    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                                          @41 h ed                              Project #94. 7. 1. 2

                                 FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF
                          FORESTED/SCRUB-SHRUB WETLANDS/

                                      RESEARCH SUMMARY

                                                 Prepared By:
                                               Christine Rowinski
           ZZ                           New Hampshire Coastal Program
     J

                                            Office of State Planning
                                              2-1/2 Beacon Street
                                              Concord, NH 03301

                                                June 1995

                        A report of the New Hampshire Coastal Program, Office of State Planning, pursuant to National Oceanic
                        Tind Atmospheric Administration Award No. NA470ZO237. The views expressed herein are those of the
                 QK      -Office of State Planning and do not necessarily reflect the views of.NOAA or any of its sub-agencies.
                 174
                 R69
                 1995

     4A

                                     FUNCTIONS AND VALUES OF FORESTEDISCRUB-SHRUB WETLANDS
                                                                RESEARCH SUMMARY

                                                 Christine Rowinski, New Hampshire Coastal Program
                                                                 Office of State Planning

                                                                     INTRODUCTION

                      Under NH Wetlands Board Rules, Chapter 300 covers criteria and conditions for determining whether a
                      wetlands permit should be granted or denied. These criteria and conditions are part of Wetlands Board
                      Administrative Rules and are enforceable. This Chapter also contains statements which require the Board
                      to provide more emphasis on preserving certain types of wetlands over others. Wetlands Board Rule N
                      302.01 (b) (see Attached) states that"The Board shall place emphasis on preserving bogs and marshes." This
                      statement insinuates and has been interpreted by the Wetlands Board to mean that other -types of wetlands,
                      such as "swamps" (wetlands dominated by trees and/or shrubs), are less important.

                      In addition, Wetlands Board Rules use the term "swamp" generically and, therefore, make no distinctions
                      between the different types of wetlands in New Hampshire that fall into this category (i.e. Red Maple, Atlantic
                      White Cedar, scrub-shrub etc.). Moreover, this generic approach makes it difficult toevaluate potential project
                      impacts to these wetland types, since Wetlands Board rules that address impact evaluation criteria (Wt
                      302.04) also do not recognize the different types of wetlands which are called "swamps". The validity of this
                      hierarchial approach to protecting wetlands, and the lack of evaluation criteria (specific to these types of
                      wetlands) for assessing impacts under W13 \Aft 302.04 are of concern to the Wetlands Bureau.

                      Because of the above concerns of the Bureau, a scientific review of literature related to forestedishrub wetland
                      types which are specific to New Hampshire was undertaken. The literature review focused on Red Maple
                      Swamps, Atlantic White Cedar Swamps, and scrub-shrub swamps. The goal of the research is to compile
                      scientific data that could be translated into evaluation criteria for assessing impacts to New Hampshire's
                      forested/scrub-shrub wetlands. The results of the literature review are presented in terms of those wetland
                      functions which the State's wetlands statute and Wetlands Board Administrative Rules recognize as important.

                                       PRIORITY WETLAND FUNCTIONS UNDER RSA 482-A AND Wt 302.04

                      Wetlands are recognized as having the potential to perform one or more important functions. Whether a
                      wetland performs a certain function(s) is determined by the interaction of biological and physical
                      characteristics at the site. New Hampshire's Fill & Dredge in Wetlands (RSA 482-A) regulates wetlands as
                      ecosystems that provide specific functions that are important to public health, welfare, and safety, and to the
                      public trust. RSA 482-A recognizes the following wetland functions as important:

                              nutrient support for finfish, crustacea, shellfish, and wildlife of significant value;
                              habitats and reproduction areas for plants, fish, and wildlife of importance;
                              commerce, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment of the public;
                              groundwater recharge;
                              sediment trapping; and
                              flood storage.

                      Wetlands Board Administrative rules also recognize wetlands as ecosystems which perform important
                      functions. Wetland values that must be considered in project designs (under Chapter Wt 302.04
                      Requirements for Application Evaluation) include impacts to:

                                plants, fish, and wildlife;
                                nearby wetlands and surface waters;
                                quality of surface and ground water;
                                values and functions of the total wetland or wetland complex; and
                                public commerce, navigation, and recreation.

                       The research information presented in the following summary is broken down into three headings: Red Maple
                       Swamps, Atlantic White Cedar Swamps, and Forested Wetlands in general. The scientific information under
                       each heading is presented in terms of the wetland functions and values that are recognized by NH statute and
                       Wetlands Board Administrative Rules. Not many research articles that specifically dealt with scrub-shrub
                       wetlands were found. However, scrub-shrub wetlands are indirectly discussed under the three main headings.

                                   FUNCTIONAL VALUES OF RED MAPLE SWAMPS PER LITERATURE REVIEW

                       In red maple forested wetlands, more often referred to as red maple swamps (RMS), red maple is the
                       dominant overstory species. It is an extremely broadly adapted species that occurs in both wetland and upland
                       habitats. Of the five forest cover types in which it is a major component, three are upland forest types, one
                       (composed of black ash/American Elm/red maple) is a wetland type, and one (composed of just red maple)
                       may occur on either wetland or upland sites. What gives red maple its competitive edge is its ability to
                       produce heavy seed crops nearly every spring, its rapid seed germination and its ability to vigorously sprout
                       from stumps and damaged seedlings on a wide variety of disturbed sites. As of this writing, statewide area
                       statistics based on US Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory are currently unavailable for
                       New Hampshire. However, US Forest Service statistics suggest that red maple forested wetland covers no
                       more than 1 % of the landscape in New Hampshire (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Nutrient Support for Finfish, Crustacea, Shellfish, and Wildlife
                       Red maple occurs on over 200 hydric (wetland) soil series or phases in the glaciated Northeast. The number
                       of hydric soils on which red maple is the dominant tree in unknown. The two basic categories of soils found
                       in RMS are organic (Histosols) and mineral soils. Generally, the proportion of organic material in a wetland
                       soil is determined by soil temperature and the duration of anaerobic conditions, both which regulate microbial
                       decomposition rates. Inn RMS, where soil saturation is seasonal, anaerobic conditions occur near the soil
                       surface during only a portion of the growing season. Organic matter is more readily decomposed during
                       aerobic periods. Because of this fact, the organic material in RMS soils is predominantly well decomposed
                       (sapric) or, less commonly, moderately well decomposed (hemic) (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Northeastern RMS have primarily very poorly drained or poorly drained soils. Very poorly drained soils
                       typically occur in seasonally flooded basins, although they are sometimes found on slopes where groundwater
                       inflow keeps the soil wet for extended periods during the growing season. Poorly drained soils are saturated
                       seasonally, but seldom have standing surface water. Organic soils are always very poorly drained, while
                       mineral soils may occur in any drainage class.

                       RMS with organic soils most often occupy well-defined basins in the lowest areas of the landscape, where
                       they are fed by the regional groundwater system, as well as by surface runoff and streamflow in some cases.
                       RMS with mineral soils generally occur at the edge of organic swamps, on stream floodplains, or on hillsides
                       where soil moisture is depleted earlier in the summer by evapotranspiration (Golet et al., 1993).

                       In most of the glaciated Northeast, soils of RMS are acidic and low in available plant nutrients. Most of the
                       glaciated Northeast is characterized by bedrock and surficial deposits with low base content. These materials
                       do not provide sufficient quantities of calcium and magnesium to groundwater to neutralize or markedly raise
                       the base content of RMS soils (Golet et al., 1993).

                                                                             2

                       In northeastern RMS, 75% to 90% of the annual radial growth of RM trees is accomplished by the end of July.
                       On the other hand, root growth may continue into late October. Researchers have also found that water levels
                       during one growing season may influence next year's tree growth.

                       There has been no research on organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling in northeastern forested
                       wetlands. The most complete data on this subject come from the Virginia section of the Great Dismal Swamp.
                       Certain Virginia findings may, however, be applicable to the southern portion of the Glaciated northeast. It
                       is generally agreed that the rate of organic matter decomposition is determined primarily by the quality of the
                       litter, in combination with climate. Decay is generally retarded by high tannin or tannic acid content, high lignin
                       content, and a high C/N ratio. Limited data show that RM litter is relatively high in value for all of these
                       features. Temperature, water regime, and pH are also important factors influencing decomposition rates
                       (Golet et al., 1993).

                       There has been so little research on nutrient cycling in northeastern forested wetlands that it is possible to
                       develop only a very simplified scenario of some of the seasonal processes that occur in these swamps. The
                       degree to which RMS retain and cycle nutrients is strongly influenced by hydrology, which has pronounced
                       seasonal variability. Leaching and immobilization of nutrients from external sources may occur from fall into
                       spring. Hydrologic events (such as backwater flooding which brings enriched waters into the wetlands, and
                       flushing events which remove detritus) also influence the magnitude and timing of these processes. Streams
                       carrying suspended sediments and dissolved nutrients overflow into may swamps during flood periods. As
                       water velocities decrease in the wetlands, suspended particles and adsorbed constituents (e.g. phosphorus
                       and heavy metals) settle to the soil surface, and dissolved nutrients in the. water may diffuse within the soil
                       and detrital layers. Significant loadings to wetlands may also be contributed by surface water runoff from
                       surrounding upland areas. The following are conservative estimates for annual nutrient and metal removal
                       via sediment deposition in 1 square meter of northeastern wetland soils: N, 1.5 g; P, 375 mg; Cu, Pb, and Zn,
                       25 mg; Cd, 0.2 mg; and Hg, 0.2-2.5 mg (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Habitats and Reproduction Areas for Plants, Fish, and Wildlife
                       Hydrogeologic setting of a RMS is a primary determinant of plant community structure and floristics. The
                       great majority of plant species that occur in northeastern RMS can grow under a wide range of soil moisture
                       conditions. Obligate wetland trees are rare in northeastern RMS, Atlantic white cedar being the only species
                       so classified. Obligate wetland shrubs also are rare in northeastern RMS.

                       Plant species distribution has been shown to be influenced by the duration of soil saturation. Because most
                       of the tree, shrub, and herb roots in RMS are located within 30 cm of the ground surface, the percentage of
                       the growing season during which the water table is within that zone may be of considerable significance (Golet
                       et al., 1993).

                       Community structure (the physical composition of the plant community in terms of vegetation height, density,
                       percent cover, and similar characteristics, and the relative development of various life-form layers) and floristic
                       composition are the two most fundamental aspects of the RIMS plant community. Structure is of special
                       importance because of its relation to certain wetland functions and values such as wildlife habitat, flood flow
                       alteration, and forest biomass production. Changes in either species composition or structure over time may
                       reflect significant changes in environmental conditions such as the prevailing water regime, nutrient status,
                       microclimate, or land-use history (Golet et al., 1993).

                       RMS contain as many as 5 distinct vegetation layers: trees, saplings, shrubs, herbs, and ground cover. In
                       mature RMS, (40-50 years of age) the tree canopy forms a layer approx. 8-15 m above the forest floor.
                       Sapling crowns form a layer 3 - 6 m above the ground, although at most sites the sapling layer is the most
                       poorly developed. The shrub layer, which includes woody plants that are usually less than 3 m tall, is
                       commonly dense and often extends to within a meter of the ground. The herb layer is composed of nonwoody

                                                                                3

                        erect plants such as ferns, grasses, sedges, and broad-leaved herbs that are usually less than 1.5 m tall. The
                        tree, shrub, and herb layers predominate in most RMS (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Tree Laye - Forest structural data from mature northeastern RMS suggests that height growth in RM is rapid
                        during the first 30-40 years and then slows considerably. In mature RM forested wetlands, canopy cover
                        commonly exceeds 80%. Lower values are likely in old stands, however, due to gaps created by tree
                        mortality, extreme weather events, logging, or at sites too wet to support a continuous forest cover. Tree
                        species commonly associated with RM in southern New England uplands, seaboard lowlands, and coastal
                        plain include yellow birch, black gum, white ash, eastern white pine, American elm, and eastern hemlock.
                        Black ash, gray birch, balsam fir, and northern white cedar commonly occur in RMS in southern NH. Atlantic
                        white cedar is a common associate of RMS in coastal areas (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Shrub Laye - Most RMS have a dense, well-developed shrub layer. In most RMS, shrub cover exceeds 50%,
                        but can range from as low as 21% to as high as 99%. While the shrub layer is well developed in most
                        undisturbed RMS, it may be practically nonexistent in young forests that have developed directly from wet
                        meadows without an intervening shrub stage, or in forests that are grazed by cattle. Shrub abundance may
                        vary widely within a swamp as well. The shrub layer's density may also vary, but often is exceedingly high.
                        Some examples of shrubs commonly found in RMS in southern New Hampshire include highbush blueberry,
                        common winterberry, sweet pepperbush,. spicebush, swamp azalea northern and southern arrowwood, poison
                        sumac, mountain laurel, sheep laurel, and poison ivy (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Herb Laye - In many RMS, the herb layer varies noticeably in height, density, and percent cover. Because
                        site conditions such as forest structure, hydrology etc. are unique to each swamp and because the herb layer
                        is particularly sensitive to environmental gradients, a "typical" herb layer structure cannot be described.
                        Because the abundance of herbs is influenced by light intensity at the forest floor, tree and shrub cover and
                        foliage density are key controlling factors.

