[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

















                  HISTORICAL WETLANDS OF MICEIGAM'S COASTAL ZONE
                             AND SOUTHEASTERN LAKEPLAIN










                                          4.










                                    prepared by


                        Michigan Natural Features Inventory
                              Natural Heritage Program
                              Sth Floor Mason Building
                             Box 30028 Lansing MI 48909


                         Patrick Comer, Associate Ecologist
                          Dennis Albert, Program Ecologist
                         Lyn Scringer, Information Manager
                  Teresa Leibfried, Assistant Information Manager
                          David Schuen, Ecology Assistant
                          Heather Jones, Ecology Assistant


                                        for

                         Land and Water Management Division
                                 (CZM Project 309-5)

                               Submitted March, 1993












                                     TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                                            page
          LIST OF TABLES  ..............................................      ii


          LIST OF FIGURES  ............................................      iii


          ABSTRACT  ....................................................      iv


          INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW   ...................................       1


          METHODS  .....................................................        6


          MAP PRODUCTION  ..............................................        6
          MAP DIGITIZING  ..............................................      13


          RESULTS AND DISCUSSION   ......I ................................   16


          SAMPLE MAP PRODUCTS AND SELECTED RESTORATION PROJECTS        ....... 18


          SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP, MONROE COUNTY     .........................   19
          RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES   ...................................     23
          MONROE COUNTY   ...............................................     24
          WETLAND INVENTORY APPLICATIONS     ..............................   28
          OTHER ANALYSES    .............................................     30
          RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES   ...................................     32


          OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL WETLANDS IN
          MICHIGAN'S COASTAL ZONE    .....................................    35


          ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS   ............................................     101


          LITERATURE CITED  ...........................................      101-


          APPENDIX 1: INDEX TO MICHIGAN 7.5 MINUTE
          TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS WHERE HISTORICAL WETLAND
          MAPS ARE AVAILABLE IN DIGITAL FORMAT     .......................   106


          MONROE COUNTY, SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP,
          PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION
          (SCALE 1:24,000 OVERLAY)   .................  (pocket in back panel)
     V9-
















                                    LIST OF TABLES


                                                                       page
         1. Tree species abbreviation, alias, comments,
              and scientific name  ....................................   8

         2. Expanded MIRIS and wetland grade codes
              for historical wetland maps   ............................ 12

         3. Layer information for historical wetlands
              files in MIRIS  ......................................... 16

         4. Summary of Presettlement Cover Types of
              Summerfield Township; and acreages of each
              grade for current condition of wetland types   ........... 22

         5. Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS)
              for Summerfield Township   ............................... 22

         6. Summary of Presettlement Cover Types
              of Monroe County, and acreages of each
              grade for current condition of each
              wetland type  ........................................... 27

         7. Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS)
              for Monroe County  ...................................... 27

         8. Summary of Presettlement Vegetation along
              Saginaw Bay in portions of Bay and Tuscola
              counties, and acreages by current grade
              for wetland types ...... ...............................  32

         9. Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan,
              Regions I and II  ....................................... 37

         10.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan,
              Regions III and IV  ..................................... 39

















                                      LIST OF FIGURES


                                                                           page
          1. Township sketch map of the General Land Office surveys
                in Keweenaw County, Michigan    ..........................    3

          2. Sample page of transcribed GLO field notes from
                Southwestern Michigan   .................................     7

          3. Summerfield Township, Presettlement Vegetation      .......... 20

          4. Summerfield Township, Present Land Cover      ................ 21

          5. Private tracts associated with Petersburg
                State Game Area with potential
                for prairie restoration    ...............................  25

          6. Monroe County, Presettlement Vegetation      ................. 26

          7. Monroe County, Historical Prairies      ...................... 29

          8. Saginaw Bay Shoreline (Bay and Tuscola counties)
                Presettlement Vegetation   .......o  .............o ........ 31

          9. 1992 Plat: map for tracts surrounding the
                Quanicassee Wildlife Area, Bay County, Michigan      ....... 34

          10.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan,
                Regions I and II  ............. o.....................    o..36

          11.Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan,
                Regions III and IV  ..........................   o......... 38



















                                              ABSTRACT

                 In 1992, a one year project to map the historical wetlands of Michigan's

           coastal townships was initiated by the Michigan Natural Features Inventory

           (MNFI) and funded through a Michigan Coastal Zone Management grant. The

           southeast Michigan lakeplain, extending up to 35 miles inland (in St. Clair,

           Macomb, Wayne, Monroe, Washtenaw, and Lenawee counties) was also included.

           Information from the transcribed field notes and township plat maps of the

           General Land office surveys conducted between 1816 and 1856 was used to locate

           and identify historical wetlands and surrounding upland vegetation types along

           section lines as they existed prior to wide-spread European settlement. This

           information was placed on mylar overlays of USGS topographic maps. Great

           Lakes shoreline boundaries, natural disturbances, and cultural features were

           also noted on the mylars. Wetland/vegetation type boundaries were

           interpolated between section lines using elevation lines, surface geology

           maps, soil type maps, MNFI field survey maps, and other vegetation maps where

           available. All mapped information was coded using an expanded version of the

           Michigan Resource Inventory System (MIRIS) cover type code system currently

           Used by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Interpreted maps were

           then digitized for inclusion in the MIRIS database. This report will detail

           the methods Used in map production, focus on the potential uses of this

           information in Monroe County, and along the Saginaw Bay shoreline, then

           provide an overview of Michigan's coastal wetlands from a regional

           perspective.














                                                 iv












                              INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW




              With the loss of an estimated 50% of the state's wetlands, and

         ever increasing pressure on those that remain, the need for

         identifying strategies for wetland protection and restoration is

         greater than ever. Nowhere in Michigan is this more urgent than in

         the Great Lakes coastal zone and southeastern lakeplain, where both

         historical wetland losses and current land use pressures reach some

         of their highest levels.         The resulting wildlife habitat

         degradation and implications for Great Lakes water quality demand

         investment.in wetland protection and restoration.

              An understanding of the type, location, and ecological context

         of Michigan's historical wetlands is critical to the development of

         ecologically meaningful wetland mitigation and restoration.

         Estimates of the loss of different wetland types in different

         ecological regions of the state may be determined by comparing

         historical and current data. And very importantly, an historical

         database could be used as a reference point for addressing the

         immediate problem of cumulative impacts to wetlands due to

         fragmentation, degradation, and conversion. Patterns we see today

         in wetland hydrology, biodiversity, and ecosystem function will

         undoubtedly be more meaningful when placed in a historical context.

              The   only    state-wide   attempt   at   mapping    Michigan's

         presettlement vegetation was completed by J.0. Veatch (1959).

         Veatch utilized soils maps as a primary reference for determining

         presettlement vegetation.    He utilized various other sources - as

         well, including local histories, botanical publications, and
                                          1









         writings from the early explorers. These maps (scale 1:500,000) do

         not identify specific wetlands, but provides an overall sense of

         tree species expected within a given township. Comparison of these

         maps with General Land Office surveys have indicated high levels of

         inaccuracy in portions of the state.

              the township sketch maps and transcribed f ield notes of    the

         original land surveys conducted between 1816 and 1855 by         the

         General Land Office provide the best available record on the pre-

         European-settlement landscape of Michigan (Bourdo 1956).        This

         square mile grid of the state surveyed during the establishment of

         36 square mile townships provides a framework for this database.

         The township sketch maps vary considerably in their quality. They

         were produced at the time of the surveys without the benefit of a

         topographic map.    Maps produced in early years of the surveys

         (southern, Lower Michigan) contain little information, often

         limited to lakes and streams.        As the surveys progressed,

         increasingly more information was included. Those produced in the

         upper peninsula (Figure 1) include much information on wetland

         location and dominant tree species.        Trygg (1964) produced

         composite maps for the Upper Midwest using these township sketch

         maps. His maps differentiate between prairie, marsh, bottom lands,

         and swamp. But, they do not indicate the dominant tree species of

         the swamps. He completed no maps for southern, Lower Michigan, due

         to the lack of information included.

              Although survey methods saw minor modifications during the

         course of the Michigan surveys, the transcribed surveyors notes are


                                          2








                   Figure 1: Tovnship sketch map of the General Land Office surveys in
                                        Keveenav County, Michigan.





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                                                                                      3









         much more consistent in quality throughout the state.      Surveyors

         were instructed to note the occurrence of wetlands, comment on the

         agricultural. potential of soils, and note the quantity and quality

         of timber resources as they were encountered along each section

         line (Caldwell 1990). Surveyors used trees at each section corner

         and half-mile post as "witness trees". Wherever trees were noted,

         their species and diameters were included.       Tree species and

         diameters were also noted when they occurred along the section

         lines. At corner and half-mile posts, witness trees were selected

         from the closest tree to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and

         southwest quadrants. Often just two trees were marked and noted at

         each section corner. The exact bearing and distance between each

         witness tree at the corner and half-mile posts were also recorded.

         Natural disturbances, such as recent fires, windthrows, and beaver

         floodings were also recorded along the section lines, as were

         various cultural features, either of Native American origin, or

         early European settlers.

              These detailed records formed the basis for the development of

         these historical wetland maps.    The maps were compiled by plant

         ecologists familiar with the tree species, surface geology, and

         soils of Michigan's natural communities.

              This report will discuss the methods used in map production

         and explore ways they can be utilized as tools for wetland

         protection and restoration.     The final section will provide a

         regional overview of presettlement vegetation types and related

         natural processes in Michigan's coastal zone.


                                          4












                                      METHODS


         MAP PRODUCTION


              The transcribed field notes of the General Land Office (GLO)

         surveys were made available to our mapping team by the State

         Archives of Michigan. Township sketch maps produced by surveyors

         were copied from microfilm available from the MDNR Real Estate

         Division. Matte mylar (1811x 2411) was attached to 7.5 minute USGS

         topographic maps, which for Michigan, are available in 1:24,000

         and 1:25,000 scales. A scale indicating chains (1 chain = 20

         meters; 80 chains per mile) was used for precise measurements

         along each section line.

              All information extracted from the GLO survey notes and maps

         appear on the mylar overlays and map borders. Information in the

         GLO notes are organized in a systematic pattern reflecting the

         measurement of each section line in the township (Figure 2).

         From a given corner point, comments are made along the next mile

         as it is measured out. Usually, wherever a feature is mentioned,

         the distance (in chains) along the line is noted as well.

              Common names of tree species were abbreviated to 3-4 letter

         combinations (Table 1). Several species were noted more

         generically than others. For example "elm" I "ashil, and "maple"

         were commonly used without distinguishing the two or three native

         species that could have been encountered. Published floras and

         several other sources (Hutchinson 1988) were reviewed to

         determine which old common names referred to which tree species;

         (e.g. "spruce pine" = jack pine, "yellow pine" = red pine). Tree


                                         5









            FIGURE 2: Sample page of transcribed GLO field notes   from
                                Southwest Michigan.



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                                         6











                            TABLE 1: TREE SPECIES ABBREVIATION, ALIAS, COMMENTS, AND SCIENTIFIC NAME

                ABBREV        SPECIES                 ALIAS                  COMMENTS                       SCIENTIFIC NAME

                ALD           SPECKLED ALDER                                                                Alnus rugosa
                APPLE         APPLE                                                                         Malus spp.
                ASH           ASH                                            WHITE, BLACK, OR RED           Fraxinus spp.
                ASP           ASPEN                                          QUAKING OR BIG TOOTH           Populus spp.
                B ASH         BLACK       ASH                                                               Fraxinus nigra
                B POP         BALSAM POPLAR           BALM OF GILEAD                                        Populus batsamifera
                B WALN        BLACK WALNUT                                                                  Juglans nigra
                BCH           BEECH                                                                         Fagus grandifolia
                BL ASH        BLUE ASH                                                                      Fraxinus quadrangulata
                BL BCH        BLUE BEECH              MUSCLE WOOD                                           Carpinus caroliniana
                BO            BLACK OAK               SOMETIMES YELLOW OAK PROB. INCLUDES                   Quercus velutina
                                                                             PIN OAK ON LAKEPLAIN
                BRCH          BIRCH                                                                         Betula spp.
                CED           CEDAR                                                                         Thuja occidentalis
                CHER          CHERRY                                                                        Prunus serotina
                COTN          COTTONWOOD                                                                    Populus deltoides
                ELM           ELM                     AMERICAN OR                                           Ulmus spp.
                                                      SLIPPERY
                FIR           BALSAM      FIR                                                               Abies baqlsamea
                G HEM         CANADA      YEW         GROUND HEMLOCK                                        Taxus canadensis
                GRAPE         GRAPEVINE                                                                     Vitis spp.
                GUM           BLACK GUM               PEPPERIDGE                                            Nyssa sylvatica
                HACK          HACKBERRY                                                                     Celtis occidentalis
                HAZL          WITCH HAZEL                                                                   Hamamelis virginiana
                HCK           HICKORY                                                                       Carya spp.
                HEM           HEMLOCK                                                                       Tsuga canadensis
                IRON          IRONWOOD                HORNBEAM                                              Ostrya virginiana
                LYN           BASSWOOD                                                                      Tilia americans
                PIN           PIN OAK                 JACK OAK               CONSISTANT USE                 Quercus patustris
                                                                             UNCERTAIN
                POPL          BIG TOOTH ASPEN POPLAR                                                        Populus grandidentata
                PR ASH        PRICKLY ASH                                                                   Zanthoxylurn americanum
                Q ASP         QUAKING ASPEN                                                                 Populus tremuloides
                R BUD         RED BUD                                                                       Cercis canadensis
                RO            RED OAK                                        N.PIN OAK ALSO                 Quercus rubra
                                                                             IN U.P.
                S MAPL        SOFT MAPLE              RED MAPLE OR                                          Acer spp.
                                                      SILVER MAPLE
                SAS           SASSAFRAS                                                                     Sassafras albidum
                SM            SUGAR MAPLE             SUGAR, HARD MAPLE                                     Acer saccharum
                SP            JACK PINE               SPRUCE PINE                                           Pinus banksiana
                SPICE         SPICEBUSH                                                                     Lindera benzoin
                SPR           SPRUCE                                                                        Picea spp.
                SWO           SWAMP WHITE  OAK        SWAMP OAK                                          Quercus bicolor
                SYC           SYCAMORE                                                                     Platanus occidentalis
                TAN           TAMARACK                TAMARACH                                              Larix Laricina
                THORN         HAWTHORN                THORN                                                 Zrayaegus spp.
                WEIRCH        WHITE BIRCH                                                                   Betula papyrifera
                WMAPL         SILVER MAPLE                                   USE NOT                        Acer saccharinum
                                                                             CONSISTANT
                WSPR          WHITE SPRUCE                                                                  Picea glauca
                WIL           WILLOW                                                                        Salix spp.
                WO            WHITE OAK                                                                     Quercus alba
                WP            WHITE PINE              PINE                                                  Pinus strobus
                WTWD          TULIP TREE              WHITEWOOD,                                            Liriodendron tulipifera
                                                      BUTTONWOOD (?)
                W WALN        BUTTERNUT               WHITE WALNUT                                          Juglans cinerea
                Y BRCH        YELLOW BIRCH                                                             Betula alleghaniensis
                YO            CHINQUAPIN OAK          YELLOW OAK             POSSIBLY                       Quercus muehlenbergii
                                                                             BLACK OAK
                YP            RED PINE                YELLOW PINE                                       Pinus resinosa





                                                                          7










         abbreviations reflect the common name used by the surveyors.

Ilk
         Tree abbreviations and diameter at breast height (DBH), were

         located along each section line at the approximate distance (in

         chains) where they were mentioned in the notes. At each section

         corner, tree abbreviations, DBH, bearing, and distances were

         noted. Surveyor's comments were added at the end of each section

         line. They often included a ranked list of tree species,
31       impressions of soil character, and drainage characteristics.

         These comments, where they added significant ecological

         information, were copied to the mylars in quotes along the

         section line. Wetland boundaries were located along each section

         line with the township sketch maps and/or at the chain distance

         mentioned in the notes. The township sketch maps were found to

         compare accurately with the chain distances mentioned in the

         field notes. The same was true for the locations of natural

         disturbances such as windthrows and recent fires. The exception

         to this was where topography was very steep, as along sand dunes,

         steep ravines, and in some drumlin fields.

                The wetland boundaries were interpolated between section

         lines primarily by using elevation lines on the topographic maps.

         Soil Survey maps (USDA, various dates) and Soil and Lay of the

         Land maps (Michigan Land Economic Survey 1925) were found to be

         helpful in some circumstances where wetland soils could be

         clearly distinguished and wetlands appeared to cross elevation

         lines. The presettlement vegetation map of Brewer et.al. (1984)

         was utilized in the interpretation of vegetation types along the

                                         8









         southwestern. Michigan shoreline. There were cases where

         surveyors did not note their entrance and exit from a forested

         wetland, but instead noted in their comments that the 11 ... last

         mile, wet". These situations were most common on flat topography

         where the land was likely a mosaic of uplands and wetlands. When

         this occurred, the forested wetland boundary was interpreted more

         generally, using the comments and noted tree species that were

         encountered along the section line.    Likewise, boundaries of

         upland cover types were established using the dominant tree

         species and associated landform and soil types. Boundaries in

         several complex wetland areas of the Upper Peninsula were

         established using 1986 aerial photography. MNFI data from field

         surveys of Great Lakes Marshes and Wooded Dune and Swale

         Complexes were used to clarify wetland boundaries in sampled

         areas. Great Lakes shoreline boundaries were interpreted from

         points of intersection with section lines and the prevailing

         orientation of current shorelines (where not obviously

         manipulated artificially). Surveyor's notes on meanders along

         the shoreline were not used, since normal water level

         fluctuations resulted in inconsistencies along the shoreline,

         depending on the year of the survey. Boundaries for natural

         disturbances were interpolated between section lines taking

         topography and likely fire breaks into account. Cultural

         features, both Native American and early European, were placed on

         the mylars as mentioned in the notes.

                 Because of the amount of information provided on the


                                          9









         township maps for the Upper Peninsula townships, these maps were

         utilized as the primary information source in those areas. These

         township maps were enlarged to a scale of 1:48,000 (half the

         scale of the 7.5 minute topographic maps). The points where

         wetland boundaries intersected section lines were then easily and

         accurately transferred to the mylars. The notes on vegetation

         composition present on the township maps was used to code uplands

         and wetlands. Additional information on these maps was obtained
MW
         by recording surveyor's section line information along only the

         township boundaries and selected wetland areas. Vegetation type

         boundaries were interpolated between section lines in the same

         manner as described for Lower Peninsula townships.

                The cover type codes used in the Michigan Resource

         Inventory System (MIRIS) were utilized, in an expanded form, to

         identify the various cover types, natural disturbances, and

         cultural features, as they could be distinguished from the GLO

         notes. MIRIS codes at the four digit level identify the dominant

         species and not necessarily the only species present.     The

         MIRIS code system was expanded to capture the complexity of

         upland and wetland communities known to occur in the pre-

         settlement landscape that were distinguishable in the survey

         notes (Table 2).

                Mapped wetlands were graded according to the level of

         degradation apparent from the topographic maps (Table 2).

         original project plans included the analysis of aerial photos to

         establish this grade. But, given that these maps were last


                                        10












                   Table 2s EXPANDED MIRIS AND WETLAND GRADE CODES FOR HISTORICAL WETLANDS MAPS


                 PALUSTRINE                                                                    TERRESTRIAL



                 62 NON-FORESTED WETLAND                                                       3 NONFORESTED (grassland - savanna)

                           622 EMERGENT    MARSH/MEADOW/PRAIRIE                                     31 HERBACEOUS - UPLAND GRASSLAND
                                                                                                    32 SHRUB - SHRUB SAVANNA
                                     6221  EMERGENT MARSH                                           33 TREE SAVANNA
                                     6222  GREAT LAKES MARSH                                               331  LAKEPLAIN OAK OPENING
                                     6223  INTERDUNAL WETLAND                                              332  OAK BARRENS
                                     6224  WET MEADOW                                                      333  PINE BARRENS
                                     6225  INLAND SALT MARSH                                               334  OAK/PINE BARRENS
                                     6226  LAKEPLAIN PRAIRIE                                               335  SUR OAK SAVANNA
                                     6227  INLAND WET PRAIRIE                                  4 FORESTED
                                                                                                           411  NORTHERN HARDWOODS
                           623 MUD FLATS                                                                          4111 S.MAPLE, BEECH
                                     6231 KARL FLATS                                                              4119 BEECH, HEMLOCK
                                                                                                           412  CENTRAL HARDWOODS
                           612 SHRUB-DOMINATED WETLAND                                                            4121  BEECH, S. MAPLE,
                                     6121 BOG                                                                           BASSWOOD, R.OAK
                                     6122 ALDER/WILLOW/BOG BIRCH THICKET                                          4122  WHITE OAK, HICKORY
                                     6123 BUTTONBUSH/DOGWOOD/WILLOW SWAMP                                               BLACK OAK
                                     6124 PATTERNED PEATLAND                                                      4123  BLACK OAK, W. OAK,
                                                                                                                  4124  PIN/BLACK OAK
                 91 LANDSCAPE COMPLEX                                                                      413 ASPEN/WHITE BIRCH
                           911 WOODED DUNE/SWALE COMPLEX                                                   414 LOWLAND HARDWOODS
                                                                                                           421 PINE
                                                                                                                  4211  WHITE PINE
                                                                                                                  4212  RED PINE
                 4 FORESTED WETLAW                                                                                4213  JACK PINE
                                                                                                                  4215  RED PINE/JACK PINE
                           41 HARDWOOD/CONIFER - HARDWOODS PREDOMINATING                                          4216  RED PINE/WHITE PINE
                                                                                                                  4217  WHITE PINE/WHITE OAK
                             414 LOWLAND HARDWOOD (BROADLEAF)                                              422 OTHER UPLAND CONIFER
                                     4141  ASH                                                                    4221  WHITE SPRUCE
                                     4142  ELM                                                                    4223  BALSAM FIR/SPRUCE/
                                     4143  SILVER/RED MAPLE                                                             CEDAR (BOREAL)
                                     41"   COTTONWOOD                                                             4226  HEMLOCK
                                     4145  BALSAM POPLAR                                                          4227  HEMLOCK/WHITE PINE
                                     4146  ASPEN                                                                  4228  HEMLOCK/S.MAPLE
                                     4147  WHITE BIRCH
                                     4148  BLACK  WILLOW                                       OPEN, LITTLE/NO VEGETATION

                           42 HARDWOOD/CONIFER - CONIFERS PREDOMINATING                             72 BEACH, RIVERBANK
                                                                                                    73 OPEN SAND DUNE
                             423 LOWLAND CONIFER                                                    74 EXPOSED BEDROCK
                                     4231  CEDAR                                                           741 ALVAR
                                     4232  BLACK SPRUCE                                                    742 BEDROCK GLADE
                                     4233  TAMARACK                                                        743 SINKHOLE
                                     4234  BALSAM FIR/WHITE SPRUCE                                         744 LIMESTONE LEDGE/OUTCROP
                                     4235  BALSAM FIR                                                      745 SANDSTONE LEDGE/OUTCROP
                                     4236  JACK PINE
                                     4237  HEMLOCK


                 LACUSTRINE
                                                                                               NATU1RAL DISTURBANCE CULTURAL FEATURES
                           51        14AJOR RIVER
                           52        LAKE OR POND                                                   92  WILDFIRE
                           54        GREAT LAKES                                                    93  WINDTHROW
                                                                                                    94  BEAVER FLOODING
                 WETLAND   GRADE:                                                                   95  IMPACTS OF GREAT LAKES WATER
                                                                                                           LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
                           I = INTACT; well buffered, no manipulations.                             96  CULTURAL FEATURES (both Native
                           D = DEGRADED; tacking complete buffer.                                        American and early European)
                           N = MANIPULATED; any activity effecting hydrology.
                           E = ELIMINATED; all or most of area gone.








         updated with the 1978 aerial photographs, the vast majority of

         wetland manipulations are visible from the maps alone. More

         recent photo imagery was used in Oceana and Grand Traverse

         counties, where recent development has been most dramatic, and in

         the analysis, of specific restoration projects. The wetland grade

         codes include:

              I for intact; signifying a well buffered (>100 meters),
                   undisturbed wetland;
              D for degraded; signifying an incomplete buffer;

              M for manipulated; signifying some man-made alteration that
                   could effect the hydrology of the wetland, e.g. roads,
                   drains, upstream impoundments etc.
              E for eliminated; signifying the apparent complete (or
                   nearly complete) destruction of the wetland, also
                   applied to drained marshes that are now apparently
                   upland forest.


         The original, project plans also included a code to distinguish

         the source of degradation, i.e. agriculture, impoundments, urban

         development, etc. This was found to be extremely difficult in

         that many very large wetlands were degraded by many different

         activities. The coding system established summarizes the most

         important information necessary for regional planning purposes.




         MAP DIGITIZING

         Once cover type boundaries had been interpreted and codes were

         assigned to all cover types, the maps were proofed and then

         digitized using MicroStation software. Cover type boundaries and

         associated codes were digitized.   To avoid cluttering the final

         digitized maps, surveyors comments were included (in quotes) only

         where they added significant information to the final map product.

                                         12









          For example,, if the surveyors commented on a wet prairie f our times

          in the course of traversing it, one comment, or a composite of the

          various comments was included in the digitized map.        For most

          broadly defined upland cover types (such as Northern Hardwoods), a

          ranked species list was included on each topographic map in order

          to reflect the relative composition of tree species for that local

          area. Where wetlands clearly including a mixture of a number of

          tree species with no clear dominant, a short, ranked list of

          species was included. An example in this case would be a swamp

          dominated by three conifer species.     This area would be given a

          three digit code 324 (indicating Lowland Conifer), and a ranked

          list of those species would appear as text.

