[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
PUNA GEOTHERMAL AREA BIOTIC ASSESSMENT Puna District, County of Hawaii Final Report April 1985 Department of Botany University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 QK 473 .H4 U65 COASTAL ZONE 1985 INFORMATION CENTER Property Of CSC Library PUNA GEOTHERMAL AREA BIOTIC ASSESSMENT PUNA DISTRICT, COUNTY OF HAWAII Final Report April 1985 A report prepared for the HAWAII STATE DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT by the DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AT MANOA. The preparation of this report was financed in part by the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended, and administered by the office of Coastal zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce. PROJECT PERSONNEL C. H. Lamoureux, Director/Botanist W. P. Char, Field Biologist A.J. Berger, Ornithologist L.W. Cuddihy, Field Assistant M. S. Kjargaard, Field Assistant R. L. Stemmermann, Field Assistant W. A. Whistler, Field Assistant Char and Lamoureux prepared the final report, in which Berger prepared the section on birds. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables ................................................ i INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1 Project Boundaries ............................................................ 1 q1 Objectives of the Study ....................................................... 3 3 METHODOLGOY.................................................................... 4 FLORA SURVEY ................................................................... 6 ECOSYSTEM TYPES ................................................................ 6 1. Lava ....................................................................... 7 2. 'OHI'a woodland ................................................................ 9 3. 'Ohi'a forest ................................................................. 12 4. Dry Forest ..................................................................... 18 .......... 18 5. Dry scrub community ........................................................... 20 6. Dry grassland ................................................................... 20 7. Mixed lowland forest ............................................................... 21 8. Scrub ............................................................................. 24 9. Agricultural lands ................................................................ 26 SPECIES LIST ........................................................................... 29 AVIFAUNA SURVEY.......................................................................... 71 Birds of the East Rift Zone (by Andrew J. Berger)........................................ 71 1. Endemic birds ........................................................................ 72 2. Indigenous birds...................................................................... 80 3. Introduced birds...................................................................... 81 Ornithological Field Notes--Kahauale'a, Upper Kalapana & Waco Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve ............................................... 93 ENDANGERED SPECIES ....................................................................... 99 Flora .................................................................................... 99 Avifauna ................................................................................ 113 ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS TO BIOTA ASSOCIATED WITH GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT........................................................116 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................119 BIBLOIGRAPHY.......................................................120 APPENDICES.........................................................127 A. PHOTOGRAPHS B. VEGETATION MAPS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES PAGE 1. Project Area .........................................................................2 2. Distribution of Adenophorus periens in Project Area ..................................102 3. Distribution of Bidens skottsbergii var. skottsbergii in Project Area .......................................................................104 4. Distribution of Bobea timonioides in Project Area ..................................106 5. Distribution of Cyanea tritomqantha var. tritomantha in Project Area .......................................................................107 6. Distribution of Ischaemum byrone in Project Area ...................................109 7. Distribution of Rauvolfia, remotiflora in Project Area .............................110 8. Distribution of Reynoldsia hillebrandii in Project Area ............................112 9. Distribution of Psittirostra psittacea in Project Area .............................114 1. Plant Species Checklist for Puna Geothermal Area ......................................31 2. Bird Species Occurring in Kahauale'a ..................................................95 3. Bird Species occurring in Upper Kalapana and Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve ....................................................96 4. Bird Species Found in Various Ecosystem Types of Kahauale'a, Upper Kalapana, and Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve .................................................................98 MM MM AREak BIMIC -DUCTIM The development of geothermal resources in the Puna District of the Island of Hawaili requires continued extension and/or verification of baseline environmental data and information. Part of this requirement is determination of the status of , local f lora and f auna with special ref erence to rare threatened and endangered birds and higher plants. This is a report on a project which has compiled existing information on the flora and fauna of the area, conducted additional field studies in the areas, identified sites which are of special biological significance, and assessed the probable effects on the biota of geothermal resource development at various places in Puna. Proiec, Boundaries Basically the area assessed is the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano, and the areas downwind of it, (in reference to the prevailing northeast tradewinds), in which changes in emiss ions associated with geothermal development might be expected to have a significant effect. This area is boun&dl by a line starting at the coast at Honolulu Landing, extending southwest along Kahakai Boulevard to Pahoa, then nor thwest along Highway 13 to Ainaloa. southwest along a boundary just south of existing subdivision roads (i.e., along the north boundary of the Puna Forest Reserve and Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural. Area Reserve), eventually reaching the Hawaili Volcanoes National Park boundary near Thurston Lava Tube; thence extending southward along Crater Rim Road aj.-id Chain of Craters Road to the region of Pulu Huluhulu; frcm there following the Kalapana Trail southeastward to the coast (See Figure 1). UPOLV $,r MAOUKONA KUXLPIIIAELE A HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 'A AL)MAU Sil AUILO RAWAIMAC UKAIAv OKALA AUPAt(OEI4QC PAPAALOA t, 610 ONONINA AKALAU KIM DIVOULP PEPCEXEv WAAwAA Is 0004,411A PAPAIKOU ALIR A A ILO KAILUA of. At AA U Of T T6WV "FAONOU Ill TAW %q KIALAKE uA ":POOPOO 02 81 KILAUEA @ALAPAVA Ap LOOO MOOPULOA "At VALVV A CAIUAPO L. C Ptu ALUALU KALAE Fig. 1. Project location. Island of Hawaii. 3 Mject.ve -Qj the Stuc 1. TIo identify, describe, and map the ecosystem types present in the proj ect. area. 2. Within each ecosystem t)@ to identify and map the occurrence of rare, threatened, and endangered species of vascular plants. 3. within each ecosystem t;ype to identify and map the occurrence of rare, threatened, and endangered species of birds. 4. Tb identify and describe the general structure and status of the communities within which these sensitive species occur. 5.- I)o assess the sites harboring sensitive species in terms of potential risk parameters such as proximity to sites proposed for geothermal exploration and development, effects of such development itself on the sensitive species. and other such potential risks as the accelerated introduction of alien species associated with the- habitat disturbances required as part of the geothermal exploration and development process. 4 Prior to undertaking the survey, a search of the pertinent literature was made to familiarize the investigators with previous studies conducted in the area, The field survey was conducted from 15 November to 12 December 1984. The survey team varied f ran a base team of two to as many as seven members when access into remote areas by helicopter was used. A total of 58 person-days were re*dred to gather the technical data contained in this report. Access into most areas was by paved or unpaved roads and jeep trails using a 4-wheel drive vehicle. A helicopter was emplayed for the more inaccessible Kahauale'a and wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve sites. Transects which were walked-through are indicated on the accmparying maps (Appendix B). wntative ecosystem types delineated fran recent aerial orthophotoquads and fr4xn U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services' maps (Jacobi 1985) were ground checked and correlated with the orthophotoquads. Criteria such as the dominant life form and associated plant species were used in identifying and describing each ecosystem type. Areas which support native ecosystem types were more intensively surveyed since rare species are most likely to occur in such areas. Surveys were not conducted as intensively in the more disturbed ecosystem types such as agricultural and scrub lands. Thus, a few weedy, exotic species may have been omitt&I fram the plant checklist. Species identification were made in the field. Plants which could not be positively identified were collected for later determination in the herbarium and laboratory. Notation of species present in each ecosystem type was made and is presented in Table 1. The species recorded are indicative of the 5 season and environmental conditions at the time of the survey. A survey taken at a different season and under varying enviromental oonditions would no doubt yield slight variations in the species list especially of the annual species. Woody species have been censused to a greater degree of reliability. 6 nm samw EOOSYSTE14 TYPES Nine broadly def ined ecosystem qrpes are recognized. 1he descriptions are generalized and do not attempt to account for all the different local variations present within the project area. When a development is Planned for a specific site, then these descriptions can be "fine-tuned" for that site with a more intensive biological survey. Of the nine ecosystem types, the 'ohila forest is discussed in greatest detail with a number of subcategories recognized. 7hese subcategories are based on structure, associated plant species, disturbance. and the presence of exotic species. 7he 'ohila forests are envirmnentally significant as they provide critical habitat for a number of rare, threatened or endangered plant and bird species. r1he distribution of these ecosystems is presented in the accomparying vegetation maps (Appendix B). 7he vegetation information assembled and mapped by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Jacobi 1985) serves as a baseline for the ecosystem types recognized on the Volcano, Kalalula, Kalapana. and parts of the South Pahoa maps. Same of the detailed vegetation units presented on the US1,VS maps have been grouped into the more generalized ecosystem types recognized in this study. Information from vegetation maps prepared by L. Cuddihy- (in Hannah 1984) of the lower. Puna area was used in delineating ecosystem types in this portion of the project site. 11he 1983 Pulu Olo flows have been accurately mapped using recent information from U.S.F.w.s. and U.S.G.S.; the 1984 flows include only those up to September 20, 1984 and were drawn using only generalized maps of the flows, 7 Ian U=] Kilauea volcano, a broad shield volcano lying against the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, dominates the Puna landscape. At its summit is a caldera 2.5 miles long and 2 miles wide. Within the caldera lies Halemalumalu Crater, the principal site of activity. Two rif t zones extend southwestward and eastward f rcin the caldera; most flank eruptions have taken place along these two rift zones, particularly along the later (Macdonald and Abbott 1970). 7he east rif It zone, which runs the length of the study area, trends southeastward f rom the caldera f or f ive mi les but then bends sharply and extends east-northeastward to Cape Kumukahi and onward along the ocean floor (MaodDrald and Abbott 1970). Iava flo ws, pit c raters, and spatter and cinder cones cof different ages mark the east rift zone. Pahoehoe flows predominate near the summit of Kilauea because they are close Ito the ve nts f ran which they are issued,, but la'a flows become more abundant with increasing distance fran the summit and the rift zones (Macdonald and Abbott 1970). For this study, the lava ecosystem includes recent, barren f laws as well as slightly older flows which support a pioneer vegetation. 9bere have been several. studies of plant succession on lava f lows on Hawai I i (Forbes 1912, Clements 1916, MacCaughey 1917, Robyns and Lamb 1939, Skottsberg 1941) , however, the information from these studies is still only fragmentary. A few intensive studies of plant succession have been made at selected sites. Doty (1961, 1967) established several study plots on the 1955 lava flows. Smathers and Mueller-Dcmbois (1974) conduct ed intensive studies of succession on ash and pahoehoe at the 1959 Kilauea Iki eruption site. alie results of these studies show how diverse are the successional stages involve-d and how difficult it is to generalize effectively about succession on 8 lava f lows. The great range of environmental conditions available have produced a complex of successional stages. From these studies it is@ clear that available moisture plays an important part in succession. Whether a lava flow occurs in a wet or dry locality will determine how rapidly plants are able to colonize it. In wetter areas, the developmnt of vegetation is much more rapid. The whitish-gray lichen, Ster vulgani,, often appears first on scme lava flows, however, higher plants such as Ichila (Metrosidero coUina) and ferns such as swordfern (NgA@r Lepi-s multiflora) may also appear at the same time. 'Chila is the most common pioneer among the flowering plants and may even appear before the lichens. In dry localities colonization of lava flows is exceedingly slow. Lava flows of different ages and climatic exposures can be observed in the Prciect area. The Pula Olo flows (1983 to present) are completely barren for they are too recent and, in fact, newer flows often pour over the earlier flows. On the 1977 flow near the 1660 f t elevation U.S.G.S. benchmark, plant cover on the la'a is very low,, 1 to 2%. A few small Ichila plants and swordfern may be found scattered here and there. Lichen cover is also low with Stereocaulon covering 30 to 40% of the rocky surface. Scattered throughout the flow are pockets of vegetation (kipukas) left more or less intact by the lava. These kipukas are of varying sizes. The larger kipukas usually survive with most of its components intact. The smaller kipukas usually have many of its 'ohila trees killed but still standing. Ferns such as uluhe (Dicranopteris spp.) and flowering plants such as mamaki (P-ip-tulms hmaii msis , Buddleia asiatica,, and I chi I a of ten take root at the bases of these trees because these standing dead trees act as interceptors daring driving rains, causing water to run down the trunks (Smathers and 9 Mueller--Dombois 1974). Tree molds found scattered throughout the flow also provide shady, damp crevices where young plants may grow. The Mauna Ulu flows of 1969 to 1974, which issued near the vents, are pahoehoe flows. Pahoehoe flows have smooth, hard crusts and colonization takes place mainly along joint cracks and fissures. The Mauna Ulu flows, at a higher elevation and slightly wetter situation, support such pioneer colonizers as 'ohi'a, 'ohelo (Vaccinium spp.), 'ama'u (Sadleria spp.), 'ae (Polypodium pelluidum), kupaoa (Dubauti scabra), and pawale (Rumex skottergii . Stereocaulon may be absent or uncommon on these flows. The 1955 flow between Keauohana Forest Reserve and 'I'ilewa Crater consists of 'a'a which is densely covered with Stereocaulon. Higher plant cover is 10 to 20%. Vegetation consists of 2 to 4 m tall 'ohi'a with many smaller individuals 15 to 30 cm tall and the introduced swordfern. Other species, occasionally seen on the flow include bamboo orchid (Arundina bambusaefolia) , broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus) , moa (Psilotum nudum), and Buddleja. As one approaches the edge of the flow where it meets the forest, the percentage of plant cover and the number of species increases. Plants from the surrounding forests such as huehue (Cocculus ferrandianus) , mamaki, uluhe, and 'uki (Machaerina spp.) slowly invade the flow from the forests. 2. 'Ohi'a woodland In wetter parts of the study area the 'ohi'a (Metrosideros collina) woodland is composed of widely spaced trees with an almost continuous carpet of uluhe (Dicranopteris spp.) , a matted fern, between the trees. In mist mesophytic situations a grass-shrub association occupies the space between the trees. The 'ohi'a woodland may vary in size from low to tall stature trees in different localities but in any one stand the trees are fairly uniform in size. The two types of 'ohi'a woodland are described below. 10 a. 'Ohia woodland with uluhe [ohia-uluhe] This ecosystem type covers large areas of Puna, especially on the relatively young lava flows below 1000 ft elevation near Pahoa. The 'ohi'a woodland with uluhe is interpreted as one of several stages in the normal succession leading to 'ohi'a forest on relatively wet 'a'a and pahoehoe flows. Atkinson (1969, 1970) studied in detail the successional trends on coastal and lowland lava flows of Kilauea Volcano. This ecosystem type is often not uniform. Atkinson (1970) observed that even on the same flow there is a wide variation in the proportions of uluhe and 'ohi'a. It may vary from an uluhe "fernland" with few 'ohi'a trees to an 'ohi'a/uluhe "treeland"; gradations from "fernland" to "treeland" are not uncommon. From his observations of the vegetation on the 1840 flow and the older, nearby 'a'a flows he estimated that the succession from bare 'a'a to "treeland" stage can be reached within 120 years. He noted though that extensive prehistoric pahoehoe flows in the Pahoa area were still in the 'ohi'a/uluhe "treeland" stage rather than mature 'ohi'a forests and concluded that the rate of succession is extremely slow on pahoehoe flows. In places the 'ohi'a woodlands with uluhe have been burned at scme time or another (Atkinson 1970). These disturbed woodlands have large patches of broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus) scattered throughout; clumps or thickets of Malabar melastome (Melastoma malabathricum) and waiawi (Psidium cattleianum) are also common. The dense fern cover prevents the establishment of many seedlings and as a result only a few scattered plants such as kopiko (Psychotira hawaiiensis), 'uki (Machaerina spp.) , Malabar melastome, and bamboo orchid (Arundia bambusaefolia) are found in the thick uluhe mats. The uluhe may be up to 3 m tall in some places. This ecosystem type is difficult (and dangerous) to botanize as the thick carpet of matted ferns often obscures the large earth cracks, fissures, and tree molds beneath. In same localities, such as parts of the 1840 flow in the Nanawale Forest Reserve, the uluhe may be thin and may occur in patches. When this occurs, other species such as bamboo orchid, 'uki' and swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora) become common. Since this ecosystem type represents an early stage in succession, it does not contain a large number of different species. Rare or endangered species are usually not found in this ecosystem type. b. 'Ohi'a woodland with grass [ohia-gr] The total area occupied by this ecosystem type is not large. At upper elevations along the Napau-Kalapana. Trail and especially around Pu'u Huluhulu the vegetation consists of scattered 'ohi'a with broomsedge. Bush beardgrass (Andropogon glomeratus), 'uki, and 'ohelo (Vaccinium reticulatum) are common. Kukae-nene (Coprosma ernodeoids) , bamboo orchid, pukiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), and 'ama'u (Sadleria cyatheoides) are occasional. Scattered patches of uluhe are frequently encountered. A number of other grasses such as velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus), foxtailgrass (Setaria spp.), and Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei); and sedges such as Pycreus polystachyos, tall fringe rush (Fimbristylis dichotoma), and kuolohia (Rhynchospora lavarum) are also occasionally seen especially along the trailsides. Firetree (Myrica faya), a noxious weedy tree, is common near Makaopuhi Crater. These upper elevation 'ohi'a woodlands with grass occur in areas which have been burned; the fires originating naturally from volcanic eruptions or accidentally set by man. Some of the species found in higher elevation woodlands such as kukae-nene and Hedyotis centranthoides are not found associated with the 12 warmer, low elevation woodlands. These lower elevation 'ohi'a woodlands occur near the coast and probably receive less rainfall than the higher elevation woodlands. They are also exposed to some degree of salt spray. Swordfern, Pluchea odorata, Buddleja asiatica, and other exotic species increase in numbers. Native species occasionally observed include huehue (Cocculus ferrandianus), mamaki (Pipturus hawaiensis), and naupaka (Scaevola taccada)as well as 'ohelo and pukiawe. 