[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]






                                 W           - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 S  AT 
                                         D EP  RT NE  T1 
       I~~~~~      



      I. ~~We l n Mi t i atio

      I                         ____ReplaementRatio






                           Wtand Anntiation


       *                       ~~~~Bibliography












Hil"W76.
        7699 
              1992                  ~~~~~~~~February 1992
                                 Publication #92-09
                - -- -~~~~~~~    printed on recycled paper
















  WETLAND MITIGATION REPLACEMENT RATIOS:

                          An Annotated Bibliography





                              U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
                              COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
                              2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
                              CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413



                                  edited by


             Andrew J. Castelle, CatherinemConolly, and Michael Emers
                    (Adolfson Associates, Inc., Edmonds, WA)

                                     and
 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
                 Eric D. Metz, Susan Meyer, and Michael Witter.
                      (W & H Pacific, Inc., Bellevue, WA)


*                                         for

                Shorelands and Coastal Zone Management Program
     *9~~ ~Washington State Department of Ecology
                             Olympia, Washington

                                February 1992


                         Property of Csc Library







                                 INTRODUCTION

Wetland Mitigation ReDlacement Ratios: An Annotated Bibliogranhv is a
compilation of abstracts dealing with wetlands mitigation designed to achieve a goal
of "no net loss" of wetlands acreage and function. The entries in this document
come from journal articles published in diverse fields: agriculture, engineering,
fisheries, forestry, geology, landscape architecture, marine sciences, resource
management, and wildlife biology. The bibliography also contains summaries of
government publications from the federal, state, and local levels including
government-funded research, guidance documents, and adopted or proposed
wetlands conservation ordinances. Also included are summaries of symposia
presentations.

                                    OBJECTIVE

 The objective was to create a compilation of citations which analyze the scientific
 basis for replacing lost wetland functions by creating new wetlands. Various
 political and scientific strategies and case histories are also included. Additional
 citations concern the protection of wetland functions and values from many
 different perspectives. Though extensive, this collection does not represent an
 exhaustive or exclusive listing of work conducted in each respective field concerning
 the protection of wetlands.

 The intent of this collection is to assist landowners, planners, managers, developers,
 and politicians in the Pacific Northwest in understanding viable wetland ecosystems
 and the requirements for attaining "no net loss" of this diminishing resource.

                                     METHODS

 The literature search focused on technical information from journal articles,
 government documents, proceedings from conferences and symposiums, and
 research reports, rather than in text or general information books.  On-line
 searches were conducted through AFSA, Enviroline, Water Resources, NTIS,
 Pollution, Life Sciences, AGRI COLA, and Biosis, as well as the collections at the
 following University of Washington libraries: Natural Sciences, Fisheries, Forestry,
 Engineering, and Architecture.

                           RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 Whenever available, the authors' original abstracts appear. Information added to
 the authors' abstract by the editors is provided in brackets, [ ], following the
 original abstract. For those citations without abstracts, a synthesis of material was
 undertaken by the editors.


p~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~






The source of each summary is noted prior to each abstract: a single * denotes the
author's abstract in the citation, a double ** denotes an editors' synthesis of the
material.

A complete list of articles reviewed appears at the end of the bibliography; bold-
faced references are those which are included in the annotated bibliography.
Exclusion of reviewed articles from the annotated bibliography is entirely due to
time and budgetary constraints; no lack of scientific merit or applicability should be
inferred from these or other omissions.

Many of the citations have been included in a companion summary report:

Castelle, A.J., C. Conolly, M. Emers, E.D. Metz, S. Meyer, M. Witter, S.
      Mauermann, M. Bentley, D. Sheldon, and D. Dole. 1992. Wetland
      Mitigation Replacement Ratios: Defining Equivalency. Adolfson Associates,
      Inc., for Shorelands and Coastal Management Program, Washington State
      Department of Ecology, Olympia, Publ. No. 92-08.

                                  COMMENTS

All comments on this document and information on additional citations concerning
wetland replacement ratios are welcome. Written suggestions and inquiries should
be made to:

      Washington State Department of Ecology
      Shorelands and Coastal Zone Management Program
      Wetlands Section
      P.O. Box 47600
      Olympia, Washington 98504-7600

                                   CITATION

This document should be cited as:

Castelle, A.J., C. Conolly, M. Emers, E.D. Metz, S. Meyer, and M. Witter (eds.).7
       1992. Wetland Mitigation Replacement Ratios: An Annotated Bibliography.
      Adolfson Associates, Inc., for Shorelands and Coastal Management Program,
      Washington State Dept. of Ecology. Olympia, Publ. No. 92-09.







               Adamus, P. R., and L.T. Stockwell. 1983. A Method for Wetland Functional
                      Assessment, Vol. 1. Federal Highway Administration Rep. No. FHWA-IP-82-
                      23.

               Abstract:     *
               The manual presents a state-of-the-art review of wetland functions. Functions
               covered include groundwater recharge and discharge, flood storage and
               desynchronization, shoreline anchoring and dissipation of erosive forces, sediment
               trapping, nutrient retention and removal, food chain support (detrital export),
               habitat for fish and wildlife, and active and passive recreation. The manual covers
               all wetland types in the 48 conterminous states, and uses the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
               Service definition and classification system. It examines the validity, interactions,
               and possible significance thresholds for the functions, as well as documenting their
               underlying processes. With appropriate qualifying information, wetland types are
               ranked for each function. Wetland types ideal for each function are identified and
               illustrated. Potential impacts of highways upon each function are described and,
               where available, possible thresholds are given. Factors which regulate impact
               magnitude, such as location, design, watershed erodibility, flushing capacity, basin
               morphology, biotic sensitivity (resistance and resilience), recovery capacity, and
               refugia, are explained. Cumulative impacts and social factors affecting wetland
               significance are discussed. Effects of the following factors on wetland function are
               documented: contiguity, shape, fetch, surface area, area of watershed and drainage
               area, stream order, gradient, land cover, soils, depositional environment, climate,
               wetland system, vegetation form, substrate, salinity, pH, hydroperiod, water level
               fluctuations, tidal range, scouring, velocity, depth, width, circulation, pool-riffle
               ratio, vegetation density, flow pattern, interspersion, human disturbance, turbidity,
               alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and biotic diversity.

               Adamus, P.R., E.J. Clarain, Jr., R.D. Smith, and R.E. Young. 1987. Wetland
                      Evaluation Technique (WET); Volume II: Methodology. Operational Draft
                      Technical Report Y-87- , U.S. Army Engineer Waterway Experiment
                      Station, Vicksburg, MS.

               Abstract:     *
               This manual outlines a Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET) for the assessment
               of wetland functions and values. WET is a revision of the method developed for
               the Federal Highway Administration (FWHA) that has often been referred to as
               the "Federal Highway Method" or the "Adamus Method."

               Wetland functions are the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of a
               wetland. Wetland values are those characteristics that are beneficial to society.
               WET evaluates the following functions and values: ground water recharge, ground
               water discharge, floodflow alteration, sediment stabilization, sediment/toxicant
               retention, nutrient removal/transformation, production export, wildlife diversity

p                                                        1






/abundance, aquatic diversity/abundance, uniqueness/heritage, and recreation.
WET evaluates functions and values in terms of social significance, effectiveness,
and opportunity. Social significance assesses the value of a wetland to society in
terms of its special designations, potential economic value, and strategic location.
Effectiveness assesses the capability of a wetland to perform a function because of
its physical, chemical or biological characteristics. Opportunity assesses the
opportunity of a wetland to perform a function to its level of capability.

WET evaluates functions and values by characterizing the wetland in terms of
predictors. Predictors are simple, or integrated, variables that are believed to
correlate with the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the wetland
and its surroundings. Responses to questions concerning the predictors are
analyzed in a series of interpretation keys that reflect the relationship between
predictors and wetland functions or values as defined in the technical literature.
Interpretation keys assign a qualitative probability rating of HIGH, MODERATE,
or LOW to each function and value in terms of social significance, effectiveness,
and opportunity.

WET also assesses the suitability of wetland habitat for 14 waterfowl species
groups, 4 freshwater fish species groups, 120 species of wetland-dependent birds,
133 species of saltwater fish and invertebrates, and 90 species of freshwater fish.
WET does not assess the suitability of wetland habitats for many important wildlife
resources (e.g., furbearers, game mammals). Other methods must be used for these
species.

WET was designed primarily for conducting an initial, rapid assessment of wetland
functions and values. WET can also be applied in a variety of other situations
including: (1) comparison of different wetlands, (2) selection of priorities for
wetland acquisition or detailed, site-specific research, (3) selection of priority
wetlands for Advanced Identification, (4) identification of options for conditioning
of permits, (5) determination of the effects of preproject or postproject activities on
wetland functions and values, and (6) comparison of created or restored wetlands
with reference or preimpact wetlands for mitigation purposes.

Broome, S.W., E.D. Seneca, and W.W. Woodhouse, Jr.. Tidal salt marsh
       restoration. 1988. Aquatic Botany 32:1-22.

Abstract:     *
Coastal salt marshes occur in the intertidal zone of moderate to low energy
shorelines along estuaries, bays and tidal rivers. They have ecological value in
primary production, nutrient cycling, as habitat for fish, birds, and other wildlife
and in stabilizing shorelines. Disturbance by development activities has resulted in
the destruction or degradation of many marshes. Awareness of this loss by
scientists and the public has led to an interest in restoration or creation of marshes

                                         2







           to enhance estuarine ecosystems. Recovery of marshes after human perturbation
           such 'as dredging, discharges of wastes and spillage of petroleum products or other
          toxic chemicals is often slow under natural conditions and can be accelerated by
           replanting vegetation. The basic techniques and procedures have been worked out
           for the propagation of several marsh angiosperms. Factors which affect successful
           revegetation include elevation of the site in relation to tidal regime, slope, exposure
           to wave action, soil chemical and physical characteristics, nutrient supply, salinity
           and availability of viable propagules of the appropriate plant species. Marsh
I        ~ ~~restoration technology has been applied at a variety of locations to vegetate
           intertidal dredged material disposal sites, stabilize shorelines, mitigate damage to
           natural marshes and to revegetate one marsh destroyed by an oil spill. Contractual
           services for marsh establishment are now available in some regions. Further
           research is needed to determine the success of marsh restoration and creation in
           terms of ecological function, including the faunal component.