                        Because the roots of herb species are quite shallow, they are more responsive than shrubs or trees to
                        differences in soil moisture at or near the surface of the ground. As a result, the herb layer of RMS frequently
                        contains a greater diversity of species in terms of wetland indicator status. Herb layer composition varies along
                        the moisture gradient extending from a swamp into the bordering upland area.

                        Some examples of herbs found in RMS include cinnamon fern, sensitive fern, royal fern; sedges and grass
                        such as bluejoint and manna grass; skunk cabbage, marsh marigold, wild lily-of-the-valley; and various
                        species of mosses; liverworts and lichens (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Species Richngejs - Various combinations of the plant species listed above occur in RMS. The composition
                        of a particular RMS's plant community is strongly related to its hydrogeologic setting. Certain studies have
                        shown that highly varied hydrologic conditions in a wetland are one of the chief reasons for high overall
                        species richness and community heterogeneity. RMS that occur on river terraces, in oxbows, behind natural
                        levees, and on the. low-lying inner floodplain of rivers (alluvial swamps) are commonly more nutrient-rich than
                        n6nfloodplain swamps, and often support a more diverse plant community (Golet et al., 1993).

                        In RMS which occur primarily in undrained basins in either till or stratified drift (seasonally flooded basin
                        swamps), trees and shrubs are rooted primarily in mounds which are elevated slightly above the seasonal
                        high-water level. This characteristic feature, known as microrelief, occurs in nonfloodplain forested wetlands
                        in the Northeast, and is usually most pronounced in the wettest swamps. Pronounced microrelief allows
                        species with widely differing soil moisture requirements or tolerances to coexist in a limited area.in RMS. One
                        New York study found plant species richness to be positively correlated with microrelief (Golet et al., 1993).

                                                                               4

                     RMS can also occur on slopes or in shallow depressions along intermittent or upper perennial streams where
                     fill predominates. They are fed primarily by groundwater seepage and overland flow. Shallow flooding may
                     occur along watercourses during the early spring and after heavy rains, but surface water seldom persists.
                     Most of these sites have a seasonally saturated water regime, and surface microrelief is limited except where
                     the ground is strewn with glacial erratics (Golet et al., 1993).

                     From a regional perspective, the flora of RMS is rich, including at least 50 species of trees, more than 90
                     species of shrubs and vines, and more than 300 species of nonwoody plants. However, a few species usually
                     predominate at any single site. For the tree layer, the average number of species per swamp is about four
                     (ranging from 1-9). For the shrub layer, the number of species per swamp ranges from 1-15. The number
                     of herb species per site is generally less than 20. The variety of habitats provided by pronounced microrelief
                     is one reason for the relatively high herb species richness found in forested wetlands (Golet et al., 1993).

                     As mentioned earlier, most RMS in the northeast are acidic and nutrient poor, due to the low base content of
                     bedrock and surficial geologic deposits found throughout most of the region. However, in several areas of
                     the northeast, calcareous groundwater or surface water derived from limestone, marble, or lime-rich surficial
                     deposits enters wetlands and has a dramatic effect on the composition and richness of the plant community.
                     Such wetlands are called calcareous seepage swamps. With respect to New Hampshire, such swamps which
                     are dominated by RM occur p6marily in southern part of the state. Up to 28 species of shrubs and vines have
                     been found in individual RMS fed by calcareous seepage, while the number of species of herbs reported per
                     site may exceed 60. Black ash is often associated with RM in calcareous seepage swamps, and American
                     elm, white pine, tamarack and swamp white oak are also common. Some examples of shrubs found in
                     calcareous seepage swamps include red-osier dogwood, afderleaf buckthorn, shrubby cinquefoil, stiff
                     dogwood, meadowsweet. The most frequently encountered herbs include lakebank sedge, tussock sedge,
                     cinnamon fern, royal fern, and tall meadow-rue. Certain herbs (i.e. bristly-stalked sedge, marsh marigold,
                     golden saxifage, fen orchid and small purple-fringed orchid) are strong indicators of either calcareous
                     groundwater discharge or calcium rich soils, although they occur less frequently than those listed above (Golet
                     et al., 1993).

                     As an added note, approximately fifty acres of forested/scrub-shrub wetlands that fall into the category of
                     calcareous seepage swamp are located in the vicinity of the Pease Air Force Base Main Gate and their high
                     wetland functions and values are recognized in the 1995 draft supplemental EIS for the Disposal and Reuse
                     of Pease Air Force Base. The draft EIS also mentions a 130'acre predominantly forestediscrub-shrub wetland
                     which. occurs along the southeastern boundary of the base which falls into the category       of southern New
                     England acidic seepage swamp--also a state-identified rare and unique habitat. The EIS also states that
                     under the 1991 Proposed Action, these high value wetlands may be directly and indirectly impacted.

                     Plants of Special Concern - Many species observed in RMS also appear in the official rare-plant lists
                     published by the various northeastern states. In New Hampshire (based on 1989 NHNHI data), 24 species
                     of plants which occur in RMS are listed as either cdtically endangered (13 species), endangered (9 species),
                     or threatened (2 species). Some of the cHtically endangered plants include: Swamp Birch, Canada
                     Moonseed, Northern Prickly-Ash, Yellow Lady's Slipper, Showy Lady's Slipper, Turk's Cap Lily, and Spring
                     Cress. Endangered plant species include: American Hackberry, Great Rhododendron, Swamp Azalea, Bog
                     Twayblade, Climbing Hempweed, and Pink Pyrola. Those plants cited as threatened include Bladdemut and
                     Gall-of-the-Earth.

                     Vertebrate Fauna - Although RMS is the most abundant freshwater wetland type in the glaciated Northeast,
                     relatively little research has been conducted on its fauna and their habitat requirements. This is particularly
                     noteworthy since several states, including New Hampshire, include wildlife habitat as a recognized value of
                     wetlands within regulatory acts. Vegetation structure has been shown to be a primary factor in wildlife habitat
                     selection, especially in forested areas. Based on 1990 NHNHI data, the vertebrates of special concern that

                                                                            5

                       have been observed in no    'rtheastern RMS include 5 critically endangered species (Marbled salamander,
                       Eastern box turtle, Timber rattlesnake, Peregrine falcon, Red-headed woodpecker, and Lynx); 7 endangered
                       species (Jefferson salamander, Acadian flycatcher, Blue-gray gnatcatcher, Cooper's hawk, Orchard oriole,
                       Ring-necked duck, and Eastern pipistrelle); and 8 threatened species (Blue-winged warbler, Eastern screech-
                       owl, Great blue heron, Green-winged teal, Hooded merganser, Red-shouldered hawk, Turkey vulture, and
                       New England cottontail).

                       Amphibians and Reptiles - Studies of amphibians and reptiles in northeastern forested wetlands are rare,
                       even though these habitats appear to be of major importance to forest-dwelling species. One study carried
                       out by DeGraaf and Rudis in 1986 identified 45 New England species of amphibians and reptiles that use
                       forest cover at some time, during the year. Of the 11 forest cover types reviewed, RM was the most freq uently
                       preferred (by 12 species), and was used but not preferred by an additional 30 species. An example of some
                       of the amphibians and reptiles that preferred RMS include: spotted salamander, redback salamander,
                       marbled salamander, Jefferson salamander, spring salamander, five-lined skink, eastern ribbon snake, and
                       ringneck snake. The wood turtle, which is being considered for protection under the Endangered Species Act
                       uses RMS but does not prefer them (Golet et al., 1993).

                       The majority of amphibians require standing water for breeding. Because of this fact, vegetation structure may
                       be less important to them than water regime. The seasonal flooding of many RMS provides suitable breeding
                       areas for several species. Another 1990 study by DeGraaf and Rudis compared the herpetofauna of three
                       forest cover types in New Hampshire: northern hardwoods, balsam fir, and RM. All three forest types
                       supported the same number of species of reptiles and amphibians (11); however, the relative abundance- was
                       significantly higher in RM and northern hardwood stands than in balsam fir. RM forests containing streams
                       supported a higher number of species and more than twice as many individuals as RM forests lacking
                       streams. Three of the species -wood frog, redback salamander, and American toad-accounted for over 90%
                       of the total captures in each stand; these species were present in comparable numbers in northern hardwood
                       stands (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Of all the vertebrates inhabiting northeastern RMS, birds are the best documented. The avian community is
                       chiefly composed of species that commonly occur in upland forests as well. Those that are most commonly
                       associated with wetland forests include the Northern waterthrush, Canada warbler, and Veery. The Northern
                       waterthrush is the only species that does not breed in upland habitats. Of all northeastern raptors, the Red-
                       shouldered hawk exhibits the strongest affinity for forested wetlands, both for nest sites and for hunting areas.
                       Other birds of prey that frequently inhabit northeastern RMS include the Broad-winged hawk, Barred owl,
                       Eastern screech-owl, and Northern saw-whet owls.

                       Birds - Factors that most significantly affect avian richness and abundance include wetland size, vegetation
                       structure, and water regime. Several studies indicate that although factors other than the size of a RMS also
                       affect avian species richness, size clearly is a key determinant. Swamps 4 ha or smaller in size had
                       significantly lower species richness than sites ranging from 6 to 19 ha. Larger swamps(30-40 ha) had even
                       higher species richness. Whether swamp size has any effect on breeding bird density or relative abundance
                       in unclear (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Species richness and diversity of breeding birds are higher in forest habitats that contain several vegetation
                       layers than in simpler communities dominated by herbs or shrubs. Studies have documented significantly
                       higher avian abundance in forested-shrub wetlands, which contain more structural diversity, than in mature
                       forested wetlands. However, species richness was similar for the two types. Species present only in forested-
                       shrub wetlands include the yellow warbler, warbling vireo, swamp sparrow, and red-winged blackbird. The
                       presence of a dense, extensive shrub layer within RMS appears to add significantly to habitat complexity.
                       Avian species richness and abundance have also been shown to be positively correlated to percent cover of
                       surface water, presence of streams, and peat depth, while the degree of water level fluctuation throughout

                                                                              6

                      the summer was negatively correlated with- these characteristics (Golet et al., 1993).

                      RMS of the northeast are important feeding and resting areas for migrating waterfowl. In most years, surface
                      water levels in forested wetlands are highest from late fall through spring, allowing access to these areas by
                      migrating waterfowl. Among the species that frequent flooded swamps during migration are the wood duck,
                      American black duck, mallard, ring-necked duck, and hooded merganser. Waterfowl species that breed in
                      northeastern forested wetlands include ground and stump nesters such as American black ducks and
                      mallards, and cavity-nesting wood ducks, common goldeneyes, common mergansers, and hooded
                      mergansers. Stumps and tree cavities with openings less than I m above the ground accounted for the
                      majority of waterfowl nest sites in one study undertaken in central New York. Of all the waterfowl species
                      that breed in the northeast, wood ducks are the most highly adapted for life in forested wetlands; RMS is the
                      principal forest type used by breeding wood ducks in the northeast (Golet et. al., 1993).

