. R., M. "Wetlands restoration/creation/enhancement terminology:
                suggestions for standardization." In: Wetland creation and restoration: The status of the
                Science. Part 2. PersMtives., eds. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 417-419.
                Washington, DC: Island Press, 1989.
                               This document provides a glossary of terms frequently used in restoration,
                creation, and enhancement research. The terms defined are: mitigation, mitigation banking,
                restoration, creation, enhancement, and success. Restoration is defined as "returned from a
                disturbed or totally altered condition to a previously existing natural, or altered condition by
                some action of man." Creation is defined as "the conversion of a persistent non-wetland area
                into a wetland through some activity of man." Enhancement is defined as "the increase in
                one or more values of all or a portion of an existing wetland by man's activities, often with
                the accompanying decline in other wedand values."

                       Lewis, R. R., M. "Coastal habitat restoration as a fishery management tool."
                In: Stemming the tide of coastal rish habitat loss., ed. R. H. Stroud. Savannah: National
                Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc., 1992.
                               In response to declines in both the commercial and recreational harvests of
                fishery species, a number of fishery management tools have been proposed and implemented.
                In the past, management methods concentrated on increasing survival of late juveniles and
                adults to restore or increase egg production. In recent years, methods which increase the
                survival of larval and juvenile fishes came to be considered more important to a species'
                reproductive success than egg production. Coastal wetland restoration is one such method,
                particularly for those estuarine-dependent species whose life histories include a resident
                period in shallow low-salinity marine habitats. A summary of the use of coastal restoration
                in past studies shows both its importance as a management tool, and the paucity of published
                information concerning its use. This lack of information is another reason that wetlands








              Bibliography                                                                                  35

              restoration is not generally listed or used as a fishery management tool. Another is the belief
              that restored wetlands can not reach a productive level equivalent to natural wetlands.
              Despite this generally negative attitude, restoration of coastal wetlands is generally
              acknowledged as being more predictable and assured of success if done correctly. Reviews.
              of past projects show fish and wildlife populations closely approximating those found in
              natural wetlands, and suggest that this is an underutilized fishery management tool.

                     Lewis, R. R., M and C. S. Lewis. "Tidal marsh creation on dredged material in
              Tampa Bay, Florida." In: ProceedingrLof- the fourth annual conference on restoratio,
              of coastal vegetation in Florida. in Tampa, FL, eds. R. R. Lewis, M and D. Cole,
              Tampa, FL: Hillsborough Community College, 45-67, 1977.
                             Three experimental plantings of smooth cordgrass, Spartina altemiflora, were,
              done on a 12 year old dredged material island in Tampa Bay, Florida. The tests were to
              assist in developing marsh creation techniques.
                             In the first planting, 36 single stems were dug from an adjacent natural marsh,
              and planted in six rows of six plants on 1.0-m centers. The substrate was uneven and the
              elevation of the planted plot ranged from 49 to 61 cm above MLW, or just a little lower than
              the natural marsh (58-64 cm above MLW). Planting was in September, 1976, and the test
              area was well protected from waves and had a gentle slope. About 91 % of the transplants
              survived and increased so that nine months later there were 267 stems. The control area
              showed no volunteer establishment of Spartina altemiflora during the course of this, study.
                             The second planting was adjacent to the first. It involved only 15 seedlings
              sent to Tampa. The seedlings had been grown in Maryland from seeds harvested near
              Assateague Island, Virginia. The seeds were germinated and raised by Environmental
              Concern, Inc. in Maryland. These seedlings were also planted in October, 1976, on 1.0-m
              centers. No details of survival percentages were given, but eight months later there were
              331 stems.
                             The donor marsh for the first Planting went into flower in November, and
              237,000 spikelets were harvested and shipped to Environmental Concern, Inc. Eleven
              percent of the spikelets contained seeds, and 63% of the seeds germinated. Many of the
              seedlings produced were sent back to Tampa Bay for the third planting experiment. The
              500 healthiest (=tallest) seedlings were planted on 1.0-m centers in another area adjacent to
              the previous planting. This planting was in May, 1977. One month later there appeared to
              be at least 90% survival.
                             The successful establishment of cordgrass on the island showed that a salt
              marsh could be established much more rapidly if assisted by transplanting. In addition the
              study showed that a northern variety of smooth cordgrass could be successfully transplanted
              in Florida. The experiments also showed planting could be successful even in the fall in
              Florida, probably because of the year-round warm weather. In photographs the plants
              appeared to be sparse and short, even in the natural marsh, but no mention was made of
              these features in the paper.

                     Lindall, W. N., Jr. and G. W. Thayer. "Quantification of National Marine
              Fisheries Service habitat conservation efforts in the southeast region of the United
              States." Mar, Fish. Rev. 44 (1982): 18-22.









              36                                                                                 Bibliography

                             The objectives of this study were to determine how many acres of coastal
              marsh were impacted by permitted alterations in the southeastern U.S. in a year, and to
              determine to what extent National Marine Fisheries Service's recommendations to protect this
              coastal habitat were being followed. From Oct. 1980 through Sept. 1981, there were 6,399
              permit applications from the Corps of Engineers available for review by NMFS in the
              Southeast. The permits covered about 1,300 ha to be dredged, 2,590 ha to be filled, and
              3,360 ha to be impounded. NMFS did not object to about 73 % of the desired alteration after
              preliminary review showed they involved only minor alterations to wetlands. NMFS
              contracted 1,380 permit applications for thorough review, and did not assess 368 permit
              applications. Of the 7,272 ha in the 1,380 permits thoroughly reviewed, NMFS objected to
              alteration of 5,412 ha, but did not object to 1,860 ha being altered provided there was
              mitigation involving 1,012 ha of restoration and 324 ha of creation to reduce the loss of
              wetlands.
                             Almost all (98%) of the recommendations submitted by NMFS were
              incorporated in the permits by the Corps of Engineers, however, only 72% of these were
              complied with by permitees. Even though the study did not tell the percentage (by area) of
              wetlands that were preserved or improved, and did not evaluate the losses of wetlands from
              permitted activities versus non-permitted activities, it did show NMFS was effective in
              protecting a substantial amount of the country's coastal wetlands. The article also showed,
              however, that in one year in the southeast at least 524 ha of coastal wetlands were lost
              through the permitting process.

                      Lindau, C. W. and L. R. Hossner. "Substrate characterization of an
              experimental marsh and three natural marshes." Soil Science, American Journal 45
              (1981): 1171-1176.
                             Changes were monitored in selected chemical and physical properties of
              dredged material used in the construction of a coastal marsh. Substrate properties were also
              compared with those of three natural marshes, all in the Galveston Bay area, Texas. The
              dredged material in all three elevational tiers at the transplant site contained about 97% sand,
              2 % clay, and I% organic matter at the start of the study. Sixteen months later, the lowest
              tier had been covered by 2-30 cm of fine particles that had settled out of the water column
              due to a breakwater that had been constructed to protect the site from wave impacts.
              Baseline cores showed that organic matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC), total Kjeldahl
              nitrogen (TKN), and extractable phosphorus values were low, and nitrate and nitrite
              concentration were below detectable values. Ammonium was detected in half of the core
              samples, never exceeding 2.0 mg N/g. The clay content, CEC, TKN, extr-P, and sulfide
              values were highly variable due to the heterogeneity of the graded dredged material.
                             The intertidal and supratidal zones in the dredged material area were planted
              with Spartina alterniflora, S. patens and some other species. Trends of increasing
              concentrations of TKN, ammonium-N, organic matter, and extr-P, were found over the three
              post-planting samplings. These changes were mainly found in the lowest tier where most of
              the particulate matter accreted. Even with the increases found in the nutrients, their values
              were well below those for the natural marshes. Data suggest that concentrations of nutrients
              at the transplant site should approach those.of the natural sites in a total of 2 to 5 years after








             Bibliography                                                                            37

             planting. The study also indicated that substrate concentrations of N and P did not show a
             response to the surface applications of fertilizer.

                    Lindau, C. W. and L. R. -Hossner. "Sediment fractionation of Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr,
             Mn, and Fe in one experimental and three natural marshes." Journal of Environmental
             Quality 11 (1982): 540-545.
                           Clay mineralogical properties of a planted Spartina alterniflora marsh were
             compared with those of three natural marshes, all in the Galveston Bay area, Texas. At the
             transplanted marsh site the dredged material in all three elevational tiers sampled, contained
             about 97 % sand, 2 % clay, and 1 % organic matter. A sequential chemical extraction
             procedure was used to obtain the concentration of the metals. -Clay minerals found in the
             sediments of the experimental marsh were not significantly different form those in the natural
             marshes. Total elemental substrate concentrations. of Cu, Ni, Cr, Zn, Mn and Fe averaged
             7.9@ 8.6, 25.5, 25.29 123, and 12,200 ug/g, respectively, for the four marshes. About 30%
             of the total substrate Cu, Ni, and Zn was associated with the organic matter fraction in these
             marshes. About 53% of the experimental marsh Mn was associated with the easily reducible
             fraction, compared with only 11 % in the natural marshes. Iron associated with the organic
             matter and sulfide fraction of the experimental marsh was about 10% lower than that for the
             natural marshes. The likelihood of heavy metals reaching toxic levels appears to be very low
             for these marshes.


                    Lyon, J. T., M. "A comparison of epiphytes on natural and planted Spailina
             afterniflora marshes." M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State University, 1975.
                           Epiphytic algae growing on stems of Spartina altemiflora were compared
             between two created salt marshes and nearby natural marshes at Beaufort and Snow's Cut,
             North Carolina. Comparisons were made through standing crop estimates and laboratory
             '1C uptake rates. Neither standing crop-nor primary production varied consistently between
             transplanted and natural marshes. The age of stems and the marsh elevation appeared to be
             more important than whether the marsh was transplanted in determining epiphyte growth.

                    Mager, A. and G. W. Thayer. "NAM habitat conservation efforts in the
             Southeast Region of the United States from 1981 through 1985.11 Marine Fisheries
             Review,48 (1986): 1-8.
                           The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) in the southeastern region of the
             United States regulates development activities affecting thousands of acres of wetlands every
             year. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) makes recommendations to the COE
             that are designed to minimize the effect of these projects on wetland resources. The NMFS
             Habitat Conservation Division's Southeast Region. quantifies those COE projects relating to
             water development in the Southeast Region of the-United States in a computerized system
             that tracks permit recommendations and proposed habitat alterations. This project was begun
             in late 1980, and the first five years of data are summarized. Such data are necessary in -
             order to maintain a comprehensive view of wetlands modification to determine cumulative
             loss of habitat. This information is necessary to prevent avoidable damages to fisheries
             production and judge the effectiveness of the NMFS recommendations.









                38                                                                                    Bibliography

                               NMFS recommendations on permit applications are made by the Southeast
                Regional Office and its area offices, but are dependent on up-to-date research information
                provided by research laboratories of the Southeast Fisheries Center. The close links between
                these facilities and NMFS fisheries habitat conservation efforts are described.


                       Meyer, D. L., M. S. Fonseca, D. R. Colby, W. J. Kenworthy, and G. W.
                Thayer. "An examination of created marsh and seagrass utilization by living marine
                resources." In: Coastal Zone 193, Volume 2. Proceedings of the 8th Symposium on
                Coastal and Ocean Manap-ement., eds. 0. Magoon, W. S. Wilson, H. Converse, and L.
                T. Tobin. 1858-1863. New York.: American Society Of Civil Engineers, 1993.
                               This paper summarizes the results of a study where fish, shrimp, and crab
                utilization of planted and natural Spartina altemiflora marshes and Halodule wrightii -
                Zostera marina seagrass beds was evaluated. Initially, S. altemiflora was planted in 1987 at
                three dredged-material sites in North Carolina in solid and reticulated (with access channels)
                patterns. By 1992, however, the marsh had coalesced into a solid vegetative stand. Habitat
                heterogeneity was then added by placing oyster cultch along certain areas of the marsh
                shoreline. Fishery utilization of the created marshes and nearby natural marsh was examined
                from 1987 through 1989 by the use of block and fyke nets that collected animals retreating
                off the marsh surface with the ebb tide.
                               Density data were presented from three collections of fisheries organisms
                made in the two years following transplanting. The overall mean density of shrimp (mainly
                daggerblade grass shrimp and brown shrimp) was 3.1 times as large in the natural reference
                marsh as in the planted marshes, but differences were not significant apparently due to high
                sample variability. Mean crab densities (mainly blue crabs) were twice as high in the planted
                marshes compared with the natural marsh, but again this difference was not statistically
                significant. Fishes collected included spot, mummichog, pinfish, and pigfish, and the mean
                density for total fish was twice as high in the natural marsh as in the created marshes. This
                difference was statistically significant during two of the three sampling periods. The results
                of this study highlight the difficulties encountered in collecting quantitative data from marsh
                surfaces in order to assess fishery utilization patterns in natural and created salt marshes.
                               The effect of depositing oyster cultch along the marsh shoreline was examined
                3 months after cultch placement. Oysters, xanthid crabs, amphipods, and other reef
                organisms were found inhabiting this cultch. This addition appeared to increase animal
                diversity in the marsh because few of these organisms were collected in marsh areas where
                cultch was not added.


                       Miller, L., G. T. Auble, and K. A. Schneller-McDonald. "User's guide to the
                wetland creation/restoration data base, version 2." Wash. D.C.: U.S. Dept. Inter., Fish
                and Wildlife Service, Research and Development. 1991.
                               This is a guide to assist users in accessing a very large annotated
                bibliographical database about all types of wetland restorations and creations, and related
                topics. The guide facilitates finding articles about selected subjects in the database. The
                database (Wetland Creation/Restoration Data Base) contains about 500 entries referring to
                Spartina altemiflora, and should be of use to researchers.








               Bibliography                                                                                   39

                     .Nfinello, T. J. and J. W. Webb, Jr. "The development of fishery habitat value in
               created salt marshes." In: Coastal Zone '93, Volume 2. Proceedines of the 8
               Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Mannement., eds. 0. Magoon, W. S. Wilson, H.
               Converse, and L. T. Tobin. 1864-1865. New York: American Society Of Civil
               Engineers, 1993.
                              This short paper describes preliminary results from a Coastal Ocean Program
               project in Galveston Bay, Texas, designed to compare ten created Spartina altemiflora
               marshes with five natural marshes. The created marshes were mainly transplanted on
               dredged material and ranged in age from 3 to 15 years at the time of sampling (fall 1990,
               spring 1991). Compared with natural marshes, above-ground plant biomass was equal or
               higher in most created marshes while below-ground biomass and sediment organic content
               was consistently lower in created marshes. Densities of juvenile fishery species within the
               marsh vegetation were estimated using a drop enclosure. Grass shrimp, commercial penaeid
               shrimp, blue crabs, pinfish, and gobies predominated. Created marshes generally supported
               lower numbers of natant macrofauna, especially juvenile brown shrimp, white shrimp, and
               blue crabs. Preliminary results from a caging study in the marshes indicated that growth
               rates of juvenile brown shrimp were similar in created and natural marshes, but survival in
               cages was significantly lower in created marshes than in natural marshes. A predator
               exclosure study in the marshes suggested production of benthic annelids was greater in
               natural marshes. There was little evidence in any of the results to indicate that utilization
               and value of the created marshes was increasing based solely on marsh age.

