[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]








                                                       Task 15


                                                       Final Product



              Wetlands
               ducati*onal
            Curri*culum


           Instructors' Manual





                    Prepared by

                Wetlands Program
         Virginia Institute of Marine Science
             College of William and Mary


                  September 1991






                            Program






                                                        Wetlands
                                                       Education
                                                     Curriculum



                                                 Instructors' Manual




                                                              Prepared By

                                                       Wetlands Program
                                            Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                                  College of William and Mary



                                                           September 1991
















                 Program Director:     Dr. Carl Hershner              This report was funded, in part, by the Virginia Council
                 Project Coordinator:  Maryann Wohlgemuth             on the Environment's Coastal Resources Management
                 Project Editors:      Maryann Wohlgemuth             Program throughgrant #NA90AA-H-CZ96 of the
                                       Lee Lawrence                   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
                                       Judy G. Hudgins
                                       Tom Barnard                          Printed on recycled paper.
                 Typography:           Janet Walker








                                                   Table of Contents



                           Introduction


                           Preparatory Materials

                           Education Units                                                                   Tab


                                EnvironmenW History           . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   I

                                Coastal Resources: Definitions and Jurisdictions           . . . . . . . . . .  2


                                Wetlands Ecology        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3

                                Wetland Values        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4


                                Coastal Structures      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5


                                Introduction to the Permit Application for
                                Wetland Board Members           . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6


                                Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives             . . . . . . . . . . . .  7

                                The Role of the Wetlands Board          . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8


                                Wetlands Board Operational Procedures            . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9

                                Guide to Wetlands Board Modification Sheet             . . . . . . . . . . .  10


                                Wetland Mitigation, Compensation          . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   11

                                Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations                . . . . . . .  12


                                Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment              . . . . . . . . . .  13


                           Additional Materials       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   14








                                                       Introduction



                          The Wetlands Education Curriculum consists of a lecture series addressing the tidal wetland
                  management program in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The lectures are designed for presentation
                  by the Wetland Program staff of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. The lecture series
                  provides a consistent and comprehensive curriculum for wetland board members, planning staff,
                  coastal resource managers, applicants, agents, contractors, and interested citizen groups.

                          The curriculum provides technical information on basic ecological, management and proce-
                  dural issues central to appropriate management of the Commonwealth's tidal wetland resources.
                  Each unit provides a standardized set of technical information in a consistent format. The intent of
                  the education program is to provide similar technical backgrounds for wetland managers throughout
                  Virginia. This will assist wetland board members across coastal Virginia in providing a more consis-
                  tent, technically based review of wetland activities.

                          The curriculum includes thirteen education units of which selected units comprise a core cur-
                  riculum that address the basic needs and concerns of tidal wetland managers. These include values
                  and functions of tidal wetlands, critical examination of coastal structures and their impacts to the
                  marine environment, and the role of the wetland boards. The manual also includes more advanced
                  lectures such as: marina development, wetland mitigation and compensation, and plant and animal
                  adaptations to the marine environment.

                          Education seminars will be provided on a regular basi s; generally the core curriculum will be
                  presented. Periodically, and on request, the Wetland Program staff will also offer lectures covering
                  more advanced material.


                          The education units easily lend themselves to field site visits for hands-on leaming. Field
                  trips will be used to reinforce lecture material. Field work will generally be held in conjunction with
                  classroom training.

                          Following completion of the core curriculum, students will receive a certificate of training for
                  completion of the VIMS Tidal Wetlands Workshop.


                          The instructors' manual is divided into three sections. The first includes preparation proce-
                  dures for seminars, teaching tips, and speaking tips. The bulk of the manual is comprised of the
                  education units. Each unit includes the lecture notes, handouts, slide lists, and the corresponding
                  slides. Additional material such as sign-in sheets, evaluation forms, and registration forms are
                  found in the back of the manual.






                                                                                Maryann Wohlgemuth
                                                                                Project Coordinator






                                                  Preparation for
                                  Wetland Education Seminar

                 Prior to Seminar


                       1.   Choose date(s) and location convenient for chosen audience.

                       2.   Reserve room(s) tentatively. Fill out meeting arrangement form from Director's office, if
                            applicable.

                       3.   Prepare and mail announcements, to include:
                                 a. preliminary schedule of talks, date, and location;
                                 b. pre-registration forms;
                                 c. description of certificate of completion;
                                 d. deadline for response;
                                 e. brochure of education program.

                       4.   Include announcement in Virginia Wetlands Report (if possible).

                       5.   Following receipt of pre-registration forms, mail:
                                 a. final schedule of talks and field work;
                                 b. parking forms (if presented at VIMS);
                                 c. suggestions for appropriate attire for field work sessions;
                                 d. map of the local area, and directions.

                       6.   Arrange for refreshments (donuts, coffee).

                       7.   Assemble name tags, registration forms, evaluation forms, handout materials, and pencils.
                            Forms are in section 14.


                       8.   Arrange for tables for refreshments and registration materials.

                       9.   Prepare certificates of completion. The certificate is on file in the Publications Center.
                            Provide appropriate information to fill in the blanks for printing on parchment paper.

                 Day of Seminar

                       1.   Set up slide screen and projector.

                       2.   Load slides into tray. Preview the entire tray to make sure that they are all in order and
                            right side up.

                       3.   Set up tables.

                       4.   Check PA system and lights. Need operator if at VIMS.






                                                   Teaching Tips


                       1.   Identify your audience; determine background, interests, and needs.
                       2.   Read through the complete education unit, including the handouts.
                       3.   Review the slides to confirm their order, and to familiarize yourself with them.
                       4.   Glossary words and suggested reading lists are found on the handout sheets.
                       5.   Make a copy of the education unit for your use.
                       6.   Use the left column labeled "Notes" for notes you may need during your presentation.
                       7.   Choose and verify field site locations.

                                                   Speaking"11PS


                       1.   Project your voice and vary your vocal pitch to add emphasis, to keep the audience
                            interested, and to minimize sounding monotonous or flat.
                       2.   Speak rapidly enough to avoid a boring drone and slowly enough to be understood.
                       3.   Maintain eye contact with your audience as much as possible rather than reading from
                            notes.

                       4.   Minimize distracting mannerisms such as: swaying, pacing, toying with coins in pocket,
                            and tapping fingers or feet.
                       5.   Speak with vitality. A moderate amount of the following may help you be more expressive
                            in your delivery: gestures, body movement, and varied facial expressions.
                       6.   Utilize props whenever possible such as: NOAA tide book, field guides (Common Plants of
                            the Mid-Atlantic Coast), VMRC code book, and VMRC guidelines.
                       7.   Use non-technical language as much as possible. When correct technical terms are
                            essential, pause to spell and define them for the audience. Then be sure to use them in
                            your presentation so that the audience will become familiar with them in appropriate
                            context.

                       8.   Adult learners are often hesitant to admit confusion or ask questions. Check for
                            understanding periodically by engaging the audience in discussion of the material which
                            has been covered.
                       9.   Use samples and specimens whenever possible. Familiarity with the relevant "real thing"
                            is important to developing the participants' confidence in using and applying concepts
                            learned.
                       10.  Begin each presentation by explaining what the audience should expect to gain from the
                            session (see objectives for individual modules). At the end of each presentation, a review
                            of information covered is helpful.








                                            Env ironmental History


                                                 Thomas A. Barnard, Jr.