               During the digitizing process, current MIRIS cover types were

          brought up on the screen for direct comparisons with the historical

          interpretations.   For wetlands that were traversed by surveyors

          (those intersecting section lines), if there was disagreement

          between historical interpretation and current cover type, the

          historical interpretation was maintained.     For apparently intact

          wetlands occurring entirely within the interior portions of a

          section, the MIRIS code was adopted for the historical map.        In

          these cases, below the code a (MIRIS) notation will appear,

          indicating the source of that information. The same is true for

          other portions of the state where sources other than the GLO notes

          were used to determine the historical vegetation type. The name

          and date of that source appears in parentheses.

               Digitized maps are stored in the MIRIS system in files


                                           13









         organized by, county. Table 3 indicates the layers in MIRIS where

         digitized information is stored. Any combination of these layers

         may be turned "on" or "off" depending on the type of information

         desired by the user.

              GIS processing was completed for maps included in this report

         with Modular GIS Environment (MGE PC-1). Calculated acreages for

         historical cover types were then comparable with those of current

         cover types on file with MIRIS for Michigan counties and townships.





































                                         14











         Table 3: LAYER INFORMATION FOR HISTORICAL WETLANDS FILES IN MIRIS.


           LAYER            DESCRIPTION

             1      linework (land cover)

             2      code (MIRIS/MNFI land cover)

             3      text (select GLO comments)

             4      Source (MIRIS), (Anderson, 1817), (MNFI, 1987),
             5      text (More GLO, comments for Lenawee, Monroe, Waynef
                    and Macomb counties.)

             6      wetland grade (E,M,D,or I)

             7      wildfire lines 119211

             8      windthrow lines 119311

             9      beaver flooding lines 119411

            10      shoreline fluctuation 119511

            11      Cultural Features (Native American or early
                    European 119611
            12      Native American/early European trails
            13      landscape complex 1191111

            14      county border
            15      label for 92,  wildfire
            16      label  for 93, windthrow
            17      label  for 94, beaver flooding
            18      label  for 95, Great Lakes fluctuation

            19      label  for 96, cultural features
            20      label  for 911 landscape complex
            21      grade  for 911 landscape complex
            38      quad tics
            39      quad lines
            40      quad names

            63      section lines







                                            15











                               RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


              There are limitations associated with the use of the General

         Land Off ice surveys that should be clear to all users of

         interpreted maps. Given that these surveys were not undertaken as

         a scientif ic sample of vegetation, they should clearly not be

         considered as such.      They do, however, provide a wealth of

         information available nowhere else.

              We used records from the original surveys where they had been

         found to be adequate by the Surveyor General. There were a large

         number of townships re-surveyed because the original surveys were

         found to be either very inaccurate or completely fraudulent. In

         these cases, we used the records from the re-surveys completed

         during the 1840's and 1850's. These survey records were found"to

         be quite reliable, in that they corresponded quite well with

         features on current topographic maps. Portions of the state where

         private claims had already become established by 1816 were the most

         difficult areas to map. Surveys records related to these private

         claims are often incomplete and quite difficult to utilize. Survey

         maps from several early roads were found to include useful

         vegetation information for the private claims portions of Monroe

         County (Anderson 1817; Risdon 1828).

              Historical wetland boundaries are most reliable where they

         intersect with the section line. The interpolated boundary line

         between each section line should be considered an approximation

         that could vary on the ground, based on local variation not

         apparent with available topographic and soil maps.


                                          16









              All wetlands explicitly identified along each section line

         were graded based on current condition (I=intact, D=degraded,

         M=manipulated, E=eliminated).       Wetlands with boundaries not

         explicitly mentioned by the surveyors were not given a wetland

         grade.   Boundaries f or these areas, mainly classed as "Lowland

         Hardwoods" and "Lowland Conifer" types were interpreted using tree

         species along each section line, along with surveyors comments,

         such as "part wet", and "swampy, last half mile".        These areas

         tended to occur in a mosaic of upland and wetland, too complex f or

         surveyors to map and distinguish clear boundaries.

               In southern Lower Michigan, the establishment of wetland

         boundaries associated with Lakeplain Oak Openings was also

         problematic. These areas were clearly noted by the surveyors, but

         it is dif f icult to determine the extent of these areas that was

         wetland in character. Lakeplain Oak Openings typically include a

         dry and dry-mesic portion associated with beach ridges on the

         lakeplain (MNFI 1990). However, since they typically graded into

         wet-mesic and wet prairies, a portion would also be considered

         wetland. This should be taken into account when viewing statistics

         related to historical area coverage f or these cover types. Because

         of extensive agricultural drainage over many years, soils maps

         usually do not delineate these areas very well.               Accurate

         calculations of wetland/upland percentages in these areas would

         require detailed on-ground work in locations where they are still

         intact.

               A limited number of trees were noted along each mile-long


                                           17








         section line, so interpretation of boundaries f or these more

         generally defined wetlands and most upland types should be

         recognized in this context.      Historical cover type maps will

         sometimes appear more generalized when overlain with current MIRIS

         cover types. Current MIRIS cover type maps were developed using

         aerial photographs of what is often a highly fragmented modern

         landscape.    We have no equivalent imagery for 1816-1855 cover

         types. MIRIS cover type maps often demonstrate vegetation changes

         that have resulted from historical land management, such as

         drainage, logging, and post-agricultural land use.

              The MIRIS cover type code system was found to be useful when

         expanded to encompass the range of plant communities recognizable

         from the survey record.    The primary weakness of the MIRIS code

         system is that many types were established with forest industry in

         mind. As a result many single species forest types are described,

         when in reality, natural forests are seldom comprised of only one

         species.   The cover type codes on historical wetland maps, when

         taken to the fourth digit, should be interpreted by the user to

         indicate the dominant tree species of the area, not the only tree

         species present.    Users should consult with published reports,

         consultants, etc. for expanded plant and animal species lists which

         would likely be associated with the specific cover type.




                SAMPLE MAP PRODUCTS AND SELECTED RESTORATION PROJECTS

              Presettlement cover type maps can be utilized as a base map

         for understanding historical wetland locations, dominant species


                                          is









         composition, and drainage patterns. This information is vital for

         efficient planning of wetland restoration projects.             Once

         digitized, these maps can be processed in a Geographic Information

         System (GIS) environment. This processing generates a database f or

         information portrayed on the maps, allowing us to query that

         database fox, information useful to our purposes. In this section,

         we will present and discuss various map products and analyses that

         can be completed using this digital database by focusing on

         Summerf ield Township within Monroe County, Monroe County as a

         whole, and a two-county portion of the Saginaw Bay shoreline.



         SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP, MONROE COUNTY

              Summerfield Township, in western Monroe County, provides a

         typical comparison between presettlement and current conditions for

         the southeastern Michigan lakeplain.      Today, land use in this

         township is concentrated in intensive agriculture. The Petersburg

         State Game Area is also included within this township (Figures 3

         and 4).      Tables can be derived from analyses of the of

         presettlement vegetation and current MIRIS cover type maps (Tables

         4 and 5). These tables indicate that agriculture has clearly been

         the dominant. land use and is responsible for the vast majority of

         wetland losses in the township. Excluding historical Oak Openings

         from our calculations, and assuming all current acreages of Lowland

         Hardwoods are in fact wetlands, 15.6% of the 9376 acres of

         presettlement wetlands of Summerfield Township remain in some form.




                                          19















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            TABLE 4: Summary of Presettlement Cover Types of Summerf ield Township, and
                          acreages of each grade for current condition of wetland types.

            Cover Type                   Code     Total Acreage       %     I      D       M      E

            Central Hardwoods
             (Red Oak, Sugar Maple)      4121          4147         17.8
            Central Hardwoods
             (Pin/Black Oak)             4124           362          1.5
            Lakeplain Oak Opening        331           9278         39.9
            Lowland Hardwoods            414           2847         12.2          (no grade given)
            Black Ash Swamp              4141           123          0.5                          123
            Balsam Poplar Swamp          4145           174          0.7                          174
            Lakeplain Prairie            6226          6232         26.8                 1890 4341
            Major River                  51               76         0.3

                                                     T3-,241        99.7



            TABLE 5: Summary of Present Cover/Use Types (MIRIS) for Summerf ield Township.

            Cover Type                                 Code                       Total Acreage

            Urban, Resideiit-ial-                       11                              952
            Commercial, Industrial, etc.                12,13                            96
            Transportation, Communication, etc.         14                              286
            Extractive, open pit                        17                                 8
            Open Land, Cemeteries                       194                                 5
            Agriculture                                 2                             18,234
            Non-Forested, Herbaceous                    31                              123
            Non-Forested, Shrub                         32                              222
            Central Hardwoods                           412                             1845
            Lowland Hardwoods                           414                             1360
            Wetland, Shrub, Scrub                       612                              38
            Wetland, Emergent                           622                              70
            Lake                                        52                               35

                                                                                    TY, 2-7 4



                   Most accurate area comparisons between presettlement and

            current wetlands are derived by comparing presettlement acreages

            with current MIRIS acreages.                      Utilizing the wetland grade

            categories of the presettlement maps may over-estimate current

            wetland acreages because portions of wetlands graded as Degraded

            and/or Manipulated are often now completely eliminated.

                   The remaining wetland acreages as noted by MIRIS are, for the


                                                          22









         most part, remnants of manipulated Lakeplain Prairie located in and

         around the Petersburg State Game Area.      Most of the Lakeplain

         Prairies were eliminated by widespread ditching and draining, which

         disrupted the characteristic water table fluctuations responsible

         for their establishment and persistence. When extensive areas are

         drained, and all wildfires are suppressed, adjacent prairies tend

         to close in, becoming Lowland Hardwood forests. Portions of the

         current Non-Forested Shrub, Scrub and Non-Forested Herbaceous areas

         are probably also remnants of Lakeplain Prairie identified in

         presettlement vegetation maps.

              In upland forest categories, acreages of Central Hardwoods

         appear to have decreased by only 19%. This reflects the amount of

         forest land remaining in small farm woodlots, which was derived

         from historical Lakeplain Oak openings that became closed-canopy

         oak forests as a result of wildfire suppression, and Lakeplain

         Prairie that has been completely drained, and converted to oak-

         dominated lowland forest (interpreted for MIRIS as uplands).




         RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES


              Several tracts in and around the Petersburg State Game Area

         present excellent opportunities for restoring the Lakeplain

         Prairies which once characterized the majority of the local

         landscape. The presettlement vegetation map (attached) plotted at

         1:24,000 scale can overlay a 7.5 minute topographic map and help to

         clarify historical drainage patterns where agricultural drainage

         has caused significant alterations (also see Figures 3 and 4).


                                         23









              Several private tracts immediately adjacent to the south

         boundaries of the Game Area (Figure 5), although mostly old fields

         and closed canopy Lowland Hardwoods, contain pockets of prairie

         vegetation that may be restored through fire management and re-

         establishing historical water table fluctuations. The southeast

         corner of section 14 appears to be drained though the Williams

         Drain and the Denzel Drain.   The southeast corner of section 15

         appears to be drained by the Stacy Drain, which runs southwest to

         northeast through the Game Area.

              Investigation into the extent of drain tiling along the Stacy

         Drain, Denzel Drain, and Williams Drain may suggest some practical

         alternatives for restoring these prairies if these private tracts

         were acquired and included within the Game Area.




         MONROE COUNTY

              Similar to the analysis of Summerfield Township, we can

         generate maps and tables for individual counties.               The

         presettlement vegetation map of Monroe County indicates         the

         location and extent of the various upland and wetland types. These

         maps may enhance our understanding of the relative position of

         certain wetland types within a given watershed, or in relation-to

         other factors, such as soils and major landforms (Figure 6).

         Tables 6 and 7 indicate presettlement and current conditions for

         Monroe County.

              Land use trends in Monroe County reflect those found in

         Summerfield Township,. with significant acreages of'wetlands


                                         24









                  FIGURE 5: Private tracts associated with Petersburg State Game Area
                                       with potential for prairie restoration.
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           converted f or agricultural purposes since European settlement in

           the early 1800's. The extent and diversity of wetlands in Monroe



           TABLE 6*. Sumary of Presettlement Cover Types for Monroe County, and acreages of
                        each grade for current condition of each wetland type.

           Cover type                Code Total Acreage        %      I    D       M     E

           Central Hardwoods
            (Beech, Sugar Maple)     4121      161,152     44.61
           Central Hardwoods
            (Pin/Black Oak)          4124       14,759      4.10
           Lakeplain Oak Openings    331        47,767     13.22
           Lowland Hardwoods         414        59,796     16.55      (not graded)
           Black Ash Swamp           4141        6,608      1.82      137   597    0    5873
           Elm Swamp                 4142          205      0.06      109    28    68
           Silver/Red Maple   Swamp  4143           30      0.01                   30
           Balsam Poplar Swamp       4145          442      0.12      172        269
           Other Lowland Hardwood    4149          125      0.03                         125
           Shrub Swamp               612            35      0.01      35
           Bog                       6121           41      0.01             32             9
           Emergent marsh            6221          454      0.12      33                 421
           Great Lakes Marsh         6222       11,433      3.16                3854 7579
           Wet Meadow                6224          388      0.11                         388
           Lakeplain Prairie         6226       56,158     15.55            1159 9421 45578
           Beach, Riverbank          72             49      0.01
           Major River               51            985      0.27
           Lake, Pond                52            781      0.22

                                               361,2U8     99.98



           Table 7s Summary of Present Cover/Land Use Types (MIRIS) for Monroe County.

           Cover type                          Code         Total Acreage          %
           Residential, Commercial             11,12           27,917          7.90
           Industrial, Communications          13,14            4,579          1.30
           Extractive, open pit, gravel        17               1,490          0.42
           Open Land, Cemeteries               19               3,405          0.97
           Agriculture                         2               264,476        75.19
           Non-Forested Herbaceous             31               4,888          1.39
           Non-Forested Shrub                  32               5,693          1.62
           Central Hardwoods                   412             18,095          5.14
           Aspen/Birch and associated          413                  41         0.01
           Lowland Hardwoods                   414             13,713          3.89
           Lowland Conifer                     423                  25         0.01
           Shrub Swamp                         612              1,444          0.41
           Aquatic Bed Wetland                 621                   9        <0.01
           Emergent Wetland                    622              1,812          0.51
           Flats                               623                   8        <0.01
           Barren Land                         70                  542         0.15
           Riverbanks                          72                   39         0.01

                                                               351,74i        98.92









          County has decreased quite dramatically since that time. Again, by

          excluding Oak openings from calculations, and assuming all areas

          currently typed as Lowland Hardwoods are indeed wetlands, Monroe

          County today contains 12.5% of the 163,954 acres of wetlands that

          were present in 1817.     Trends in forest and prairie cover as

          mentioned for Summerfield township are all reflected in statistics

          for Monroe County as a whole. Areas currently typed as Emergent

          Wetland and Shrub Swamp are found along the Lake Erie shoreline in

          what was historically Great Lakes Marsh and Lakeplain Prairie. The

          prairies further inland have, for the most part, converted to

          Lowland  Hardwoods    after   extensive   drainage   and    wildfire

          suppression. only 8% of the 223,678 acres of upland forests and

          savannas of Monroe County remain today.



          WETLAND INVENTORY APPLICATIONS

                 Developing a digital database for presettlement, wetland

          types allows us to quickly and accurately locate potential

          restoration projects targeted to specific types of wetlands. For

          example, there is increasing interest in locating and restoring

          Lakeplain prairies due to their global rarity and because they

          provide habitat for many rare plant species.     one may query our

          database for Monroe County and plot a map of all prairie remnants -

          that is, all prairies graded as Intact, Degraded, and Manipulated,

          in one color, with all other historical prairies in another color

          (Figure 7). These maps clearly indicate where clusters of prairie

          remnants occur. By combining a number of counties, the


                                          26








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            full range of a particular wetland type could be plotted f or range-

            wide inventories and analyses.


            OTHER ANALYSES

                   Because acreages for current MIRIS cover types are available

            on a whole-county basis, it is not possible to generate statistics

            for areas smaller than a county without GIS processing. However,

            we can generate maps and acreage statistics from presettlement

            cover type maps for any portion of the coastal zone, regardless of

            political boundaries.

                   We can also overlay any other layer currently in MIRIS with

            these presettlement maps that will enhance the analysis of a given

            area.    For example, the Saginaw Bay shoreline is receiving

            increasing attention given it's value for wildlife and concern over

            water quality in the bay.       By taking a given portion of this

            shoreline, we can overlay known occurrences of rare plant and

            animal species, and high quality natural community occurrences

            (Figure 8) to identify areas where wetland restoration may enhance

            habitat for rare species.

                   Surveyors described the southern portions of the Saginaw Bay

            shoreline as being "unexcelled habitat for ducks,                 geeseP

            shorebirds, and fur bearers". Table 8 summarizes the acreages of

            each presettlement vegetation type included in this area.

            Although, as noted earlier, comparisons between presettlement and current

            wetland acreages may be inaccurate when only using the wetland

            grades of the presettlement maps, they can give a general

            comparison when no other current statistics are easily available.

                                               30






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           In this case, of the 67,817 acres of presettlement wetlands in the

           southern Saginaw Bay area, about 15,700, or 23% remain in some

           form. The majority of these remaining wetlands are located within

           the Tobico Marsh State Game Area, the Crow Island State Game Area,

           and the Quanicassee Wildlife Area.



           Table 8: Summary of Presettlement Vegetation along Saginaw Bay in portions of
                      Bay and Tuscola, and Saginaw counties; and acreages by current grade
                      for wetland type.

           Cover Type                    Code      Acreage           I    D     M     E

           Central Hardwoods             412       45,301    36.21
           Hemlock (uplands)             4226       9,218     7.36
           Northern Hardwoods            4111          20     0.01
           ABpen/White Birch             413             4   <0.01
           Lakeplain Oak openings        331          605     0.48
           Lowland Hardwoods             414       17,339    13.86
           Black Ash Swamp               4141       9,532     7.61        361 780     8391
           Elm Swamp                     4142       1,095     0.87        190          905
           Silver/Red Maple   Swamp      4143       1,053     0.84                    1053
           White Birch Swamp             4147         153     0.12                     153
           Hemlock Swamp                 4237          44     0.03                       44
           Tamarack Swamp                4233       5,301     4.23              2353  2947
           Shrub Swamp                   612          175     0.14                     175
           Bog                           6121          26     0.02                       26
           Alder/Willow Swamp            6122         108     0.09                     108
           Emergent Marsh                6221       9,707     7.76        124   8091  1492
           Great Lakes Marsh             6222      10,177     8.13              3712  6465
           Lakeplain Prairie             6226      13,107    10.48                80  13,027
           Major River                   51         2,135     1.71

                                                   125,106




           RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES

                   Significant opportunities exist for the restoration of Great

           Lakes   Marsh and Lakeplain Prairie all around the Quanicassee River

           mouth. Historically, the marsh and prairie extended inland up to
           four miles along the Saginaw Bay shoreline.                   All of this area,
           surrounding several State Game Areas, which are located along a

           narrow strip of shoreline, has been extensively drained for



                                                      32









         agriculture.

               Study of the presettldment vegetation along this stretch of

         shoreline has indicated the extent of movement of the marsh/prairie

         border, depending on the stage of fluctuation in the Great Lakes'

         water-level. The dynamics of this Great Lakes Marsh system should

         be utilized for cost-effective wetland restoration. Analysis of

         the network of agricultural drains in place throughout this

         shoreline area is one step toward development of a long-term plan

         for wetland restoration.    state acquisition of private holdings

         immediately adjacent to these state wildlife areas would be

         necessary (Figure 9).    The gradual removal of drains and drain

         tiles, from the shoreline extending inland, could slowly re-

         establish the unexcelled wildlife habitat described by surveyors.
























                                         33








                     FIGURE 9: 1992 Plat map for tracts surrounding the Quanicassee
                                           Wildlife Area, Bay County, Michigan.


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                                                                                          34











            OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL WETLANDS IN MICHIGAN'S COASTAL ZONE

              Wetlands, as they occurred across the presettlement landscape,

         are  best understood within the context of surrounding plant

         communities and broader landscape ecosystems.        The following

         discussion of Michigan's historical wetlands will therefore be

         framed within the context of Michigan's Regional Landscape

         Ecosystems as defined by Albert et al. (1986).     These landscape

         units were derived by integrating climatic, landform, soil, and

         vegetative factors.      They provide a useful framework for

         classifying plant communities and understanding the variation in

         landscape processes as they occur throughout the state. Using this

         approach, landscape ecosystems are defined in a hierarchy of three

         levels in a nested series, from broad landscape regions down to

         district and subdistrict levels (Figures 10 and 11; Tables 9 and

         10).

              Climatic factors for each of the four landscape regions will

         be briefly discussed prior to more detailed descriptions of

         climate, landform and soils, presettlement vegetation, natural

         disturbances, and post-settlement human impacts for each district

         and/or subdistrict(s) which comprises the coastal zone in that

         portion of the state. Much of the following discussion was taken

         from Albert et al. (1986). Discussions of presettlement vegetation

         were taken from these previous works, and from data collected while

         compiling these presettlement vegetation maps.





                                          35







                               12.3                      FIGURE 10: Regional Landscape Ecosystems
                                I \                         of Lower Michigan, Regions I and 11.
                                                     12.3

                                                                          (from Albert et.al. 1986)
                                         12.2


                                                           12.1
                                     11.2
                        11.2                     -







                                     11.1
                                                .8.2





                    9
             10                  8.1                     .2     7.1


                                                                                    5.1


                                                             6
                 3.2        4.2 ))14.2                                           5.2


                       3.3                      4.1
                                                                                        1.2



                  3.2
                                          Lft                                 .......
                      3.1
                       2.1                             1.4
                                 2.1

                      2.2
                                                               1.3       1.2





                                                                           0   10 20 30 40 50
                                                   36                                            MILES
                                                                              I       F==EE1 KILOMETERS
                                                                              0 10 20 30 40 50 60
                                                                               SCALE 1:2,000,000








            TABLE 9: Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Lower Michigan, Regions I and II.
                                                                                                                    (from Albert et.al 1986)
                 No. District                     Subdistrict                         Site condition                                        Area    
                                                                                                                                       Sq Mi (km2)

                 Region I: Southern Lower Michigan
                 1. 1 Washtcnaw                   Detroit                             Heat island
                 1.2                              Maumec                             Lake plain                                           2300(5960)
                 1.3                              Ann Arbor                           Fine and medium-textured moraine                   1635 (4235)
                 1.4                              Jackson                             Interlobate coarse-textured                         2060(5335)
                                                                                      end moraine, outwash. and
                                                                                      ice-contact typography
                 2.1  Kaqlarnazoo                  Battle Creek                        Oulwash and ground moraine                           2770 (7175)
                 2.2                              Cassopolis                          Coarsc-textured and end moraine                      720 (1865)
                                                                                      and ice-contact terrain
                 3.1  Allegan                     Berrien Springs                     End anqd ground moraine                               760(1970)
                 3.2                              Benton Harbor                       Lake plain                                           1355 (3510)
                 3.3                              Jamestown                           Fine-textured end and                                490(1270)
                                                                                      ground moraine
                 4.1  Ionia                       Lansing                             Mediurn-textured ground                              4810(12460)
                                                                                      moraine

                 4.2                              Greenville                          Coarsc-textured end                                  760(1970)
                                                                                      and ground moraine
                 5.1  Huron                       Sandusky                            Lake plain                                           3210(8319)
                 5.2                              Lum                                Medium and coarse-textured                           480 (1245)
                                                                                      end-moraine ridges and outwash
                                                                                           
                 6. 1 Saginaw                                                         Lake plain                                           2390(6190)


                 Region II: Northern Lower Michigan
                 7.1  Arenac                      Standish                            Lake plain                                           1295 (3355)
                 7.2                              Wiggins Lake
                                                                                    Fine-textured end and                               110 (285)
                                                                                      ground niorainc
                 8.1  Highplains                  Cadillac                            Coarse-textured end moraine                          2860 (7405)
                 9.2                              Grayling                            Outwash                                              4085 (10580)
                 8.3                              Vanderbilt                          Steep end- and ground-                               1505 (3900)
                                                                                      moraine ridges
                 9    Newaygo                                                         Outwash                                              1920(4975)
                 10   Manistee                                                        End moraine and sand                                 1480(3835)
                                                                                      lake plain
                 11.1 Leclanau                    Williamsburg                        Coarse-textured end-moraine                         1000(260)
                                                                                      ridges
                 11.2                             Traverse City                       Coarse-textured drumlin                             7504(19406)
                                                                                      Fields on ground moraine
                 12.1 Presque Isle                Onaway                              Drumlin fields on coarse-                           1845 (4780)
                                                                                      textured ground moraine
                 12.2                             Stutsmanville                       Steep and ridges                                     270(720200)
                 12.3                             Cheboygan                           Lake plain                                           835 (2165)


                                                                                      37
 


                                                                                         4p






                                20.3






                                              0.2


                         19.1         0.



                  19.2           8.3
        18.1        .18.2                     16                                       14.2
                                                        15.4
                                     17.2
                              17.1                    5.3                   14.1          13.1

                                            15.2
                                                    15.1                    13.3
                         IV                                                            III

                                                                  0
                                                          13.3


                                                                                                0  10
                        6;@ @203







                                                                                                  0 1
                                                                                                   sc








         TABLE 10: Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Upper Michigan, Regions III and IV.