                      Minello, T. J. and R. J. Zimmerman. "Utilization of natural and transplanted
               Texas salt marshes by fish and decapod crustaceans." Marine Ecology Prouess Series
               90 (1992): 273-285.
                              The objective of this study was to compare three transplanted Spartina
               altemiflora salt marshes (2-5 years in age) with adjacent natural marshes on the Texas coast.
               Samples were collected only in the spring, limiting conclusions to this season, but the use of
               replicate marshes allowed a test of the null hypothesis that transplanted marshes on the Texas
               coast were equivalent to natural marshes. Quantitative drop enclosures (2.6 ne area) were
               used to collect juvenile fishes and crustaceans on the marsh surface. Above-ground density
               and biomass of macrophytes were also measured within these enclosures, and sediment cores
               were collected to examine sediment macro-organic matter (MOM) and benthic infaunal
               densities.,
                              Mean values for stem density and above-ground biomass of S. altemiflora
               were consistently higher in the transplanted marshes, and the difference was statistically
               significant for stem density. Macro-organic matter in the upper 5 cm of sediment was
               significantly lower in the transplanted marshes. Densities of polychaetes and amphipods
               within transplanted marshes were positively correlated with this MOM. The transplanted
               marshes had significantly lower densities of decapod crustacea (primarily daggerblade grass
               shrimp,. Palaemonetes pugio, and juvenile brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus) compared with
               natural marshes. This reduced utilization may have been a response to low densities of
               benthic food organisms, and densities of decapods were positively correlated with densities of
               prey in sediment cores. In contrast to the utilization pattern of decapods, densities of fish
               (dominated by the darter goby, Gobionellus boleosoma, and pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides)









             40                                                                             Bibliography

             were similar between natural and transplanted marshes. These small fish may rely on salt
             marshes more for protective cover than for enhanced food resources, and above-ground
             structure in the transplanted marshes may have adequately provided this function.
                           The authors stressed that comparisons of functional equivalency between
             natural and transplanted salt marshes require adequate information on how salt marshes
             actually function for fish and decapod crustacea. For example, the use of prey density as an
             indicator of food value in a marsh can be misleading unless trophic pathways are well
             understood and access to the marsh surface is considered.


                    Minello, T. J., R. J. Zimmerman, and E. F. Ydima. "Creation of fishery habitat
             in estuaries." In: Beneficial uses of dredged material; Proceedings.of the first
             Interagengy Workshop, 7-9 Oct. 1986, Pensacola, Florida., eds. M. C. Landin and H.
             K. Smith. 106-117. US Army COE, WES: Tech. Rep. D-87-1, 1987.
                           This paper discusses the importance of estuarine habitats, including salt
             marshes, in supporting the productivity of coastal fisheries. Extensive wetland losses have
             caused an increased willingness to create coastal salt marshes with dredged material. These
             marshes, however, are usually established over subtidal bay bottom. In order to properly
             assess the impacts of these habitat exchanges, the relative value of the involved habitats for
             fishery species must be known. Research conducted in fishery ecology and habitat functions
             at the Galveston Laboratory of the National Marine Fisheries Service is reviewed.
             Preliminary data is also reported indicating that transplanted Spartina altemiflora marshes
             support lower densities of nekton than natural marshes. Subsequently, these data have been
             analyzed fully by Minello and Zimmerman (1992). A cooperative program to create fishery
             habitat is also discussed; this program was in the initial stages of development between the
             NMFS and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

                    Minello, T.J., R.J. Zimmerman, and R. Medina. "The importance of edge for
             natant macrofauna. in a created saft marsh." Wetlands (in press, 1994).
                           The relationship between marsh edge and animal use was examined in a
             planted Spartina altemiflora marsh located in the Galveston Bay system of Texas. A
             completely randomized block experimental design was used with each of four blocks
             containing a control and experimental sector. Marsh edge was increased through the
             construction of channels in experimental sectors. Channel construction had no detectable
             effect on marsh surface elevation. Effects of these simulated tidal creeks on habitat use were
             examined by sampling nekton at high tide with drop enclosures both on the marsh surface
             and within the channels. Crustaceans dominated the nekton, and use of the marsh surface in
             experimental sectors was significantly higher than in controls; densities of brown shrimp
             Penaeus aztecus, white shrimp P. setiferus, and daggerblade grass shrimp PaIdemonetes
             pugio were 4.6 to 13 times higher near the channels. Polychaete densities in marsh
             sediments were also significantly higher near channels, and densities of decapod predators
             were positively correlated with densities of these infaunal prey. Thus, channel effects on
             natant decapods may have been related to the distribution of prey organisms. However,
             increased densities of natant fauna along the channel edge may simply reflect a requirement
             for departure from the marsh surface at low tide. Marsh-surface densities of small bait
             fishes, bay anchovy Anchoa mitchilli and the inland silverside Menidia beryllina, also








                Bibliography                                                                                     41

                increased near channels, but highest densities of these fishes were in the. creeks themselves...
                The abundance and distribution of juvenile blue crabs Callinectes sapidus and gulf marsh
                fiddler crabs Uca longisignalis were not affected by the addition of experimental channels.
                Overall, the study results indicate that habitat value of created salt marshes can be enhanced
                by incorporating tidal creeks into the marsh design.

                       Morrison, J. and P. Williams. "Warm Springs marsh restoration." In: Urba
                wetlands: proceedings of the national wetland symposium. in Oakland, CA, eds. J. A.
                Kusler, S. Daly, and G. Brooks, Oakland, CA: Assoc. State Wetland Managers, 340-
                349,1988.
                               This paper discusses the design and monitoring of the 81-ha tidal restoration
                portion of a previously diked wetland, the Warm Springs marsh area near Fremont,
                California. The area is at the southern end of San Francisco Bay. The design was made by
                a team of a landscape architect, a biologist, and a hydrologist. The objectives of the
                restoration were: 1. to establish an Alkali bulrush marsh as is found outside the diked area,
                2. to enhance Salicomia virginica growth for habitat for the salt marsh harvest mouse, an
                endangered species, 3. to provide fill and flood protection for the industrial park, 4. to
                improve tidal circulation and water quality to the area, and 5. to improve public access to
                the area for fishing, hiking, picnicldng, and bird watching.
                               The planned topography for the area included terraces and peninsulas along the
                embayment which would provide area for pickleweed growth. Elevated areas along the dikes
                were retained as refugia during extremely high water events. A main channel was
                established connecting the embayment with Coyote Slough at the south end, and a minor
                connection with Mud Slough at the north end. Channel erosion deepened and widened the
                south entrance during the first year as expected in the design. This channel stabilized within
                15 months. The tidal inflow brought in seeds from adjacent marshes and. Salicornia virginica
                became established along the higher terraces as planned. Spattina sp. started growing among
                the pickleweed at its lower elevations, but Alkali bulrush did not invade the restoration area
                as was expected it would. Increased use of the area by bird, fish and mammals use of the
                area was documented.
                             . Although the Alkali bulrush did not become established, this carefully designed
                project is likely to be considered a success. Most of the goals of the restoration project are
                being met, including restoration of many natural marsh functions. The project is a good
                example of what careful and knowledgeable planning can do for wetland restoration.

                       Moy, L. D. and L. A. Uvin. "Are Spadina marshes a replaceable resource? A
                functional approach to evaluation of marsh creation efforts." Estuaries 14 (1991): 1-16.
                               This study compared a 1-3 yr old man-made Spartina altemiflora salt marsh in
                Dills Creek, North Carolina with two adjacent natural marshes. Comparisons were made of
                sediment properties, infaunal composition, and Fundulus heteroclitus use of the marshes.
                Sediments and infauna were sampled in spring and fall of 1987 and spring and summer of
                1988 along three isobath transects (8, 28 and 48 cm. above MLW) in each marsh. On each
                transect sediment cores (3.2 to 4.7 cm diameter) were taken to a depth of 4 to 5 cm. During
                three of the above sampling periods, pit traps, consisting of plastic wash.tubs buried in the









             42                                                                               Bibliography

             sediment, were used to collect juvenile Fundulus at five sites in each marsh. Gut analyses
             were also conducted on the collected fish.
                           Sediment grain-size was similar in the planted marsh and the natural marsh
             that shared the same drainage system (east marsh), but sediments were finer in the west
             marsh. Detritus and sediment organics were higher in both natural marshes than in the
             planted marsh. Sediment macrofauna in the natural marshes were dominated by the
             oligochaete Monopylephorus evertus, while the macrofauna of the planted marsh was
             dominated by polychaetes that occur nearer the sediment/water interface such as Streblospio
             benedicti and Manayunkia aestuafina. Meiofauna species composition was similar between
             east and planted marshes, the only two compared. Total mean density of meiofauna was
             about twice as high in the east marsh, but high variances prevented the detection of
             statistically significant differences.
                           Fundulus collected in pit traps on the natural marshes had mainly detritus and
             insects in their guts, while fundulids in the planted marsh had polychaetes and algae. These
             dietary differences reflected the available infaunal prey in the marshes. The number of fish
             caught in the pit traps was consistently higher in the natural marshes than in the planted
             marsh. The authors suggested that this increased catch indicated that the natural marshes
             supported larger populations of fish despite the observed dietary differences. Low Spartina
             stem densities in the planted marsh may have provided inadequate protection from predators
             or insufficient spawning sites. The different catches of Fundulus in pit traps, however, may
             also have been the result of variable catch efficiency in the marshes. The surface area of
             marsh sampled by the traps was unknown and may have varied among the marshes.
             Differences in the occurrence of depressions (natural 'pit traps') on the marsh surface may
             also have affected catches. This problem with pit traps, however, probably had little effect
             on the study conclusions that the planted salt marsh was ecologically different from the
             natural marshes in the area, and that salt marshes should not be treated as a replaceable
             resource.


                    Munro, J. W. "Wetland restoration in the mitigation context." Restoration &
             Management Notes 9 (1991): 80-86.
                           The author reviews some of the problems encountered in the permitting and
             mitigation process for wetland alteration. The process was characterized as costly, slow, and
             not well regulated (little standardization, and little checking of mitigation projects).
             Guidelines for planning a restoration project have not been formally established by
             responsible agencies, but several important variables to be considered in the planning,
             execution, and monitoring processes for a project's success were suggested, defined and
             briefly discussed. They included: sizing up the area, describing or defining the site,
             modeling the project, establishing constant reference points for monitoring, maintaining
             authenticity, defining the goals, developing a conceptual plan, specifying net gain, defining
             the pattern of the system, setting the ecological context of the project, defining the education
             potential, describing the area hydrology, planning for the long-term, scheduling, allowing for
             setbacks, having buffer zones, maintaining holism and continuity, using innoculants, making
             wildlife structures, preventing erosion, keeping some flexibility in the plan, using
             horticulture, using planting patterns, having sufficient sock for the project, accepting
             providence, protecting against exotics, developing biodiversity, ordering supplies, recycling








                Bibliography                                                                                   43

                plants and soil if possible, planning for transportation, using soil banks, keeping accurate
                records, and publishing reports to help others.
                               The author concluded that without continuity of the designer overseeing the
                construction and monitoring its progress, projects could fall short of their goals. Timing and
                scheduling of planting was underscored as very important for obtaining that initial growth
                and plant establishment. , Documentation of the entire project was deemed worthwhile even if
                the project failed--a lesson learned, and hopefully not repeated. Better area-wide planning of
                restoration activities could be done if a list of mitigation areas and projects were accessible to
                the public.

                        Nailon, R. W. and E. L. Seidensticker. "The effects of shoreline erosion in
                Galveston Bay, Texas." In: Coastal wetlands, ed. H S. Bolton. 193-206. New York:
                Amer. Soc. Civil Engineers, 1991.
                               The use of planted Spartina altemiflora is discussed for shoreline erosion
                control in Trinity Bay and East Galveston Day, Texas. S. altemiflora was planted at four
                sites, and about 1825 meters of shoreline were vegetated. Before planting, erosion rates at
                the four sites ranged from 0.5 to 2.6 m per year, and this rate appeared related to fetch
                length. Christmas trees, plastic snow fence, and used cargo parachutes were installed to
                reduce shoreline energy while young transplants became established. Survival of transplants
                ranged from 60 to 70% after a year for the three sites protected from wave energy. At the
                one site with no protection, none of the transplants survived.
                               Fishery species were sampled with bag seines and cast nets in the waters just
                offshore from one successful transplant site and from the site with no surviving plants. The
                samples were collected in August and October of 1988, about 2 years after transplanting.
                White shrimp, Gulf menhaden, and striped mullet were most abundant in the catches and
                87% of the finfish and crustaceans were collected adjacent to the successful transplant site.
                Although gear catch efficiencies may have varied among sites, and the samples were not
                collected within the vegetation, the large differences in observed catches suggested that the
                shoreline area with transplanted Spartina alterniflora was utilized more by these fishery
                organisms than was the bare shoreline.

                        National Research Council. Restoration of Aguatic Ecosystems: Science,
                Technology, and Public Poliff. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992.
                               This book reviews historic degredation of aquatic ecosystems in the U.S. Of
                particular relevance were chapters 6 (Wetlands) and 8 (National restoration strategy: basic
                elements and related recommendations). The wetlands chapter included descriptions and
                discussion of the functions of wetlands, a brief history of the loss of wetlands in the U.S., a
                review of the potential for restoration actions, and a review of restoration research and
                technology. It also included a discussion of the difficulties that face wetland restorations,
                including ecological, biological and institutional constraints. Some discussion about what
                constitutes "successful" restoration was included, as was discussion about the research needs
                to assist wetland restoration. Among the most significant needs appeared to be the
                assessment of the restoration of functional equivalency, and what technology could be
                developed to accelerate the restoration process in each project.