            Carothers, S.W., G.S. Mills, and R.R. Johnson. 1990. The Creation and
                  Restoration of Riparian Habitat in Southwestern Arid and Semi-Arid
                  Regions. pp. 351-366. In: J.A_ Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetlands
                   Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,
                  Washington D.C.

           Abstract: 
           Though the literature on characteristics, values, and functions of riparian habitats in
b        ~    ~~Southwestern arid and semi-arid regions is fairly extensive, few papers that pertain
            to its creation or restoration are available. Very few creation and restoration
           projects are more than ten years old and most large projects have been undertaken
            in the last five years. Because they are so recent, evaluations of successes and
            failures are based on short-term results; long-term survival and growth rates are, as
           yet, unknown.'

            In most cases, creation and restoration projects have involved the planting of
           vegetation and not the creation of conditions suitable for the natural regeneration
            of riparian habitats. Many planted riparian forests do not reproduce and their
            longevity is therefore determined by the lifespan of the individual trees. Mitigation
            provided by such forests is temporary.

            Important considerations for riparian creation or restoration projects in the
I        ~ ~~Southwest include:
               I1. Depth of water table.
 I           ~ ~~~2. Soil salinity and texture.
               3. Amount and frequency of irrigation.
               4. Effects of rising and dropping water tables on planted trees.
               5. Protection from rodent and rabbit predation.

          p                                       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3






   6. Elimination of competing herbaceous weeds.
   7. Protection from vandalism, off-road vehicles, and livestock.
   8. Monitoring of growth rates as well as survival.
   9. Project design flexible enough to allow for major modifications.

Because the creation and restoration of riparian habitats in the Southwest is new
and mostly experimental, more information is needed for virtually every aspect of
revegetation. Two major questions that need to be answered are whether planted
trees survive for more than a few years and reach expected size, and what ranges of
planting parameters are most cost-effective. Specific information needs include the
identification of: the most suitable watering regimes; suitable soil conditions for
various tree species; long-term survival and growth rates; and effects of variable
water table levels on planted trees.

Carter, V. 1986. An Overview of the Hydrologic Concerns Related to Wetlands in
       the United States. Canadian J. Botany 64:364-374.

Abstract: *
There is a tremendous diversity in wetland types and wetland vegetation in the
United States, caused primarily by regional, geologic, topographic, and climatic
differences. Wetland hydrology, a primary driving force influencing wetland
ecology, development, and persistence, is as yet poorly understood. The interaction
between groundwater and surface water and the discharge-recharge relationships in
wetlands affect water quality and nutrient budgets as well as vegetative
composition. Hydrologic considerations necessary for an improved understanding
of wetland ecology include detailed water budgets, water chemistry, water regime,
and boundary conditions. Wetland values are often based on perceived wetland
functions. These hydrologic functions include (i) flood storage and flood-peak
desynchronization, (ii) recharge and discharge, (iii) base flow and estuarine water
balance, and (iv) water-quality regulation. Expanded research and basic data
collection focussed on wetland hydrology and its relation to wetland ecology are
needed to identify and quantify the hydrologic functions of wetlands.

Coats, R., M. Swanson, and P. Williams. 1989. Hydrologic Analysis for Coastal
       Wetland Restoration. Environmental Management 13:715-727.

Abstract:     *
Increasing recognition of the value of tidal wetlands has led to interest in how to
restore and enhance areas that have been modified by human activity. The policy
of recognizing restoration or enhancement as mitigation for destruction of other
wetlands is controversial. Once policy questions are separated from technical
questions, the steps in a successful project are straightforward. A key element in
the design of a successful project is quantitative hydraulic and hydrologic analysis of
alternatives. Restoration projects at two sites in California used a combination of

                                         4







empirical geomorphic relationships, numerical modeling, and verification with field
observations. Experience with these and other wetland restoration projects
indicates the importance of long-term postproject monitoring, inspection, and
maintenance.

D'Avanzo, C. 1990. Long-Term Evaluation of Wetland Creation Projects. pp. 487-
      496. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and
      Restoration: The Status of the Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press,
      Washington, D.C.

Abstract:    *
Long-term success of wetland restoration and creation projects may be quite
different from short-term success. In this chapter six criteria are used to evaluate
the long-term success of more than 100 artificial wetland projects reported in the
literature. Results from numerous U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' dredged
material stabilization projects demonstrate the importance of long-term monitoring
and increasing long-term as well as short-term success. Several studies reviewing
wetland creations are also used to demonstrate problems with projects in both the
short and long-term.

The long-term evaluation of artificial wetlands is very difficult because wetlands are
created for a variety of purposes. We know little about basic aspects of many
wetland systems, "succession" in wetlands is less straightforward than previously
assumed, and it is difficult to generalize from one wetland type to another. There
is a striking range of opinions about the success of wetlands that have been created.
On the one hand, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' dredged material stabilization
program exemplifies artificial wetland projects that appear successful over a decade
or more. Several types of criteria including vegetation characteristics, soil
chemistry, and animal studies suggest that several dredged material wetlands are
becoming similar to reference wetlands with time. But, some wetlands
characteristics (soil carbon) may require many years to reach natural levels.

In contrast, a great many other artificial wetland projects are problematic or
failures. Reasons for failures include improper hydrology, erosion, herbivory, and
invasion by upland plants. Many projects have never been evaluated so their
permanence is not known, and a disturbing number of required projects have never
been created.

In evaluating projects with regard to persistence (long-term success) of the created
wetlands, the following points are especially important: 10 1/2 years of monitoring
is too short; evaluations over as long a period of time as possible (10-20 years) are
desirable; 2) vegetation characteristics are useful but do not necessarily indicate
function; at a minimum, several parameters should be used (e.g.,
belowground/aboveground biomass comparisons); 3) chemical/physical aspects of

                                         5






wetland soils are also useful in evaluating trends in created sites; 4) local reference
wetlands are critical for comparative purposes; and 5) some wetlands should be
created with great caution because they have failed in the past (e.g., high salt marsh
in the northeast) or because we know little about these wetland types (e.g., forested
wetlands).

Davis, A.A. 1989. DER Wetlands Protection Action Plan. Water Pollution Control
      Association of Pennsylvania Magazine 22:18-22.

Abstract: *
The goal of the Pennsylvania DER (Department of Environmental Resources)
wetlands protection policy is to prevent destruction, degradation, or significant
impact to wetlands where practicable alternatives exist, and to minimize impacts or
replace wetlands where impacts are unavoidable. DER will adopt the triple
parameter approach found in the EPA Wetland Identification and Delineation
Manual to develop means of identifying and evaluating wetlands early in the
development process. Mitigation standards will be established to replace the
wetlands values which are lost or degraded. DER proposes to establish a 100 ft.
impact area around all wetlands and a 300 ft. impact area around all "exceptional
value" wetlands.

Decamps, H., F. Fornier, R.J. Naiman, and R.C. Petersen, Jr. 1990. An
       International Research Effort on Land/Inland Water Ecotones in
       Landscape Management and Restoration 1990-1996. Ambio 19(3):175-176.

As a result of meetings and workshops at Tolouse, France in 1986 and at the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1988 a joint Unesco and Man and the
Biosphere research effort was undertaken to determine the management options
for the conservation and restoration of land/inland water ecotones through
increased understanding of ecological processes. The objectives of the program are
1) to identify the gaps in our present knowledge and understanding; 2) to
understand the role of ecological processes within ecotones in determining
landscape patterns; 3) to develop management plans to conserve ecotones and to
address detrimental environmental practices; 4) to develop a collaborative research
project on the theme of recovery and restoration of degraded ecotones occurring at
the terrestrial-aquatic interface. The main research activities will concentrate on 1)
ecotone functions, including edge effects, community composition and structure,
hydrologic and nutrient regimes; 2) relationships between ecotones and adjacent
systems; 3) management and human investment.

Edwards, E.A., D.A. Krieger, M. Bacteller, and O.E. Maughan. 1982. Habitat
       Suitability Index Models: Black Crappie. U.S. Dept. Int., Fish Wildl.
       Service. FWS/OBS-82/10.6.


                                        6







Abstract:   *
This document is part of the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model Series
(FWS/OBS-82/10), which provides habitat information useful for impact
assessment and habitat management studies. Several types of habitat information
are provided. The Habitat Use Information Section is largely constrained to those
data that can be used to derive quantitative relationships between key
environmental variables and habitat suitability. The habitat use information
provides the foundation for the HSI model that follows. In addition, this same
information may be useful in the development of other models more appropriate to
specific assessment or evaluation needs.

[Black crappies were found to be susceptible to turbidity, to require abundant cover
for growth and reproduction, in the form of aquatic vegetation, and submerged
trees, brush or instream objects. Low velocity waters were preferred in such areas
as pools and backwaters.]

Erwin, K.L. 1990. Freshwater Marsh Creation and Restoration in the Southeast.
      pp. 233-266. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and
      Restoration: The Status of the Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press,
      Washington, D.C.

Abstract:    *
Freshwater marsh habitat has been created or restored in the southeast to mitigate
the environmental impacts associated with development activity and to provide
enhancement of water quality. These projects vary in size, design, and function,
and are inadequately discussed in the literature. There is a question of whether
agency-mandated mitigation projects have actually been implemented and to what
extent these created freshwater marshes are providing the desired wetland
functions.

Key elements to successfully constructing a functional freshwater marsh system
include: (1) realistic goals and measurable success criteria; (2) proper pre-
construction design evaluation including a hydrological analysis; (3) contour design;
(4) construction technique; (5) proper water quality; (6) compatibility of adjacent
existing and future land uses; (7) appropriate substrate characteristics; (8) re-
vegetation techniques; (9) re-introduction of fauna; (10) upland buffers and
protective structures; (11) supervision by an experienced professional; (12) post-
construction long term management plan; and (13) monitoring and reporting
criteria.