                           Objectives

           Notes              The purpose of this module is to expose students to an overview of American en-
                              vironmental history and the development of the attitudes toward wetlands and
           Length of          resource management which we find in the country today.
           Presentation:
           20 min.            Upon completion, students should be able to:


                              ï¿½ Examine historical wetlands losses and the development of our existing laws
                                 and statutes.


                              ï¿½ Understand the "tragedy of the commons" and introduce the implications of
                                 population growth for the coastal plain of Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay.


                           Materials

                              1. 35 mm slide projector
                              2. Screen
                              4. Slides
                              5. Handouts


                           Instructor Preparation Tasks

                              1. Review outline
                              2. Review and choose visual aids
                              3. Prepare handouts
                              4. Review references
                              5. Ensure that equipment is in good working order


                           Procedure

                              1. Introduce yourself and others as required
                              2. Announcements
                                 a. Will take questions at end of talk or as we go along
                                 b. With limited time this can be only a limited overview
                                 c. Urge additional reading, especially Quiet Crisis and Life and Death of the
                                 Salt Marsh
                              3. Distribute handouts








                                                                                              9/91





             2                                                                                     Environmental History





                                  lecture Noteo

                                      H. INTRODUCTION


              Slide 1                      A. The New World has a relatively short chronological history compared to
                                           the older civilizations on the other side of both the Atlantic and Pacific
                                           Oceans.


                                           B. In terms of environmental history, however, the differences are not so
                                           great for two main reasons:

              Slide 2                          1. Man's need, desire and ability to significantly manipulate his physical
                                               environment on & global seaRe has only evolved since North America
                                               was settled by the white man.

                                               2. The eventual solidification in the Americas of the European concept of
                                               individual land ownership and the loss of the "earth is mother" and "all
                                               lands are commons' concepts of the native Americans.


                                      HR. THE AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC


                                           A. The early colonists were totally consumed with scratching out a living in
              Slide 3                      the new world.


                                               1. Once civilization was firmly established, profits and the accumulation
              Slide 4                          of wealth became goals (Udall, 1963).

                                               2. The concept that the earth's resources were "limitless" became well es-
              Slide 5                          tablished in the minds of the pioneers. "Spoil the nest and move west7.

                                           B.  The westward expansion period was one of tremendous abuse of natural
                                           resources from the slaughter of the buffalo to the destruction of soil during
                                           the gold rush and the filling of wetlands to create agricultural land.

              Slide 6                          1. The machines of the industrial revolution greatly expanded man's
                                               ability to harvest resources, and reclamation of wetland 'waste areas'
                                               was the norm (Siry, 1964).

              Slide 7                          2. Government policy encouraged the 'giveaway' of resources such as
                                               trees, gold and oil to the Robber Barons.


                                               3. Even presidents such as Ulysses S. Grant condoned and      encouraged
                                               the uncontrolled exploitation.






               Environmental History                                                                                           3



                                             C. The assumption of the presidency in 1901 by Theodore Roosevelt saw the
                                             beginnings of a national conservation movement to address the abuses of the
                                             time.


                                                  1. T. Roosevelt started the National Park System, and under Gifford
                                                  Pinchot the National Forest Service and the concept known as "conserva-
                                                  tion".


                                                  2. John Muir, a "preservationist", argued against multiple use of Nation-
                                                  al Parks and Refuges and later started the Sierra Club.


                                                  3. Today the philosophical battles between preservationists and conser-
                                                  vationists continue. Clear-cutting on National Park lands, the cutting of
                                                  "old growth forests" and government subsidies of the lumber industry are
                                                  all arguments based on these differing philosophies.

                                             D. The post-depression era saw the development of scientific methods which
                Slide 8                      gave rise to quantitative ecology and the assessment of natural environments
                                             through scientific observation (Siry, 1984).

                                             E. The decades of the 60's, 70's and 80's saw not only the rise of the environ-
                Slide 9                      mental movement but also tremendous emphasis on our estuaries in general
                                             and wetlands in particular.

                                                  1. Federal government studies have estimated that total wetlands losses
                Slide 10                          in the continental U.S. have been greater than 100 million acres, or ap-
                                                  proximately 54% (Dahl, 1990).

                                                  2. During the mid-1950's to mid-1970's period total wetland losses were
                Slide 11                          458,000 acreslyear (Tiner, 1984).

                                                  3. During the approximate same time period tidal wetlands in Virginia
                Slide 12                          were being lost at a rate of 451 acres per year, with this figure projected
                                                  to increase by 710 acres per year (Settle, 1969). Tidal wetlands losses
                                                  being permitted today total 25 to 40 acres per year,


                                         HI. TODAY WE SEE MANY OF THE OLD ATTITUDES REGARDING
                                         WETLANDS HAVE FADED BUT NOT DISAPPEARED. MANY MORE PEOPLE
                                         NOW RECOGNIZE THE VALUES OF WETLANDS AND THEIR NATURAL
                                         FUNCTIONS.


                                                  1. The Virginia Wetlands Act became effective July 1, 1972. It has been
                                                  amended numerous times, with the latest allowing the use of civil char-
                                                  ges in the case of unpermitted activities. (Explain chronology handout.)






             4                                                                                      Environmental History



              Slide 13                         2. The pressures to use or develop wetlands for short-term gain are still
                                               great, however. The demand for waterfront property and population in-
              Slide 14                         crease in the coastal zone, as well as the world in general, threaten
                                               natural resources and the systems they support. In the next 30 years the
                                               Maryland, Pennsylvania and Virginia portions of the Bay watershed are
                                               expected to grow by almost 20%, or 2.6 million people (2020 Panel, 1988).

                                               3. With the population and economic pressures of today, the tragedy of
                                               the commons, where small individual uses or demands placed on a
                                               resource are harmless singularly, collectively result in an eventual col-
                                               lapse of the common resource to the detriment of all. (Use example here;
                                               pasture and sheep, ocean and pollutant dumping, fish and fishermen, etc.)

                                               4. Even though we are dealing here with only the management of wet-
                                               lands, it is important that we realize that reality dictates that we at least
                                               look at our Bay system as a complete unit or drainage basin. The proce-
                                               dures currently being used throughout the Bay region to address growth
                                               and development are clearly inadequate (2020 Panel, 1988).

                                                   a. As the tragedy of the commons illustrates, we cannot afford to
                                                   deal with our resources in a piecemeal manner any more than we can
                                                   look at a pasture commons from only one or a few perspectives.

                                                   b. Because ownership in Virginia goes to mean low water, wetlands
                                                   are economically not a common. Ecologically, however, the
                                                   Chesapeake Bay's health and vitality are dependent on the interac-
                                                   tions of man and the contributions of resources such as wetlands and
                                                   SAV and are truly a commons in this sense.

              Slide 15                             c. At the present time we do not have a management program for
                                                   nontidal wetlands in Virginia, and yet many of these wetlands in the
                                                   coastal plain are intimately tied to tidal marshes and our coastal
                                                   waters. The Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act includes some non-
                                                   tidal wetlands as a management area based on their water quality en-
                                                   hancement functions.


              Slide 16                             d. As you work your way through this curriculum or program, it is
                                                   important that in learning the specifics presented here, you keep an
                                                   overall perspective ranging from regional in the case of Bay issues to
                                                   global in the case of issues of broader significance.


                                    References

                                       2020 Panel. 1988. Population Growth and Development in the Chesapeake Bay
                                       Watershed to the Year 2020. The report of the year 2020 panel     to the
                                       Chesapeake Executive Council. 52 pp.






              Environmental History




                                      Dahl, T. E. 1990. Wetland losses in the United States 1780's to 1980's. U.S.
                                      Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 21 pp.