             44                                                                                   Bibliography

                            Chapter 8 contains a proposal for a national restoration strategy. The elements
             come under four headings: (1) goal setting, (2) priority setting and decision-making
             principles, (3) redesign of federal policies and programs, and (4) innovation in financing.
                            This book provides an excellent base of information about the current status of
             restoration activities and thought in the U.S. It shows there is a large concern by ecologists,
             biologists, and naturalists that many important aquatic ecosystems are being destroyed with a
             consequent loss of associated fish and wildlife. It also shows how this loss of natural
             resources will continue if new policies are not established by state and federal agencies to
             offer better protection to aquatic ecosystems.

                     Newling, C. J., M. C. Landin, and S. D. Parris. "Long-term monitoring of the
             Apalachicola Bay wetland habitat development site." In: Proceeding5 of the te
             annual conference on wetland restoration gnd creation. in Tampa,              ed. F. J. Webb,
             Jr. Tampa, FL: Hillsborough Community College, 164-186, 1983.
                            This paper describes changes in the man-made cordgrass marshes that occurred
             in the Apalachicola Bay wetland habitat development site, an area of dredged material
             deposition that was protected from wave action by dikes. The area, known as Drake Wilson
             Island, covers about 5 ha along the northern shore of Apalachicola Bay, FL. In 1976,
             Spartina alterniflora was planted in various configurations in the intertidal zone, and Spartina
             patens was planted in the supratidal zone. Based on randomly selected 0.5-n-f quadrats,
             within two growing seasons all S. alterniflora plots that began with plants on 1-m centers or
             less had filled in for 100% coverage; those on larger centers had mostly been washed out, or
             were just surviving. Similar coverages were found for S. patens using 0.25-rre quadrats. By
             the second year, 42 species of plants had invaded the planted site; Distichlis spicata was the
             dominant invader in areas between the two cordgrasses.
                            By 1982, six years after the planting, several changes had occurred to the
             planted areas. Scirpus robustus was now found regularly interspersed with S. alterniflora
             along the landward margin. S. patens coverage had been greatly reduced by invading dune-
             type vegetation. Diversity in the dunes and marshes had increased to 97 species of plants by
             this time. The plant assemblage on the island was as diverse as those at the nearby natural
             marsh sites examined for comparison.
                            Based on visual observations, bird usage of the Drake Wilson Island was even
             greater than at the natural marshes. Wading birds were commonly found feeding at Drake
             Wilson Island, and included many clapper rails, plovers, herons, egrets and terns. No
             sampling was done for fisheries or fisheries food-chain organisms. Some concern was voiced
             about the eroding dikes and thus about the longevity of this marsh. Inferences were that
             repairs may become necessary to maintain the marsh.

                     Niering, W. A. "Vegetation dynamics in relation to wetland creation." In:
             Wetland creation and restoration: The status of the Science, Part 2. Perspectives., eds.
             J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. 479-46. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1989.
                            Ecological concepts involved in the successional development of wetland
             vegetation are discussed. Discovering the hydrological basis of a wetland leads to a better
             understanding of how perturbations to water flow through a marsh will affect its vegetation.
             Disturbance is a natural part of coastal wetlands and depending on the severity of the








              Bibliography                                                                                  45

              disturbance, the induced changes in wetland vegetation will vary from minor and short-
              termed to severe and persistent. Creating a wetland that will persist requires creating an area
              with an appropriate and stable topography and hydrology; once vegetation becomes
              established it should persist.

                     Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory. A manual for assessing restored an
              natural coastal wetlands with examples from southern California. California Sea Gran
              Report No. T-CSGCP-021, La Jolla, California: 1990.
                             This manual discusses the problems encountered in assessing functional
              equivalency for created salt marshes. The basic premise is that man-made wetlands should
              be expected to replace natural wetland functions. Evaluation procedures are presented for
              wetland functions related to hydrology, water quality, sediment and nutrient dynamics,
              vegetation, and support of various animal populations. The main purpose of the manual is to
              standardize methods of assessing functions in created wetlands. Criteria for success need to
              be stated as testable goals that can be achieved through reasonable monitoring programs.
                             The assessment method recommended for fishery species was repetitive seining
              of enclosed areas in tidal creeks or ponds until populations decline. This seems extreme.
              Because salt marsh vegetation in southern California is infrequently flooded in comparison
              with other coastal regions, sampling of nonvegetated habitats within the marsh complex may
              be sufficient to assess fishery use. In other regions, however, where the vegetated areas in
              salt marshes are directly utilized by fishery species, animal densities on the marsh surface
              (within the vegetation) are important, and the quantitative sampling of this habitat requires
              different techniques.

                     Patience, N. and V. V. Klemas. "Wetland functional health assessment using
              remote sensing and other techniques: literature search." NOAA. Tech. Memo. NNM-
              SEFSC-319, 114, 1993.
                             This report reviews techniques for determination of the functional health of
              wetlands using remote sensing and other techniques. It provides a concise review of
              concepts and technology, and points to areas of future research. Each section of the report is
              supported by an extensive review of pertinent literature. With improving technology and
              information transfer, system capabilities will make greater accuracy and timeliness possible
              for health assessments of many more wetlands and their functions. Remote sensing, will also
              allow for monitoring of many more restored and created wetlands on an annual basis.

                     Reppert, R. "Wetlands mitigation banking concepts." U.S. Army Corps of
              Engineers. 1WR Rep. 92-WNIB-1, 33, 1992.
                             This report provides general and specific information about wedand mitigation
              banking. Mitigation banks that are functioning are reviewed and evaluated. The potential of
              mitigation banking for achieving "no net loss" of wetlands is also evaluated.
                             Wedand mitigation banks provide advanced compensation for unavoidable
              wedand losses by creation, restoration, enhancement or preservation of other wetlands of
              equivalent value. Such banks are usually large tracts whose tangible and intangible values
              are equated to credits. As wetlands are altered elsewhere, credits are withdrawn from the
              bank. When the credits are exhausted the bank is closed, and new projects must seek









               46                                                                                Bibliography

               mitigation credits elsewhere. Banks would appear to be very effective in mitigation efforts
               particularly when many small mitigation projects would not yield any one area of sufficient
               size to support some larger wetland animals that require a large area for a viable habitat.
                              Mitigation banks are sponsored by industries, highway departments, port
               authorities, federal projects, and commercial interests. Of the 37 banks identified in this
               report, 19 were sponsored by state highway departments, 8 by ports, and 7 by land
               developers. In 1988, there were only 12 banks, now there are 37, and there are plans for
               65 new banks in the next couple of years. This shows a significant development towards
               banking for solutions to mitigation.
                              Banking has its good and bad features depending on your point of view, and
               such an increase in banks could be disturbing news. Some of the good features listed were:
                              1. A bank is generally a large block of land which can support more species,
               some requiring large areas as habitats, than small single mitigation projects.
                              2. A large unit in a bank should be more economical to manage than many
               small dispersed units.
                              3. A bank generally provides for mitigation before adverse impacts to
               wetlands occur, otherwise there could be loss of habitat and ecological functions for several
               years while a mitigation project develops to its full functioning state.
                              4. A bank can be more thoroughly planned, managed, and incorporated into
               regional wetland requirements because there is plenty of time for these actions.
                              5. A bank can serve more social value than small spread-out mitigation
               projects; elements for public appreciation and education can be offered in a larger area.
                              6. A bank can expedite conflict solution because it already exists and its costs
               are known.
                              7. A bank can provide a lifetime monitoring program to protect the habitat.
               The establishment of a bank indicates permanence for the habitat as far as man's actions are
               concerned.
                              The main negative features of banks were listed as:
                              1. The planning may be less than adequate for the entire area and lifetime of
               the bank.
                              2. The existence of a bank may make it too easy to allow other wetlands to be
               destroyed where there may have been alternative actions that could have preserved them.
               Banks may act as short circuits to the regulatory process.
                              3. There is uncertainty as to the real value of a bank in terms of credits.
               Credit value has been difficult to establish for ecological functions of wetlands, and thus,
               crediting and debiting will always be controversial.
                              4. A bank may not provide for in-kind replacement, thereby potentially
               allowing for a particular habitat to be eliminated from a watershed.
                              5. There are uncertainties about management techniques for wetland habitats
               in general, and, when applied to a large bank, poor management could prove ecologically
               and economically costly.
                              6. The preservation of wetlands in the bank would only be beneficial if the
               lands were subject to loss to begin with; if not, there would be no replacement benefit by
               preserving the bank lands.








             Bibliography                                                                            47

                           7. When all bank credits are exhausted, there is always the question of who is
             going to own the land and be responsible for its maintenance.
                           Mitigation banking is likely to increase as we press to use wetlands. To obtain
             the benefits offered by mitigation banking, we must support excellence in planning each bank
             and excellence in maintaining each bank. Yearly credits should be issued to each bank that
             would go to support the maintenance and monitoring. Certainly, the presence of mitigation
             banks should not be used as an excuse to destroy natural wetlands; avoidance of damage to
             natural systems should be emphasized.

                   Reubsamen, R. N. "National Marine Fisheries Service efforts in Texas to tailor
             mitigation to specific wetland types." In: Proceedings of the National Wetlan
             Symposium: Mitigation of Impacts and 14sses. in New Orleans, LA, New Orleans, LA:
             Assoc. State Wetl. Manag., 424425, 1986.
                           This paper briefly summarizes the NMFS perspective toward mitigation for
             loss of wetlands in Texas. Avoidance of impacts on natural wetlands is the goal. When that
             is not possible, replacement by creation or restoration of in-kind wetland habitat of equal or
             greater size is sought. The replacement wetland should be located as close to the impacted
             wetland as practical (without itself becoming impacted). Increased manpower will be needed
             to review permit applications to alter wetlands (processed by the Corps of Engineers) and to
             monitor all the wetland mitigation efforts. Such monitoring is currently being accomplished
             for only a few projects.

                    Riggs, S. "Distribution of Spadina alternij7ora in Padilla Bay, Washington, in
             1991." Washington Dept. Ecology, Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve.
             Tech. Rep. 3, 63, 1992.
                           The objectives of this study were to document the distribution and spread of
             Spartina alterniflora in Padilla Bay, Washington. Baseline maps and data were available
             from a 1987 study by Wiggins and Binney (1987). Cordgrass stands that had been mapped
             in 1987 were mappedagain in August and September, 1991. Comparing maps showed the
             cordgrass spread 1-2 m/yr. Area surveys also located several additional stands of S.
             altemiflora. The total area now covered was estimated at 4.8 ha compared with about 2.7 ha
             four years earlier. Only very minor die-back was found in central portions of some of the
             stands, and Salicomia Wrginica was found inhabiting those areas. There was still no
             evidence of flowering by S. alterniflora in Padilla Bay. (Note: Although not included in this
             report, S. Riggs informed us that 1992 was an extra warm summer for Padilla Bay, and that
             S. altemiflora did flower.)
                           The impact of S. altemiflora in the estuaries of Washington is considerable.
             Studies are needed to examine the function of cordgrass in the northwest.

                    Roberts, T. H.. "Habitat value of man-made coastal marshes in Florida." In:
             Sixteenth annual conference on wetlands restoration and creation. in Plant City, FL.,
             ed. F.J. Webb, Jr., Plant City, FL.: Hillsborough Commun. College, 157-179, 1989.
                           This study was undertaken to determine the quality of man-made wetlands as,
             habitat for fish and wildlife, and therefore, the effectiveness of marsh creation as mitigation
             for losses of coastal wetlands. Fish, bird, and mammal populations at 21 man-made,









             48                                                                             Bibliography

             established, coastal marshes of various ages and 6 natural marshes were sampled and
             compared for similarities. The majority of the sites were dominated by Spartina alterniflora.
             Created marshes were located throughout northern and central Florida and ranged in age
             from approximately I to 10 years old. Vegetation characteristics were highly variable, but
             man-made sites that were properly planned, constructed, and maintained, were considered to
             serve as viable habitat for animals normally associated with natural coastal marsh systems.
             Factors influencing site use by various animal groups, and suggestions for the design of
             future mitigation efforts are discussed.
                           A quantitative comparison of aquatic animal utilization in created vs. natural
             marshes was not possible with the data presented. Sampling methods used in the study were
             not quantitative, and variability in characteristics of the different marshes (size,
             configuration, location, etc.) may have influenced the results. However, results show
             qualitatively that established man-made wetlands have the ability to support the same animal
             species as natural wetlands.

                    Roberts, T. H. "Habitat value of man-made coastal marshes in Florida."
             Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Corps Eng., Waterways Experiment Station. Tech. Rep.
             WRP-RE-2, 42, 1991.
                           The objectives of the study were to determine the effectiveness of marsh
             creation as mitigation for losses of natural coastal marshes along Florida's Gulf and Atlantic
             coasts. Only 55% (21 of 38) of the man-made Spartina alterniflora marshes visited in
             Florida estuaries were identifiable or deemed successful enough to be sampled; 1 man-made
             Juncus marsh was also studied. The marshes ranged in size from 0.004 to 2.8 ha, and were
             compared with four Spartina and two Juncus natural marshes that ranged in size from 0.20
             to 3.2 ha. The 22 man-made marshes ranged in age from 1 to 10 years old, but 7 were 1-2
             yr old, 6 were 2-3 yr old, and 6 were 3-5 yr old. Data were gathered on soil characteristics
             such as substrate texture, particle size and organic content from 3 to 5 samples per site.
             Vegetation was sampled using stratified random transects with the point-intercept method,
             and data on species composition, percent cover, stem density, and height of Spartina plants
             were obtained. Below-ground biomass of Spartina was measured from 7-cm-diameter cores
             taken to a depth of 18 cm. Fish data were collected using fyke nets (2 per site), Breder
             traps, and a Wegener Ring net. The fyke nets were set at high tide, and fish and motile
             invertebrates were collected as they left the marsh with the ebbing water. The Wegener Ring
             net was used to collect fish in tidal channels in some marshes. Birds were surveyed in each
             marsh on three consecutive days, and bird calls were also identified and recorded. Mammals
             were trapped at each site using Sherman Box and Museum Special Snap traps, one each per
             station, 5-7 stations per marsh, and two nights in each marsh. Tracks and other signs of
             larger mammals were also noted.
                           Sufficiently large variability was found in the data for each variable sampled in
             each age group of man-made marshes that no differences could be detected among the age
             groups. The author attributed much of the variability to marsh size and shape. Organic
             matter averaged from 0. 2 to 10. 1 % in the man-made marshes, and showed no statistically
             significant increase with age (r2=0.04). Spartina alterniflora cover in the man-made marshes
             ranged from 40% on a 2 yr old site to 80% on a 1 yr old site, and averaged about 60% for
             all. Many marshes had other species of plants growing in adjacent zones, and these added an