                      Mammals - Nearly 50 species of mammals are known to live in northeastern RMS. Moose, black bears,
                      white-tailed dear, raccoons, river otters, beaver, voles shrews, and bats are some examples. Significant
                      research on the mammalian use of RMS has been limited to studies of small mammals and black bears.
                      Research in New Jersey and Connecticut indicates that the small-mammal community of northeastern RMS
                      often equals or exceeds that of common upland habitats in species richness, diversity, and abundance. In
                      NJ, both upland and wetland (red-maple/sweet gum) forests had higher numbers of small mammals than did
                      upland grasslands or the edges of freshwater marshes. In the Connecticut study, RMS had higher mammal
                      species richness, higher abundance, and higher diversity than either deciduous or coniferous upland forests.
                      Few studies have examined the factors affecting small-mammal species distribution and abundance in
                      wetland forests. The Connecticut study found that RMS with abundant shrub cover had higher mammalian
                      diversity and richness than either upland forests or RMS with a lesser abundance of shrubs. Mammalian
                      species diversity was also positively correlated with the number of tree and shrub species.

                      Forested wetlands along watercourses commonly serve as major travel corridors for deer and other large
                      mammals through areas of otherwise unsuitable habitat. For example, RMS are highly significant habitats
                      for white-tailed deer, particularly in urban areas of the northeast, where swamps frequently are the wildest,
                      most inaccessible habitats remaining. River otters, mink, raccoons, and opossums are most common in
                      swamps containing perennial streams or located along lakeshores. Beavers prefer to colonize lowgradient
                      perennial streams in small forested watershed, many of which include RMS. A study conducted in western
                      Massachusetts found that black bear have a strong habitat preference for wetlands from when they emerge
                      from winter dens in mid-April until mid-August. The bears spent more than one-third of their time in spring and
                      summer in wetlands. Swamps were used most heavily in spring when food was most scarce. Skunk cabbage
                      was the most important food at that time (Golet et al., 1993).

                      Commerce, Recreation, and Aesthetic Enjoyment of the Public
                      In highly urbanized areas of the northeast, RMS provide a natural, low-cost form of open space. They are
                      especially effective open-space areas since the trees and shrubs provide a tall, visual screen between
                      developed areas and help to reduce noise emanating from major highways or commercial and industrial
                      zones,

                      A variety of recreation activities take place in RMS. Depending on the water regime and the proximity of the
                      swamps to open water, hunters may pursue waterfowl, deer, ruffed grouse, rabbits, squirrels, or even ring-
                      necked pheasants in these habitats. Birdwatchers also frequent RMS, especially during late spring when
                      migrating warblers and other songbirds feed on insects attracted to the flowers and breaking leaf buds of RM
                      trees. Other recreational activities including canoeing, hiking, and nature photography may be pursued in and
                      along the edges or RMS.

                                                                             7

                        RMS are a distinctive part of the scenic beauty that characterizes the northeast. The scenic and aesthetic
                        value of RMS is most obvious at the landscape level during the early fall when the brilliant yellow, red, and
                        orange foliage of the swamps provides striking contrast to the upland vegetation whose foliage has not yet
                        changed from the predominantly green shades of summer (Golet et al., 1993).

                        With respect to timber harvesting, the degree of impact of timber removal on wetland functions and values
                        depends on the intensity of cutting. Clear-cuts radically alter habitat values and may result in slightly higher
                        water levels during the summer because of reduces transpiration losses. Selective cutting may have far less
                        impact (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Ground Water Recharge
                        Hydrogeologic setting of a RMS primarily determines the elevation of the water table and the degree of its
                        fluctuation to the land surface over time, water chemistry, and groundwater recharge and discharge
                        relationships (Golet et al., 1993).

                        RMS occur in many different landscape locations. Most RMS are either groundwater depression wetlands
                        (where a basin intercepts local groundwater table) or groundwater slope wetlands (where groundwater
                        discharges as springs or seeps at the land surface and drains away as strearnflow). RMS may also be
                        surface-water depression wetlands or surface-water slope wetlands, but not as often (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Groundwater Depression Wetlands - In the glaciated Northeast, RMS which are groundwater depression
                        wetlands are most likely to occur in stratified drift. During periods when the wetland water level is higher than
                        the local groundwater table (e.g. after major precipitation events in dry season), groundwater recharge may
                        occur. Groundwater may enter the wetland basin from all directions, or it may discharge in one area and
                        recharge in another. In such wetlands, water levels decline throughout the growing season, but at a slower
                        rate than in surface-water depression wetlands because groundwater inflow replaces some of the water lost
                        by evapotranspiration. Continuing groundwater inflow can cause wetland water levels to rise in the fall, when
                        evapotranspiration declines, often in excess of direct precipitation (Golet et al., 1993).

                        Groundwater Slooe Wetlands - RMS which -are groundwater slope wetlands occur where groundwater
                        discharges as springs or seeps at the land surface and drains away as strearnflow. These wetlands often
                        occur on hillsides over till deposits or at the base of hills where stratified drift and till come into contact. The
                        vast majority of RMS located at the headwaters of streams are groundwater slope wetlands. In these
                        wetlands, the local water table slopes toward the wetland surface. Where groundwater inflow is continuous,
                        the soil remains saturated. Most often, groundwater inputs cease during late summer or early fall as
                        evapotranspiration depletes soil moisture in the root zone, in which case the soil is only seasonally saturated.
                        Due to the sloping land surface, permanent ponding does not occur, however, isolated depressions may
                        temporarily collect water. Groundwater recharge may occur in the wetland after such events, but amounts
                        are likely to be negligible(Golet, et al., 1993).

                        In northeastern RMS, water levels are normally highest during the winter and spring, and lowest during late
                        summer or early fall. The elevation and degree of fluctuation of the water table with respect to the land
                        surface over time are highly dynamic in RMS. Most RMS which are groundwater depression wetlands are
                        seasonally flooded. RMS which are groundwater slope wetlands are seasonally saturated. (RMS which are
                        surface-water depression or surface slope wetlands are temporarily flooded regimes).

                        In one Rhode Island study where water levels were monitored for 7 years in six relatively wet swamps
                        containing organic matter, in nearly every year, water levels were clearly influenced not only by total
                        precipitation, but also be distinct weather patterns or unusual events. . The study found that monthly
                        evapotranspiration was relatively constant from year to year. Thus, water level fluctuation within each year
                        was due primarily to seasonal variations in e   vapotranspiration rates, while yearly differences in water levels

                                                                                 8

                     were caused by annual variations in precipitation (Golet, et al,, 1993).

                     Except for surface-water depression wetland that are perched above the regional groundwater table, natural
                     recharge in most RMS is likely to be a relatively brief seasonal phenomenon. It occurs mainly during the late
                     summer or eaNy fall when, due to cumulative evapotranspiration losses, groundwater levels have dropped
                     below the wetland surface, and groundwater discharge has ceased. One study of a RMS in eastern
                     Massachusetts determined that the swamp recharged the regional groundwater body with 7 million gallons
                     of water duriing a 6-week period in the fall, and that recharge could be significant during dry periods. In most
                     cases, however, the volume of groundwater recharge in RMS probably is far less than in the surrounding
                     uplands-depending on the slope and soil permeability of the uplands--particularly on an annual basis (Golet
                     et al., 1993).

                     RIVIS lying on slopes or in basins that intersect the regional groundwater table are predominantly ar      'eas of
                     groundwater discharge. These swamps exist precisely because groundwater is emerging at the surface in
                     the form of springs or seeps. The discharge of groundwater is important in itself because this water
                     supplements public surface-water supplies, maintains fish and wildlife habitats, and improves the water quality
                     of lakes and streams degraded by excess nutrient loads, toxic chemicals, or thermal discharges.
                     Groundwater discharge maintains base flow of streams and keeps stream and lake temperatures low during
                     the late summer, when both of these conditions are critical to aquatic invertebrates and cold-water fishes
                     (Golet et al., 1993).

                     The spatial association of wetlands and groundwater aquifers is also of great significance. A 1981 study by
                     Mofts and O'Bden determined that, on an area basis, about two-thirds of Massachusetts wetlands overlaid
                     potential high-yield aquifers, and that at least 60 communities in that state were obtaining water from wells
                     located in or near wetlands. Because the best location for municipal wells, from a purely hydrologic
                     standpoint, is often near wetlands, and because wetlands are often hydrologically linked to underlying
                     aquifers, this study concluded that the protection of wetlands and their surroundings from pollution should be
                     an integral part of any groundwater management program (Golet et al., 1993).

                     Sediment Trapping
                     No research data that dealt specifically with the sediment trapping values of RMS were found. Trees, shrubs,
                     and herbaceous plants growing in swamps do impede the flow of floodwaters, and the resultant reduction of
                     floodflow velocity enables sediments to settle out.

                     Flood Storage
                     Flood-tolerance levels for tree species found in northeastern RMS varies. Except for green ash, trees that
                     are classified very tolerant (i.e. able to survive continuous flooding for 2 or more growing seasons) are not
                     important species in RMS. Trees most commonly found in RMS are typically classified as tolerant (i.e. able
                     to withstand flooding for most of 1 growing season) or intermediately tolerant (i.e. able to survive flooding for
                     periods between I and 3 months during the growing season). Tolerant species include red maple, Atlantic
                     white cedar, American elm, black gum, and balsam fir. Intermediately tolerant species include the eastern
                     white pine. Eastern hemlock and gray birch are classified as intolerant species, since they cannot withstand
                     flooding for short periods (1 month or less) during the growing season (Golet et al., 1993).

                     The ability to reduce the peak level of floods and to delay the flood crest is one of the most widely recognized
                     functions of inland wetlands. This function is accomplished mainly through 1) the storage of surface water
                     in wetland basins after snowmelt and major precipitation events, and 2) the reduction in floodflow velocity as
                     water passes through wetland vegetation and over the soil surface. The social significance of the flood
                     abatement function is enormous, particularly if areas downstream from major wetlands are urbanized and
                     vulnerable to flood damage.

                                                                             9

                       How much an individual RMS contributes to flood abatement is heavily influenced by its geomorphic setting
                       and land use within its watershed. Swamps with the greatest potential value for flood abatement are those
                       that 1) are located in a well-defined basin capable of storing floodwater, 2) have a relatively large watershed
                       or one that has been extensively altered by humans, and 3) receive floodwaters directly from an overflowing
                       stream or lake. Hillside seepage swamps have relatively low floodcontrol value compared with temporarily
                       or seasonally flooded basin swamps or swamps associated with lower perennial rivers. Trees, shrubs, and
                       herbaceous plants growing in swamps further aid in flood abatement by physically impeding the flow of
                       floodwaters. In this regard, swamps are more effective than open water or nonpersistent emergent wetlands
                       (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Quality of Surface and Ground Water
                       Most of the research on the water quality improvement function of forested wetlands has occurred outside of
                       the glaciated northeast. Hardwood swamps in other parts of the United States have been shown to
                       significantly reduce concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in surface water during periods of inundation,
                       and the potential capacity of forested wetlands for removing pesticides and heavy metals is believed to be
                       high. Two Rhode Island studies have, however, dealt with the water quality improvement capacity of
                       northeastern RMS.

                       A 1991 study by Groffman et al. demonstrated that denitrification rates were significantly greater (P<0.05) in
                       poorly drained soils of RMS than in well drained soils of adjacent upland forests. The 1990 study by Gold and
                       Simmons found that removal of nitrate from groundwater generally exceeded 80% in both poorly drained and
                       very poody drained soils of RMS throughout the year. In almost all cases, nitrate attenuation was significantly
                       higher (P<0.05) in the swamps than in the moist forest soils of the bordering upland. Both studies concluded
                       that forested wetlands are likely to be more effective than upland forests as sinks for nitrate. Prolonged
                       anaerobic soil conditions and high soil organic matter content appear to be mainly responsible for the greater
                       denitrification potential of the swamp soils. In addition, high water tables bring groundwater contaminants
                       closer to the surface where they may be picked up by plant roots (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Values and Functions of the Total Wetland or Wetland Complex
                       Detritus Expgrt and Food Chain Support - Many RMS are hydrologically linked to streams, lakes, or estuaries.
                       The link may take the form of overland flow through the wetland during storms or after snowmelt; groundwater
                       discharge and subsequent flow through the swamp; or inundation followed by recession, of floodwaters from
                       an adjacent stream or lake. Organic detritus that is not fully decomposed and nutrients that are not
                       immobilized in the forested wetland become available for export to adjacent surface waters. It has been
                       shown that rivers that drain watersheds with extensive areas of bordering wetlands contain more organic
                       material (i.e. dissolved and total organic carbon) than rivers in watersheds without such wetlands. The organic
                       carbon exported from swamps in both particulate and dissolved forms may serve as an energy source for
                       consumers in adjacent riverine or lacustrine ecosystems. No studies have dealt with either the export of
                       detritus or nutrients from RMS to adjacent water bodies or the influence of such export on aquatic food chains.
                       However, since cumulative inputs from numerous wetlands in many subwatersheds determine the
                       characteristics and functions of lower perennial riverine systems, even relatively small wetlands with only
                       intermittent surface-water discharge may play a significant role in nutrient export and food chain support (Golet
                       et al., 1993).