                                      Fox, Stephen. 1985. The American Conservation Movement, John Muir and His
                                      Legacy. The University of Wisconsin Press. 436 pp.


                                      Hardin, Garrett. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162, 1243-1248.


                                      Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University Press. New
                                      York, New York. 226 pp.


                                      Nash, Roderick Frazier. 1989. The Rights offature. The University of Wisconsin
                                      Press. Madison, Wisconsin. 290 pp.


                                      Settle, Fairfax H. 1969. Survey and analysis of changes effected by man on tidal
                                      marshes of Virginia, 1955-1969. Unpublished Masters Thesis. Virginia Polytech-
                                      nic Institute and State University. Blacksburg, VA. 47 pp.

                                      Siry, Joseph V. 1984. Marshes of the Ocean Shore, Development of an Ecological
                                      Ethic. Texas A&M University Press. College Station, TX. 216 pp.


                                      Teal, John M. and Mildred. 1969. Life and Death of the Salt Marsh. Ballantine
                                      Books. New York, New York. 274 pp.


                                      Tiner, Ralph W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and
                                      Trends. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory.
                                      Washington, D.C. 46 pp.


                                      Udall, Stuart L. 1963. The Quiet Crisis. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York,
                                      Chicago, San Francisco. 209 pp.


                                      Udall, Stuart L. 1988. The Quiet Crisis IL Henry Holt and Company. New York,
                                      New York.


                                      Wild, Peter. 1979. Pioneer Conservationists of Western America. Mountain Press
                                      Publishing Company. Missoula. 246 pp.


                                      Wild, Peter. 1986. Pioneer Conservationists of Eastern America. Mountain Press
                                      Publishing Company. Missoula. 280 pp.






            6                                                                                   EnvironmentO History




                                 Slide List

                                       1.  Pristine swamp slide.
                                       2.  Heavy industry photo (smokestack, shipyard, bulldozer, etc.).
                                       3.  Photo of corn, tobacco, or other crop.
                                       4.  Plantation house.
                                       5.  Shot of marsh or forestland or other resource running from corner to
                                           comer of picture.
                                       6.  Abuse of resources photo.
                                       7.  Abuse of resources photo.
                                       8.  Scientific sampling apparatus.
                                       9.  Satellite photo of Chesapeake Bay.
                                      10.  Wetlands loss graphic.
                                      11.  Wetlands loss illustration.
                                      12.  Virginia wetlands loss graphic.
                                      13.  Wetlands destruction slide.
                                      14.  High density housing slide.
                                      15.  Satellite slide of Bay.
                                      16.  Global implications slide.







                                        Environmental History Handout

                               Virginia Wetlands Historical Summary


              Background

                   1966      Legislature established a special Marine Resources Study Commission.


                   1967      Study Commission recommended a special study on marsh and wetlands.


                   1968      Legislature directed VIMS to conduct the wetlands study.


                   1969      VIMS report (Coastal Wetlands of Virginia, Interim Report, Wass and Wright, Dec. 1969).

                   1970-72   Public hearings, drafting of Wetlands Act and research (Marcellus, Boon, Lynch) to
                             determine wetlands definitions and upper limits of wetlands.


                   1972      Published Tidal Datum Planes and Tidal Boundaries and Their Use as Legal Boundaries,
                             Boon and Lynch, 1972.


                   1972      Wetlands Act enacted, to become effective 1 July 1972. Publication of Coastal Wetlands of
                             Virginia, Interim Report No. 2, Marcellus, July 1972. First local wetlands boards established
                             and VIMS commences training workshops for boards. VIMS also commences wetlands
                             inventory.


                   1973      Published management manual for wetlands boards (Local Management of Wetlands-
                             Environmental Considerations, Marcellus, Dawes, Silberhorn, June, 1973). First county
                             inventory published (Lancaster County Tidal Marsh Inventory, Silberhorn, December, 1973).

                   1974      Published wetlands guidelines (Coastal Wetlands of Virginia, Interim Report No. 3,
                             Guidelines for Activities Affecting Virginia Wetlands, Silberhorn, Dawes, Barnard, June
                             1974). Published two county inventories (Mathews, York; both Silberhorn). Wetlands
                             Guidelines promulgated by VMRC.

                   1974      Wetlands of Back Bay and the North Landing River and its Tributaries added by
                             amendment.


                   1982      Nonvegetated wetlands added by amendment. Boards expanded from 5 to 7 members
                             (optional). Granffather Sunset Clause.


                   1983      Wetlands Guidelines revised to include nonvegetated areas.

                   1987      Wetlands Act amended to allow reporting, site inspections, notice to comply and stop work
                             orders.




                                                                                          College offilliam and Mary
                                                                                          Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                          School ofMarine Science
                                                                                  PrograM GloucesterPoint, Virginia 23062







        Environmental History Handout                                                                   2





            1989      Wetlands Mitigation-Compensation Policy adopted.

            1990      Wetlands Act amended to allow court ordered civil penalties not to exceed $25,000 for each
                      day of violation. In lieu of any civil penalty, civil charges of up to $10,000 for each violation
                      may be ordered by the Marine Resources Commission or Wetlands Board. Restoration
                      hearings were also authorized.

            1991      Tidal Marsh Inventory for City of Chesapeake completed and published (last of original
                      series). Wetlands inventories to be maintained and updated using computer-based
                      Geographical Information System (GIS).


            1991      VIMS Wetlands Program produces "Virginia Wetlands Management Handbook" and
                      Wetlands Educational Curriculum.



        Suggested Reading List

            2020 Panel. 1988. Population Growth and Development in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed to the Year
            2020. The report of the year 2020 panel to the Chesapeake Executive Council. 52 pp.

            Hardin, Garrett. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162, 1243-1248.

            Teal, John M. and Mildred. 1969. Life and Death of the Salt Marsh. Ballantine Books. New York,
            New York. 274 pp.

            Udall, Stuart L. 1963. The Quiet Crisis. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York, Chicago, San
            Francisco. 209 pp.

            Udall, Stuart L. 1988. The Quiet Crisis IL Henry Holt and Company. New York, New York.









                                                           Coastal Resourceso-
                                                                      smd JnrisdintIM3


                                                                 Julie G. Bradshaw




                                      The purpose of this unit is to review the coastal resources definitions and
               Length of              regulatory jurisdictions necessary for wetland board members to understand
               Presentation:          their role in the permit process and for applicants to understand the coastal
               20 min.                resources terms used in the Joint Permit Application.

                                      Upon completion, students should be able to:


                                      ï¿½  Define the following terms: mean low water, mean high water, mean tide
                                         range, National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD), vegetated wetlands, non-
                                         vegetated wetlands, subtidal, subaqueous, coastal primary sand dune, beach,
                                         federal jurisdiction wetland.

                                      ï¿½ Explain the jurisdiction of the local wetlands boards, VMRC, and (generally)
                                         the US Army Corps of Engineers.


                                  Materials

                                      1. 35 mm projector
                                      2. Screen
                                      3. Slides
                                      4. Handout


                                  Instructor Preparation Tasko

                                      1. Review lesson outline
                                      2. Review Technical Report No. 91-2
                                      3. Review slides
                                      4. Practice with equipment


                                  Procedure

                                      1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                      2. Announcements (explain field trip, if taking one)
                                      3. General comments (explain objective of unit)
                                      4. Distribute handouts







                                                                                                                    9/91






             2                                                         Coastal Resources: Definitions and Jurisdictions





                                  Lecture Notes

             Slide 1                  1. REGULATORY AUTHORITY


             Slide 2                      A,- State/local (from Code of Virginia).