               Bibliography                                                                                     49

               average of 10% to the total marsh cover for the sites. Below-ground biomass estimates
               ranged from 831-3,429 g/n-f among man-made marshes and varied widely among sites. The
               minor correlation found between the age of a marsh and its below-ground biomass (r2 = 0. 14)
               did not appear to be significant. Only 50% of the man-made marshes supported marsh-
               dependent birds, and abundances were relatively low when birds were observed. Size and
               configuration of the man-made marshes were limiting, as were nearby development activities
               that appeared to be intolerable for the birds. Raccoons and marsh rabbits were found using
               about 30% of the man-made and natural marshes. Small mammals such as the cotton rat,
               rice rat, Norway rat, black rat, and house mouse were collected in man-made marshes.
               Their use of the marshes was probably influenced more by vegetation and nearby source of
               colonists than by age of the marsh.
                              Many of the fish species found in natural marshes were found in the, man-made
               marshes. Again, no correlation was found between similarity index values (of the fish
               communities in a man-made marsh and the nearby natural marsh), and the ages of the man-
               made marshes (r'=0.003). Most man-made marshes had three to five of the common eight
               species characteristic of natural marshes. Abundances in the man-made marshes were within
               the range of the natural marshes. Because the sampling was not quantitative in the sense that
               it could provide numbers of fish per m' of marsh, the abundance values were only taken as.
               general indicators of marsh use. Other aquatic macroinvertebrates found in both man-made
               and natural marshes included Littotina irrorata and Uca spp. Again, there was great site-to-
               site variation in abundances of these animals.
                              This report points out the great variability in man-made and natural marshes.
               This variability makes if difficult to generalize from a study of only one or two, marshes.
               The study also points out the difficulties in obtaining quantitative samples of marsh fauna;
               despite the use of multiple gears to sample fish and motile invertebrates, quantitative
               comparisons could not be made among marshes. Causes for differences among all the
               marshes were not obvious, though size, shape, and surroundings were likely sources for
               differences.
                              An important finding of this study was that established techniques to create or
               restore Spartina alterniflora marshes frequently appeared to be neglected, improper elevation
               of the substrate and a lack of protection from erosive waves were common in created
               marshes. Even when marsh creation was successful, other infringements and destructive acts
               were common when almost any other use could be made of the marsh or the adjacent land.
               Only by carefully incorporating species habitat requirements into project design, and locating
               wetlands where their habitat value can be realized, will mitigation efforts be fruitful and the
               loss of natural wetlands be offset.


                       Sacco, J. "Infaunal community development of artificially established saft
               marshes in.North Carolina." Ph.D. Thesis, North Carolina State University., 1989.
                              Benthic. infaunal populations were examined at six locations along the North
               Carolina coast; at each location, a transplanted Spartina alterniflora ma rsh, was sampled
               along with a nearby natural marsh. The created marshes ranged from 1 to 17 years of age.
               The six locations differed in tidal range, salinity, and substrate composition. Infauna were
               dominated by annelid worms; polychaetes made up over 53 % and oligochaetes 35 % of the
               infauna in samples. Taxonomic composition and trophic diversity appeared similar among









             50                                                                              Bibliography

             the marshes, but infaunal densities were generally lower in the transplanted salt marshes.
             Sediment organic matter was also lower in created marshes. There appeared to be a
             relationship between high organic matter and high infaunal densities, but this relationship
             varied with local conditions. There was no apparent relationship between marsh age and the
             development of the infaunal community.
                            Sampling in natural marshes was conducted along the entire elevational range
             within the marsh, while sampling in created marshes was restricted to the original area of
             planting. Because elevation affects infaunal densities, this sampling regime may have
             affected results.


                    Seneca, E. A and S. W. Broome. "Restoring tidal marshes in North Carolina
             and France." In: Restorine the nation's marine environment, ed. G. W. Thayer. 53-78.
             College Park: Maryland Sea Grant College, 1992.
                            This review article covers various techniques used to restore and create tidal
             marshes. The important factors discussed include site selection, elevation, slope, tidal range,
             wave climate, salinity, soil properties, cultural practices, sedimentation, wildlife impacts,
             post-planting maintenance, and traffic. The authors conclude that the primary goal of most
             wetland projects is to assist the system so that it can eventually attain functional equivalency
             with a natural wetland. The initial objective, therefore, is to restore the dominant emergent
             vegetation. These macrophytes then serve as substrata for other organisms, produce organic
             matter for the food web, provide habitat for organisms, and buffer shorelines from waves.
             Macrophytes also cycle nutrients and trap and stabilize sediments. Thus, establishment of a
             thriving macrophyte stand provides the basis for establishing fish and wildlife functions.
             These functions may or may not follow, but the establishment of the macrophytes is a key
             step in any restoration or creation project.

                    Seneca, E. D., S. W. Broome, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "Comparison of
             Spa&na aftemiflora Loisel transplants from different locations in a man-initiated marsh
             in North Carolina." Wetlan 5 (1985): 181-190.
                            The objectives of this study were to determine how height form and latitude of
             origin might influence the variability of Spartina altemiflora when plants are transplanted to
             other sites as they are in restoration projects. Plants from four locations (short and tall
             forms from Beaufort) were transplanted on 0.9-ni centers in a randomized split-plot design
             planting at the southern-most site. The grow-out site was a recently deposited (60 days prior
             to planting) area of dredged material that was 96 % sand, 1 % silt and 3 % clay. Height,
             basal area, aboveground dry weight, culm density, and number of flower heads were
             measured periodically over five growing seasons.
                            Results showed that height and time of flowering of each location-type were
             maintained at the new site for several growing seasons. However, under the influence of
             elevation, the short form became taller when grown at lower elevations, and the tall form
             became shorter when grown at higher elevations. Within two growing seasons, the
             transplanted marsh had the standing crop equal to local natural marshes. Results also showed
             that yearly standing crop could vary as much as 45% in the transplanted marsh, which was
             the same as has been found for natural marshes. This variability should be considered in
             evaluating the success of a restored or created marsh.








              Bibliography                                                                                      51


                      Seneca, E. D., S. W. Broome, and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. "The influence of
              duration-of-inundation on development of a man-initiated Spartina alterniflora Loisel
              marsh in North Carolina." J. Exp. Mar, Biol. Ecol. 94 (1985): 259-268.
                              This study was conducted in a Spartina alternWora salt marsh that was planted
              in 1971 near Snow's Cut in North Carolina. Above-ground growth parameters measured
              included plant height, culm density, dry weight, basal area, and the number of flowers.
              Below-ground biomass was also measured. These growth parameters were measured at
              different elevations that corresponded to daily tidal flooding durations of 4, 7, 9, and 11
              hours. The marsh was sampled during growing seasons 2, 3, 4, 5, and 12. During the
              second growing season, maximum above-ground growth occurred in the 7-h inundation zone.
              During growing seasons three through five, all growth variables generally increased with
              tidal inundation. By the twelfth growing season, S. alterniflora was completely displaced in
              the 4-h inundation zone by other marsh plants-. S. alterniflora maintained dominance in the 9
              and 11-h inundation zones and spread into areas of even lower elevation than originally
              planted.

                      Shisler, J. K. "Creation and restoration of the coastal wetlands of the
              northeastern United States." In: Wetland Creation and restoration: The status of the
              Science. Volume 1: Rei!ional overviews. EPA/600/3-89/038., eds. J. A. Kusler and M.
              E. Kentula. 145-174. Corvallis: U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, 1989.
                              This chapter characterizes the wetlands in the northeastern U.S., and describes
              the types of wetland restoration activities prevalent in that region. Most of the intertidal
              zone in salt and brackish marshes is dominated by smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora.
              The area just above the intertidal zone is dominated by saltmarsh cordgrass, Spartina patens,
              mixed with some salt grass, Distichlis spicata. Several thousand hectares of this upper zone
              was diked off from tidal flows and the area used to grow salt hay (a combination of Spartina
              patens, Distichlis spicata, and Juncus gerardii). A couple of thousand hectares have recently
              been reopened to tidal circulation, but on a controlled-flow basis so the areas can be
              managed for waterfowl.
                              Factors to be considered in the design of creation or restoration projects are
              briefly described in this chapter. Some of the factors are: location of the project, hydrology
              at the site, topography of the site (elevation, slope, size), texture and quality of the substrate,
              species of plants to be used (matched to the environmental parameters expected from the
              design), adequacy of buffer zones, protection from pests, and degree of monitoring that will
              be required for success.
                              Research is needed to make restoration projects even more successful than they
              have been. Fourteen topics for research are given. Some concern plant species
              environmental requirements, tolerances of transplanting practices, and propagation potential.
              Other topics range from understanding pest control to simple developing a decent inventory
              of the wetlands.


                      Sinicrope, T. L., P. G. Hine, R. S. Warren, and W. A. Niering. "Restoration of
              an impounded salt marsh in New England." Estuaries 13 (1990): 25-30.









               52                                                                             Bibliography

                             Vegetation changes of a tidal marsh in Stonington, CT, were documented for a
               20 ha marsh 9 years after the reintroduction of tidal flushing. Vegetation was examined in
               aerial photography by comparing data from a study of the area by Hebard in 1976, with data
               obtained in 1986. Hebard's transects were then revisited in 1987 and 1988 to determine
               current coverage by species using the same line intercept method. Two extensions were
               added to transects T-3 and T-4 to cover what were previously mudflats.
                             7ypha angustifolia decreased from 74% to 16% coverage, due to increased
               salinities over much of the area. Phragmites australis increased slightly as some of the
               Y@pha began dying out, but it too was exhibiting signs of stress in its stunted new growth.
               Spartina alterniflora increased from < 1 % coverage to 45 %, invading much of the mudflats
               and intertidal. area vacated by 7ypha. High marsh species such as Distichlis spicata, Spartina
               patens, Juncus gerardi, and Salicornia europaea also increased in areas upland from the S.
               alterniflora zone.
                             No systematic survey of the marsh and creek was made to document changes
               in utilization by aquatic species. However, increased use by ducks, shorebirds, and
               migratory birds was noted.

                      Soil Conservation Service. "Wetland restoration, enhancement, or creation." In:
               Engineering Field Handbook, ed. Soil Conservation Service. 79. 13. Washington DC:
               U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1992.
                             This is chapter 13 in the US DOA Soil Conservation Service's Engineering
               Field Handbook. It discusses wetland processes, functions and characteristics, and describes
               (with example data) the planning that is needed for a successful restoration/creation project.
               Consideration must be given to site selection, design, implementation, monitoring, and
               management. A wetland planning checklist is given in Appendix A, as is a monitoring site
               visit checklist in Appendix B.

                      Steinke, T. J. "Hydrologic manipulation and restoring wetland values: Pine
               Creek, Fairfield, Connecticut." In: National wetland symposium: mitigation of impacts
               and losses. in New Orleans, LA, eds. J. A. Kusler, M. L. Quammen, and G. Brooks,
               New Orleans, LA: Assoc. State Wetland Managers, 377-383, 1986.
                             This article presents a history of Pine Creek marsh in Fairfield, CT, and a
               description of the restoration activities associated with reestablishing tidal flows to this
               marsh. A detailed plan incorporated information about the area from hydrologists,
               biologists, public health officials, and civil engineers. The restoration began with 28 ha of
               an almost pure stand of 3-4 m tall Phraginites australis and has resulted in reestablishing the
               Spartina patens upper marsh and the S. alterniflora lower marsh after only five years of tidal
               flow renewal. Restoration was accomplished by building new dikes containing self-regulated
               tide gates before removing the old dikes. The restoration has also maintained flood
               protection and has eliminated 25-30 annual peat and Phragmites fires that threatened adjacent
               homes. A greater variety of birds has been noted in the marsh, and hunting and fishing has
               increased. Another 81 ha of marsh is under consideration for restoration action.


                      Stout, J. P. "Evaluation of coastal wetlands mitigation, Alabama." Alabama
               Dept. Environ. Management. Tech. Rep., 45, 1990.








               Bibliography                                                                                  53

                              The objectives of this study were to evaluate coastal mitigation work in
               Alabama. Recommendations were made that should improve success rates of coastal wetland
               restorations.
                              Of 12 wetland mitigation sites visited: no mitigation work had been started in
               three, work was incomplete in one, three were failures, two showed partial success, and
               three were deemed successful. The survey found very little monitoring of this mitigation
               work, and in most cases little was done to correct deficiencies when they were discovered
               during monitoring.
                              Problems with the mitigation system were varied. There was no standard
               format for a permit request that included all the needed information about a project to enable
               proper evaluation of the permit request. The limited documentation that was required was
               not routinely cataloged or available for examination and evaluation when needed. There was
               no central control or plan that could help direct mitigation efforts in Alabama. Such a plan
               or organization might act to preserve some of each kind of ecosystem in each watershed. A
               list of 25 factors to include in a plan was included.
                              Concern was expressed about a growing attitude that losses of natural wetlands
               could be mitigated by restoring or creating wetlands of equal  value. The author suggested
               that we may be accepting a loss of valuable natural wetlands for equal areas of inferior
               quality created wetlands. Monitoring for 3-5 years after the restoration planting was
               recommended for marshes and submerged aquatic vegetation, and for 5-7 years for forested
               wetlands. There were 15 recommendations for monitoring which included photographic
               surveys from fixed markers and the use of aerial photos. Monitoring of vegetative,
               topographic, and hydrologic changes were also among the recommendations, along with
               utilization by waterfowl and aquatic fauna.
                              Because failures are largely ignored at present, changes in the system are
               sorely needed. A detailed mitigation design plan with clearly stated goals should be required
               for a permit to be granted. Concerned agencies must find staff to perform the monitoring,
               and performance of the work required by the permit must be enforced. Innovative
               approaches for -mitigating loss of wetlands should be pursued. The process of mitigating an
               acre-planted for an acre-used is resulting in lost wetland functions as well as loss of fish and
               wildlife and their habitat.


                      Tanner,   G. W. and J. D. Dodd. "Effects of phenological stage of SpaWna
               alternij7ora transplant culms on stand development." Wetlan 4 (1985): 57-74.
                         . . This study tested three 'phenological types of Spartina altemiflora for
               differences in survival and growth when used for marsh creation. Plants were dug from
               three hatural donor marshes that had seedling, dwarf-form, and tall-form stands of S.
               altemiflora. Plantings were conducted at a dredged material site in Galveston Bay, Texas,
               and two substrates and three fertilizer treatments were also tested. Roots of all transplants
               were kept moist using wet burlap bags. Single culms were planted on 0.5-m centers in plots
               of 5 rows of 10 plants each. Treatments were configured in a randomized block design.
                              The seedling phenotype had a moderately superior initial survival and more
               rapid tiller production and biomass accumulation than the other two phenotypes. Seedling
               culms came from a newly established natural stand of plants that was in the process of rapid









              54                                                                                  Bibliography

              expansion itself, while the other phenotypes came from mature stands that were in
              equilibrium.
                             The fine grain (silty) substrate supported more vegetative growth than the
              coarse grain (sandy) substrate, even though the sandy substrate had slightly better initial
              survival. Fertilizers had no apparent effects, but the root-stimulator treatment killed a
              significant number of transplants.