               No. District                     Subdistrict                       Site Condition                                      Area     2)
                                                                                                                                 Sq Mi (kin

               Region III: Eastern Upper Michigan
               13.1 Mackinac                    St. Ignace                        Limestone bedrock and                            1580(4090)
                                                                                  sand lake plain
               13.2                             Rudyard                           Clay lake plain                                    600(1555)
               13.3                             Escanaba                          Limestone bedrock and                              780(2020)
                                                                                  sand lake plain
               14.1  Luce                       Seney                             Poorly drained sand                              1515 (3925)
                                                                                  lake plain
               14.2                             Grand Marais                      Sandy end moraine,                               1905 (4935)
                                                                                  shoreline. and outwash
                                                                                  plains
               Region IV: Western Upper         Michigan
               15.1 Dickinson                   Hermansville                      Drumlins and ground moraine                      1855 (4805)
               15.2                             Norway                            Granitic bedrock and end                           595 (1540)
                                                                                  moraine
               15.3                             Gwinn                             Poorly drained sandy outwash                       265  (685)
               15.4                             Deer(oll                          Sandstone bedrock and high,                        225   (580)
                                                                                  sandy ridges
               16    Michigarnme                                                  Granitic bedrock                                 1160(3005)
               17.1  Iron                       Iron River                        Drunilinized ground moraine                        465   (1205)
               17.2                             Crystal Falls                     Kettle-karne topography,                         2390(6190)
                                                                                  Outwash, and sandy ground
                                                                                  moraine
               18.1  Bergland                   Bessemer                          Large, high, coarse-textured                       745(1930)
                                                                                  ridges and inetarnorphic bedrock
                                                                                  knobs
               18.2                             Ewen                              Dissected clay lake plain                          450(1165)
               18.3                             Baraga                            Broad ridges of coarse-textured                    575(1490)
                                                                                  rocky till
               19.1  Ontonagon                  Rockland                          Narrow, steep bedrock ridge                        135 (350)
               19.2                             White Pine                        Clay lake plain                                    655 (1695)
               20.1  Keweenaw                   Gay                               Coarse-textured broad ridges                       275 (710)
                                                                                  and swamps
               20.2                             Calumet                           Fligh igneous and sedimentary                      285 (740)
                                                                                  bedrock ridges and knobs
               20.3                             Isle Royale                       Island of igneous bedrock                          230(595)
                                                                                  ridges and swamps








                                                                                  39














                             INDEX TO REGIONAL CHARACTERIZATIONS
                                                                                  page
           Region I  ..........................................                    40
           District 1   ........................................         :::::::::41
           District 3..'                                                           45
           District
           District 6....   ...  ooo..0*000  .. *woo .....  0000 ...  0000.000000:58

           Region                ...... ooo  ....... o..oooo .......   ooo..o.oo.o63
           District                        ooo.o ... oo..o..oo  ......  oo..o..ooo63
           District 10  .....                   oo..o ... o.o  ... ooooo ... ooooo ... 66
           District                                 ooo.oo.oooo.ooooo    ......  ooo69
           District                     oo.o.o  ... ooooo.oooo.o ... oo..oooo    ... 71

           Region III...   ...  oo.ooo..ooo-o,       ...  oo.oooooo-oo-ooo        .. 78
           District 13  .......         o ... o.o ... ooooo ... oooooooooo ... ooo.78
           District 14  ....                                oooo .....  oo-oooooS7

           Region IV  .... oo .... oooo ... o.- ... o.-.oo   ... ooooo ...  900.0-90
           District 1S.   ...-   ...  oo.o.-oo   ...... oo ... oooo  .... ooo ... o.o9l
           District 16.... .... oooo..oo     .......
           District                          ooo.-o.oo..ooo   .....   o..-oooo   ... 94
           District                                              ooo .... ooo ...  oo96
           District                       o.oo.o.o .... ooo..oo-o.o ... -.-98













           REGION I. Southern Lover Michigan.

           REGIONAL CLIMATE: The climate of the region is strongly influenced
           by Gulf air mass, with some lake-ef f ect snows and moderation of
           temperature from Lake Michigan (Albert et al. 1986, Denton 1985,
           Eichenlaub 1979, Eichenlaub et al. 1990).               The southern Lower
           Peninsula of Michigan experiences a greater frequency of warm humid
           air masses originating in the Gulf of Mexico and a lower frequency
           of cold dry air masses of continental origin than the remainder of
           the state. Winter precipitation is high, 180-260 mm (23-26 percent
           of annual precipitation) . Annual precipitation is 32 to 38 inches
           (Eichenlaub et al. 1990)          Annual average snowfall is 36 inches
           inland to 100 inches along the Lake Michigan shoreline.                      The

                                                 40









         growing season length is 130 to 170 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990),
         similar to that of Regions II. Extreme minimum temperatures are
         relatively warm, from -16 to -340F, as a result of buffering by the
         Great Lakes.


















         DISTRICT 1. Washtenaw.
         SUBDISTRICTS 1.1 and 1.2 Detroit and Maumee: Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE: Climate is somewhat moderated by Lake St. Clair, and Lake
         Erie. The growing season is generally long, ranging from 160 to
         170 days at the southern edge of the district and from 140 to 160
         days at the northern edge; growing season is longer near the
         shorelines of the Great Lakes and shorter inland.      The average
         annual minimum temperature is -20*F in the south and -240F in the
         north. Snowfall is relatively low throughout the district, ranging
         from 30 inches in the south to 80 inches in the north.       Average
         annual precipitation ranges from 28 to 34 inches.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistricts
         are part of a relatively flat plain of glacial lacustrine origin.
         The lacustrine deposits extend into Ohio along the western end of
         Lake Erie.   The lacustrine deposits, which consist of sands and
         clays, are thickest along the farthest inland edge of the lake
         plain and thinnest along the present shorelines of Lakes Huron, St.
         Clair, and Erie. Along Lake Erie, inland thicknesses of lacustrine
         deposits are greater than 100 ft, whereas thicknesses of less than
         5 ft are common near the Lake Erie shoreline.
              Within the broad clay lake plain, there are several broad sand
         channels, created when sand was deposited into the shallow pro-
         glacial lakes by glacial meltwater streams. These sand channels
         can be several miles wide, but the sand in them is generally only
         5 to 10 feet thick. Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the
         clay plain. The sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action
         during higher levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes
         and spits and intervening depressions. The soils of the dunes and
         spits is often excessively well drained, whereas that in the swales
         is poorly or very poorly drained.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The presettlement vegetation of the clay
         lakeplain and sand lakeplain were very different. The majority of

                                         41









         the clay lakeplain supported forest, either upland or wetland. In
         contrast, the sand lakeplain supported oak barrens (savanna) on the
         uplands and wet prairies or marshes in the lowlands.
              Clay Lakeplain. The forests of the clay lakeplain responded
         to differences in slope class and drainage.         On the flatter
         portions (10 feet/mile slope or less) of the lakeplain or in
         shallow basins or depressions, Lowland Hardwoods (414) were
         prevalent.   In the closed depressions, black ash (4141) was the
         common dominant.     Where the topography was flat or gradually
         sloping, black ash was still the dominant species, but American elm
         and basswood were also common co-dominants.      As slope increased
         slightly and drainage conditions improved, beech, white oak, white
         ash, and hickory became more common, but were generally less common
         than black ash and elm. Cottonwood, sycamore, (trembling] aspen,
         and (red or silver] maple were other common wetland species of the
         clay lakeplain.
              Central Hardwood forest (4121) occurred on those portions of
         the clay lakeplain where drainage conditions were best, generally
         in those areas where streams had improved drainage conditions.
         These mesic forests were dominated by American beech, sugar maple,
         white oak, [American] elm, and hickory, but black ash (Lowland
         Hardwoods, ash=4141) was also relatively common, probably occupying
         small depressions or vernal pools on the flat plain.
              Sand Lakeplain. The beach ridges and low dunes of the sand
         lakeplain supported open "barrens" or savannas of white and black
         oak (Lakeplain Oak Opening=331). Small areas of dry prairie also
         occurred on the ridges, but were much less prevalent than savannas.
         Depressions and flat portions of the sand lakeplain were often
         poorly drained, supporting wet prairies (Lakeplain Prairie=6226).
         'Within the wet prairies there were small beach ridges that
         supported scattered trees and   also areas of swamp. White oak was
         the commonest upland species    within the wet prairies, but there
         'were references to black oak, red oak, ash, popple (cottonwood].
         Elm was second to white oak,    probably on the moist edges of the
                  nd within the swamps. Pin oak, presently a common species
         prairie a
         'within the swamps of the sand  lakeplain, was seldom referenced in
         'the GLO notes.   Black oak, a relatively common species on the
         uplands, was also referenced by the surveyors within the wet
                     Perhaps some of the black oak within the wet prairies
         prairies.
         were pin oak, but it is also possible that pin oak was much less
          revalent prior to drainage of the wet prairies and f ire exclusion.
         Pin oak appears to be extremely sensitive to     fire (based on its
         response to fire management at Windsor Prairie in Ontario).
              Extensive marshes (Great Lakes Marsh=6222) occurred along the
         entire coast of Lakes Erie and St. Clair.        The marshes, which
         extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2 miles  wide in places, and
         extended for miles up major rivers such as the Huron and Saginaw.
         'Upland of the marshes there was typically a broad zones of swamp
         forest, but locally along Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie, 1-3 mi wide
         expanses of wet prairie occurred.
              Central Hardwoods Forest (4121). Central Hardwoods dominated
         by beech and sugar maple, have often been called Mesic or Wet-Mesic

                                          42









         Southern Forest or sometimes Mixed Mesophytic Forest. These mesic
         forests were restricted primarily to the f ine-textured soils of the
         lake plain, that is, the loamy and clayey soils. The micro-relief
         of the clay plain was very subtle; 1-2 foot differences in
         elevation caused changes in drainage condition that resulted in
         corresponding differences in forest condition. Beech, sugar maple,
         basswood, red oak, and white oak were common in better drained
         areas, whereas swamp white oak, red elm, American elm, blue beech,
         red ash, and black ash were more common in slightly moister micro-
         sites.
              Lowland Hardwood Forest (414). Swamp forests occurred on both
         the clay plain and the sand plain. On the clay plain, black ash,
         red ash, American elm, and basswood were among the more common
         species. On the sand lake plain, [American] elm, (red] ash, and
         silver maple were among the most common species.
              Laker)lain Oak Openings (331).       Oak openings or barrens
         dominated by white and black oaks dominated the broad beach ridges
         and low sand dunes of the lake plain.           Sassafras was also
         relatively common on the ridges. Occasionally the oak barrens or
         savannas were open enough to be described as dry prairie.
              Lakeplain Prairie (6226).     Wet prairie (lakeplain prairie)
         occupied the depression and poorly drained flats of the sand lake
         plain.   Within the wet prairie there were scattered groves'of
         trees, both wetland species such as cottonwood, swamp white oak,
         and pin oak, and upland white and black oaks.      The wet prairies
         probably persisted as a result of both water level fluctuation and
         fire, with both seasonal and annual water level changes probably
         being more important than fire for the persistence of the prairies.
              Great Lakes Marsh (6222). Great Lakes Marshes persisted along
         the shoreline, both on sandy and clayey soils.        organic soils
         developed beneath the grasses and sedges of the wet meadow. Near
         the shoreline organic deposits were thin or absent as the result of
         wave activity. In shallow water, the clay soils were often mixed
         with organic material, creating highly unstable muds. At least one
         rare species, Sagittaria montevidensis (Montevidens' arrowhead)
         occupies this organic-rich habitat.
           In shallow water sand soils were much more stable and supported
         different vegetation than the clays.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE:      There were few references to natural
         disturbances such as fires or windthrows on this portion of the
         glacial lake plain. The only area of extensive windthrown trees
         was at the extreme north edge of the subdistrict in portions of St.
         Clair and Macomb Counties. The windthrows were most extensive on
         the flat, clay lakeplain, which supported swamp forest.
              Water level fluctuation of the Great Lakes, important for
         maintaining swamp forest, wet prairie, and marsh vegetation,      was
         not well documented in the GLO notes of these subdistricts, but is
         well documented further north in Subdistrict 5.1 and District 6
         along Saginaw Bay of Lake Huron.

         HUMAN LAND USE: There is a long history of human land use on the

                                          43









          lake plain, beginning with Native Americans, who settled along the
          shorelines of the Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. They
          farmed the floodplains of some of the major rivers, including the
          Huron River.     They may have been responsible for fires that
          maintained the open conditions of the oak barrens and drier
          portions of the prairies.
               The clay soils of the lake plain were among the first areas in
          the state farmed by European settlers. Most clay lands have been
          ditched and tiled and are among the most valued agricultural lands
          in the state.    Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for
          agriculture, but the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest,
          wet prairie, or marsh.       Diking and pumping has allowed vast
          expanses of wet prairie and some areas of marsh to be farmed,
          especially along Saginaw Bay.

          IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Almost all of the Central
          Hardwood Forests (4121) have been cut and drained for agriculture.
          The only remaining tracts are small, usually only 40-80 acres in
          size.
               The major areas of Lowland Forest (swamps) (414) that remain
          are on either the sandy lake plain or near the Great Lakes
          shorelines, where drainage was not effective. Some of the Lowland
          Forests presently found on the sand lake plain were originally wet
          prairies that have become drier as a result of drainage.
               Many of the areas of Oak opening (savanna or barrens) (331),
          which included some dry prairie, remain unfarmed, but fire
          suppression has resulted in conversion to oak-dominated forest
          (Central Hardwood Forest, white and black oak dominated: 4122).
          Some Oak Openings have been grazed; areas that were cleared for
          agriculture were often abandoned due to low productivity and
          unstable, blowing, sandy soils.
               Drier portions of the Lakeplain Prairies (6226) became
          available for agricultural use following drainage.        Some of the
          largest, wettest areas of Lakeplain Prairie persist, but edges of
          these large wetlands are now farmed and portions of the prairie
          have become swamp forest as a result of drainage.         Some of the
          Lakeplain Prairies persist as portions of State Game Areas,
          including St. John's Marsh, Harsens Island Wildlife Refuge,
          Petersburg, and Pointe Mouillee State Game Areas. Algonac State
          Park also supports wet prairie.       At present, most of the wet
          prairie of the sand lakeplain has converted to swamp forest, with
          pin oak, silver maple, and swamp white oak being common dominants.
          Tupelo (Nvssa sylvatica) and bur oak are also relatively common
          within these swamps.
               Large expanses of Great Lakes Marsh (6226) were destroyed as
          the ports of Detroit and Monroe were developed. Wave activity from
          shipping has degraded still more of the coastal marsh. Great Lakes
          Marsh persists in several areas, but the upland edge, which was
          originally wet meadow, wet prairie, or swamp forest, has been
          developed for agriculture.



                                            44






















         DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
INN
         CLIMATE: The climate is warm due to its southerly location and is
         also highly moderated by Lake Michigan. This combination gives the
         Allegan District a long, warm growing season. Compared to areas' at
         the same latitude farther east, the last freezing temperatures
         occur earlier in the spring and maximum daytime temperatures are
         reduced.
              Winters are mild.       The annual average extreme minimum
         temperature is 180F. Considerable lake-effect precipitation falls
         during the fall and winter months.












         DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
         SUBDISTRICT 3.1. Berrien springs: End and Ground Moraine.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:      The district
         consists of narrow bands of ice-contact and end-moraine ridges 5-20
         miles wide. There are numerous kettle lakes within portions of the
         ice-contact topography.    The ridges, which rise abruptly from a.
         surrounding outwash plain, begin in Indiana and continue north
         through Cassopolis and north into Barry County. The band of ridges
         is broken in four places by narrow outwash channels.
              Height of the ridges varies considerably, from less than 50 ft
         to greater than 100 ft. The highest ridges, near Three Rivers, are
         nearly 200 ft, but most are 100-150 ft. Elevations range from 850
         to 1150 ft. Glacial drift is approximately 250-350 ft thick in the
         subdistrict.,
                                         T@



                                          a
                                         I @Ir5









              Uplands are well drained to excessively drained. Many of the

                                          45









          kettles contain thick organic-soil deposits.

          PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:       The upland ridges were dominated by
          Central Hardwoods Forests (4121) of beech, sugar maple, and white
          oak or Central Hardwoods Forest (4122) dominated primarily by white
          oak. There were no wetlands noted within 6 miles of shore within
          the subdistrict, but further inland kettle depressions support
          Lowland Hardwoods (414), Lowland Conifers dominated by tamarack
          (4233), Shrub Dominated Wetlands (612), and Bogs (6121).
                Fine-textured (silt- or clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine.
          The majority of these moraines supported Central Hardwoods Forests
          dominated by American beech and sugar maple (4121).                 Small
          depressions within the end moraines supported Lowland Hardwoods
          (414).     The ground moraine includes some extensive areas of
          Emergent Marsh (6221) and Lakeplain Prairie (6226), which are
          located in broad, flat depressions between the end moraines. These
          marshes and prairies contained willow, alder, and scattered ash,
          [American] elm, and (red] maple.
                Medium-textured (loam and sandy loam) Ground moraine. Loamy
          moraines occupy only a small part of the district. Most of these
          ridges were dominated by either Central Hardwoods Forests dominated
          by either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and
          black oak (4122).       Small depressions within the end moraines
          supported Lowland Hardwoods (414) or shrubby depressions (612).
          The shrubby depressions sometimes contained inclusions of marsh.
                Coarse-textured (sandy) End and Ground Moraine. The broad,
          sandy ridges supported Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by
          either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and black
          oak (4122). Oak Barrens (332), dominated by white oak and yellow
          oak, were locally noted on the steep ridges above the Paw Paw
          River.
                Outwash Channels (sand). The St. Joseph River, which flows
          through the subdistrict, has a 1/4 to 1 mile wide border of sandy
          outwash along its margins. This outwash supported a broad Lowland
          Hardwood Forest (414) dominated by a diversity of species,
          including sycamore, black ash, (silver] maple, beech, elm,
          hackberry, and basswood.

          14ATURAL DISTURBANCE: No natural disturbances were noted in the GLO
          notes. The Oak Barrens above the Paw Paw River may have been the
          result of Native American use of fire for management.

          HUMAN LAND USE:       Central Hardwoods    Forests, beech-sugar maple
          dominated (4121), have been converted      to orchards and vineyards.
          Central Hardwoods Forests, white oak      dominated (4122), have been
          converted to orchards and vineyards.

          IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Most of the more gently-
          sloping ridges and even some of the steeper ridges have been
          converted to orchards and vineyards. The remaining forested areas
          are generally the more steep ly-s loping, irregular ridges; these are
          presently dominated by closed-canopy oak-hickory forests.            Black

                                              46











         walnut and sassafras are both common.
              The white oak-black oak [or yellow oak] barrens (332) have
         been converted almost entirely to orchards. Conversion to orchard
         indicates relatively rich soils.       This may indicate that the
         forests were not growing on low-productivity soils, but rather that
         Native-American fire management had maintained the forest in an
         open, savanna condition.
              Most the Central Hardwood forest type (4121) has been
         converted to agricultural land use, with orchards being quite
         extensive. There is also some localized urban development. only
         the steepest slopes remain forested.
              The white oak-black oak-dominated Central Hardwood forest
         (4122) has been almost completely converted to orchards, with the
         exception of a few steeply sloping sites.
              The depressions that contained Lowland Hardwoods (414) were
         quite small, typically located within moderately sloping ridges.
         Most of the swamp forests within these small depressions have not
         been developed, but agricultural land use continues right to their
         boundaries.
              The depressions that contained Shrub-dominated wetlands (612)
         are small, typically surrounded by moderately to steeply sloping
         ridges. Many of the shrub swamps persist, but the adjacent uplands
         have been farmed up to their edges.
              Emergent Marshes (6221) have been almost completely drained
         and farmed.     The Lakeplain Prairies (6226) have been almost
         completely drained and farmed.












         DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
         SUBDISTRICT 3.2. Benton Harbor: Lake Plain.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMSj, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:    The subdistrict
         consists primarily of lake plain, but includes small areas of
         relatively flat ground and end moraine topography. Although most
         of the lake plain is flat to gently sloping, coastal sand dunes are
         steeply sloping.     Elevations increase gradually from the Lake
         Michigan shoreline; highest elevations are in the dunes and on the
         f ine-textured end moraine at the southeastern edge of the district.
         Elevations range from 580-820 ft.
              Sand dunes, up to 200 ft high, and with slopes as steep as 30
         degrees, form a narrow discontinuous band, 1-5 mi wide, along the
         shore of Lake Michigan.    Most of the dune formation occurred in

                                          47









         Nipissing Great Lakes time, approximately 4,500 years ago, but the
         smaller f oredunes formed during more recent low-water levels of
         Lake Michigan (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
              Small inland dunes occur east of the coastal dunes.        These
         small dunes developed earlier than those on the coast, when
         proglacial predecessors of the Great Lakes stood at higher water
         levels than that of today (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
              The underlying bedrock is of Mississippian age, consisting of
         Marshall Formation sandstones and dolomites and Coldwater shales
         (Deutsch et al. 1959). Drift is generally thick, ranging from 50
         to 400 ft (Akers 1938; Anonymous).
              Soil textures range from sand to clay. At the southern edge
         of the subdistrict, the texture of most of the lacustrine soils is
         clay loam or silt loam. To the north, the majority of the surface
         lacustrine deposits are sands. Some lacustrine soils are underlain
         by finer textured subsoils, causing poorly drained surface and
         cemented subsurface soils. The soils of the moraines are generally
         loams or clays.
              Soil drainage classes on the sandy lacustrine deposits tend to
         be excessively drained or poorly drained. The fine-textured soils
         on moraines tend to be moderately well drained or well drained on
         uplands and poorly drained in depressions.
              on moraines, slopes of 6-12% are common. Soils on upper and
         middle slopes are well drained.         Poorly drained soils      are
         restricted to drainageways and depressions.
              Along the Muskegon River at the north edge of the subdistrict,
         the lacustrine sands are generally excessively drained. A large
         part of these sands is outwash containing few lenses of
         fine-textured material to restrict drainage. Low dunes are locally
         common.
              Poorly drained sands characterize a large area of Muskegon and
         Ottawa Counties.    Cemented B horizons are common.      Small beach
         ridges and sand dunes on the poorly drained plain are excessively
         drained.
              In Allegan County, near the towns of Pullman, Bravo, and
         Pearl, is an area of droughty sand soils. The lake plain is flat,
         but locally contains small depressions that were shallow embayments
         on the lake bed. The soils immediately adjacent to the kettles are
         strongly cemented sands.
.oo

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:     The presettlement vegetation will be
         discussed first generally, then in detail by landform and
         substrate. The majority of the subdistrict is dominated by upland
         forest.    In the southern part of the subdistrict, including
         Berrien, Van Buren, and Allegan counties, Central Hardwoods Forest,
         dominated by American beech and sugar maple (4121) is most common
         on both fine-textured moraines and sandy lacustrine deposits.
         Within this same three county area, Central Hardwoods Forest
         dominated by white oak and black oak (4122), is common along the
         bluffs and broad ridges above major rivers, including the Galien,
         St. Joseph, and Paw Paw. This oak dominance is probably the result
         of Native American land management with fire.