                                              1. Tidal Wetlands Act (Title 62. 1, Chap. 2. 1).


                                              2. Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act (Title 62.1, Chap. 2.2).


                                              3. Establishment of Commonwealth ownership of subaqueous land (Title
                                              62.1, Chap. 1).

             Slide 3                      B. Federal (from U.S. Code).


                                              1. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 USC 1251@-dredge and
                                              fill.


                                              2. Section 10 of Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899 (33 USC
                                              403)-navigation.

             Slide 4                 11. TIDAL DATUMS


                                          A. Mean low water (MLW@-the average elevation of low water observed
                                          over a specific 19 year period.

                                          B. Mean high water (NERW)-the average elevation of high water observed
                                          over a specific 19 year period.


                                          C. Mean tide range-the difference in elevation between MLW and MHW.


                                          D. Mean sea level-the average of hourly water elevations observed over a
                                          specific 19 year period.


                                          E. Note on 19 year period: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                          Administration's National Ocean Service keeps tidal datum records at a net-
                                          work of gauge stations along the coast. The specific 19 year period used for
                                          calculating MLW and MHW, called the Metonic cycle or the National Tidal
                                          Datum Epoch, incorporates a number of the astronomical cycles which cause
                                          variations in tide levels.


                                          F. National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)-a fixed reference based
                                          on the earth's shape and the distance between the eartWs surface and the cen-
                                          ter of the earth. NGVD is the datum for land elevations on USGS
                                          topographic maps. NGVD was formerly known as the Sea Level Datum of
                                          1929. The name was changed because of confusion with the tidal datum






              Coastal Resources: Definitions and Jurisdictions                                                          3




                                           Mean Sea Level (already defined). Relationships between NGVD and local
                                           tidal datums are variable and are published in conjunction with the tidal
                                           bench mark data by the National Ocean Service.


                                       X11. STATE/LOCAL DEFINITIONS


                                           A. Vegetated wetlands--those lands which satisfy these criteria:


                                               1. Between MLW and an elevation above MLW equal to 1.5 times the
                                               mean tide range (emphasize that this is a vertical measurement).


                                               2. Contiguous to MLW.


                                               3. Vegetated with any of the listed wetland plant species (included in
                                               handout).


                                           B. Nonvegetated wetlands-those lands which satisfy these criteria:


                                               1. Between MLW and MHW.


                                               2. Contiguous to MLW.


                                               3. Not otherwise considered vegetated wetlands.


                                           C. Subtidal land or subtidal bottom-the area channelward or seaward of
                                           MLW, without regard to political subdivision or land ownership.


                                           D. Subaqueous land or subaqueous beds-ungranted beds of the bays,
                                           rivers, creeks and shores of the sea which are owned by the Commonwealth.
                                           This includes the beds of tidal and nontidal water bodies. Because property.
                                           ownership in Virginia extends channelward to MLW in tidal areas, suba-
                                           queous land is the land channelward of MLW, with some exceptions:


                                               1. Potomac River-is owned by the State of Maryland and the District of
                                               Columbia. The boundary between Maryland and Virginia is generally at
                                               MLW on the Virginia side of the river, except where embayments, creeks,
                                               and inlets occur, at which the boundary line is from headland-to-head-
                                               land. Therefore, VMRC often may not have jurisdiction over subtidal
                                               land on the Potomac River.


                                               2. Manmade canals-VMRC does not currently exert jurisdiction over
                                               subtidal land in manmade canals. However, the Commonwealth's Tidal
                                               Wetlands Act does apply to vegetated and nonvegetated wetlands within
                                               manmade canals.






            4                                                         Coastal Resources: Definitions and Jurisdictions




             Slide 5                     E. Coastal primary sand dunes-those lands which have the following
                                         characteristics:


                                             1. Mound of unconsolidated sandy soil.


                                             2. Contiguous to MHW.


                                             3. Landward and lateral limits marked by a change in grade from 10% or
                                             greater to less than 10%.


                                             4. Vegetated with any of the listed dune plant species (in handout).

                                             5. Applies only to Counties of Accomack, Lancaster, Mathews, Nor-
                                             thampton, Northumberland, and Cities of Hampton, Norfolk, and Vir-
                                             ginia Beach.


                                         F. Beaches--those lands which meet the following criteria:


                                             1. The shoreline zone of unconsolidated sandy material.


                                             2. Extends from MLW landward to a marked change in material composi-
                                             tion or in p@hysiographic form (e.g., dune, bluff,-marsh).

                                             3. If no such marked change occurs, then the landward limit of the beach
                                             is defined by a line of woody vegetation or the nearest impermeable man-
                                             made structure.


            Slide 6                 IV. FEDERAL DEFINITIONIJURISDICTION:


                                         A- Wetlands.


                                             -1. Based on 3parameters: soil, hydrology, vegetation.


                                             2. "Those areas that are inundated orsaturated by surface or
                                             groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that
                                             under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typi-
                                             cally adapted for life in saturated soil conditions."


                                             3. Includes both tidal and nontidal Wetlands.


                                             4. In tidal areas, wetlands under federal jurisdiction may encompassa
                                             broader area than the state/local jurisdiction (i.e., federal wetlands may
                                             extend to elevations g*reater than 1.5 times the mean tide range above
                                             MLW).






             Coastal Resources: Definitions and Jurisdictions                                                        5





                                 Slide List

                                       1.  Title slide

                                       2.  State/local laws
                                       3.  Federal laws
                                       4.  Cross-section drawing showing tidal datums and state/local jurisdiction
                                       5.  Cross-section drawing showing primary dune datums and jurisdiction
                                       6.  Cross-section drawing showing federal and state/local jurisdiction







                                                         Coastal Resources:
                                     Definitions and Jmrisdictions Handout



                Regulatory Authority

                         Activities on Virginia's shoreline are controlled by a number of federal and state laws. The laws create
                         overlappingjurisdictions for the various regulatory agencies.

                         StateAocal (from Code of Virginia)


                         1. Tidal Wetlands Act (Title 62.1, Chapter 2.1).
                         2. Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act (Title 62.1, Chapter 2.2).
                         3. Establishment of Commonwealth ownership of subaqueous land (Title 62.1, Chap. 1).


                         Federal (from U.S. Code)


                         1. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 U.S.C. 1251@-dredge and fill.
                         2. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 403@-navigation.

                Tidal datums

                         mean low water (MM-the average elevation of low water observed over a specific 19 year period.

                         mean high water (MHW)-the average elevation of high water observed over a specific 19 year period.

                         mean Side range-the difference in elevation between MLW and MHW.

                         nwan sea level-the average of hourly water elevations observed over a specific 19 year period.

                         Notes: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration!s National Ocean Service keeps tidal datum
                         records at a network of gauge stations along the coast. The specific 19 year period used for calculating MLW
                         and MHW, called the Metonic cycle or the National Tidal Datum Epoch, incorporates a number of the
                         astronomical cycles which cause variations in tide levels.

                         The National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) is a fixed reference based on the earth's shape and'the
                         distance between the earth's surface and the center of the earth. NGVD is the datum for land elevations on
                         USGS topographic maps. NGVD was formerly known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929. The name was changed
                         because of confusion with the tidal datum Mean Sea Level (defined above). Relationships between NGVD and
                         local tidal datums are variable and are published in conjunction with the tidal bench mark data by the National
                         Ocean Service.