The monitoring required must be adequate in scope to determine the success or
failure to meet project goals. A typical monitoring plan for a created freshwater
marsh should include: (1) a post-construction, pre-planting survey of project
contours and elevations; (2) ground and surface water elevation data collection; (3)

                                        7






water quality data collection; (4) biological monitoring including, but not limited to,
fish and macroinvertebrate data collection; (5) evaluation of vegetation species
diversity, percent cover, and frequency; and (6) wildlife utilization.

Critical information gaps and research needs can be divided into the following
categories: (1) site selection and design; (2) project construction techniques; (3)
comparative studies of the biological communities and processes in created and
natural systems; and (4) the role of uplands and transitional habitats.

Fonseca, M.S. 1990. Regional Analysis of the Creation and Restoration of Seagrass
       Systems. pp. 171-194. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetlands
       Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,
      Washington D.C.

Abstract:    *
Seagrasses occur in most coastal, marine regions and are highly productive habitats.
They are not a traditional wetland type but do meet the criteria for protection of
aquatic habitat under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Including seagrass
acreage would increase national wetland acreage approximately 17 percent.
Seagrasses are described under six Ecoregions for management. Adequate water
clarity for light transmission is required for restoration and survival of seagrass
meadows.

Goals and performance guidelines for seagrass restoration and creation projects
have historically been inappropriate. Consequently, seagrass restoration has never
prevented a net loss in habitat. Suggested goals to prevent such losses include:
development of persistent cover, generation of equivalent acreage or increased
acreage, replacement with the same seagrass species, and restoration of secondary
(faunal) production. These goals are to be differentiated from measures of density
and percent survival. Monitoring for cover and persistence should continue for 3
years.

Site selection is a complex problem. The primary choice for restoration sites
should be areas previously impacted or lost. The secondary choices should be
perturbed aquatic areas irrespective of their previous plant community or uplands
which can be excavated and converted to seagrass habitat. Population growth rate
determines the species chosen for the restoration. Inclusion of specific conditions
in the permit will enhance the probability of project success.

Research needs include: defining functional restoration, compiling population
growth and coverage rates by Ecoregion, examining the resource role of mixed
species plantings, determining the impact of substituting pioneer for climax species
on faunal composition and abundance, evaluating the substitution of other species
(e.g., mangroves, salt marshes) on cumulative damage to habitat resources when

                                         8







suitable sites cannot be found for seagrass planting, developing culture techniques
for propagule development, exploring transplant optimization techniques such as
the use of fertilizers, and delineating seagrass habitat boundaries. Most important
would be the implementation of a consistent policy on seagrass restoration and
management among resource agencies wherein restoration technique, monitoring,
and performance and compliance guidelines would be standardized.

Frenkel, R.E. and J.C. Morlan. 1990. Restoration of the Salmon River Salt
      Marshes: Retrospect and Prospect. Final Report to the U.S. Environmental
      Protection Agency. Dept. of Geosciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
      Oregon.

Abstract: *
In 1978 the U.S. Forest Service breached a dike on the north shore of the Salmon
River estuary to reestablish a natural salt marsh in a diked pasture. Diane L.
Mitchell, a graduate student at Oregon State University, initiated a detailed study
of the restoration of the salt marsh ecosystem in 1977. Her work was completed in
1981. In this report, we summarize the status of the restoration in 1988, eleven
years after dike removal, and discuss prospects for total restoration to conditions
prevailing prior to human alterations.

We assessed restoration of a 21 ha diked pasture in the Salmon River estuary to a
naturally functioning estuarine salt marsh in 1988, eleven years after partial dike
removal in 1978. Diane Mitchell (1981) collected base line data, established an
intensive sampling system of permanent plots in the diked pasture and flanking
"intacf' control marshes, and analyzed restoration progress from 1978 to 1980. Our
report continues Mitchell's earlier research by evaluating the composition,
structure, function, and long term prospects for the restored wetland.

Garbisch, E.W., Jr. 1977. Recent and Planned Marsh Establishment Work
       Throughout the Contiguous United States--A Survey and Basic Guidelines.
       Contr. Rep. D-77-3 U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Exp. Sta., Vicksburg,
       Mississippi.

Abstract:    *
Information on deliberate marsh establishment work that is planned, underway, or
completed throughout the contiguous United States 1970-1976 has been identified
excluding WES, through (1) literature review, (2) interviewing people who, during
the period of May 1975 through January 1977, have become known to be potential
sources of pertinent information, and, (3) the completion of distributed information
request forms by various correspondents.

Excluding U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES) projects
currently underway, marsh establishment projects at 105 district locations have been

                                        9





completed for at least 1 year and 14 projects are planned for the immediate future.
Out of the 105 completed or continuing marsh establishment projects, 9 wereI
totally unsuccessful (due to vandalism, Canada geese eat-out, wave exposure too
severe for seeding, or site surface elevations too low for seeding). Variation                I
encountered in projects included 18 that existed in freshwater or nearly freshwater
locations, 68 on the east coast, 17 on the gulf coast, 8 on the west coast, and 12
inland; 59 were purely experimental, as opposed to applied or partly so. From
information received and collated, practical guidelines for site preparation, marsh
establishment, and site management and maintenance were developed and are
discussed. The two most important factors for preparing a site for marsh
establishment were surface slopes and surface elevations. Within the tidal zone,
surface slopes would be developed such that they exhibit reasonable stabilities in
the absence of vegetative cover. Surface elevations must be carefully considered inI
the design and planning of a project and tied in with the various zones of marsh
types existing in the region. Surface elevations are most important and their
acceptable tolerances most stringent in arma subject to tidal amplitudes of 2 ft orI
less. Long term consolidation of fine sediment types is not considered of practical
importance in achieving final surface elevations within acceptable tolerances. Close
coordination between the site preparation and the marsh establishment stages of aI
project in terms of time of year is considered important; however, the use of
nursery plant stock may alleviate the consequence of unacceptable marsh
establishment because of unavoidable delays in the site preparation.
All aspects of marsh establishment must be an' integral part of the design and
planning the total project. Selection of the plant species to be used in the various4
available elevation zones at the site must be governed by (1) the plant species
known to exist within these zones in natural marshes in the region, (2) the
objectives of the project, (3) the relative growth rates and sediment'stabilizing
capabilities of the candidate plants, and (4) the relative food value ratings of the
candidate plants stock that can be successfully used at the site will depend upon (1)
the available surface elevations at the site, (2) the exposure of the site to various
physical stresses, and (3) the time of planting.
Properly developed nursery stock is considered superior to all other types for sites
or sections of sites subjected to high wave and debris deposition stresses and for
summer, fall, and winter plantings. Marsh establishment by seeding is considered
feasible only in the spring, in sheltered or confined areas, and at elevations above
mean tidal level (MTh) (preferably the upper 20% of the mean tidal range).
Although exceptions are discussed, a rule of thumb is that increasing the maturityI
of nursery transplant materials upon decreasing the elevations in the tidal zone will
lead to the greatest survival of transplants and the best overall plant establishment.
Transplant spacing and fertilization requirements are discussed. AlthoughI
fertilizations should be conducted for all marsh establishment work in sand


                                        10







sediments, the need for such fertilizations in other sediment types (silt-clay) is not
readily determined.

Three principal maintenance and management requirements for marsh
establishment determined by the study are (1) removal of debris and litter
depositions, (2) protection against waterfowl depredation, and (3) fertilization.
During the growing season, particularly for late spring and summer plants, algae,
submerged aquatic plants, free-floating aquatic plants, and/or sundry debris that
have been washed and deposited throughout the developing marsh, may have to be
periodically removed. Otherwise, the affected plants may be seriously impaired.
Depending upon the prevailing populations of geese, and to a lesser extent other
wildlife, marsh establishment sites may have to be protected by enclosures or other
effective devices. Areas of marsh establishment sites subject to extended periods of
high wave stress may require annual maintenance fertilizations to prevent the
marsh from succumbing to the stress.

Garbisch, E.W., Jr. 1986. Highways and Wetlands: Compensating Wetland Losses.
      Rpt. No. FHWA-IP-86-22. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
      Highway Administration, Office of Research and Development, Washington,
      D.C.

Abstract:    *
This Implementation Package is a practical guide for the creation and restoration
of wetlands. It provides concepts, methods and general specifications for
compensating unavoidable wetland losses in a cost effective manner. The manual
includes guidance for wetland establishment and enhancement and provides
information for the conceptual design of wetland systems.

The site-specific nature of wetland compensation measures precludes giving
detailed instructions and specifications for the establishment and enhancement of
wetlands. Although much work on the establishment of wetlands has been
published within the past decade (Appendix B), the state-of-the-art is still primitive.
Consequently, this manual is far from the last word. It is a beginning and a lot is
left to the best judgement of the users.

Hollands G.G. 1990. Regional Analysis of the Creation and Restoration of Kettle
       and Pothole Wetlands. pp. 281-298. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.),
      Wetlands Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,
      Washington D.C.

Abstract:    *
Kettles are topographic basins created by a variety of glacial processes and occur
randomly throughout glaciated regions. They are associated with both permeable
and impermeable deposits. Kettle wetlands can have complex hydrology but are






divided into two general hydrologic types: those having no inlet or outlet streams,
and those associated with surface water streams. Kettle ground water hydrology is
generally described as that associated with permeable deposits where ground water
is an important part of their water balance, and that associated with plow
permeability deposits where ground water is not the dominant element of their
water balance. Complex relationships of surface water, ground water, water
chemistry and other hydrologic elements combine to create water balances. This
has been documented in the Prairie Potholes region where site specific hydrologic
research has been conducted. Specialized soils and vegetation occur in kettles with
unique hydrology. Kettle wetlands have wetland functions similar to other
freshwater wetland types.

Kettle-like wetlands have been created by man for a variety of purposes. Creation
of kettles for mitigation has occurred at only a few locations. Renovation of Prairie
Potholes has occurred with success.

Creating kettle wetlands is similar to other types of freshwater wetland creation,
except where unique vegetation and hydrology are involved and replication may be
a complex, technical effort. Identification of limiting factors is critical to wetland
creation. Typical factors important to kettle wetlands are: surface water hydrology,
ground water hydrology, stratigraphy, soils, and water chemistry. Depending upon
the goals of the project, other limiting factors may include: nuisance animals, long
term maintenance/monitoring, lack of funds, and disposals of excavated soil.