                                          48









               Farther north, in northern Allegan, Ottawa, and Muskegon
          counties, forests dominated by eastern hemlock and American beech
          (4119) occupied most of the sand lake plain and f ine-textured
          moraines.  Hemlock-beech f orest also occupied the dunes as far
          south as Benton Harbor. Upland Conifer Forest dominated by white
          pine (4211), along with white oak and some black oak, occupied the
          bluffs and broad ridges above major rivers, including the Grand,
          Muskegon, and Kalamazoo, and also on the sandy plains adjacent to
          White and Muskegon lakes. Again, Native American fire management
          probably maintained the white pine and oaks.       White pine also
          dominated the dunes near Bridgeman.
               The largest wetlands were located along the rivers, where both
          Great Lakes Marsh (6222) and Lowland Hardwoods (414) formed broad
          bands for several miles inland from Lake Michigan. Both tamarack
          swamp (4233) and lowland hardwoods swamp (414) were located in
          bowl-shaped depressions behind the dunes.
               Further inland, small kettle depressions with areas of end
          moraine supported small marshes (6221) and both Lowland Hardwoods
          (414) and Lowland Conifers (423). Broad depressions on both the
          flat sand lakeplain and the ground moraine contained emergent
          marshes (6221), lakeplain prairie (6226), and both Lowland
          Hardwoods (414) and Lowland Conifers (423).
               Sand Dunes.    The dunes supported Northern Hardwood Forest
          dominated by eastern hemlock and American beech (4119). Hemlock-
          beech forest was the dominant forest type along the dunes of the
          entire shoreline as far south as Benton Harbor, in central Berrien
          County.  Although hemlock and beech were the dominant species,
          white pine, red oak, white oak, and sugar maple were also present.
               At the northern edge of the subdistrict white pine became
          increasingly dominant, often with hemlock or white oak as co-
          dominants; these forests were coded as White Pine Forest (4211).
          White pine was also dominant in the dunes near Bridgeman in central
          Berrien County.
               Several large areas of open, blowing sand (blowouts) were
          noted in the GLO surveys. These areas, generally less than a half
          mile wide, extended as much as a mile inland from the shoreline.
          In some areas, especially where hemlock and white pine were the
          dominants, present blowouts may be  the result of historic logging.
               Sand Lake Plain.    Sand lake  plain ranged from very poorly
          drained to excessively drained.     The greater part of the sand
          lakeplain of the subdistrict was dominated by upland forests.
          Broad expanses of sand lake plain   in Allegan County and further
          south supported Central Hardwood    Forests dominated by American
          beech and sugar maple (4121).
               In northern Allegan, all of Ottawa County, and southern
          Muskegon County, the major forest was Northern Forest dominated by
          eastern hemlock and American beech (4119). At the northern edge of
          the subdistrict, especially on the flat sand plains near Muskegon
          and White lakes, white-pine dominated forests (4211) were
          extensive; white oak was a common co-dominant. White pine, along
          with white oak, were also common on bluffs above major rivers.
          Upland white spruce (4221), growing along with white pine, occurred

                                            49









          locally at the northern edge of the subdistrict south of Whitehall.
               Upland Conifer Forests dominated by eastern hemlock (4226)
          occurred in small stream valleys, probably as a result of moist to
          wet conditions.   Some of the moister drainages might be better
          treated as Lowland Hemlocks (4237). These streams were generally
          surrounded by flat to rolling sand lake plain dominated by American
          beech, sugar maple, and other upland hardwoods, including basswood,
          American elm, and white oaks.
               Wetlands included marshes, lakeplain prairies, and a diversity
          of swamp forest types. Broad marshes, coded as Great Lakes Marshes
          (6222), extended several miles up the major rivers, including the
          Galien, St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, and White. These
          marshes were as broad as 1/2 mile.     At the mouths of the river
          there was typically a small lake that was separated from Lake
          Michigan by coastal dunes. Portions of the margins of these lakes
          also supported marsh vegetation.
               Lowland hardwoods (414) occurred along the Paw Paw, Black And
          rivers. The Lowland Hardwoods were further differentiated as ash
          swamp (4141) along the Black River, and as maple swamp (4143) along
          the Kalamazoo River.     Along the Black River there were also
          stretches of floodplain, where the Black River meandered
          considerably; this floodplain was not differentiated from adjacent
          Central Hardwood Forest on the uplands, which were dominated by
          beech and sugar maple (4121).
               Some broad, flat, inland portions of the lakeplain also
          supported Emergent Marsh (6221). One such area was near Baroda, in
          Berrien County, where the marsh was in a broad depression between
          moraine ridges. This and other such marshes were typically drained
          and f armed.   Marshes also occurred in depressions behind the
          coastal sand dunes; some of these marshes were along the edges of
          small lakes or ponds.
               Tamarack swamps (4233) also occurred in depressions behind the
          dunes, as did Black ash swamp (4141).
               Several lowland forest types occurred in depressions on the
          sand lake plain, including Lowland Conifer Forests of hemlock
          (4237) or tamarack (4233) and Lowland Hardwood Forests of ash
          (4141) or elm (4142).       Some of the Lowland Conifer Forests
          contained several different conifers, including combinations of
          white pine, hemlock, tamarack, and occasionally northern white-
          cedar; these were classified as 423.
               Fine-textured (silt- or clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine. In
          Berrien, Van Buren, and Allegan counties, the moraines supported
          Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by American beech and sugar
          maple (4121).   Further north, in northern Allegan County and in
          Ottawa County, Northern Forests of American beech and eastern
          hemlock (4119) occupy the ground moraine. Small depressions within
          the end moraines supported Lowland Hardwoods (414).       The ground
          moraine includes some extensive areas of Emergent Marsh (6221),
          which are located in broad, flat depressions between the end
          moraines.   These marshes contained willow, alder, and scattered
          ash, [American) elm, and (red) maple.
               Coarse-textured (sandy) End and Ground Moraine. The broad,

                                           so









         sandy ridges supported Central Hardwoods Forests dominated by
         either American beech and sugar maple (4121) or white oak and black
         oak (4122). Coarse-textured moraines are not extensive; they are
         found only at the southern edge of the district.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Blowouts, areas of destabilized sand that are
         moved landward by the wind, were noted in the GLO notes. Although
         blowouts are sometimes caused by human manipulation, the GLO notes
         recorded the presence of large blowouts in the same areas where
         most of the present blowouts are located today, suggesting that
         natural disturbances regularly caused blowouts to form. Locally
         there were references of burnt land and windthrown trees along the
         Galien River. There were also references to Indian fields near the
         mouth of the Kalamazoo River, and Indian trails along the Grand
         River and near Lakeplain Prairies in Berrien County.         Several
         Barrens were noted along the Paw Paw River; these may have been the
         product of Indian agricultural or game management with fire.
         Indian trails were also noted in the white pine-white oak forests
         near Muskegon Lake.


         HUMAN LAND USE:      Almost all of the sand lakeplain, which
         characterizes most of the subdistrict, has been farmed.        Where
         drainage of the sand lake plain is generally poor, as between
         Hoffmaster State Park and Fruitport, most of the land is ditched.
         Ditches are typically 6-8 feet deep. Blueberries are a common crop
         on the poorly drained acid sands. Large areas support nurseries
         and fields of asparagus. Some of the more mesic lakeplain supports
         orchards and vineyards.     The coastal sand dunes have not been
         exploited for agriculture, but they are popular for residential
         development. Large portions of the dunes remain forested.- Sand
         mining has been conducted in the coastal dunes, but is now
         restricted to one site near Bridgeman.     Oil wells tap petroleum
         reservoirs in the underlying Devonian-age marine deposits (Dorr and
         Eschman 1984).
              Clay lakeplain is relatively limited in the subdistrict, where
         it is concentrated in southern Berrien County, and all but the most
         poorly drained sites have been drained for agriculture.
              Most of the fine-textured end moraine and ground moraine is
         also farmed. Most of the ground moraine requires ditching. All
         but the steepest end moraine are farmed, and some of the steep
         sites have been converted to pasture and hay production.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Farming of the droughtier
         sand soils of the lakeplain resulted in severe wind erosion. Most
         of these lands have been abandoned, and the fields have regenerated
         to black cherry, bigtooth aspen, and trembling aspen.      Signs of
         wind erosion are abundant.
              Drainage of some organic soils on the sand plain also resulted
         in severe wind erosion and eventual abandonment
              The original white pine-white oak foreste@ were logged for
         white pine; fires followed, destroying white pine regeneration and

                                          '51










         resulted in the creation of white oak-black oak forests.       White
         pine regeneration is locally good; most white pine is presently
         either understory or small overstory in size.
              The areas of f ine-textured end moraine and ground moraine
         within the subdistrict have been intensively farmed. Orchards and
         vineyards are generally restricted to better drained, rolling areas
         of end moraine.
              Most of the large expanses of inland Emergent Marsh (6221)
         were drained and farmed. Most of the Great Lakes Marsh (6222) is
         located along major rivers, forming 1/4-1/2 mile wide zones. These
         marshes remain, although some have been modified by boat channels.
         Near larger cities, these marshes have been partially filled for
         development of either industrial facilities or recreational
         facilities, such as marinas.
              Lowland Hardwoods (414) occupying broad depressions in either
         lake plain or ground moraine have generally been drained and
         converted to agriculture.       Those occupying smaller, steeper
         depressions within the dunes or end moraines persist, as drainage
         was impractical.
              At the northern edge of the subdistrict, in portions of Ottawa
         and Muskegon counties, greater areas of Lowland Conifers (423)
         persist than farther south. Tamarack (4233) occurred both broad
         depressions on the sand lake plain and along some small streams,
         and as more steeply sloped depressions behind the dunes and within
         end moraine. The steeper depressions generally remain forested, as
         do some of the stream-side swamps.     Large portions of the broad
         depressions have been converted to agriculture, but greater
         portions remain forested than for almost all other forest types.
              Hemlock swamps (4237) occurred in broad, flat depressions on
         ground moraine and sand lakeplain. Most of the hemlock-dominated
         wetlands have been farmed, but along some of the small streams in
         Van Buren County, forests remain in areas originally dominated by
         hemlock.
              Most of the hemlock-beech forest (4119) has been - farmed,
         either for row crops or orchard. The majority of this forest type
         is on sand lakeplain, but it also occurs on ground moraine. The
         portion of this forest type located on sand dune still remains.
              Almost all areas of beech-sugar maple-dominated forest (4121)
         have been farmed, either for row crops or orchard. This includes
         broad expanses of both sand lakeplain and f ine-textured end and
         ground moraines. Beech-sugar maple forest persists on portions of
         the sand dunes.
              While the white pine-dominated forests (4211) on the sand
         lakeplain have all been logged, second-growth oaks persist on many
         of these original oak-pine sites.      Residential development has
         occurred in most of these forested areas.
              white pine, along with hemlock and American beech, dominated
         portions of the coastal sand dunes.     The pines have been logged
         from most coastal dunes, but locally pockets of white pine remain.
              Most of the upland hemlock stands (4226) on lakeplain were
         cleared for agriculture. Orchards are not common on these lands,
         possibly due to poorer drainage conditions.

                                          52









              Hemlock, along with lesser amounts of American beech and white
         pine, dominated the greater part of the coastal sand dunes.
         Although much of the hemlock was harvested, pockets of mature
         hemlock persist.
              White spruce-dominated forest (4221) occurred only locally in
         Muskegon County. It was logged, but a large part of it remains as
         second-growth forest.















         DISTRICT 3. Allegan.
         SUBDISTRICT 3.3. Jamestown: Fine-textured End and Ground moraine.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Steep topography
         primarily distinguishes this subdistrict.        Glacial drift is
         generally thick, from 50 to 400 ft (Akers 1938), over the
         Mississipian age sandstones and dolomites of the Marshall Formation
         and shales of the Coldwater Formation (Deutsch et al. 1959). The
         soils are generally well drained. The deeply eroded channel of the
         Grand River adds to the dissected nature of the topography. Soils
         are loamy, except for the outwash deposits along the Grand River.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Only a small portion of this subdistrict
         is near the shoreline. Vegetation characteristic of areas of the
         subdistrict further inland will not be discussed here.           The
         presettlement vegetation will be described by landform. and soil
         texture.
              Fine-textured (silt- and clay-rich) End and Ground Moraine.
         The majority of the subdistrict near to the Lake Michigan shoreline
         is f lat ground moraine that supported a forest of almost equal
         parts hemlock (43%) and American beech (41%), with some sugar
         maple, basswood, paper birch, and [red or silver] maple.        This
         forest type was classified as hemlock-beech dominated Northern
         Forest (4119) On the steeper end-moraine ridges, American beech-
         sugar maple dominated Northern Hardwoods (4111) were present.
              A small area of about 300 acres supported Lowland Conifer,
         hemlock dominated (4237).    This was in a relatively broad, flat
         depression. Small areas of Lowland Hardwoods, ash-dominated (4141)
         were also located in small depressions in the end moraine and
         ground moraine.


                                          53










         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: There was no mention of natural disturbances
         for the subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE:      Most of the land is presently used for
         agriculture, but some steeper areas remain forested. Very little
         of the ground moraine is used for orchards.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:       Most of the land is
         presently under agriculture.        on moraines too steep for
         agricultural management, forests persist.
              The majority of these upland forests have been farmed, but
         steeper areas remain forested.       This large, relatively flat
         depression has been partially drained for agriculture.
              Of the small depressions dominated by Lowland Hardwoods (414),
         the more steeply sloping depressions appear to remain forested,
         while those on flatter topography have been drained and farmed.














         DISTRICT 5. Huron.
         SUBDISTRICT 5.1. Sandusky: Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE: This district is cooler than most of the rest of southern
         Lower Michigan. It has a 151-day growing season. Most air flows
         entering this district are from a westerly direction, so this
         district experiences less lake moderation than districts on the
         west side of the state. During spring and summer, showers caused
         by air-mass instability are common.
              Average extreme minimum winter temperature is 160F. Snowfall
         is generally light. Lake-effect precipitation may occur when winds
         are from the north and east.

         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict is
         a relatively flat plain of glacial lacustrine origin.            The
         lacustrine deposits, which consist of sands and clays, are thickest
         along the farthest inland edge of the lake plain and thinnest along
         the present shorelines of Lakes Huron. The lake clays are 100-300
         ft thick near the inland margin and 50 f t or less along Saginaw
         Bay, where they are locally exposed.
              Within the broad clay lake plain, there are several broad sand
         channels, created when sand was deposited into the shallow pro-
         glacial lakes by glacial meltwater streams. These sand channels

                                          54









         can be several miles wide, but the sand in them is generally only
         5 to 10 feet thick. Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the
         clay plain. The sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action
         during higher levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes
         and spits and intervening depressions. The soils of the dunes and
         spits is often excessively drained, whereas those in the swales is
         poorly or very poorly drained.
              Broad end-moraine and ground-moraine ridges of fine-textured
         (clay-rich) and medium-textured (loamy) till occupy portions of the
         subdistrict.   Along the eastern edge of the subdistrict, these
         ridges are only 3-4 inland from the St. Clair River and the Lake
         Huron shoreline.     To the north, these moraines are generally
         further inland from the Saginaw Bay shoreline.           Slopes are
         generally steeper on these moraines than on the clay lake plain (2-
         6% vs. 0-2%).
              The lake plain is underlain by Paleozoic bedrock; shale,
         marine limestone and dolomite.      Bedrock is exposed along the
         shoreline at Pointe Aux Barques, and locally inland.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The presettlement vegetation of the clay
         lake plain and sand lake plain were often very different. There
         were also substantial differences in vegetation from the south end
         of the district to the north end; hemlock and white pine became
         increasingly dominant on upland sites further to the north. There
         were also areas of f ine-textured and medium-textured ground moraine
         and end moraine that supported different forest types.
              Clay Lakeplain. Almost the entire clay plain was forested.
         The forests responded to differences in slope class and drainage.
         On the flatter portions (5-10 feet/mile slope or less) of the
         lakeplain at the southern edge of the subdistrict, Lowland
         Hardwoods (414) were prevalent; the common dominants were black ash
         and American elm.      In closed depressions, Lowland Hardwoods
         dominated by black ash (4141) were common.
              The majority of the clay lakeplain of the subdistrict was
         dominated by Upland Conifer Forests of eastern hemlock (4226).
         Topography was flat, with slopes of less than 2%. These forests
         were not generally considered swamps, but the soils were probably
         wet, with many vernal pools. Hemlock often comprised 40% or more
         of the overstory; other common species were American beech, eastern
         white-cedar, sugar maple, [American] elm, balsam fir, paper birch,
         white pine, white ash, black ash, basswood, (red]        maple, and
         (trembling] aspen.
              On the steeper portions of the clay plain, where    slopes were
         generally greater than 2%, Northern Hardwoods Forests    of American
         beech-sugar maple (4111) were numerous, sometimes comprising
         greater than 50% of the overstory. Hemlock was a much    less common
         species on these better drained sites.
              Sand Lakeplain. Sand lakeplain was not prevalent along the
         shoreline within the subdistrict except near Port Huron, St. Clair
         County, and in Tuscola County. The low dunes and relatively flat
         sand plain supported Upland Conifer Forests of Hemlock-white pine
         (4227). Small areas of Central Hardwoods, dominated by white oak

                                          55









         and black oak (4122) were also common near the shoreline, both on
         low beach ridges and sand dunes.
               Wetlands within the forested sand plain contained abundant
         black ash (4141). Along the border with clay lakeplain, Lowland
         Conifers dominated by tamarack (4233), and occasionally northern
         white-cedar (4231), were dominant, often forming a dense linear
         band.
               There were also extensive Emergent Marshes (6221) inland from
         the present Saginaw Bay shoreline. South of Bayport, a large 1/4
         to 1/2 mile wide marsh was several miles long. Old beach ridges
         from a much higher historic lake level (several thousand years ago)
         form the upland boundaries of this large marsh.
               Shoreline of Lake Huron and Saginaw Bay.        Extensive Great
         Lakes Marshes (6222) occurred along the entire coast of Saginaw
         Bay, and locally along the shore of Lake Huron southeast of Saginaw
         Bay. The marshes, which extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2
         miles wide in places, and extended for miles up major rivers such
         as the Quanicassee. Upland of the marshes there was typically a
         broad zones of swamp forest (414 or 423), but on large expanses of
         Saginaw Bay, 1-3 mi wide expanses of Lakeplain Prairie (6226)
         occurred
               Lak;plain (wet) Prairie was concentrated at the far
         northwestern edge of the subdistrict along Saginaw Bay, in Tuscola
         and Huron Counties. The wet prairie changed along with the water
         level of Lake Huron; during periods of low lake levels, prairie
         grasses and forbs dominated the broad swales, whereas marsh
         grasses, sedges, rushes, and cattails expanded into the prairies
         during high water periods.      within the coastal marshes and wet
         prairies were low beach ridges and sand spits that supported
         Lakeplain Oak Openings of white oak and black oak (331).
         Cottonwood and trembling aspen also occurred within the wet
         prairie. The GLO surveyors commented on the importance of the wet
         prairies for waterfowl.
               Expansive bands of parallel beach ridges and swales, called
         Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911), occupy some of the
         embayments along Saginaw Bay.       White pine dominated the beach
         ridges, along with some white oak and black oak, which were most
         common near the shoreline. Trembling aspen and paper birch were
         also common on the ridges of the complex. The wettest swales were
         dominated by floating and emergent aquatic plants, and were often
         noted as ponds by the surveyors. Ponds were typically found in the
         swales near to the shoreline, whereas further inland swales
         typically supported swamp forests of cedar, tamarack, and
         occasionally black ash.
               Medium-textured and Fine-textured End Moraine and Ground
         Moraine.    Central Hardwood Forest, American beech-sugar maple
         dominated (4121) grows on much of the moraines, which generally
         have better drainage conditions than the clay lakeplain.            The
         central hardwood forests of the moraines also supports lesser
         quantities of hemlock, basswood, white ash, and (red] maple.
               Wetlands are either in depressions within the moraines, on
         flat ground moraine, or at the base of slopes where moraines meet

                                           S6









         lakeplain. Lowland Hardwoods, black ash dominated (4141) is found
         in many of the wetland depressions within the moraines. Lowland
         Conifers, dominated by northern white-cedar (4231), occupies broad
         wetlands in footslope positions. These cedar swamps also contain
         tamarack, balsam f ir, hemlock, and some white pine, along with
         birch, [trembling) aspen and other hardwoods.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE:    Extensive areas of windthrown f orest were
         recorded in the GLO notes.     These extensive windthrows are the
         result of a combination of strong winds off Lake Huron and poorly
         drained soils. Windthrow appears to have been more common within
         the wetlands and on the flattest parts of the lakeplain.
              Water level fluctuations of 2-3 f t are common along the Great
         Lakes shorelines, causing tree mortality, shoreline erosion, major
         alteration in species composition of marshes and wet prairies.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Most clay lands have been ditched and tiled and
         are among the most valued agricultural lands in the state.
         Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for agriculture, but
         the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest, wet prairie, or
         marsh. Diking and pumping has allowed vast expanses of wet prairie
         and some areas of marsh to be farmed, especially along Saginaw Bay.
              organic soils were burned to improve their suitability for
         agriculture.   References to this practice are found in the Bay
         County (Wonser 1934), Tuscola County (Deeter and Matthews 1931),
         Saginaw County (Moon 1938), and St. Clair County (Deeter 1934) Soil
         Surveys. One to four percent of the land surface of these counties
         had burned-over organic soils on clay. Burnt muck soils overlying
         sand occupied less than 1% of the land surface and those on marl
         usually less than 0.1%.    The muck soils over sand were of less
         value for farming and were therefore seldom purposefully burned.
         Following burning, most of the clay soils required further drainage
         to be suitable for agriculture.
              Native American settlements were common along the shorelines
         of the Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. Indian fires were
         probably responsible for maintaining oak savannas on the beach
         ridges near Saginaw Bay.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
              Residential construction has caused the destruction of large
         portions of Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911). It is common to
         see numerous drives built across swales, severely impacting natural
         hydrologic processes. Portions of these complexes remain intact in
         and around Sleeper State Park, and at Pointe Aux Barques.
              Almost all of the Hemlock forest (4226) has been converted to
         agricultural lands. Extensive drainage systems have impacted the
         hydrology of the clay lands that originally supported hemlock.
              On portions of the clay plain American beech and eastern
         hemlock are the co-dominants, with very little sugar maple. White
         birch, white pine, and very locally balsam fir are present. This
         list of species consists primarily of species normally considered
         Northern Hardwoods Forest.     This f orest type is found on the

                                          57









         f latter ground moraine and on clay lakeplain.    Most lands which
         contained this forest type have been farmed.
              Most of the clay lands in the northwestern part of the
         subdistrict that originally supported Aspen/birch forest (413) have
         been drained and converted to agriculture.       Young aspen/birch
         forests are encountered occasionally, generally following logging
         of the clay plain.
              Most of! the clay plain and moraine that supported Central
         Hardwood forest (4121) has been converted to agriculture.
         Occasionally small woodlots (20-40 acres) are encountered. These
         woodlots have generally been selectively logged at least once.
              Black   ash depressions     (4141)  persist   throughout    the
         subdistrict.   Many are too poorly drained to easily convert to
         agriculture.
              Some cedar-dominated wetlands (4231) persist, but most have
         been converted to agriculture.
              There were only small areas of inland Emergent marsh (6221)
         noted in the original surveys.    Portions of these marshes were
         drained and converted to agriculture, but portions also persist. as
         marsh, although these are probably shrubbier than originally due to
         adjacent alterations of drainage conditions.
              Large portions of the Great Lakes marshes (6222) persist,
         although boat slip and dock construction have altered large areas
         of marsh.
              Most of the Lakeplain prairie (6226) is wet prairies that has
         been converted to agriculture.    Maintenance of these lands f or
         agriculture of ten requires both ditching and pumping.    only the
         wettest portions of the wet prairie, typically within a mile of the
         shoreline, persist.













         DISTRICT 6. Saginaw: Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE: The growing season of this district is as long (153 days)
         as in districts at the southern boundary od the state.      Average
         annual extreme minimum temperature is 140F. Toward the northern
         end of the district, there is a sharp climatic gradient due to
         characteristic positions of air masses. The Arenac District to the
         north is separated from the Saginaw District on the basis of this
         gradient, with the Saginaw District being notably warmer.


                                         58









         SOILS,r GLACIAL LANDFORMS# AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The district is a
         relatively f lat plain of glacial lacustrine origin. The lacustrine
         deposits, which consist of sands and clays, are thickest along the
         farthest inland edge of the lake plain (up to 300 ft thick) and
         thinnest along the present shorelines of Lakes Huron, where they
         are generally 50 ft or less thick along Saginaw Bay.
              Clay sediments are generally quite thick on the lake plain,
         but several broad sand channels were created by glacial meltwater
         streams that. deposited sand into the shallow pro-glacial lakes.
         Many of these sand channels are several miles wide in this
         district, but the sand in them is generally only 5 to 10 f eet
         thick.
              Poorly drained mineral soils characterize the clay plain. The
         sand-channel deposits were reworked by wave action during higher
         levels of the Great Lakes, creating small sand dunes and spits and
         intervening depressions.    The resulting features are typically
         higher and have steeper slopes than any found on the clay lake
         plain. The soils of the dunes and spits is often excessively well
         drained, whereas that in the swales is poorly or very poorly
         drained. Several major streams flow across the sandy lake plain,
         including the Saginaw, Pine, Chippewa, and Tittabawassee Rivers.
              The subdistrict is underlain by Paleozoic bedrock; shale,
         marine limestone and dolomite. Bedrock is only locally exposed.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:
              Shoreline dunes and sand lakeplain.     Extensive Great Lakes
         Marshes (6222) occurred along Saginaw Bay.      The marshes, which
         extended into 4-5 ft deep water, were 1-2 miles wide in places, and
         extended for miles up major rivers such as the Quanicassee and
         Saginaw. Along the western shore of Saginaw Bay, the marshes were
         generally 1/8 to 1/2 mile wide, much narrower than along the
         southern edge of the bay.
              Shoreward of the marshes were extensive zones of Lakeplain
         Prairie (6226). These wet prairies extended several miles inland
         along the Quanicassee and Saginaw rivers, and occurred as far to
         the northwest as the Kawkawlin River (Bay County).         The wet
         prairies are probably quite variable in plant composition, ranging
         from true prairie grasses, such as big blue stem, indian grass, and
         cord grass, to blue joint grass and sedges closer to the marsh
         edges and in wetter depressions. They also contain a diversity of
         other aquatics, including rushes, bulrushes, cattails, reed grass,
         and willow or other shrubs.
              Within the coastal marshes and wet prairies were low beach
         ridges and sand spits that supported Lakeplain Oak Openings of
         white oak and black oak (331). There was also (trembling] aspen
         and other lowland hardwoods locally within the wet prairies.
              Inland of the coastal marshes and lakeplain prairies there was
         typically a broad band of lowland forest. Lowland Hardwood (414)
         was prevalent, with black ash, (American] elm, and [red] maple as
         common dominants.   There was often a component of tamarack and
         eastern hemlock within the swamps, and alder become common further
         to the north.