                       Buffer Zone Functions and Values - Surrounding uplands are essential habitat for both wetland wildlife
                       species, which reside primarily in the wetland, and upland species, which use the wetland on an occasional
                       basis or for breeding. In addition to providing wildlife habitat directly, undisturbed surrounding uplands also
                       reduce the impact of noise and other human activity on wetland wildlife, and may provide a refuge for wildlife
                       during periods of exceptionally high water. In one 1990 study of upland habitats directly adjacent to RMS in
                       Rhode Island (Husband and Eddleman), it was found that the most remote, least disturbed site had the highest
                       number and diversity of reptiles and amphibians, while the most disturbed sites had the highest number and

                                                                              10

                      diversity of mammals (Golet et al., 1993).

                      Undisturbed buffer zones perform other important hydrologic functions. They may reduce the velocity of
                      storm-water runoff, thereby allowing infiltration of water into the soil and reducing the volume of runoff entering
                      wetlands during major storm events. This storm water abatement function prevents the drastic fluctuations
                      in wetland water levels that may be hazardous to ground-nesting birds and other wildlife. Establishment of
                      natural, undisturbed buffer zones around wetlands helps greatly in minimizing the inflow of pollutants to the
                      wetland by capturing sediment, reducing nutrient loads, and filtering other pollutants before they reach the
                      wetland. A recent study which researched the pollution attenuation abilities of natural buffer systems (Hall
                      et al., 1986) found that forest buffer zones in Maryland and North Carolina removed as much as 80% of the
                      excess nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural runoff (Golet et al., 1993).

                      In a 1990 study undertaken in southern Rhode Island (Gold and Simmons), a "spike" of nitrate, copper, and
                      a tracer was injected into the ground upgradient from forested upland and RMS monitoring stations at three
                      sites. Complete attenuation of copper was found at all stations. Nitrate removal ranged from 14-87% in the
                      forested upland, where soils were moderately well drained or somewhat poorly drained. In the RMS, nitrate
                      removal was almost complete in both poorly drained and very poorly drained soils. The highest attenuation
                      occurred where groundwater levels were closest to the surface. The study concluded that forested buffer
                      zones can protect wetland and surface-water systems from water quality degradation throughout the year.
                      However, long-term performance may vary because plant uptake and microbial immobilization of nitrate are
                      temporary nutrient sinks (Golet et al., 1993).

                      Upland habitats along the wetland edge have also been cited as the main source for seeds contributing to the
                      spatial heterogeneity of wetlands. Also, buffer zones are high in species richness. As a transitional area
                      between wetland and upland, the buffer zone commonly contains species that are representative of both
                      communities (Golet et al., 1993).

                      RMS clearly perform many functions that bear directly on public safety, health, and welfare. The great
                      abundance of RMS in the northeast suggests that the social significance of these functions may be great both
                      locally and regionally. Functions are considered to be processes or actions that the swamps perform; values
                      are the benefits of those functions to society.

                      Impacts to Nearby Wetlands and Surface Waters
                      Stormwater and Wastewater Discharges - The addition of stormwater runoff and Wastewater effluent to RMS
                      may alter both the hydrologic regime and water quality. As upland areas become urbanized, the volume of
                      stormwater runoff entering the wetland may increase dramatically. This increase can be expected to cause
                      more drastic fluctuations in wetland surface-water levels, especially where the wetlands are located in isolated
                      basins with restricted outlets. The greater fluctuation and generally greater volume of surface water entering
                      the wetland may reduce plant productivity and eventually change both the structure and species composition
                      of the plant community. Wildlife habitat values may also be seriously affected. Without the proper
                      management of runoff in major land development projects, swamps receiving such waters may become little
                      more than detention basins (Golet et al., 1993).

                      A wide variety of pollutants (e.g. road salt, oil, grease, gasoline, suspended sediment, fertilizers, pesticides,
                      heavy metals, and chlorinated hydrocarbons)may be introduced into a RMS by stormwater runoff. The effects
                      of many of these pollutants on red maple swamps is unknown, but it is highly likely that the accumulation of
                      such substances in wetland soils adversely affects plant growth, invertebrate life in the soil and in surface
                      waters, amphibians, and other forms of wildlife higher in the food chain. A 1989 study by Ehrenfeld
                      demonstrated increased flooding and significant changes in plant species composition and water chemistry
                      in southern New Jersey swamps receiving runoff from urbanized areas (Golet et al., 1993).

                       The effects on wetland hydrology and water quality from discharges of wastewater from sewage treatment
                       facilities are similar to those from storrnwater runoff, but often much more pronounced because of the greater
                       volume of water discharged, the greater concentration of pollutants in the water, and more sustained
                       discharge (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Alteration of Surrounding U121and - Human activities in upland areas immediately adjacent to RMS also may
                       adversely affect the functions and values of those wetlands. Some common examples of such activities
                       include clearing of natural vegetation, reduction of groundwater recharge through paving, and installation of
                       belowground sewage disposal systems (Golet et al., 1993).

                       Roadway Construction - Sediment accumulation in culverts under roads may cause gradual changes in water
                       regimes resulfing in the impoundment of water on the upstream side of the road and a reduction in surface-
                       water flow to the downstream side. Such impoundments commonly convert RMS to marshes or shrub
                       swamps.

                       Bounda1y Delineation - The task of boundary location is especially difficult in many RMS because the
                       dominant plants in the swamps are usually facultative species (FACW, FAC, or FACU) that also grow in
                       adjacent uplands. RMS located on hillsides or over perched groundwater systems pose a particular problem
                       because changes in surface elevation may not directly correspond to variations in soil moisture. In a 1989
                       Rhode Island study of RMS (Allen et al.), it was found that herb layer vegetation exhibited the most clearly
                       defined moisture gradient, correlated best with hydric soil status, and permitted the most precise discrimination
                       between upland and wetland. A moisture-related gradient was reflected in the tree layer also, but it was not
                       as consistent as in the herb layer. The shrub layers were found to be of little value in locating a wetland-
                       upland vegetation break because the predominance of facultative species along the entire length of most
                       weband-to-upland transects obscured moisture-related gradients in vegetation. For these reasons, it seems
                       appropriate to place major emphasis on the hydric status of soil in the delineation or RMS (Golet et al., 1993).

                                                                              12

                          FUNCTIONAL VALUES OF ATLANTIC WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS PER LITERATURE REVIEW

                     Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) is geographically restricted to freshwater wetlands in a narrow
                     band along the eastern coastal US ranging from Maine to Mississippi. In New England, Atlantic White Cedar
                     (AWC) is most abundant in southeastern MA, RI, and eastern CT. Throughout the glaciated northeast, only
                     a fraction of earlier stands remains. Little has been published about NH's cedar wetlands; their continual loss
                     is documented repeatedly in Baldwin's short notes (1961, 1963, 1965) and unpublished letters, and in
                     unpublished records of the New England Nature Conservancy and the Society for the Protection of New
                     Hampshire Forests(Laderman, 1989).

                     Generally, AWC decreases in abundance with increasing distance from the coast. AWC grows from sea level
                     to 457 m elevation, but the great majority of stands are found between sea level and 50 m. It is probable that
                     the distribution of the species was always restricted to sites too wet for most other northeastern trees. There
                     is standing water in many northern cedar swamps for half the growing season or longer; the soil is primarily
                     organic (commonly termed "peaf'or "muck"); and ground water is highly acidic (Laderman, 1989).

                     Cedar-dominated wetlands are most commonly called cedar swamps or cedar bogs. AWC occurs almost
                     exclusively with other hydrophytes on hydric soils. AWC forests may be composed exclusively of an even-
                     aged monospecific stand of close-ranked trees.            In forests successfully managed for harvest and
                     regeneration, as well as in many natural stands that originated after fire or flood, this is often the picture.
                     However, in many natural or selectively harvested situations, cedars grow in uneven-aged mixed stands which
                     provide a greater diversity of habitats that support a more species-rich fauna and flora (Laderman 1989).

                     Cedar swamps are situated shoreward of'lakes, river or stream channels, or estuaries; on river floodplains;
                     in isolated catchments; or on slopes. They may also occur (rarely) on bars or island in lakes or rivers. Slightly
                     elevated hummocks dominated by cedar are often interspersed with water-filled hollows in a repeating pattern
                     that forms a readily identified functionally interrelated landscape. In the Northeast, glacial lakebeds,
                     kettleholes of the glacial moraine, and outwash plain streambeds are landscape features that now support
                     cedar communities (Laderman 1989).

                     In New Hampshire, 30 swamp systems or sites distributed across 20 towns are known to contain AWC. The
                     total extent of swamps where cedar forms at least 25% of the canopy is estimated at approximately 479 acres.
                     There has been a general decline of many AWC populations in the state, but some excellent swamps still
                     remain. Changes in the hydrology, in particular the raising of water levels, has resulted in the historical
                     extirpation of AWC from a number of wetlands in New Hampshire. Any efforts aimed at protecting the
                     remainder of these communities will have to insure that a suitable hydrologic regime can be maintained
                     (Sperduto and Ritter 1994).

                     Statewide, the distribution of AWC is highly clumped. The three major centers of distribution are: 1) the
                     "northern" coastal systems of Rye and Portsmouth, 2) the "southern" coastal systems of Newton and
                     Kingston, and 3) the inland "corridor" systems.

                     Nutrient Support for Finfish, Crustacea, Shellfish, and Wildlife
                     The water of AWC wetlands that are dependent on precipitation for water and minerals (as in many glacial
                     kettles) is generally deficient in ions, has low specific conductance, and is low in pH. Cedar stands that grow
                     in stream-side or stream-fed swamps or are subject to significant lateral flow (as in the Great Dismal Swamp)
                     often have a more neutral pH, since their water is enriched by mineral soils through which it passes
                     (Laderman 1989).

                                                                            13

                       In a 1988 study of a cedar wetland bordering a tidal creek in Maryland (Whigham and Richardson), it was
                       found that AWC leaf tissue is significantly higher in Ca, Al, Pb, and Sr, and poorer in N and P than other plants
                       associated with it. The study also found that soil of cedar-dominated wetlands has higher Ca, Mg, Al, and Fe
                       levels, and lower P content than surrounding wetlands (Laderman 1989).

                       Habitats and Reproduction Areas for Plants, Fish, and Wildlife
                       Obligate wetland trees are rare in the glaciated Northeast. Atlantic white cedar is the only relatively common
                       species so classified (Golet et al., 1993).

                       AWC is the only member of its genus east of the Rockies and is an uncommon tree species within NH, but
                       it is not on the state endangered species list. The species is highly susceptible to loss in the northern reaches
                       of its range due to changes in water levels within swamps, and cutting practices. It is known to grow very
                       slowly (eight-inch trees over 200 years old were reported by Baldwin, 1963) and virtually nothing is known
                       about its rate of reproduction or its relative reproductive success.