                     Thayer, G. W., ed. Restoring the Nation's Marine Environment. College Park,
              MID: University of Maryland Sea Grant College Program and DOC/NOAA/National
              Marine Fisheries Service, 1992.
                             This book brings together current philosophies, techniques, and
              recommendations for preserving, restoring, enhancing, and creating many kinds of habitats in
              the marine environment. Chapters on salt marsh restoration in southern California by Joy
              Zedler and in N. Carolina and France by Ernest Seneca and Stephen Broome emphasized the
              need to use appropriate techniques in the restoration and creation tidal marshes. Such
              techniques included detailed plans that considered many variables such as: site selection,
              elevation, slope, tidal range, wave climate, salinity, soil physical and chemical properties,
              sedimentation, variety of vegetation to be planted, and protective measures against herbivory
              and trampling.
                             Questions remained about how to restore all the functions associated with
              natural marshes. A particular concern was for restoration of faunal population dynamics,
              not just the habitat. Various studies indicated 2-10 years may be required for faunal
              dynamics of a created marsh to match those of a neighboring natural marsh. Long term
              marsh studies were expected to yield answers, and were recommended.

                     Underwood, S. G., G. D. Steyer, B. Good, and D. Chambers. "Bay bottom
              terracing and vegetative planting: an innovative approach for habitat and water quality
              enhancement." In: Proceedings of the eighteenth annual conference on wetland
              restoration and creation. in Hillsborough, FL, ed. F. J. Webb, Jr. Hillsborough, FL:
              Hillsborough Community College, 164-173, 1991.
                             This paper presented the results of a project to prevent further shoreline and
              marsh erosion by waves, and to increase water quality in three ponds in a marsh along the
              north shore of Calcasieu Lake in the Sabine National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana. There
              were 128 shallow bay terraces constructed and laid out in a checkerboard design in the
              ponds. Spartina alterniflora was planted on both sides of the terraces to stabilize them, trap
              sediment, and reduce the size of the wind generated waves. Preliminary results indicated
              reduced water turbidity in the terraced ponds, reduced size of wind generated waves in the
              ponds (greatly reduced fetch due to terraces), and good growth of cordgrass to stabilize the
              terraces.
                             The terracing technique may prove very useful in other areas of Louisiana for
              reestablishing marsh. Marshes that are subsiding may benefit greatly from terracing.

                     US Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering and Design, Environmenta.
              Engineering for Coastal Protection. Vol. EM 1110-2-1204. Washington DC: U.S. Army
              Corps of Engineers, 1989.








               Bibliography                                                                                  55

                              This manual provides guidance in environmental engineering for the protection
               of coastal areas. It summarizes information about various means of protecting shores,
               including the use of Spartina alterniflora marshes to reduce erosion. Sampling techniques
               are given for use in monitoring the effects of various projects.

                       Watzin, M. C. and J. G. Gosselink. "The fragile fringe: coastal wetlands of the
               continental United States." Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, Louisiana State
               University, Baton Rouge, LA; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC; and
               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Rockville, MD. 1992.
                              This report is an informative presentation of the nature and value of coastal
               wetlands in a popular format. It gives definitions, functions and needs, illustrated by
               examples that will help anyone to better understand the values of coastal wetlands and why
               their preservation is important.

                       Webb, J. W., Jr. "Establishment of vegetation for shoreline stabilization in
               Galveston Bay, Texas." Ph.D., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX, 1977.
                              The objectives of this research were to isolate and test plant species that would
               stabilize bay shorelines, to develop planting technology, to test wave-stilling devices, and to
               calculate a time-effort budget for a transplanting project. The study area was the north
               shoreline of East Bay, on the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge, Chambers County, Texas.
               This area had an eroding bank that was receding at 1-2 m/yr. The soil was classified as
               loam or clay-loam texture, structurally unstable and subject to erosion. Thirteen plant
               species, two wave-stilling devices, and three planting techniques were tested.
                              Spartina alterniflora was the most successful species in the intertidal zone
               below MHW, but it required protection from wave impact. Wave-stilling fences of hay bales
               contained in chicken wire and in 14-gage welded mesh wire were unsuccessful. Tires on
               cables held in place by metal posts were somewhat successful, but lost effectiveness when
               they partially sank into the substrate. Spartina spartinae and Spartina patens were the most
               successful above MHW. Fertilizer was beneficial to plant growth in a natural marsh
               (control), but showed no significant benefit to the planted blocks.
                              Seeding an area failed to establish plants. Hand planting of tillers or culms
               was effective when protected by the wave stilling device (tire fence). Mechanical planting of
               tillers was also successful at low tide and behind a wave-stilling device.
                              Mechanical grading down of the banks to a smooth slope for establishing the
               planted marsh was not useful. Erosion of the loosened substrate occurred within several
               months.


                       Webb, J. W., Jr. "Salt marshes of the western Gulf of Mexico." In: Creatio
               and restoration of coastal plant communifies, ed. R. R. Lewis, M. 89-110. Boca Raton,
               FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1982.
                              This chapter reviews coastal salt marsh restoration and creation activities in the
               western Gulf of Mexico. There are six sections to the chapter which give excellent coverage
               to the topic. They include descriptions of. the plant community, the various levels of
               productivity of the salt marsh, the loss of this habitat through modification, specific projects,
               recommended techniques, and research needs.







             56                                                                                  Bibliography

                            The coastal marsh plant community in the western Gulf is quite similar in
             species composition to that along the Atlantic coast of the U.S. Smooth cordgrass, Spartina
             alterniflora, is the dominant species intertidally. It grows best from MLW to MHW. At a
             slightly higher elevation Distichlis spicata (salt grass) occurs. Overlapping Distichlis and
             moving slightly higher still, Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass) is found, sometimes
             forming broad meadows. The higher margins of the salt meadows are shared with Scirpus
             mafitimus (leafy threesquare), Scirpus olneyi (Olney bulrush), Borfichiaftwescens (sea
             oxeye daisy), Monanthochlbe littoralis (salt flat grass), Limoniwn carolinanwn (sea
             lavender), Batis maritima (saltwort), Salicornia bigelovii (annual glasswort), Salicornia
             virginica (virginia or perennial glasswort), and Ivafiwescens (bigleaf sumpweed or marsh
             elder) which often form clumps in this infrequently flooded area.
                            These salt marshes are very productive areas. Production of Spartina
             alterniflora can be 500 to 2800 g/m/yr. Much of this production supplies the beginning
             material for a detritus based food web. The marshes act as feeding habitat that also offers
             protection for juvenile fish, shrimp and crabs of economic importance. Coastal marshes also
             serve as permanent habitat for otters, muskrats, nutrias, raccoons, and alligators, as well as
             winter habitat for thousands of ducks and geese.
                            Salt marshes are being lost every year through natural and man-induced
             causes. Subsidence and erosion are the two main natural causes, but man is contributing to
             these also. Dredging and filling operations are man's chief means of altering salt marshes.
             Now, sea level rise will add to the loss of salt marshes because much of the land on the
             higher side of the marshes is blocked. Thus, many of the marshes cannot migrate up the
             slope as the sea rises.
                            Eleven transplant projects are reviewed. Each gives insights and discoveries
             that led to improved restoration techniques. Tips on successful techniques are offered,
             among these were: 1. Select the proper species of plant for the elevation in the project area.
             2. If possible, put transplants in the ground the same day as they are dug, and keep their
             roots moist at all times during the transfer. 3. Planting depth should be sufficient to allow
             the roots to extend normally. 4. Protect planting area from excessive wave energy by using
             a breakwater if necessary.
                            Several research needs were mentioned. Research is needed to develop ways
             to make transplanting less expensive. Combinations of transplanting and seeding might be
             developed for large areas to cut the costs. Research on "edge-effect" is needed. Does
             increasing the edge in a marsh increase production of fish, shrimp and crabs? Finally,
             research is needed to develop low-cost reusable wavebreaks.
                            In the ten years since this was written much research has been done, but many
             of the needs remain. The techniques given in the chapter are still used. Mitigation for loss
             of natural wetlands is not keeping up, and salt marsh is still being lost at a rapid rate in the
             western Gulf.


                     Webb, J. W., Jr. "Soil water salinity variations and their effects on Spardna
             afterniflora." Contributions in Marine Scienc 26 (1983): 1-13.
                            The effects of soil salinity on Spartina alterniflora were compared in a
             transplanted marsh and a natural marsh in the Galveston Bay area, Texas. soil salinity
             increased with elevation to a maximum at MHW, where it frequently reached 40 96. Highs








              Bibliography                                                                                  57

              of 59 76' at the transplant site and 99 %o at the natural marsh site were found during the
              summer. The high salinity was damaging to Spartina alterniflora, and when combined with
              low soil moisture found above M]FIW was limiting to the cordgrass. High soil salinities were
              apparently caused by evaporation between tidal cycles.

                     Webb, J. W., Jr. and J. D. Dodd. "Wave-protected versus unprotected
              transplantings; on a Texas bay shoreline." Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 38
              (1983): 363-366.
                             Shoreline erosion is a dominant feature along many Texas bays. Spartina
              alterniflora has been planted along some stretches and effectively controlled further erosion.
              The objectives of this study were to see if a wave-stilling device would aid in establishment
              of transplanted salt marsh plants in an area where wave action was erosive, and to see at
              what elevations the various species of plants might become established.
                             The study site was along the north shoreline of East Bay in the Galveston Bay
              System, Texas. A 60-m stretch of shore bank was graded down to a 10% slope. The area
              was planted, but washed out within a few months. The area      was re-graded to a 2% slope.
              A cable with tires threaded on it was suspended from poles driven into the bay bottom to act
              as a wave-stilling device. Plants were transplanted to the area, but within a few months the
              waves had washed them out again. The tires had sank partially, and waves were able to pass
              over them with minimum decrease in energy. A second string of tires was added, and the
              area replanted.
                             The two-tire cable was sufficient to break most of the wave action, and
              Spartina alterniflora survival was good (about 70% at the best elevation) after the first year.
              Spartina spartinae, Spartina patens, and Distichlis spicata also did well, surviving above
              mean high water much better than S. alterniflora.
                             After the tire line was removed there was some erosion of the Spartina
              alterniflora, but most of the marsh survived to prevent further erosion. The other species
              also acted to protect the shore at higher elevations, and were shown to be valuable in beach
              stabilization projects.

                     Webb, J. W., Jr. and J. D. Dodd. 115payVna afterny7ora response to fertilizer,
              planting dates, and elevation in Galveston Bay, Texas." Wetlands 9 (1989): 61-72.
                             This study tested date, fertilizer rates, and elevation as they affected survival
              and growth of Spartina alterniflora transplants on a sandy dredged material deposition site on
              Bolivar Peninsula, Texas. Differences in seasonal tidal heights affected areas of best
              survival. Higher tides led to better survival at higher elevations (still below MHW). Better
              survival, tiller production, and growth was associated with the May planting versus the
              February planting. However, stem density was greater in the February planting area than in
              the May area after one full growing season despite the lower initial survival and tiller
              production. Fertilizer was of no apparent benefit. The use of a two-season planting was
              suggested where large expanses need to be covered. The lower elevations could be planted
              during the winter when water levels are usually lower, and the upper elevations could be
              planted during the spring when water levels are usually higher.










                 58                                                                                 Bibliography

                        Webb, J. W., Jr., J. D. Dodd, A. T. Weichert, and B. H. Koerth. "Spallina
                 afterniflora response to fertilizer rates, planting dates, and elevation in Galveston Bay,
                 Texas." In: Estuaries, Second water guality and wetlands management conference, in
                 New Orleans, LA, ed. N. V. Brodtmann, Jr., New Orleans, LA: , 379-399, 1985.
                                This study tested date, fertilizer rates, and elevation as they affected survival
                 and growth of Spartina alterniflora transplants on a sandy dredged material deposition site on
                 Bolivar Peninsula, Texas. Differences in seasonal tidal heights affected areas of best
                 survival. Higher tides led to better survival at higher elevations--but below MHW. Better
                 survival, tiller production, and growth was associated with the May planting versus the
                 February planting. However, stem density was greater in the February planting area than in
                 the May area after one full growing season despite the lower initial survival and tiller
                 production. Fertilizer had no apparent effect.

                        Webb, J. W., Jr., M. C. Landin, and H. H. Allen. "Approaches and techniques
                 for wetlands development and restoration of dredged material disposal sites." In:
                 National wetland symposium: mitigation of impacts and losses. in New Orleans, LA,
                 eds. J. A. Kusler, M. L. Quammen, and G. Brooks, New Orleans, LA: Assoc. State
                 Wetland Managers, Inc., 132-134, 1986.
                                The possibilities of using dredged material and Spartina alterniflora to create
                 salt marshes and stabilized shorelines are discussed. Techniques that have been tried and
                 have shown promise are mentioned. Particular note is made of the erosion control mats with
                 sprigs of Spartina planted through slits in the mat material. Breakwaters were found
                 essential in areas of high wave energy.

                        Webb, J. W., Jr. and C. J . Newfing. "Comparison of natural and man-made
                 salt marshes in Galveston Bay complex, Texas." Wetlan 4 (1985): 75-86.
                                The vegetation of a man-made Spartina altemiflora marsh planted in 1976 on
                 Bolivar Peninsula, Texas, was compared with three natural marshes in the Galveston Bay
                 complex in 1978 and 1979. Samples for the analysis of above-ground biomass, live stem
                 density, dead stem density, stem height, percent cover, and species composition were
                 collected from 0.5 rw quadrats that were randomly placed along elevational transects.
                 Below-ground biomass was collected in the same quadrats using about 8-10 cm diameter
                 corers; core depths were 25 and 30 cm.
                                Spartina alterniflora dominated the sites below mean high water, but other
                 plants (Salicornia bigelovii, Spartina patens, Batis matitima, Sporobolus Wrginicus, and
                 Distichlis spicata) were more important above mean high water. The above-ground biomass
                 of S. alterniflora and other species at Bolivar was within the variability shown among the
                 three natural marshes. However, live biomass of S. alterniflora was significantly greater in
                 1978 in the man-made marsh than in the natural marshes. This difference. was caused by
                 greater stem heights in the created marsh which more than compensated for the generally
                 lower stem densities.
                                At the lower elevations where S. altemiflora dominated, below-ground
                 biomass was generally much lower in the man-made marsh than in the natural marshes.
                 However, this biomass increased from 1978 to 1979. At the higher elevations, where other








               Bibliography                                                                                      59

               species dominated, below-ground biomass at the created marsh was within the range of the
               natural marshes.
                              Overall, this study indicated that production of above-ground biomass in a 2-3
               year old created salt marsh was comparable to production in nearby natural marshes. Below-
               ground biomass and species composition were changing in the created marsh, becoming more
               similar to the natural marshes of the area.