3 . 'Ohi'a forest This ecosystem type covers extensive portions of the Island of Hawai'i and is the principal ecosystem type found within the study area. The dominant tree in this forest is 'ohi'a or 'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros collina); all three varieties of Metrosidero occur in these forests. However, in older 'ohi'a forests large trees of Metrosideros collina var. macrophylla are often dominant. 'Ohi'a forests occur in moderately miost to wet situations at fairly low to middle elevations and show considerable variation in structure and composition in different habitats. In wet areas older 'ohi'a forests commonly develop a dense understory of tree ferns (Cibotium spp.). Other species of trees also occur within these older forests and often form a distinct subcanopy layer. In moderately miost situations a mesic 'ohi'a forest often develops. A rich assortment of other native tree species occur in these mesic 'ohi'a forests. The 'ohi'a forest, especially the least disturbed portions, is the principal habitat for large numbers and kinds of native birds. Many rare native plant species are also found in this ecosystem type. 13 Five different kinds of 'ohi'a forests are recognized in this study and are described in the following sections. Where different kinds of 'ohi'a forests meet, there is very often no sharp boundary between the forest types and one kind usually grades into the other. a. wet 'ohi'a forest with native species [ohia-a (1)] This kind of 'ohi'a forest occurs within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Kahauale'a, Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve, and a small area in upper Kalapana (Volcano, Kalalua and Kalapana orthophotoquads). Extensive unbroken tracts of wet 'ohi'a forests are found principally in the upper elevations of the study area from about 2100 ft to 3700 ft elevation. At lower elevations (1900 to 1000 ft) these wet forests are fragmented by recent lava flows and 'ohi'a forests which have been disturbed to sane extent. The wet 'ohi'a forest with native species is the least disturbed ecosystem type within the study area and is the best example of a more or less intact wet native forest community. Exotics (or introduced) plant species are confined primarily to the trailsides and within the forest (away from trails) they are relatively rare or uncommon except where pigs have rooted or wallowed. Most of these exotic plants are grasses, sedges or herbs and include such species as Hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum), broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), Cyperus haspan, water purselane (Ludwigia palustris), Hypericum spp., Drymari cordata and fireweed (Erechtites valerianaefolia). A few scattered shrubs of strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) may sometimes be encountered. These wet 'ohi'a forests with native species are closed canopy forests (>60% cover) and are composed largely of mature, tall statured (>10 m) 'ohi'a trees. Trees with trunks 1 to 1.5 m in diameter are not uncommon. 14 Below the 'ohi'a canopy is a subcanopy layer of native trees, 8 to 10 m tall. In upper elevation forests such as Kahauale'a the subcanopy layer is commonly composed of kawau (Ilex anomala), olapa (Cheirdendrom trigynum), alani (Pelea clusaefolia), and kopiko (Psychotria hawaiiensis). Trees of 'ohe (Tetraplasandra hawaiensis) may smetimes be found, usually in the more open areas. Tree ferns (Cibotium spp.) form a third layer (3 to 5 m tall) beneath the trees. The tree fern layer is of ten dense and in these parts of the forest it of ten appears as if the area were covered by a sea of green umbrellas. A number of shrubs and smaller trees are found scattered among the tree ferns. These commonly include kanawao (Broussaisia arguta) , pilo (Coprosma spp.) , several Cyrtandra species, Clermontia parviflora, and 'akia (Wikstoemia sandwicensis) . Patches of uluhe (Dicranopteris spp.) are found scattered throughout the forest especially in areas where the canopy cover is more open. A large number of terrestrial and epiphytic ferns including the rare Adenophorus periens is found in this type of forest. Liverworts and mosses are abundant and form thick cushions on the trunks of trees. In lower elevation wet 'ohi'a forests such as those near upper Kalapana the composition of the subcanopy layer begins to change. Lama (Diospyros ferrea) and kopiko become the common elements of this layer. Only small portions of these lower elevation forests now remain intact. These forests are an important biological resource in understanding the dynamics of our native forests (Stemmermann 1983, Mueller-Dombois 1985). b. Wet 'ohi'a forest with native species and exotic shrubs [ohia-a:(2)] This ecosystem type covers a large portion of the Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve. It is also found scattered throughout the rest of the study area. The ohia-a(2) forest is more or less similar in composition and structure to the less disturbed ohia-a(l) forest discussed previously. However, it is generally an open canopy forest (<60% cover). Exotic shrubs, 15 primarily strawberry guava and occasionally Malabar melastome (Melastoma malabathricum) are found throughout the forest but ar most abundant in areas which have been distrubed. Patches of uluhe ane exotic grasses are also more frequently encountered. The tree fern layer is usually not as well developed as in the ohia-a(1) forest. Signs of pig activity are often found; feral cattle damage to 'ie' ie (Freycientia arborea), 'uki (Machaerina angustifolia), and olapa may also be observed in these forests. Parts of the ohia-a(1) and a(2) forests bordering the recent Pu'u O'o flows have suffered damage from heat, fire, and volcanic fumes and debris (tephra and ash). c. 'Ohi'a-kukui forest with mixed native and exotic shrubs (ohia-a(3)) This forest type is similar to the ohia-a(2) forest but contains a certain admixture of kukui (Aleurites moluccana) trees and other exotic tree and shrub species (Mueller-Dombois 1985). These wet 'ohi' a-kukui forest units are easily recognized on the orthophotoquads. The rounded, silvery-green colored kukui canopy appears as whitish, mottled ares on the black and white photoquads. Kukui is a Polynesian introduction and the Hawaiians most likely cultivated some parts of this forest. The 'ohi'a-kukui forests examined during this survey contained plants of 'awa (Piper methysticum), 'awapuhi-kua-hiwi (zingiber zerumbet), pi'ia (Dioscorea pentaphylla), Hawaiian bamboo (Schizostachyum glaucifolium), and ti (Cordyline terminalis). More recently introduced plants such as jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), avocado (Persea americana), and Philodendron sp. were found in these forests. Strawberry guava and Malabar melastome shrubs may form a dense understory in these 'ohi'a-kukui forests. 16 d. Moderately moist 'ohi'a forest {ohia-a(4)} The moderately moist (mesic) 'ohi'a forests occur in areas which receive slightly less rainfall (about-75 to 100 inches/yr) than the wet forests but do not suf fer an actual moisture deficit and occur on lava flows which have been rather well weathered (Fosberg 1972). The forests are composed of open (rarely closed) , medium to tall stature trees. 'Ohi'a is the predominate tree but a number of native txee species such as lama are also common; these trees may be as tall as the surrounding 'ohi'a trees or they may form a subcanory layer. A number of dry forest tree species are also found in the mesic forests. Large trees of lama. 'ahakea (Bobea timonioides) , olopua (Oqsmanthus sandwicensis and 'ohe (Tetraplasandra hawai sis) , 15 to 20 m tall, were f ound in the mesic forests of the Royal Garden subdivision. Other tree species also observed include hao (Rauvolfia remotiflora kolea-lau-nui (Ma-sine les rtiana)-, Papala (Charpentieria obovata), and papala-kepau (Pisonia umbellifera). In some places kukui trees may also be a part of the canopy cover. Mango (Mangifera indica), breadfruit (Artocaropus altilis) , and roseapple (Syzygium jambos) trees may be found in some mesic forests. Unlike the wet 'ohi'a forests, the mesic 'ohi'a forests do not support a dense understory of tree ferns and shrubs. The tree ferns and shrubs such as alahe'e (Canthium odoratum), kopiko, and mamaki (Pipturus hawaiensis) are usually scattered and the mderstory is open. Exotic shrubs found in this forest include both species of guava, Pluchea odorata, and lantana (Lantana camara) . Groundcover may consist of swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora) and various exotic grasses such as Hilo grass and basketgrass (Oplismenus hirtellus). 17 Large bird's-nest ferns (ASPLENIUM nidus) are occasionally observed on trees. other epiphytes include 'ie'ie, moa (Psilot nudum), cheohe (Vittaria elongata) and Elaphoglossum species. e. 'Ohi'a forest with exotic subcanopy and shrub layers (ohia-b) Large areas of south Pahoa are covered by 'ochi'a forests dominated by exotic subcanopy and shrub layers. These forests may consist of medi m to tall stature trees with open or closed canopies. This type of forest is often hard to distinguish from the ohia-a(2) forests on the orth orthophotoquads especially if - the canopy is closed. Ihe understory layers of this type of forest have at sme time in the past been more-or less greatly disturbed as exotic species dominate. Tall strawberry guava forms a dense subcanopy layer, 6 to 7 m tall, while smaller guava plants, 1 to 3 m tall, make up the shrub layer. Malabar melastome is usually a common oomponent of the shrub layer. The ground beneath is usually heavily shaded and groundcover often consists of basketgrass, thimbleberry (Rubu rosaefoliu ), downy wood fern (Christella denta ), 'awapuhi-kua-hiwi, and strawberry guava seedlings of all sizes. other exotics found in this type of 'ohi'a forest include honohono (Commelina diffusa), Spathoglottis Plica, fireweed, ti, pi'ia, a number- of ginger species (Hedychium spp.), Hilo grass, and rose apple. Native species such as lama, tree ferns, 'ie'ie, and kopiko are occasional to uncommon. The more open areas of these forests are usually filled with tangled mats of uluhe. 18 4. Dry forest [dry for) The dry forests can be found on the Kalapana and South Pahoa orthophotoquads. The forests occur principally within Hawaii volcanoes National Park and the Royal Gardens subdivision and are usually found on relatively steep slopes. These forests generally fall between the 50 and 75 inch rainfall isohyets in the study area. This ecosystem type is composed primarily of a lama-'ohi'a mixture with other dry forest species on a'a lava flows. In some places, however, the forest may consist of almost pure stands of lama (Diospyros ferrea ssp. sandwicensis) or, more infrequently, of 'ohi'a. The dry forest is usually open, the trees of medium stature (5 to 10 m) and with rounded crowns, although in its best development the forest my be closed and consist of tall stature (>10 m) trees. Among the dryland tree species associated with this forest type are hao- (Rauyolfia remotiflora), wiliwili (Erythri sandwicensi 'ohe (Reynoldsia hillebandii , and 'iliahi (Santal paniculatum). A large population of 'ohe is found in the Royal Gardens subdivision. The trees tend to occur in clumps or groups and are easily differentiated from the rest of the vegetation by their pale-green leaves and thick branches. Alahele (Canthi odora lakia (Wikstroemia phillyreaefolia- var. buxif AM, and alalili (Erythrina sandwicensi) are the most commonly occurring members of the shrub layer when the forest is open. These three species occur in more or less equal numbers and form a dense thicket between the trees. Under closed canopy conditions, the shrubs became moderate to sparse in cover. Alahele is more commonly seen than akila, and alalili is uncommon. The alahele will often form a subcanopy layer 4 to 5 m tall. 19 Non-native tree and shrub species occasionally encountered in the dry forests include Java plum (Schinus terebinthifolius), kukui (Aleurites moluccana) , Christmas berry (Schinus tetebinthifoliug), lantana (Lantana camara) , guava (Psidim guava) and kolcmona (Cassia surattensis). The native kaunaloa-pehu vine (Cassy filiformis) often drapes forest trees and shrubs with its long, orange-colored stems and branches. Other native vines found in the dry forests include koali-lawahia (Ipgmoea indica), 'awikiuriki (Canavalia sp.), and huehue (Cocculus ferrandianu The pakahakaha fern (Pleopeltis thunbergiana) is occasionally observed on the trunks and branches of trees but the kinds of epiphytic species in this forest type are few. The amount of ground cover in the dry forest will vary depending on several. factors such as open or closed canopy, amount of moisture available. age of lava flow, elevation, etc At lower el evations with less rainfall, 30 to 40 percent of the ground is -bare or lichen-covered 'a'a; laua'e fern (Phymaosorus scolopendria), the most abundant species in this layer, may cover 40 to 50 percent of the ground; and leaf litter and other species such as peperamia (Peperomia leptostachya), broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), spurflower (Plectranthus parviflora), sword fern (Nephrolepis muiltiflora), and partridge pea (Cassia lechenaultiana) make up the remainder of the cover. Under slightly wetter conditions at higher elevations, ground cover may be 60 to almst 100 percent. Sword fern is abundant while lauale, basket grass (Oplismenus hirtellus), and seedlings of dry forest tree and shrub species are common. Other species occasionally encountered are (Carex wahuensis), moa (Psilotum nudum), Spanish clover (Desmodium uncinatum), and Hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum). 20 5. Dry scrub community [dry scr] Within the project area the total area occupied by the dry scrub community is small an, like the dry forest, is found primarily in the drier portions of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park and the Royal Gardens subdivision. Shrubs of alahe'e aki'a, and a'ali'i, 2 to 4 m tall, are the common components of this ecosystem type. Lama and 'ohi'a trees, 4 to 6 m tall, occur as scattered individuals throughout the scrub. Sprawling, tangled mats of 'ulei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia) are also frequently encountered. Other shrups and subshrubs found in the dry scrub community include 'ilima (sida cordifolia), lantana, guava, hi'aloa (waltheria indica var. americana), and pukiawe (styphelia tameiameae). The scrub community occurs on rough a'a. Large areas with sparse ground cover are common on the rocky substrate. The xerophytic kalamoho fern (pellaea ternifolia) and the succulent spurflower are often found in these areas. In areas with more ground comver, exotic grasses such as broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), bush beardgrass (Andropogon glomeratus), Natal redtop (Rhynchelytrum repens) and molossesgrass (Melinis minutiflora) dominate. Other species occasionally fouond in tis ecosystem type are laua'e, swordfern, kauna'oa-pehu, moa, pili grass (Heteropogon contortus), and cayenne vervain (Stachytarpheta australis). 6. Dry grassland [dry gr] 21 Grasslands occur on relatively flat coastal areas and extend upslope to as high as 480 m (1580 f t) elevation. Grasslands may be found on la'a or pahoeh(x! substrates. 7his ecosystem type is characterized by wide open grassy areas with rocky outcrops and scattered low shrubs and trees. A mixed association of the two Andr am species, Natal redtop, and pi li grass usually makes up the dominant grass cx)ver. Localized patches of molassesgrass are occasionally encountered. Due to drier envirormental conditions and exposure, shrubs are usually sprawling or low growing, 1 to 2 m tall. Shrubs associated with thi s ecosystem type incude-lulei, alalili, akila, noni, lantana, guava., Java plum, Christmas berry, liliahi, and alahele. Lantana may form solid stands in some places, especially along the boundary of this ecosystem type and the dry forest. Short- to mediuft-r-statured trees of the xerophytic form of 'ohila can be found growing on the pahoehoe knolls scattered-throughout the grassland. Lama and wiliwi.1i trees are also found in the dry grassland as scatterd individuals or small, open stands. other species occasionally observed include smaller shrubs such as indigo Undi fera suffruticosa), partridge pea, Cayenne vervain, and 'uhaloa; and weedy grasses, forbs, and vines such as Digitar spp.r pigweed (Portul-aca olex a), ironweed (Vernonia ciner ), three-flowered beggarweed (Desmod;Lumn triflo um , and pohapoha (Passiflora foetida). 7. Mixed ljowl f.-orest [ra for-] Within the project area the mixed lowland forests extend from the Kalapara area to Kapoho and on towards Hilo. This ecosystem type presents a varied mosaic of plant associations rather than an integrated entity. It is fragmented by villages, subdivisions, cultivated lands, and lava flows. 22 The lowland forest contains many species found int he moist mesophytic 'ohi'a forest in addition to hala (Pandanus spp.), hau (Hibiscus tiliaceus), and other lowland species. Its inland boundaries are difficult to delineate as it overlaps other inland ecosystem types (Fosberg 1972). The lowland forests have been strongly modified by man. The Polynesians introduced trees such as niu (Cocos nucifera), kukui (Aleurites moluccana), kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum), 'ulu (Artocarpus altilis), milo (Thespesia populnea), and 'chi'a-'ai (Syzygium malaccensis). they also brought with them ohe (Schizostrachym glaucifolium), mai'a (Musa spp.), yams (Dioscorea sppp.), taro (Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum), 'ape (Alocasia macrorrhiza), noni (Morinda citrifolia) and 'awa (Piper methysticum). these plants are frequently found associated with old Hawian house sites and agricultural terraces in Puna. Later post-Cook introcuctions include trees and shrubs of Java plum (Syzygium cumini), mango (Mangifera indica), avocado (Persea americna), reseapple (Syzygium jambos), guava (Psidium guajava), straberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), christmas berry (Schinus terebinthifolius) and monkeypod (Samanea saman). forestry plantings of trees such as albizia (Albizia spp.), ironwood (Casuarina spp.), gunpowder tree (Trema orientalis), Ceara' rubber (Manihot glaziovii), macaranga (Macaranga spp.), Melochia umbellata, and guarmo (Cecropia spp.) were also made. Many of these introduced species have naturalized and spread. The mixed lowland forests in Puna today are composed most frequently of a mixture, of native trees - 'chi'a, lama (Diospyros ferrea ssp. sandwicensis), hala -and the introdu ed trees mentioned above. the height of these forests vary greatly from low stature, almost scrub-like, disturbed forests to medium or tall stature older forests. the understory varies considerably depending 23 upon the nature of past disturbances and the amount of campy cover. The shrub layer may consist of the two guava species, Pluchea odora , Malabar melastame (Melas malabathricum) , Christmas berry, and the native shrubs kopiko (Psychotria hMMiiensis), mamaki (Pipturus hawaiiensis), and lakia (Wikstrpemia sandwicensis) . Noni and hapulu i1i (Cib-otim chamissoi) are occasionally found. Where the understory has been greatly disturbed guava and/or strawberry guava may form a dense shrub layer. Ground-cover is sparse when the campy is dense. Basketgrass (Q-lismenus hirtellus), lawapuhi kua hiwi (ZiMiber zer downy woodEern Christella dentata) , swordEern (Neazolepis multifIgra) , and smaller shrubs of thimbldberry (Rubus rosaefolius and Stachytarpheta spp. are commonly observed. Seedlings of the tree and shrub species are numerous. Where canory cover is less dense such as in disturbed areas, along roadsides, and the peripheries of the forests, the ground cover is denser and may consist of California grass (Brachiari mutica), molassesgrass (MeIinis minutifJom) napiergrass (Pennise Wixr honohono (Comeli diffusa) and sensitive plant (MiTosa ioudica var. unij The vines maile pilau (Paederia, foeti ), kalele (Mucuna gigan and white thunbergia Munbergia fla-a-ans) are also cmmn in these more open areas. Locally common are small patches of forest with a single species daminant. These species include ironwood, hau, kukui, and hala. These small patches of forest are usually dense and there are few understory plants. The rocky substrate may be largely covered with leaf litter under hala, hau, -and ironwood forests while basketgrass is commonly associated with kukui forests. This ecosystem type also includes the coastal mixed lowland forest and scrub. The plants along the shore are exposed to salt spray, wind, and larger amounts of solar radiation. Vegetation consists of low, windswept trees and shrubs and low mats or cushions of herbaceous plants. 