                       One study suggests that any adequate conservation efforts with this species must include an evaluation of
                       its genetic structure. Based on the study's findings, AWC populations in NH and Maine appear to be truly
                       discrete from one another in a genetic sense, and that some stands may exist which are unique, as in the
                       case of the Kingston, NH stand. The study also discovered that stands can be reasonably discrete from each
                       other if only separated by 114 mile. This indirectly supports a hypothesis put forth by Belling (1977) suggesting
                       that it is not time or distance that is important in the spread of this species (and by implication the genetic
                       relatedness of populations), but rather it is the ecological history of the landscape (i.e. fire, water levels, and
                       cutting events) that are important. An AWC stand that has a long history in an area (perhaps 2,000 to 4,000
                       years) contains adaptive gene complexes for the existing set of site conditions. For this reason, special
                       consideration should be given any stands located on unusual sites. The distribution of protected stands
                       should be as wide as possible so that a range of ecological conditions are included (Eckert 1988).

                       Seed Production and Dissemination - AWC is monoecious, but the male (staminate) and female (pistillate)
                       flowers are produced on separate shoots. The onset of seed production varies greatly with environmental
                       conditions (i.e. climate, water level, substrate, and competition with other cedars and other species). Seed
                       dispersal starts in early autumn, and is influenced by weather, the height and diameter of the parent tree, and
                       the density and height of surrounding vegetation. Experiments by Little (1950) confirmed that density and
                       height of the surrounding vegetation can almost completely prevent the dispersal of seeds beyond the edge
                       of a stand. The first seed crops of a tree have a lower average germination rate than later production. Under
                       natural conditions, much AWC seed does not germinate until the start of the 2nd or 3rd growing season after
                       seed fall. Overwinter storage in a cool, moist medium, such as the moss and peat of a swamp floor,
                       apparently promotes germination (Laderman 1989).

                       Microrelief, also referred to as mound-and-pool topography is a characteristic feature of nonfloodplain forested
                       wetlands in the Northeast. Microrelief creates a variety of microhabitats and thus has a major effect on
                       species composition and distribution of swamp flora. It is usually most pronounced in the wettest swamps.
                       According to certain studies, microrelief appears more highly developed in Atlantic white cedar swamps
                       (compared to RMS), which had significantly higher meant water levels as well. Pronounced microrelief allows
                       species with widely differing soil moisture requirements or tolerances to coexist in a limited area (Golet et al.,
                       1993).

                       Microrelief in an AWCS is important in providing suitable cedar seedbed. Logs, stumps, or hummocks that
                       are above water during the spring high-water periods form favorable seedbeds, but seedlings starting there
                       may die from lack of moisture during later dry periods. However, seedlings growing in lower places frequently
                       drown during subsequent high-water periods. Seedlings sprouting at intermediate positions had better
                       survival than those starting either at the highest or lowest spots. Suitable substrates include rotten wood,

                                                                               14

                       peat, and Sphagnum moss. Hardwood and shrub I        eaf litter and pine needles inhibit cedar germination to less
                       than one percent. The floor of a wetland previously supporting AWC is the most favorable substrate.
                       Relatively open conditions are necessary for healthy growth of seedlings, although they may survive for 1 to
                       3 years under a mature cedar canopy, where light intensity averages 4% to 6% of full sunlight. Warm open
                       areas, such as cleaned clearcut cedar stands, abandoned cranberry bogs, recent burns over waterfilled
                       swamps, or peatlands partly drained after floodling, provide satisfactory conditions for AWC reproduction
                       (Laderman 1989).

                       Flora - Plant species growing with AWC manage to thrive in a waterlogged environment with a varying
                       hydroperiod, and generally acidic, nutrient-poor and often anaerobic soil and water. Major physical and
                       physiologic adaptations to these extreme conditions are a hallmark of the biota of the AWC community, but
                       no quantitative work has been published on the subject (Laderman, 1989).

                       Canopy layer - A monospecific dense, mature, even-aged stand may have a sparse to nonexistent
                       subcanopy, shrub, herb, or reproduction layer, except at breaks in the canopy, and at the edges of the stand.
                       In mixed stands throughout the cedar's range, the most frequently encountered trees are red maple and black
                       gum. Additionally, in the northern states, gray birch (Betula populifolia), black spruce, white pine, and hemlock
                       are most widely distributed (Laderman 1989).

                       Shrub layer - Relatively open-canopy cedar stands generally have a well-developed shrub layer. More cedar-
                       associated shrubs are in the heath family (Ericaceae) than in any other. The most widely distributed shrubs
                       (including woody vines) associated with AWC are red chokecherry (Aronia arbutifolia), sweet pepperbush,
                       bitter gallberry (Ilex glabra), fetterbush (Leucothoe racemosa), swamp honeysucke, poison ivy (Toxicodendron
                       radicans), poison sumac (T vernix) and highbush blueberry (Laderman 1989).

                       Herbaceous layer - The most abundant herbaceous cover is found with cedar on bog mats and as a
                       temporary feature shortly after disturbance that either eliminates the shrub layer or opens the canopy. Where
                       there is open water, submerged and emergent aquatics may be present. A continuous carpet of sphagnum
                       mosses (Sphagnum spp.) is often seen where there is adequate light. The most widely distributed cedar-
                       associated herbs are: sedges'(Carex spp.), round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), partridge-berry
                       (Mitchella repens), cinnamon fern, and royal fern (0. regalis) (Laderman 1989).

                       Sphagnum has unique characteristics and creates unique conditions. It requires cool, moist conditions for
                       its growth, and these conditions may characterize regions of large area or may occur locally. Sphagnum as
                       a living plant has certain distinctive characteristics of structure and growth habits. Dead sphagnum also has
                       pronounced physical and chemical properties. These characteristics and properties play their part in enabling
                       this plant to develop a habitat in which certain plants flourish while others are excluded. The long, slender
                       leafy stems grow vigorously at the tip and die at the basal portion without immediate disintegration. Both
                       stems and leaves of Sphagnum contain large cells whose active portion dies by the time the cells are mature,
                       leaving only the wall which is characterized by small pores and is supported by ring-like thickenings on the
                       inside (known as hyaline cells). Hyaline cells take up and hold large quantities of water. Almost any species
                       of Sphagnum will take in and hold ten times its own weight of water and the more robust and leafy species
                       may hold twice that much. Sphagnum causes water with which it remains in contact to have an acid reaction.
                       This is true not only of living Sphagnum but also of its dead remains (Rigg 1940).

                       Microtlora - The acid, nutrient-poor waters of AWCS might be expected to support few species of algae.
                       However, cedar bog water contains a high diversity of protists in all seasons: flagellated, ciliated and
                       ameboid; spined, smooth, testate, walled, naked, rigid and flexible; colonial, filamentous and unicellular;
                       swimming, floating, gliding and sessile; colorless, green, blue, yellow, orange, red, brown, and black; epibiontic
                       on plants, animals and inert surfaces; of every conceivable shape, and ranging in size from barely
                       macroscopic to below the range of the light microscope (Laderman/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium

                        In one study undertaken in an AWC weband in coastal Massachusetts, algal assemblages of undisturbed and
                        disturbed sites were assessed and compared. The stable site was relatively undisturbed, protected from
                        roadway runoff by a thick herbaceous and shrubby border 3 m wide. At the disturbed site, runoff eroding since
                        1972 from a housing site on an adjacent morainal hill had cut a 30 cm wide, virtually vegetation-free channel
                        to the swamp. As might be expected of acid-water microflora, both sites had a species richness that is high
                        for fresh water. However, the stable site had a much greater total number of species and subtaxa than the
                        disturbed site, in the ratio of 3:2. The stable site had twice as many chlorophycean species. Of the
                        characteristic acid-bog species, the stable site had three times as many desmids, Gonyostomum, the sole
                        chloromonad, was present only in the stable site. The two cyanophyceans (blue-green algae) present were
                        found only in the disturbed site. The presence of blue-greens may reflect an altered availability of resources
                        not detected by standard chemical analysis. The stable site had a much greater skew in its taxonomic
                        clustering at every phyletic level (e.g. species per family, families per order). Conversely, the disturbed site's
                        microflora was more evenly distributed among families and orders (Laderman/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands
                        Symposium 1984).

                        In general, NH cedar communities fall into the following types: Seasonally flooded AWCS community, North
                        Coastal AWC-Yellow birch-Sweet pepper bush community, and Boreal AWCS community. Another potential
                        type corresponds to "seepage swamps", where species usually associated with seepage conditions (e.g.
                        green wood orchis, purple-fringed orchid) exist. Such habitats are notpresently considered as a distinct type,
                        since they appear to occupy small areas. But further research is needed to determine if some of these areas
                        (e.g. Cedar Boulevard and Portsmouth cedar swamps in Portsmouth) may be larger than believed and if
                        sufficient floristic differences exist to justify a new type (Sperduto and Ritter 1994).

                        One hundred ninety vascular plant species are associated with AWCS in New Hampshire, including several
                        rare plants. One rare coastal plain plant, Walter's sedge (Carex stfiata var. brevis) is new to the state. The
                        factor which appeared to have the greatest effect in determining the number of species at a system was the
                        number of cover types which the system possessed and perhaps the degree of flooding. Those systems
                        which contained closed canopy stands, open canopy swamp, and areas of scrub-shrub or shrub swamp were
                        the richest systems. The capacity of a system to-possess a number of cover types, appears to be most
                        strongly linked to hydrologic factors and differences in nutrient regimes associated with hydrology (Sperduto
                        and Ritter 1994).

                        Fauna - Information on animals and associated wildlife values of AWCS is more limited than for plants. Cedar
                        wetlands can be considered as ecological islands. Large, connected natural areas are of greatest value in
                        promoting wildlife species diversity because there are more species per unit area than in separated islands,
                        and there are fewer species lost due to genetic drift. Large blocks of unbroken territory are important for non-
                        game birds species that nest on or near the ground or in open areas, or for species that are obligate forest-
                        interior inhabitants, migrate long distances, or are shy of humans. According to the USFWS, a cedar forest
                        managed for maximum wildlife habitat will contain a diverse mixture of old growth, mature, intermediate, and
                        regeneration areas (Laderman 1989).

                        Birds - Maximum variation in vertical stratification is of particular significance to avifauna. In a 1984 study,
                        13 species of breeding birds (21 pairs) were counted in one 40.5 ha AWCS in Barrington, NH. The bird
                        species included Blue jay, Black-capped chickadee, Brown creeper, Gray catbird, Hermit thrush, Veery, Red-
                        eyed vireo, Black-and-white warbler, Ovenbird, Northern waterthrush, Common yellowthroat, and the Canada
                        warbler. The same area had supported 16 species (23 breeding pairs) in 1951. In 1965, five distinctive cedar
                        stands were described and mapped in the plot. By 1984, cedar densities in the study plot had decreased due
                        to cutting and natural causes. There was a general increase of shrubs and tree seedlings and the proportion
                        of larger diameter cedar had increased over the 33 year time span. Changes in breeding bird species

                                                                               16

                                                                                                          G@

                       composition generally reflected vegetative change (Miller et al./Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium
                       1984).

                       Avian communities have been shown to respond to the layering of vegetation within similar habitats, as well
                       as to varied habitats. Specifically, foliage height diversity has been linearly correlated to bird species diversity,
                       while percent vegetation cover and foliage volume have been shown to be less powerful predictors. One of
                       the findings from a study of the Great Dismal Swamp was that older stands of AWC provide important
                       breeding habitat for birds. In the study, two cedar stands that differed in age and size were selected. The
                       study looked at the species composition and density of breeding birds, the differences in avifauna of the two
                       selected stands, and sought to compare the density and diversity of breeding birds in the AWC to those in
                       surrounding maple/gum communities. Study findings revealed that shrub and tree densities of cedar stands
                       were markedly higher than in the maple/gum forest The cedar community supported approximately the same
                       number of nesting species, but a much higher density than the Maple/Gum site. The study also showed that
                       a small patch of overmature cedar surrounded by maple/gum forest provides habitat that is as valuable for
                       cedar-nesting birds as the interior of a large cedar stand (Terwilliger/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands
                       Symposium 1984).

                       Mammals - AWC, provides excellent cover for deer, and rabbits. In the northeast, AWC foliage and             twigs is
                       the preferred winter browse for white-tailed deer. Cottontail rabbit and meadow mouse feed on cedar
                       seedlings (Laderman 1989).