                StateAocal definitions


                         vegetated wetlands are those lands, which satisfy these criteria:


                         ï¿½ between MIW and an elevation above MLW equal to 1.5 times the mean tide range.
                         ï¿½ contiguous to MLW.
                         ï¿½ vegetated with any of the listed wetland plant species.
    0                                                                                                           I-i"WOWPIrsoag-'rocam
                         nonvegetated wetlands are those lands which satisfy these criteria:                    College of William and Mwy
                                                                                                                Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                School of Marine Science
                                                                                                                Gloucester Poink Virginia 23062








          Coastal Resources Handout                                                                                         2



                  ï¿½ between MLW and MHW.
                  ï¿½ contiguous to MLW.
                  ï¿½ not otherwise considered vegetated wetlands.













                                                               MHW

                                                      1.5 x Mean Tide
                                                                               Mean 11de Range
                                                               MLW

                                  Vegetated                                                 Nonvegetated
                                  Wetlands                    Subaqueous Land                 Wetlands
                                 -6V- e- t -Ia n d                 (VMRQ                      (Wetland
                                   Board)                                                      Board)




                  Subtidal land or subtidal bottom refers to the area channelward or seaward of MLW, without regard to
                  political subdivision or land ownership.


                  Subaqueous land or subaqueous beds refer to ungranted beds of the bays, rivers, creeks and shores of the
                  sea which are owned by the Commonwealth. This includes the beds of tidal and nontidal water bodies. Because
                  property ownership in Virginia extends channelward to MLW in tidal areas, subaqueous land is the land
                  channelward of MLW, with some exceptions:


                  Potomac River


                  The Potomac River is owned by the State of Maryland and the District of Columbia. The boundary between
                  'Maryland and Virginia is generally at MLW on the Virginia side of the river, except where embayments, creeks
                  and inlets occur, at which the boundary line is from headland-to-headland. Therefore, VMRC often may not
                  have jurisdiction over subtidal land on the Potomac River.


                  Nbinmade canals


                  VMRC does not currently exert jurisdiction over subtidal land in manmade canals. However, the
                  Commonwealth's 71dal Wetlands -Act does apply to vegetated and nonvegetated wetlands within manmade
                  canal s.


         Federal definitions


                  The federal definition of wetlands is based on three pararneters: soil, hydrology, and vegetation. Specifically,
                  wetlands are: "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface, or groundwater at a fiequency and
                  duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
                  typically adapted, for life in saturated soil conditions."


                  The federal definition includes both tidal and nontidal wetlands.







                    Coastal Resources Handout                                                                                                                         3


                              In tidal areas, wetlands under federal jurisdiction may encompass a broader area than the state/local
                              jurisdiction (i.e., federal wetlands may extend to elevations greater than 1.5 times the mean tide range above
                              MLW).

                                              Wetlands &
                                    Waters of the U.S. (Nontidal)                                                Wetlands & Waters of the U.S.
                                   (U.S. Army Corps of Enginee;7_@                                              (U.S. Army Corps R- Engineers)
                                                                                                              Ve tated Wetlands @ Subaqueous Land
                                                                                                                  I(VMRC Wor VTB) U             (VMRC)









                                                                                                                     jL-71 1.5 x Mean Tide Range
                                                                                                                                                            MHW


                                                                                                                                                            MLW




                                               Uot of weflam&o ykmt opecieo im Virgiialeo Tidal Wetlamas Act


                    saltmarsh cordgrass            (Spartina alterniflora)                       cattails                        (Typha spp.)
                    saltmeadow hay                 (Spartina patens)                             three-squares                   (Scirpus app.)
                    saltgrass                      (Distichlis spicata)                          buttonbush                      (Cephalanthus occidentalis)
                    black needlerush               (Juncus roemerianus)                          bald cypress                    (Taxodium distichum)
                    saltwort                       (Salicornia ap.)                              black gum                       (Nyssa sylvatica)
                    sealavender                    (Limonium sp.)                                tupelo                          (Myssa aquatica)
                    marsh elder                    (Iva frutescens)                              dock                            (Rumex sp.)
                    groundsel bush                 (Baccharis halimifolia)                       yellow pond My                  (Nuphar sp.)
                    wan myrtle                     (Hyrica sp.)                                  marsh fleabane                  (Pluchea purpuraseens)
                    sea oxeye                      (Borrichia frutescens)                        royal fern                      (0smunda regalis)
                    arrow arum                     (Peltandra virginica)                         marsh hibiscus                  (Hibiscus moscheutos)
                    pickerelweed                   (Pontederla cordata)                          beggar@s tick                   (Bidens sp.)
                    big cordgraso                  (Spartina cynosuroides)                       smartweed                       (Polygonum sp.)
                    rice cutgrass                  (L--ersia oryzoides)                          arrowhead                       (Sagittaria spp.)
                    wildrice                       (Zizania aquatica)                            sweet Rag                       (Acorus calamus)
                    bulrush                        (Scirpus validus)                             water hemp                      (Amaranthus cannabinus)
                    spikerush                      (Eleochari8 sp.)                              reed grass                      (Phragmites communis,
                    sea rocket                     (Cakile edentula)                                                                 now called P. australis)
                    southern wildrice              (Zizaniopsis millacea)                        switch grass                    (Paniccum virgatum)



                    Suggested Reading List

                          Hicks, Steacy D. 1985. 'hdal datums and their uses-a summary. Shore and Beach. January 1985: 27-32.
                          Hull, Wesley V. 1978. The significance of tidal datums to coastal zone management. Coastal Zone' '78:965-971.
                          National Ocean Service. 1990.Tide Tables 1991: High and Low Water Predictions, East Coast of North and South
                              America including Greenland. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                              Administration.







           Coastal Resources Handout                                                                                                4





                    coastal primary sand dunes are those lands which have the following characteristics:


                    0 mound of unconsolidated sandy soil.
                    0 contiguous to MHW.
                      landward and lateral limits marked by a change in grade from 10% or greater to less.than 10%.
                      applies only to Counties of Accomack, Lancaster, Mathews, Northampton, Northumberland, and Cities of
                      Hampton, Norfolk, and Virginia Beach.
                      vegetated with any of these plant species:


                                     American beach grass               (Ammophila breviligulata)
                                     beach heather                      (Hudsonia tomentosa)
                                     dune bean                          (Strophostyles umbellata var paludigena)
                                     dusty miller                       (Artemisia stelleriana)
                                     saltmeadow hay                     (Spartina patens)
                                     seabeach sandwort                  (Arenaria peploides)
                                     sea oats                           (Uniola paniculata)
                                     sea rocket                         Wakile edentula)
                                     seaside goldenrod                  (Solidago sempervirens)
                                     short dune grass                   (Panicum amarum)


                    beaches are those lands which meet the following criteria:


                      the shoreline zone of unconsolidated sandy material.-
                      extends from MLW landward to a marked change in material composition orin physiographic form (e.g.,
                      dune,.bluff, marsh).
                      if no such marked change occurs, then the landward limit of the beach is defiried by a line of woody
                      vegetation or the nearest impermeable mamnade structure.










                                   -CoastalPrimary Sand Dune.                       Beach
                                                             (Wetland Board)                 Nonve
                                                                                               Wed ands        Subaqueous Land'
                                                                                            AVetland Board) -    (VMRC)
                                                                                                   Waters of the U.S.
                                                                                              (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)


                         Slope   Slope-.
                    Less Than., Greater Than
                           10% 40%                                                             MHW           MLW








                                                  Wetlands Ecology


                                                       Pamela A. Mason


                             Objectives

             Notes              The purpose of this unit is to review wetland ecology including the wetland types
                                defined in the wetlands guidelines.
             Length of
             Presentation:      Upon completion, students should be able to:
             25 min.
                                  Define/describe the following: hydrophyte, detritus, food web, primary produc-
                                  tion, secondary production, zonation.