0 24 Most of the Puna coastline is rocky with cliff s plunging down to the sea. These rocky cliffs are frequently bare except for low growing plants such as lilima (Sidg fall ), Fimbristylis pyo-ocgphala, and lakulikuli (Sesumium pgrtul Mgt=r. Further in from the sea low trees and shrubs of irorwood, naupaka (Scaevola, taccada), Pluchea odorata, and Christmas berry may be found. An excellent example of native coastal lowland scrub is found at Lili-loa along coastal Highway 137, just after entering the Malama Ki Forest Reserve from the Hilo side. Here 'ohila as well as pukiawe (S-tvpbeli tamelawiae) come down to the coast. Other native species found here include Ischmum byrone, lakia (Wikstroemi Sp.), 'ulei (0stemles wt byll:id alahe I e (Canthi odora lama, kauna I oa-pehu (Cassy f iliformis) , and huehue (Coc p- ferrandimM. 8. BgKiph [D-grl This ecosystem type is found in areas which have been frequently disturbed or previously cleared. It is usually dominated by exotic species. Scrub vegetation occurs throughout the study site but is more frequently found in lower Puna where there has been much more disturbance and agricultural activities. 7he structure of this ecosytem type may vary fran open, grassy areas with scattred shrubs and trees to dense, closed scrub. Bromsedge (Andrgpg%on virginicus), molassesqrass (Melinis min U tif lox-a) , or Californiagrass, (Brachiaria muti ) are usually the dominant grass species in the open scrub. Napiergrass (Pennise pu u bush beardgrass rp XeM) , (Andr gqgo-n glomeratug) , and Hilo grass (Paspal conjugatum) may be locally common in some areas. 7he most abundant shrub species are Malabar melastome (Melas malabathricum) and the two guava species Msi-dim cruai Psidlum cattlei Other shrubs ommnly observed are lantana (Lan -Camu@a) 25 pluchea (Pluchea odorata), butterfly bush (Buddleja asiatica), and Desmodium cajanifolium. Scattered patches of uluhe (Dicranopteris spp.) may also be found in the scrub vegetation. Very scattered low (<5 m) to medium (5 to 10 m) statured "ohi'a trees may occasionally be found in some open scrub. Exotic trees frequently observed in the open scrub include Trema orientalis, albizia (Albizia spp.), Cecropia spp., and Melochia umbellata. Solid strands of dense, almost impenetrable scrub composed most often of guava (Psidium guajava) and/or strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) are found where ever the land has been disturbed. Psidium reporduces and spreads rapidly from root sprouts. In some places this scrub can become as tall as 10 m or more and develop into a forest. Malabar melastome may also form dense scrub, however, this type of scrub does not get as tall as the Psidium scrub. The density and diversity of the ground cover varies with the amount of light able to penetrate the scrub. The herb layer is poorly developed where the scrub is dense. Much of the ground is bare or covered with litter from the shrubs above. Shade tolerant plants such as basketgrass (Opliamenus hirtellus) and downy woodfern (Christella dentata) are found here. Where the scrub is less dense Glenwoodgrass (sacciolepis indica), swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora), thimbleberry (Rubus rosaefolius), stachytarphete spp., honohono (Commelina diffusa), as well as basketgrass and downy wood fern, are present. Few native species are found in this ecosystem typer and then these species tend to be found in the more open scrub. Besides 'ohi'a and uluhe other natives sometimes found in the scrub include 'akia (Wikstroemia sandwicensis), lama (Diospyros ferrea spp. sandwicensis), and sedges such as Fimbristylis dichotoma, 'uki (Machaerina angustifolia), kuolohia (Rhynchospora lavarum), pycreus ploystachyos, and scleria testacea. 26 9. Agricultural lands (ag) Much of Puna, especially the lower Puna area, has been cultivated since pre-historic and historic times. All cultivated lands including sugar cane and papaya fields, orchards, anthurium and orchid farms, fallow fields, etc., as well as abandoned fields, pastures, and the network of roads associated with farming activities are designated "Agricultural lands" in this study. These agricultural lands present a mosaic of different patterns on the orthophotoquads and are in a constant state of change from year to year. Different crops, stages of cultivation, fallow fields, crop rotation, and expansion of existing fields all contribute to the general dynamics of agricultural lands. Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) and papaya (Carica Papaya) have been the primary crops grown in the Puna region. However, with the closing of Puna Sugar Company many of these fields have been abandoned or turned over to papaya cultivation. These abandoned fields are in various stages of weedy succession. Recently abandoned fields consist largely of cane with a few scattered trees of Trema orieltals, Cecropia spp., and melochia (Melochia Umbellata). Weedy annuals, shrubs, and grasses quickly invade the fields from the roadsides and borders. Shrubs of comb hyptis (Hyptis pectinata) as well as butterfly bush (Buddleja asiatica), and pluchea (Pluchea odorata) are common. Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica var. unijuga), honohono (Commelina diffusa), kyllinga (Kyllinga brevifolia), and molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora) are frequently observed in these abandoned fields. Over time, the sugar cane is replaced by a scrub coposed of exotic species. The fields now support scattered, low thickets of guava (Psidium guajava), Jave plum (Syzygium cumini), pluchea, and lantana (Lantana camara). Pockets of sugar cane, reproducing from ratoons, are frequently found. 27 Molassesgrass, Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), California grass (Brachiaria mutica), and several Desmodium spp. form lumpy patches between the thickets. Papaya fields in various stages of cultivation from newly transplanted seedlings to mature, bearing plants, 2 to 4 m tall, cover large acreages. Abandoned papaya fields are also frequently found, expecially around Kapoho and Pohoiki. Like the sugar fields these abandoned papaya fields are in various stages of weedy succession. Melochia umbellata will often quickly invade these fields. Closed, medium-statured Melochia forests are occasionally seen around the Pohoiki area. Long abandoned fields with their networks of roads and other evidences of human activities can still be delineated on the orthophotoquads if they have not been obscured by the vegetation. Ground check of these areas reveals remnants of the former crops or the weedy tree and shrub species associated with abandoned fields. Other crops grown in the Puna region include bananas (Musa hybrids) passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), guavas (Psidium guajava cultivars), and oranges (Citrus sinensis cultivars). Hawaiian Holiday has recently planted macadamia nut trees (Macadamia ternifolia var. integrifolia) on 2,500 acres of abandoned cane land. The Puna region supplies florists with anthurium and vanda orchid flowers. Puna nurseries also supply cut foliage and potted plants. A number of weedy species are commonly associated with all these cultivated areas. These include several Euphorbia spp., false pimpernel (Lindernia crustacea), Ageratum conyzoides, Polygala paniculata, comb hyptis, and kyllinga. Many fields are periodically treated with herbicides to control these weeds. 28 Pasture lands are also included in this ecosystem type. They vary in structure and are very diverse in species composition. For example, some pastures may be open savannahs with tall 'ohi'a trees on lands cleared of native forests or they may be scrubby if overgrazed. Most of the pasture grasses and herbs were deliberately introduced and specifically planted or sown to improve the pasture (Fosberg 1972). Pasture grasses commonly seen in the study site include pangola grass (digitaria decumbens), narrow-leaved carpet grass (Axonopus affinis), and Hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum). 29 SPECIES LIST The species list presented in Table 1 includes species found during this survey as well as those which have been recorded from the project area in previous literature (Stone 1959; Doty and Mueller-Dombois 1966; Fosberg 1975; Clarke kt- al. 1979, 1981; Lamoureux and Williams 1982; Williams and Lamoureux 1982; Char and Stemmmann 1984; Cuddihy in -e-d. , etc.) A total of 457 species of vascular plants are known f ram the project area. 7he majority of the native species are found in the least disturbed ecosystem types such as the 'ohila and dry forest s while the weedy exotic species, occur in ecosystems which are-frequently disturbed such as scrub and agricultural lands. In the species list, families are arranged alphabetically within each of f our groups: PteridDrhyta, Gymnospermae, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons. Taxonomy and nomenclature of PteridoFhyta (ferns and f ern allies) follow Lamoureux's unpublished checklist of Hawaiian ferns; taxonomy and nomenclature of the flowering plants (Momootyledons and Dicotyledons) follow St. John (1973) except where more commonly accepted names are listed. Hawaiian names used inthe checklist are in accordance with Porter (1972) or St. John (1973). Table 1 provides the following information: I. Botanical name with author citation. II. Common English or Hawaiian name, when known. III. Biogeographic status of each species. 7he following symbols are used: E = endemic native to the Hawaiian Islands only, not occurring naturally elsewhere. I = indigenous = native to the Hawaiian Islands and also to one or more other geographic areas. P = Polynesian = plants of Polynesian introduction; all those plants brought by the Polynesian immigrants prior to contact with the Western world. 30 X = exotic or introduced = not native to the Hawaiian Islands; brought here by man, accidentally or deliberately after Western contact. IV. Presence (+) or absence of species within nine major ecosystem types. The number heading each of the columns ref ers to the following ecosystem types: 1. Lava 2. 'Chila woodland 3. 'Chila forest 4. Dry forest 5. Dry scrub community 6. Dry grassland 7. Mixed lowland forest 8. Scrub 9. Agricultural lands TABLE 1. PLANT SPECIES CHECKLIST FOR PUNh GE07HERMAL AREA BOTANICAL NAM 0DMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PTERI ADIANTACEAE Adiantum hispidulun Sw. Maiden-hair fern x - - - - - - - - - Adiantum raddianum Presl Maiden-hair fern X@ - - - - - - - - - ASPIDIACEAE Dryopteris wallichiana (Spreng.) Hyl. Lau-kahi - - - - - - - - - Tectaria crenata Cav. x - - - - - - - - - ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium adiantum- nigrum L. 'Iwaliwa I - - - - - - - - - Asplenium contiguum Kaulf. E - - - - - - - - - Asplenium lobulatum Mett. Pilipili-lau-manamana, lanalili I - - - - - - - - - Asplenium nidus L. 'Ekaha I - - - - - - - - - Aspleniun polyodon Forst. I - - - - - - - - - Asplenium unilaterale Lamk. Pamoho I - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME S7AWS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ATHYRIACEAE Athyriopsis japonica (Thunb.) Ching x + Athyrim microlphyllun (J. Sm.) Alston 'Akolea E - - - - - - - - - Diplazium esculentm (Retz.) SW. x - - - - - - - - r + Diplazimn sandwichianum (Presl) Diels Holilo E - - - - - - - - - BLECHNACEAE Blechnum occidentale L. Blechnum fern x - - - - - - - - - Sadleria cyatheoides Kaulf. IAMVU E - - - - - - - - - Sadleria pallida Hook. & Arn. 1AMIU E - - - - - - - - - DENNSTAEDITIACEAE Microlepia strigor-Ei (Thunb.) Pres]. Palai, palapalai I - - - - - - - - - DICYSONIACEAE Cibotium chamissoi Kaulf. Ha]pulu-Iili E - - - - - - - - - U) NJ BaTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME Smms 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 Cibotimn glaucum (J. Sm.) Hook. & Arn. Hapulu E - - - - - - - - - Cibotim hawaiense Nakai & Ogura Meu E - - - - - - - - - ELAPHOGLOSSACEAE Elaphoglossum alatum Gaud. var. parvisquamem (Skottsb.) Ands. & Crosby 'Ekaha-ula, hoe-a-Maui E - - - - - - - - - Elaphoglossum crassifolium (Gaud.) And. & Crosby 'Ekaha-ula, hoe-a-Maui E - - - - - -- - - - Elaphoglossum hirtum (Sw.) C. Chr. var. micans (mett.) c. Chr. 'Ekaha-ula,.hoe-a-Maui E - - - - - - - - - Elaphoglossum pellucidum Gaud. 'Ekaha-ula, hoe-a-Maui E - - - - - - - - - Elaphoglossum wawrae (Luerss.) C. Chr. 'Ekaha-ula, hoe-a-Maui E - - - - - - - - - GLEICHENIACEAE Dicranopteris emarginata (Brack.) Rob. Uluhe E . . . . . . . . . BOTANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STAWS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw. Uluhe I -- - - - - - - - - GRAMMITACEAE Adenophorus hymenor-hyUoides (Kaulf.) Hook. & Grev. Pai, palai-huna E - - - - - - - - - Ademphorus periens L. E. Bishop Palai-lalau E - - - - - - - - - Adenophorus pinnatif idus Gaud. E - - - - - - - - - - Adenophorus tamariscinus (Kaulf.) Hook. & Grev. Wahine-noho-mauna E - - - - - - - - - Ademphorus tripinnatif idus Gaud. E - - - - - - - - - Granmitis hookeri (Brack.) Copel. Makule-lau-lili E - - - - - - - - - Grammitis tenella Kaulf. Kolokolo, mehina-lua E - - - - - - - - - Xiphopteris saffordii (Maxon) Copel. Kihi & - - - - - - - - - REMIONITIDACEAE Coniogranve pilosa (Brack.) Hieron. Lolulu E - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME CIDMMON NAME STAIUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pityrogr&mna calanelanos (L.) Link Gold fern, silver fern x - - - - - - - - - HYMENOPHYLLACEAE Callistopteris baldwinii (Eaton) Copel. E - - - - - - - - - Gonocomus minutus (Blume) v. d. Bosch I - - - - - - - - - Mecodium recurvum (Gaud.) Copel. 10hila-ku E - - - - - - - - - Sphaerocionium lanceolatum (Hook. & Arn.) Copel. Palai-hinahina E - - - - - - - - - Sphaerocionium obtusum (Hook. & Arn.) Copel. Palai-lau-lili E - - - - - - - - - Vandenboschia cyrtotheca (Hillebr.) Copel. E - - - - - - - - - Vandenboschia davallioides (Gaud.) Copel. Palai-hihi E - - - - - - - - - HYPOLEPIDACEAE Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn var. decompositum (Gaud.) Tryon Kilau, kilau-pueo, paila E - - - - - - - - - Ln BaMNICAL NAME CDMMDN NAME smms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LINDSAEACEAE Lindsaea ensifolia Sw. var. ensifolia - - - - - - - - - Sphenmeris chinensis (B.) Maxon Palala, palapala'a - - - - - - - - - LYODPODIACEAE LycopDdium cernuum L. Wawae-liole + + + + - Lyoopodium phyllanthum Hook. & Arn. Wawae- I iole E - - - - - - - - - Lyoopodium polytrichoides Kaulf. Wawae-liole E - - - - - - - - - Lycopodium venustulum Gaud. Wawae-liole I - - - - - - - - - MARATTIACEAE Marattia dDuglasii (Presl) Baker Pala, kapuali hoki E - - - - - - - - - NEPHRCLEPInACEAE NeFhrolepis cordifolia (L.) Presl Nilanilau, kupukupu, lokupukupu BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME STAIUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott Nilanilau, kupukupu lokupukupu - - - - - - - - - Nephrolepis multiflora (Roxb.) Jarrett ex Morton Hairy sword fern x . . . . . . . . . OPHIOGIWSACEAE Ophioglossum concinUum Brack. Pololei E - - - - - - - - - Ophioglossum nudicaule L. f. - - - - - - - - - Ophioglossum pendulum L. ssp. falcatum (Presl) Clausen puapm-nm E - - - - - - - - - POLYPODIACEAE Phlebodium aureum (L.) J. Sm. Lauale-hacle x - - - - - - - - - Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.) Pic.-Ser. Lauale,, lauwale x .. . . . . . . . . Pleopeltis thunbergiana. Kaulf. 'Ekaha-lakolea, Pakahakaha I . . . . . . . . . Polypodium pellucidum Raulf. 'Ae, lae-lau-nui E - - - - - - - - - PSILOTACEAE Psilotum omplanatum Sw. Moa, pipi - - - - - - - - - Psilotum, nudum (L.) Beauv. Moa, pipi . . . . . . . . . BOTANICAL NAME OOMMON NAME STMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PTERIDACEAE Pteris vittata L. x . . . . . . . . . SELAGINEUACEAE Selaginella arbuscula (Kaulf.) Spring Lepelepe-a-nm E - - - - - - - - - SINOPTERIDACEAE Doryopteris decipiens (Hook.) J. Sm. Kumu-niu,, manawahua, liwaliwa E - - - - - - - - - Doryopteris decora Brack. Kumu-niu, manawahua, liwaliwa E - - - - - - - - - Pellaea ternifolia,(Cav.) Link Lau-kahi - - - - - - - - - rIHELYPTERIDACEAE Amauropelta globulifera (Brack.) Holtt. Palapalai-a-Kama--puala E - - - - - - - - - Christella cyatheoides (Kaulf.) HoItt. Kikawaio E - - - - - - - - - Christella dentata (Forsk.) CO Brownsey & Jermy Downy woodfern X, - - - - - - - - - mm mm moo mmm m m m m mm m m BOTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME SUMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Christella parasitica (L.) Levl. WoodEern, oakfern x - - - - - - - - - Macrothelypteris torresiana (Gaud.) Ching x - - - - - - - - - Pnematopteris hudsoniana (Brack.) Holtt. Lau-kahi E - - - - - - -- - - Pneumatopteris sandwicenBis (Brack.) Holtt. E', - - - - - - - - - Pseudophegopteris keraudreniana (Gaud.) Holtt. Waimaka-nui E - - - - - - - - - VITTARIACEAE Vittaria elongata Sw. Oheohe - - - - - - - - - CMMWPERMAE ARAEJCARIACEAE Araucaria spp. Cook pine, Norfolk Island pine x - - - - - - - - - MONOCOrY=NAE ARACEAE Anthurium hybrids Anthurim x - - - - - - - - - BaTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Kalo, taro p - - - - - - - - - Monstera deliciosa Liebm. Monstera X - - - - - - - - - Philodendron sp. Philodendron X - - - - - - - - - Scindapsus aureus (Lindl. ex. Andre) Engl. Taro vine X - - - - - - - - - Syngonium auritum (L.) Schott. Syngonium X - - - - - - - - - CANNACEAE Cama indica L. Cama X - - - - - - - - - OOMMEWNACEAE Camelina. diffusa Bum. f. Honahono X . . . . . . . . . CYPERACEAE Bulbostylis capillaris (L.). C. B. Clarke X - - - - - - - - - Carex wahuensis C. A. Mey. var. wahuensis E - - - --- - - - - Carex wahuensis C. A. my. var. rubiginosa. R. W. Krauss E - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cyperus ampressus L. x - - - - - - - - - Cyperus haspan L. x - - - - - - - - - Cyperus javanicus Houtt. 'Ahulawa. 'ehulawa I - - - - - - - - - Cyperus rotundus L. Nutsedge x - - - - - - - - - FimbristVlis dichotana (L.) Vahl Tall fringe rush I . . . . . . . . . Fimbristylis pycnooephala Hillebr. I - - - - - - - - - Kyllinga brevifolia Rotth. Kililolopu, kyllinga x . . . . . . . . . Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R. & G. Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalziel Kililolopu, kyllinga x . . .. . . . . . . Machaerina angustifolia (Gaud.) Kcyama luki I . . . . . . . . . Machaerina gahniaeformis (Gaud.) Kern. 'Uki E - - - - - - - - - Machaerina marisooides (Gaud.) Kern ssp. nWenii Wunth) Kayama luki, laha-niu I . . . . . . . . . Pycreus polystachyos (Rotth.) Beauv. . . . . . . . . . . Rhynchospora lavarum Gaud. Kuolohia, pulukola E - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ftnchospora sclerioides Hook. & Arn. Hawaiian beak rush E - - - - - - - - - Rhynchospora spicaeformis Hillebr. Kuolohia El - - - - - - - - - Rhynchospora sp. x - - - - - - - - - Scleria testacea Nees Scleria E - - - - - - - - - Uncinia, uncinata (L. f Kuek. - - - - - - - - - DIOSODRFACEAE Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Pilia, pila p - - - - - - - - - GRAMINEAE Andropogon glaneratus (Walt.) BSP. Bush beardgrass x + - + + + - + + Andropogon virginicus L. Brocmsedge x . . . . . . . . . Agrostis avenacea Gmel. Bentgrass, heu-pueo, x - - - - - - - - - Axonopus affinis Chase Narrow-leaved carpetgrass x . . . . . . . . . Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv. Broad-leaved carpetgrass x - - - - - - - - - Bambusa spp. Bamboo x - - - - - - - - - Brachiaria. mutica (Forsk.) Stapf . Californiagrass x - - - - - - - - - BoTANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 1 A 5 6 7 8 9 Brachiaria reptans (L.) Gard. & C. E Hubb. x - - - - - - - - - Briza minor L. Little quakinggrass x - - - - - - - - - Chloris radiata (L.) Sw. Radiate fingerqrass x - - - - - - - - - Cirysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Pilipili-lula, goldenbeardgrass x - - - - - - - - Coix lachryma-jobi L. Puldhelohe, Job's tears x - - - - -- - - - - Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Manienie, Bermudaqrass x + - + + Deschampsia australis Nees ex Steud. E - - - - - - - - - Digitaria adscendens (HBK.) Henr. Henry's crabgrass x - + + + Digitaria decumbens Stent Pangolagrass x - - - - - - - - - Digitaria eriantha Steud. X, - - - - - - - - - Digitaria fuscescens (Presl) Henr Creeping kukaepuala x - + + - + + Digitaria radicosa (Presl) Miq. x - - - - - - - - - Digitaria setigera Roth ex R. & S. x - - - - - -- - - - Digitaria timorensis (Kunth) Balansa x - - - - - - - - - Digitaria sp. x - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME OOMMON NAME SMTUS 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Goosegrass X - - - - - - - - - Eragrostis brownei (Kunth) Nees Brown's lovegrass X - - - - - - - - - Eragrostis sp. X - - - - - - - - - Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S. Pili, piligrass; I - - - - - - - - - Holcus lanatus L. Velvetqrass X - - - - - - - Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf Thatchinggrass, jaragua X - - - - - - - - - Isachne distichophylla Munro ex Hillebr. 