                                         59









               Lowland Conifer Swamps, dominated by tamarack (4233) often
          occurred broad depressions within the sand lakeplain, especially
          where these were located 1 or more miles inland from the present
          shoreline. Examples of such large tamarack swamps were near the
          Quanicassee River and inland from Tobico Marsh.
               Wooded Dune and Swale Complex (911) occurred inland of Tobico
          Marsh in Bay County. The vegetation of this complex was diverse.
          Many of the swales contained emergent marsh or shallow ponds, but
          lowland conifers and hardwoods occupied less wet swales. Upland
          beach ridges within the complex supported scattered white and red
          pine, along with white and black oak.
               Inland sand lakeplain.       Flat, inland expanses of sand
          lakeplain supported Upland Conifer Forest, dominated by eastern
          hemlock (4226), with some white pine and also black ash, elm, and
          other hardwoods. There were also hemlock-dominated Lowland Conifer
          Swamps (4237); these forests contained most of the same species
          described from the hemlock uplands, but they were described by the
          GLO surveyors as swamp.      on the f lat topography of the sand
          lakeplain, a. f ew inches of elevation can often result in changes of
          drainage class, making it difficult to determine whether an area
          should be called upland or wetland.           Seasonally, drainage
          conditions can also change; flooding is common in both spring and
          autumn.  It probably requires f airly intensive soil sampling to
          determine whether an area should be called upland or wetland on
          parts of the lakeplain.
               Clay lakeplain.    Central Hardwoods, dominated by American
          beech and sugar maple (4121), dominate the better drained portions
          of the clay plain at the southern end of Saginaw Bay.        Drainage
          conditions were locally better along the Saginaw River, resulting
          in upland forests, with increased levels of white oak near the
          river.  Many of the upland forests on clay plain were probably
          fairly moist, as indicated by the abundance of (American] elm,
          basswood, and black ash.
               Lowland Hardwoods (414) dominated large expanses of the clay
          plain.   Black ash, basswood, and (American] elm were common
          dominants, but tamarack and northern white-cedar were also present.
          The flat conditions of the clay lakeplain resulted in 'an
          intergrading of upland and wetland hardwoods on the landscape,
          making detailed mapping difficult.
               At the northern edge of the district, Upland Conifer Forest,
          dominated by Hemlock (4226), becomes common on the clay lakeplain.
          These forests also contained hardwood species; American beech was
          often the most common hardwood species, but black ash and
          (American] elm were sometimes equally common. Northern Hardwood
          Forest dominated by American beech-sugar maple (4111) replaced
          Central Hardwoods dominated by the same species (4121) north of the
          Saginaw River. North of the Saginaw River several species common
          in Northern Hardwoods Forest became common, including eastern
          hemlock, balsam fir, and white birch.
               Lowland Conifer Forest, dominated by tamarack (4233) occurred
          on the flat, poorly drained clay plain near the boundary with sand
          lakeplain.   This was probably most common near the Quanicassee

                                           60









         River, but occurred elsewhere in the district.
              Fine-textured ground moraine. Fine-textured ground moraine is
         often very flat and can be difficult to distinguish from clay
         lakeplain. For this reason, the plant communities found on clay
         lakeplain are also found on ground moraine. These include Upland
         Conifer Forest dominated by hemlock (4226), Northern Hardwoods
         Forest (4111) and Upland Central Hardwoods (4121) dominated by
         American beech and sugar maple, Lowland Hardwoods (414) dominated
         by black ash, basswood, and elm, and Lowland Conifers (423)
         dominated by tamarack (4233) or occasionally northern white-cedar
         (4231).
              Fine-textured end moraine.       Fine-textured end moraines
         generally have slopes greater than 2%, resulting in better drainage
         conditions than typically found on clay lakeplain. As a result,
         Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) or Central Hardwoods (4121)
         dominated by American beech and sugar maple are common. Associated
         trees include white oak, [American) elm, basswood, and birch.
         Hemlock and black ash are generally much less common than on the
         upland clay lakeplain.     At the northern edge of the district,
         hemlock becomes increasingly common, even on these well-drained
         forests.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Although extensive areas of windthrown forest
         are generally common near the Great Lakes shorelines, this district
         had no areas of windthrow noted in the GLO notes. It may be that
         the district's location, at the southern and western edge of
         Saginaw Bay, provided protection from the prevailing winds, thus
         greatly reducing the amount of windthrow.
              Water level fluctuations of 2-3 ft are common along Saginaw
         Bay shorelines, causing tree mortality, shoreline erosion, and
         major alteration in species composition of marshes and wet
         prairies. The surveyors noted such water-level fluctuations just
         a few miles east of the district at Fish Point.

         HUXAN LAND USE: Most clay lands have been ditched and tiled and
         are among the most valued agricultural lands in the state.
         Portions of the sand plain were also ditched for agriculture, but
         the wettest areas remain, either as swamp forest, wet prairie, or
         marsh. Diking and pumping has allowed vast expanses of wet prairie
         and some areas of marsh to be farmed, especially along Saginaw Bay.
              organic soils were burned to improve their suitability for
         agriculture.   References to this practice are found in the Bay
         County (Wonser 1934), Tuscola County (Deeter and Matthews 1931),
         Saginaw County (Moon 1938), and St. Clair County (Deeter 1934) Soil
         Surveys. One to four percent of the land surface of these counties
         had burned-over organic soils on clay. Burnt muck soils overlying
         sand occupied less than 1% of the land surface and those on marl
         usually less than 0.1%.    The muck soils over sand were of less
         value for farming and were therefore seldom purposefully burned.
         Following burning, most of the clay soils required further drainage
         to be suitable for agriculture.
              Indian settlements were common along the shorelines of the

                                          61








          Great Lakes, primarily upon beach ridges. Oak savannas (Lakeplain
          Oak Openings) were probably maintained on beach ridges near the
          shoreline of Saginaw Bay by Indian land management with fire.

          IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
                Much of the Great Lakes Marsh (6222) persists, as it is too
          poorly drained to be converted to agricultural use. In some of the
          broadest areas of marsh    '  near the Quanicassee River, diking and
          pumping has allowed portions of the marsh to be farmed. A much
          greater portion of the marsh has been.altered, either by diking and
          ponding for waterfowl management, by boat slip or marina
          development, of filling for urban industrial uses. During surveys
          of Great Lakes Marshes during the summer of 1988 (MNFI 1988), major
          alteration in the marshes were noted at Coryeon Point, Tobico
          Marsh, Nayanquing Point, and Pinconning.
                The majority of the Lakeplain (wet] prairie has been ditched
          and tiled for agriculture.        Some areas of wet prairie require
          pumping of fields to maintain conditions dry enough for farming.
          Small areas of prairie persist along the upland edges of Great
          Lakes Marsh, but this accounts for relatively small acreage.
          Extensive areas of prairie were altered or destroyed along the
          Saginaw and Quanicassee rivers.
                Most of the Lakeplain Oak Openings (331) occurred on small
          beach ridges within either Great Lakes Marsh or Lakeplain Prairie.
          Many of these openings have become closed-canopy oak forests; they
          may have required fires to maintain open conditions.            Near the
          shoreline, and to some degree further inland, the beach ridges that
          support oak openings were popular residential sites.
                Most of the acreage originally covered by Lowland hardwoods
          (414)    has   been converted to agriculture,           facilitated      by
          construction of drainage ditches and tiling. Occasionally Lowland
          Hardwoods persist where they occupied depressions in the landscape
          that were difficult to drain.          They also persist immediately
          adjacent to the Saginaw Bay shoreline, where drainage conditions
          were too poor for conversion to agriculture.
                Most of the acreage originally covered by Tamarack swamp
          (4233)    has been converted to agriculture, facilitated by
          construction of drainage ditches and tiling. occasionally tamarack
          swamps persist where they occupied depressions in the landscape
          that were difficult to drain.
                Almost all areas of lowland hemlock (4237) has been converted
          to agriculture. Drainage ditches and tiles have facilitated this
          conversion.
                Almost all beech-sugar maple-basswood forests (4121) have been
          converted to agriculture.       Drainage and tiling was required to
          allow most of these fine-textured lacustrine soils to be farmed         :
                Almost all beech-sugar maple-yellow birch forests (4111) in
          the northern portion of the district have been converted to
          agriculture.     Drainage and tiling was required to allow most of
          these fine-textured lacustrine soils to be farmed.
                Almost all hemlock-dominated uplands (4226) have been farmed;
          most of the sandy or clayey lacustrine soils that supported this

                                              62









         community were somewhat poorly drained and required drainage.













         REGION II: Northern Lower Michigan.

         REGIONAL CLIMATE:     Most air masses cross the Great Lakes before
         entering this region, resulting in reduced continentality.
         Compared to areas of equivalent latitude in Wisconsin and
         Minnesota, the region is warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
         Lake effect snow and rain characterizes portions of the region
         within 20-30 miles of the Great Lakes shorelines.
               The growing season ranges from 70 days inland to 150 days
         along the shoreline of Lake Michigan (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
         Annual precipitation ranges from 28 to 34 inches. Average annual
         snowfall ranges from 40 inches inland to 140 inches along Lake
         Michigan (lake-effect snows). Extreme minimum temperatures are
         -28OF along Lakes Michigan and Huron, and -50OF inland.















         DISTRICT 7. Arenac.
         SUBDISTRICT 7.1. Standish: Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE: Located along the northwest shore of Saginaw Bay, this
         district has a growing season length is 130 to 150 days (Eichenlaub
         1990), which is significantly shorter than the adjacent Saginaw
         District to the south. The extreme minimum temperature is -26 to -
         300F.    Precipitation is relatively uniform throughout the growing
         season.    Average annual precipitation is 28 to 30 inches and
         average annual snowfall is 40 to 50 inches.


                                            63









         SOILSo GLACIAL LANDFORKS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The district is a
         flat clay and sand lake plain, part of the Saginaw lakeplain to the
         south. The northern third of the district is a large glacial delta
         that has thick, droughty sand soils. The Au Sable and Rifle rivers
         have created a deep, steeply eroded gorges through the thick sands
         (Dorr and Eschman 1984; Burgis 1977). Within the lake plain, there
         are large, poorly drained embayments several miles in area; most of
         which are located several miles inland from the present Great lakes
         shoreline. Within these embayments there are often numerous small,
         steeply sided, transverse dune ridges.
              The soils of the lake plain are very poorly, poorly, and
         excessively drained sands or well, moderately well, and poorly
         drained clay loams and clays.     The soils on the small areas of
         ground and end' moraine are primarily moderately well drained or
         well drained loams and clays.
              Glacial drift is    100-200 feet thick.    Underlying bedrock
         consists of Jurassic sandstone, shale, and clay with minor
         limestone and gypsum, Pennsylvanian sand, silt, clay, shale,
         limestone, and coal,    and Mississippian limestone and gypsum,
         sandstone, and shale (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984).

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:    The flat clay plain supported forests
         of hemlock (4226) and American beech, sugar maple, and basswood
         (4111) on well drained sites, with greater amounts of hemlock, and
         white pine on more poorly drained sites. On poorly drained sites,
         there were also extensive tamarack (4233), cedar (4231), black ash
         (4141), and maple (4143) swamps. Alder/willow (6122) swamps were
         also found on the clay lakeplain.
              Sandy lakeplain contained extensive cedar (4231), tamarack
         (4233) and black ash-dominated (4141) swamps. Hemlock, white pine,
         and maple dominated swamps were also found here.
              Great Lakes Marsh (6222) and Lakeplain Prairies (6226) were
         also located on sandy lakeplain along the Saginaw Bay shoreline in
         Arenac County.    The higher beach ridges on the lakeplain were
         dominated by white pine and red oak.
              Loamy or clayey soils on the flat ground or end moraines
         supported forests of hemlock (4226) and Northern Hardwoods (4111)
         with sugar maple, American beech, white pine, and hemlock.        The
         f ine-textured end moraine located just west of Tawas contains sandy
         soils on it's surface.    It supported jack pine barrens (333) and
         open, burnt-over grasslands (31).
              The large embayments supported bogs (6121) or shrub swamps
         (6122) with stunted trembling aspen or jack pine. The transverse
         dune ridges supported open oak-pine (334) woodlands.
              At the northern edge of the subdistrict, the delta of the Au
         Sable River supported jack pine-dominated Barrens (333), with white
         pine, red pine, and some black oak and white oak on fire-protected
         sites.


         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrow was common in the forests near the
         Great Lakes shoreline, resulting from a combination of strong winds
         off Lake Huron, flat topography, and poor drainage conditions.

                                          64









         Water level fluctuations along the Great Lakes shoreline resulted
         in cyclical floristic variation within the coastal marshes and
         extensive mortality within the coastal swamp forests.
               Fire was noted as common on the jack pine-dominated Barrens
         (333) of the Au Sable River delta.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Agricultural land use is less intensive on this
         portion of the lake plain than in subdistricts further south, due
         to both colder climatic conditions and a prevalence of sandy soils.
         Drainage has occurred on both the clay lake plain and on the flat
         portions of the loamy or clayey ground and end moraines.        Clay
         soils on the lake plain are used as pasture. Moraines are farmed
         f or both row crops and pasture.      Sandy soils have been less
         intensively converted to agriculture than on other portions of lake
         plain further south.
              Much of the poorly or excessively drained lake plain is
         managed for either timber or recreational use. The delta of the Au
         Sable is managed largely by the Huron National Forest for timber.
         Both jack pine and red pine plantations cover much of the delta.
              A large strip mine is located just north of Huron Heights.
         Urban development in this subdistrict is most intensive around
         Tawas, Standish, and Au Gres.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The moraines and clay lake
         plain have generally been converted to agricultural use and no
         longer support the presettlement forest.
              Natural vegetation remains on much of the droughty or poorly
         drained sand lake plain, but white pine and red pine regeneration
         has generally been poor, and either aspen or oak regeneration are
         now characteristic.
              The jack pine-dominated Barrens (333) of the Au Sable River
         delta have been converted to closed-canopy plantations of jack pine
         or red pine.
              Some of the swamps along the Lake Huron shoreline have been
         converted to agriculture, but those which persist appear to have
         forest compositions relatively similar to those recorded in the GLO
         notes.
              Many of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222) along Lake Huron have
         been manipulated for waterfowl management with dikes being
         constructed on many of the marshes for water control. Small areas
         of marsh remain intact. Small remnants of Lakeplain Prairie may
         also exist here.      Surveys of some prairie remnants in 1988,
         immediately following 1986-87 high lake-water levels, indicated
         possible prairie flora with less diversity than typical of prairies
         to the south. Further surveys are needed in this area.
              Boat slips and channels have also been constructed along many
         sections of shoreline, resulting in varying degrees of marsh
         destruction..






                                          65





















         DISTRICT 10    Manistee: End Moraine,, Dune Sand,, and Sand Lake
                        Plain.

         CLIMATE: A strong lake modified climate results in a long growing
         season of 140 to 150 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990). Annual average
         extreme minimum temperature is 160F.         The extreme minimum
         temperature is -320F. Retarded spring warming coupled with a long
         growing season make the climate suitable for commercial fruit
         production. Lake-effect snowfalls are heavy, averaging 100 to 140
         inches. The average annual precipitation is 32 to 34 inches. -

         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCZ GEOLOGY:    The district is
         characterized by diverse topography, including sand dunes, sand
         lake plain, ground and end moraines, and outwash.
              Glacial. drift is 400-800 feet thick; bedrock is not exposed.
         Underlying bedrock consists of Mississippian limestone, sandstone,
         and shale, and Devonian sandstone, shale, dolomite, limestone, and
         evaporates (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984).        Morainal
         bluffs and sand dunes rise abruptly along the shoreline of Lake
         Michigan.   Near Manisteet a broad, flat area of lake plain and
         ground moraine separates the more steeply sloping moraines into
         northern and southern parts. Elevations range from 580 ft on the
         Lake Michigan shore to 1150 ft on a large end-moraine ridge in
         Benzie County. The shoreline is noted for large, high sand dunes,
         including those of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore,
         Ludington State Park, and the Huron-Manistee National Forest.
         Glacial drift thickness averages between 400 and 700 ft for the
         entire district (Anonymous).
              Along the west edge of most of the district, steep morainic
         bluffs and sand dunes rise rapidly from 580 ft, at the shoreline,
         to 800-900 ft. Large, high sand dunes, up to 600 ft, are found near
         Ludington and at other coastal locations. These high dunes date
         from high Lake Nipissing water levels (Kelley 1962).           Large
         Nipissing-age dunes are also found on North and South Manitou
         islands and on South Fox Island. Most of the high dunes, both on
         the mainland. and on the islands, are perched on underlying till.
         The till, varying in texture from gravelly sand to clay, is exposed
         on the steep lake bluf f .   The dune soils are excessively well
         drained sands containing no fine silts or clays.
              Many large lakes along the shoreline, including Crystal,

                                         66









         Betsie, Hamlin, White, Silver, and Muskegon lakes, are f ormer bays
         of Lake Michigan or lower reaches of streams, that were separated
         from Lake Michigan by the development of sandbars across the mouth
         of the bay or stream (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
              Coarse--textured end-moraine ridges are the predominant
         landforms irk the south and also north of Manistee. In the south,
         the end moraines, 3-5 mi wide and 100-300 ft high, are separated by
         1-3 mi wide outwash channels. North of Manistee, the end-moraine
         ridges are much steeper and without broad outwash channels between
         them as compared to ridges in the south. Most of the soils on the
         end moraines are well drained sands.
              Between Manistee     and Frankfort,     resistant   bluffs    of
         medium-textured till rise steeply from the lake, forming moderately
         to steeply sloping end-moraine ridges. To the east of these ridges
         are steep ridges of sandy soil.
              In the southern half of the district, there are small areas of
         more gently sloping, fine-textured ground and end moraines. Most
         of the soils are well drained.
              Between Ludington and Manistee is a broad expanse of f lat sand
         lake plain and f ine-textured ground moraine.     Much of the lake
         plain consists of wet depressions and small, droughty beach ridges.
         Most of the ground moraine is poorly drained.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Most concentrated at Sleeping Bear Dunes
         National Lakeshore, Big Sable Point, and Little Sable Point, the
         dunes were noted as "loose sands" and undoubtedly, in places,
         vegetated with dune grasses and shrubs. But farther inland, they
         support a variety of forests, including upland hemlock (4226),
         hemlock/white pine (4227), white pine/red pine (4216), and red
         pine/jack pine (4215) dominated forests. Northern Hardwood Forests
         (4111), often with a significant component of hemlock and/or black
         oak, were also common. Poorly drained interdunal areas, such as
         those at Point Betsie, often supported cedar (4231) and/or hemlock
         (4237) dominated swamps and shrub swamps (612).
              Forests with Hemlock and beech were co-dominant (4119) on
         sandy lakeplain and sandy moraines.     This forest type was found
         north of Pentwater, and south of Manistee. Other upland portions
         of the sandy lake plain included White Pine Forests (4211), which
         included significant amounts of white oak, beech, hemlock, black
         oak, and white ash. Several large Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes
         (911), supporting a variety of upland/wetland plant communities,
         are found on the sandy lakeplain in and around the Sleeping Bear
         Dunes National Lakeshore (The current vegetation of these complexes
         is described in detail in the 1993 CZM report [MNFI 1993]). Poorly
         drained portions of the sandy lakeplain supported black ash (4141),
         elm (4142), aspen (4146), tamarack (4233), cedar (4231), and
         hemlock-dominated (4227) swamps. Willow/Alder/Bog Birch Thickets
         (6122), Emergent Marshes (6221), and Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
         were also found on the sandy lakeplain.      As with further south
         along the Lake Michigan shoreline, Great Lakes Marshes were
         associated with inland lakes which formed at the mouths of major
         rivers, such as the Manistee and Big Sable.

                                          67









              Northern Hardwood forests (4111) dominated most of the
         morainic soils, regardless of their soil texture. Their dominance
         was a result of the increased precipitation and reduced
         transpiration along Lake Michigan (Denton and Barnes 1987;
         Eichenlaub 1.979), allowing beech and sugar maple to dominate sandy
         soils where oaks and pines would otherwise be expected. For this
         reason, even the droughty sands of the dunes support moisture
         demanding species such as beech, sugar maple, and basswood.
         Hemlock dominated forest was also found on ground moraine with
         finer textured soils.    Poorly drained areas with finer textured
         soils supported black ash (4141), black spruce (4232), and cedar-
         dominated (4231) swamps.
               Sandy outwash deposits supported White pine/red pine (4216)
         forests and Red pine-dominated (4212) forests which included white
         oak and jack pine, and locally, Northern Hardwoods (4111).

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE:    Although many of the Nipissing dunes have
         been stabilized by forest vegetation, large blowouts are common on
         the dunes immediately adjacent to Lake Michigan.      Some of these
         blowouts are the product of human disturbance, but many, noted in
         the GLO, notes, are probably naturally caused.     The blowouts are
         large features. South Fox Island blowouts are in areas where timber
         was not harvested, probably indicating natural origin.       Some of
         these blowouts continue to move landward, burying and killing
         northern white-cedar trees that are 100-200 years old.
              Signs of recent wildfires were noted several times by
         surveyors on sandy outwash deposits. Occasional, relatively small
         windthrows were encountered on the moraine ridges of the district.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Native American Is f ields were noted south of Stony
         Lake, and northwest of Bear Lake at the time of the surveys. Early
         European settlements were already established at Manistee and both
         Manitou islands.
              Many of the end and ground moraines are used for orchards or
         vineyards. The protection from late spring frosts afforded by Lake
         Michigan is responsible for the utilization of the district f or
         extensive orchards of apples, cherries, and peaches (Olmsted 1951) .
              Sand mining occurred on the dunes within the district and oil
         f ields tap the underlying Devonian petroleum reservoirs in the
         south.
              Urban development in this subdistrict has been concentrated
         along the shoreline, in the town of Manistee, and several other
         smaller towns.


         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Many wetlands, where they
         occurred on f iner textured soils, were drained for agriculture.
         Probably due to man-made manipulations and some changes in dune
         configuration at the Big Sable dunes, the boundaries of Hamlin Lake
         have changed significantly since the time of the surveys.
              Today, the pine dominated forests, for the most part, include
         only scattered white/red pine, and more white/black oak and aspen
         than the presettlement condition.       Although Northern Hardwood

                                          68








         Forests (4111) in this subdistrict have been logged, species
         composition remains similar to presettlement conditions.












         DISTRICT 11: Leelanau and Grand Traverse Peninsula.
         SUBDISTRICT 11.1.      Williamsburg: Coarse-textured End-moraine
                             Ridges.
         SUBDISTRICT 11.2. Traverse City: Coarse-textured Drumlin Fields on
                             Ground moraine.

         CLIMATE:   The climate is strongly influenced by Lake Michigan;
         spring and early summer are cooler than the Highplains District to
         the east (Albert et al. 1986). The growing season is 110 to 150
         days, longest along the shoreline of Lake Michigan (Eichenlaub et
         al. 1990). A combination of early date of last freeze in spring,
         cool spring temperatures, and reduced thunderstorm severity result
         in creating an important area for commercial fruit production,
         primarily apples, cherries, and grapes. The lake-effect snowfall
         is heavy, averaging 100 to 140 inches annually.      Average annual
         precipitation is 30 to 34 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures are
         -320F along Lake Michigan and -400F inland.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: This district of
         drumlin f ields, coarse textured ground and end moraines, dunes, and
         sandy lakeplain, is located around Grand Traverse Bay and Lake
         Michigan. Bays of the lake and several long, narrow inland lakes
         divide the district into narrow peninsulas.       Two of the long,
         narrow lakes of the district, Torch and Elk lakes, were bays of
         Lake Michigan until they were cut off by sand deposition during
         Nipissing time (Dorr and Eschman 1984). Elevation ranges from 580
         ft along the Lake Michigan shoreline to 1095 ft inland. Underlying
         limestone bedrock is exposed in several places, and the glacial
         drift is less than 50 f t thick over much of the district (Akers
         1938; Anonymous).    The thickest drift, approximately 350 ft, is
         located just east of Lake Charlevoix. The glacial drift contains
         abundant limestone fragments derived from nearby bedrock. Most of
         the district is occupied by drumlin fields. The drumlins are long,
         narrow ridges, usually about 1/4 mi wide, 1 mi long, and less than
         100 ft high.    Slopes are moderate to steep, and the soils are
         gravelly sand and gravelly sandy loam, mostly well drained. Swamps
         and small lakes are found in depressions between many of the
         drumlins, but some depressions are relatively well drained.        In

                                          69









         western Charlevoix County, where the drumlin ridges are closely
         spaced, narrow deposits of thick organic soils, less than 1000 ft
         wide, separate adjacent drumlins. A narrow band of sandy lakeplain
         occurs along most large inland lake margins, and along Grand
         Traverse Bay, at the northeast end of the Leelanau Peninsula and at
         the south extreme of the bay.       Coarse texture end moraine and
         outwash deposits lie along the south end of the district.
         Throughout the district, most of the poorly drained soils were
         shallow or deep organic deposits rather than poorly drained mineral
         soils.    Narrow, somewhat low sand dunes border the western
         shorelines of the Leelanau Peninsula, Mission Peninsula, and of
         Charlevoix and Antrim counties. This dune border is typically less
         than a mile wide, accounting for a only a small percentage of the
         district's surface area.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:     Northern Hardwood Forests (4111) of
         American beech, sugar maple, basswood, yellow birch, and hemlock
         characterized the upland portions of the drumlin fields, while
         eastern white-cedar (4231) dominated most of the wetlands between
         the drumlins.
              Northern white-cedar is common in the wetlands due to the
         calcareous soils.    It was dominant also on the sandy lakeplain
         bordering many inland lakes and Grand Traverse Bay. Small Wooded
         Dune and Swale Complexes (911) are located on sandy lakeplain at
         the south end of the east arm of Grand Traverse Bay, and on the
         west side of the Mission Peninsula at Bowers Harbor. Shrub swamps
         (612) also were found on the sandy lakeplain.          Other wetland
         species present include balsam fir, hemlock, white pine, white
         spruce, red maple, American elm, and trembling aspen.
              On the dunes, Northern Hardwoods Forests (4111) of beech,
         sugar maple, red maple, red oak, hemlock, white pine, and
         hop-hornbeam were found.
              A small portion of medium textured ground moraine located
         northwest of Elk Lake supported Black Ash Swamp (4141).
              The vegetation on the well drained soils of the end-moraine
         ridge at the southern edge of the district was Northern Hardwood
         Forest (4111) dominated by sugar maple, beech, and hemlock. More
         xeric sandy moraines supported white and red pines (4216) inter-
         mixed with white and red oaks.
              The excessively drained outwash sands, restricted to the
         southern boundary of the district, supported forests of red pines
         (4212), and occasionally whitd pine (4211).          Poorly drained
         portions of the outwash supported cedar-dominated (4231) swamps.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted in several of the black
         ash and cedar/hemlock dominated swamps close to the shoreline.
         Windthrows were also recorded in cedar swamps on poorly drained
         outwash deposits at the south end of the district.
              Recent wildfires were noted by surveyors near the shore along
         the eastern Leelanau Peninsula, and behind sand dunes along the
         east shore of Grand Traverse Bay.