                      Wiggins, J. and E. Binney. "A baseline study of the distribution of SpatVna
               alternoora in Padilla Bay." Washington Dept. Ecology, Padilla Bay National Estuarine
               Research Reserve. Reprint Series 7, 28, 1987.
                              The objective of this study was to document the distribution of Spanina
               altemiflora in Padilla Bay, Washington. It is thought that S. alterniflora was transplanted
               into southern Padilla Bay sometime in the early 1960's. Stands of Spartina were located by
               walking the shoreline of all known salt marsh areas of the bay. Seven major stands were
               found in addition to the extensive stand on Dike Island, all still in southern Padilla Bay. The
               smaller stands were located south and east of Dike Island. All were mapped. There were . ,
               also several small clumps (about 1   M2 each) of S. altemiflora recorded in Telegraph Slough.
               The mapped area comprised over 2.4 ha. The elevation of the growing cordgrass ranged*
               from 2.5 to 3.6 m above MLLW. Salicornia virginica intermixed with S. altemiflora at the
               higher elevation, and continued into the higher marsh where it was mixed with Distichlis
               spicata.
                              Based on comparisons of aerial photographs from 1968 and 1978, the spread
               of Spartina altemiflora in Padilla Bay appears to have been vegetative. It also appears that
               clumps may break off during storms, be transported onto other adjacent mudflats, and
               become established if the elevation is correct.


                      Williams, S. L. and J. B. Zedler. "Restoring sustainable coastal ecosystems on
               the Pacific coast: Establishing a research agenda." California Sea Grant College. Rep.
               T-CSGCP-026, 19, 1992.
                              This report lists prioritized research needs for Pacific coastal ecosystems,
               particularly estuarine wetlands. Priority weights were the averages of priorities determined
               by 15 scientists (most were from the West coast) who are familiar with coastal ecosystems
               and restoration potential. A prioritization was felt necessary to promote research in areas
               deemed critical for the perpetuation of coastal wetland ecosystems along the West coast. The
               West coast has probably lost 50% of its coastal estuarine wetlands already.
                              There were 25 research needs spread among four topics. Habitat specificity of
               organisms, habitat function determinants, and population dynamics were leaders in the
               conservation of biodiversity topic. Hydrology of the coastal wetlands was primary among
               physical processes research needs. Nutrient dynamics and establishing water quality criteria
               for vegetation were most important in water quality research. Habitat architecture, site
               selection criteria, and monitoring and evaluation of success were key needs under restoration
               research.


                      Wilsey, B. J., K. L. McKee, and 1. A. MendeLssohn. "Effects of increased
               elevation and macro- and micronutrient additions on Sparlina allerniflora transplant









               60                                                                                  Bibliography

               success in salt-marsh dieback areas in Louisiana." Environmental Manaaement 16
               (1992): 505-511.
                              Extensive areas of salt marshes in coastal Louisiana are suffering dieback due
               to compaction, subsidence, and lack of sediment additions. The objectives of this study were
               to test elevation of the substrate and nutrient enhancement in an area of Spartina alterniflora
               degradation and dieback to see if the marsh could be restored by transplanting more S.
               alterniflora into the area given certain environmental modifications.
                              The test areas were dieback salt marshes in the lower Barataria Basin near
               Caminada Bay, Louisiana. Five sites, two elevations (0 and +30 cm), two macronutrient
               treatments (N, P, K; with and without), and two micronutrient treatments (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn;
               with and without) were tested. One plant of S. alterniflora was used for each treatment at
               each site. All plants selected and dug from the nearby donor site were the same size.
                         I    After four months (i.e. on Nov. 17, 1989) the S. altemiflora in the elevated
               plots had twice the above-ground biomass and significantly more culms than the normal
               substrate level plots. The elevated plots were at the same height as the nearby, vigorously
               growing, S. altemiflora that lined the banks of the channels. Micronutrient addition
               appeared to inhibit growth, while macronutrient addition promoted growth only in the
               elevated plots. In these plots macronutrients increased culm density by about 61 % over
               controls.
                              This paper reinforces the importance of planting at proper elevations in marsh
               restoration projects. Although elevations should generally match those of the nearest natural
               marsh, this study makes it clear that one should match elevations carefully, and should look
               to match the elevations of most vigorous growth in the natural marsh. The vigorous-growth
               area may be above the average elevation of the marsh.

                      Wolf, R. B., L. C. Lee, and R. R. Sharitz. "Wetland creation and restoration in
               the United States from 1970 to 1985: An annotated bibliography." Wetlands 6 (1986): 1-
               88..
                              This annotated bibliography covers studies concerning creation and restoration
               of salt and freshwater wetlands that were published between 1970 and 1985, and contains
               304 citations accompanied by very brief annotations. Many of the cited studies are on the
               use of Spartina altemiflora in marsh creation or restoration activities. This bibliography will
               be useful in finding earlier articles about S. altemiflora restorations, or articles with a
               slightly different subject emphasis than our bibliography.

                      Woodhouse, W. W., Jr. "Building salt marshes along the coasts of the
               continental United States." Fort Belvoir, VA: U.S. Army Corps Eng., Coastal Eng.
               Res. Cent. Spec. Rep. 4, 96, 1979.
                              This report provides basic information about coastal marshes of the United
               States. Included are descriptions of the types of marshes, types of marsh plants, site
               requirements for establishing marshes, and plant propagation techniques. Also included are
               descriptions of planting and fertilizing techniques and their costs.








               Bibliography                                                                                   61

                      Woodhouse, W. W., Jr. and P. L. Knutson. "Atlantic coastal marshes.7 In:
               Creation and restoration of coastal plant communities, ed. R. R. Lewis, M. 45         -70. Boca
               Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1982.
                             This chapter reviews various facets of salt marshes along the Atlantic coast of
               the U.S. There is a brief description of the loss of salt marshes and the need for their
               preservation. Much information is given to aid in creating or restoring salt marshes.
               Dominant coastal marsh plant species are discussed as to their shape, habitat, reproductive
               potential and timing, and as to techniques for harvesting, propagating, and culturing some of
               the species. The important species include: Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass),
               Spartina patens (saltmeadow cordgrass), Juncus roemefianus (black needle rush), Distichlis
               spicata (saltgrass), Spartina cynosuroides (big cordgrass), and Phragmites australis (common
               reed). Planting procedures are described, and their costs estimated. A typical marsh @
               creation project using Spartina alterniflora sprigs placed on I-m centers requires about
               10,000 sprigs and 100 man-hours to plant one hectare. This estimate does not.include the
               planning and coordinating, obtaining of transplant material, nor the transport of material to,
               the project site.
                             Recommendations are given for selecting a site, checking the soil, preparing
               the grade and elevation, selecting the planting time, and protecting the planted site.
               Protection must be established against grazing animals and trampling animals, including man
               and his off-road vehicles. Protection may also be necessary from erosive action by wind and
               wind and boat waves. The end product of a marsh creation project will be evaluated      ,not
               only by the vegetation developed, but also by the wildlife and fisheries species that use the
               planted marsh as habitat.

                      Zedler, J. B. "Canopy architecture of natural and planted cordgrass marshes:
               selecting habitat evaluation criteria." Ecological Applications 3 (1993): 123-13     8.
                             Nesting requirements of the Light-footed Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris
               levipes) were determined from its natural marsh habitat. Selected habitat criteria were.
               identified for use in evaluating the value of created marshes as habitat for this bird. Height
               distribution and density of Spartinafoliosa (California cordgrass) were preferred over percent
               cover for characterizing canopy architecture. Percent cover was found to be too subjective.
                             The bird appears to require a density of Spartinafoliosa of at least 1.00
               stems/m'. Also, the required height frequency distribution of the stems has at least 90 stems
               over 60 cm tall, and of these at least 30 stems over 90 cm tall. Greater densities and taller
               plants make even better habitat. The size of the marsh is -also important. The rail appears to
               need 0.8-1.6 ha of marsh with the specified architecture for its home range. There.are
               additional requirements for the birds to use a marsh even if. it appears to meet the vegetation
               requirements mentioned, but these other requirements have not yet been discovered.,
                             Several associated recommendations were made based on work and
               observations made during this study. Destructive sampling of the cordgrass should be
               avoided; every stem is valuable. Densities and height frequency distribu  tions to, characterize
               a marsh should be based on 0.25 nV (or larger) quadrats. Long-term monitoring, 20 years,
               is recommended because establishment of planted marshes may meet the criteria for success
               for a year or two and fail thereafter.









              62                                                                                  Bibliography

                     Zedler, J. B., J. Covin, C. Nordby, P. Williams, and J. Boland. "Catastrophic
              events reveal the dynamic nature of salt-marsh vegetation in southern California."
              Ecology 9 (1986): 75-80.
                             Recent hydrological anomalies (flooding, dry-season stream flows, and
              droughts) were shown to greatly alter coastal wetland habitats in southern California in a six-
              year (1979-1984) study of the Tijuana Estuary. Permanent sampling sites (102) were set at
              5-m intervals along 8 transects in lower intertidal marsh that was dominated by Spartina
              foliosa. During normally dry years (1979, 1981, 1982) interstitial soil salinities were
              between 35 and 45 96 , but during years with wet winters and rare flooding (1980 and 1983)
              interstitial salinities dropped to between 15 and 35 90'0 . During an extremely dry year
              (1984) the interstitial salinity reached 1047oo in September. S. foliosa reacted to these
              changes by increased growth during fresher years by mainly increased stem length when        the
              freshwater inflow occurred early in the year (1980), and mainly by increased numbers of
              stems when freshwater inflow occurred later (1983). S. foliosa also responded quickly to the
              drought in 1984 with reduced stem density (62% from that found in1983 or 28% from that
              found in the other years) and reduced stem heights (50% from 1983 and 30% from other
              years).
                             The study showed the importance of soil salinity in governing rates and types
              of growth of western cordgrass. Variations in tidal circulation and weather were also found
              to be important for marsh growth and establishment. Long-term dynamics of a salt marsh
              should be understood before the marsh is used as a reference site or as a site for restoration.


                     Zedler, J. B., M. Josselyn, and C. Onuf. "Restoration techniques, research, and
              monitoring: vegetation.", pp 63-72 In: Wetland Restoration and Enhancement in
              California. in Hayward, CA., ed. M. Josselyn, Hayward, CA.: California Sea Grant
              College Program, 1982.
                             This article summarizes the goals and techniques most commonly associated
              with California coastal marsh and seagrass restorations, and it suggests items and actions for
              a follow-up monitoring program for such projects. The goals are the same as for Atlantic
              coast restorations, perhaps with the decreased need for shoreline stabilization and increased
              concern for increasing habitat diversity for additional wildlife support. Restoration
              techniques included a basic sequence of actions: map the site, develop a conceptual plan,
              develop a site plan with engineering features including hydraulics, do some test planting,
              develop a comprehensive planting design and map including any needed protective devices,
              describe a monitoring plan and a management plan based on results from monitoring, and
              finally, develop a plan to share the information about the results of the restoration project
              with others (researchers, restorers, creators, and the public). Suggestions for future
              restoration research included determination of: (1) optimal habitat sizes and configurations
              for wildlife utilization by various species, (2) the tidal and freshwater flushing requirements
              of marsh vegetation, (3) the nutrient requirements of the vegetation and impacts of nutrient
              load in waste waters, (4) rates of marsh establishment--natural colonization versus
              transplants, (5) the relationship between plant density, flushing, and mosquito control.









                                                                                                    63
            Bibliography







                       AuthorIndex

                       Allen 1-3, 47                             Dodd 44,46-47
                       Athnos 3                                  Earhart 15
                       Auble 32                                  Eleuterius 16
                       Baca 3                                    Espey Huston & Associates Inc.
                       Banner 4                                             17
                       Beeman 4                                  Faber 18
                       Benner 5                                  Farmer 27
                       Berger 5                                  Florida Department of
                       Bernstein5                                           Environmental
                       Binney 48                                             Regulation. 18
                       Blair 6                                   Fonseca 31
                       Boland 50                                 Ford 1, 24
                       Bolton 6                                  Fowler 19, 21
                       Bontje 6-7                                Frenkel 19
                       Boyd 7                                    Frye 19, 21
                       Brochu 5, 24                              Gallagher 20
                       Brooks 23                                 Garbisch  151,20
                       Broome 7-10, 14-15, 42                    Gill 16
                       Buffington 23                             Good 44
                       Callaway 10                               Gosselink 45
                       Cammen 11-12                              Grant 20
                       Chabreck 13                               Griswold  23
                       Chambers  44                              Gwin 23
                       Clairain I                                Hall 14
                       Cobb 13                                   Hardaway 19, 21
                       Colby 31                                  Hartman 21
                       Courtney  14                              Hill 19, 21
                       Covin 14, 50                              Hine 42
                       Craft 14-15                               Hoffman 22
                       Crewz 15                                  Holland 23
                       Cross 23                                  Hossner 30
                       Diaz 1                                    Hurme 5








              64                                                                            Bibliography

                     Ibison 19, 21                            Onuf 51
                     Inskeep 24                               Oyler 24
                     Jones 21                                 Pacific Estuarine Research
                     Josselyn 10, 22-23, 51                                 Laboratory 37
                     Junt I                                   Parris 36
                     Kana 3                                   Patience 37
                     Kentula    23,25                         Peck 14
                     Kenworthy   31                           Reppert   37
                     Kiraly 23                                Reubsamen 21, 38
                     Klemas 37                                Riggs 38
                     Klima 33                                 Roberts 38.
                     Knutson 5, 24, 50                        Rodgers 22
                     Koellen 21                               Rogers 8
                     Koerth 47                                Sacco 41
                     Kraus 25                                 Schneller-McDonald 32
                     Kruczynski  25                           Seelig 24
                     Kunze 19                                 Seidensticker 35
                     Kusler 25                                Seliskar 20
                     Landin 26-27, 36, 47                     Seneca 8-10, 14-15, 42
                     Langis 26                                Sharitz 49
                     LaPerriere 27                            Shepherd 18
                     LaSalle 27                               Sherman 23
                     Lee 49                                   Shirley 2
                     Levin 34                                 Shisler 42
                     Lewis 15, 28-29                          Sifneos 23
                     Lindall 29                               Sims 27
                     Lindau 30                                Sinicrope 42
                     Lyon 31                                  Soil Conservation Service. 43
                     Mager 31                                 Somers 20
                     McCallum   20                            Steinke 43
                     McKee 49                                 Steyer 44
                     Medina 33                                Stout 43
                     Mendelssohn  49                          Tanner 44
                     Meyer 31                                 Thayer 29, 31, 44
                     Miller 32                                Thomas 19, 21
                     Minello 32-33                            Underwood 44
                     Morrison 34                              US Army Corps of Engineers. 45
                     Moy 34                                   Warren 42
                     Munro 35                                 Watzin 45
                     Nailon 35                                Webb 2-3, 26, 32, 45-48
                     National Research Council.               Weichert 47
                                  36                          Wells 1
                     Newling 36, 48                           Wiggins 48
                     Niering 37, 42                           Williams 18, 34, 48, 50
                     Nordby 50                                Wilsey 49