0he E - - - - - - - - - Ischaemum byrone (Trin.) Hitch. Ischaemum E - - - - - - - - - Melinis minutiflora Beauv. Molassesgrass X . . . . . . . . . Microlaena stipoides (Labill.) R. Br. Pulu lehua, meadow ricegrass X - - - - - - - - - Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) Beauv. Honohono-kukui, basketgrass X - - - - - - - - - Panicum maximum Jacq. var. maximum Guineagrass X - - - - - - - - - Panicum repens L. Wainakugrass X - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Paspalmn conjugatim Berg. Mau4u-Hilo, Hilo grass x . . . . . . . . . Paspalum dilatatun Poir. Dallisgrass, Australian watergrass x - - - - - - - - - Paspalum orbiculare Forst. f. Maulu-laiki, ricegrass x - + + + - + Paspalum urvillei Steud. Vaseygrass X. . . . . . . . . . Permisetum purpureum' Schumach. Napiergrass, elephantgrass x - - - - - - - - - Pemisetmn setaceum (Forsk.) Chiov. Fountaingrass x - - - - - - - - - Poa annua L. Annual bluegrass x - - - - - - - - - Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) E. Hubb. Natal redtopgrass x - + + + + - + + Saccharum officinarum L. Ko, sugarcane p - - - - - - - - - Sacciolepis indica jL.) Chase Glenwoodgrass x . . . . . . . . . Schizostachyum glaucifolium (Rupr.) Munro 0he, Hawaiian 4antoo p - - - - - - - - - Setaria geniculata (Poir.) Beauv. Perennial. foxtailgrass x . . . . . . . . . Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. Yellow foxtailgrass x - + - + + + Setaria palmaefolia (Koen.) Stapf Palmgrass + + - + Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay African dropseedgrass x - - - - - - - - - Ln BOTANICAL NAME 00MMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv. Indian dropseedgrass x - - - - - - - - - IRIDALCEAE Tritonia crocosmaeflora Nichols. Monthretia x - - - - - - - - - JOINVILLEACEAE Joinvillea asoendens Brong. & Gris. 'Ohe E - - - - - - - - - JUNCACEAE Juncus effusus L. Bog rush x - - - - - - - - - Juncus planifolius R. Br. x - - - - - - - - - Juncus tenuis Willd. x - - - - - - - - - Luzula hawaiiensis Buch. Luzula E - - - - - - - - - LMIACEAE Astelia menziesiana Sm. Paliniu E - - - - - - - - - Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth var. terminalis Ki, ti P, . . . . . . . . . 4bb BOEANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STArIUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth var. ferrea (L.) J. G. Baker Red ti X - - - - - - - - - Dianella sandwioensis Hook. & Arn. 'Uki, luki-luki E - - - - - - - - - Smilax sandwioensis Kunth Hoi-kuahiwi E - - - - - - - - - MSACEAE Musa spp. Maila, banana P + + + ORCHIDACEAE Anoectochilus sandvicensis Lindl, Hondhono E - - - - - - - - - Arundina bambusaefolia (Roxb.) Lindl. Bamboo orchid X . . . . . . . . . Phaius tankevilliae (Banks ex L'Her.) Bl. X - - - - - - - - - Spathoglottis plicata Bl. Philippine ground orchid X . . . . . . . . . Vanda terres Lindl. x V. hookeriana Reichb. f. Vanda X - - - - -- - - - - PALMAE Archontophoenix alexandrae (F. Ij Muell.) H. Wendl. & Drude Alexandra palm X - - - - - - - - - BOMWCAL NAME COMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cocos nucifera L. Niu, coconut palm P - - - + + - + - + PANDWCEAE Freycinetia arborea Gaud. 'Ielie E - - - - - - - - - Pandanus ordoratissimus L. f. Hala, pandanus I + - + - + Pandanus sp. Hala, pandanus E - - - - - - - - - XYRIrACEAE Xyris cmplanata R. Br. x - - - - - - - - - ZIMIBERACEAE Alpinia purpurata,(Vieill.) K. schum. Red ginger, lawapuhi-lulalula x - - - - - - - - - Hedychium coronarium Koenig 'Awapuhi kelokelo, white ginger x - - - - - - - - - Hedychium flavesoens Carey 'Awapuhi melemele, yellow ginger x - - - - - - - - - Hedychium gardnerianm Roscoe Kahili ginger x - - - - - - - - - Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe 'Awapuhi kua hiwi P - - + + DI CO ACANTRACEM Nicoteba betonica (L.) Lindau White shrimp plant x - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME C1DMMDN NAME STAMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0dontonema. strictum, (Nees) Ktze. OdDntonema x - - - - - - - - - 11hunbergia fragrans Roxb. White thunbergia x - - - - - - - - - AIZOACEAE Sesuvium portulacastr um 'Akulilkuli - - - - - - - - - AMARANTHACEM Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex R. & S. x - - - - - - - - - Amaranthus spinosus L. Spiny amaranth, pakai-kuku x - - - - - - - - - Am,aranthus viridis L. Slender amaranth, pakai x - - - - - - - - - Charpentiera obovata Gaud. Papala E - - - - - - - - - ANACARDIACEAE Mangifera indica L. Mango x . . . . . . . . . Rhus sandwicensis Gray Neneleau E - - - - - - - - - Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi Christmas berry x . . . . . . . . . APOCYNACEAE Alyxia olivaefomis Gaud. Maile E - - - - - - - - - Rauvolfia remotiflora Deg. & Sherff Hao E - - - - - - - - - - B07ANICAL NAME OOMMON NAME STALTUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A 9 AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex anamala Hook. & Arn. Kawalu E - - - - - - - - - ARALIACEAE Brassaia actinophylla Endl. Octopus tree,, umbrella tree x - - - - - - - - - Cheirodendron trigynum (Gaud.) Heller Olapa E - - - - - - - Reynoldsia hillebrandii Sherff 'Che makai E - - - - - - - - - Tetraplasandra hawaiensis Gray var. hawaiensis 10he E - - - - - - - - - ASCLEPIADACEAE Asclepias curassavica T.. Butterfly weed x - - - - - - - - - BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens sultani Hook. f. Impatiens x - - - - - - - - - BEGMIACEAE Begonia sp. Begonia X-i - - - - - - - - - BIGNONIACEAE Spathodea campanulata Beauv. African tuliptree x - - - - - - - - - Ln 0 liI BOMNICAL NAME OOMMON NAME SzMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CAFR=IACEAE Lonicera japonica 7hunb. Honeysuckle x - - - - - - - - - CARIMCEAE Carica papaya L. Papaya, mikana x - - - - - - - - - CARYOPHYLLACEAE Cerastium vulgatum L. Larger mouse ear chickweed x - - - - - - - - - Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex R. & S. Drymaria, pipili x - - - - - - - - - CASUARINACEAE Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq. River-oak casuarina x - - - - - - - - - Casuarina equisetifolia Stickman Ironwood x - - - - - - - - - Casuarina littoralis Salisb. Black she-oak casuarina x - - - - - - - - - CEEASTRACEAE Perrottetia sandwicensis Gray Olanea. E - - - - - - - - - ODMPOSITM Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze. Kamanamana I - - - - - - - - - Ageratum oonyzoides L. Ageratum, maile-hohono x . . . . . . . . . FJ BOTANICAL NAME ODWUN NAM STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Ageratum x - - - - - - - - - Bidens pilosa L. var. pilosa Spanish needle x - - - - - - - - - Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Bl.) Sherff x - - - - - - - - - Bidens skottsbergii Sherff Ko I oko I olau E - - - - - - - - - Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Tenore Bull thistle x - - - - - - - - - Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore x - - - - - - - - - Crepis sp. X.11 - - - - - - - - - Dubautia ciliolata (DC.) Keck Kupaoa E - - - - - - - - - Dubautia ciliolata X D. scabra Hybrid dubautia E - - - - - - - - - Dubautia scabra (DC.) Keck Kupaoa E - - - - - - - - - Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. False daisy x - - - - - - - - - Emilia fosbergii Nicol. Red pua@-lele x - + - + - - + - + Emilia sonchifolia. (L.) Raf. Lilac pkz7lele x - - - - - - - - - Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. Fireweed x . . . . . . . . . Erechtites valerianaefolia (Wolf) DC. Fireweed x - + + + - + Erigeron bonariensis L. Hairy horseweed, ilidha x - + + + + - + + Erigeron canadensis L. Canada fleabane x - - - - - - - - - Erigeron pusillus Nutt. Dwarf horseweed x - - - - - - - - - Eupatorium riparium Regel Harnakua pamakani x . . . . . . . . . Ln BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gnaphalium hawaiiense deg. & Sherff 'Ena'ena E + + - - - - - - - Gnaphalium japonicum Thunb. Cudweed X - - - - - - - - + Gnaphalium purpureum L. Purple cudwood X - + - - - - - - - Gnaphalium sandwicensium Gaud. 'Ena'ena, Hawaiian cudweed E - + - - - - - - - Hypochoeris radicata L. Gosmore, hairy cats-ear X - + - - - - - - - Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. Pluchea, shrubby fleabane X + + + + - - + + + Sonchus oleraceus L. Sow thistle, pua-lele X - - - - - - - - + Veronica cinerea (L.) Less. Ironweed X - + - - - + + - + Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitchc. Wedelia X - - - - - - + + + Youngia japonica (L.) DC> Oriental hawksbeard X - + + - - - - + + CONVOLVULACEAE Argyreia nervousa (Burm. f.) Bojer Small wood rose X - - - - - - + + + Cuscuta sandichiana Choisy Kauna'oa rose X - - - - - - + - - Ipomoea alba L. Moonflower X - - - - - - + + + Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir. 'Uala, sweet potato P - - - - - - - - + Ipomoea indica (Burm.) Merr. Koali-'awaia I - - - + + - + + + Ipomoea triloba L. Little bell X - - - - - - - + + Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urban Hairy Merremia, koali-kua-hulu X - - - - - - - + + Merremia tuberosa (L.) Randle Wood rose X - - - - - - + + + BOTANICAL NAME CDMMDN NAME STPITUS 1 2 3 4 5 A 7 8 9 CRASSULACEAE Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Air plant, loliwa-ku-kahakai x - - - - - - - - - CRUCIFERAE Cardamine flexuosa With. forma umbrosa (Gren. & Godr.) 0. E. Schultz Bitter cress x - - - - - - - - - ajawITACEAE Mawrdica charantia L. var. pavel Crantz Balsam apple, peria x - - - - - - - - - EBENACEAE Diospyros ferrea Bakh. ssp. sandwicensis (A. DC.) Bakh. Lama E . . . . . . . . . EPACRIDACEAE Styphelia tameiameiae (Chain.) F. Muell. Pukiawe I . . . ... . . . ERICACEAE vaccinium calycinum Sm. 'Chelo-kau-1a'au E - - - - - - - - - Ln vaccinium reticulatum Sm. 10helo E - - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EUPHORBIACEAE Aleurites moluccana (L.) willd Kukui P - - + + + - + - - Antideama platyphyllum Mann Hame, mehame E - - + - - - + - - Euphorbia glomerifera (Millsp.) L. C. Wheeler X - - - - - - - - + Euphorbia hirta L. Garden spurge koko-kahiki X - - - + - - - - + Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Prostrate spurge X - - - - - - - - + Euphorbia thymifolia L. Thyme-leaved spurce X - - - - - - - - + Macaranga grandifolia (Blanco) Marr. Bingabing X - - - - - - + - - Macaranga tanarius (Stickm.) Muell.-Arg. X - - - - - - + - - Manihot glaziovii Muell.-Arg. Ceara rubber X - - - - - - + - - Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. Phyllanthus weed X - - - + - + - + + Ricinus communis L. Castor bean, koli X - - - - - - - + + GESNERIACEAE Cyrtandra lysiosepala (Gray) C. B. Clarke E - - + - - - - - - Cyrtandra paludosa Gaud. var. integrifolia Hillebr. E - - + - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cyrtandra paludosa Gaud. var. irrostrata St. John E - - + - - - + - - Cyrtandra platyphylla Gray E - - + - - - - - - Cyrtandra sp. 1 E - - + - - - - - - Cyrtandra sp. 2 E - - + - - - - - - Cyrtandra sp. nov. E - - + - - - + - - GOODENIACEAE Scaevola chamissoniana Gaud. var. bracteosa Hillebar. Naupaka-kauhiwi E - + + - - - - - - Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. Naupaka-kahakai I - - - - - - + - - GUTTIFERAE Calophyllum inophyllum L. Kamani P - - - - - - + - - Hypericum degeneri Fosb. X - - + - - - - - - Hypericum mutilum L. St. Johnswort X - + + - - - - + + LABIATAE Coleus blumei Benth. Coleus X - - - - - - + - - Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. Comb hyptis X - + - - - - + + + Phyllostegia vestita Benth. Ulihi E - - + - - - - - - Plectranthus parviflorus Willd. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui wahine I - - - + + - - - - M Eli MM M BaIANICAL NAIVIE COMMDN NAME STWIUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Salvia coccinea Juss. ex Murr. Scarlet sage x - - - - - - - - - Stenogyne calaminthoides Gray E - - - - - - - - - LAURACEAE Cassytha filiformis L. Kaunaloa, kaunalo@-pehu . . . . . . . . . Persea americana Kill Avocado x . . . . . . . . . LEGUMINOSAE Abrus precatorius L. forma precatorius Rosary pea x - - - - - - - - - Acacia confusa Merr. Formosan koa x - - - - - - - - - Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosb. Molucca albizia x - - - - - - - - - Albizia sp. x - - - - - - - - - Cae salpinia major (Medic.) Dandy & Excell Kakalaioa, gray nickers I - - - - - - - - - Canavalia sp. 'Awikiwiki E - - - - - - - - - Cassia alata L. Candlebush x - - - - - - - - - Cassia lechenaultiana DC. var. lechenaultiana Partridge pea, lauki x - + - + Cassia occidentalis L. Coffee senna, laukoli x - - - - - - - - - Cassia surattensis Burm. Kolcmona x - - - - - - - - - -II Crotalaria berteriana DC. Rattlebox, tawny crotalaria x -- - - - - - - - - BOTANICAL NAME ODMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R 9 Crotalaria incana L. Fuzzy rattlepod x - - - - - - - - - Crotalaria pallida Aiton x --------- Crotalaria retusa ,L. Rattlebox, sauni x - - - - - - - - - Crotalaria spectabilis Roth Rattlepod x - - - - - - - - - Desmanthus virgatus L. Virgate mimosa x - - - - - - - - - Desmodium cajanifolium (HBK.) DC. Tree desmodium X, - - - - - - - - - Desmodium discolor Vogel x - - - - - - - - - Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. x - - - - - - - - - Desmodium tortuosum (Sw.) DC. Florida beggarweed x - - - - - - - - - Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. Three-flowered beggarweed x - + + - + + Desmodium uncinatum (Jacq.) DC. Spanish clover x . . . . . . . . . Desmodium sp. x - - - - - - - - - Erythrina sandwicensis Deg. Wiliwili E - - - - - - - - - Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. Indigo, liniko P . . . . . . . . . Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit Kao-haole, ekoa. x - - - - - - - - - Mimosa pudica L. var. unijuga (Duchass. & Walp.) Griseb. Sensitive plant, pua-hilahila X - - - - - - - - - Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. Kalele, kale'ele I - - - - - - - - - Ln Phaseolus lathyroides L. Cowpea, x -... - - - - - - - - co BOTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME STALTUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Samanea. saman (jacq.) Merr. Monkeypod x - - - - - - - - - U13ELIACEAE Clemontia hawaiiensis (Hillebr.) Rock 'oha-kepau E - - - - - - - - - Clermontia parviflora Gaud. ex Gray E - - - - - - - - :- Cyanea pilosa Gray E - - - - - - - - - Cyanea. tritomantha Gray 'Akulaku, laku E - - - - - - - - - Cyanea sp. E - - - - - - - - - Laurentia longifolia (L.) Engl. Star of Bethlehem x - - - - - - - - - WGANIACEAE Buddleja asiatica Lour. Butterflybush, huelo-lilio x . . . . . . . . . Labordia hedyosmifolia Baill. E - - - - - - - - - LYMRACEAE Cuphea, carthagenensis (Jaoq.) Macbride Cuphea, puakamoli x . . . . . . . . . Lythrum maritimum HBK. Pukamole x - - - - - - - - - Ln B07MICAL NAME COMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 4 5 8 9 MALVACEAE Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Hau I - - - - - - - - - Hibiscus youngianus Gaud. ex Hook. & Arn. Hau-hele, lakiohala E - - - - - - I- + - Malvastrum coranandelianum (L.) Garcke False mallow x - - - - - - - - - Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. TUrk's cap x - - - - - - - - - Sida acuta Burm. f. x - - - - - - - - - Sida cordifolia L. 'Ilima I - - - - - - - - - Sida fallax Walp. var. fallax 'Ilima I - - - - - - - - - Sida rhcmbifolia L. Cuba jute x - - - - - - - - - Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correra Milo P - - - - - - - - - M]MMTOMNTACEAE Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Koster's curse x - - - - - - - - - Heterocentron,subtriplinervium (Link & Otto) A. Br. & Bouche Pearl flower x - - - - - - - - - Melastma malabathricm L. Malabar melastcme x . . . . . ... . . Pterolepis sp. x - - - - -- - - - - Tetrazygia bicolor (Triana) Cogn. x - - - - - - - - - Tibouchina urvilleana WC.) Cogn. Lasiandra, glorybush x - - -- - - - - - - M-mm BOTANICAL NAME ClDMMDN NAME STAW.S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MENISPERMACEAE Cocculus ferrandianus Gaud. Huehue, huelie E . . . . . . . . . MDRACEAE Artocarpus altilis'(Park.) Fosb. Breadfruit, lulu P - - - - - - - - - Artocarpus heterophyUus Lam. Jackfruit x - - - - - - - Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, pakalolo, pot X. - - - - - - - - - Cecropia obtusifolia Sandmark Guarumo x . . . . . . . . . Cecropia peltata Sandmark Trumpet tree x - - - - - - - - - Ficus microcarpa L. f. Chinese banyan x - - - - - - - - - MYRICACEAE Myrica faya Ait. Firetree, faya x - - - - - - - - - MYRSINACEAE Ardisia humilis vahl Shoebutton ardisia x - - - - - - - - - Embelia pacifica Hillebr. Kilioe E - - - - - - - - - myrsine lessertiana A. DC. Kolea-lau-nui E - - - - - - - - - Myrsine sandwicensis A. DC. Kolea-lau-lili E - - - - -- - - - - BOMNICAL NAME ODMMN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MYRTACEAE Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) Blake Paperbark X - - - - - - - - - Metrosideros collina (J.R. & G. Forst.) Gray var. glaberrima (Levl.) Rock 'Chila-lehua E . . . . . . . . . Metrosideros collina (J.R. & G. Forst.) Gray var. incana (Levl.) Rock 'Chila-lehua E . . . . . . . . . Metrosideros; collina O.R. & G. Forst.) Gray var. macror-hylla Rock 'Ohila-lehua E . . . . . . . . . Psidium cattleianum Sabine forma cattleianum StrawberrV guava X . . .. . . . . . . Psidium cattleianum Sabine forma lucidum Deg. Yellow strawberry guava, waiawi X . . . . . . . . . Psidium guajava L. Guava, kuawa X . . . . . . . . . Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Java plum, palarna X . . . . . . . . . Syzygium jambos L., Rose apple, lohila-loke X - + + + Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry lohila-lai, mountain apple P - - - - - - - - - CN Tristania conferta R. Br. Brush box X - - - - - - - - - r-j BOTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NYCTAGINACEAE Pisonia umbellifera (J.R. & G. Forst) Seem. Papala-kepau I - - - - - - - - - Pisonia sp. Papala-kepau I - - - - - - - - - CLEACEAE Osmanthus sandwicensis (Gray) Knobl. Olopua, pua E - - - - - - - - - CNAGRACEAE Ludwigia octivalvis (Jaoq.) Raven Kamole, primrose willow - - - - - - - - - Ludwigia palustris (L.) Ell. Water purBelane x - - - - - - - - - OXALIDACEAE .Oxalis corniculata L. Yellow wood sorrel, Iihi I - + - + + Oxalis martiana zucc. Pink wood sorrel, lihi pehu x - - - - - - - - - PASSIFLCRACEAE Passiflora edulis Sims forma flavicarpa Deg. Yellow lilikoli x . . . . . . . . . Passiflora foetida L. Scarlet-fruited passionflower X . . . . . . . . . BOTANICAL NAME ODMMDN NAM STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PIPERACEAE Peperamia cookiana C. DC. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui E - - - - - - - - - Peperomia tWpoleuca Miq. var. hypoleuca 'Ala'ala-wai-nui E - - - - - - - - - Pepercmia lypoleuca Miq. var. pluvigaudens (C. DC.) Yuncker 'Ala'ala-wai-nui E - - - - - - - 7 Peperamia latifolia Miq. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui E - - - - - - - - - Peperamia leptostachya Hook. & Arn. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui I - - - - - - - - - Pepercmia tetraphylla (Forst. f.) Hook. & Arn. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui I - - - - - - - - - Peperamia sp. 'Ala'ala-wai-nui E - - - - - - - - - Piper methysticum Forst. f. 'Ava P - - - - - - - - - PITTWFORACEAE Pittosporum confertiflorm Gray Holawa E - - - - - - - - - Pittosporum sulcatum Sherff var. remyi Sherff Holawa El + BOTANICAL NAME ODMMN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PLANIAGINACEAE Plantago lanoeolata L. Narrow-leaved plantain x - - - - - - - - - Plantago major L. Broad-leaved plantain, lau-kai x - - - - - - - - - POLYGALACEAE Polygala paniculata L. Polygala x - - - - - - - - - POLYGONACEAE Polygonum capitatum Ham. ex non Polygonuin x - - - - - - - - - Rumex skottsbergii Deg. & Deq. Pawale E - - - - - - - - - PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. Common purselane, ihi x - - - - - - - - PROTEACEAE Grevillea robusta A. Cum. Silk oak, loka-kilika x - - - - - - - - - Macadamia ternifolia F. Mell. var. integrifolia, (Mdn. & Bet.) Mdn. & Bet. Macadamia x - - - - - - - - - Ln BOTANICAL NAME 0DMMDN NAM STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 RANUNCUILACEAE Anemone hupehensis (Lem. & Lem. f.) Lem. & Lem. f. Hupeh anewne x - - - - - - - - - ROSACEAE Fragaria vesca L. forma alba (Ehrh.) Rydb. Strawberry x - + 7 Osteaneles anthyllidifolia (Sm.) Lindl. 'Ulei, eluehe . . . . . . . . . Rubus ellipticus Sin. var. obcordatus Focke Yellow Himalayan raspberry x - - - - - - - - - Rubus penetrans Bailey Florida blackberry x - - - - - - - - - Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Thimbleberrv X, . . . . . . . . . RMIACEAE I Bobea timonioides (Hook. f.) Hillebr. 'Ahakea E - - - - - - - - - - Canthium odoratum (Forst. f.) Seem. Alahele, walahele I . . . . . . . . . Coffea arabica L. Arabian coffee x - - - - - - - - - Coprosma ernodeoides Gray Kukae-nene E - - - - - - - - - Coprosma menziesii Gray Pilo, kopa E - - - - - - - - - a% aN BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Coprosma ochracea Oliver var. rockiana Oliver Pilo, kopa E - - - - - - - - - Coprosma sp. Pilo, kopa E - - - - - - - - - Gardenia augusta (L.) Kerr. Gardenia, kiele x - - - - - - - - - Gouldia terminalis (Hook. & Arn.) Hillebr. Manono E - - - - - - - - - Hedyotis centranthoides (Hook. & Arn.) Steud. forma centranthoides Kilauea hedvotis E - - - - - - - - - Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. x - - - - - - - - - Morinda citrifolia L. Noni P - - - - - - - - - Paederia foetida L. Maile pilau x - - - - - - - - - Psychotria hawaiiensis (Gray) Fosb. Kopiko E - - - - - - - - - Richardia brasiliensis. Gcmez Richardsonia x - - - - - - - - - Spermacooe assurgens R. & P. F=Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb.] Buttorweed x - - - - - - - - - Spermacoce sp. [=Borreria sp-1 x - - - - - - - - - HJTACEAE Citrus limonia Osbeck Lemon x - - - - - - - - - B07ANICAL NAME COMMON NAM STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Citrus sp. x - - - - -- - - - - Pelea clusiaefolia Gray var. cuneata St. John & Hume Alani E - - - - - - - - - Pelea radiata St. John Alani E' - - - - - - - - - Pelea sp. E - - - - - - - - - SANTALACEAE Santalum paniculatum Hook. & Arn. 