                                           70









         HUMAN LAND USE:      Surveyors noted Native American land uses
         including small fields and maintained sugar bushes.
              Today, the district contains numerous orchards and vineyards.
         The lake-moderated climate and the rich, calcareous soils both add
         to the district's agricultural value.    The steeper drumlins are
         used for pasture. Most of the excessively drained outwash deposits
         are in state forest lands.
              Urban development in this district is most concentrated around
         Traverse City. A number of smaller towns, highways, and shoreline
         development also characterize land use in this area.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Agriculture has replaced
         much of the upland forests which characterized this district.
         Most of the wetlands which occupied the poorly drained soils
         between drumlin and morainic ridges have been altered; often for
         use as pasture.    others are completely surrounded by intensive
         agriculture.
              Urban development around Traverse City has eliminated most of
         the pine/oak forest that once occupied the sandy lakeplain there.












         DISTRICT 12. Presque Isle.

         CLIMATE: The climate of much of the district is moderated by Lake
         Michigan and Lake Huron (Albert et al. 1986). The growing season
         is 140 days long near the Lake Huron shoreline, but at the inland
         margin of the district (Atlanta, a town near this inland border)
         the growing season is only 110 days (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
         There is a greater chance of late spring and early fall freezes
         farther inland. Winter snowfall is high throughout the district,
         ranging from 70 to 140 inches, but lake-effect snowfall is greatest
         in the west, near Lake Michigan. Average annual precipitation is
         28 to 32 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures are as cold as -400F
         inland, but only -280F along the Great Lakes shorelines.









                                          71























         DISTRICT 12. PreSqUG IS16-
         SUBDISTRICT 12. 1. Onaway: DrUMlin Fields on Coarse-textured Ground
                            moraine.
         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORNSi, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict has
         rolling to moderately sloping ground-moraine topography. Drumlins
         are common on the ground moraine of the eastern three-quarters of
         the subdistrict. 'In the drumlin f ields, individual ridges are
         typically separated by poorly drained outwash. The western quarter
         of the subdistrict contains several large lakes and large areas of
         lake plain interspersed with small ground-moraine deposits. The
         lacustrine deposits are from early Algonquin time, when the small
         ground-moraine deposits remained as "islands" above the level of
         glacial Lake Algonquin (Burgis and Eschman 1981; Dorr and Eschman
         1984).
              The elevation of the district ranges from 595 to 975 ft.
         Elevations are generally lower to the northeast near Lake Huron and
         higher to the southwest along the boundary with the Vanderbilt
         Subdistrict. Small areas of exposed limestone bedrock are common
         in the ground moraine. The glacial drift thickness increases to
         several hundred feet at the southern and western edges of the
         subdistrict (Haag 1976).
              The rolling hills and drumlins of the eastern section of
         ground moraine, characterized by slopes in the 0-12% slope class,
         have highly variable drainage and soil texture. Gravelly sandy
         loams are common.     The gravel and angular rock fragments are
         predominantly limestone, derived from bedrock at the northern edge
         of the drumlin fields (Burgis and Eschman 1981).       The glacial
         deposits within the drumlin fields are primarily brown, sandy
         tills, but locally these are overlain by red, sandy till or
         lacustrine   deposits.      Readvancing   glaciers   sculpted    the
         southeastward-trending drumlin fields. Most of the drumlins are
         less than 60 ft high, 1/8-1/4 mi wide, and about 1 mi long. Yarst
         topography is also present on the ground moraine of the
         subdistrict.
              Moderately well to well drained sands and sandy loams typify
         the drumlins.    The depressions between the drumlins, that are
         generally poorly drained, constitute a greater portion of the
         landscape than the drumlin ridges.
              The ground moraine is also broken by a broad outwash channel
         west of the town of Hawks. Soils of the channel vary from sand to

                                          72









         gravel and drainage conditions vary from excessively well drained
         to very poorly drained. The outwash contains several kettle lakes.
              Glacial. drift is as thick as 500 feet at the inland margin of
         the district, and discontinuous within 30 miles the shorelines of
         Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. The underlying bedrock consists of
         Mississippian and Devonian marine and near-shore sedimentary
         deposits (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984).         Limestone,
         dolomite, and gypsum are locally exposed and mined.         Devonian
         bedrock in the district is a source for salt, brine, and major
         petroleum reservoirs (Dorr and Eschman 1984).

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Most of the drumlins of the district
         supported northern hardwood forest (4111), dominated by sugar
         maple, beech, basswood, hop-hornbeam, white ash, and hemlock. In
         the southeast and near Black Lake, some sandy drumlins surrounded
         by droughty outwash supported red pine forest (4212), with red oak,
         and bigtooth aspen. Some of the smaller, low drumlin ridges were
         dominated by hemlock (4226) or a mix of hemlock and white pine
         (4227); similar upland conifer stands were found on the smaller
         drumlin ridges in Menominee County (Subdistrict 15.1).
              The poorly drained outwash and ground moraine surrounding the
         drumlins typically supported forested wetlands of northern white-
         cedar (4231).    Cedar was commonly the dominant at the upland
         margins of wetlands, but increasing amounts of tamarack and black
         spruce occurred in   the center of the wetlands.     Other species
         observed in these forested wetlands included trembling aspen,
         balsam poplar, paper birch, black ash, white pine, hemlock, willow,
         and speckled alder.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted along the boundary with
         Subdistrict 12.3 (Cheboygan Lakeplain), but most of these
         windthrows occurred on the lakeplain, not on the moraines of this
         subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE:     Most of the drumlin ridges were cleared for
         agriculture, primarily for pasture, but also for some row crops and
         potatoes. The soils are very rocky, and the rocks form huge mounds
         on the landscape; many have also been built into fieldstone houses.
         Some of the wetlands have also been drained for pasture, but most
         remain intact.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:      The northern hardwood
         forests (4111) have almost all been cleared for agriculture, but
         some remain as woodlots. Most of the cedar swamps remain intact.









                                          73




















         SUBDISTRICT 12.2. Stutsmanville: Steep Sand Ridges.

         SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:        This small
         subdistrict is characterized by large, broad ridges of sandy ground
         moraines, some nearly 500 ft high.      Glacial drift thickness is
         generally several hundred feet thick.
              The soils are primarily well drained sands and sandy loams.
         The moderate to steep slopes of the subdistrict account for the
         well drained soils. The narrow, often steep valleys between the
         ridges are poorly or very poorly drained, but they account for only
         a small part of the subdistrict's surface area.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:      The predominant vegetation of the
         subdistrict is Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) dominated by beech,
         sugar maple, hemlock, basswood, hop-hornbeam, and yellow birch.
         Lowlandsl restricted to relatively narrow valleys between the
         ridges, are dominated by northern white-cedar (4231), or
         occasionally tamarack (4233) or mixed conifers (423). The largest
         wetland noted was approximately 1.5 square miles in area.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE:      No natural disturbances were noted by
         surveyors in this subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Several Native American fields were noted with one
         to two miles of the shoreline on the sloping ridges of this
         subdistrict.   Following European settlement, most of the forests
         were logged, but little agricultural development has occurred on
         the large, steep ridges.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:       Most of the wetlands
         persist, although all have undoubtedly been logged.      The upland
         forests probably contain less white pine and hemlock today than the
         presettlement, condition.








                                          74




















         SUBDISTRICT 12.3. Cheboygan: Lake Plain.

         SOILS# GLACIAL LANDFORNSp AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:       The subdistrict
         forms a narrow band of sandy lake plain, 2-10 mi wide, along the
         shoreline of Lake Huron in northeastern Lower Michigan. Although
         a veneer of sand covers a large part of the subdistrict's surface,
         limestone bedrock is near the surface of almost the entire
         subdistrict, and exposed bedrock and cobble beaches are common.
         Similar to other sand lake plains in the state, much of the
         topography is a series of beach ridges and adjacent wet
         depressions, locally extending several miles inland.       These dune
         and swale complexes are well developed in Sturgeon Bay of Lake
         Michigan and east of Cheboygan and along Hammond Bay of Lake Huron.
         Sand dunes, low foredunes, sand spits, and beach ridges line much
         of the shoreline. The Original Swamp Map of Michigan (Lane 1907)
         shows most of the subdistrict as swamp. The elevation ranges from
         580 ft along Lake Huron to 750 ft inland.
               West of Rogers City, the surface soil is primarily sand. Sand
         depth and the surface features are quite variable.       The Ocqueoc
         River, in northwestern Presque Isle County, cuts through thick sand
         deposits that extend landward for greater than a mile.           These
         deposits are relatively flat, and their origin is unclear. Large
         Nipissing age dunes are located near Sturgeon Bay, on Lake Michigan
         (Dorr and Eschman 1984). Most of the dunes on Lake Huron are much
         smaller; the largest of these are 30-40 ft high near 40 Mile Beach.
               Series of low beach ridges and depressions are very common in
         embayments, commonly extending three-quarters of a mile or more
         inland.   Near present lake level, the depressions are typically
         poorly drained and sometimes ponded. Farther inland depressions
         become better drained; in some places they are excessively drained,
         as are adjacent beach ridges.
               Inland from the beach ridges and depressions are extensive
         flat, featureless areas of sand lake plain that are usually poorly
         drained.    Within these broad tracts occur low sandy rises with
         slightly better drainage.
               Exposed limestone bedrock and thick deposits of cobbles are
         common southeast of Rogers City. Waves have eroded the limestone
         bedrock into steep bluffs. organic soils cover the cobbles, but
         fire, which was widespread throughout this portion of the lake
         plain at the time of the GLO surveys, has destroyed much of the

                                           7S









          organic cover, leaving bare cobbles.
               Karst depressions occur locally around Long Lake.           Long,
          Grand, and Grass lakes have long and linear basins formed by
          glacial erosion of the underlying bedrock; the orientation of these
          lakes is similar to that of the drumlins in adjacent Subdistrict
          12.1.
               Glacial. drift is discontinuous near the shorelines of Lake
          Michigan and Lake Huron.      The underlying bedrock consists of
          Mississippian and Devonian marine and near-shore sedimentary
          deposits (Millstein 1987, Dorr and Eschman 1984).           Limestone,
          dolomite, and gypsum are locally exposed and mined.           Devonian
          bedrock in the district is a source f or salt, brine, and major
          petroleum reservoirs (Dorr and Eschman 1984).

          PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Large areas of f lat, poorly drained sand
          lakeplain were dominated by Lowland Conifer Forests (423).         The
          conifer species most common dominant on the lakeplain was northern
          white-cedar (4231). Northern white-cedar dominated in areas where
          there was some lateral water movement and formed dense stands.at
          the seepy, calcareous margins of the adjacent subdistrict (12.1).
          Tamarack (4233) was also a common dominant, and often was found
          growing with cedar; it was more common where drainage conditions
          were more impeded.     Numerous other species were common in the
          extensive wetlands of the subdistrict, including balsam fir, black
          spruce, eastern hemlock, white pine, balsam poplar, trembling
          aspen, paper birch, speckled alder, and shrub willows.
               White pine and red pine (4216) were common co-dominants on the
          well drained, low sandy ridges of the lakeplain, especially near
          the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron shorelines. These pines also grew
          together on gravelly or rocky sites near the Lake Huron shoreline.
               Hemlock and white pine (4227) were also common co-dominants,
          often where -the drainage conditions were slightly poorer than where
          white pine and red pine grew together. Birch/ (trembling] aspen
          (413) and aspen (4146) also occurred locally on f lat to rolling
          portions of the sand lakeplain.
               Near the Ocqueoc River, where droughty outwash sands extended
          f or several miles inland from the shore, there were extensive
          stands of jack pine (4213) and red pine/jack pine (4215). These
          stands also contained red oak and some white pine.
               The areas of Wooded Dune and Swale complex (911) near Sturgeon
          Bay and Cheboygan contained ridges of white pine and red pine and
          swales dominated by either northern white-cedar and other conifers,
          or if they were flooded, by emergent marsh. The Wooded Dune and
          Swale Complex at Hammond Bay was drier; the ridges were dominated
          by white pine and red pine near the shoreline, with jack pine and
          northern pin oak becoming more common further inland. The swales
          were typically narrow; the drier ones supported balsam fir, aspen,
          and other upland species, and the wetter swales supported cedar,
          tamarack, and other lowland conifers or hardwoods.         Along the
          shoreline, Great Lakes Marsh (6222) occurred within the Wooded Dune
          and Swale Complexes.
-of            Calcareous ponds (52) occurred near the shoreline; these ponds

                                           76









         were sometimes dominated by Emergent Marsh (6221) or small diameter
         tamarack cedar, and occasional black spruce.
              AltLugh Northern Hardwoods (4111) were not generally
         extensive in the subdistrict, some large tracts were located around
         Long and Grand Lakes, along the Cheboygan and Black Rivers, and
         locally along the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron shorelines.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Several windthrows were noted; the largest of
         these were less than 2 square miles in area. The windthrows were
         concentrated near the boundary of the lakeplain with the drumlins
         of Subdistrict 13.1.  Windthrows were also recorded on Hog, Garden,
         and High islands.
              There were also  two large areas of burnt timber. These burns
         were not noted in the f irst survey (of the township lines) , and may
         have been the result of early logging operations near Cheboygan,
         where log mills were   already noted in the first survey. Several
         square miles of timber were burned near Cheboygan and several more
         were burned near Thompson I s Harbor and Grand Lake. Mixed stands of
         white pine and red pine (4216) appeared to be the f orest type most
         impacted by the fires. Wildfires were also noted on Garden and Hog
         islands.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Early European activity was apparent at Cheboygan
         at the time of the surveys. Limestone in this subdistrict has been
         quarried at several locations, including near Alpena, Grand Lake,
         Adams Point, and Rogers city.     Residential development has also
         been concentrated along the shoreline.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:         Logging has greatly
         altered the forest composition of many upland forest types,
         especially those dominated by white pine, red pine, or hemlock.
         Most of the wetlands have also been logged. No major changes of
         wetland f orest composition have been noted; northern white-cedar
         has generally regenerated well     on the calcareous soils    of the
         lakeplain.












         REGION III. Eastern Upper Michigan.

         REGIONAL CLIMATE: Due to northern latitude and the close proximity
         of Lake Michigan, Lake Superior, and Lake Huron, the region has a
         cool lacustrine climate.    most air masses cross the Great Lakes

                                          77









         before entering this region, resulting in reduced continentality.
         Compared to areas of equivalent latitude in Wisconsin and
         Minnesota, the region is warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
         The lakes also reduce the severity of thunderstorms. Lake effect
         snow and rain characterizes portions of the region near the Great
         Lakes shorelines. Much more snowfall occurs in the northeastern
         part of the region than in the southwestern parts.        Much of the
         region is relatively low in elevation, and most physiographic
         features do not appreciably influence climate.
              The growing season length is less than 100 days inland and up
         to 150 days along the Great Lakes shorelines (Eichenlaub et al.
         1990). Annual precipitation ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Annual
         snowfall ranges from 180 inches of lake-effect snow along Lake
         Superior to 60 inches inland. Extreme minimum temperatures range
         from -28OF along the Lakes Superior and Michigan to -460F inland.












         DISTRICT 13. Mackinac.

         CLIMATE: The district is moderated by the Great Lakes and as a
         result, is the warmest district in Upper Michigan.        The growing
         season for the district as a whole is 125 days (Eichenlaub et al.
         1990).   Extreme minimum temperatures is         -290F.    Lake-effect
         snowfall occurs throughout the district, most commonly in the
         Rudyard Subdistrict. The St. Ignace and Escanaba subdistricts are
         also warmer than the Rudyard Subdistrict.            Average annual
         precipitation ranges from 30 to   34 inches.












         DISTRICT 13 Mackinac.
         SUBDISTRICT 13.1. St. Ignace: Limestone Bedrock and Sand Lake
                                         Plain.


                                           78









          SOILSr GLACIAL LANDFORKS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:           The entire
          subdistrict is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician age sedimentary
          bedrock, principally limestone and dolomite, but also including
          less resistant shale and gypsum (Dorr and Eschman 1984).          The
          resistant Niagaran series dolomite and limestone of Silurian age
          form the Niagaran Escarpment, which is locally exposed as cliffs
          and limestone pavement (alvar) along the Lake Michigan shoreline
          from the Stonington Peninsula in the west to Drummond Island at the
          far eastern edge of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and eastward
          to Cockburn Island, Manitoulan Island, and the Bruce Peninsula of
          Ontario. The underlying bedrock is typically less than 50 ft below
          the surface of the glacial drift (Vanlier and Deutsch 1958;
          Sinclair 1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963). Limestone is mined in several
          places within the subdistrict.
               A wide variety of landforms of glacial lacustrine origin
          characterize the subdistrict; including f lat lake bed, deltaic
          deposits of sand, parabolic dune f ields, and shallow embayments
          containing transverse dunes.
               Large areas consist of lacustrine sand deposits that have f lat
          to gently undulating surfaces.     On this topography, only a few
          inches of elevation change can greatly alter drainage conditions.
          Drainage conditions also depend on depth to underlying bedrock or
          fine-textured substrate.
               Ground moraine is locally present.      Exposed limestone and
          dolomite bedrock form flat, pavement-like areas and breccia
          chimneys are locally exposed.
               Soils within the district are diverse. Lacustrine soils were
          primarily sands, but there are small, local areas of lacustrine
          clays.  The clays are primarily poorly drained.      The sands were
          generally   either   excessively   drained    or  poorly     drained.
          Excessively drained sands are on beach ridges or dunes.        Poorly
          drained sands are more common, occupying much of the f lat lake
          plain or depressions between dunes and beach ridges. The soils of
          the ground moraine within the district range from loamy sands to
          loams; they are often stony. Where bedrock is near the surface,
          soils are often calcareous and poorly drained.      The most common
          soil orders within the subdistrict are Alfisols (Boralfs),
          Histosols, and Entisols (Aquepts), with some Orthods and Aquods
          (Soil Conservation Service 1967).

          PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:     Drummond Island, for the most part
          described by surveyors as "rolling and stony", was dominated by
          forests of white spruce, northern-white cedar and tamarack (4223)
          mixed with Aspen/paper birch forests (413) on thin soils over
          bedrock.   Small portions at the south of the island supported
          Northern Hardwoods (4111) intermixed with spruce/f ir and birch
          dominated forests.     The southwest extreme of the island had
          experienced many windthrows from storms off of the lake. This area
          was described as predominantly aspen/birch thicket (413).
               Some of the more resistant dolomites and shales, when exposed
          at the surf ace, proved to be too droughty f or successful f orest
          establishment, and formed communities called Alvar (741).        Good

                                           79









          examples of these sites are f ound today on the northern Maxton
          Plains of Drummond Island and 5 mi southeast of Gulliver Lake in
          Schoolcraft County.     As a result of severe drought, these areas
          today support only grasses, herbs, and occasional shrubs on thin
          soil. A dense mat of roots and rhizomes is exposed on the surface
          of the bedrock, especially in cracks were there is increased
          moisture availability.      Small wet depressions and lower slopes
          support an herbaceous and shrub community composed of species
          tolerant  of saturated soil. Thin organic deposits have developed,
          but they also appear to be subject to destruction by fire in
          drought years.      Trembling aspen forms stunted clones on the
          droughty  uplands and also grows in the depressions.
               Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was noted by surveyors along the
          shoreline of Drummond Island in small, protected coves and
          embayments. Organic soils in shallow depressions on the eastern
          and southern side of the island supported Hardwood-Conifer Swamps
          (42) dominated by cedar, spruce, tamarack, black ash, and aspen.
               Much of the coastal zone along northern Lake Huron, where thin
          soils overlay bedrock, were dominated by Balsam fir/ spruce/ cedar
          forests (4223) and Northern Hardwoods (4111).          Limestone ledges
          (744) were encountered by surveyors throughout the forests inland
          from Pochartrain Shorest and west of St. Martins Bay.            The Les
          Cheneaux Islands are predominantly ground moraine, and also
          supported cedar/spruce/fir (4223), and aspen/birch forests (413).
               Sandy lakeplain along northern Lake Huron supported a number
          of Great Lakes Marshes (6222) in a number of protected coves in and
          around the Les Cheneaux Islands. The substrate in these marshes
          was often clay or marl (MNFI 1988).          A Wooded Dune and Swale
          Complex (911) at St. Vital Bay supported balsam fir, white pine and
          red oak on the ridges, with Shrub swamps (6122) and Emergent
          Marshes (6221) in the open swales. Extensive Cedar swamps (4231)
          grew on the poorly drained soils of the lake plain. An example- of
          this type of wetland occurs just east of Ponchartrain Shores.
          Further west on St Martins Bay, Great Lakes Marshes (6222) and
          Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) are f ound in the protected
          west side of' the bay. The low dune ridges and narrow swales of
          this complex, as well as that found to the south in Horseshoe Bay,
          supported cedar, spruce, and paper birch.            Marly pools were
          mentioned by the surveyors in this area. Stunted cedar, tamarack,
          and white pine grew along the edges of these pools.
               The sandy lakeplain portions of Bois Blanc Island supported
          extensive Cedar swamps        (4231), Tamarack swamps        (4233)    and
          Cedar/spruce/fir upland      (4223).    Hemlock (4226) and Northern
          Hardwood (4111) forest      also dominated many uplands on sandy
          lakeplain and bedrock on    Bois Blanc Island.
               The thin soils over bedrock which characterize Mackinac Island
          and the area around St. Ignace supported several forest types.
          These included Northern Hardwoods (4111) an better drained sites,
          and both Balsam fir/cedar/spruce (4223), and Aspen/birch (413) on
          poorly drained sites.      Vast areas of organic soils located on
          lacustrine deposits just north of St. Ignace supported Cedar (4231)
          and Tamarack swamps (4233), with scattered dune ridges.              High

                                             so









         bedrock ridges west of the straits area, and lower morainal ridges
         northeast of Brevoort Lake supported Northern Hardwood f orests
         (4111).
              The vast dune/swale complex at Point Aux Chenes supported
         tamarack, aspen, birch, and spruce in the narrower swales, with
         Emergent Marsh (6221) and Shrub swamps (612) in the wider swales.
         Pines dominated the dune ridges.
              On the low parabolic dunes along the sandy lakeplain of Lake
         Michigan, the moist air and presumably higher precipitation and
         soil moisture caused most of the dunes to be dominated by Northern
         Hardwood (43.11) forests of sugar maple, beech, hemlock, red oak,
         yellow birch, paper birch, and basswood. The Brevoort Lake dunes,
         located near the Lake Michigan shore, were dominated by Northern
         Hardwoods. In contrast, the dunes located near Round Lake, several
         miles inland from Lake Michigan, support forests dominated by Red
         and jack pines (4215), possibly indicating the lack of local
         micro-climatic influence bringing moisture from Lake Michigan.
              The protected embayment at Epoufette supported Great Lakes
         Marsh (6222), and swamps of cedar, tamarack, cedar, and spruce.
         From Epoufette to the western end of the subdistrict, the sandy
         lakeplain along the shoreline was dominated by a chain of Wooded
         Dune and Swale Complexes (911). Within the complexes, the ridges
         were dominated by forests of white pine, red pine, white spruce,
         balsam fir, and hardwoods; the wetter swales were dominated by
         grasses, sedges, and other aquatic plants, whereas the drier swales
         supported northern white-cedar swamps and, occasionally, upland
         forest.
              Further, inland, the organic soils supported vast swamps
         dominated by cedar, spruce, and tamarack, while adjacent ground
         moraine ridges were dominated by Northern Hardwoods (4111),
         Hemlock/beech (4119), and Hemlock/white pine (4227) forests.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The surveyors recorded numerous occurrences of
         fire in upland and swamp forests on both sand and bedrock. There
         were wildfires and windthrows on Little St. Martin Island. Many
         windthrows were noted by surveyors in the cedar and tamarack
         dominated swamps north of Hughes Point. Beach ridges near the Crow
         River mouth were burnt off at the time of the surveys.

         HUMAN LAND USE: European settlements were well established at St.
         Ignace, Bois Blanc Island, and at Gros Cap at the time of the
         surveys in the 1840's. The 1829 survey of Mackinac Island showed
         only small second growth timber over the entire island, probably as
         a result of firewood cutting.     A British military outpost was
         established at the southwest end of Drummond Island.         Fishing
         establishments were based at various locations along the shoreline
         from Epoufette west to Seul Choix Point.          Native American
         settlements were also located on Bois Blanc Island and St. Martins
         Island. Their sugar camps were also located throughout the area
         where Northern Hardwoods (4111) dominated.     Limestone has been
         quarries at a number of locations within this subdistrict, Drummond
         Island, inland areas northeast of Hessel, Millecoquins Lake, and at

                                         81









         seul Choix Bay.    Upland areas dominated by pines and Northern
         Hardwood were cut, and often burned, by the early 20th century.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Limestone quarries have
         had obvious permanent impacts in several locations of this
         subdistrict.   Roads and highways have probably had the most
         enduring negative impact on coastal wetlands, by disrupting wetland
         hydrology and facilitating shoreline development.      A number of
         Great Lakes Marshes (6222) along northern Lake Huron were impacted
         by the construction of M-134 along that shoreline.             Urban
         development is increasing around St. Ignace.            Residential
         development is quite dense on many of the Les Cheneaux Islands
         which have been connected tot eh mainland by roads. Many of the
         Northern Hardwood forests (4111) located on ground moraine in this
         subdistrict have been cleared for agriculture and pasture use. The
         Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) west of Naubenway remain, for
         the most part, similar to their presettlement character, with
         changes limited to upland forest  dominants.













         DISTRICT 13 Mackinac.
         SUBDISTRICT 13.2. Rudyard: Clay Lake Plain.