                       Insects - The larva of one butterfly-Hessel's Hairstreak (Mitoura hesseli)-feeds exclusively on AWC. It is an
                       emerald-green butterfly which has been found in cedar swamps. The federally endangered Banded bog
                       skimmer dragonfly's (Wifflamsonia lintnen) few extant populations are in or near AWCS in New Jersey, New
                       York, Rhode Island Massachusetts, and New Hampshire (Laderman 1989).

                       Much more information is needed on the potential distribution of Hessel's Hairstreak butterfly among NH's
                       cedar swamps. This rare AWC-obligate species has only been documented from one swamp-the Hampstead
                       Cedar Swamp, and has not been relocated recently. This butterfly often feeds high in the cedar canopy and
                       is difficult to detect (Sperduto and Ritter 1994).

                       Species Richness - In New Hampshire, seasonally flooded AWCS community types often occur in association
                       with open or moving water such as along lake, pond and stream borders and in basins with impounded
                       drainage. The type is characterized by the presence of numerous herbaceous species typical of marsh or
                       open wetland habitats. Of the different AWCS communities sampled by the NH Natural Heritage Program
                       during June-October 1993, this type was the highest in species richness, although composition varied widely.
                       All the sampled areas classified as seasonally flooded occur in the near coastal zone, although it is likely that
                       a boreal seasonally flooded type also exists. pH measures taken in seasonally flooded AWCS were generally
                       among the highest recorded for cedar swamps in New Hampshire with a range of 4.4 to 6.5 (Sperduto and
                       Ritter 1994).

                       Areas of Sggcial Concern - The NH Natural Heritage Program's study of.New Hampshire's AWCS indicates
                       that there are relatively few high quality AWCS in the state with potential long-term viability and a continuing
                       trend of decline of many historic populations. The study recommends that a concerted effort be made to
                       protect remaining viable populations that span the vegetative and ecological diversity among AWCS observed
                       in the study. Research indicates (Ecker 1992) that larger complexes of individual cedar swamps close
                       together may be more likely to have unique genetic potential and genetic variability important for the long-term
                       evolution of the species. Close proximity of stands (ideally on the order of 0.25 miles or less) also enables
                       gene flow through pollen migration and thus the potential for maintaining unique genes. The Kingston-Newton
                       cedar swamp complex seems to be the only assemblage of swamps in NH with an adequately large enough
                       AWC meta-population to potentially form an "evolutionary reserve", that is one with the potential to contain

                                                                                17

                        genetic resources significant to long-term evolution of the species (Sperduto and Ritter 1994).

                        The highest quality viable Coastal Community Type swamp systems include the Manchester Cedar Swamp
                        (in Manchester), Portsmouth Cedar Swamp (in Portsmouth), and Locke Pond (in Rye); the highest quality
                        viable Boreal Community Type swamp systems include Loverens Mill Swamp (in Antrim--considered the best
                        boreal AWC swamp in the state and perhaps in New England), and Ring Brook Swamp (in Sutton). It is
                        recommended that as many AWC swamps as possible be retained from future harvesting since no old-growth
                        cedar swamps are presently known. Large, recently uncut and mature cedar swamps have the best potential
                        to reinstitute ecological and vegetation dynamics which may be associated with unmanaged cedar
                        ecosystems (Sperduto and Ritter 1994).

                        Commerce, Recreation, and Aesthetic Enjoyment of the Public
                        Lggging - Slash left after logging severely reduces cedar seedling establishment. Few seeds germinate, and
                        fewer survive under the 0.6 to 1.2 m of dense slash often left after logging. Hardwood sprouts and shade-
                        tolerant shrubs grow out over the slash and are rapidly covered with vines to form a virtually impenetrable
                        mass (Laderman 1989).

                        Repeated logging together with hydrologic disturbances appear to be the main reasons for the drastic decline
                        of AWC in the Carolinas. Even without hydrologic disturbance, it seams likely that repeated logging in the
                        absence of fire leads to stepwise reduction in area and loss of cedar habitat to deciduous swamp forest, with
                        eventual extirpation of the species (Frost/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                        In the Pin elands of NJ where individual AWC harvests are small-scale operations (less than 10 acres), various
                        AWC harvesting techniques are currently employed. Harvesting methods are especially critical to the
                        continued preservation and maintenance of cedar because there is usually no subsequent management of
                        harvested areas. Several factors need to be considered when harvesting AWC. Dense slash adversely
                        affects the establishment of adequate cedar production. Loggers often compound the slash problem by
                        transporting sawmill wastes to a harvest site for the construction of access roads. This practice should be
                        discouraged. The age of.a stand can affect reproductive success following a harvest cutting. Stands that are
                        45 years old usually have sufficient seed stored in the soil to restock the area, but reproduction that is
                        dependent on stored seed may be affected in stands which are 30 years old or less. The low seed production
                        of relatively young trees is compounded by their smaller stature, since the distance to which cedar seeds
                        disperse is in part a function of the height of the parent tree (Zampella/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands
                        Symposium 1984).

                        Cultural Values- - History cites many examples of native American adaptation to habitation and refuge in
                        swamps, including coastal cedar swamps. Conflicts between New England colonists and Native Americans,
                        including decisive battles of the Pequot and Metacom wars, took place in cedar swamps. In New England,
                        pervasive stone and earthen ritual artifacts signal and connect natural environmental features such as
                        swamps, rocky ridges and celestial bodies. The cedar swamp kettles of the Cape Cod moraines typically
                        have groups or ritual stone mounds as likely parts of the vision quest, on their southeastern flanks. There is
                        also evidence that earth and stone construction, found, in freshwater wetlands today, may be the remains of
                        a ritual wetland management system. There is evidence of structures which were built for waterway
                        management for fishing, and frequent occurrences of earth and stone works within and near New England
                        cedar swamps (Mavor and Dix/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                        Aesthetics Besides being a -rich source of information on cultural heritage, wetlands are visually and
                        educationally rich environments because of their ecological interest and diversity. Very little is known about
                        the biological and chemical processes that occur in these special environments. Cedar wetlands' complexity
                        makes them excellent sites for research. Because of the low nutrient conditions in these swamps, they
                        contain plants, animals, and microbes that have many special adaptations to the low-nutrient conditions.

                                                                                  18

                      Ground Water Recharge
                      HydrologX - Data on all quantitative and functional aspects of cedar forest water regimes are sparse and
                      fragmentary. The most comprehensive information available on hydrological functions in a cedar wetland
                      relates to the Great Dismal Swamp. In general, cedar swamp waters are highest in late winter and early
                      spring. In late spriing and early summer, evapotranspiration removes large quantities of water, with the water
                      table dropping below ground surface in places. In autumn, swamps are driest, with standing water and water
                      tables at their annual low point. Most water loss is via evapotranspiration. In winter, with declining
                      temperatures and reduced evapotranspiration, the water table rises; in flowing systems, stream flow swells
                      and lateral subsurface and surface low increases (Laderman 1989).

                      AWC usually grows on hummocks slightly elevated above and surrounded by hollows where water level may
                      be up to 1.2 m deep, or as low as 0.3 m below the surface. USFWS Classification of cedar-dominated
                      wetlands is determined by the water regime in the hollows. AWC are found in the following water regimes:
                      nontidal, seasonally flooded, saturated, semipermanently flooded, and permanently flooded. Cedar-dominated
                      swamps generally have higher water levels than nearby RMS and are flooded for longer periods (Laderman
                      1989).

                      Water-table activity varies considerably among forests, and it varies even more among years. Seven years
                      of research in six Rhode Island cedar swamps have determined that the amount and seasonal distribution of
                      precipitation are major factors determining annual water regimes at most sites, but the relative effect of
                      variations in precipitation depends upon each swamp's hydrogeologic setting. Variation in the size of the
                      groundwater term in the wetland water budget is believed to be the major reason for differences in water-table
                      activity among sites. Yearly variations in radial growth within individual cedar swamps may be related to
                      variations in water levels, but the nature of the growth-water regime relationship differs markedly among
                      swamps. A general relationship between water regime and annual radial growth is not evident. Based on this
                      study, cedar growth rates appear to be more closely related to groundwater chemistry and forest stand
                      characteristics (Golet and Lowry/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                      Sediment Trapping
                      No data specific to the sediment trapping capabilities of AWCS were found. Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous
                      plants growing in swamps do impede the flow of floodwaters, and the reduction of floodflow velocity enables
                      sediments to settle out.

                      Flood Storage
                      No data specific to flood storage capabilities of AWCS were found. However, the ability to reduce the peak
                      levels of loods and to delay the flood crest is one of the most widely recognized functions of inland wetlands.

                      Quality of Surface and Ground Water
                      Although no specific data were found concerning the role of AWCS in influencing surface and ground water
                      quality, wetlands have been shown to remove organic and inorganic nutrients and toxic materials from water
                      that flows through them. The accumulation of organic peat, which is a common component of AWCS, causes
                      the permanent burial of chemicals.

                      Values and Functions of the Total Wetland or Wetland Complex
                      For AWCS, consideration of the ecosystem must go beyond the technically defined wetland boundary. The
                      adjacent area may be critical determinant in the structure and function of the entire wetland. The hydrological
                      regime of a cedar wetland is a major determinant of the biota in both flowing (lotic) and nonflowing (lentic)
                      systems. Mature AWC are adapted to a wide rang of water depths, but rapid, prolonged change in water
                      depth Mi Is seedlings outright and stresses or kills mature specimens. In streamside, lakeside, and estuarine-
                      border cedar swamps, the depth of water adjacent to and contiguous with a wetland is a major controlling
                      influence on the wetland's water regime (Laderman 1989).

                                                                            19

                        Impacts to Nearby Wetlands and Surface Waters
                        lmgacts of Disturbance by Fire and Water - AWC occupies a narrow hydrologic position toward the wet end
                        of the moisture gradient, and intermediate between that of deciduous swamp forest and evergreen pocosin.
                        It requires periodic catastrophic fire, but with a medium to long fire-return interval (Frost/Atlantic White Cedar
                        Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                        The destructiveness of a fire is inversely related to the amount of water present. At lower water, more peat
                        burns. The deeper the peat bum, the lower the possibility that viable seed will remain in the forest floor, and
                        the lower the possibility that a new cedar stand will develop. However, a light fire at high water tends to
                        eliminate shrubs and brush, and favors cedar seedling germination and survival. The relationship of AWC
                        to fire and water appears paradoxical: cedar stand are destroyed by fire, but light fire clears competition from
                        the substrate surface, permitting cedar reproduction. A very hot prolonged fire at low water burns off peat,
                        which can result in more standing water. Cedar seedlings are drowned by flooding; mature trees are stressed
                        by permanent inundation. However, flooding severe enough to kill undergrowth prepares a seedbed favorable
                        to cedars, and high moisture content is essential for cedar reproduction and.growth (Laderman 1989).

                        While hurricane or tornado blowdowns might fell substantial tracts of white cedar, only fire can be expected
                        to both kill standing timber and remove debris, exposing the open seedbed required for regeneration. In this
                        respect, white cedar seems to'be dependent upon cyclic wildfire in a way similar to that reported for jack pines
                        (Pinus banksiana) in Michigan and sand pine (Pinus clausa) in Florida. One of the most shade-tolerant trees,
                        white cedar does not reproduce beneath its own living canopy or that of deciduous swamp forest. Only
                        following fire does it have the opportunity to repopulate a site or colonize adjacent sites occupied by other
                        wetland communities (Frost/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                        Other Natural Eactors - Natural forests can also be impacted by storms (windthrow, ice damage, salt spray
                        saline water inclusion); deer browse, herbivory by mice and rabbits; and beaver activity. By far the mosi
                        significant influence on the creation and destruction of cedar wetlands by natural forces is the slow rise of sea
                        level. With each episode of disturbance, history is intrinsically a factor, as the cedar community at each site
                        is adapted to a particular range of water, light, weather, etc. regimes. An abrupt change is, by itself, a stress
                        factor (Laderman 1989).