'Iliahi E . . . . . . . . . SAPINI)ACEAE Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Balloon vine, inalua x - - - - - - - - - Dodonaea visoc)sa L. A'alili . . . . . . . . . SAXIFRAGACEAE Broussaisia arguta Gaud. Kanawao E - - - - - - - - - SCROPHULARIACEAE Castilleja arvensis Schlecht. & Cham. Field Indian paintbrush x - + + + + Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. Lindernia x - - - - - - - - - CYN Threnia asiatica L. Ola'a beauty, nani-o-ola'a x - - - - - - - - - co B07ANICAL NAME CDMMDN NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SCLANACEAE Cestrum nocturnum L. Night cestrum, 'ala-aumoe x - - - - - - - - - Physalis peruviana L. Cape gooseberry, poha. x - - - - - - - - - Solanm nigrum L. Popolo, black niqhtshade I - - - - - - - - - STMCULIACEAE Melochia umbellata (Houtt.) Stapf. Melochia x . . . . . . . . . waltheria indica L. var. americana (L.) R., Br. ex Hosaka Hilaloa, 'uhaloa I . . . . . . . . . THYMELAEACEAE Wikstroemia phillyreaefolia Gray var. buxifolia (Gray) Skottsb. 'Akia E - - - - - - - - - Wikstroemia phillyreaefolia Gray var. phillyreaefolia 'Akia E . . . . . . . . . wikstroemia sandwicensis Meisn. 'Akia E, . . . . . . . . . -ULMACEAE Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. Gmpowder tree x . . . . . . . . . BOTANICAL NAME CDMMON NAME STATUS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 UMBELLIFERAE Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Asiatic pennywort, pohekula x - - - - - - - - - Hydrocotyle verticillata Thunb. Pohepohe x - - - - - - - - - EJRTICACEAE Pipturus hawaiensis Levl. Mamaki E . . . . . . . . . Pipturus sp. Mamaki E - - - - - - - 7 Thuchardia latifolia Gaud. Olona E - - - - - - - - - Urera sandvicensis Wedd. Opuhe E - - - - - - - - - VEMENACEAE Lantana camara L. Lantana, lakana x . . . . . . . . . Stachytarlpheta australis Mold. Cayenne vervain x . . . . . . . . . Stachytarpheta. jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Jamaica vervain, owi x - - - - - - - - - Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.) Sims Nettle-leaved vervain x - - - - - - - - - - Verbena litoralis HBK. Verbena, haluawi x . . . . . . . . . -j CD 71 AVIFAUNAL SLMM An assessment of the birds known to occur in the east rif t zone is presented by Dr. A. J. Berger in the following report. The report focuses primarily on the bird species found in the native 'chila forests. Additional information on bird distribution (Tables 2 and 3) was made available by Maile S. Kjargaard, who accompanied the botanical team into the more iraccessible portions Of the project area. For several years the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been conducting studies of the distribution of forest birds throughout the Hawaiian Islands. The results of this project, containing distribution maps of all native forest birds on the island of Hawaii are. now in press (Scott, Ramsay and Kepler, 1985). BIRDS CF THE EAST RIFT zONE (by Andrew J. Berger) This assessment of the birds of the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano was prepared at the request of Dr. Charles Lamoureux. My latest field survey of this area was conducted on Decem ber 1 and 2, 1984; this included two elevations (2200 feet and 1700 feet) in the Kahauale'a forest adjacent to old and n%r lava flows, as well as studies conducted at lower elevations. I had previously made extensive bird surveys in Hawaili Volc anoes National Park and adjacent areas in the Puna district of Hawaili between 1965 and 1984 (e.g., Berger 1969a, 1969b, 1969c, 1972a, 1972b, 1972c, 1980, 1981, 1984). 1 also made a bird survey by helicopter and ground search in-the Kahauale'a forest on September 18,, 1982. In addition, I have made extensive use of all literature available on the birds of the east rif t zone, as well as some unpublished observations by several people. 72 11hree general groups of birds occur in the Hawaiian Islands: 1) endemic gmgi �,, those that are unique to the Hawaiian Islands and, therefore, do not occur naturally in arry other part of the world; 2) -in-digeno-us bjx-ds, those whose total range in the Pacific basin includes the Hawaiian Islands; and 3) intr p-L e&qt_ic birds,, those that have been brought to the islands by man (Berger 1981) Because the east rif t zone extends f ram approximately 4000 feet to sea level, there is a striking difference in the occurrence of the @species according to elevation and forest types. 1. Mdemic birds Of- these unique Hawaiian birds, about 85 percent are either extinct or are threatened with extinction. Although there are a few exceptions, most of the surviving forest birds, occur primarily in native forests; that is, 'chila (Metr sideros collina), koa (Acacia koa), and treefern (Cjbotium spp.). However, same of the endangered bird species are now found only at elevations above that of most of the'east rift zone. 7here are some postulated (e.g., the occurrence of mosquitoes and bird malaria) and some unknown reasons for the present distribution of the Hawaiian forest birds. I propose to discuss 12 endanic species that were found, or were thought to have occurred, in the rift zone region in the past; some of them now occupy the forests along the several lava f lows. Special attention will be given to the following: I. Order Anserifonaes A. Family Anatidae; ducks, geese, and swans 1. Nene or Hawaiian Goose, Bran sandvicensis Henshaw (1902) wrote that "the greater number [of Nene], probably alli leave the upper grounds beginning early in the fall, and resort to lower altitudes, from about 1200 feet &wnwards, for the breeding season." The 73 present range of the Nene on the Island of Hawai i extends from approximately 3800 feet to 8000 feet on the slopes of Mauna Loa' (Kear and Berger 1980) The National Park Service initiated a plan in 1972 to determine if a lowland population of Nene could be reestablished in its former lowland habitat. rilie results of this program have been summarized by Banko (1982). Stone je-t- al. (1982, 1983) discussed the nesting of the Nene in the Kalu desert and the ma nagement. steps that are necessary to insure the continued success -of the Nene on - the Island of Hawai I i. Howe ver, I know of no evidence that the Nene has ever nested in, or inhabited, the lands of the proposed geothermal zone, III. Order Falconiformes; A. Family Accipitridae; Hawks 1. Hawaiian Hawk or II10, Buteo-so t li-arius 7he 'I I o occurs on the slopes of Mauna Loa, on both the windward and leeward coasts, less cmmxxdy on Mauna Kea. Soot t et al. (in press) wrote that the 'Vo "occupies a broad range of habitats fram papaya and. macadamia orchards through virtually all types of forest including ohia rainforest and subalpine mamane-naio woodland." They found the hawk from sea level to 2600 meters elevation. Although now classified as an endangered species, Scott and his coauthors remarked that: "Given the abundance, wide distribution, and high reproductive success of this species (C. Griffin, pers. cam.), it seems appropriate to 74 reevaluate its endangered status" (see also Griffin 1984, who estimated a wild population of 1,400 to 2,500 birds). r1he I-Ilo occurs in the geothermal project zone. Hawks were seen during early December 1984 at elevations between 2400 f eet and 1500 feet. Conant (1980) saw individuals "regularly in two localities: Puali'llua Crater and in the closed lohila forest near the eastern boundary of the Kalapana Extension. This latter area is traversed by the paved roads of the Hawaiian Hanes Kalapana, 'subdivision'." 7he 'Ilo has a very wide home range where it forages for food. It is an adaptable species, feeding on spiders, insects, mammals, and both native and introduced birds (Berger 1981). 7here would be no significant impact on the Ovo because of geothermal development. III. order Strigiforms A. Family.Strigidae; Typical Owls 1. Hawaiian Short-eared owl or Pueo, Aalo- flameus sandwichensis r1he Pueo is a permanent resident on all main islands in the Hawaiian Chain. 1he birds occur from sea level to at least 8000 feet on Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, and the birds are tolerant of wide climatic conditions. The Division of Forestry and Wildlife considers the Pueo to be endangered on 01ahu but not on Hawaili. 7he Pueo differs from most other owls in that it is diurnal in habit; hence, they are seen much more often than the nocturnal introduced Barn Owl (Ty-t-o al-b-a-) . Nevertheless, I have never seen the 75 Pueo in the project area, Conant (1 980) does not discuss this species, and Scott P ,t Al. (in press) did not find this owl in the Puna district. Scott (in press) said that "The species was most often in grasslands, shrublands, and montane-parklands. Less frequently, it was seen quartering low ove r the canopy of closed forests." Geothermal developwnt certainly would have no adverse effects on the Pueo. IV. order Passeriformes A. Family Turdidae; Thrushes and Bluebirds 1. Hawaiian Thrush or 'Cmalo, Rhaeo x-nis obscurus obsKm us The Hawaili race of the endemic thrush is the most common of the surviving races; it is not considered to be endangere do Scott et Al. (in press) wrote that: "Two well-established populations occur on Hawaii, the 56.000 Kau birds weakly separated frcm the 113,000 Hamakua-Puna birds by the degraded Kapapala Tract ... Fairly high nLubers Of Omao at lower elevations in Kau and Puna indicate a robust population not threatened by extinction ... High Omao densitites in mosquito-infested Puna indicate some populations have resistance to avian disease" (see also. van Riper and Scott 1979). The 10malo is a ommn species in the Kahauale'a forest in suitable habitat at all elevations, and I h ave seen it at an elevation of 1000 feet in the Puna Forest Reserve. Conant (1980) found "the highest densities (20-30 birds/40 ha) of 'Cmalo...in closed 'chila forests above 490 m (1600 feet)." Because of its 76 high population numbers and its distribution in relation to probable geothermal operations, the 'Cmalo should not suffer any- significant impact from geothermal development. B. Family Muscicapidae; old World Flycatchers 1. Elepaio, Chasimpis sandwichensi -aancd,#j-cbensis 7he 'Elepaio is one of the few native bird species that has been able to adapt to mixed endemic and introduced vegetation and even to almost entirely introduced vegetation in some lowland areas on 01ahu. r1he 'Elepaio is not an endangered species. During her study of the Kalapana Extension, Conant (1980) estimated densities of 6 to 10 birds per 40 ha in suitable habitat at elevations between 2400 and 2900 feet, noting that the 'Elepaio occurred in "rather low densities." Conant (1982) did not find the 'Elepaio in the "south central portion of the proposed [by Campbell Estate] geothermal development area (between power stations B & D in the Kahaualea Forest)" during censuses conducted in January 1982, nor did I see or hear I Elepaio in this region on September 18, 1982 (at elevations between 2000 and 2900 feet). Conant (1980) also remarked that "the spread of aggressive exotic plants, such as guavas (Psidjum cattleianum Sabine, P. guai L.) , which may form dense monospecific stands, can be viewed as a threat to the survival of the 'Elepaio. In the Kalapana Extension, low elevation mesic and rain forests are seriously threatened by exotic plant invasion." Scott e@t al. (in press) 77 estimated a total population of I Elepaio on the Island of Hawai I i to amount to 214,989 birds. 9bey remarked that "the windw@xd Hawaii population of 124,000 birds also shows marked avoidance of disturbed understories in the upper northwest corner of the Hamakua study area, and in the dry scrubland of Puna and Kapapala. 11 7he possible occurrence of a few I Elepaio in the proposed geothermal zone is inconsequential. C. Family Drepanididae; Hawaiian Honeycreepers 91iis is Hawaii's endemic bird family. About 40 percent of the family are extinct and another 40 percent are classified as threatened or endangered. 1. 101u, Psi Uroa-t-r-a wittacea 7he 10lu is considered to be the rarest of the surviving honeycreepers on the Big Island by the Hawaili Ebrest Bird Studies recovery team (Scott -e-t- -all. 1983). Moreover most of the 10lu in recent years have been found at elevations well above 3000 feet. Scott et al. (in press) wrote that "on Hawaili the Ou is most abundant frcm 1,300 to 1,500 m elevation, but was recorded at 900 m [2900 feet] in Puna.n They also noted that lou are associated with low elevation, mosquito-free forests that have a high canopy and lie outside the koa and koa-chia. zor*s ... rj&e tendency of the Ou to wander into mosquito-infested areas and its very low numbers make its survival precarious.n Mosquitos are abundant in the Kahauale'a forest, as well as at both lower and higher elevations (Goff and van Riper 78 1980; van Riper et al. 1982) Even above 3000 feet elevation, 'Olu populations are widely separated, and it is problematical that the species will be able to survive far into the f uture. 7he very small, isolated population of 10'u that may exis at the upper elevations of the Kahauale'a forest are in even greater danger of extinction, partly because of the abundance of mosquitoes there and because there are so few birds there. Moreover, they are so isolated from any other population at higher elevations that there undoubtedly is no gene f low between th populations. 7herefore, the inbreeding among the few birds at these lower elevations could rapidly lead to poorer reproductive success or other factors that would lead naturally to the extinction of the population. In brief, the proposed geothermal zone would have no adverse effects on the survival of the 101u. 2. Cammon Wk-drdhi, Hemigagthus mix-ems vir-exts (formerly Loxops vir vir 7his is the second most cmmn of the surviving honeycreepers. Scott et Al. (in press) estimated the total population on Hawaili to be 870,000 birds. 7he 'Amakahi shows tolerance towards people at Hawaili Volcanoes National - Park. It is most common at higher elevations, although I have found 'Amakihi at an elevation of 250 feet in Malama Ki Forest Reserve. However, Oonant (1982) did not mention the 'Amakihi in her discussion of the Kahuale'a f orestf nor did I see or hear this species during my field 79 work in this area in 1982 or 1984. 'Ihe possible occurrence of the 'Amakihi at lower elevations certainly is irrelevant to the determination of a geothermal zone. 3. 'Akiapolalau, Hemigmthu munroi (formerly H. wilsoni) I mention this species only because Baldwin (1941) found it in Hawaili Volcanoes National Park; Baldwin found it in Kipuka Kulalio at elevations between 5400 and 6700 feet. Scott -et al. (in press), however, did not find the lAkiapola'au in the Puna district. Berger (1972c) found a few birds in the Kilauea Forest Reserve at much higher elevations than the proposed geothermal zone. 4. Hawaili Creeper, Oreomystis mana (formerly Lo_xxopg; mac__uJ&ta m-ana) Baldwin (1941) considered this creeper- to -be an "uncommon, permanent resident" of Hawaili Volcanoes National Park. However, Scott g1t Al. (in press) wrote that "the Hawaii Creeper apparently suffered a dramatic decline in numbers in the vicinity of Kilauea Crater in the late 1930's to early 1940's. It has been suggested that this decline was due to interspecific competition with the Japanese White-eye (Dunmire 1961) ... In this area other factors probably caused the decline of this species." Scott and his oo-workers did not find the Hawaili Creeper in the lower Puna district. 5. 'Akepa, LoxgM coccineus Baldwin (1941) found the 'Akepa to be "rare or absentm f rcm Hawaili Volcanoes National Park. Berger found it to 80 be an un=mn species in the Kilauea Forest Reserve daring 1972. Scott -et Al. (in press) also f ound a population in the Kilauea Forest Reserve, but they did not f ind it at lower elevations in the Puna district. 6. 'Iliwi, Vestiaria coccinea 7he III.iwi is the most striking in appearance of the cmmn surviving honeycreepers, and it is not an endangered species. Scott -e-t- (in press) estimated a total population on Hawaili of 340,417 birds. In the entire Puna district, however, they estimated the population to nuWoer no more than 191 birds. Conant (1982) reported only three 'Iliwi in her studies in the Kahauale'a Forest, and I did not see or hear it there in 1982 or 1984. 7he I I iwi is of no concern for establishing a geothermal zone, 7. 'Apapane, Himati sanguinea san_quinea 7his is the most common bird among the surviving species of honeycreepers. Scott gtt al. (in press) estimated a total population of more than one million birds on the Island of Hawaili. of these, more than 132,000 birds occur in the Puna district. Scott and his co-workers wrote that: "on Hawaii, Apapane occur from sea level below the Puna and Kona study areas to 2,900 m elevation on Mauna Kea." They noted that "the maximum densities we found for Apapane, 2,000 birds/km2 in the Kau area, are the . highest bird densities ever recorded for a noncolonial species." 2. Indigenous birds 7his group of birds includes the seabirds and the migratory shorebirds and ducks that spend their nonbreeding season.in the Hawaiian Islands. None 81 of these migratory species are of arry concern for establishing a geothermal zone. I will discuss briefly two species of seabirds only because they were mentioned in the Campbell 'Estate geothermal hearings during October and November 1982. 1, Order Procellariiformes 'A. Samily Procellariidae; Shearwaters, Petrels, FWmars 1. Manx or Newell I s Shearwater I Puff i Wffin neweUi King and Gould (1967) wrote that "Kauai is now the primary and possibly uni que breeding locality of Newell's Shearwater." More recently, Kepler -et al. (1979) wrote of- Possible breeding colonies of this shearwater on the Island of Hawaili, but these possible small colonies are located on the Hamakua coast and in the Kohala Mountains. 11here is no evidence for the occurrence of this shearwater in the Puna district. 2. Dark-rumped Petrel, Pterodr pbaeopygia, sandwidLeansis The primary nesting area for this petrel is in Haleakala Crater on Mau i (Buxbaum 1973; Berger 1981); a small colony also apparently occurs on Lanali (Hirai 1978); and Winston E. Banko found four occupied nesting burrows high on Mauna Loa in 1968, and in 1970 he found birds on Mauna Kea. Uhere is no evidence, however, that there is now, or was in the past, a nesting colony -in the Puna district below 4000 feet elevation. 3. Ijit-rodu birds More than 170 species of alien birds have been introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by man since 1796 (Berger 1981). Approximately 50 species have 82 established breeding populations on one or more islands. A number of these may legitimately be called "pest birds." Scxne (e.g. r Spotted Munia, House Finch; see below) have caused considerable destruction to experimental small grain crops in the state. Doves. and the Myna have been implicated in spreading the seeds of such noxious plants as lantam camar . 1he Japanese White-eye often is a problem for fruit growers. other examples could be cited, and two relatively new seed- and/or fruit-eating birds on Hawaili pose problaiis for the future. For example, Rose-ringed Parakeets (Psittacula kramerD were reported to be nesting at the Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Orchards south of Hilo in 1981 (Paton et Al. 1982). 9bese parakeets eat both seeds and fruits,, and Paton and his co-workers estimated that "potential annual crop losses could reach $50,000" if a large population of these birds were to become established. Warbling Silverbills (Lonqbur nalabari were first reported on the Big Island by Berger (1975). Not only has thi s primarily seed-eating bird increased its range greatly on Hawai I i but it also has spread to Maui, Lanali, and molokali. Such birds will make the growing of small grain crops essentially impossible. Finally, some of the alien species (e.g., Japanese White-eye, Melodious Laughing-thrush) occur fram sea level to at least 8000 feet elevation on Hawaili, including the Ichila forests; their role in the spread of avian diseases and in competing with endemic species is incomgLetely known at this time. However, it is reasonable to conclude that all of the introduced bird species are irrelevant in the determination of a geothermial zone. I. Order Columbiforims A. Family Columbidae; Pigeons and Doves 1. Lace-necked or Spotted Dave, Streptopg1ja c ns, hine is chinens-is 83 This Asian dove was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands at an early date; the exact date apparently is unknown, but the bir ds'are said to have been common on 0'ahu by 1879 (Caum 1933). 7he species is now common to abundant on all of the islands, and, like the other doves in the state, is classified as a game bird, . 