The primary concern in creating kettle wetlands is the establishment of the proper
hydrology. This normally requires mid-course corrections in design during
construction to establish proper post-construction hydrology.

Critical research needs include studies on microstratigraphy, geochemical processes,
the properties of organic soil, and the details of hydrology.

Hook, D.D., W.H. McKee, Jr., H.KI Smith, J. Gregory, V.G. Burrell, Jr., M.R.
       DeVoe, R.E. Sojka, S. Gilbert, R. Banks, L.H. Stolzy, C. Brooks, T.D.
      Matthews, and T.H. Shear. 1988. The Ecology and Management of
      Wetlands. Volume 2. Management, Use, and Value of Wetlands. Timber
      Press, Portland, Oregon. 986 pages.

Abstract' **
This two-volume work presents selected papers from a symposium on wetlands
organized by the International Society of Anaerobiosis, held in June, 1986 in
Charleston, South Carolina. Contributors are international authorities from all
over the world, principally the USA and Europe.  Volume 2 covers applied topics
such as agricultural use, restoration and regulation, use for forestry, fisheries and
wildlife, and evaluation methods.

                                        12







Josselyn, M., J. Zedler, and T. Griswold. 1990. Wetland Mitigation Along the
      Pacific Coast of the United States. pp. 3-36. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E.
      Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the
      Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Abstract:    *
Mitigation to compensate for coastal wetland losses has taken place under federal
and state permit policies for over 15 years. As a result, a substantial database has
developed in the scientific and governmental literature on which to base
recommendations for improvement in mitigation practice. The purpose of this
chapter is to review the status of wetland mitigation along the Pacific coast based
on the available literature and more recent evaluations.

An important distinction must be made when evaluating the effectiveness of
mitigation in offsetting wetland losses. Many projects have failed due to lack of
compliance with permit requirements, e.g., have never been implemented or were
completed without regard to permit specifications. On the other hand, mitigation
effectiveness for those projects which have been completed is more difficult to
assess. Functional success involves evaluation not only based on objectives, but on
our knowledge of wetland hydrology and ecology, fields of science which have only
recently received significant attention. Given the rarity of Pacific coastal wetlands
and the substantial losses which occurred prior to the Clean Water Act, mitigation
must be considered only after avoidance measures are thoroughly considered.

Mitigation for Pacific coastal wetlands is not a "cookbook' exercise. The concept
that wetlands are simple ecosystems that can be re-created with little forethought
must be rejected. Hydrologic characteristics of a mitigation site are especially
important as they structure the possible wetland habitats that can be created.
Within the Pacific coastal zone, four general hydrological type occur:

       - Wetlands associated with small coastal rivers or lagoons, often subject to
       sandbar closure,

       - Wetlands associated with major estuaries and coastal embayments,

      - Wetlands associated with rivers, and

       - Non-tidal wetlands such as vernal pools.

Within each of these broad categories, specific opportunities and constraints must
be considered prior to approving mitigation proposals. In-kind habitat replacement
will not be feasible if mitigation is proposed across types, given their significant
differences. Most importantly, watershed management must also be considered


                                        13






within each hydrologic type as an important criteria in evaluating the potential
success of a mitigation proposal.
Permit applications must include information on project goals and habitat                    I
objectives. Goals and objectives must be specific and stated within a time frame
that can be monitored. In addition, a number of elements need to be included
within mitigation proposals:

       -Description of existing conditions including information on site history,
      topography, hydrology, sedimentation, soil types, presence of existing
      wetlands and wildlife, and adjacent land uses,

       - Description of proposed hydrological conditions as related to the specific
       requirements of the wetland vegetation and habitat desired,

       - Means by which mitigation site constraints such as subsidence, excessive
       sedimentation, and poor substrate are to be ameliorated,

       - Planting procedures, especially within tidal sites with poor soils or limited
       seed recruitment. If planting is not required, the period of time after
       implementation during which fall plant establishment is expected should be
       determined and justified in light of the habitat lost,
       - Determination of appropriate buffers that provide protection to the
       wetland,

       - Enforceable procedures to provide construction project oversight by
       qualified engineers, or hydrologists,I

       - Monitoring programs to allow enforcement of permit requirements and
       provide further information on the effectiveness of mitigation projects as a
       means to increase wetland resources rather than simply to offset losses.

Outside of site specific review, resource agencies must assess the long-termI
implications of individual permit approvals. Re-appraisal should be based on
detailed analysis contained within accessible database files. Such appraisal can
provide important information on regional trends and means by which mitigation
can be re-directed to better serve fish and wildlife needs.

Kobriger, N.P., T.V. Dupuis, WA. Kreutzberger, F.; Strains, G. Guntenspergen, and
       J. Keough. 1983. Guidelines for Management of Highway Runoff on
       Wetlands. AASHTO, Transportation Research Board, National ResearchI
       Council, Washington, D.C. Report #264.


                                        14







Abstract: *
The guidelines contained in this report for the management of highway runoff on
wetlands cover many functions: wetland creation and maintenance, wildlife
considerations, regulatory controls, wetland monitoring, modeling techniques, and
highway construction, design, and maintenance practices affecting the relationship
between highway runoff and wetlands. The report also addresses the feasibility of
using certain wetland types for mitigating the effects of highway runoff on wetlands,
and it summarizes a companion agency document, "The Effects of Highway Runoff
on Wetlands," that more fully covers the interaction of wetland systems and
highway runoff on wetlands. Additionally, the report includes an extensive
bibliography with entries grouped by major subject area.

Krieger, D.A., J.W. Terrell, and P.C. Nelson. 1983 Habitat Suitability Information:
      Yellow Perch. U.S. Dept. lnt., Fish Wildl. Service. FWS/OBS-82/10.55.

Abstract: *
This document is part of the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model Series
(FWS/OBS-82/10), which provides habitat information useful for impact
assessment and habitat management studies. Several types of habitat information
are provided. The Habitat Use Information Section is largely constrained to those
data that can be used to derive quantitative relationships between key
environmental variables and habitat suitability. The habitat use information
provides the foundation for the HSI model that follows. In addition, this same
information may be useful in the development of other models more appropriate to
specific assessment or evaluation needs.

[Yellow perch are associated with the littoral zone of lakes and reservoirs where
shoreline vegetation is present (optimally 25% cover). This vegetation provides for
both cover and spawning. Riverine habitat for yellow perch requires pools and
slack water areas along a vegetated shoreline edge. High turbidity lowers visibility
of prey and restricts zooplankton to the upper water column where they are
unavailable for the juvenile yellow perch to eat. The high summer temperature
lethal to the yellow perch is 32.2  ï¿½C (900 F).]

Lovejoy, T.E. and D.C. Oren. 1981. The Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems. pp.
       7-12. In: R. L. Burgess and D. M. Sharpe (eds.), Forest Island Dynamics in
       Man-Dominated Landscapes. Ecological Studies #41. Springer-Verlag: New
      York. 310 pp.

Abstract: **
The authors conclude that because natural areas are being fragmented by
development, the basic theory of island biogeography may be applied towards non-
island environments in order to establish the minimum critical size of ecosystems to
maintain biological integrity. The report suggests that the size of habitat reserves

                                        15






should be dictated by the goal of maintaining a functioning ecosystem, not strictly
by species numbers. The dynamics of an ecosystem may prevent managing the
biological integrity of reserves at 100%, even with additional safety factors.

Maestri, B. and B.N. Lord (eds.). 1987. Guide for Mitigation of Highway
       Stormwater Runoff Pollution. Science for the Total Environment 59:467-476.

Abstract: *
Guidelines to reduce the impacts of highway stormwater runoff have been
developed to address both management practices and mitigation measures. The
research is a part of the Federal Highway Administration's ongoing program,
"Nonpoint Source Pollution from Highway Stormwater." Practical, effective, and
implementable mitigation methods have been identified, based upon a synthesis of
current practices and an extensive literature review. An important output of this
research was the identification of impractical or ineffective measures. The research
also identified general design principles and practices that are an integral part of
good engineering. The outputs are relatively low cost to implement and can be
incorporated into current designs and operations. Specific design guidelines are
provided for vegetative controls, detention basins, infiltration, and wetlands.
Examples of highway applications of management practices and mitigation
measures, singly and in combination, are presented.

Martinez-Taberner, A., G. Moya, G. Ramon, and V. Forteza. 1990. Limnological
       Criteria for the Rehabilitation of a Coastal Marsh. The Albufera of
      Majorca, Balearic Islands. Ambio 19:21-27.

Abstract:    *
Mediterranean coastal zones have turned into popular leisure centers visited mainly
by northern European tourists. The hotel industry has produced an economic
boom in what were relatively undisturbed areas. Due to this fact studies dealing
with the management and preservation or rehabilitation of natural zones are
essential to balance social and economic development. The aim is to preserve the
natural environment and landscape in order to retain its appeal for visitors. The
present work on the rehabilitation of the Albufera of Majorca is an area within this
context. The geomorphological evolution of the Albufera of Majorca is discussed
and the principal environmental components are analyzed. On this basis major
criteria for rehabilitation are proposed; (1) To preserve the present dynamics of the
lagoons and eliminate factors distributing lotic environments. (2) To increase open
water zones by progressively reintroducing preexisting lagoons in order to achieve
an increase in food resources and in the number of habitats. (3) To change the
present water circulation pattern fractalizing its route, i.e., allowing water to spread
throughout the Albufera thereby decreasing its renewal rate. (4) To avoid
environmental homogeneity and to attempt a smoothening out of the


                                        16







environmental gradient so that it can be occupied by a large number of species
with different environmental tolerances.

Nelson, ILW. and W.J. Logan. 1984. Policy on Wetland Impact Mitigation.
       Environmental 'International 10:9-19.