                        Suburban Encroachmen -           Studies in the NJ Pinelands indicate that suburbanization eliminates the
                        characteristic cedar-associated species and erodes water quality. Residential development is accompanied
                        by an increase in species richness, with an initial increase in drier-site species followed by a large increase
                        in non-indigenous species as native plants disappear. Regional water chemistry is strongly influenced by
                        surface inflow of storm drainage carrying heavy sediment loads and by septic tank eutrophication. Water
                        acidity is reduced, and ammonia, phosphates, and chlorides increase via subsurface routes. The greatest
                        overall impact is created by direct runoff (Laderman 1989).

                        The combination of tight hydraulic connection between wetlands and uplands and the interdigitation of
                        wetlands and uplands throughout the landscape suggests that land-use changes in the upland areas are likely
                        to affect cedar swamps. Numerous studies on the impacts of urbanization on water resources have
                        documented changes in a variety of parameters such as water table height, water flow rates, stream flooding
                        characteristics, and water quality. These variables have been shown to be critical to the structure and function
                        of wetlands. Initial study of Pinelands swamps in NJ demonstrated that in developed watersheds, species
                        characteristics of Pinelands wetlands were replaced by weedy *species and Inner Coastal Plain species not
                        normally found in the Pinelands. Other studies documented similar changes in the algal flora and in the
                        plankton community. Thus, regional land-use changes have well-documented effects on the composition of
                        cedar swamps in the NJ Pinelands (Schneider and Ehrenfeld/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium
                        1984).

                                                                               20

                      Until recently, there were no data that indicated which aspects of suburbanization affected AWC wetlands,
                      or that demonstrated what level of disturbance was associated with changes in wetland structure. A study
                      of 18 cedar swamps in NJ Pinelands was undertaken to determine which hydrological parameters of cedar
                      swamps were being affected by suburban development, and whether different levels of suburbanization were
                      causing different levels of change in cedar swamps. The study sites represented a gradient of suburban
                      disturbance effect. They were located either in least disturbed areas (near sites), within 10 m of the edge of
                      the swamp behind a house (developed sites) or at a stormwater sewer outfall (runoff sites) within a suburban
                      development.

                      Study results indicated that suburbanization has substantial impacts on the plant community and physical
                      environment of AWCS in the NJ Pinelands. There is an increase in species richness across the development
                      gradient: a slight increase in species from upland Pinelands communities is seen in the least disturbed sites,
                      a small influx of upland Pinelands species, weeds, and Inner Coastal Plain species occurs in the developed
                      sites, and a large influx of non-native species of many habitat types and life forms occurs in the runoff sites.
                      The change in species richness is accompanied by a change in structure, particularly in the runoff sites. The
                      physical environment also changes along the disturbance gradient. Subtle changes in hydrology suggestive
                      of drier conditions are correlated with the observed influx of upland species into the swamp. Water chemistry
                      reflects the input of both surface stormwater pollution and below-ground septic tank effluent inputs. The
                      combination of surface and below-ground inputs at the runoff sites causes more extreme differences from
                      undisturbed conditions than do the effects of below-ground septic inputs alone. Study results suggest that
                      suburbanization causes more pronounced changes in water chemistry than in water level, and that the
                      enrichment of surface waters permits the influx of non-Pinelands species. Even the presence of roads
                      proximate to swamps causes small but noticeable changes in species composition. It is clear that runoff sites
                      experience much greater impacts than do developed sites or near sites (Schneider and Ehrenfeld/Atlantic
                      White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                      In 1990 and 1991, researchers Ehrenfeld and Schneider documented the link between human disturbances
                      and vegetative changes at a series of cedar wetland sites in the NJ Pinelands defined by differing levels of
                      suburban intrusion. They found that cedar wetlands directly influenced by stormwater runoff were much more
                      strongly altered than all other wetland sites. AWCS are unique communities. The extreme acidity with low
                      nutrient availability of the environment results in a sensitive plant community with low diversity structure. For
                      this reason, species composition in cedar wetlands in highly sensitive to development. Virtually all water
                      entering these wetlands is derived from infiltration in the uplands. This tight hydraulic connection assures that
                      upland development will impact the quantity and quality of the water.

                      Study findings showed that the control sites (i.e. sites within undisturbed watersheds and isolated from
                      development) were highly dominated by species indigenous to cedar swamps. However, as development
                      impacts progressed, indigenous species were dramatically displaced by species not traditionally associated
                      with cedar swamps. Thus, cedar swamps impacted by development gradually lost species that define their
                      uniqueness. Reproduction of white cedar itself proved especially sensitive to development stress. Mean
                      densities of white cedar seedlings were greatly reduced in the developed and runoff sites. This decline in
                      cedar seedlings may be directly related to the decline in Sphagnurn in these sites. Sphagnum is the most
                      common substrate on which cedar reproduction is generally found and holds a large reservoir of buried viable
                      seed. Unfortunately, the plant is especially sensitive to chloride, trampling, hydrological changes, elevated
                      nitrogen concentrations, and other consequences of suburban development (Center for, Watershed
                      Protection, Technical Note 22, 1994).

                      Non-goint Source Load - Both agriculture and suburban development add significantly to the nutrient, heavy
                      metal, total solids, and non-biodegradable content of the wetland water and soil into which they drain. Peat
                      acts as a sink for DDT and other similar non-biodegradable absorbable molecules. Fertilizer, pesticides,
                      herbicides, and animal and human wastes contribute to the non-point source load of ground     and surface water

                                                                             21

                       (Laderman 1989).

                       Roadways - The long-term effects of roadway construction are not fully comprehended.. It is clear that they
                       temporarily act exactly as any dam which floods adjacent areas and prevents the free flow of water and
                       nutrients downstream. Also, the effect on water quality of roadbase materials and runoff must be considered.
                       The complex hydrological effects of drainage ditches have a major overall impact on AWC forests. Normal
                       water retention and slow subsurface sheefifow are replaced by rapid channelized surface flowthrough of water
                       made virtually unobtainable to the wetlands (Laderman 1989).

                       Damage due to deer browse, winterkill, and windthrow are exacerbated at road edges where the growth of
                       competing subcanopy vegetation is stimulated by the additional light and nutrient inflow. Likewise, increased
                       light and heat favor the germination and rapid growth of cedar seedlings immediately adjacent to road cuts,
                       and the local increase in moisture due to the channeling of water has a similar effect (Laderman 1989).

                       Other Human Imr)acts - Large scale disruption of hydrology, leading to flooding in some areas and drainage
                       in others, peat subsidence, oxidation and exposure of mineral soil.

                       Conversion of muck lands to agriculture.

                       Post-logging site preemption by understory or stump sprouting species.

                       Shading of seedbed by logging slash.

                       Destruction of sapling by post-logging fires in slash, especially in the second to tenth years after logging.

                       Fire suppression, eliminating opportunity for white cedar to invade patches occupied by other species.

                       The tendency to selectively log cedar patches, leaving adjacent swamp forest intact, eliminating possibility
                       for expansion of the cedar stand. At best a new stand can reoccupy 100% of the original site. Historical and
                       field evidence suggests at least a portion of the site is lost to other species each time a stand is logged (Frost/
                       Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                                                                               22

                         FUNCTIONAL VALUES OF FORESTED WETLANDS IN GENERAL PER LITERATURE REVIEW

                      Nutrient Support for Finfish, Crustacea, Shellfish, and Wildlife
                      Water and nutrient balance studies in riverine forested wetlands have shown that isolation or uncoupling of
                      wetlands from the stream channel leads to higher concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen in the stream
                      water. The export of these materials was more erratic without the wetland, and the quality of the organic
                      material differed from that when the stream and floodplain forest were coupled. Without the forested wetland,
                      waters became eutrophic and algal production was partly responsible for the change in quality of organic
                      material. The excess phosphorus and nitrogen in the stream isolated from the forested wetland was
                      '
                      considered a measure of the biotic activity of wetlands when water was allowed to flood them (Ecosystems
                      of the World: Forested Wetlands, 1990).

                      Habitats and Reproduction Areas for Plants, Fish, and Wildlife
                      Deciduous forested wetlands appear to be very productive habitats for breeding birds. Breeding bird
                      populations were studied in eight deciduous forested wetlands in the southern half of the Connecticut Valley
                      region of MA to provide baseline information on these habitats. The study areas ranged from permanently
                      wet sites with dense shrub growth and widely spaced small trees, to seasonally saturated sites with a mature
                      forest cover and variable understory profiles. Red maple was the dominant tree species on all sites; American
                      elm, yellow birch, black ash, hemlock, and black gum were much less abundant but frequent in young stands
                      and as subcanopy trees in mature stands.

                      Nearly 2700 bird observations were recorded during the above study, comprising 46 species. Overall, foliage
                      gleaning birds were most abundant, followed by ground feeders and bark gleaners, respectively. The most
                      common species in order of decreasing abundance were: Common Yellowthroat, Veery, Canada Warbler,
                      Ovenbird, Northern Waterthrush, and Gray Catbird. The effects of variables. that appeared most important
                      to avian abundance and richness in deciduous forested wetlands were: small shrub density, dead tree
                      abundance, average tree height, height of lowest branches, crown closure, amount of surface water, presence
                      of streams, depth of mineral soil, and magnitude of annual ground water fluctuation. The results suggest that
                      avian community values of deciduous forested wetlands are directly related to foliage distribution, primary
                      productivity, and hydrologic patterns of a site (Swift 1980).

                      Vernal pools form in topographic depressions found in forested swamps. These areas contain water in sp      ring
                      and fall, and provide extremely important breeding habitat for amphibians. Mole salamanders of the genus
                      Ambystoma (spotted, blue-spotted, Jefferson's), as well as the wood frog breed exclusively in vernal pools.
                      These salamanders travel in mass migrations along traditional routes to return to the pools where they were
                      bom to breed. Loss of these pools can eliminate entire breeding populations in localized areas (Pedevillano
                      1995).

                      Other wildlife species are attracted to vernal pools because of the abundant amphibian prey. These include
                      Blanding's turtles, spotted turtles, great blue herons, green herons, and garter snakes. Invertebrates are an
                      essential component of vernal pools and provide food for amphibian larvae. Fairy shrimp only live in vernal
                      pools and lay drought-resistant eggs that hatch when the pool fills with water. Fingernail clams and freshwater
                      snails are often found in the pools as well as a variety of other mollusks, insects, and crustaceans. Vernal
                      pools are extremely productive, valuable ecosystems that are often overlooked and undervalued (Pedevillano
                      1995).

                      Scrub-shrub wetlands are utilized for feeding, nesting, breeding, and cover by a variety of wildlife species.
                      Scrub-shrub wetlands are dominated by woody species in the sapling and shrub stages. Vegetation
                      commonly found in these areas includes highbush blueberry, sweet pepperbush, swamp azalea, spicebush,
                      arrowwood, winterberry, willow, alder, dogwood, common elder, buttonbush, and meadowsweet. Associated
                      herbs often include cinnamon fern, sensitive fern, spotted jewelweed, sphagnum, sedges, rushes, and

                                                                            23

                       hydrophilic grasses. These wetlands frequently flood in the spring or contain pockets of standing water.
                       Dense shrubs serve as excellent nesting habitat for songbirds that may also feed on the fruits of berry-
                       producing shrubs or perch on shrubs when catching flying insects. Some birds often found in these wetlands
                       include: common yellowthroat, alder flycatcher, yellow warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, blue-winged warbler,
                       American redstart, Canada warbler, song sparrow, gray catbird, and American goldfinch. American
                       woodcock, a migratory game bird, frequents dense alder thickets where it nests on the ground and feeds on
                       earthworms found in the soft muddy. substrate (Pedevillano 1995).

                       Shrub swamps that   are flooded in spring are frequently used as breeding ponds by the northern spring peeper
                       and gray treefrog. The proliferation of these amphibians attracts predators such as the great blue heron,
                       raccoon, and mink. Shrub swamps that are adjacent to emergent marshes provide shrubby cover for nesting
                       waterfowl. Snowshoe hare, cotton-tail and white-tailed deer also use shrub swamps for food and cover
                       (Pedevillano 1995).

                       Commerce, Recreation, and Aesthetic Enjoyment of the Public
                       Hunting, fishing, birding, hiking, and canoeing are just a few of the recreational activities that take place in
                       forested wetlands. You don't need scientific data to underscore the importance to the public of this wetland
                       value.