         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The entire district
         is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician age sedimentary bedrock,
         principally limestone and dolomite, but relatively thick lacustrine
         clays cover almost all of the subdistrict. The underlying bedrock
         is typically less than 50 ft below the surface of the glacial drift
         for much of -the district, but the drift is 100-200 ft thick where
         preglacial valleys dissected the bedrock surface; such valleys
         underlie the present valleys of the Pine and Carp Rivers (Vanlier
         and Deutsch 1958; Sinclair 1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963).
              Almost -the entire subdistrict is a broad clay lakeplain. A
         small area of sand lake plain is present in the center of the
         subdistrict.   Within this small area of sand plain there is a
         series of ancient beach ridges and swales, many miles from the
         present Great Lakes shorelines.
              Sandy ground moraine is encountered on Sugar and Neebish
         islands, and on the mainland at the north end of Munuscong Bay.
         Soils are generally well drained in the ground moraine.
              The clay soils were somewhat poorly drained to poorly drained.
         The localized sands were generally either excessively drained or

                                         82









         poorly drained.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The poorly drained clay plain, common
         within 3-4 miles of the Great Lakes shoreline in much of the
         subdistrict, supported Hardwood-Conifer Swamps (42) with balsam
         fir, balsam poplar, hemlock, northern white-cedar, tamarack,
         trembling aspen, white pine, black spruce, and white spruce. The
         poorly drained shorelines of the St. Marys River, at the east edge
         of the subdistrict, today support some of the most extensive Great
         Lakes Marshes (6222) of Michigan.     These marshes, for the most
         part, were documented by the surveyors as being narrower than they
         are today. The may have only described portions of the marsh we
         recognize as the wet meadow zone, stopping at the water line.
         Today, the emergent marsh zone can be a mile wide, and the wet
         meadow zone along the shoreline is often another quarter to half
         mile wide. The sandy lakeplain along Waiska Bay supported Cedar
         swamp (4231).and Lowland Hemlock (4227).
              Hemlock/sugar maple forests (4228), which also included
         American elm, basswood, and yellow birch, and Aspen/birch forests
         (413), were locally common well drained ground moraine of Sugar and
         Neebish islands. Poorly drained portions of these ground moraines
         supported Alder/willow swamps (6122).
              A large Balsam fir-dominated swamp was located on poorly
         drained sand lakeplain at the south end of Neebish Island.
         Large peatlands on sand lakeplain supported "open swamp" dominated
         by spruce, cedar, and tamarack (423) east of Izaak Walton Bay.
         Hemlock forests (4226) dominated beach ridges along that shoreline.
         Peatlands to the northwest and south of Munuscong Bay were also
         dominated by cedar (4231), spruce (4232), and tamarack (4233).

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE:   Poor drainage conditions cause widespread
         windthrow. Large windthrows were noted by surveyors south and west
         of Sault St. Marie, and on the south side of Sugar Island, in 1845.

         HUMAN LAND USE:   European settlement had already taken place at
         Sault St. Marie when the area was surveyed in 1845. Forests had
         been cleared for several miles around the settlement. Also Native
         American settlements and trails were noted there by surveyors.
              Subsequent development of this subdistrict has seen the
         extensive forest clearing and swamp drainage for agricultural
         production. Swamps near the Great Lakes shoreline have been less
         modified than those elsewhere in the subdistrict. Many Great Lakes
         Marshes were hayed for marsh hay by creating shallow ditches in the
         marsh. All of these ditches have now been abandoned.
              Railroads and highways extend south from the urban development
         around Sault St. Marie.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Much of the clay plain has
         been converted to pasture or other agricultural use, following
         widespread construction of 6-8 ft-deep ditches. However, drainage
         remains a limiting factor.    Where pasture land is abandoned, it
         quickly returns to shrub willows, speckled alder, tamarack, black

                                         83









         ash, and other species indicative of poor drainage.
              The wakes produced by large ships passing through the St.
         Marys River has degraded many of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
         there.
              Many of the Lowland Conifer swamps (423) along Izaak Walton
         Bay remain, with several roads and railroads bisecting.
              On Sugar and Neebish islands, the majority of Hemlock/sugar
         maple (4228), Aspen/birch (413), and Balsam fir/spruce (4223)
         forests remain in some form, although probably degraded by past
         logging. Several large Alder/willow swamps (6122) on these islands
         remain.
              Most of the large peatlands northwest and south of Munuscong
         Lake remain.















         DISTRICT 13. Mackinac.
         SUBDISTRICT 13.3. Escanaba: Limestone Bedrock and Sand Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE:   Climatic differences are used to separate Subdistrict
         13.3 from Subdistrict 13.1. The climate of this subdistrict (13.3)
         is milder (Albert et al. 1986). This subdistrict also receives
         less snowfall than most of Subdistrict 13.1. Average precipitation
         is slightly lower.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The soils, glacial
         landforms, and bedrock geology of this subdistrict are similar to
         those of Subdistrict 13.1. The primary difference between the two
         subdistricts is a milder climate in this subdistrict, which results
         in a greater presence of more southern tree species.
              The entire subdistrict is underlain by Silurian and Ordovician
         age sedimentary bedrock, principally limestone and dolomite, but
         also including less resistant shale and gypsum (Dorr and Eschman
         1984).   The resistant Niagaran series dolomite and limestone of
         Silurian age form the Niagaran Escarpment, which is locally exposed
         as cliffs and flat limestone pavement (alvar) along the Lake
         Michigan shoreline of the Stonington and Garden peninsulas. Little
         Bay de Noc and Big Bay de Noc occupy depressions where soft gypsum
         and shales were eroded, probably both by glacial and lacustrine
         processes (Sinclair 1960).       Devonian limestone, dolomite, and
         breccia are locally exposed at the southern edge of the district.
         The underlying bedrock is typically less than 50 ft below the
         surface of the glacial drift (Vanlier and Deutsch 1958; Sinclair

                                           84









         1959, 1960; Vanlier 1963). Limestone is mined in several places
         within -the subdistrict.
              A wide variety of landf orms of glacial lacustrine origin
         characterize the subdistrict; including f lat lake bed, deltaic
         deposits of sand, parabolic dune f ields, and shallow embayments
         containing transverse dunes.    Beach-ridge and swale topography,
         consisting of dozens of low, linear beach ridges alternating with
         shallow depressions (swales), commonly forms a narrow 1-2 mi wide
         band along the shorelines of protected embayments of Lake Michigan.
              Large areas consist of lacustrine sand deposits that have flat
         to gently undulating surfaces. Regional slope is typically only 8
         to 10 feet/mile.     On this topography, only a few inches of
         elevation change can greatly alter drainage conditions. Drainage
         conditions also depend on depth to underlying bedrock or f ine-
         textured substrate.   Ground moraine is locally present south of
         Escanaba and north of the Garden Peninsula.
              Outwash deposits were located near the Lake Michigan shore
         north of Escanaba near Rapid River. Small barchan dunes (crescent
         shaped) are scattered on the outwash plain.
              Soils within the district are diverse. Lacustrine soils were
         primarily sands, but the sands are often underlain by lake clays or
         bedrock within only a f ew f eet of the surf ace.   The sands were
         generally   either   excessively   drained   or   poorly    drained.
         Excessively drained sands are on beach ridges or dunes.       Poorly
         drained sands are more common, occupying much of the f lat lake
         plain or depressions between dunes and beach ridges. The soils of
         the ground moraine within the district range from loamy sands to
         loams; they are often stony. Where bedrock is near the surface,
         soils are often calcareous and poorly drained.     The most common
         soil orders within the subdistrict are Alfisols (Boralfs),
         Histosols, and Entisols (Aquepts) , with some Orthods and Aquods
         (SCS 1967).

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Extensive Cedar swamps (4231) grew on
         the poorly drained soils of the lake plain, extending inland
         several miles from the present shoreline. These cedar swamps were
         interrupted by narrow, low beach ridges. The smaller ridges often
         supported Upland Conifer Forests of hemlock (4226), white pine
         (4211), or a mixture of the two (4227).       All of these upland
         conifer types occurred locally on narrow beach ridges along the
         Lake Michigan shoreline.    Low broad upland areas of lacustrine
         sands supported the same Upland Conifer Forests or occasionally,
         Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) dominated by American beech and
         sugar maple.   Although cedar was the tree species most commonly
         referenced by the surveyors, other common wetland species included
         tamarack, balsam fir, [red] maple, [paper] birch, black ash,
         [black] spruce, hemlock, [trembling] aspen, and balsam poplar.
         Depressions within the extensive wetlands of the lakeplain were
         often dominated by low productivity Tamarack swamps (4233) or Black
         spruce swamps (4232).
              Along embayments of Lake Michigan there were extensive Wooded
         Dune and Swales Complexes (911).       Within the dune and swale









         complexes, the drier ridges were dominated by f orests of white pine
         or red pine (421), along with white spruce, balsam fir, and
         hardwoods. Lower ridges were often dominated by'northern white-
         cedar, as were some of the drier swales (4231). The wetter swales
         supported Emergent Marsh (6221).
              Along the sandy shoreline of Lake Michigan, Great Lakes
         Marshes (6222) were generally narrow due to severe wave action.
         The only extensive marshes within the subdistrict were near
         Escanaba, at Portage Bay, and in Little Bay de Noc, at the mouth of
         the White River.
              Extensive f loodplain occurred along the Sturgeon River. These
         floodplain forests were dominated by silver maple (4143), and also
         contained abundant butternut; both of these species are rare in the
         Upper Peninsula.
              Northern Hardwoods Forest (4111) of American beech and sugar
         maple grew on ground moraine and on thin soils over limestone
         bedrock. Where bedrock was exposed at the surface, as on portions
         of the Garden and Stonington peninsulas, grasslands called alvar
         (741) were found.
              Pine Barrens (333) occurred on the outwash sands near Rapid
         River.   Large portions of the pine barrens were noted as burned
         over at the time of the original surveys.        Jack pine was the
         predominant species on the pine barrens, but red pine was also
         common.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The most common type of disturbance within
         the subdistrict is windthrow.     In the stretch of Lake Michigan
         shoreline between Menominee and Escanaba, 18 windthrows, mostly
         under a square mile in area, were noted within 1 or 2 miles of the
         shore. Winds off Lake Michigan were responsible for most of these
         windthrow areas.    Occasionally the windthrows burned later, as
         noted by the surveyors.      Windthrows destroyed both upland and
         wetland forests.
              Fires were also noted by the surveyors, primarily on pine
         plains near Native American settlements.     Such fires were noted
         near Menominee, Escanaba, and Rapid River.

         HUMAN LAND USE: The surveyors noted Native American settlements
         near Menominee, Escanaba, Rapid River, and on both the Stonington
         and Garden peninsulas. Both sugar bushes and gardens were noted
         near most of these sites.      Indian trails were commonly noted,
         especially along major rivers and the Lake Michigan shoreline.
              Following European settlement, logging began, first for white
         and red pines, then for northern white-cedar and hemlock, and
         finally for hardwoods and pulp. Logging mills were located along
         many of the rivers near the Lake Michigan shoreline.        Railroads
         bisect wetlands throughout this subdistrict.
              Agricultural land use within the subdistrict has been limited
         to pasturing of the ground moraine and occasionally small areas of
         sand lakeplain. Few of the wetlands have been greatly altered for
         agricultural purposes.
              Major roads are located along much of this shoreline. Urban

                                          86









         development is concentrated at Menominee, Escanaba, Gladstone,
         Rapid River, and Manistique.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:
               Some areas of Northern Hardwoods (4111) have been cut on both
         sand lakeplain and ground moraine for conversion to pasture.
               Most areas of hemlock forest        (4226) persist as forest,
         although the forest composition has       generally changed; hemlock
         regeneration is often poor.
               Most areas of White pine (4211)     and Red pine forest (4212)
         persist as forest, although the forest composition has generally
         changed; white pine regeneration is poor and the remaining forest
         is characterized by trembling aspen, balsam fir, paper birch, and
         other early successional species. Most of the Pine Barrens (333)
         persist; dominance of jack pine remains.
               Almost all of the Lowland Conifer (423) swamps persist,
         although deer browse has resulted in the conversion of large areas
         to hardwood swamp. Most areas of tamarack swamp (4233) persist.
         Tamarack and often black spruce remain as common dominants.
               Alder/willow swamps (6122) was generally limited to narrow
         bands along streams, where it typically persists.
               Emergent marsh (6221) was localized to the margins of a couple
         of lakes, where it persists. All of the Great Lakes Marshes (6222)
         within this subdistrict have been degraded.           At Portage Bay,
         manipulation of the marsh has resulted in the introduction of
         Eurasian water milfoil, which is of little benefit to wildlife.
         Along the Whitefish River mouth, docks have greatly altered
         portions of the marsh; there appears to have been at least local
         filling of the marsh.














         DISTRICT 14 Luce
         SUBDISTRICT 14.2. Grand Marais: Sandy End Moraine,, Shoreline# and
                              Outwash Plains.

         CLIMATE: The climate of the entire district is strongly influenced
         by Lakes Superior and Michigan, but these influences are greater at
         the northern edge of the district in Subdistrict 14.2, the Grand
         Marais    Subdistrict,    than in Subdistrict       14.1,   the    Seney
         Subdistrict. The growing season ranges from less than 100 days in
         the interior of the district, to 140 days along Lake Superior. The
         extreme minimum temperature ranges from -300F. along Lake Superior,

                                            87









         to -460F. further inland in Subdistrict 14.1.       Average annual
         precipitation ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Annual snowfall is as
         high as 180 inches near the Lake Superior shoreline; further inland
         average snowfall is 80 to 100 inches.

         SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMSj, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY:      An east-west
         trending sandstone escarpment of Cambrian age is exposed in several
         waterfalls, including Tahquamenon Falls, Au Train Falls, Miner's
         Falls, and Laughing Whitefish Falls, and along the Lake Superior
         shoreline at Pictured Rock National Lakeshore (Dorr and Eschman
         1984). Farther inland, Ordovician sandstone and dolomite are the
         underlying bedrock (Reed and Daniels 1987).
              Sandy ridges of end moraine and pitted outwash              are
         characteristic of the northern edge of the subdistrict. There    are
         locally numerous kettle lakes in the pitted outwash.          Recent
         geomorphological interpretation is that many of the end moraines
         (as originally interpreted by Leverett 1929) are actually heads of
         outwash and related stagnation landforms (Blewett and Rieck 1987).
              Lacustrine deposits of glacial and postglacial origin are also
         located along the northeastern edge of the district. Lacustrine
         deposits within the district consist primarily of droughty sand
         dunes and beach ridge deposits, but also include some poorly and
         very poorly drained glacial lacustrine deposits.      An extensive
         complex of sand-spits at Whitefish Point, in northwestern Chippewa
         County, produced hundreds of alternating swales and sand-spits.
         Most of the beach ridge and swale deposits along Lake Superior are
         excessively drained, unlike along most shorelines of the Great
         Lakes. The Grand Sable Dunes, west of the town of Grand Marais,
         are large, steep dunes perched on till.
              Outwash plains are concentrated along the southern edge of the
         district. There is also a relatively small area of poorly drained
         outwash at the extreme west edge of the district.        Along the
         shoreline, outwash is restricted to areas west of Munising, and
         west of Grand Marais.
              Most of the moraine ridges and pitted outwash have well
         drained, sandy soils.     Kettles within the pitted outwash and
         moraines contains bogs with thick deposits of sphagnum peat. At
         the far western edge of the district, where sandstone bedrock is
         only thinly covered by till, soils are moderately well drained.
         Along the Lake Superior shoreline, sand dunes, sand spits, and
         beach ridges form a broad zone characterized by vast expanses of
         excessively drained sand soils.      The soils ar classified as
         Histosols and Entisols (Aquepts), with some Orthods and Aquods
         (Soil Conservation Service 1967).

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:    Sandy lakeplain in this subdistrict
         supported a number of wetland and upland communities.       Emergent
         marshes (6221), bogs (6121), and alder/willow swamps (6122) were
         common in the swales associated with the shoreline and small lakes
         immediately inland.
              Vast peatlands, dominated by black spruce (4232), cedar
         (4231), and tamarack (4233) were common throughout poorly drained

                                          88









         portions of the lakeplain.     Several of these areas, mapped by
         Farrand (1982) as organic deposits were spruce and tamarack swamps
         which included narrow beach ridges dominated by white and red pine
         (4216).
              Upland portions of the lakeplain that were better protected
         from wildfires were extensive along the shoreline.      These areas
         supported forests dominated by hemlock (4226), Northern Hardwoods
         (4111), and Hemlock/white pine (4227). Excessively drained, fire-
         prone portions included forests dominated by jack pine (4213) and
         red pine/jack pine forests (4215).     Jack pine-dominated forests
         were extensive along the shoreline between Grand Marais and
         Whitefish Point.
              Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) occurred on the sandy
         lakeplain.   Most examples are excessively drained throughout.
         However, the complex at Taquamenon Bay was mostly spruce/ tamarack-
         dominated swamp (423), and the swales at Au Train and Whitefish
         Point included Tamarack swamp (4233) and Shrub swamps (612).
              The Grand Sable dunes are active, only locally supporting
         forests. At their protected east end they supported a small area
         of Northern Hardwood forest (4111) and a few, small pockets of jack
         pine (4213) persist within the dunes.
              Great Lakes Marshes (6222) were noted near the mouth of the Au
         Train River and at the southeast end of Grand Island. The Au Train
         marsh is best described as a fresh water estuary or drowned river
         mouth created when dunes restricted the river's flow into Lake
         Superior.
              Clay lakeplain at Taquamenon Bay supported spruce and
         tamarack-dominated swamps (423). Narrow strips of clay lakeplain
         along the shore in Luce County supported Hemlock/white pine forests
         (4227).
              Coarse textured moraines, most common south of Taquamenon and
         Pendills bays, supported northern hardwoods, often with significant
         amounts of hemlock.    Red pine/white pine forests (4216) and Red
         pine "openings" (333) were also common.       Small cedar/tamarack
         /spruce-dominated swamps (423) were also found on these moraines.
         On somewhat poorly drained tills, where bedrock is near the
         surface, hemlock and white pine were dominant species. Small cedar
         and tamarack-dominated swamps (423) also occurred on the end
         moraines east of Munising.
              Sandstone cliffs (745) were noted by surveyors at Pictured
         Rocks National Seashore and west of Pendills Bay.
              Poorly drained outwash was uncommon in this subdistrict.
         Where it did occur, just west of Munising, there was cedar
         dominated swamp (4231). Upland outwash supported Hemlock forests
         (4226), dense Jack pine forests (4213) and Barrens (333) of jack
         pine, red pine, and occasionally, white pine. Pitted outwash and
         end moraines supported Northern Hardwoods (4111).

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: The GLO surveyors recorded that forests on
         much of the surface of T48N, R6W, at the mouth of the Tahquamenon
         @iver, had been burned. There were also several mentions of fire
         in pineries on the sand ridges between Whitefish Point and Grand

                                          89









         Marais. A large windthrow was noted in the cedar/tamarack swamps
         east of Beaver Lake within Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Surveyors noted several Native American trails,
         fields, and sugar camps west of Taquamenon Bay, and near Munising.
         Early European settlements were established on Grand Island and
         west of Munising at the time of the surveys.
              The dominant use of this subdistrict     has been commercial
         timber production. Urban development has been mainly limited to
         the Munising area.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: Although most of the
         wetlands in this region persist, they were probably impacted by
         logging and post-logging fires. Roads and small dams have had the
         most significant impact on wetland hydrology in this subdistrict.
              The upland forests have also been greatly impacted by logging-
         era activities. On the droughty Raco Plains, jack pine dominance
         expanded, whereas areas of white and red pine have had poor
         regeneration. The Kingston Plains were dominated by forests of red
         and white pine, and Northern Hardwoods with white pine.      In the
         most severely burned areas, the only existing vegetation, 80 years
         after logging, consists of lichens, sedges, and scattered small
         (1-3 in dbh) black cherries. Subsequently portions of both plains
         have been planted to red pine or  jack pine.











         REGION IV. Western upper Michigan.

         REGIONAL CLIMATE: The region has a strongly continental climate,
         with only moderate influence from Lake Superior. Temperatures are
         extremely cold in the winter.     Snowfall and rainfall are high
         adjacent to Lake Superior as a result of moisture laden air from
         Lake Superior being forced to rise rapidly over the bedrock uplands
         at the northern edge of the region (Eichenlaub et al. 1990,
         Eichenlaub, 1979, Albert et al. 1986).
              The growing season ranges from less than 100 days inland to
         150 days along portions of the Lake Superior shoreline (Eichenlaub
         et al 1990).   Annual precipitation ranges from 32 to 36 inches.
         Annual snowfall ranges from 46 inches inland to 200 inches of lake-
         effect snow south of Lake Superior. Extreme minimum temperatures
         range from -280F along Lake Superior to -500F inland.
                                  <




















                                          90























         DISTRICT 15. Dickinson.
         SUBDISTRICT 15.4. Deerton: Sandstone Bedrock and High, Sandy
                       Ridges.
         CLIMATE: Minimum temperatures are moderated along Lake Superior,
         ranging from -28 to -320F., but are -380F at the inland edge      of
         this small subdistrict. The growing season ranges from 140 days
         along Lake Superior to less than 100 days along the inland margin
         of the subdistrict.   Average precipitation is 32 to 34 days and
         annual snowfall ranges from 120 to 140 inches.

         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDPORMSj AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The eastern portion
         of the district has large, rounded, sandstone knobs typically
         covered with a mantle of sandy glacial drift. The western portion
         has irregular, steep sand ridges. Elevations range from 602-1300
         ft.
              The bedrock knobs, 100-200 ft high, have steep sides and
         relatively flat tops.   Exposed at the surface or underlying the
         glacial drift are Cambrian age Munising and Jacobsville sandstones
         (Dorr and Eschman 1984; Hamblin 1958).     Most of the bedrock is
         covered with a veneer of sand or rocky till. However, bedrock is
         occasionally exposed in roadcuts, or more dramatically, in steep
         ravines, such as the one at Laughing Whitefish Falls.          Where
         glacial drift is thick, soils are well drained; where drift is
         thin, drainage is poor, and large swampy areas occur. The drift is
         very rocky.   West of Munising, large boulders, several feet in
         diameter, are common on the surface.
              The high sand ridges (100-200 ft) in the west have been deeply
         eroded by postglacial streams.    Steep valleys, only 300-400 ft
         wide, are up to 150 ft deep. The soils are well drained sands.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:    CedarI spruce, and hemlock dominated
         many of the small swamps (423) associated with these thin soils
         over bedrock. Hemlock (4237) is especially common on many of the
         poorly drained bedrock ridgetops and in the steeper ravines. Well
         drained sand ridges were occupied by Northern Hardwoods forests
         (4228) of sugar maple, hemlock, yellow birch, and white pine.
         Beech is generally absent from the steep ridges.
              The long, narrow Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes (911) just
         east of Marquette, for the most part, included dry swales dominated
         by red pine and jack.pine. Inland from these complexes, however,
         there were extensive swamps of black ash (4141), alder (6122), elm

                                         91









         (4142), and cedar (4231) along the Chocolay River.
              The western extreme of this subdistrict includes an outwash
         plain that supported forests of jack pine (4213) and red pine
         (4212), mixed with aspen.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: No major natural disturbances were recorded
         by surveyors along this portion of shoreline.

         HUMAN LAND USE:   The dominant land use in this subdistrict has
         included logging and, more recently, recreation and intensive
         residential development, especially along the shoreline.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The impact of logging-era
         activities probably decreased the relative composition of hemlock
         and white pine in upland forests. A number of small rivers were
         dammed, impacting wetlands in their drainage. Urban development
         and road construction along the shoreline has significantly altered
         upland and wetland vegetation in the area.













         DISTRICT 16. Michigamme: Granite Bedrock.

         CLIMATE: The climate is continental, with lake effect limited to a
         narrow zone along Lake Superior.    The growing season is short,
         ranging from 75 in the interior to 100 days along the Lake Superior
         coast; most of the variation occurs within 10-15 miles of the coast
         (Albert et al. 1986). Extreme minimum temperature varies from -
         280F along the coast to -460F inland (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).
         Snowfall. is highest inland, averaging 200 inches, and least along
         the coast, averaging 120-140 inches.          The average annual
         precipitation is 32 to 36 inches, with the most precipitation at
         high elevations inland.

         SOILS, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Precambrian age
         bedrock consists of diverse types of metamorphic, igneous, and
         sedimentary bedrock, including sandstone and shale, gneiss,
         amphibole, slate, metagraywacke, quartzite, mafic volcanic rocks,
         and iron formation (Morey et al. 1982). The iron formations were
         once heavily mined in the Michigamme Range.
              Exposed bedrock knobs characterize large parts of the
         district. Elevations rise rapidly from Lake Superior at 602 ft to

                                         92




le









         a maximum of 1980 ft at Mount Curwood, the highest point in the
         state (Albert et al. 1986). Although bedrock generally controls
         topography, the character of the topography is variable. In some
         areas the terrain is a mosaic of low rocky ridges less than 50 ft
         high, with many small lakes and swamps (Albert et al. 1986). In
         other areas, like the Huron Mountains, large, exposed ridges of
         granite or sandstone can be 300-500 ft high. There are large areas
         of sandy ground moraine. The Yellow Dog and the Mulligan plains,
         two large outwash plains, separated by only a few miles, occur
         within the district.
              The soils are generally sands.      Local silt caps of aeolian
         origin covers some of the rock knobs (Pregitzer and Barnes 1984).
         The tops of the bedrock knobs have little or no soil. All of the
         soils are very acid.     The soils on the two outwash plains are
         excessively drained sands.      Soils of the entire district are
         classified as Spodosols, primarily Orthods (Soil Conservation
         Service 1967).