          Bibliography                                                                    65

                 Wolf 49
                 Woller 20
                 Woodhouse 8-10, 42, 50
                 Zalejko 26
                 Zedler 14, 23, 26, 48, 50-51
                 Zepp 5
                 Zimmerman 32-33







              Bibliography                                                                                  67,






                      Subject Index



                      Acidity                                     Blue crabs 31
                                19                                Borrichia 44
                      Alabama 2                                   Breakwaters 4
                                42                                        sandbags 1, 2L 44-46
                      Alkali bulrush                                      cargo parachutes 34
                                33                                        Christmas trees 34
                      Ammophila                                           dike 2
                                20, 24                                    fixed tire fence 1-3
                      Amphipods                                           floating tire 1
                                11, 32                                    floating tire fence 2-3
                      Anchoa 32                                           plastic snow fence 34
                      Animal use 17, 24@ 27, 30,                          sand bag 1
                                    32, 38,45                             terraces 43
                             marsh rabbits 2                      Breder traps 27, 39
                             Rats 2                               Brevoortia 6
                      Annotated bibliography   48                 Burlap plant rolls I
                             guide 31                             California 5, 7, 10, 14, 17, 22,
                      Arcuatula, 11                                              26, 33, 36, 49-50
                      Atlantic coast 48,                          Callinectes 6, 27, 31, 33
                      Avicennia germinans 4, 21                   Capitella 11
                      Batis 44, 46                                Ccreated marsh
                      Benthos 2, 6, 12, 24, 26, 31                        requirements 40
                             macro-infauna 40                     Clams 6
                      Biomass 38                                  Clipping of the cordgrass 21
                              below-ground 9-12,                  Clumps 16
                                     17, 27 26-27,                Coastal wetlands 44
                                    310 41, 46                    Comparisons
                             above-ground 9,                              created vs. natural marshes
                                    26-27,31                                     8
                      Birds  2, 6, 15, 17, 35, 38-                Competition 10, 16, 18
                                    39,41-42                      Connecticutt 41-42
                      Black mangrove 4                            Cores 12, 200 24, 26, 32-33, 39-40
                      Block nets 27                               Cover 17







              68                                                                                 Bibliography

                      Crabs 33                                    Fiber mat 2
                      Created marsh                               Fiddler crabs 6, 24, 33
                             definitions 27, 44                   Fish 6, 27, 31-32, 34, 38-39
                             evaluation 21, 38, 42                Fish habitat 28
                             requirements 45                      Fisheries habitat conservation 30
                             survey 15                            Fisheries organisms 30
                      Crustaceans 32                              Fishery habitat 32
                      Culturing 48                                Fishery species 34
                      C@athura 11                                 Florida 4, 13, 15, 18, 21, 27-28,
                      C@modocea 16                                              35, 38
                      Delaware 19                                 Functional equivalency 32, 36
                      Design 6, 9, 15-16, 22,                     Functional health of wetlands 36
                                     33-34, 41-44                 Functions 44
                      Dieback salt marshes 48                     Fundulus 6, 27, 33
                      Distichlis 16, 20, 24, 35, 41,              Fyke nets 39
                                     44,46-48                     Gammarus 11
                      Distribution and spread 39, 47              Genetics 19
                      Dolichopodidae 11                           Glossary of terms 27
                      Donor marsh recovery    13,                 Gobionellus 32
                                     17,21,28                     Grading I
                      Dredged material 1-2, 10,                          bulldozer 1
                                     15-161 209                          frontend loader 1
                                     25-26, 29, 32,               Growth rates 8, 10, 40-41, 43, 46,
                                     40,46                                      48-49
                             chemical properties 29               Guide 44
                             physical properties 29               Habitat diversity 50
                      Drop sampler 32                             Habitat functioning 38
                      Elevation 1, 4, 7-8, 10-11,                 Halodule 4, 16, 30
                                     15-16, 18-20,                Halophila 4
                                     29,411  '46-48               Heavy metals 30
                      Enforcement 22, 26                          Heteromastus 11
                      Epiphytic algae 30                          Hydrological anomalies 49
                      Erosion control mats   1,21,                Hydrology 33, 36
                                     45                           Infauna 32-33, 40
                      Evaluation procedures 36, 42                Infaunal prey 32
                      Faunal diversity I I                        Invertebrates 6
                      FDER 18                                     Iron sulfides 19
                      Fence                                       Iva 45
                             pest 1                               Juncus 5, 16, 24, 38, 41, 48
                      Fertilizer 1, 8, 10, 13, 18,                Labor costs 9
                                     20-21, 241 29,               Laeonereis 11, 20
                                     449 46                       Lagodon 32
                             organic nitrogen 14                  Lagunculafia racemosa 4, 21
                             Osmocote 8, 21                       Lepidactylus 11
                      Fetch 18, 20-21, 34                         Light-footed Clapper Rail 49








              Bibliography                                                                                     69

                      Limonium 44                                    Marsh distribution- 19     -
                      Littofina 17                                   Marsh edge. 32
                      Louisiana 21, 43, 48                           Marsh evaluation 3, 15-16, 24
                      Macoma 20                                      Marsh inventory 23
                      Macro-infauna 11-12                            Marsh restoration 27
                                      production 11                  Marsh succession 41-42
                      Macrobenthos 20.                               Maryland 15-16, 20
                      Macrofauna                                     Mats
                                      benthos  27                           erosion control 46
                      Mag Amp                                        Mechanical planting 44
                                      tests 8                        Meiofauna 33
                      Mammals 6, 38-39                               Menidia 6, 32
                      Manayunkia 33                                  Mississippi 16
                      Mangrove propagules      4                     Mitigation 13, 18, 23, 26, 29-30,
                      Marsh design 7                                                341 36-37, 39, 42 -
                              cost analysis 21                              evaluation 5, 18
                              labor costs 9                                 process 5
                      Marsh comparison 6                             Mitigation banking , 36
                              animal use 31                          Mitigation policy 21, 34
                              created vs. natural                    Model
                                      9-11, 17-18,                           wave dampening 23
                                      26, 30, 33,                    Modiolus 11
                                      39-40, 45-46                   MOM 14) 32
                              evaluation 39                          Monanthochloe 44
                      Marsh comparison, animal                       Monitoring 6-7, 9,   12, 15, 22,
                              created vs. natural   12                              33-34, 42, 44, 50
                      Marsh comparison, chemical                                    indicator species 7
                              created vs. natural 14                 Monopylephorus 33
                      Marsh creation 2-9, 12, 21,                    Mugil 6
                                      24, 26, 28, 34,                Multiple species 5, 16, 44, 46
                                      41,44-45                       National restoration strategy 35
                              elevation 3                            Nekton 32
                              evaluation 17                          Nematodes 6
                              multiple species   4                   Nereis 11-12
                              recommendations 39                     Nesting requirements 49
                              Restored Tidal                         New Jersey 7, 24
                                      Exchange    3                                 Hackensack River 6
                              water flow pattern 3                   New York 26
                      Marsh descriptions 48                          Nitrogen 26
                      Marsh design 7, 12, 33                         NMFS 21, 29-30, 32, 37
                              selection of plant                     North Carolina 5, 8-12, 14, 30,
                                      species 8                                     33,40
                      Marsh development 17, 269                      Northeastern U.S'. 41
                                      28P 33, 35-36,                 Nutrient pools 14
                                      41                             Nutrient requirements 10









                70                                                                                Bibliography

                       Nutrients 29, 48                            Productivity 44
                       Oligochaetes 2, 12, 20, 40                  Propagating 48
                       Oregon 19                                   Quantitative drop enclosures 31-32
                       Organics 11, 14, 27, 33, 39                 Rallus 49
                                       sediments 2                 Reasons for created marsh failure
                       Osmocote 18, 21                                             13-15
                       Oxidation 19                                Recommendations
                       Oyster cultch   31                                  marsh creation 13, 15, 18,
                       PaIdemonetes    27,31-32                                    22, 25, 27, 35, 40,
                       Panicum 16, 24                                              42-43, 45@ 49-50
                       Peat pots 20                                Red mangrove 4
                       Penaeus 31-32                               Regional goals 22
                       Permitting 13, 18, 21, 29-30,               Regulations 3
                                       34,42                       Remote sensing 36
                       Permitting policy                           Research needs 13, 23, 27, 36,
                                       evaluation 29                               41, 43-45, 47, 50
                       Phenology 10                                Restoration activities 5
                       Phenotypes 20, 40, 43                               goals 33
                       Philosophies 43                                     guide 22
                       Phragmites 5-7, 16, 24,                             manual 36
                                       41-42t 48                   Restoration projects 26, 33
                       Pit traps 34                                Restoration techniques 40, 50
                       Planning 16, 22, 33, 42, 49                 Restored Tidal Exchange 17, 33,
                       Plant community 44                                          41-42
                       Plant cover 15                              Rhizophora mangle 4
                       Plant growth 8-9, 14, 18                    Rodeo 7
                       Plant roll 2                                Root bum 8
                       Planting 1, 48                              Ruppia 16
                       Planting dates  46                          Salicornia 14, 17-18, 33, 41, 44,
                       Planting techniques 1-2, 4                                  46-47
                                       3, 16, 24, 28,              Sampling design 49
                                       44                                  randomized block 32
                                       burlap roll 3               Sampling sites 49
                                       multi-stem                  Sampling strategy 36
                                       clumps 3-4                  Scirpus 35, 44
                                       single stems 3              Seagrasses 16
                       Policy 42                                   Season 9, 46
                       Polychaetes 2, 11-12, 31-32,                Sediment 26
                                       40                          Sediment properties 33
                       Pore water 14                               Seed production 28
                       Potential spread  19                        Seeding 1, 8, 15
                       Prey items 27                               Seedlings 43
                       Primary production   30                     Self-regulated tide gates 42
                       Production                                  Shoreine, protection 44
                               animal 11                           Shoreline erosion 8








               Bibliography                                                                                   71

                       Shoreline stabilization 34                   Uca 24
                       Shrimp 31-32                                                fiddler crabs 6
                       Slope 4, 9, 20, 45                           Uca longisignalis 33
                       Soil attributes 19                           Uniola 24
                       Soil &-dinity 45, 49                         Vegetation
                       Soils 14                                                    succession 36
                       South Carolina 3, 26                         Vegetative Erosion Control Project
                       Spartina anglica 19                                         18,20
                       Spanina cynosuroides    8, 16,               Vegetative growth patterns 47
                                      20,24,48                      Vegetative Stabilization Site
                       Spartinafoliosa 10, 14,                                     Evaluation Form 24
                                      17-18, 26, 49                 Virginia 6, 18, 20, 23
                       Spartina maritima 19                         Washington 19, 38, 47
                       Spartina patens 1, 8, 15-16,                 Wave-climate severity 23
                                      18-21P 24P 29,                Waves' erosional forces 23
                                      35, 41-42, 44,                Wegener Ring net 39
                                      46,48                         West coast 47
                       Spartina spartinae 44, 46                    Wetland Creation/Restoration Data
                       Spartina townsendi 19                                       Base 31
                       Sporobolus 46                                Wetland functions 35
                       Sprigging 1-2, 5, 46                         Wetland laws I
                       Stabilization 15                                    planning 22
                                      biotechnical I                       decision making 22
                                      dredged                              design 22
                                      material 1                    Wetland policy 3
                                      shoreline I                   Wedand restoration 25, 42
                       Streblospio 12, 33                                  fishery management tool 28
                       Survey 42                                           guide 25
                       Techniques    43-45,48                       Wetland types 22
                       Terracing 43                                 White mangrove 4
                       Texas 1, 3, 13, 17, 29, 3 1-                 Workshop
                                      32, 34, 43-46                         restoration 22
                       Thalassia 16                                         wetlands 23
                       Time of inundation 20                        Zonation 16, 18, 24, 47
                       Topography 33, 36                            Zostera 30
                       Transplant projects  40
                                      evaluation 16
                                      growth 20
                                      history 47
                                      survival 20
                       Transplant spacing 9
                       Transplanting 3-4, 8-9, 45
                       Transplants 43
                       Tubulanus 20
                       7@pha 5, 41







             UPDATED INDICES
                     FOR
       ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY.




             THESE INDICES SHOULD
         BE SUBSTITUTED FOR pp. 63-71
              OFVOL.1, SECTION 1.