                             Materials

                                1. 35 min projector
                                2. Screen
                                3. Slides
                                4. Handouts


                             Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                1. Review lesson outline
                                2. Review visual aids
                                3. Review reference material
                                4. Practice


                             Procedure

                                1. Introduce yourself and others
                                2. Announce any special information, field trips, etc.
                                3. Distribute handouts


                             Lecture Notes

                                1. INTRODUCTION

             Slide 1               A. What is a wetland: components.

                                       1. Soils.


                                      2. Plants - Indicative wetland species are hydrophytes (water-loving).
                                      However, not all wetlands are vegetated.



                                                                                                 9/91






        2                                                                                         Wetlands Eco@ogy




                                          3. Hydrology/Water.

                                             a. Waters may be tidal or nontidal. Note - This discussion focuses on
                                             tidal Ourisdictional) wetlands in Virginia.


                                             b. Waters may be salt or &esh.


                                 11. WETLANDS IN THE ESTUARY


         Slide 2                     A. Ecosystem Function (Food Web).

                                          1. Green plants of the wetland convert sun energy to plant tissue. This
                                          process is know as photosynthesis. As the first level of production this
                                          is called primary production.

                                          2. Wetlands have high levels of primary production. 4-6/ton/acre/year.

                                          3. Little of the plant material is consumed directly by primary con-
                                          sumers, mainly insects.

                                          4. The majority of the plant material becomes detritus (partially decom-
                                          posed material). Some material is exported to the estuary, the amount
                                          depends on the system.

          Slide 3                         5. The detritus is populated by microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi)
                                          which increase the food value of the detritus.


                                          6. The detritus is consumed by many animals (crabs, fish and shellfish).


                                          7. The detritus consumers digest the microorganisms growing on the
                                          detritus. The detritus itself is partially broken down in the process but
                                          passes through undigested. The detritus is then repopulated by microor-
                                          ganisms as the process is repeated.


                                          8. The higher level consumers in this process are shorebirds, finfish and
                                          mammals.


                                 Ill. WETLAND TYPES


                                     A. General description based on salinity regime.

          Slide 4                         1. Saline. Typical of the vast expansive marshes behind the barrier is-
                                          lands on the Eastern Shore. Dominant vegetative species include
                                          saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), saltmeadow hay (Spartina
                                          patens), saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) and groundsel tree (Baccharis
                                          halimifolia).






            Wetlands Ecology                                                                                           3




                                                  a. Zonation patterns are simple.


                                                      1) Tall form saltmarsh cordgrass (S. alterniflora) along the creeks
                                                      (or low marsh).


                                                      2) Short form saltmarsh cordgrass (S. alterniflora), often mixed
                                                      with Salicornia spp. in the mid-marsh.


                                                      3) A mixed community of saltmeadow hay (S. patens) and
                                                      saltgrass (D. spicata) with saltbush in the high marsh.

                                                  b. Fauna. The following animals are common to saline marshes (but
                                                  may be found in other marshes as well).


              Slide 5                                 1) Oysters.

              Slide 6                                 2) Oystercatchers.

              Slide 7                                 3) Shorebirds - egrets, etc.

              Slide 8                                 4) Pelicans - pelicans are returning to the southeastern portions
                                                      of the state.


              Slide 9                         2. Brackish. (Mesohaline). Large marshes in the lower Chesapeake
                                              Bay and extending up the major tributaries and associated creek sys-
                                              tems. Common vegetative species include saltmarsh cordgrass (S. alter-
                                              niflora), saltmeadow hay (S. patens), saltgrass (D. spicata), black
                                              needlerush (Juncus roemerianus), groundsel tree (B. halimifolia) and
                                              marsh elder (Iva frutescens). This community has more diverse vegeta-
                                              tive patterns than saline marshes including bulrush, sea lavender and
                                              cattails.


                                                  a. Zonation.


                                                      1) S. alterniflora (low marsh).


                                                      2) Mixed community of saltmeadow hay (S. patens) and saltgrass
                                                      (D. spicata) in mid marsh.


                                                      3) and groundsel tree (B. halimifolia) with marsh elder (I. frutes-
                                                      cens) along the upland edge.

                                                  b. Fauna. The following animals are common to brackish marshes
                                                  (may be found in other marshes).






            4                                                                                           Wetlands Ecology




            Slide 10                                  1) Grasshopper - one of the few animals that feed directly on
                                                      saltmarsh cordgrass.


            Slide 11                                  2) Littorina - marsh snail.


            Slide 12                                  3) Clapper rail - this bird not only feeds in the marsh, but nests
                                                      there as well.


            Slide 13                                  4) Fiddler crab.


            Slide 14                         3. Oligohaline. These wetlands are the gradient from brackish to tidal
                                             freshwater. They are located upriver from the brackish marshes and ex-
                                             perience greater freshwater influence. While S. alterniflora may still be
                                             present along the creek banks, less saline tolerant species are also found.
                                             Spartina cynosuroides and many Scirpus species are found here.


                                                 A. Zonation is less pronounced as you move toward fresh water along
                                                 the Chesapeake tributaries; however, it is typical to find the following.


                                                      1) S. alterniflora.


                                                      2) Big cordgrass (S. cynosuroides), bulrush, Scirpus spp., marsh
                                                      mallow and cattails.


                                                 b. Fauna.


            Slide 15                                  1) Raccoon.


            Slide 16                                  2) Blue crab - particularly important habitat for juveniles and
                                                      adult males.


            Slide 17                                  3) Otter.


            Slide 18                                  4) Canada geese.

            Slide 19                         4. Tidal Freshwater. Located upstream of the oligohaline wetlands and
                                             down stream of the nontidal freshwater. The average salinity is 0.5 ppt,
                                             or lower, except during droughts. The vegetative diversity of the tidal
                                             fresh community is much greater than the other tidal wetlands. Fifty
                                             species per acre is typical. Common species include: the broad-leaved
                                             emergents- pickerelweed (Pontedaria cordata), arrow arum. (Peltandra
                                             virginica), yellow pond lily (Nuphar luteum); and many species of gras-
                                             ses, sedges and rushes (Leersia oryzoides, Zizdnia aquatica, Spartina
                                             cynosuroides). Cattails (Typha latifiblia and Typha angustifoliaJ and
                                             smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) are also common.






            Wetlands Ecology




                                                 a. Zonation is less sharply defined; however, a general profile follows
                                                 (Odum, 1984).


                                                     1) Arrow arum. - pickerelweed community (Peltandra virginica
                                                     and Pontedaria cordata).


                                                     2) Smartweeds, wild rice, big cordgrass, rice cutgrass.


                                                     3) Cattails near the upland edge.


                                                     4) Wax myrtle and red maple along the upland edge.


                                                 b. Fauna (Mitsch & Gosselink, 1986).


              Slide 20                               1) Turtle.


              Slide 21                               2) Migrating waterfowl - snow geese.


              Slide 22                               3) Muskrat lodge.


              Slide 23                               4) Baby muskrat.

              Slide 24                       5. Tidal Swamps. At the upper end of tidal influence, these communities
                                             grade into nontidal wetlands. Differentiated from tidal freshwater mar-
                                             shes by to the presence of trees. Common species include gums QVyssa
                                             sylvatica and Nyssa aquatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), and bald cypress
                                             (Taxodium distichum). Important nursery areas for fisheries. Important
                                             in nutrient cycling.