                       Ground Water Recharge
                       No additional data on ground water recharge values of forested wetlands was found.

                       Sediment Trapping
                       Deposits of fine sediment typically contain large concentrations of associated contaminants and trace
                       elements from farms and urban areas. This sediment and contaminant trapping function of wetlands
                       is commonly acknowledged, despite limited understanding of the transport and deposition of sediment and
                       associated contaminants. A study of sediment and trace-element trapping in forested wetlands and their
                       effects on water quality was undertaken at sites along the Chickahominy River in southeastern Virginia. Initial
                       study results show that rates of sediment deposition along the River between Richmond and Providence
                       Forge, as determined from growth-ring analysis of excavated trees, differed in forested wetlands. These rates
                       are related to stream gradient, stream power, percent wetlands, hydroperiod, and land use. Sedimentation
                       rates are higher along broad, flat-gradient reaches with low stream power and high percentages of mapped
                       wetlands(extended hydroperiod) than along relatively steep gradient reaches with high steam power and low
                       percentages of wetlands. Sedimentation rates are highest (5.7 mm/yr) downstream from urban-industrial
                       areas (Hupp et al. 1993).

                       The above study shows that substantial amounts of sediment and trace elements (i.e. zinc, cadmium, lead,
                       copper, chromium, tin and nickel) are trapped in forested wetlands near Richmond, which supports the
                       contention that forested wetlands improve water quality downstream from urbanized areas. Trace-element
                       concentrations are clearly related to sediment deposition and distance from urban sources and are highest
                       where sedimentation is highest (Hupp et al., 1993).

                       Flood Storage
                       In'comparison with upland ecosystems, basin-type forested wetlands may conserve water by reducing
                       evapotranspiration rates. Basin forests also affect runoff by reducing peak flows, retarding the time to peak
                       flow, and increasing the magnitude and length of base flow conditions. The storage capacity of the flooded
                       area determines how much peak flow will be retarded. On a regional level, the area of wetlands in
                       catch ments, as well as their storage capacity, determines the overall effect wetlands have on stream and flood
                       flows. An analysis of the flood characteristics of streams in Wisconsin suggested that the relative flood flow.
                       was curvilinearly related to the relative area of wetlands and lakes within the catchments. Although the
                       analysis was based on a theoretical reduction in wetland and lake area, the analysis suggested that with only

                                                                              24

                      40% of the catchment area composed of wetlands and lakes, flood flows were reduced to 20% of those for
                      catchments without wetlands. Flood flows were reduced by 50% with as little as 5% of the catchment in
                      wetlands. (Ecosystems of the World: Forested Wetlands, 1990).

                      Quality of Surface and-Ground Water
                      A study in Ma *ryland found that forested wetlands act as a buffer between the upland watersheds and the
                      bogs. Weekly samples of surface and/or interstitial water were collected from six bogs and contiguous
                      forested wetlands in Maryland to determine what changes in eight water quality parameters' (i.e. pH, ammonia,
                      nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, calcium, potassium, and dissolved organic matter) occurred as water moved into
                      and through the upstream forested wetland and into and through the bogs. Only one bog contained AWC.
                      The forested wetlands were dominated by red maple, sweet bay and black gum. The other objective of the
                      study was to identify water quality parameters that could be used to monitor potential changes that might
                      occur in the bogs as a result of upstream watershed development. Calcium and pH were found to be important
                      at three sites. Three forms of inorganic nitrogen were important at the most eutrophic site, while phosphorus
                      and ammonia were    important at another site (Whigham/ Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium 1984).

                      Values and Functions of the Total Wetland or Wetland Complex
                      Freshwater wetlands, including forested wetlands, are part of the biosphere, and play roles that in many
                      respects we do not yet comprehend. One general wetland attribute, which on a global basis may prove to be
                      very important, is that wetlands are among the few chemically reducing ecosystems which are closely coupled
                      with the atmosphere. Thus, they may play a major role in atmospheric chemistry. We do know that fluxes
                      of methane and carbon dioxide are associated with wetlands, although there is very little quantitative
                      information on just how important the wetlands may be in their contribution as sources or sinks of these gases.
                      It is also evident that wedands may be very active with respect to several additional atmosphedc trace tests,
                      some of which are important to the greenhouse effect, to the atmospheric deposition problem, or to the ozone
                      question. These gases include nitrous oxide, carbonyl sulfide(potentially one of the most important sulfur
                      gases to atmospheric sulfur chemistry), and dimethyl sulfide (Hemond/Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands
                      Symposium 1984).

                      Strong evidence about the chtical role of riparian forests play in stream ecosystems has emerged in a recent
                      1993 research study. The physical and.ecological characteristics of headwater streams that had two different
                      types of riparian cover-second growth forest and grassy meadows--were compared. The first and second
                      order streams used in the study were located in the White Clay Creek watershed in the Piedmont of
                      Pennsylvania. It was observed that the channels of headwater streams with forest cover were about 2.5 times
                      wider than those with only grass cover. This "stream narrowing" associated with headwater streams without
                      riparian forest cover was attributed to the formation and slumping of grass sod from the banks that gradually
                      encroached into the channel. The channel gradually narrowed in width and became deeper.

                      The ecological consequences associated with stream narrowing were as follows. Fifty-four percent less
                      surface area was present on the stream bottom to support the benthic habitat needed for aquatic organisms.
                      Also, forested streams had 7.5 times as much woody debris and 27 times as much total snag volume in their
                      channels compared to streams without forest cover. Debris and snags are extremely valuable habitat areas
                      for many aquatic insects and help he stream retain more of its organic matter inputs. Thirty-eight times more
                      leaf litter and fine woody debris were present in forested streams, as compared to those with only grass or
                      meadow cover. The greater retention of organic matter in forested streams is of critical significance because
                      leaf litter serves as an important energy source in the aquatic food web.

                      The wider and shallower channels of forested streams had nearly 17 times more wetted rock area than the
                      deeper and narrower meadow streams. Submerged cobbles and rock surfaces are where aquatic insects
                      cling to avoid high water velocity. Exposed rocks are sites where aquatic insects emerge to begin the aerial
                      phase of their life cycle. Reduced wetted rock area results in poorer habitat for aquatic insects.

                                                                            25

                      The study also found that shade to streams provided by forest cover resulted in water temperatures in
                      forested streams that were much cooler (an average of four degrees C) than meadow streams. Aquatic
                      ecosystems in headwater streams without forested cover have reduced diversity and productivity (Center for
                      Watershed Protection, Technical Note 14, 1994).

                      Impacts to Nearby Wetlands an       d Surface Waters
                      One consequence of the intense development in the Northeast has been forest fragmentation, or breaking
                      up of large contiguous tracts of woodland into smaller and smaller pieces. This lessens the overall habitat
                      value of an area by excluding certain species (i.e. deer, mink, river otter and long-tailed weasel) that have
                      larger home'ranges and are more sensitive to human disturbance. Habitat fragmentation also creates easier
                      access to nests and young by predators such as fox and skunk, and allows nest parasitism by brown-headed
                      cowbirds. The decline of forest interior birds (i.e. warblers, vireos, thrushes) that nest exclusively in large,
                      undisturbed tracts of woodland, has been in part attributed to fragmentation of Northeast forests (Pedevillano
                      1995).

                                                                             26

                                                    BIBLIOGRAPHY - RED MAPLE SWAMPS

                    Golet, F.C., J.K. Aram,.K. Calhoun, E.R. DeRagon, D.J. Lowry, and A.J. Gold. 1993. Ecology of Red Maple
                            Swamps in the Glaciated Northeast: A Community Profile. US Fish and Wildlife Service Biological
                            Report 12. 151 pp.

                                             BIBLIOGRAPHY - ATLANTIC WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS

                    Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands Symposium. October 1984:
                            Laderman, A.D., F.C. Golet, B.A. Sorrie, and H.L. Woolsey. Atlantic White Cedar in the Glaciated
                                     Northeast. pp. 19-33.
                            Whigham, D.F. Water Quality Studies of Six Bogs on the Inner Coastal Plain of Maryland. pp. 85-
                                     90.
                            Golet, F.C. and D.J. Lowry. Water Regimes and Tree Growth in Rhode Island Atlantic White Cedar
                                     Swamps. pp. 91 -110.
                            Laderman, A.D. Taxonomic Clustering of the Algae in a Chamaecyparis Glacial Kettle. pp. 193-214.
                            Terwilliger, K. Breeding Birds of Two Atlantic White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) Stands in the
                                     Great Dismal Swamp.
                            Miller, D., L. Gradischer, J. Orzel, W. Leak, and E. Miller. Changes in Vegetation and Breeding
                                     Bird Use in an Atlantic White Cedar Swamp from 1951 to 1984. pp. 229-230.
                            Frost, C.C. Historical Overview of Atlantic White Cedar in the Carolinas. pp. 257-264.
                            Mavor, J.W. Jr., and B.E. Dix. New England Cedar Wetlands In Native American Ritual. pp. 265-
                                     270.
                            Scchneider, J.P. and J.G. Ehrenfeld. Suburban Development and Cedar Swamps: Effects on Water
                                     Quality, Water Quantity, and Plant Community Composition. pp. 271-288.
                            Zampella, R.A. Atlantic White Cedar Management in the New Jersey Pinelands. pp. 295-316.

                            Hemond, H. Hydrologic and Biogeochemical Problems in Wetlands Research: Some Proposed
                                     Approaches. pp. 367-370.
                            Appendix A - Flora Associated with Chamaecyparis thyoides. pp 385-400.

                    Center for Watershed Protection. 1994. Technical Note 22. Loss of White Cedar in New Jersy Pinelands
                            Linked to Stormwater Runoff. Watershed Protection Techniques Vol. 1, No. 2. pp.79-80.

                    Eckert, R.T. 1988(?). Population Genetics of Northern Populations of Atlantic White Cedar (Chamaecyparis
                            thyoides (L.) B.S.P.). Department of Forest Resources, University of New Hampshire. 11 pp.

                    Laderman, A.D. 1989. The Ecology of the Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands: A Community Profile. US Fish
                            and Wildlife Service Biol. Rep. 85(7.21). 114 pp.

                    Rigg, G.B. 1940. The Development of Sphagnum Bogs in North America. The Botanical Review. 6: 666-
                            693.
                    Sperduto, D.D. and N. Ritter. 1994. Atlantic White Cedar Wetlands of New Hampshire. NH Natural Heritage
                            Program, Dept. of Resources and Economic Development. 97 pp.

                                                    BIBLIOGRAPHY - FORESTED WETLANDS

                      Center for Watershed Protection. 1994. Technical Note 14. Impact of Riparian Forest Cover on Mid-Atlantic
                              Stream Ecosystems. Watershed Protection Techniques Vol. 1, No. 1. pg. 29.

                      Forested Wetlands (Ecosystems of the World      15). 1990. Lugo, A.E., M. Brinson, and S. Brown, editors.
                              Elsevier Science Publishing Company Inc., New York. pp. 25-199.

                      Firth, P.L. and K.L. Hooker. 1989. Plant Community Structure in Disturbed and Undisturbed Forested
                              Wetlands. Wetlands: Concerns and Successes. American Water Resources Association Symposium
                              Proceedings. pp. 101-113.

                      Hupp, C.R. M.D. Woodside, and T.M. Yanosky. 1993. Sediment and Trace Element Trapping in a Forested
                              Wetland, Chickahominy River, Virginia. Wetlands, Vol. 13, No. 2. pp. 95-104.

                      Pedevillano, C. 1995. Habitat Values of New England Wetlands. US Fish and Wildlife Service and US Army
                              Corps of Engineers. 24 pp.

                      Swift, B.L. 1980. Breeding Bird Habitats in Forested Wetlands of West-Central Massachusetts. Thesis
                              Project. Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Massachusetts. 80 pp.

                      Teskey, R.O., and T.M. Hinckley. 1977. Impact of Water Level Changes on Woody Riparian and Wetland
                              Communities. Vol. 1: Plant and Soil Responses to Flooding. US Fish and Wildlife Service Biological
                              Report FWS/OBS-77/58. pp. 1-30.

                                                                                      3,.,6668 14109 2454.