           TECHNOLOGY AND SUCCESS IN
    RESTORATION, CREATION, AND ENHANCEMENT OF
             SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA
           MARSHES IN THE UNITED STATES






              Bibliography                                                                                63








                      AuthorIndex


                      Allen 1-3, 58                                    Diaz 1
                      Athnos 4                                         Dodd 53, 57-58
                      Auble 38                                         Earhart 19
                      Baca 4                                           Eleuterius 20
                      Banner 4                                         Espey Huston & Associates,
                      Beeman 5                                                Inc. 20-21
                      Benner     5                                     Faber 21-22
                      Berger     6                                     Farmer 32
                      Bernstein  6                                     Florida Department of
                      Binney 59                                              -Environmental -
                      Blair 7                                                 Regulation 22
                      Boland     62                                    Fonseca 38
                      Bolton     7                                     Ford 1, 29
                      Bontje     7-8                                   Fowler 22, 25
                      Boyd 8                                           Frenkel 23
                      Brochu     5, 28                                 Frye 22, 25
                      Brooks     28                                    Gallagher  24
                      Broome 9-12,   17-18, 50- 51                     Garbisch   19,24
                      Buffington 28       -                            Gill 20
                      Callaway 12                                      Good 54
                      Cammen 13-15                                     Gosselink  55
                      Chabreck 15                                      Grant 24
                      Chambers    54                                   Griswold   27
                      Clairain 1                                       Gwin 28
                      Cobb 16                                          Hall 16
                      Colby 38                                         Hardaway    22,25
                      Courtney   16                                    Hartman 26
                      Covin 17, 62                                     Hill 229 25
                      Craft 17-18                                      Hine 51
                      Crewz 18                                         Hoffman 26
                      Cross 28                                         Holland 28







             64                                                                              Bibliography
                    Hossner     36-37                               Newling 44, 58
                    ,Hurme 5                                        Niering 44, 51
                    Ibison 22, 25                                   Nordby 62
                    Inskeep 28-29                                   Onuf 62
                    Jones 26                                        Oyler 29
                    Josselyn, 12, 27, 62                           --Pacific Estuarine Research
                    Junt .1                                                Laboratory 45
                    Kana 4                                          Parris 44
                    Kentula. 28, 31                                 Patience 45
                    Kenworthy    38                                 Peck 16
                    Kiraly 28                                       Reppert 45
                    Klemas 45                                       Reubsamen 26, 47
                    Klima 40                                        Riggs 47
                    Knutson 5,   28-29,61                           Roberts 47-48
                    Koellen 26                                      Rodgers 26
                    Koerth 58                                       Rogers 9
                    Kraus 29                                        Sacco 49
                    Kruczynski   30                                 Schneller-McDonald .38
                    Kunze 23                                        Seelig 28
                    Kusler 31                                       Seidensticker 43
                    Landin 32-33, 44, 58                            Seliskar 24
                    Langis 32                                       Seneca 9-12, 17-18, 50-51
                    LaPerriere 32                                  --Sharitz 60 -
                    LaSalle 33                                      Shepherd 21
                    Lee 60                                          Sherman 28
                    Levin 41                                        Shirley 2
                    Lewis 18, 34-35                                 Shisler 51
                    LindaH 35                                       Sifneos 28
                    Lindau 36-37                                    Sims 33
                    Lyon 37                                         Sinicrope 51
                    Mager 37                                        Soil Conservation Service 52
                    McCallum 24                                     Somers 24
                    McKee 59                                        Steinke 52
                    Medina 40                                       Steyer 54
                    Mend6lssohn    59                               Stout 52
                    Meyer 38                                        Tanner 53
                    Miller 3 8                                      Thayer 35, 37-38, 54
                    Minello, 39-40                                  Thomas 22, 25
                    Morrison    41                                  Underwood 54
                    Moy 41                                          US Army Corps of Engineers
                    Munro 42                                                      54
                    Nailon 43                                       Warren 51
                    National Research Council                       Watzin   55
                                43                                  Webb 2-3, 32, 39, 55-58






           Bibliography                                                                    65

                  Weichert 58
                  Wells 1
                  Wiggins 59
                  Williams 21, 41, 59, 62
                  Wilsey 59
                  Wolf 60
                  Woller 24
                  Woodhouse  9-12, 50-51,
                               60-61
                  Zalejko 32
                  Zedler 17, 21, 32, 59, 61-62
                  Zepp 6
                  Zimmerman 39-40








              Bibliography                                                                                     67,



              S,ubject Index


              Acidity 2.4                                                Terraces 54
              Alabama 3, 53                                       Breder traps 33, 48
              Alkali bulrush 41                                   Brevoortia. 7
              Ammophild 25, 30                                    Burlap plant rolls 1
              Amphipods 14, 39                                    California 6, 8, 12,  17, 21, 22, 27,
              Anchoa 40                                                          32, 41) 45, 61, 62
              Animal use 21, 30, 33, 38, 40, 48,                  Callinectes 7, 33, 39, 41
                              56                                  Capitella 13
                      Marsh rabbits 2                             Created marsh requirements 50
                      Rats 2                                      Clams I
              Annotated bibliography     38, 60                   Clipping of the cordgrass 27
              Arcuatuld 14                                        Clumps 19
              Atlantic coast 61                                   Coastal wetlands 55
              Avicennia gertninans    4, 2-7,--                   Competition - 13,20, 22
              Batis 5 6, 5 8 - @                                  Connecticut 52
              Benthos 2, 7, 15, 30, 33, 39                        Cores 15, 25, 30, 33, 39, 41, 48,
                      macro-infauna 49                                          .49
              Biomass 12-15, 21, 32, 33, 48, 51,                  Cover 21
                              58                                  Crabs 41,
                       below-ground 11, 33, 39                    Crustaceans 40
                      abov6-ground 11, 32, 33, 39                 Culturing 61
              Birds 2, 7, 19, 21, 44, 47, 52                      C@athura 14
              Black mangrove .4, 27                               C@modocea . 20
              Block nets 33                                       Definitions 34, 55
              Blue crabs 39                                       Delaware 24
              Bonichia 56                                         Design 7, 11, 19, 27, 41, 42, 51,
              Breakwaters 1,   3-5, 26, 55, 57, 58                               52,54)55
                      Cargo parachutes 43                         Dieback salt marshes 60
                      Christmas trees 43                          Distichlis 20, 25, 30, 44, 51
                      Dike 3                                                      56-59, 61
                      fixed tire fence 1-3                        Distribution and spread
                      floating tire 1                                       47,59
                      floating tire fence 2, 3                    Dolichopodidae 13
                      Plastic snow fence 43                       Donor marsh 21, 27, 35
                      sand bag 1                                  Donor marsh recovery 16








              68                                                                                  Bibliography

              Dredged material   1, 3, 13, 19, 25,              Habitat diversity 62
                     32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 50, 57, 58             Habitat functioning 40, 45, 47, 55
                     Chemical properties 36                     Halodule 5, 20, 38
                     Physical properties 36                     Halophild 5
              Drop sampler 40                                   Heavy metals 37
              Elevation 1, 5,-8-10, 13, 18-20,                  Heteromastus 13
                     22-25, 37, 51, 57, 58, 60                  Hydrological anomalies 62
              Enforcement 27, 32                                Hydrology 41, 45
              Epiphytic algae 37                                Infauna 39, 41, 49
              Erosion control 1, 26, 57                         Infaunal prey 40
              Evaluation procedures 45                          Invertebrates 7
              Faunal diversity 14                               Iron sulfides 24
              Fence, pest 1                                     Iva 5 6
              Fertilizer 1, 9, 10, 12, 17, 23,'25,              Juncus 6, 20, 30, 48, 51, 61
                            26,37,55,57,58                      Labor costs 11
                     Organic nitrogen 17                        Laeonereis 14, 25
                     Osmocote 10, 26                            Lagodon 39
              Fertilizers 30                                    Lagunculafia racemosa 4, 27
              Fetch -22, 26, 43                                 Lepidactylus 14
              Fiber mat 2                                       Light-footed Clapper Rail 61
              Tiddler crabs. 7, 30, 41                          Limoniwn 56
              Fish 7, 33, 39, 40, 42, 47, 48                    Littorina 21
              Fish habitat 34          -                        Louisiana 26, 54@,-60
              Fisheries habitat conservation 38                 Macoma 25
              Fisheries organisms 38                            Macro-infauna 13-15
              Fishery habitat 40                                       Production 14
              Fishery species 43                                Macrobenthos 25, 33
              Florida 4, 5, 16, 19, 22, 26,,34,                 Mag Amp, tests 10
                            35,44,48                            Mammals 7, 47-48
                     Florida Department of Environmental        Manayunkia 42
                     Regulation (FDER) 22                       Mangrove propagules 5
              Functional equivalency 40, 45, 47, 55             Marsh comparison
              Functional health of wetlands 45                         created vs. natural 7, 10-14@
              Fundulus 7, 33, 41                                               17, 18, 21, 23, 32,
              Fyke nets 48.                                                    37, 39, 41) 48- 49, 50,
              Gammarus 14                                                      56,58
              Genetics 24                                       Marsh creation 2, 4-11, 15, 2127,
              Glossary of terms 34                                             30, 32, 35, 43, 49, 50-
              Gobionellus 39                                                   51,55,57
              Grading, bulldozer 1                                     definitions 34, 55
              Growth rates 10, 12, 50-51, 54, 57,                      evaluation 26, 47, 53
                             58,60,62                                  requirements 50, 56
                                                                       survey 18
              Guide 55                                          Marsh descriptions 60







              Bibliography                                                                                   69

              Marsh development 21, 32, 33, 35,                  Nutrient pools 17
                               41,44,51                          Nutrient requirements 12
              Marsh distribution 23                              Nutrients 36, 60
              Marsh edge 40                                      Oligochaetes 2, 15, 25, 49
              Marsh evaluation     4, 18,20,30                   Oregon 23
              Marsh inventory     -29                            "Organics 13, 17, 33, 42, 48
              Marsh restoration 34                                       sediments 49
              Marsh succession .52                               Osmocote 23, 26
              Maryland 19, 25                                    Oxidation ' 24
              Mats, erosion control    58                        Oyster cultch 38
              Mechanical planting      55                        Palaemonetes 33, 39, 40
              Meiofauna 42                                       Panic= 20, 30
              Menidia 7, 40                                      Peat pots 25
              Mississippi 20                                     Penaeus 39, 40
              Mitigation 16, 22, 28, 33, 361 37,                 Permitting 16, 22, 26, 36, 37, 42,
                               42, 461 471 491 53                                53             -
                      evaluation 6, 22                           Phenology 12, 24, 50, 53
                      process 6                                  Philosophies 54
              Mitigation banldng 45                              Phragmites 6-8, 20, 30, 52, 61
              Mitigation policy 26, 42                           Pit traps 42
              Model, wave dampening 28                           Planning 19, 27, 41, 52, 61
              Modiolus 14                                        Plant community 55
              MOM 17, 39                                         Planrcover lV,
              Monanthochlbe       56                             Plant growth 10, 11, 17, 23
              Monitoring 7,    8, 11, 15, 19, 27, 41,            Plant roll 2
                               43, 52, 53, 55, 62                Planting 1
                      Indicator species 9                        Planting dates 58
              Monopylephorus 42                                  Planting procedures 61
              Mugil 7                                            Planting techniques 1-3, 5, 19, 30,
              Multiple species 6, 20, 55, 57                                     35,55
              National restoration strategy 43                           Burlap roll 3
              Nekton 40                                                  Multi-stem clumps 3
              Nematodes 7                                                Multi-stem plugs 5
              Nereis 14, 15                                              Single stems 3
              Nesting requirements 61                            Policy  53
              ,New Jersey 8, 30       1  -                       Polychaetes 2, 13, 15, 39, 49
                      Hackensack River    7                      Pore water 18
              New York 32                                        Potential spread    23
              Nitrogen 32                                        Prey items 33
              NMFS 26, 36, 37, 40, 47                            Primary production 37
              North Carolina 5, 10, 11,     13-15,               Production, animal 14
                               171 18, 37, 38, 41,               Productivity 55
                               49-51                             Propagating 61
              Northeastern U.S. 51                               Quantitative drop enclosures 39






              70                                                                                   Bibliography
              Rallus 61                                          Slope 4, 5, 11, 25, 57
              Reasons for created marsh failure                  Soil attributes 24
                          16-18                                  Soil salinity 56, 62
              Recommendations 16, 18, 23, 27,                    Soils 18
                                31, 34, 43, 50, 53, 54,          @South Carolina 4, 33
                                -56,-61,62                       *Spartina anglica 23
              Red mangrove 4 -                                   Spartina cynosuroides 10, 20, 25,
              Regional goals 27                                                  30,61  .
              Regulations 4                                      Spartinafoliosa 12, 17, 21, 22, 32@
              Remote sensing     45                                              61,62
              Research needs     15, 28, 34, 45, 51,             Spartina mafifima 23
                                54- 56, 59, 62                   Sparfinapatens 2, 10, 19, 20, 239
              Restoration activities 6                                  25, 26, 30, 36, 44, 51, 52@
                      goals 41                                          55-58, 61
                      guide 38                                   Spartina spartinae 55, 57
                      manual 45                                  Spartina townsendi 23
                      needs 55                                   Sporobolus 58
              Restoration projects   329 41                      Sprigging 2, 5, 58
              Restoration techniques 50, 62                      Stabilization 19
              Restored tidal exchange 4, 21, 229                        Biotechnical    1
                                41,52                                   Dredged material 1
              Rhizophora mangle 4                                       shoreline I
              Rodeo 8           --
                                                                 Streffldspi& - -r5,--42 -- -
              Root bum 10                                        Survey 53
              Ruppia 20                                          Techniques 54-56, 60, 61
              Salicornia 17, 21, 229 41, 52, 56,                 Terracing 54
                                58,59                            Texas 1, 3, 16, 21, 36, 37, 39, 40,
              Sampling 61                                                      43, 53, 55-58
              Sampling design, randomized block                  Thalassia 20
                                40                               Time of inundation 25
              Sampling sites 62                                  Topogr .aphy 41, 45
              Sampling strategy    45                            Transplant 50, 54
              Scirpus 44, 56                                            Growth 25
              Seagrasses 20                                             history 59
              Season 11, 58                                             Survival 25
              Sediment 33,41                                     Transplant projects, evaluation 20
              Seed production   35                               Transplant spacing 11
              Seeding 2, 10, 19                                  Transplanting 3, 4, '10, 11, 57
              Seedling 53                                        Tubulanus 25
              Self-regulated tide gates 52                       7ypha 6, 52
              Shoreline erosion 9 ,                              Uca 30
              Shoreline protection 55                            Uca longisignalis 41
              Shoreline stabilization 43                         Uniola 30
              Shrimp 39-40







            Bibliography                                                                        71

            Vegetation
                   growth patterns, 59
                    Vegetative Erosion Control
                          Project 22, 25
                    succession 45
            Vegetative -Stabilization--Site
                          Evaluation Form 29
            Virginia 7, 22, 25, 26, 28
            Washington 23, 47, 59
            Wave-climate severity 29
            Waves' erosional forces 28
            Wegener Ring net 48
            West coast 59
            Wetland Creation/Restoration Data
                          Base 3 8
            Wetland functions 43
            Wetland laws 4
                   decision making 28
                   design 28
                   planning 28
            Wetland policy 4
            Wetland restoration 31, 52, 53
       -----------fishery management-tool@-374---
                   guide 31
            Wetland types 27
            White mangrove 4
            Workshop
                    restoration 27
                    wetlands 28
            Zonation
                     20, 22, 23, 30, 58
            Zostera 38








                                       Other Titles in the
                                   Decision Analysis Series


           No. 1. Able, Kenneth W. and Susan C. Kaiser. 1994 Synthesis of Summer
           Flounder Habitat Parameters.





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