                                                 b. Fauna.


              Slide 25                               1) Tree frog.


              Slide 26                               2) Snake.


              Slide 27                   B. Communities (Wetland types according to wetlands guidelines).

              Slide 28                       1. Type L Saltmarsh Cordgrass Community (Spartina alterniflora).
                                             Grows from mean sea level to about mean high water. Very high primary
                                             productivity. Important spawning/nursery ground for fish, waterfowl feed
                                             on roots and rhizomes, shorebirds use for nesting material. Effective as
                                             an erosion buffer and as a sediment trap improving water quality.






            6                                                                                             Wetlands Ecology




            Slide 29                          2. Type U. Saltmeadow Community. Salt          meadow    hay (Spartina
                                              patens) and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata). Grows about mean high water
                                              to limit of spring tides; saltgrass at lower elevations, saltmeadow hay
                                              predominates at higher elevations. High levels of primary productivity,
                                              however litter is flushed out mostly during spring tide and storm events.
                                              Provides nesting area and food source for birds.    T'ypically the oldest part
                                              of the marsh, the peat of this community may accumulate to great depths
                                              allowing for absorption of flood waters. Dense vegetation and deep peat
                                              filter sediments and waste material.


            Slide 30                          3. Type IIL Black Needlerush Community. (Juncus roemerianus).
                                              Grows in pure stands at about mean high water to somewhat below
                                              spring tide limit. High productivity, however decomposes slowly and is
                                              not flushed daily by tides. Little evidence of waterfowl or wildlife use.
                                              Dense roots and rhizomes highly resistant to erosion. Effective for sedi-
                                              ment trapping and flood buffering (not as effective as saltmeadow).

            Slide 31                          4. Type IV. Saltbush Community. Groundsel tree (Baccharis
                  -                           halimifolia) marsh elder (Iva frutescens). Grows"at about the upper limit
                                              of the marsh. Fairly low productivity, detritus of little value. Provides
                                              diversity for wildlife,'nesting habitat for small birds. Little food value.
                                              Serves somewhat as an erosion buffer and traps larger flotsam.

            Slide 32                          5. Type V. Big Cordgrass Community. (Spartina cynosuroides). Grows
                                              at or slightly above mean high water extending to the upland margin.
                                              Very high productivity but detrital availability limited by elevation.
                                              Habitat for small animals; geese eat rhizomes. Dense stands of vegeta-
                                              tion and intertwining roots stabilize marsh peat. Usually found in older
                                              parts of the marsh which may have deep peat with a high flood water
                                              capacity.


            Slide 33                          6. 17ype VI. Cattail Community. Narrowleaf cattail (Typha angus-
                                              tifolia), Broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia). Grows in very wet arefas, some-
                                              times standing water. Often found along the upland edge of the marsh.
                                              Productivity 2-4 tons/acre, detritus not readily available to marine en-
                                              vironment. Habitat for some birds, muskrat feed on roots. Growing loca-
                                              tion and shallow roots make for poor erosion buffer. Position along
                                              upland edge ranks this community type high as a sediment trap.






             Wetlands Ecology                                                                                              7




              Slide 34                         7. Type VH. Arrow Arum - Pickerelweed Community. Arrow aruin
                                               (Peltandra virginica), pickerelweed (Pontedaria cordata). Grows on mud
                                               flats to about mean tide in low salinity to freshwater. Productivity 2-4
                                               tons/acre, detritus readily available due to daily tidal fluxes. Above-
                                               ground parts of plants decompose rapidly and completely in the fall of the
                                               year. Ducks feed on shoots and seeds. Often associated with confirmed
                                               spawning and nursery areas for herring and shad. The lack of a vast net-
                                               work of roots, rhizomes and peat typical of saltmarshes reduces effective-
                                               ness as an erosion buffer. However, this community is often the only
                                               buffer to shoreline erosion in freshwater. Some sediment trapping from
                                               flood waters occurs.


              Slide 35                         8. Type VM. Reed Grass Community. (Phragmites australis). Grows
                                               above mean high tide, on drier areas in disturbed sites. Productivity high
                                               4-6 tons/acre, detritus available only in storm conditions. Little use by
                                               wildlife except as cover. Good erosion deterrent, especially on dredged
                                               material.


              Slide 36                         9. Type DL Yellow Pond Lily Community. (Nuphar luteum). Grows
                                               submerged except for floating leaves at high tide. Low productivity ap-
                                               proximately 1 ton/acre, detritus available but not a significant contribu-
                                               tion. Excellent cover and habitat for aquatic animals and algae. Forage
                                               area for fish, shorebirds and waterfowl. Plants do reduce wave action
                                               from wind and boats. Can slow flood waters allowing sediment settling.

              Slide 37                         10. Type X Saltwort Community. Also know as glasswort (Salicornia
                                               spp.). Grows above mean high tide in pannes or sparsely vegetated
                                               areas. Often found in areas where evaporation has greatly increased salt
                                               content of the soil. The community has low productivity less than 1/2
                                               ton/acre. There is some evidence of feeding by waterfowl. Functions poor-
                                               ly as an erosion deterrent or flood buffer.

              Slide 38                         11. Type X1. Freshwater Mixed Vegetation Community. A mixed
                                               community of many species growing from submerged habitat to the upper
                                               limits of the marsh. Highly productive 3-5 tons/acre. Detritus of the in-
                                               tertidal species (arrow arum, pickerelweed, yellow pond bly) are readily
                                               available. The great diversity provides habitat, foraging area and food
                                               sources for waterfowl, shorebirds and small mammals. Adjacent waters
                                               are spawning and nursery grounds for striped bass, herring and shad.
                                               Erosion buffer is that provided by the arrow arum, pickerelweed com-
                                               munity. However, the presence of hardy, resilient grasses and a peaty
                                               substrate increases the function of sediment trapping and flood water as-
                                               similation.






            8                                                                                        Wetlands Ecology




            Slide 39'                       12. Type XII. Brackish Water Mixed Vegetation Community. A
                                            mix of many species growing from about mean sea level to the upland
                                            margin. Highly productive 3-4 tons/acre, detritus readily available.
                                            Great diversity provides foraging area and food sources for waterfowl,
                                            shorebirds and small mammals. Often used as spawning and nursery
                                            grounds for finfish and crabs. As most brackishmarshes are bordered by
                                            saltmarsh cordgrass,-erosion_protection is high (see Type I). Also, the
                                            higher marsh vegetation serves as an assimilator of Pood waters and a
                                            sediment trap (see Type 11).

            Slide 40                        13. Type X11IL Intertidal Beach Community. Associated invertebrate
                                            spe6ies- mole crabs, beach'fleas, clams, oligochaete and'polychaete
                                            worms. Most species live just belowsand surface. Primary productivity
                                            is low relative to vegetated wetlands. Very important foraging area for
                                            shorebirds.- Some species nest above mean high water (tems, skimmers,
                                            plovers).. During high tide serves as foraging area for fish. The slope and
                                            substrate characteristics make the beach a natural wave energy dis-
                                            sipator and buffer to storm waves.

            Slide,41                        14. Type XIV. Sand Plat Community. Invertebrates - sandworm,
                                            bloodworm, razor clam, amphipods. Most species live at the surface or in
                                            burrows. Primary production less than marshes, but-just slightly lower
                                            than other tidal flats. - Primary production enters food chain directly
                                            through grazing. Provides nursery and feeding: area for fishand blue
                                            crabs, foraging area for shorebirds. Dissipates Wave.energy and reduces
                                            erosion potential on shoreline.