Abstract: *
Important policy issues concerning the mitigation of impacts from construction and
development affecting wetlands are under examination by the U.S. Congressional
Office of Technology Assessment, the Environment and Public Works Committee
of the U.S. Senate, and the National Wetlands Technical Council. The issues
'divide into two main parts: (1) how the current strategy to simplify federal
regulation of wetlands is limiting the success of mitigation; and (2) how to change
the present strategy for mitigation under the U.S. Clean Water Act, if at all.
Requirements for site-specific analysis of impacts and their mitigation requirements
are being replaced by simple, uniform national guidelines on impact mitigation;
these guidelines are designed to streamline the regulatory process in which the
proposed activities typically generate only minor impacts. This trend ignores how
the intrinsic values of the affected wetland modify the actual severity of impact. A
change in regulatory strategy may be necessary so that the efforts at impact
mitigation are scaled to wetland values as well as the magnitude of adverse effects
normally expected with particular activities.

Newton, R.B. 1989. The Effects of Stormwater Surface Runoff on Freshwater
       Wetlands: A Review of the Literature and Annotated Bibliography. The
       Environmental Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
       Publication 90-2. 77 pp.

Abstract: *
As development pressures continue to threaten Massachusetts wetlands, requests
for permits to direct stormwater flows to wetland sites have been on the rise. This
literature review evaluates current knowledge regarding the impacts of such use
and suggests regulatory standards which could be imposed to mitigate the potential
hazards to wetland ecosystems. This report consists of a review, 4 appendices, and
an annotated bibliography with 65 entries.

Noss, R.F. 1983. A Regional Landscape Approach to Maintain Diversity.
       BioScience 33:700-706.

Abstract: *
Land managers have traditionally assumed that achieving maximum local habitat
diversity will favor diversity of wildlife. Recent trends in species composition in
fragmented landscapes suggest, however, that a more comprehensive view is
required for perpetuation of regional diversity. A regional network of preserves,

                                        17






with sensitive habitats insulated from human disturbance, might best perpetuate
ecosystem integrity in the long term.

Noss, R.F. 1987. Corridors in Real Landscapes: A Reply to Simberloff and Cox.
       Conservation Biology 1:159-164.

Abstract: *
Habitat corridors have become popular in land-use and conservation strategies, yet
few data are available to either support or refute their value. Simberloff and Cox
(1987) have criticized what they consider an uncritical acceptance of corridors in
conservation planning.

Any reasonable conservation strategy must address the overwhelming problem of
habitat fragmentation. Although Simberloff and Cox use island analogies to
illustrate advantages of isolation, these analogies do not apply directly to problems
in landscape planning. Genetics also does not offer unequivocal advice, but the life
histories of wide-ranging animals (e.g., the Florida panther) suggest that the
maintenance or restoration of connectivity in the landscape is a prudent strategy.
Translocation of individuals among reserves, considered by Simberloff and Cox a
viable alternative to natural dispersal, is impractical for whole communities of
species that are likely to suffer from problems related to fragmentation.

Many of the potential disadvantages of corridors could be avoided or mitigated by
enlarging corridor widths or by applying ecologically sound zoning regulations.
Corridors are not the solution to all our conservation problems, nor should they be
used as a justification for small reserves. But corridors can be a cost-effective
complement to the strategy of large and multiple reserves in real-life landscapes.

Nouri, H. 1989. Building a Better Wetland. Civil Engineering 59:45-46.

Abstract:    **
Computer-operated tide gates were used to regulate water levels in the restoration
of the Ballona Wetlands near Los Angeles. The restoration plan was primarily
designed to create pickleweed nesting habitat for the Belding's savannah sparrow,
an endangered species.

Ogawa, H. and J.W. Male. 1988. Evaluation Framework for Wetland Regulation.
      Journal of Environmental Management 21:95-109.

Abstract: *
Flood mitigation potential is an important aspect of wetlands, and must be
considered when application for modification of a wetland has been made. The
procedure presented in this paper allows regulatory agencies, particularly at the
local level, to assess quickly what the effects of wetland modification of peak

                                        18








streamflows might be, and to determine whether more in-depth analyses should be
conducted. The approach relies on equations developed from regression analyses
and watershed simulations. Results of the approach are presented for an area
encompassing three river basins in eastern Massachusetts. Flood mitigation
potential is an important aspect of wetlands, and must be considered when
application for modification of a wetland has been made. The procedure presented
in this paper allows regulatory agencies, particularly at the local level, to assess
quickly what the effects of wetland modification of peak streamflows might be, and
to determine whether more in-depth analyses should be conducted. The approach
relies on equations developed from regression analyses and watershed simulations.
Results of the approach are presented for an area encompassing three river basins
in eastern Massachusetts.

Phillips, R.C. 1991. Eelgrass Research in the Pacific Northwest. Paper presented
      at the Annual Meeting, Pacific Northwest Chapter, Society of Wetland
       Scientists. April 26-27, Newport, Oregon.

Abstract:    * *
Author cites the need for scientific investigations in the Pacific Northwest regarding
"successfuf' establishment of eelgrass beds (Zostera marina). This research should
focus on the functional equivalency of transplanted eelgrass beds.

Posey, M.H. 1988. Community Changes Associated with the Spread of an
       Introduced Seagrass, Zostera japon/ca. Ecology 69:974-983.

Abstract: *
Species introductions have provided a valuable source of information for
understanding the factors that regulate community composition. However, the
effect of such introductions has often been obscured by a lack of information of
distribution and abundance patterns before or during an invasion event. I
examined the changes in a benthic community associated with the ongoing spread
of an introduced seagrass, Zostera japonica, by sampling transplanted seagrass plots
and established Z. japonica patches of known ages.

The sedimentary and faunal changes associated with Z. japonica were similar to
those observed with native seagrass species. Mean sediment grain size declined
and sediment volatile organics increased within Z. japonica patches. Faunal
richness was higher within Z. japonica patches compared with adjacent unvegetated
areas, and many numerically dominant species were positively associated with this
introduced seagrass, However, the effects of Z. japonica on faunal abundance
varied with both the age of a seagrass patch and site location. The introduction of
this seagrass has thus changed the physical habitat as well as the richness and
densities of resident fauna.


                                        19






Many studies of introduced species have concentrated on direct interactions
between introduced and native organisms. In contrast, the community changes
associated with the introduction of Z. japonica emphasize the potential importanceK
of indirect and system-level effects of introduced species on community

Pritchett, D.A. 1989. Evaluation of Wetland Mitigation Projects (EvaWetMit). US
      EPA, Office of Cooperative Environmental Management. Doe. No.
      EPA/1O1/F-90/018.

Abstract: 
The report is part of the National Network for Environmental Management Studies
under the auspices of the Office of Cooperative Environmental Management of theI
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Wetland restoration and creation projects were examined to determine how their
planning, implementation, and monitoring affected project successes. Restoration
and creation was required, under Sections 404 and 309 of the Clean Water Act, as
mitigation for wetland losses brought about by various forms of land development.I
Projects examined are limited to non-tidal palustrine wetlands, such as freshwater
marshes, swamps, and seasonal pools, but examples from throughout the
conterminous United State are included. In addition, guidelines andI
recommendations for restoration and creation projects were compiled from a
survey of wetland mitigation literature and are included as a separate section of the
report.
Race, M.S. 1985. Critique of Present Wetlands Mitigation I Policies in the United
       Stated Based on an Analysis of Past Restoration Projects in San Francisco
      Bay. Environmental Management 9:71-82.

Abstract: 
A detailed evaluation of past wetland restoration projects in San Francisco Bay was
undertaken to determine their present status and degree of success. Many of the
projects never reached the level of success purported and others have been plagued
by serious problems. On the basis of these findings, it is debatable whether any
sites in San Francisco Bay can be described as completed, active, or successful
restoration projects at present. In spite of these limited accomplishments, wetland
creation and'restoration have been adopted in the coastal permit process as
mitigation to offset environmental damage or loss of habitat. However, because
the technology is still largely experimental, there is no guarantee that man-made
wetlands will persist as permanent substitutes for sacrificed natural habitats.
Existing permit policies should be reanalyzed to insure that they actually succeed inI
safeguarding diminishing wetlands resources rather than bartering them away for
questionable habitat substitutes. Coastal managers must be more specific about

                                        20                                                   I







           project requirements and goals before approval is granted. Continued research on
           a regional basis is needed to advance marsh establishment techniques into a proven
           technology. In the meantime, policies encouraging or allowing quid pro quo
           exchanges of natural wetlands with man-made replacements should proceed with
           caution. The technology and management policies used at present are many steps
           ahead of the needed supporting documentation.

           Race, M.S. and D.R. C hristie. 1982. Coastal Zone Development: Mitigation, Marsh
                  Creation, and Decision-Making. Environmental Management 6:317-328.

           Abstract: I
           Marsh creation is currently receiving wide attention in the United States as an
           important tool for mitigating the impacts of development in coastal wetlands. The
           perception that there is no net loss in valuable coastal wetlands when development
           is mitigated by the creation of man-made marshes can have a substantial impact on
           the permitting and decision-making processes. The effective result may be the
           trading of natural salt marshes for man-made marshes. Techniques for marsh
I        ~ ~~creation were developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers to enhance and
           stabilize dredge spoil materials. Most research sponsored by the Corps has been
           directed at determining whether these goals have been accomplished. A survey of
I        ~ ~~the research indicated that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that man-made
           marshes function like natural salt marshes or provide the important values of
           natural marshes. It is necessary, therefore, for decision-makers to understand the
S        ~ ~~limitations of present knowledge about man-made marshes, realistically evaluate
           the trade-offs involved, and relegate mitigation to its proper role in the permitting
           process--post facto conditions imposed on developments that clearly meet state
           qualifications and policies.
           Reed, W.C. and M.C. Heath. 1974. Saltmarsh relocation restoration in Maine.
                  Prepared by Reed & D'Andrea, South Gardiner, ME, for the Maine Dept.. of
                  Transportation, Augusta, ME.

           Abstract:    *
           Salt marsh restoration and relocation is examined as an alternative to marsh losses
           from construction activities or as a means of stabilizing erosion. Procedures
           developed on the coasts of Maryland and North Carolina are examined, and factors
           affecting the transferability of these to the Maine coast detailed. The existing
           literature on biological, physical, and economic considerations is reviewed,
           including:

              1. Appropriate plant species for marsh propagation, their nutrient
                  requirements~productivity, and intraspecies variation.
              2. Location in terms of tidal influence and substrate.