7his dove occurs where the rainfall exceeds 100 inches per year, but the highest densities are found in drier areas where such introduced Plants as koa-haole leucocepbal ) and kiawe (PXO&QRi M11i flourish Although a- very common species on Hawaili, the Spotted Dove is not an inhabitant of the Ichila,forests. 2. Barred or Zebra Dove, Gegopgjja .6tXjata stXjata 7his small dove is said to have been introduced to the islands sometime after 1922 (Bryan 1958). It has been a very successful species and is now abundant on all of the islands. Schwartz and Schwartz (1949) estimated densities as high as 400 to 800 birds per square mile in dry areas in 01ahu and Molokali only 25 years after their introduction. One study of their food habits revealed that the diet consisted of 97 percent seeds and other plant materials; the 3 percent animal matter included several species of beetles, weevils, and wireworm larvae. 7he doves contract intestinal roun&orms and tapeworms from the insects in their diet (as does the Spotted Dove), and Kocan and Banko (1974) reported on Barred Daves in Hawaili that were infected with trichomonas, a parasite that has 84 "catastrophic" effects in North America, Like the Spotted Dove, the Barred Dove is not an inhabitant of dense forests. - They are most' ommwn in urban areas, and in relatively open rural areas such as pineapple and cane fields, pastures, cutover forests, and truck gardens. 3. Rock Dove, Columba livi All varieties of the dmnestic pigeon are derived fran the European Rock Dove. lIhey apparently were first brought to the islands in 1796. 1 saw several flocks of pigeons in the lowland area of the east rif t zone. 7heir only significance is because of potential public health problems. For example, Kishimoto and Baker (1969) found a f ungus, CgYPtQgQ=s neoformans, in 13 or 17 samples taken from pigeon droppings on Olahu. Ihis fungus causes a chronic cerebrospinal meningitis in man. Bull (1963) noted that "in all but the cutaneous form the prognosis is very gravel' for man (see also Abou-Cabal and Atia 1978). Schwartz and Schwartz (1949) found heavy parasitim of the dDves by tapeworms, which not only retards proper nutrition of the host but also "occludes the intestine, produces undesirable toxins, and hinders breeding." The presence of such parasites certainly has implications for other birds. both introduced and endemic. II. Order Passeriforme A. Family Alaudidae; Larks 1. Skylark, Alauda arvensi Aryens j-s Henshaw (1902) wrote that the introduction of the Skylark to Olahu had b een a "great success and that some 85 birds had been released on the windward side of Hawaili, "but their fate is at present unknown". The Skylark is now camn to abundant in suitable habitat on Hawai I i. I have seen this species in open country f rcm sea level at South Point to above treeline (approximately 9300 feet) on Mauna Kea. There is no open habitat in the forested lands of the east rift zone. Conant (1980) found the Skylark to be uncoamn "but widely distributed in g rasslands" in the Ralapana Extension. B. Family Timaliidae; Babblers and Laughing-thrushes 1. Melodious Laughing-thrush, Garrul canoru This bird is a member of the babbler family even though it long has been called the Chinese Thrush (Hwa-mei) in the islands. THe species is native to the Yangtze Valley in China and southward to Laos, and it occurs in Formosa, The birds were brought to the islands as cage birds. "A number obtained their freedom at the time of the great fire in the oriental quarter of Honolulu in 1900, and took to the hills behind the cityn (Caum 1933). Birds were later released on Hawai i and the other islands. This laughing-thrush is now cmmuon on the Island of Hawailis, where the birds prefer fairly dense vegetation. Scott -e-t Al.- (in press) found that in the vicinity of Kilauea Crater, this species has "increased from occasional vagrants to fairly oannon breeders in the 1980-1983 period." Conant .(1980) found this laughing-thrush to be "uncoamon (1-5 birds/40 ha) in both open and closed 'ohila forestsn in the east rift zone region. 86 C. Family Zosteropidae; White-eyes and Silver-eyes 1. Japanese white-eye, 7,ostex-gps JaMnicu jsapond-cus 7his -race of the white-eye is native to the main islands of Japan fram Kyushu to Honshu and the islands lying between Japan and Korea. 7he first Japanese White-eyes (Mejiro) were released on 01ahu by the Territorial Board of Agriculture and Forestry in 1929 (Caum 1933). At least 252,White-eyes were released on the Island of Hawai I i during June 1937 (Berger 1975b) . 7he White--eye presents an example par excellence of the success of an introduced species. It now occurs on all of the main islands, is found frcm sea level to tree line on Hawaili, and inhabits very dry areas (e.g., Kawaihae) and those having 300 or more inches of rainfall per year. 7here is virtually no, habitat in the islands that is not inhabited by White-ey es and I believe it to be the most abundant song bird in the islands. White-eyes eat insects, fruit, the pulp of berries, buds, and nectar, so that they can be a serious threat to farmers. 7he California State Department of Agriculture (Keffer -e-t- al. 1976;. Audubon Magazine September 1982) is greatly concerned about the accidental release of a related species (Gray-backed White-eye, Z. p-alp-ebrosa) at San Diego. Two pairs escaped in 1973 or 1974; 150 offspring have been captured since then. "Estimates of the potential loss in soft-fruit crops, should white-eyes ever begin to multiply rapidly and establish large populations, run as high as $2 million a 87 year." Scott g-t Al. (in press) estimated a population of .more than one million birds on Hawaili, alone; hence, all that f ruit farmers can dc) is to control the birds in a limited area. 7he white-eye is of no concern in making a determination of a suitable geothermal zone. D. Family Sturnidae; Mynas and Starlings 1. CWwn Indian Myna, Acridothere -til-stwo Uistis 11he nyna is native to Sri Lanka, India, West Pakistan, Nepal, and adjacent regions. 7he Conimon Myna was introduced fram India "in 1865 by Dr. William Hillebrand to combat the plague of army worms that was ravaging the pasture lands of the islands" (Cam 1933). 7he Myna is common to abundant, especially in lowland areas of the inhabited islands, being most common in the vicinity of houses and-barns in outlying districts. It also occurs at elevations up to at least 8000 feet but is f ound in pastures, the edges of forests, and in disturbed areas in general. It is common at the Hawaili Volcanoes National Park Headquarters but is,not found in the 'chila forests of the east rift zone. E. Family Ploceidae; Weaverbirds and Allies 1. Spotted Munia or Ricebird, Lonchur 7his Asian species was brought to Hawaii by Dr. William Hillebrand about 1865 (Cam 1933). Cam wrote that the Ricebird "feeds on the seeds of weeds and grasses and does considerable damage to green rice." Rice is, of course, no longer grown in the islands, but the Ricebird 88 has been a serious pest by eating the seeds of sorghm (see also House Finch). !1he Ricebird is an abundant species on all of the islands, and it is tolerant of both wet and dry habitats. 7he birds tend to be nomadic during the nonbreeding season, moving over large areas in search of seeds. 7he birds are prolific, nesting during every umth of the year. 9be birds occur f ran sea level to at least 7500 feet, but they do not inhabit the Ichila forests. 7hey are birds of pastures, cane fields, cutover forests, and other disturbed areas. 2. House Sparrow, Passer domesticus Also called the English Sparrow, the House sparrow was first imported to 01ahu in 1871, when nine birds were brought in from New Zealand (where the species had previously been introduced from England). Cam (1933) wrote that "whether or not there were further introductions is not known, but the species was reported to be numerous in Honolu lu in 1879." The House Sparrow in North America (first introduced in Brooklyn in 1852) became a serious pest, and many thousands of dollars were spent in attempting to control the population. 7his sparrow apparently never became a serious pest in the Hawaiian Islands; it is omnivorous in diet, eating weed seeds as well as insects and their larvae. 7he House Sparrow typically is found in the vicinity of man and his buildings. In Hawaili Volcanoes National Park, it is found primarily around the headquarters buildings, less cmmonly 89 around the camp grounds and picnic areas. I know of no records of its occurrence in the Ichila forests of the east rift zone.' F. Family Fringillidae; Sparrows, Cardinals, and Buntings 1. Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis rihis bird also is called the Kentucky Cardinal, Virginia Cardinal, and the Redbird. Cardinals were released several times on Kauali, 01ahu, and Hawaili between 1929 and 1931. Cn Hawai I i, it is f ound f ran sea level to at least 7500 feet on Mauna Kea. It inhabits both very dry areas and those with a high annual rainfall. Scott et (in press) wrote that Tardinals have inf iltrated most of the f orest in the Puna study area. rihis was facilitated by three factors-the Puna forest has extensive edges with disturbed habitat along its north, east, and south boundaries; a rift zone located through the middle of the forest supporting disturbed habitat; and widespread localized marijuana (Carmbi-s sati and indica) cultivation by feral man throughout the forest interior that creates numerous canopy openings and provides seeds for the diet." Conant . (1980) wrote that she f elt it doubtf ul that the Cardinal whas arry adverse competitive effects on native birds," a sentiment with which I agree. 2. House Finch, Carpodacus mexicanu 11his f inch is native to North America. Birds were first brought to the islands "prior to 18700 (Caum 1933). It is now an abundant species in both residential and rural 90 areas, in wet and dry regions, and in the high ranch country and open forest lands on Maui and Hawaili. They do not inhabit dens e forests. Because of their fondness for ripe papaya, the bird is called the Papayabird in the islands. Despite this liking for soft fruits, however, the House Finch is predominantly a seed eater, frequently also eating flower buds. 'When experimental crops of sorghum were planted in former sugarcane fields at Kohala during 1972, Spotted Munias and House Finches destroyed 50 tons of grain from an experimental plot that had been-expected to produce 60 tons. r1here is very little habitat in the upper reaches of the east rift zone for House Finches, although Conant (1980) wrote: "On a few occasions I was surprised to find birds in -the open lchila-hapulu (MetrQaideros- =Qt_@) areas because, for the most part, these habitats are surrounded by closed forests." DErIRIMWM FACMRS FOR THE ENDEMIC BIRrS Most of the potential geothermal sites in the east rift zone will be at elevations below 3000 feet. r1he majority of all of the endemic forest birds now are found at elevations above 3000 feet. 7herefore, it seems pertinent to consider those factors that threaten the forests and the birds that are found at elevations less than 3000 feet, that is, even if no additional geothermal development took place in the east rift zone. 1. 7he effects of the large numbers of mosquitoes (especially Culex cruinauefasciatus) on the endemic birds already have been mentioned (pages 75, 77, 78: see also, Goff and van Riper 1980; van Riper and Goff 1982). r1he 91 avian diseases (particularly malaria and pox) transmitted by the mosquitoes are a threat to the survival of most of the endemic bird species. 2. The small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), the roof or black rat (Rattus rattus), the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus, the house mouse (Mus musculus, the feral cat (Felis catus), and the feral dog (Canis familiaris) have been studies in the Kilauea Forest Reserve at a higher elevation (Mueller-Dombois et al. 1981). It is certain that all also occur at lower elevations along the east rift zone (Tomich 1969). All of these introduced pests are predators on birds and their eggs or young (Berger 1072c, 1981). 3. Pigs (Sus scrofa) were brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers; later, the English released European pigs (Tomich 1969). Mueller-Dombois et al. (1981: 310) noted that "In the Kilauea forest, the effect of feral pigs is very noticeable." They added (page 316): "There is little doubt that the widespread pig digging in the Kilauea forest has been a major factor in reducing the native ground-cover vegetation. The present total cover was estimated as only 7.7 percent...Pig digging undoubtedly has an effect on the invasion of exotic plant species. Several exotic grasses (Holcus lanatus, Anthoxanthum odoratum, and Axonopis affinis) and compostite weeds (Erechtites valerianaefolia, Hypochaeris radicata, Gnaphalium purpureum, and Senecio sylvaticus) occurred sporadically in forest openings where the ground was distrubed by pigs." The pigs also eat the seedlings of Acacia koa, and the stomach contents of seven pigs contained from 70 to 95 percent tree fern parts. These effects of pig activities occurred in the Kilauea Forest Reserve which "was soon recognized by IBP participants as the best intact example of this forest type remaining in the state" (Mueller-Dombois et al. 1981: 217; underlining mine). Conant (1980), in writing about the east rift 92 zone region, said: "This change [vulcanism], as well as extensive alteration in forest habitats wrought by feral pig and goat activity and exotic plant invasion, may account, at least in part, for the disappearance of several forest bird species fran the Kalapana Extension. It is probably botanically acceptable to say that there are virtually no 'unimpaired' habitats remaining today. In her report on the Kauhahale'a forest, Oonant (1982) noted that "sane degree of disturbance is evidence by the numerous trails that traverse the area. Presumably the trails are used by hikers, hunters, and pigs. Exotic plant species are common along the trails, less so in the remainder of the forest." Thus, it seems safe to conclude that both pigs and exotic plants present a threat to the integrity of the few endemic forests that remain in Hawaili., Scott and his co-authors (in press) discuss various Hawaiian ecosystems, with special attention to understory and ground vegetation, in relation to the distribution of both endemic and exotic bird species. SEJMMARY 1. Cnly a very few endemic forest bird species inhabit the forests of the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano, and their populations are low in comparison to their numbers at higher elevations. None of these endemic forest birds is considered to be endangered or threatened with extinction. A small number of Hawaiian hawks (presently considered to be an endangered species) do occurin the east rift zone. 7he hawk, however, is a wide-ranging species, and it seems certain that the birds would simply shift their home range if a geothermal plant produced any conditions that the hawks found objectionable. The hawk now inhabits papaya and macadamia nut orchards. thus showing that the birds are able to adapt to people and to highly disturbed habitats. 93 2. There is no evidence that any species of native sea bird nests in the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano, nor that they have done so historically. 3. 7he many introduced or alien bird species that occur in the entire rift zone (that is, to sea level) are irrelevant to a determination of a suitable geothermal zone. 7his is true because mne are endangered species, they exist in very large numbers; a large number have proven to be pest birds in Hawaili, and some may be important in harboring parasites and diseases that could pose a threat to the endemic bird species. 4. 7he introduced mongoose, rats, feral cats, and feral dogs are predators on birds, their nests and eggs. ahe roof rat and the other two introduced. rats (Norway and polynesian, Rattus exul cause considerable damage to agriculture as well as to hcmes and commercial buildings. 5. Pigs not only destroy the g round cc)ver and tree ferns in the native forests but their rooting also opens up areas where exotic plants can become established in forested areas. ORNITHOLOGICAL FIELD NOTES Kahaualela,, Umer Kal & Wao Kele -0 B= Natural ALrea Reserve Ten bird species were observed in Kahauale'a and the upper Kalapana-Mo Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve (NAR) . Tables 2 and 3 summarizes these findings. Nomenclature and phylogenetic order used in the tables follow A. J. Berger's treatment in the preceding report. The following information is presented in the tables: I. Taxa, i.e., common name as well as scientific name and family. II. Status (symbols after Pyle (1977)) Re = Resident species, native, endemic at the species level. Fl = Foreign introduced species, long established and breeding in the Hawaiian islands (for more than 25 years). 94 E = Currently on the Federal List of Endangered Species. III. Abundance indices are scaled from 1 (rare) to 10 (very abundant). IV. Occurrence of species on a transect. 7he smaller number of species recorded frcin the Kahauale'a area is in large part due to the limited number of transects. Among the introduced species, the Japanese White-eye and the Melodious Laughing-thrush occurred in all twelve transects in moderate numbers. The 'Apapane and the 10malo are the most frequently encountered native species. Mosquitoes were abundant on the upper Kalapana (1240 to 1400 ft elevation) and Wao, Kele 0 Puna NAR transects. Fewer mosquitoes were noted on the two, higher elevation Kahauale'a transects. Table 4 presents avifauna distribution among the different ecosystem types-(refer to Flora section). Introduced species occu r in the very open -1chila-uluhe association as well as the forested areas while native species, with the exception of the 'Ilo, occur in the 'ohila forest. 7he less disturbed types of 'ohila forest Vohila- a(l), ldhila-a(2)) support more native species. TABLE 2. BIRD SPECIES OCCURPJM IN MNHWALE'A No. Transects Observed Family D Name Smies; Statu Abundance TQtal No, Df M=o-ePts Hawaiian Hawk, 'Ilo Bu solitarius; Accipitridae Re, E 1/2 Hawaiian Thrush, 10mago Phaeornis obscurus obscuru ; Turdidae Re 5 2/2 'Elepaio Chasiempis sandwichensis sandwichensis; muscicapidae Re 2 2/2 'Apapane Himiatione =0inea. sanguinea; Drepanididae Re 9 2/2 Melodious Laughing- thrush Garrul go-noru Timaliidae Fl 2 2/2 Japanese White-eye Zostergps jarionicus japonicus; zosteropidae Fl 4 2/2 Ln TABLE 3. BIRD SPECIES OCCURRIM IN UPPER NUAPANA AND WAO EME 0 PUNA NAMURAL AREA RESERVE' No. Transects Observed Conmn EMM SMie ; Fami- Status Abundance TDtal M. pf 2rAns*cts Hawaiian Hawk, 'Ilo Buteo solitarius; Accipitridae Re, E 3/10 Hawaiian Thrush, 10malo Phaeorni obscurus obscurus; Turdidae Re 2 6/10 'Amakihi Hemigmthu virens yirens; Drepanididae Re 5 6/10 lApapane Himtione ganguinea 94minea; Drepanididae Re 4 8/10 liliwi yestiaria coccine Drepanidi dae Re 1 2/10 Melodius Laughing- thrush Garrul canorus; Timliidae Fl 4 9/10 No. Wansects Observed Name gMies; Family Status Abundance Total W, of M:AnsWts Japanese white-eye zosterops jaMnicus japmicu ; Zosteropidae Pi 5 10/10 Northern Cardinal Cardinali cardinalis; Fringillidae Fl 1 4/10 Hou-se Finch Carpodacus frontalis; Fringillidae Fl 1 1/10 kD TABLE 4. BIRD SPECIES FIOUND IN VARIOUS EOOSYSTEM TYPES OF KNMALEA, UPPER NUAPANA, AND WAO KELE 0 PUNA NATURAL AREA RESERVE 'Chila Foregt IAVA Ohi ar--uluhp. ohi a=A-U ohi ang (2). ohi a-a (3) Hawaiian Hawk, II10 + + + + + Hawaiian Thrush, 10malo + + Elepaio + 'Amakihi + + + 'Apapane + + + I, iwi + + Melodious Laughing- thrush + + + + Japanese White-eye + + + Nor thern Cardinal + + + kD 00 House Finch + 99 ENDANGERED SPECIES FLORA Several rare, threatened or endangered plant species are know to occur or to have occurred in the past within the project area. A list of such plants from the Southeast Rift Zone has been compiled by Dr. C. Corn (State Botanist, Division of Forestry, Department of Land and Natural Resources) using information obtained from the botanical literature and herbarium sheet labels. The following species have been collected in the project area: *Rauvolfia remotiflora *Reynoldsia hillebrandii *Tetraplasandra hawaiiensis var. hawaiiensis *Bidens skottsbergii var. skottsbergii clermontia hawaiiensis *Cyanea rollandioides *Sesbania tomentosa var. tomentosa *Cyrtandra ramosissima *Scaevola kilaueae *Ophioglossum concinnum Peperomia lilifolia var. obtusata *Ischaemum byhrone *Adenophorus periens Alphitonia ponderosa var. kauila *Bobea timonioides *Pelea pickeringii Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. geminicarpum *Bidens hawaiensis 100 Not all collections had precise location data and the following species may occur or may have occurred in the project area *Bidens campylotheca Clermontia peleana, *Cyanea tritamantha var. tritamantha *Cyrtandra giffardii *Labordia hedyosmifolia var. kilaueana. *Portulaca sclerocarpa *Pelea zahlbruckneri *Pelea parvifolia var. apoda *Nothocestrum breviflorum var. breviflorum *Nothocestrum longifolium var. rufipilosum *Wikstroemia perdita -*Cyanea giffardii *Trematolobelia wimmri- Hedyotis manii var. scaposa *Labordia hedyosmifolia var. rnagnifolia 7hose species currently under review by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980) are denoted by an asterisk. A number