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Balsam fir, tamarack, and black spruce
         were the most common species in the wetlands, which were often in
         relatively small drainages located between the steep-sided bedrock
         uplands.
              The largest wetlands for this subdistrict were along the
         shoreline on sandy lakeplain. Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was noted
         along the Iron River near its mouth.         Wooded Dune and Swale
         Complexes (911) are located at Little Presque Isle, Big Bay, Iron
         River, the mouth of the Salmon Trout River, and at the Pine River
         mouth. The complex at Little Presque Isle, which is mostly upland
         was dominated by Hemlock/white pine forest (4227). The complexes
         at the Iron and Pine rivers were also mostly upland, with jack pine
         and red pine (4215) most common. The complex at Big Bay was mostly
         "open swamp" dominated by spruce and cedar (423). The complex at
         the Salmon Trout River was dominated by cedar/white pine (4231)
         inland, and Alder/willow swamps (6122) closer to the shoreline.
              Hemlock (4226) and Hemlock/white pine (4227) forests dominated
         the outwash deposits around Marquette. Northern Hardwoods (lacking
         beech, except along the Lake Superior shoreline) (4228) were
         dominant on tills and also on thin soils over bedrock. Scattered
         white pine, red pine, and red oak were the dominant trees on
         exposed bedrock ridges.     Jack pine forests (4213) dominated the
         droughty outwash sands of the Yellow Dog and Mulligan plains. The
         sandy soils of the gullied ridges north of the Yellow Dog plain
         supported Northern Hardwood forests (4111). On the sandy ground
         moraine, Northern Hardwood forests dominated the well drained
         soils.     Red pine/white pine forests (4216) dominated the
         excessively drained soils.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Extensive burned forests were reported by
         surveyors around Marquette. No major windthrow areas were recorded
         by surveyors in this subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Native American encampments and trails were noted

                                           93









         by surveyors at Big Bay.    By 1846, when this area was surveyed,
         iron mining activities by European companies had already begun.
         Furnaces and forges were already established in and around
         Marquette. Roads were established leading west and southwest of
         Marquette, and some rivers had already been diverted for use in
         mining activities.
              Logging and mining have represented a major portion of land
         use activities in the subdistrict.       Urban development around
         Marquette and recreational uses along the shoreline and inland make
         up the rest.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: The diversion of creeks
         and rivers have undoubtedly impacted associated wetlands, either by
         flooding or removal of water sources. Some impoundments are highly
         polluted by mine tailings and chemical products of mining.
              Roads leading out of Marquette. have also impacted some
         wetlands. Logging, as with elsewhere in the region, has changed
         the relative composition of white pine and hemlock in upland
         forests.















         DISTRICT 18. Bergland.
         SUBDISTRICT 18.3.      Baraga: Broad Ridges of Coarse-textured
                              Rocky Till.
         CLIMATEi: The growing season ranges from 110 to 130 days, and is
         longest near Lake Superior (Eichenlaub et al. 1990).       It has a
         relatively cool growing season. Extreme minimum temperatures range
         from -400 to -480F. Average annual precipitation ranges from 30 to
         36 inches. Heavy lake-effect snowfalls, ranging from 160 to 200
         inches, characterize the district.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The landforms of the
         district are the basis for further dividing the district into three
         subdistricts. Beginning at the south of the Keweenaw Peninsula,
         the volcanic bedrock ridges form a narrow, 1-2 mi wide, 200-400 ft
         high linear rock ridge, from Houghton in the northeast to Bergland
         in the southwest.     This ridge is broken in several places by
         streams that have eroded through the bedrock. Broad ground-moraine
         ridges with sandy and sandy loam soils.        These ridges extend
         northeast to Keweenaw.Bay of Lake Superior. Soils are often rocky,
         sandy and sandy loam tills, which are well drained. Poorly drained

                                          94




10









         soils are generally restricted to the margins of streams.
              The western portion of the district is noted for steep ridges
         of Keweenawan (late Precambrian) basaltic lavas and conglomerates,
         which rise several hundred feet above the adjacent lake and till
         plains. The ridges extend f rom northern Wisconsin to the north end
         of the subdistrict and on to the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula'of
         Michigan and are part   of the Lake Superior Syncline.       Erosion-
         resistant conglomerates f orm. the steep ridges, between which veins
         of highly eroded lavas form lakes and wetlands.
              South of Bergland and into Wisconsin, the Keweenawan bedrock
         ridge is partially or completely covered with either f ine- or
         coarse-textured till. Also included within this district is the
         iron-rich Penokee-Gogebic Range, a narrow band of Huronian age
         (middle Precambrian) bedrock.
              Rocky, acid, red sandy loams and silt loams (Spodosols and
         Inceptisols) characterize the bedrock controlled topography at the
         western edge of the district.           Poor drainage conditions
         characterize some parts of the bedrock-controlled plain.
         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: The large, sandy and loamy moraines east
         of L'Anse and north of Baraga, for the most part, supported Hemlock
         (4226) and Northern Hardwood (4228) forests.     Beech was noted in
         Northern Hardwoods forests northeast of L'Anse.        A red pine-
         dominated Barren (333) was noted immediately east of L'Anse. In
         moderately drained soils, hemlock was in combination with cedar,
         balsam fir, and spruce (white or possible, black) forests (4223).
              Most wetlands on these moraines were located along river
         drainages, with cedar, tamarack, spruce, and/or alder as dominants.
         Large "open" swamps dominated by cedar (4231), spruce (4232), and
         tamarack (4233) were located just north of Baraga. Southeast of
         Keweenaw Bay, swamps of cedar (4231) and balsam fir (4235) were
         located.
              Sandy lakeplain at the southwest end of Keweenaw Bay was
         dominated by swamps of spruce (4232), cedar (4231).
              A Great Lakes Marsh (6222) apparently quite boggy in
         character, ("covered with cranberry vines") was located at the
         north end of Huron Bay.     A similar Great Lakes Marsh was also
         located at Sand Bay. Field surveys showed that this area was also
         more characteristic of a Bog or Poor Fen than the Great Lakes
         Marshes further south in the state (MNFI 1987). Tamarack (4233),
         cedar (4231), and alder-dominated (6122) swamps were located south
         of Otter Lake.
              Swamps on the clay lakeplain, which was restricted to west of
         Baraga and I'A'Anse, were dominated by black ash (4141) and cedar
         (4231). Uplands were dominated by hemlock and balsam fir (4226).
         Alluvial soils along the Sturgeon River supported extensive cedar
         (4231) and black ash (4141) swamps among meandering sloughs.        A
         Great Lakes Marsh (6222) was located at the mouth of the river.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: A small windthrow was noted at the southern
         end of Huron Bay, and just south of L'Anse.      No major wildfires
         were noted by surveyors in this area.

                                          95









         HUMAN LAND USE:   Many roads, and several sawmills and missions,
         were already established in this area at the time of the surveys in
         1845. Land use since that time as involved mining, logging, urban
         development, and recreation.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND UBE ON VEGETATION: As noted elsewhere in this
         region, logging era activities probably have changed the relative
         composition of white pine and hemlock in forests of this
         subdistrict.
              Many rivers and streams were diverted for use in mining and
         logging activities, resulting in impacts to associated wetlands.
         Roads have also altered wetland hydrology in places. For the most
         part, the wetlands of this subdistrict persist in some form.













         DISTRICT 19. Ontonagon.
         SUBDISTRICT 19.2. White Pine: Clay Lake Plain.

         CLIMATE: The growing season ranges from 110-140 days growing
         season, with the shortest growing season at the western edge of the
         district'. (Eichenlaub et al. 1990, Agricultural Experiment Station,
         Univ. of Minn. 1977).    Annual snowfall is heavy and lake-effect
         snows ranges from 120 to 160 inches. Total annual precipitation is
         30 to 34 inches. Extreme minimum temperatures range from -300 to -
         400F.

         BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND SOILS:     Bedrock is not exposed at surface
         except in localized outcrops along streams and at selected portions
         of the shoreline.      Bedrock consists of Precambrian (Middle
         Proterozoic)   sedimentary bedrock, primarily       feldspathic to
         quartzose sandstone and shale, and including lithic sandstone and
         siltstone (Morey et al. 1982). The shale is locally copper-rich
         (Dorr and Eschman 1984).
              Lake plain from glacial Lake Duluth covers almost all of the
         district in a band ranging from 1 to 24 miles wide.        A narrow
         exposed ridge of volcanic bedrock occurs at the southern edge
         (Farrand, and Bell 1982). The soils are classified as Aquepts and
         Boralfs (Soil Conservation Service 1967). Portions of this glacial
         lake bed are relatively flat, as east of the Porcupine Mountains.
         In these stretches the lake plain is dissected by numerous small
         rivers with straight, shallow valleys.       Between the Porcupine

                                          96









         Mountains and the Wisconsin border, the subdistrict is narrow and
         steeply sloping, with deeply eroded streams, often with waterfalls.
              soils consist of leached, calcareous red clays and pink sands
         that are podsolized; peatlands are not extensive. The soils are
         moderately well drained loam and clay, derived from local,
         iron-rich volcanic bedrock. Most of the soils are red in color.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:    Both presettlement and present forests
         are a mix of Northern Hardwoods (4111) on better drained sites, and
         conifers (422) tolerant of poorer drainage conditions.         These
         include hemlock, northern white-cedar, balsam fir, white spruce,
         black ash, basswood, American elm, balsam poplar, and trembling
         aspen. Sugar maple is only locally dominant.
              Emergent marshes (6221) and Alder/willow swamps (6122) were
         located around the Lake of the Clouds in the Porcupine Mountains.
         Narrow Wooded dune and swale complexes (911) were located along
         Misery Bay, Sleeping Bay, and west of the Flintsteel River mouth.
         Hemlock, cedar, spruce, fir, and alder dominated wet swales in
         these complexes. Hemlock (4226) and White pine/red pine-dominated
         forests (4216) were on the beach ridges. The complex at the Flint
         steel River was on sandy lakeplain, and included Shrub swamps (612)
         and bogs (6121).    Cedar swamps (4231) were common on the sandy
         lakeplain bordering the Salmon Trout River.      Similarly, swamps
         dominated by cedar, spruce, fir, hemlock, and red maple were
         located upstream in the Graveraet River drainage.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: No major windthrows or wildfires were noted
         by surveyors in this subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE:      A small percent of the land is used for
         pasture. Most of the land remains forested.              Logging-era
         activities were intensive, providing fuel and timbers for the
         mining industry and lumber for local construction.      many rivers
         were diverted for mining/logging purposes. Large tailings ponds
         are located in Gogebic County.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:      River diversions have
         undoubtedly impacted associated wetlands. Roads have also impacted
         wetland hydrology in places throughout the subdistrict. Species
         composition in forests have changed since the logging era, with
         white pine and hemlock becoming much less abundant.            Urban
         development around Ontonagon and along the shoreline have
         eliminated or altered some coastal wetlands.












                                          97



























        DISTRICT 20. Keveenav.

        CLIMATE,, Climate is dominated by lacustrine influences. Except for
        air f lows from the southwest, all air passes over Lake Superior
        bef ore reaching this district.    Due to combination of lake and
        orographic effects, snowfalls are heavy, from 140 to 200
        inches/year (Eichenlaub et al. 1990). Average annual precipitation
        ranges from 32 to 34 inches. Growing season is relatively long,
        over 130 days, but cool.' Winters are moderated by Lake Superior.













        DISTRICT 20. Keveenav.
        SUBDISTRICT 20.1. Gay:   Coarse-textured Broad Ridges and Svamps.

        SOILSj, GLACIAL LANDFORMS, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: The subdistrict,
        located along the eastern edge of the Keweenaw Peninsula, consists
        of broad. ground-moraine ridges, up to 550 ft high, with gentle to
        moderate slopes.    Sandstone outcrops along the shoreline around
        Little Traverse Bay. Soils are derived largely from the underlying
        sandstone and shale. There are few lakes, but several extensive
        wetlands occupy depressions between the ridges and the shoreline
        near Keweenaw Bay, at the northeastern end of the district. One
        such coastal wetland, 1-4 miles wide and 25 miles long, is on a
        lacustrine sand plain.
              Soils of the moraines are typically well drained, acid, loamy
        sands and sandy loans derived largely from the underlying Cambrian
        sandstones.

        PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION:     on the sandy ground moraine of the
        eastern Keweenaw Peninsula, Northern Hardwoods (4111) and conifers

                                         98









         covered most of the landscape.      Sugar maple, basswood, and hop-
         hornbeam are the most common species.       Hemlock (4226) was more
         common along the shorelines, where it often increased to greater
         than 501% relative dominance in the overstory (Bourdo, 1954).
              Poorly drained portions were dominated by cedar (4231), black
         spruce (4232), and balsam fir (4235). Cedar swamps ringed by alder
         thickets (6122) were common in narrow valleys between ridges. on
         the sandy lake plain along Keweenaw Bay, Wooded dune and swale
         complexes (911) were found with wide swales dominated by tamarack
         and black spruce scattered across the bog mat. A Great Lakes marsh
         (6222) and Wooded dune and swale complex (911) were noted at Lac La
         Belle.
               Hardwood-conifer swamps (42) Cedar/balsam fir/spruce (4223),
         birch, and black ash, were also found on rocky, poorly drained
         beach terraces far above the present lake level.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Many windthrows were noted by surveyors
         throughout the poorly drained soils of this subdistrict.

         HUMAN LAND USE: Native American encampments were noted by surveyors
         around Little Traverse Bay in 1845. Logging, mining, and pasture
         have been the historically dominant land uses in this subdistrict.
         The deposition of mine tailings along the shoreline is most evident
         at Gay. A number of areas, both wetland and upland throughout the
         district have been targeted historically for depositing mine
         tailings.
               More recently, recreational/cottage development along the
         shoreline and along inland lakes has intensified.

         IMPACT OF HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION:          Logging and mining
         activities impacted wetlands associated with rivers in this
         subdistrict. Road construction and the deposition of mine tailings
         has also impacted some wetlands.














         DISTRICT 20. Keweenaw.
         SUBDISTRICT    20.2.   Calumet:    High   Igneous   and    Sedimentary
                               Bedrock Ridges and Knobs.

         SOILS,, GLACIAL LANDFORMS,, AND BEDROCK GEOLOGY: Erosion-resistant
         conglomerates form the steep ridges of the subdistrict, between
         which veins of highly eroded lavas are the sites f or lakes and

                                           99









         wetlands. The Lake Superior shoreline consists of rugged volcanic
         bedrock. Copper-rich lava flows, common on the Keweenaw Peninsula,
         were extensively mined. Precambrian bedrock, primarily Keweenawan
         basalts and conglomerates, but also include iron-rich marine
         sandstones and dolomites of Huronian age (the Gogebic Range), and
         Archean bedrock.
              The subdistrict is noted for steep ridges of Keweenawan (late
         Precambrian) basaltic lavas and conglomerates, which rise several
         hundred feet above the adjacent lake and till plains. The bedrock
         ridges of the Keweenaw Peninsula and of Isle Royale are both part
         of the Lake Superior Syncline, which extends from northern
         Wisconsin to the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan. Isle
         Royale is located at the northern end of the syncline, and is
         treated as another subdistrict because of its climate, which is
         strongly influenced by surrounding Lake Superior. It has similar
         bedrock, physiography, and flora.
              Soils formed on the volcanic and conglomerate ridges are
         rocky, acid., red sandy loams and silt loams (Podsols and
         Inceptisols). Soils tend to be rockier at the northern end of the
         district.

         PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION: Black spruce (4232), cedar (4231), and
         tamarack-dominated (4233) swamps along the northern shoreline where
         soils derived from are poorly drained till over bedrock. On higher
         bedrock ridges, red pine, white pine, red oak, and paper birch grew
         on the -thin soils.   Cedar/balsam fir (4223), hemlock (4226), and
         paper birch-dominated (413) forests were located in uplands on thin
         till and ground moraine west of Ahmeek.       In protected bedrock
         valleys and on till, Northern Hardwood forests were dominated by
         sugar maple and hemlock (4228).     Cedar, hemlock, and balsam fir
         also dominated poorly drained portions of the sand lakeplain west
         of Eagle Harbor.

         NATURAL DISTURBANCE: Windthrows were noted in swamps along the
         northern shoreline.

         HUMAN LAND USE: European settlements, including Fort William, and
         a number of mines roads were already established in this
         subdistrict by 1845 when the area was surveyed.
              Dominant land uses in this subdistrict have included mining,
         logging, and more recently, recreational/ cottage development along
         the shoreline and inland lakes.


         IMPACT COP HUMAN LAND USE ON VEGETATION: As with elsewhere in this
         district, rivers were impacted by historical mining and logging
         activities. The deposition of mine tailings has impacted coastal
         wetlands in several places. The large swamp/marsh complex at the
         north end of Portage Lake was nearly eliminated in the construction
         of the shipping channel linking that lake to Lake Superior.




                                          100











                                  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

              We would like to express our thanks to the Coastal Zone
         Management Section of the Land and Water Management Division,
         Michigan Department of Natural Resources, which provided funding
         for this project. A sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Leroy Barnett
         Dave Johnson, and staff of the State Archives of Michigan for thei@
         ideas and energy in making historical records available to us in a
         most accommodating fashion. Thanks also to Historical Consultant,
         Dennis Au for his helpful comments on Monroe County historical
         records.



                                  LITERATURE CITED

         Akers, J. 1938. Drift thickness map of Lower Michigan.
              Michigan Geol. Surv. Div. 1 map (1:500,000).

         Albert, D. A. 1990. A regional landscape ecosystem
              classification of Michigan stressing physiographic,
              geologic, and soil factors. Ph.D. dissertation,
              University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. 384 pp.

         Albert, D.A., S.R. Denton and B.V. Barnes. 1986. Regional
              Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan. School of Natural
              Resources, University of Michigan 48109-115. 32 pp.

         Anderson, Col. 1817. Michigan Road, Town of Monroe River   Rasin to
              Miami River. State Archives of Michigan. 1 map.

         Blewett, W.L. and R.L. Rieck. 1987. Reinterpretation of a
              portion of the Munising moraine in northern Michigan.
              Geological Society of America Bulletin 98: 169-175.

         Bourdo, E. A., Jr. 1954. A validation of methods used in
              analyzing original forest cover. Ph.D. dissertation,
              Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 194 pp.

         Brewer, L.G., T.W. Hodler, and H.A. Raup. 1984. Presettlement
              Vegetation of Southwestern Michigan. Western Michigan
              University. Kalamazoo, Mi. 1 map.

         Burgis, W. A. 1977. Late Wisconsinan history of
              northeastern Lower Michigan. Ph.D. dissertation,
              Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 396 pp.

         Burgis, W.A. and D.F. Eschman. 1981. Late-Wisconsinan
              History of Northeastern Lower Michigan. Dept. of
              Geol. Sciences, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
              110 pp.

         Caldwell, N.C. (ed.) 1990. Special instructions to Deputy
              Surveyors in Michigan. 1808-1854. Michigan Museum of
              Surveying, Lansing, MI.









        Deeter, E. B. 1934. soil survey of St. Clare County,
             Michigan. USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1929,
             No. 27. 28 pp. + 1 map.

        Deeter, E.B. and A.E. Matthews. 1931. Soil survey of
             Tuscola County, Michigan. Washington, D.C. USDA
             Bur. Chem. and Soil Series 1926, No. 29. 40 pp. +
             1 map.

        Denton, S. R. 1985. Ecological Climatic Regions and Tree
             Distributions in Michigan. Ph.D. Dissertation.,
             University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 390 pp.

        Denton, S.R. and B.V. Barnes. 1987. Tree species
             distributions related to climatic patterns in
             Michigan. Can. J. For. Res. 17:613-629.

        Deutsch, M., E.M. Burt, and K.E. Vanlier. 1959. Summary of
             ground-water investigations in the Holland area,
             Michigan. Michigan Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv.
             Div., Progress Report 20. 87 pp.

        Dorr, J.A., Jr., and D.F. Eschman. 1984. Geology of Michigan.
             Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 476 pp.

        Eichenlaub, V. L. 1979. Weather and the climate of the Great
             Lakes region. The University of Notre Dame Press,
             Notre Dame, Indiana. 333 pp.

        Eichenlaub, V.L., J.R. Harman, F.V. Nurnberger, and H.J.
             Stolle. 1990. The Climatic Atlas of Michigan.
             University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana.
             165 pp.

        Farrand, W.R. and D.L. Bell. 1982. Quaternary geology of
             Michigan. Univ. Mich., Dept. Geol. Sciences, Ann
             Arbor, MI. 2 maps.

        Hubbard, B. 1838. 2nd Annual report of the State Geologist,
             Report number 5, Wayne and Monroe Counties. Michigan
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        Haag, R. D. Jr. 1976. Bedrock topography and glacial drift
             thickness in Cheboygan County (NSF-RANN project GI-
             34898). *(In) Kesling, R. V., A. M. Johnson, and H. D.
             Sorenson (eds.), *(Devonian Strata of the Afton-Onaway
             Area, Michigan), Mus. Paleontology, Univ. Mich.
             Papers on Paleontology 17:110-120.





                                       102









         Hamblin, W. K. 1958. The Cambrian sandstones of northern
              Michigan. Michigan Dept. of Conservation, Geol.
              Surv. Div. Publication 51. 141 pp.

         Hutchison, M. 1988. A Guide to Understanding, Interpreting, and
              Using the Public Land Survey Field Notes in Illinois.
              Natural.  Areas Journal. Vol.8(4). pp. 245-255.

         General Land Office. 1816-1856. Transcriptions of Surveyors Field
              Notes for Michigan. State Archives of Michigan.

         Lane, A. C. 1907. Original Swamp Areas of the Lower
              Peninsula of Michigan. From Annual Report of the
              State Board of Geological Survey of Michigan for the
              Year 1906. 1 map (1:750,000).

         Leverett, F. 1929. Moraines and shorelines of the Lake Superior
              Basin. USGS Professional Paper 154-A. 72 pp.

         Michigan Land Economic Survey. 1925. Soil and Lay of the Land Map
              of Antrim County. Soil and Agricultural Report. I map.

         Michigan Land Economic Survey. 1925. Soil and Lay of the Land Map
              of Alpena County. Soil and Agricultural Report. 1 map.

         Michigan Natural Features Inventory. 1987. A survey
              of Great Lakes marshes in Michigan's Upper
              Peninsula. 73 pp.

                    1988. A survey of Great Lakes marshes in the
              southern half of Michigan's Lower Peninsula. 116
              pp-

                    1989. A survey of Great Lakes marshes in the
              northern half of Michigan's Lower Peninsula. 124
              pp-

                 . 1990. Michigan Natural Community Types. Mason Building,
              Lansing, MI

                   1991. A survey of Wooded Dune and Swale Complexes in
              the Northern Lower and Eastern Upper Peninsulas of Michigan.
              99 pp.

         Millstein, R. L. 1987. Bedrock Geology of Southern Michigan.
              State of Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
              Geological Survey Division. I map (1:500,000).

         Moon, J. W. 1938. Soil Survey of Saginaw County, Michigan.
              USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1933, No. 19. 51
              pp. + 1 map.


                                        103









         Morey, G7.B., P.K. Sims, W.R. Cannon, M.G. Mudrey, Jr., and D.
              L. Southwick. 1982. Geological Map of the Lake
              Superior Region; Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Northern
              Michigan. Map s-13. Minnesota Geological Survey,
              University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 1 map
              (1:1,000,000).

         Olmsted, C. W. 1951. The patterns of orchards in Michigan.
              Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
              359 pp.

         Pregitzer, K.S., and B.V. Barnes. 1984. classification
              and comparison of upland hardwood and conifer
              ecosystems of the Cyrus H. McCormick Experimental
              Forest, Upper Michigan. Can. J. For. Res. 14:362-
              375.

         Reed, R.C. and J.D. Daniels    1987. Bedrock Geology of
              Northern Michigan. State of Michigan Department of Natural
              Resources, Geological Survey Division. 1 map (1:500,000).

         Risdon, ?. 1828. Survey From the Village of Monroe to the Village
              of Dexter. (map). State Archives of Michigan.

         Sinclair, W. C. 1959. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
              Resources of Schoolcraft County, Michigan. Michigan
              Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress
              Report 22. 84 pp.

                 . 1960. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water Resources
              of Delta County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
              Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress Report 24.
              93 pp.

         Sinclair, W. C. 1960. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
              Resources of Delta County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
              Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Progress Report 24. 93
              PP.

         Soil Conservation Service. 1967. Distribution of Principal
              Kinds of Soils: Orders, Suborders, and Great Groups.' 1 map
              (1:7,500,000).

         Trygg, J. W. 1964. Composite Map of the United States Land
              Surveyor's Original Plats and Field Notes. I map.

         USDA Soil Conservation Service. various dates. Soil Survey of
              (coastal counties in Michigan).

         Vanlier, K. E. 1963. Reconnaissance of the Ground-water
              Resources of Alger County, Michigan. Michigan Dept. of
              Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div., Water Investigation 1. 55 pp.

                                        104









        Vanlier, K.E., and M. Deutsch. 1958. Reconnaissance of the
             Ground-water of Chippewa County, Michigan. Michigan
             Dept. of Conservation, Geol. Surv. Div.,
             Progress Report 17. 85 pp.

        Veatch, J. 0. 1959. Presettlement Forest in Michigan. Department
             of Resource Development, Michigan State University, East
             Lansing, MI.

        Wonser, C. H. 1934. Soil Survey of Bay County, Michigan.
             USDA Bur. Chem. and Water, Series 1931, No. 6. 30
             pp. + 1 map.













































                                       105




                                      APPENDIX I

                   INDEX TO MICHIGAN 7.5 MINUTE TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
           WHERE HISTORICAL WETLAND MAPS ARE AVAILABLE IN DIGITAL FORMAT






 






















































                                          106





                                                                                                               Worthern Lower Xichigan

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