                                                   21






   3. Effect of sedimentation, erosion, ice and other physical stresses on
       established and newly formed marsh environments.
   4. Benefits derived from salt marshes, direct and indirect.
   5. Costs involved in artificial marsh propagation.

Finally, site selection criteria are discussed based on the previous review.

Rice, P.D. 1984. Habitat Suitability Index Models: Dabbling Ducks. U.S. Dept. Int.,
       Fish Wildl. Service. FWS/OBS-82/.

Abstract: *
This document is part of the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model Series
(FWS/OBS-82/10), which provides habitat information useful for impact
assessment and habitat management studies. Several types of habitat information
are provided. The Habitat Use Information Section is largely constrained to those
data that can be used to derive quantitative relationships between key
environmental variables and habitat suitability. The habitat use information
provides the foundation for the HSI model that follows. In addition, this same
information may be useful in the development of other models more appropriate to
specific assessment or evaluation needs.

[Optimal dabbling duck habitat is provided by wetlands with 50% cover and 50% 
open water. Unsatisfactory nesting conditions result from silt-covered shallows,
broad mud flats, and absence of submergent vegetation irn open water. Preferred
wetland nesting habitat is bulrush and cattail, and preferred upland cover is tall
grass and brush.]

Salvesen, D. Wetlands: Mitigating and Regulating Development Impacts.
      Washington D.C.: ULI-The Urban Land Institute, 1990.

Abstract: **
An introduction to wetland types, values, and functions is followed by a rundown of
Federal and State Wetland Regulations, giving FL, NJ, CA, OR, MS, and MA as
examples. The author then discusses mitigation strategies and gives examples of
projects which have chosen different strategies. These include Avoidance,
Restoration, Enhancement, and Creation.

Schroeder, R.L. 1983. Habitat Suitability Index Models: Pileated Woodpecker. U.S.
      Dept. Int., Fish Wildl. Service. FWS/OBS-82/10.39. 15 pp.

Abstract: *
This document is part of the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model Series
(FWS/OBS-82/10), which provides habitat information useful for impact
assessment and habitat management studies. Several types of habitat information

                                       22







are provided. The Habitat Use Information Section is largely constrained to those
data that can be used to derive quantitative relationships between key
environmental variables and habitat suitability. The habitat use information
provides the foundation for the HSI model that follows. In addition, this same
information may be useful in the development of other models more appropriate to
specific assessment or evaluation needs.

[In the results of a Virginia study, most Pileated Woodpeckers rested no farther
than 150 m (492 ft) from water, and most nests were within 50 m (164 ft) of water.
Average distance between water sources was 600 m (1969 ft). Minimum nesting
area was 130 ha (320 acres).]

Shisler, J.K. 1990. Creation and Restoration of the Coastal Wetlands of the
      Northeastern United States. pp. 143-170. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula
      (eds.), Wetlands Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island
      Press, Washington D.C.

Abstract:     *
The wetlands of the coastal zone of the northeast have been managed since the
colonization of the United States. Restoration work associated with mitigation of
impacts has been going on in the region for over twenty years. Despite this history,
there has not been an extensive evaluation of these projects to determine their
success and how they function.

The mitigation process should be directed towards a management approach that is
concerned with the total system instead of just the "vegetated' wetland. Goals
should be based upon a wetland systenm s requirements within a watershed or
region. The use of adjacent wetlands as models is critical in this process.
Monitoring the created or restored wetlands can provide an important database
which can be used in planning future projects. Goals, clearly defined in the design
process, will promote meaningful evaluations.

Sinicrope, T. L., P.G. Hine, R.S. Warren, and W.A. Niering. 1990. Restoration of an
      Impounded Salt Marsh in New England. Estuaries 13:25-30.

Abstract:     *
The restoration of a 20 ha tidal marsh, impounded for 32 yr, in Stonington,
Connecticut was studied to document vegetation change 10 yr after the
reintroduction of tidal flushing. These data were then compared to a 1976 survey
of the same marsh when it was in its freshest state and dominated the Typha
angustifolia. Currently, T. angustifolia remains vigorous only along the upland
borders and in the upper reaches of the valley marsh. Live coverage of T.
angustifolia has declined from 74% to 16% and surviving stands are mostly stunted
and depauperate. Other brackish species have also been adversely effected, except

                                        23






for Phragmites australis which has increased. In contrast, the salt marsh species
Spartina altemiflora has dramatically expanded, from < 1% to 45% cover over the
last decade. Locally, high marsh species have also become established, covering
another 20% of the marsh.

Smardon, R.C. 1978. Visual-Cultural Values of Wetlands. pp. 535.544 In: P.E.
       Greeson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values:
      The State of Our Understanding. American Water Resources Association.

Abstract: *
The paper addresses the visual-cultural values, or the visual, recreational, and
educational values, of inland and coastal wetlands in the United States. An
"ecological aesthetics" perspective is proposed, based on evidence that information
about natural and cultural processes associated with a landscape increases the
aesthetic value of that landscape for the perceiver. Single significant visual-cultural
values, as well as composite values, of wetlands are reviewed. The critical
literature is reviewed and detailed findings are discussed for (1) wetlands in
comparison to other landscapes, (2) specific types of wetlands compared to each
other, (3) wetlands and their immediate surroundings, (4) wetlands and the micro-
landscape within, and (5) dynamic phenomena associated with wetlands. Little
substantive research concerning visual-cultural values of wetlands has been done.
Existing research is restricted to the central northeastern, southern, and west coast
regions of the United States. Priorities and key questions for visual-cultural
wetland research are suggested.

Stuber, R.J., G. Gilbert, and O.E. Maughan. 1982. Habitat Suitability Index
       Models: Largemouth Bass. U.S. Dept. Int., Fish Wildl. Service. FWS/OBS-
       82/10.16.

Abstract:   *
This document is part of the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Model Series
(FWS/OBS-82/10), which provides habitat information useful for impact
assessment and habitat management studies. Several types of habitat information
are provided. The Habitat Use Information Section is largely constrained to those
data that can be used to derive quantitative relationships between key
environmental variables and habitat suitability. The habitat use information
provides the foundation for the HSI model that follows. In addition, this same
information may be useful in the development of other models more appropriate to
specific assessment or evaluation needs.

[Optimum habitat consists of large, slow-moving rivers or pools (> 60% of habitat),
relatively clear, shallow (< 6 m deep), with soft bottoms, some aquatic vegetation,
with overwintering areas (40 to 60% of lake at least 15 m deep), and shoreline
vegetation (adult largemouth bass typically fed near the vegetation). Additional

                                        24







optimal conditions for adult largemouth bass include cover vegetation, log debris,
and brush, with cover ranging from 40 to 60% (> 60% reduced prey). Amount of
cover was found to be positively correlated with the number of fry present.
Optimal fry habitat contained cover from 40 to 80%. Optimal temperature for fry
growth ranged from 27 to 30 ï¿½C (80.6 to 86aF).]

Thom, R.M., E.O. Salo, CA. Simenstad, J.R. Cordell, and D.K. Shreffler. 1987.
      Construction of a wetland system in the Puyallup River Estuary,
      Washington. Paper presented at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Society of
      Wetland Scientists, Seattle, WA.

Abstract:    *
A 3.9 ha estuarine wetland system was constructed in 1985-1986 in the tidally
influenced portion of the Puyallup River. The system consists of channels, mudflats,
a sedge marsh, a swamp, a cattail marsh, trees and a grassland. Monitoring studies
showed the system supported outmigrating juvenile salmon, shore birds, waterfowl
and raptors.

Tourbier, J. and R. Westmacott. 1980. Water Resources Protection Measures in
      Land Development - A Handbook (Revised Edition). Water Resources
      Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 210 pp.

Abstract: *
This handbook contains descriptions of measures in urban development to prevent,
reduce or ameliorate potential problems that would otherwise adversely affect
water resources. These problems consist of runoff increases and decreases in
infiltration and a greater degree of erosion and sedimentation, flooding, runoff
pollution and discharge of sewage effluent. Issues have been analyzed individually
in the Christina River Basin. Each measure is described and site characteristics to
which it is applicable identified. The application, advantages and disadvantages,
design criteria and outline specifications, cost guidelines and maintenance, and
legal implications of each measure are individually covered.

Wakeley, J.S. 1989. Mitigation Database: Tracking Mitigation Activities in the
      Section 404 Permitting Program. Miscellaneous Paper EL-89-8, US Army
      Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. Vicksburg, MS.

Abstract:    *
This report presents a recommended list of variables for development of a
mitigation database by US Army Corps of Engineers (CE) Regulatory offices. Uses
of the database include periodic review of CE Regulatory program mitigation
efforts, evaluation of trends in permitted wetland activities, and preparation of
responses to public or agency inquires. Depending upon the level of
implementation chosen, the mitigation database contains information on wetland

                                       25






type and acreages impacted, restored, or created; the spatial distribution of
projects; effects of the permit review process in lessening potential impacts; wetland
functions and values considered in permit decisions; mitigation goals; and
restoration or compensation methods.

Wentz, W.A., R.. Smith, and J.A. Kadlec. 1974. State-of-the-Art Survey and
      Evaluation of Marsh Plant Establishment Techniques: Induced and Natural,
      vol. 2, A Selected Annotated Bibliography on Aquatic and Marsh Plants and
      Their Management. Prepared for the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
      Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi by the School of Natural
      Resources, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Abstract:    *
The 703 references listed in this volume were collected for the investigation of
marsh and aquatic plant establishment which is reported in Volume I, Report of
Research, of this report. The purpose of this bibliography is to make available an
annotated listing of references which were not cited in Volume I. Although the
bibliography does not represent an exhaustive review of the literature, it does
provide an extensive survey of the pertinent references on the ecology and
management of aquatic and marsh plants. The references selected for this
bibliography emphasize studies useful to researchers and managers. In accordance
with the focus of Volume I, this volume concentrates on coastal Great Lakes, and
riverine marshes.

Williams J.D. and C.IL Dodd, Jr. 1978. Importance of Wetlands to Endangered
      and Threatened Species. pp. 565-575. In: P.E. Greeson, J.R. Clark, and J.E.
      Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our
      Understanding. American Water Resources Association.