of the species listed occur within the Hawai I i Volcanoes National Park boundary or at higher elevations outside the project area. During the course of this survey eight plant species currently under review were located and are discussed on the following pages. ADENOPHCMJS PMENS L. E. BISHOP, ibis fern is a member of a genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. In the 19th century it was known to be fairly commion f ran rainforest areas on Kaua Olahu,, Molokali, Lanaili, Maui and Hawail-i. For the past 60 years only two 101 populations have been known. A small population (probably less than 100 plants) still occurs on Molokali, near Pepelopae Bog, Kamakou. r1he maj or population, consisting of several thousand plants, occurs entirely within the Puna District, largely within Kahaualela, and extending frcm there a short distance eastward into the Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve (Fig. 2). Adenorhorus Pgri was listed by Flosberg and Herbst (1975) as "population apparently decreasing, very rare.R In the latest Fish and Wildlife Service determination (1980) it is listed as a Category 1 candidate for listing as an endangered species. A Category 1 species is one for which the Service had sufficient information to support the biological appropriateness of listing, but for which data still needed to be collected concerning the environmental and economic impacts of listing and designation of Critical Habitats. Recent studies (Lamoureux 1982a, 1982b, 1984a; Williams 1982; Williams and Lamoureux 1982) have delimited the area occupied by this species in Puna,_ and have provided estimates of population size in this area. Prior to the Pulu Olo eruptions of 1983-85 population size was estimated at between 65,000 and 100,000 plants. Our field studies in late 1984, conducted for purposes of the present report, revealed that a small part (perhaps 5%) of the habitat had been destroyed when covered by lava flows fran Pulu Olo. More significantly, a combination of tephra deposited and volcanic gases emitted in large amounts during Pulu Olo eruptions has had rather severe effects on the nearby forests, and resulted in the loss of nmy individuals of Adenophoru periew. By November 1984 nearly all A. Rgri in the forests nearest Pulu Olo seemed to be deade while those in the northern part of Kahaualela, near the end of Captain's Drive, appeared to have been unaffected by recent volcanic activity. We were not able to conduct a census of sufficient scope to allow us to give a a I I win Xi it Bel NORTH SOUTH HILO Ka' Kowa P"M "/Fleve"Mile IN I, wal HILO Hoinestud Kok I PW"u fit in K KGLwJ 3W PWO wai Acr -J twit &atri Rain ForW GIM MpLde PUNA 04 KSW Kilauea Military IL oil 16 or-- im Caaw .10"Ketalia in K U -4 * A'UIA Ch, WIM Flat PUSIT@ Crol1w Kailathlanowe Woman K"lc Sancti CrMaterr Slow) .HAWAVI VOLICANOILS Kai= "OkuM 1110,1011111 patie. Pit. ONAL IV PARK I(Mintuns ft. VOT I 41p' K4 1% 6\0\ P" am PvU WA X, Odom Ka'ann 1111. Kanto camp P'. % Ap" PI+ 'ir 0 4 6 10 MOM 155* 0 2 i 0 6 mo__ 12 14 Is II.M.Wers Pw.v Nilliftalmd Oil. Fig@ 2. Distribution of Adenophorus periens in project ar Shaded area designates major population concentra Dots show locations of more scattered plants. 103 reliable estimate of present population size, nor are we able to predict the time that may be required for the population to recover to its pre-eruption size. `Ihe studies made in 1982 by Lamoureux and Williams revealed a number of details of habitat requirements for A. Wriens. It is an epiphyte which seems to be confined to a layer of mosses, liverworts and small ferns that forms a mat up to 2 inches thick on the lower. trunks of I chi I a-lehua (Metrosideros) trees in areas where the tree canopy is well-dLeveloped and where a subcanopy of hapulu ferns (Ciboti ) provides heavy enough shade to allow the development of the thick moss/fern mat on the lower tree trunks. -7his sort of habitat is encountered essentially only in the forest type we have classified and mapped as I chi I a forest-a (1) 11his is a very sensitive habitat type, -since any changes which would result in removing either the 'chila-lehua trees or the hapulu ferns would also have the effect of destroying the moss/fern mat and the Admo-phorus pgriens which lives in it. BIDENS SNDTTSB ERGII SHERFF VAR. SNX!MBERGII Bidens skottsbergii var. skottsbergii (kolokololau) is a small to medium shrub, 1 to 1.5 m tall, with bright yellow flowers belonging to the daisy .,family (Campositae). It has been placed in the Category 1 status by the U.S. Fish and wildlife Service (1980) and is listed by Fosberg and Herbst (1975) as Rdepleted, rare, and endangered". It is very restricted in distribution, usually found in the dry forest or dry scrub community although it may occur very rarely in the mixed lowland forest (Fig. 3). An easily accessible population is found mauka. of the Wahalula heiau within Hawaili Volcanoes National Park. 11he kolokololau i s not likely to be directly impacted by geothermal development as it is no t found in a reas with high geothermal energy potential. NORTH SOUTH HILO Ke av VAIM 100.4 HILO %% 130. w A % .A. K % Kwkw In 'we Koko L mp .3707 t % ai Wain Rain F Glen 0 PUNA + *Vow 4A In A "o KaNyale K A 'U K-Whk/r Cho wavuk /FW & 01CF419(s KIM N 4 Ulu c(at" P W. I.,-J, 000- er 100, Kak4l Sawn (lWwk Sand) Ili VOLCANdIES 4P' H A W A Vi ...... "Okumo Pl. xw Kapashu lcupmo-u Pt. FliphinemM@ I I'll ru'. I uw" JWrIT 10 N A L PCI PARK am"I une F4. #Pbkf lp P Pvu`-*@( (pq) V FW .1111, PON 1,10,11. "N P, 1. 0 Kepukov P I K0 an. C I " Ka'*oo F4. K. Camp PC 'Apue F% i-V 40, VIP 0 2 4 6 a 10-l" . . 1 155' U 12 14 10 R00-Hem Inu Fig. 3. Distribution of Bidens, skottsbetgii var. skottsber in project axea. 105 BOBEA TIMONIOIDES (HOOK, F.) HILLEBR. A medium-statured tree, 6 to 8 m tall, with pale green leaves and a whitish to gray colored bark, Bobea timonioides ('ahakea) is found in all "ohi'a forest types but reaches its best development in the moderately moist (mesic) 'ohi'a forests on the palis above Waha'ula Heiau. Several straight- trunked trees of 'ahakea, 24 to 27 m tall, were found in the Royal Gardens subdivision among 'ohi'a, lama (Diospyros ferrea ssp. sandwicensis) and olupua (Osmanthus sandwicensis). This particular stand of trees composed of the species mentioned above was 20 to 27 m tall, all straight-trunked (30 to 45 cm in diameter) and branching high above the ground. The 'ahakea is presently under review (Category 1) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980); Fosberg and Herbst (1975) list it as "very local, endangered." The 'ahakea is located in areas already designated of proposed for geothoermal development. Roads, wells, power plants and other geothermal facilities should be sited so that they avoid those locations with 'ahakea trees. CYANEA TRITOMANTHA GRAY VAR. TRITOMANTHA Cyanea tritomantha var. tritomantha ('aku'aku) was found only once during the course of this surbey in an 'ohi'a-a(2) forest (Fig. 5). Although the surrounding forest had signs of pig damage, the area with several of the Cyanea plants was not damaged and also contained a number of Cyrtandra species. The substrate on which the Cyanea occurred consisted of very rough a'a, this probably deterred the pigs. This Cyanea is a very striking. The population we found had pure white flowers in dense clusters and the leaves and stems were covered with almost-translucent prickles. mm loot NOR Ir H SOUTH HILO Ke HILO lie '%W w ou'v 1K 11-1 A;... MIAMI P"I* A .811 -A6A" 5617 du Rain ForW Gko PUNA "am"N. OP A*4 1w Cmw ftfu Kd"'m K A'U A MEW P%IK Cha *7. OfCratero Be, 41, L r CIEW W. C#vW WiP&XW K"-4 0800 Cw flo or; 01 R N%. H A W A I'l VOLCANC4S "M@ P1 KUP@PW- A ONAL PARK %# um A. ap I k, IrT I +. Kai" I OR) At 4.0 It 1P P" ftR Km*@ P1. 04 K= Call* P1, 10 Rwn 0 2 4 0 155* 15, 6-2 4 a a 10 12 14 lakao"w!eft Pkew ilkakwl P1. vu. A Fig. 4. Distribution of Bobea timonioides in project are A @. I NORTH SOUTII HILO HILO ZU xm", of* .@Ip a4l, Rain U A mole Mury d@p Oki claw #4 'Pip % #. K A'U/' b' /0 "WWI" ir VA" ID i:,Sw 'Amp 94" awn MWA SW*J + H A W A i I VOLCANMES \It I ---- pt 411 A. @XT) 0 N A L PARK IsI-x Ale.0 10 #JAkamo x 000'. tAndifiii 4r 0 10"W" 40 17 is lsk@wsft Fig. 5. Distribution of Cyanea tritoAmantha vax. tritomant in project axea. 108 Cy tritomantha var. tri has been placed in Category 1 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980). Fosberg and Herbst (1975) list it as "rare, total population low,- whether dangerously so or not; endangered, in considerable danger of disappearance". 'Ihis species is very rare in the project area and is probably restricted to Ichila-a(l) and a(2) forests. Since it is very rare and its population appears to be limited any direct disturbance by geothermal development would be detrimenta. 1. ISCHAE24UM B)TtONE (TRIN.) HITCHC. 7his is a grass endemic to -the Hawaiian Islands, which is restricted to coastal areas and usually grows on sand or rocks within a hundred yards or so of the sea. It was known in the past from 0'ahu, Molokali, Maui, and Hawaili and may still be present in small numbers on all these islands. Posberg and Herbst (1975) listed it as "depleted, rare, endangered". 11he latest Fish and Wildlife Service review (1980) includes it as a Category 1 species for listing as endangered. It occurs sporadically along the coast of Puna; recent collections have been made near Honolulu Landing, in Malama-Ki Forest Reserve, and at Kamoamoa (Fig. 6). Because it grows only in close proximity to the coast, away fran areas proposed for geothermal development, it is unlikely that such development will have arry ef f ect on its prospects for long@-term survival. RAUVCLFIA REMOTIFLORA DBG. & SHERFF gauvolfia remotiflora is a medium sized tree with-milky sap and light green leaves. 7he flowers are small, whitish-yellow and occur in clusters. Within the project area it is found in the dry forests behind Wahalula Heiau and in the Royal Gardens subdivision (Fig. 7). 1 914 *a NORTH SO U T 1i A ZINN % W z Mari top pwo- rl Ir I 5917 0, Fomat % IIf PUNA L Ilk MA wary d Al@ @111 4% 16 , *4 K A'U/ otcraters "m mw 1. fie "'00 K",_ zd C40W taw* + Caaw also $W-A " @"\ @X-@ IR WAVI VOLCANOZS Pk. H A '@;;" I...... I It@ 0"Aw X?P" ONAL PARK IrT PVVLGSA LV Ot- 01, come q-* 155" Z 2% -"6 4 12 is ad4" P.-V Ne Fig. 6. Distribution of Ischaemum byrone in project area if@ iiii 4 w___ k & 4%0 4 4 Sold, Vol NORTH Soul,11 HILO Kea's Railob POW 1A 111 L 0 130 % Wall sort Lit X, It a Kukul .0-01 tot In aw A "K M .4,@Rip 0. Solt Sa.-, 0 1 11 %\ I \ \ -i, A@ A.-A u.. to A wi7 Rain Forest PUNA af. 1071 411 Kate Mil.wry 5?,. Hit C401M Fvu PUV KOUM K A *U Me' K* Ch We" 0 Crew at a Of Craters K5.0 His east M C K "Alm ;wr. cralm p VRQ gotten A % 'AW Cmtw lwmk SOW) ar 0111moksooputil ;AIR ------ Kalvana VOLCANOTS Mot HAWAII % Haw" Pt. u :,-o"Mmina r. liv. ill;w ------ x8pa'sh. 3032 T.a L KOapo'u P1 PARK tina K DirTIONAL apf smom I 2IM' CIhmal- wa "P Pvu LOS 1P % -valley Am 11 hl; K.A.."kawn X n Kasme fit. ,W@ I co, I Kea I Cmp J Aws Pi Al, Landing Af 2 4 to .4fell 0 2 4 6 1! 10 17 14 16 k.f" 1197. Fig. 7. Distribution,of.Rauvolfia remotiflora in project It has been placed in Category 1 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980). Rauvolfia remotiflora has a very restricted distribution and Fosberg and Herbst (1975) note that'it is "very local (found only or principally in one or more restricted areas), very rare,, and endangered." The Rauvolfia, is not located in an area proposed for geothermal development. REYNCLIDSIA HIM. RANDII SHERFF Reynoldsia hillebrandii (1ohe) is a medium-sized tree frcm 5 to 30 m tall with thickish branches. 7he trees often shed their leaves for a short period of time during the winter months and begin flowering just before the leaves appear, usually in early summer. However, we did f ind txees in the Royal Gardens subdivision with flower, fruit and leaves during our field survey in late November. 7he Iche has a limited distribution range and is usually found in the dry forests and very rarely in mixed lowland forests (Fig. 8). It is currently under review (Catego ry 1) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980) and is listed by Fosberg and Herbst (1975) as "local, rare, and endangered.". It is unlikely that geothermal devel opment would have a detrimental effect on its population as the Iche is located at lower elevations, away frcm areas proposed for geothermal development. IAPLASANMA HAWAIIENSIS VAR. HAWAIIENSIS GRAY Tetraplasandra hawaiiensis var. hawiiensis (Iche) is a large tree, 12 to 26 m tall, often unbranched for same distance above the ground and towering above the 'ohila trees. Each leaf is divided into 5 to 9 leaf lets. 7he leaflets are leathery, green and smooth above but tawny woolly beneath. sod t0swou ISShWAWA&aVAO MOW NORTH SOUTH HILO cf.. Rom po HILO w 06 Kak.1 K" nt in Mai Maka'alm -3707 p Sol I, stake - =1 I I Ai 56 f-l I \ I blat. *0 1 Rain C. Formal Glose W 10A, PUNA ow 16 lVv KWA& K A'U 1A MON claw 4 Cho 0 tcraleri FW all 4C.Mm 6- Ime 'AAM I- ptallkle claw -I-L-Qnz WWAlks Mine amech 0--- cmw Send) NOXS .,,@.AWAVI VOLCA MAUWA pl. 7 3032 xvaww pul ONAL. PARK pl. IrT I A "o . I I -' , KAMOMPAI(pt.) 'I tAl .1,1 11014 Pwu Lftc J p \% ) - # I . 4p eel, rA- Kagakommo It V"Al a KS*WW 04. IN Apw pl. K 10 mdes 0 2 6 0 IS5' 0 0 2 4 6 a IQ 12 14 let. on N&'UL0kWi ft Fig. 8. Distribution of Reynoldsia hillebrandii in projec 113 within the study area it is, very widespread, usually occurring as scattered individuals or small groups of trees. It can be found over a wide range of elevations (frcm 100 to 3100 ft elevation) and ecosystem types- Ichila woodland, all five kinds of 'ohila forest and mixed lowland forest. Although it has been listed for review by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1980) it is not considered a high priority item as its range is more extensive than had been@previously believed. It is listed by Fosberg and Herbst (1975) as "depleted, much less axmn over all or mo st of its range than formerly, the depletion directly or indirectly the results of human activities; uncertain, insufficient information available to us to decide if endangered; possible endangered." FAUNA PSMIROSTRA PSITTACEA The 'Olu formerly occurred in the lohila-lehua forests of the six major Hawaiian Islands. It is now extinct on 01ahu, Molokali, Tanali, and Maui. Small populations still exist on Kauali and Hawaili, and the bird has been officially listed as Endangered. In recent years a few scattered sightings have been made in the project area, in Kahaualela, in Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve, and in Hawaili Volcanoes National Park, both near Pulu Kamoamoa and near the Park residence area. It is not known whether a breeding population of 10@u still exists in the project area. It is probably the rarest native -bird which now occurs there, however. BUMO SGLITARIUS Bu solitarius ('I'o or Hawaiian Hawk) is the only remaining member of the family of raptors (Accipitridae) to have reached the Hawaiian Islands. lit it NORTH 2. SOUT" HILO I - i\ I'll act HILO Ile oft SOW %% X.shvi to pmu -37M t Koko 50400@ Wu( -4 bot4ft Rain 19 PUNA Move tvW *4 or Nd Crow Pow XWAS K A -UIA F HIM Mr, oft a m kit' COW % P"I 'Aft 1. 4. N VVQ* 1.@HAW VI VOLCANO;ES >"40 fKbCqr 2m It IRMO-& ft, ONAL PARK or& A. IrT I SOD %tot- lit Pth I pv"-. law 1 41k. Aoub Vt. vo P. to 040 .P 2 4 a to 1@2 t4 low Fig. 9. Distribution Of P_sittirostra'psittscea in project 115 11he 'I I o is a large, heavy-set bird with broad wings and a broad, relatively short, rounded tail. Its plumage may be dark brown above and below or dark brown above and pale buff below, frequently streaked with darker feathers (Berger 1972). 'Ilo were frequently seen during this survey; occurring over a wide range of ecosystem types including agricultural lands particularly papaya fields. 7he district of Puna supports a dense breeding population. 7he 'Ilo is considered endangered but its present. status may be re-evaluated (refer to Avifauna section). Geothemal developmetnt, would have a negative in@act on the nesting areas of the 'Vo. r1he 'Vo often uses the same nest or nests.in the same locality. Noise frcm geothemal operations may affect hawk breeding (Char and Kjargaard 1984). Well sites and power plants should be located in open areas such as lava f lows or scrub,, away f rcm tall trees, if I I I o are known to nest in the nearby forests. 7he ef f ects- of well -emissions on 'Vo are not clear. monitoring of 'Vo population size and breeding activities around geothemal sites is reommiended (Char and Kjargaard 198 4). 116 fav RIM M BMM WI7B -URNRL EECFMMT r1he development of geothermal resources within the project area will carry with it certain risks to the plants and animals found there. Of special concern are the risks to native species, particularly the endemic species, those which occur only in Hawaii and nowhere else in the world, several of which are listed, or have been propoed for listing, as endangered or threatened species under state and federal endangered species legislation. In order to minimize such risks, it may become necessary to employ certain mitigating measures, and it will be necessary to undertake continued monitoring on a site-specific basis for each site proposed for development. Such monitoring should begin before development commences, and should continue during construction and operational phases. Possible detrimental effects of geothermal development, and possible mitigating measures include: A. Direct loss -of habita r and destruction of native organni -as -a comsequwce o during construction Df access x s, p I land,cleari -pad ipg1ings, wellsf Rg&Legr plantsp, and transmissi line 7his can be mitigated by avoidingr as much as possibler land clearing in highly sensitive areas supporting forests dominated by native species, such as the Ichila forests whidi we have identified as lohila-aLU (highest quality habitat for native species), and lohila-a(21 (high quality habitat for native species). Such practices as locating access roads and drilling sites on recent, less densely vegetatedr lava flows, and planning construction activity in sensitive areas to disturb the smallest possible areaSr would significantly mitigate this risk. B. Acceleration of invasi ty introduced Plants and animal whi may jD-to the distur habitats crea duri devel Weedy plants frequentay 117 invade areas formerly dominated by native species when they become established in such disturbed sites a roadsides, and then move from there into small openings in the forest. Mitigation would consist of continual monitoring of developed areas and utilization of some effective and environmentally compatible areas and utilization of some effective and environmentally compatible method of weed control approriate to the specific site. C. Compaction of soils associated with construction activities, (and some structures themselves), may permit accumulation of standing water which can provide additional breeding sites for the mosquitoes that are vectors of certain avian diseases. Whild standing wates is frequent in some parts of the project area, such as the eastern part of the Puna Forest Reserve, it is more rarely encountered in the parts of the rainforest which support the richest populatios of native birds. All construction sites should be monitored to assure that drainage remains unimpeded, particularly in areas with high native bird populations. D. Physical damage to plants during construction and maintenance activities may provide sites for infection by pathogens and help spread plant diseases. Such construction work as bulldozing, and such maintenance work as cutting roadside vegetation, should be designed to damage remaining plants as little as possible. E. Emissions from geothermal wells may differ sufficiently in quantity or composition from the natural geoghermal emissions nwo occurring in the area to have detrimental effects on native organisms. The native organisms which now occupy sites subject to geothermal development have by evolution become adapted to the conditions that have persisted for thousands of years in the southeast rift zone of Kilauea volcano. They have become adapted to at least the typical "background" emissions in the rift zone, although considerable local damage may occur during eruptive cycles when emisisons may increase by 117 118 two or three orders of magnitude. Until the composition of the emissions of geothermal wells in a particular site is known, it will be impossible to predict the effects of these- emissions. It will be necessary to monitor the emissions, and to design appropriate mitigation measures, in order to meet federal and state emissions standards which may be adopted. As more experience is gained, it may become necessary to modify such standards to prevent local damage to the environment, but as yet there is no indication that significant damage to plants and animals in the area would be likely to occur if emissions were controlled.to the extent necessary to meet standards designed primarily on a basis of human health requirements. 