Abstract: *
The importance of wetland habitats to certain endangered and threatened plants
and animals of the United States is reviewed and examples of endangered and
threatened reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and birds dependent on wetlands are
discussed. The role of the American alligator in shaping some wetland habitats is
greater than its commercial value. The status of wetland habitats in desert areas of
the southwestern United States is examined and Ash Meadows, Nevada, is used as
an example to illustrate the precarious nature of these habitats. On a national
basis, the percentage of endangered and threatened species dependent on wetlands
is presented by major taxonomic groups. Without increased protection of wetland
habitats, many of our endangered and threatened species may disappear before the
end of the century.




                                       26







           Winter, T.C. 1988. A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Cumulative Impacts on
                  the Hydrology of Nontidal Wetlands. Environmental Management 1-2:605-
                  620.

           Abstract: *
           Wetlands occur in geologic and hydrologic settings that enhance the accumulation
           or retention of water. Regional slope, local relief, and permeability of the land
           surface are major controls on the formation of wetlands by surface-water sources.
           However, these landscape features also have significant control over groundwater
           flow systems, which conmmonly play a role in the formation of wetlands. Because
           the hydrologic system is a continuum, any modification of one component will have
I        ~ ~~an effect on contiguous components. Disturbances commonly affecting the
           hydrologic system as it relates to wetlands include weather modification, alteration
           of plant communities, storage of surface water, road construction, drainage of
I        ~ ~~surface water and soil water, alteration of groundwater recharge and discharge
           areas, and pumping of groundwater. Assessments of the cumulative effects of one
           or more of these disturbances on the hydrologic system as related to wetlands must
I        ~ ~~take into account uncertainty in the measurements and in the assumptions that are
           made in hydrologic studies. For example, it may be appropriate to assume that
           regional groundwater flow systems are recharged in uplands and discharged in
I        ~ ~~lowlands. However, a similar assumption commonly does not apply on a local
           scale, because of the spatial and temporal dynamics of groundwater recharge. Lack
           of appreciation of such hydrologic factors can lead to misunderstanding of the
          hydrologic function of wetlands within various parts of the landscape and
           mismanagement of wetland ecosystems.

           Wolf, R.B., L.C. Lee, and R.R. Shartz. 1986. Wetland Creation and Restoration in
                  the US from 1970 to 1985: An Annotated Bibliography. Wetlands 6:1-88.

           Abstract:**
           This bibliography deals with the creation of new and the restoration of disturbed
           salt and freshwater wetlands in the United States since 1970. The authors aim was
           to provide wetland scientists and regulatory agencies with an index for identifying
           and locating publications useful in planning new projects or reviewing old ones. In
           selecting projects, they emphasized site engineering and plant propagation.
           Therefore, numerous articles that discuss preparing the site for natural or artificial
           revegetation, and transplanting and seeding of vegetation, are included in the 304
           reports cited. However, articles concerning more minor habitat adjustments and,
           for example, lake or reservoir management for wildlife or waterfowl, are not
           included.

           Documents are arranged alphabetically by senior author. A fall citation and brief
           description of the problem or topic discussed is included for each one. National
           Technical Information Service (NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161) order numbers are

                                                   27






provided for publications available through that office. Following the citations are
indices arranged by plant species, subject, and state.

Reports of wetland restoration and creation projects from more than 30 states are
cited. In these articles, all major aspects of wetland construction are described in
detail. Such topics as site selection; planning; engineering and design; seeding;
plant material selection, harvest,storage, and transplanting; fertilization
requirements, cost and labor estimates; and maintenance requirements are included
for marsh, riparian, and littoral zone development. Detailed directions for
propagating about 150 plant species can be found. Additionally, more basic
questions are addressed, such as the value of wetlands, whether artificial or
restored wetlands approximate natural, and how wetlands should be regulated.
Several bibliographies, project surveys, and literature reviews are included.

Zedler, J.B. and M.W. Weller. 1990. Overview and Future Directions. pp 405-413.
      In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetlands Creation and
      Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press, Washington D.C.

Abstract:    *
Despite loss of over 50% of the wetlands in the contiguous United States, there is a
continuing pressure to use wetlands for immediate economic gain. Functional
values that are nearly perpetual (self-maintaining) are rarely considered, and the
complexity, integrity, and uniqueness of natural wetlands are undervalued. It is
commonly assumed that wetland losses can be mitigated by restoring or creating
wetlands of equal value. Some feel that replication is not always necessary if
certain functions are replaced; others, including most wetland scientists, recognize
that duplication is impossible and simulation is improbable. All would agree that
we need substantially more information about what functions are being lost and
how to replace them. This overview highlights the topics for which information
needs are greatest and provides a research strategy to: a) improve wetland
restoration/creation efforts, b) determine the degree to which constructed systems
can replace lost functions, and c) determine the potential for persistence
(resilience) of restored and constructed wetlands.












                                        28







                                REFERENCES

(entries in bold are included in the annotated bibliography)

Adams, L.W., L.E. Dove, and D.L. Leedy. Public Attitudes Towards Urban
      Wetlands for Stormwater Control and Wildlife Enhancement. Wildl. Soc.
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Adamus, P.R., EJ. Clarain, Jr., R.D. Smith, and RE. Young. 1987. Wetland
      Evaluation Technique (WET); Volume II: Methodology. Operational Draft
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Adamus, P.R., and L.T. Stockwell. 1983. A Method for Wetland Functional
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Baca, B.J., and J.R. Clark. 1988. Coastal Management Practices for Prevention of
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Baker, G.F. 1984. An Analysis of Wetland Losses and Compensation Under the
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Bay Conservation and Development commission (BCDC). 1988. Mitigation: An
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Bigford, T.E. 1986. Effectiveness of Habitat Mitigation Strategies in the Northeast.
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Bill, P. 1990. An Assessment of Wetlands Mitigation Required through SEPA in
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Blomberg, G. 1987. Development and Mitigation in the Pacific Northwest.
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Boule, M.E., and K.F. Bierly. 1987. History of Estuarine Wetland Development and
      Alteration: What Have We Wrought?. Northwest Environ. Jour. 3:43-61.

                                       29







Boule, M.E., R.D. Kranz, and T. Miller. 1985. Annotated Wetland Bibliography of
      the State of Washington. Prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
      Seattle District by Shapiro and Assoc., Inc., Seattle.

Broome, S.W., E.D. Seneca and W.W. Woodhouse, Jr.. Tidal Salt Marsh
      Restoration. Aquatic Botany 32:1-22.                                                   1

Caiazza, N. 1989. Ecological Functions of a Created, Freshwater Tidal Wetland.
      Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.                                         I

Carothers, S.W., G.S. Mills, and R.R. Johnson. 1990. The Creation and Restoration
      of Riparian Habitat in Southwestern Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. pp. 351-               I
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      Restoration: The Status of the Science, Island Press, Washington D.C.

Carter, V. 1986. An Overview of the Hydrologic Concerns Related to Wetlands in
      the United States. Canadian J. Botany 64:364-374.

Ciszewski, P. and E. Styczynska-Jurewicz. 1990. Degradation and Restoration of
      Puck Bay (A Project). Limnologica 20:191-194.

Clark, J.R. 1977. Coastal Ecosystem Management: A Technical Manual for the
      Conservation of Coastal Zone Resources. John Wiley and Sons, New York,               _
      New York.

Coats, R., M. Swanson, and P. Williams. 1989. Hydrologic Analysis for Coastal                 I
      Wetland Restoration. Environmental Management 13:715-727.

Cooper, J.W. 1987. An Overview of Estuarine Habitat Mitigation Projects in
      Washington State. Northwest Env. Jour. 3:113-127.

Cowan, J.H. and R.E. Turner. 1988. Modeling Wetland Loss in Coastal Louisiana:                I
      Geology, Geography, and Human Modifications. Environmental
      Management, 12:827-838.

Crawford, R.D; and J.A. Rossiter. 1982. General Design Considerations in
      Creating Artificial Wetlands for Wildlife. pp. 4447. In: W.D. Svedarsky and
      R.D. Crawford (eds.), Wildlife Values of Gravel Pits, Symposium
      Proceedings. Misc. Pub. 17-1982. Ag. Exp. Sta., University of Minnesota,
      Duluth.



                                                                                             I



                                                                                             I*








D'Avanzo, C. 1987. Vegetation in Freshwater Replacement Wetlands in the
      Northeast. pp. 53-81. In: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the University
      of Massachusetts, Amherst, Sept. 29-30, 1986, Publ. No. 87-1.

D'Avanzo, C. 1990. Long-term evaluation of wetland creation projects. pp. 487-496.
      In: JA. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and Restoration:
      The Status of the Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press, Washington,
      D.C.

Davis, A.A. 1989. DER Wetlands Protection Action Plan. Water Pollution Control
      Association of Pennsylvania Magazine 22:18-22.

Decamps, H., F. Fornier, R.J. Naiman, and R.C. Petersen, Jr. 1990. An
      International Research Effort on Land/Inland Water Ecotones in
      Landscape Management and Restoration 1990-1996. Ambio 19(3):175-176.

Demgen, F.C. 1988. A Review of Eighteen Wetland Mitigation Sites in the San
      Francisco Bay Region. In: Urban Wetlands: Proceedings of the National
      Wetlands Symposium. Association of State Wetland Managers, Inc.

DeMond, J.D., D.R. Clark, and B.E. Spicer. 1986. A Review of Wetland
      Restoration, Enhancement, and Creation Practices in the Louisiana Coastal
      Zone. pp. 64-74. In: Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference on
      Wetlands Restoration and Creation, Hillsborough Community College,
      Tampa, FL.

Dresen, M., and M.E. Vollbrecht. 1986. Wisconsin's Shoreland Zoning Program:
      Design and Direction. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
      Madison, Wisconsin.

Edwards, E.A., D.A. Krieger, M. Bacteller, and O.E. Maughan. 1982. Habitat
      Suitability Index Models: Black Crappie. U.S. Dept. Int., Fish Wildl.
      Service. FWS/OBS-82/10.6.