119 ACKNOWLEMEMENTS Nany agencies and individuals provided assistanoe during this study. We wish especially to acknowledge the cooperation of J.D. Jacobi of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for sharing his vegetation maps of the forested parts of the study site. 7he U.S. National Park Service allowed us to use their lab facilities and Herbarim for identification and preparation of botanical specimens. !Ihe Hawaii State Department of Land and Natural Resources, its Natural Area Reserves System, and the U.S. National Park Service permitted us all neoessary acoess to public lands in the project site, and several private landowners were most cooperative in providing access to their lands. Special thanks are in order for Tamotsu Nakata, who prepared the final copies of the vegetation maps; for Geraldine Ochikubo, who handled numerous administrative details; and for JoAnn Hokama who typed the final report. 120 B7RT X2@Am Abou-Gabal,, M. and M. Atia, 1978. Study of the role of pigeons in the dissemination of CM_MtQQQ999� neoformans in nature. Sabouraudia 16:63-68. Anderson,, D. N. and R. G. Bowen, (eds.). 197.4. Proceedings: Workshop On Environmental Aspects of Geothermal Resources Development. 123 pp. State of California, Department of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas and State .of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, in association with National Science Foundation, Grant AER 75-06872. Atkinson, I. A. E. 1969. Rates of ecosystem development on same Hawaiian lava flows. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honoulu, Unpublished. Atkinson, I. A. E. 19700 Successional trends in the coastal and lowland forest of Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes, Hawaii. Pac. Sci. 24(3): 387-400. Baldwin, P. H. 1941. Checklist of the birds of the Hawaii National Park, Kilauea-Mauna Loa Section. Hawaii National Park, Hawaii. 38 pp. Banko . P. C. 1982. Life history, Ecology and Management of Nene (Bxm-t& sandvicensis in Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala National Parks. Final Report. National Park Service, Western Region, San Francisco, Ca. 150 PP* Berger, A. J. 1969a. 11he breeding season of the Hawaii Amakihi. Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Museum 24:1-8. Berger, A. J. 1969b. 7he nests, eggs, and young of the Elepaio. Wilson Bull. 81:333-335. Berger, A. J. 1969c. Discovery'of the nest of the Hawaiian 7hrush. Living Bird 8:243-250. Berger, A. J. 1972a. Hawaiian Birdlife. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 270 pp. Berger, A. J. 1972b. Birds of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Wch. Report No. 8. Island Ecosystems IRP, flonolulu-. 49 pp. Berger, A.J. 1972c. Birds of the Kilauea Forest Reserve, a progress report. Tech. Report No. 11, Island Ecosystems IRP, Honolulu. 22 pp. Berger, A. J '. 1975a. 7he Warbling Silverbill, a new nesting bird in Hawaii. Pacific Sci. 29:51-54. Berger, A. J. 1975b. 7he 1929 and 1936 "Buy-A-Bird" campaigns on Hawaii. Elepaio 36:40-44. Berger, A. J. 1980. Longevity of Hawaiian honeycreepers in captivity. Wilson Bull. 92:263-264. 121 Berger, A. J. 1981. Hawaiian Birdlife, 2nd Edition. University of aii Press, Honolulu. 260 pp. Berger, A. J. 1984. Terrestrial vertebrate fauna reconnaissance, Keaau, Hawaii. Environmental, Impact Ass essment, W. H. Shipman Industrial Park, Phillips, Brandt,, Reddick & Associates, Honolulu. Bryan, E. H.,, Jr. 1958. Check List and Summary of Hawaiian Birds. Books About Hawaii, Honolulu. 28 pp. Buxbam,, K. 1973. Status of the Dark-rumped Petrel on. Maui, 1972. Elepaio 34:11-12. Carlquist, S. 1970. Hawaii, a natural history. Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y. 463 pp. Caumo, E. L. 1933. 7he ewtic birds of Hawaii. Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Museum 10:1-55. Char, W. P.- and M. S. Kjargaard. 1984. Terrestrial Biological Survey. Puna Geothermal Venture Studies. Puna, Hawai I i. For Bechtel Group, Inc. Char & Associates, Honolulu. April 1984. 68 pp. Clarke,, G.,, L. Cuddiby, J. Davis, S.. Anderson. .1981. A botanical reconnaissance of Malama-ki Forest Reserve, Hawaii. Div. of Forestry (at Hilo), Dept. of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii. May 1981. 19 pp. Clarke,- G. F L. Yoshida, and R. Kubo. 1979. A vegetation survey of the Halepuala Forest Reserve, Hawaii. Div. of Forestry (at Hilo), Dept. of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii. 52 pp. + maps. Clements, F. E. 1916. Plant succession. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 242. 512 pp. Conant, S. 1980. Birds of the Falapana Extension. Tech. Report No. 36, ODoperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 43 pp. Conant, S. 1982. Bird Survey, Exhibit C. In Kahaualea Geothermal Project, Revised E. I. S. . June 1982. True/Mid-Pacif ic Geothermal, Inc.. Honolulu. Cuddihy, L. Wo 1-n _40, A botanical baseline study of forests in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park near the Kahauale'a boundary. ODoperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Dames & Moore. 1984. Evaluation of BACI! for and Air Quality Impact of Potential Geothermal Development in Hawaii. Report for EPA Contract 68-02-3508, Santa Barbara. Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii. 1984. A Report on Geothermal Resource Subzones for Designation by the Board of Land and Natural Resources. xviii + 101 pp. State of Hawaii, MNR, DOWALD, Honolulu. 122 Department of Land and Natural Resources, state of Hawaii. 1984. Environmental Impact Analysis of Potential Geothermal Resource Areas. 120 pp. Circular C-106. State of Hawaii, MNR, DOWALD, Honolulu. Doty o. M. S. 1961. Lava f low pioneer populati ons. Pp. 139-144 j-n F. R. Fosberg (ed.), Guide to Excursion III, 10th Pac. Sci. Congress, University of Hawaii, Department of Botany, Honolulu. Doty, M. S. 1967. Contrasts between the pioneer populating process on land and shore. Bull. So. Calif. Aca. Sc. 66(3):175-194. Doty, M. S. and D. Mueller-Dombois. 1966. Atlas for Bioecolocjy Studies in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Reprinted without change in 1972 as Miscellaneous Publication 89, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. University of Hawaii. iii + 507,pp. (Originally published by Department of Botany, University of Hawaii.) Ecotrophics. 1981. Environmental Reconnaissance, !1hermal Power Kapoho-Puu Honuaula Area Prospects. -EcotroEhics, Honolulu. 24 pp. Ecotro]phics. 1981. Final Report. Environmental survey of the Campbell Estate Geothermal Prospect at Kahaualela. Prepared f or Mid-Pacif ic Geothermal, Inc. EcotroFhics, Honolulu, October 1, 1981. Ecotrophics. 1981. Envirome ntal Re-Assessment Report. KapDho (EUP-A vicinity) Wellsites No. 1 and 2. Prepared for Thermal Power-Dillingharn Project. - Ecotrophics, Honolulu, 25 February 1981. Ecotrophics. 1982. Erwironmental Baseline Survey in the Keahialaka-Pohoiki- Kapoho-Kula Prospect Areas. Puna Geothermal Ventures. Prepared f or 7hermal Power. EoDtrolphics, Honolulu, 28 June 1982. 65 pp. + 10 plates. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. 1980. Endangered and 11hreatened Wildlife and Plants: Review of plant taxa for listing as endangered or threatened species. Federal Register 45 (242) , Dec. 15, 1980: 82480-82569. Forbes, C. N. 1912. New Hawaiian plants III. Plant invasion on lava flows. B. P. Bishop Mus. Occ. Paper V(1). Honolulu. Fosberg,, F. R. 1972. Field Guide to Excursion III, Tenth Pacif ic Science Congress. Revised Edition, Department of Botarry, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. (Original edition published in 1961) x + 249 pp. Fosberg, F. R. - 1975. Revised Check-list of Vascular Plants of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Tech. Report No. 5, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 19 pp. Fosberg, F. R. and D. Herbst. 1975. Rare and Endangered Species of Hawaiian Vascular Plants. Allertonia l(l):1-72. Goff M. L. and C. van Riper, 111. 1980. Distribution of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) on the east flank of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii. Pacific Insects 22:178-188. Griffinj, C. R. 1984. Hawaiian Hawk Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland#, Oregon. 48 pp. Hannah, L. 1984. Environmental impactsnative flora and fauna. Report to Department of Land and'Natural Resources (State of Hawaii). 17 pp. + Maps. Henshaw, H. W. 1902. Birds of the Hawaiian Islands. 7hos. G. 7hrum, Honolulu. Herat, T. R. and R. M. Herat. 1975. HAVO Fern Checklist. Tech. Report No. 8p Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii at blanca, Honolulu. 58 pp. Hirai, L. T. 1978. Possible Dark-rumped Petrel colony on Lanai, Hawaii. Elepaio, 38:71-72. Hull, T. G. 1963. Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Man, 5th Edition. Charles C. 'Ihomas, Springfield, Illinois. Jacobi, J. D. 1985. Vegetation map of lower Puna: Kalalua and Kalapana. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In press. Kamins, R., M. J. Chun and Contributors. 1975. Preliminary Report. Environmental Studies Program. Hawaii Geothermal Project. University of Hawaii, 29 October 1975. 21 pp. + appendices. KaMinS, R. M. 1978. Revised Environmental Impact -Statement for the Hawaii Geothermal Research Station Utilizing the HGP-A Well at Puna, Island of Hawaii. State of Hawaii, DPED, Center for Science Policy and Technology Assessment, Honolulu. Kear, J. and A. J. Berger. 1980. 1he Hawaiian Goose, An Experiment in Conservation. T. and A. D. Payser, Calton, England. 154 pp. Kieffer, M. 0. (ed.) . 1976. An evaluation of the pest potential of the genus ZosterpM (Wite-eyes) in California. State of California, Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento. 27 pp. Kepler, C. B.r J. Jeffrey and J. M. Scott. 1979. Possible breeding colonies of Manx Shearwater on the Island of Hawaii. Elepaio 39:115-116. King, W. B. and P. J. Gould. 1967. 7he status of Newell I s race of the Manx Shearwater. Living Bird 6:163-186. Kishimoto, R. A. and G. E. Baker. 1969. Pathogenic and potentially pathogenic fungi isolated frcm beach sands and selected soils of Oahu, Hawaii. Mycologia 61:538-548. Kocan, R. m. and W. E. Banko. 1974. Trichanoniosis in the Hawaiian Barred Dove. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 10:359-360. Lamoureux, C. H. 1982. Report on estimated size of population of Adenophrous Rgri in Kahauale'a area, Puna, Hawaili. Report to True/Mid-Pacific Geothermal Venture. I p. + map. 124 Lamoureux, C. H. 1982. Tiestimorry presented at contested case hearing "In re the C1)UA of the Estate of James Campbellw (CDUA No. HA-3/2/82-1463). 12 PP. Lamoureuxt C. H. 1984. Tiestimony presented at contested case hearing "In the Matter of the Designation of Kahaualela, Puna, Hawaii as a Geothermal Resource Subzone' (GS No. 8/27/84). 6 pp. Lamoureux,, C. H. 1984. Checklist of Hawaiian Pteridolphytes. Unpublished. Lamoureux,, C. H. and J. Willi ams. 1982. Botanical survey within the proposed geothermal drilling sites of the Pahoa-Kapoho region. Report to Ecotrophics. 17 pp. MacCaughey, V. 1917. Vegetation of Hawaiian lava flows. Bot. Gazette 64:386-420. Macdonald, G. A. and A. T. Abbo tt. 1970. Volcanoes in the sea. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. 441 pp. Mueller-Dcmbois, D. 1985. The biological resource value of native forest in Hawaii with special reference to the tropical lowland forest at Kalapana. 'Elepaio 45(10):95-101. Mueller-Danbois, D., K. W. Bridges and H. J. Carson. 1981. Island Ecosystems. Biological organization in Selected Hawaiian ommunities. Hutchinson Ross Publ. Co.,, Stroudsburg, Pa. 583 pp. Mueller-Dombois, D. and F. -R. Fosberg. 1974. Vegetation Map of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (at 1:52,000). Tech. Report No. 4, Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 44 pp. Paton, P. W. C. r C. R. Griffin and L. H. MacIvor. 1982. Rose-ringed Parakeets nesting in Hawaii: a potential agricultural threat. 'Elepaio 43:37-39. Pyle, R. E. 1977. Preliminary list of the birds of Hawaii. 'Elepaio 37(10):110-121. Robyns, W. and S. H. Iamb. 1939. Preliminary ecological survey of the Island of Hawaii. Bull. du Jardin Bot. de 11 Etat, Bruxelles XV(3):241-293. Schwartz, C. W. and E. R. Schwartz. 1949. The game birds in Hawaii. Board of Cimmissioners of Agriculture and Forestry, Honolulu. 168 pp. Scott, J. M.,, Leader and others. 1983. Hawaili Forest Bird Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. 76 pp. Scott, J. M., F. L. Ramsey and C. B. Kepler. 1985. Forest bird comunities of the Hawaii Islands: Their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In press. 125 Siegel, Be Z. and S. Me Siegel. 1980. Envirorzental Baseline Report prepared f or Geothermal Exploration and Development Corp. Ecotrophics, Honolulu, 20 March 1980. Unpaged. Siegel, Be Z. and S. Me Siegel. 1980. Environmental Baseline Report prepared for Geothermal Exploration and Development Corp. amtrophics, Honolulu, 20 September 1980. Unpaged. Siegel, Be Z. and S. Me Siegel. 1981. Environmental Baseline Report prepared for Geothermal Exploration and Development Corp. Ecotrophics, Honolulu, 26 January 1981. Unpaged. Siegel , S. Me and Be Z. Siegel. 1981. Environmental, Baseline Report, prepared for Geothermal Exploration and Development Corp. Ecotrolphics, Honolulu, 26 January 1981. 10 pp. Skottsberg, C. 1941. Plant succession on recent lava flows in the Island of Hawaii. Goteborgs Kungl. vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Smtelles Handlingar Siatte Foljden, sere Be, Bd. 1, No. 8. 32 pp. Smathers, G. A. and D. Mueller-Dombois. 1974. Invasion and recovery of vegetation after a volcanic eruption in Hawaii. National Park Service scientific Monograph Series, No. 5, Publ. No. NPS 118. 129 pp. StAmmermann, Re L. 1983. Ecological Studies of Hawaiian Metmsideros in a Successional Context. Pace Sci. 37(4): 361-373. St. John, He 1973. List and Smmmay of the Flo wering Plants in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Memoir No. 1. 519 pp. St. John, He 1981. Rare Endemic Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. Book I. State of Hawaii, ILNR, DDFAW, Honolulu. 74 pp. Stone, Be C. 1959. Natural and Cultural History Report on the Kalapana Extension of the Hawaii National Park. Vol. II. Natural History Report. Botany. Be P. Bishop Museum,, Honolulu. 67 pp. Stone, C. P. r He Me Hoshide and P. C. Banko. 1982. Productivity and movements of Nene in the Kalu desert, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 1981-1982. Proc. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park Conference. Natural Science 4:157. Stone, C. Pe , Re L. Mlker, J. Me Scott and P. C. Banko. 1983. Hawaiian Goose Research and Management. Where do we go f ran here? Elepaio 44:11-15. Tanich,, P. Q. 1969. Mammals in Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publ. 57, Honolulu. 238 pp. Towill, Re Me, Corporation. 1982. Kahauale'a Geothermal Project, Puna, Hawaii. Revised Environmental Impact Statement. Submitted by the True/kid-Pacific Geothermal Venture in coordination with the Trustees of the Estate of James Campbell. Honolulu. 126 Towill, R. M. , Corporation. 19820 Environmental Impact Statement f or the Government Lands of Halepuala Section, Nanawale Forest Reserve, Puna, Hawaii. Honolulu. U.S. Dept. of the Interior.- 1980. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Review of Plant Tam for Listing of Endangered or Threatened Species. Part IV. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Federal Register 45(242) 82480-82569. van Riper, C., III and J. M. Scott. 1979. Observations on distribution, diet and breeding of the Hawaiian Thrush. Condor 81:65-71. van Riper, C. r III, S. G. van Riper, M. L. Goff and M. Laird. 1982. The impact of malaria on birds in Hawaii. Volcanoes National Park. Tech. Report No. 47, Honolulu. 74 pp. Williams, J. 1982. Adenophorus Rgriens population report #2. Report to True/Mid-Pacific Geothermal Venture. 6 pp. - williams@, J. and C. B. Lamoureux. 1982. Report on the vegetation in the potential geothemal well sites near Thurston Lava Tube (Jan. 9) and Kahauale'a (Jan. 23, 1982). (Includes: Adeno 1 ns a on Itogxus pell-e popul ti report #1) Repo rt to Ecotrophics. 13 pp. 127 .I I 1. I I I . . I I .I APPMOIX A (Photographs) - I I I I I I I I I I The four species pictured on the following page are presently under review by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S.F.W.S.) for listing as endangered or threatened and are discussed in detail in the text. Photo. 1. AdenORhorus periens. Photo. 2. Bidens skottsbergii An epiphytic fern found var. skottsbergii in wet 'ohi'a-a(l) forests, (ko'oko'olau). Shrub Kahauale'a. growing behind Waha- fula Heiau in dry forest, Kalapana. Photo. 3. Cyanea tritomantha var. Photo. 4. Ischaemum. bryone. tritomantha ('aku'aku). An endemic grass A strikingly beautiful found along the specimen with pure white Puna coast; this flowers found in wet specimen in Malama- fohi'a forest above Ki Forest Reserve. Kaumuki, South Pahoa. 41 -.4 ad, NaL _Oil WNW IN, It 0,1 '14 Ot pw The first two species pictured (Photos 5 & 6) are presently under review by U.S.F.W.S. Photo 5. Rauvolfia remotiflora. Photo. 6. Reynoldsia hillebrandii A medium-sized tree of ('ohe). Flowers, fruit, the dry forests, Royal and leaves from tree Gardens subdivision. in dry forest, Royal Gardens subdivision. Photo. 7. Clermontia hawaiiensis Photo. 8. Cyrtandra sp. nov. ('oha-kepau). Considered A rare, new species rare. Found in higher found in the lower elevation wet 'ohi'a Puna forests. forests within project area. i!, pp lat . . . . . . . .. . . . . -Romp Photo. 9. Psittirostra psittacea ( 10,U). Although not found during this survey, the 'O'u has been observed in the wet 'ohi'a forests of Kahauale'a by U.S.F.W.S. survey teams. It is considered endangered. . (Photograph by S. Conant taken from painting by H. D. Pratt) Photo. 10. Buteo solitarius ('I'o). 'Vo is found throughout Puna in relatively large numbers. It is considered endangered. (Photograph by R. J. Shallenberger) 42 41 Photo. 11. Summit of Mauna Ulu, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (HVNP). From 1969 to 1974 Mauna Ulu pumped out vast quantities of lava. A short stature fohi'a- grass association is seen in the foreground. Photo. 12. Access into remote areas was made by helicopter. Landing sites were lava flows - this relatively "smooth" landing site on the 1984 Pu'u O'o flow, Kahauale'a. Photo 13. Wet 'ohi'a forest in Kahauale'a with lava flows of different ages. Steaming flow in background is from Pu'u O'o. Note damage to forest. .14 Ale 7,z- 13 V@l Ito av! rr A t 7@ .4 A. Photo..14. Edge of 1977 lava flow, Photo. 15. 1955 lava flow Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural between Keauohana Area Reserve. Note and 'Vilewa Crater, recovery of forest. South Pahoa. 'A'a lava covered with dense carpet of lichen, Stereocaulon vulcani. Photo. 16. 'Ohi'a woodland with Photo. 17. 'Ohi'a-a(l) forest uluhe fern, Puna Forest type, Kahauale'a. Reserve. The uluhe mat Note dense tree is dense, up to 3 m tall, fern layer. and botanizing is difficult. AlAki. J I kv .1 Photo,18. 'Ohi'a woodland with uluhe and large amounts of 'uki (Machaerina angusti- folia), Napau Crater, HVNP. Pu'u O'o in background. Photo.19. Dry forest at Royal Gardens subdivision, Kalapana. Dry scrub community and dry grassland in background. Photo.20. One of several large, steaming areas on Heiheiahulu, Wao Kele 0 Puna Natural Area Reserve. The ground is hot underfoot and much of the vegeta- tion has been killed. Ak e 46 IL I Photo. 21. Dry forest, Royal Gardens subdivision, Kalapana. Lama trees are common; shrubs include alahe'e (Canthium odoratum) and 'akia (Wikstroemia sp.) Lau'ae fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria) is a common ground cover. Photo. 22. Mixed lowland forest, Malama.-Ki Forest Reserve. The trees consist of 'ohi'a and lama (Diospyros ferrea ssp. sandwicensis). Kopiko (Psychotria hawaiiensis) is a common subcanopy tree and shrub. Abundant swordfern (Nephrolepis multiflora) covers the ground. Note 'ie'ie (Freycinetia arborea) climbing up trunk of tree (center of photo). 3@ V- 71 el I f.,A APPENDIX B (Vegetation Maps) .,.Aj twirl C RI Ach A ultural ull P .8 'QU Town . r rsc Ato CAWj WSPI .-7 c PAHOA id -7 'Ir i@rld W"d + L MIL dIL Golf 1% -4 Course Kau KALAU Helheii r Ailisc State Odkiso Pt. c an- "! ./, sushi F Crauw a =.'u LApu (Houn red Hi#) KOmaka'ula Heiau u Wilt K&JmO Beach Co. Pk. MWAM Sao (Black Sand Beach) Psi 0 * 0" Harry K. Brown Beach Co. Pk. HAWAI I Krp a N@n'g It-h V K@M Beach 21127 Campground Loac KTp 7r, V1, uka Una 14q@k-. 4, Ou Q@/ -go PApalin Ancient canoe P. lending site A <@p 0, Star of the Sea AL A,N 0 is, %-,', "&&,+. '00144 "Painted" Church ahAnu u (1929) -'-"o 'W5Z 963 07, 100@ (pt.) 114 ro-no, "A"Ch INDEX TO MAPS .7 OW u u. a. a 4rob V,, as -s@041* of PI. .40%eO156% Puna, Hawaii Vii@ %q py 4P 4, 'r, %,,%& MAP SYMBOLS --- project boundary .-.-. transect route ||||||| Pu'i O'o flows 1983-1984 lava lava flows with pioneer vegetation ohia-uluhe 'ohi'a woodland with uluhe ohia-gr 'ohi'a woodland with grass ohia-a(1) wet 'ohi'a with native species, i.e., native subcanopy trees, tree ferns and native shrubs ohia-a(2) wet 'ohi'a forest with native species and exotic shrubs ohia-a(3) 'ohi'a-kukui forest with mixed native and exotic shrubs ohia-a(4) moderately moist 'ohi'a forest ohia-b 'ohi'a forest with largely exotic subcanopy and shrub layers dry for dry forest dry scr dry scrub community dry gr dry grassland ml for mixed lowland forest scr scrub ag agricultural land F 4 kh @4 k k 14 'A @ C A 1 @ J@: [J@ 'I ll@ @ ljl@ I[ lf@ III 1 @ @ I 1' 11 V. 3 666 8000009631