Eliot, W. 1985. Implementing Mitigation Policies in San Francisco Bay: A Critique.
      Prepared for the California State Coastal Conservancy.

Elmore, W., and R.L. Beschta. 1987. Riparian Areas: Perceptions in Management.
      Rangelands 9:260-265.

Erwin, K.L. 1990. Freshwater marsh creation and restoration in the Southeast. pp.
      233-266. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and
      Restoration: The Status of the Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press,
      Washington, D.C.

                                       31







Fishman, P.A., N.S. Geiger, L. Sharp, J.W. Buell, and L. Wilson. 1987. Estuarine
      Mitigation Evaluation Project--Mitigation Site Evaluation Notebook..
      Submitted to the Department of Land Conservation and Development and
      The Division of State Lands. Fishman Environmental Services, Portland,
      Oregon.

Fonseca, M.S. 1990. Regional Analysis of the Creation and Restoration of Seagrass
      Systems. pp. 171-194. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds4, Wetlands
      Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,
      Washington D.C.

Fonseca, M.S. W.J. Kenworthy, and G.W. Thayer. 1988. Restoration and
      Management of Seagrass Systems: A Review. In The Ecology and
      Management of Wetlands; Vol. 2 Management, Use, and Value of
      Wetlands, D.D. Hook et al. (eds.). Timber Press, Portland, OR.

Frenkel, R.E. and J.C. Morlan. 1990. Restoration of the Salmon River Salt
      Marshes: Retrospect and Prospect. Final Report to the U.S. Environmental
      Protection Agency. Dept. of Geosciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
      Oregon.

Garbisch, E.W., Jr. 1977. Recent and Planned Marsh Establishment Work
      Throughout the Contiguous United States--A Survey and Basic Guidelines.
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      Mississippi.

Garbisch, E.W., Jr. 1986. Highways and Wetlands: Compensating Wetland Losses.
      Rpt. No. FHWA-IP-86-22. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
      Highway Administration, Office of Research and Development, Washington,
      D.C.

Golet, F.C. 1986. Critical Issues in Wetland Mitigation: A Scientific Perspective.
      National Wetlands Newsletter 8:3-6.

Good, J.W. 1987. Mitigation Estuarine Development in the Pacific Northwest:
      From Concept to Practice. Northwest Env. Jour. 3:93-111.

Gosselink, J.G. and L.C. Lee. 1986. Cumulative Impact Assessment Principles. pp.
       196-203. In: Proceedings: National Wetland Symposium. Assoc. of State
      Wetland Managers, Inc. Oct. 1986, New Orleans, LA




                                       32







Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark. 1979. Wetland Functions and Values:
      The State of Our Understanding. American Water Resources Assoc.,
      Minneapolis, MN. 674 pp.

Grenell, P. 1986. The Coastal Conservancy's Emerging Role in Shaping Wetland
      Mitigation Approaches; Standards and Criteria. pp. 99-102. In: J.A. Kusler,
      M.L. Quammen, and G. Brooks (eds.), Proceedings of the National Wetland
      Symposium: Mitigation of Impacts and Losses. Assoc. of State Wetland
      Managers, Inc., Oct. 1986, New Orleans, LA.

Gwin, S. 1990. Evaluating Design of Created Wetlands and Verifying Compliance:
      An Example from Oregon. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis.

Harvey, H.T., and M.N. Josselyn. 1986. Wetland Restoration and Mitigation
      Policies: Comment. Env. Management 10:567-569.

Hollands G.G. 1990. Regional Analysis of the Creation and Restoration of Kettle
      and Pothole Wetlands. pp. 281-298. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.),
      Wetlands Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Island Press,
      Washington D.C.

Hook, D.D. et al. 1988. The Ecology and Management of Wetlands. Volume 2.
      Management, Use, and Value of Wetlands. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
      986 pages.

Horner, R.R. and K.J. Raedeke. 1989. Guide for Wetland Mitigation Project
      Monitoring: Monitoring Guide (Operational Draft). Washington State
      Department of Transportation, Olympia, Washington.

Johnson, LE., and W.V. McGuinness. 1975. Guidelines for Material Placement in
      Marsh Creations. U.S. Army Waterways Exp. Sta., Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Johnson, R.R. and J.F. McCormick. 1978. Strategies for Protection and
      Management of Floodplain Wetlands and Other Riparian Ecosystems.
      Proceedings of the Symposium in Georgia, 1978. GTR-WO-12. U.S. Forest
      Service.

Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc. 1988. Restoration Potential of Diked Estuarine
      Wetlands in Washington and Oregon: Phase 1 - Inventory of Candidate Sites
      (Final Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Water
      Division, Wetlands Section, Seattle, Washington.

Josselyn, M., J. Zedler, and T. Griswold. 1990. Wetland Mitigation Along the
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                                      33







      Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the
      Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Kadlec, J.A. and W.A. Wentz. 1974. State-of-the-Art Survey and Evaluation of
      Marsh Plant Establishment Techniques: Induced and Natural. Volume I:
      Report of Research. U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Exp.Sta., Contr. Rep. D-74-
      9. Vicksburg, Mississippi. Grant No. DACW72-74-C-0010.

Kantor, R.A., and D.J. Charette. 1986. Computerized Monitoring System for
      Wetlands Mitigation Projects in New Jersey. pp. 266-269. In: Proceedings of
      the National Wetland Symposium. Assoc. of State Wetland Managers, Inc.,
      Oct. 1986, New Orleans, LA.

Karr, J.R. and I.. Schlosser. 1978. Water Resources and the Land-Water Interface.
      Science 201:229-234.

Kentula, M.E. 1986. Wetland Creation and Rehabilitation in the Pacific Northwest.
      pp. 119-128. In: R. Strickland (ed.), Wetland Functions, Rehabilitation, and
      Creation in the Pacific Northwest: The State of Our Understanding.
      Proceedings of a Conference April 30 - May 2, 1986, Fort Worden State
      Park, Port Townsend, Washington. Washington State Department of
      Ecology, Olympia, Washington.

Kentula, M.E., J.C. Sifneos, J.W. Good, M. Rylko, and K. Kunz. Trends and
      Patterns in Section 404 Permitting in Oregon and Washington. Draft
       Submitted to Environmental Management.

Kobriger, N.P., T.V. Dupuis, WA. Kreutzberger, F. Strarns, G. Guntenspergen, and
      J. Keough. 1983. Guidelines for Management of Highway Runoff on
      Wetlands. AASHTO, Transportation Research Board, National Research
       Council, Washington, D.C. Report #264.

Krieger, D.A., J.W. Terrell, and P.C. Nelson. 1983 Habitat Suitability Information:
      Yellow Perch. U.S. Dept. Int., Fish Wildl. Service. FWS/OBS-82/10.55.

Kruczynski, W.L. 1990. Options to be Considered in Preparation and Evaluation of
       Mitigation Plans. pp. 555-570. In: J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kentula (eds.),
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       Perspectives. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Kunz, K., M. Rylko, and E. Somers. 1988. An Assessment of Wetland Mitigation
       Practices Pursuant to Section 404 Permitting Activities in Washington State.
       pp. 515-531. In: Proceedings: First Annual Meeting on Puget Sound
       Research. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, Seattle, Washington.

                                       34







Kunz, K, M. Rylko, and E. Somers. 1988. An Assessment of Wetland Mitigation
      Practices in Washington State. National Wetlands Newsletter 10:2-4.

Kusler, J.A. 1986a. Major Issues: Mitigation of Impacts and Losses. pp. 6-9. In: J.A.
      Kusler, M.L. Quammen, and G. Brooks (eds.), Proceedings of the National
      Wetland Symposium: Mitigation of Impacts and Losses. Assoc. of State
      Wetland Managers, Inc., Oct. 1986, New Orleans, LA.

Kusler, J.A. 1986b. Proposed Creation Guidelines for Wetland Restoration,
      Creation, and Enhancement. pp. 448-453 In: J.A. Kusler, M.L. Quammen,
      and G. Brooks (eds.), Proceedings of the National Wetland Symposium:
      Mitigation of Impacts and Losses. Assoc. of State Wetland Managers, Inc.,
      Oct. 1986, New Orleans, LA.

Kusler, J.A. 1989. No Net Loss and the Role of Wetlands Restoration/Creation in
      a Regulatory Context. pp. 378-393. In: J.A. Kusler, S. Day, and G. Brooks
      (eds.), Urban Wetlands, Proceedings of the National Wetlands Symposium,
      June, 1988, Oakland, California. Assoc. of State Wetland Managers, Inc.,
      Berne, New York.

Kusler, J.A. 1990. No Net Loss: The States' Views. National Wetlands Newsletter
      Vol. 12, No. 1.

Kusler, J.A., and M.E. Kentula (eds.). 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration:
      The Status of the Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press, Washington,
      D.C.

Kusler, J.A., M.L. Quammen, and G. Brooks (eds.). 1988. Mitigation of Impacts
      and Losses. Proceedings of the National Wetland symposium, New Orleans,
      Louisiana, October 8-10, 1986. Assoc. of State Wetland Managers, Inc.,
      Berne, New York.

Larson, J.S. 1987. Wetland Mitigation in the Glaciated Northeast: Risks and
      Uncertainties. pp. 4-16. In: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the
      University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Sept. 29-30, 1986, Publ. No. 87-1.

Lewis, R.R., III (ed.). 1982. Creation and Restoration of Coastal Plant
      Communities. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Loukes, O.L. 1989. Restoration of the Pulse Control Function of Wetlands and Its
      Relationship to Water Quality Objectives. pp. 467-478. In: J.A. Kusler and
      M.E. Kentula (eds.), Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the
      Science, Part 2: Perspectives. Island Press, Washington, D.C.


                                       35






Lovejoy, T.E. and D.C. Oren. 1981. The Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems. pp.
      7-12. In: R L. Burgess and D. M. Sharpe (eds.), Forest Island Dynamics in
      Man-Dominated Landscapes. Ecological Studies #41. Springer-Verlag: New
      York. 310 pp.

Lugo, A.E., and M.M. Brinson. 1979. Calculations of the Value of Salt Water
      Wetlands. Pages 120-130 in P.E. Greeson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.),
      Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding.
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