            Slide'.42                       15. Type XV. Sand/Mud Mixed Flat Community. Invertebrates - hard
                                            clam, soft clam, polychaetes and mud snails. Inhabitants are surface
                                            dwellers and burrowers, with some permanent tube builders. Primary
                                            production similar to sand flats, however due to high organics, secondary
                                            micr.obial'production may be higher. Important habitat for wading birds,
                                            blue crabs and finfish. Slows wave velocity And may reduce erosion.

            Slide;43                        16. Type XVL Mud FUt Community. Invertebrates - mud snails, razor
                                            clams and bloodworms. Surface dwellers and burrowers. Likely to have
                                            the highest primary production of nonvegetated wetlands. Often as-
                                            sociated with vegetated wetlands, this community interacts with
                                            vegetated.areas in nutrient cycling-. Important'forage area for waterfowl,
                                            shorebirds and finfish.

            Slide 44                        .17. Type XV11. Intertidal Oys  ter Reef  Community.     Invefrtebrates -
                                            oysters, hard clams, sand worms, mud crabs. Shells provide habitat diver-
                                            sity allowing for high diversity of attached organisms such as barnacles,
                                            sponges, hydroids -and mussels.- Important food chain interactions. Used
                                            as-foraging area by finfishand blue crabs.






             Wetlands Ecology                                                                                      9




                                 References

                                     Hackney, C.T. and AA de la Cruz. 1982. The structure and function of brackish
                                     marshes in the north central Gulf of Mexico: a ten year case study. In: B. Gopal,
                                     et al. (eds.). Wetlands. International Scientific Publications. C-70 A.L. Selhi
                                     Nagar, Jaipur, India. pp. 89-107.


                                     Long, S.P. and C.F. Mason. 1983. Saltmarsh Ecology. Chapman and Hall. New
                                     York, New York. 160 pp.


                                     McLusky, D.S. 1981. The Estuarine Ecosystem. Halsted Press. New York, New
                                     York.


                                     Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New
                                     York, New York. 539p.


                                     Odum, W.E., T.J. Smith III, J.K. Hoover and C.C. McIvor. 1984. The ecology of
                                     tidal freshwater marshes of the United States east coast: a community profile.
                                     U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-83/17.177p.


                                     Stickney, R.R. 1984. Estuarine Ecology of the Southeastern United States and the
                                     Gulf of Mexico. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas. 310 pp.


                                     Wass, M.L. and T.D. Wright. 1969. Coastal wetlands of Virginia. SRAMSOE 010.
                                     Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA. 154 pp.


                                     Wetlands Guidelines. 1982. Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC).
                                     Prepared by Department of Wetlands Ecology, Virginia Institute of Marine
                                     Science, College of William and Mary. Printed by VMRC, Newport News, VA. 57
                                     pp-






            10                                                                                        Wetlands Ecology




                                 Slide List

                                       1.  Marsh, picture
                                       2.  Food web

                                       3.  Detritus

                                       4.  Saline marsh
                                       5.  Oysters
                                       6.  Oystercatchers
                                       7.  Shorebirds, egrets, etc.
                                      .8.  Pelicans
                                       9.  Brackish marsh
                                      10.  Grasshopper
                                      11.  Littorina - snail
                                      12.  Clapper rail
                                      13.  Fiddler crab
                                      14.  Oligohalin(@ marsh
                                      15.  Raccoon

                                      16.  Blue crab

                                      .17. Otter
                                      18.  Canada geese
                                      19.  Tidal freshwater marsh
                                      20.  Turtle
                                      21.  Snow geese
                                      22.  Muskrat lodge
                                      23.  Muskrat
                                      .24. Tidal swamp
                                      .25. Tree frog
                                      26.  -Snake
                                      27.  Wetland community types
                                      28.  Saltmarsh cordgrass
                                      29.  Saltmeadow community
                                      30.  Black needlerush
                                      31.  Saltbush
                                      32.  Big cordgrass
                                      33.  Cattail
                                      34.  Arrow arum - pickerelweed
                                      35.  Reed grass
                                      36.  Yellow pond lily
                                      37.  Saltwort






              Wetlands Ecology




                                      38.  Freshwater mixed - schematic

                                      39.  Brackish mixed - schematic

                                      40.  Beach
                                      41.  Sand flat
                                      42.  Sand/mud flat

                                      43.  Mud flat
                                      44.  Oyster reef






                                                                 Wetlands Ecology Handout



                                                                                      FOOD WEB





                                                           MARSH VEGETATION                  TERRESTRIAL CARBON                   PHYTOPLANKTON
                                                              (niacqihytes)



                                                                                        DETRITUS
                                                                                        M&ugng Ncmorganlsm)

                                            MARSH            TERRESTRIAL                                                            ZOOPLANKTON
                                            INSECTS             INS               BO'TTOM DWELLING       OMNIVOROUS
                                                                                       ANIMALS                    N



                                                                     MARSH MAMMALS                                         JUVENILE FISHES



                                                        BIRDS                                                            LARGER FISHES
                                                                                                                        (at Ind two I"s
                   Glossary                                                                                                of cami"res)

                         Brackish       . . . . . . . . .    water with less salt than sea water but undrinkable; salinities ranging from 0.5 to 17.
                         Detritus     . . . . . . . . . .    partially decomposed organic matter.
                         Ecosystem        . . . . . . . .    a functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together
                                                             with their environment.
                         Estuary      . . . . . . . . . .    a sen-denclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and
                                                             within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water, i.e. Chesapeake Bay.
                         Failing    . . . . . . . . . . .    animals.
                         Flora    . . . . . . . . . . . .    plants.
                         High marsh        . . . . . . . .   a relative term often related to the presence of a particular vegetative community
                                                             contiguous to the uplands, often denoting the marsh-upland boundary.
                         Hydrophyte           .......        a plant that grows in a moist habitat.
                         1,ow marsh        . . . . . . . .   a relative term often related to the presence of a particular vegetative community
                                                             contiguous to the water; lowest elevation in the marsh.
                         Mid-marsh          ........         a relative term indicating a position between the low marsh and the high marsh.
                         Nekton        ..........            free-swimming aquatic animals, essentially independent of water movements.
                         Nutrient cycling        . . . . .   biological and chemical processes that involve the use, modification and reuse of
                                                             nutrients.
                         Oligohaline       . . . . . . . .   water with less salt than brackish water but more than fresh water.
                         Omnivorous          . . . . . . .   a mode of feeding that includes both vegetable and animal matter.
                         Photosynthesis          . . . . .   the creation of chemical compounds in light, especially the production of organic matter
                                                             by green plants.
                         Primary consumer             . . .  an organism that feeds on organic matter resulting from primary production.
                         Primary production . . the manufacture of living tissue from non-living materials.
                         Saline      ...........             water with the amount of salt in sea water.
                         Secondary production . production of organisms that consume the products of primary production.


                   Suggested Reading List

                         Teal, J. and M. Teal. 1969. Life and Death of a Salt Marsh. Boston. Little, Brown, and Co. 274 pp.
                                                                                                                                                  College of William and Mary
                                                                                                                                                  Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                                  School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                                  GloucesterPoint; Virginia23062


Westlands Ecology Handout			2
COMMON WETLAND PLANTS
Wetland Species in the Wetlands Guidelines
Type 
(Wetlands Guidlines)
Type I
Type II
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type IV
Type V
Type VI
Type VII
Type VII
Type VIII
Type IX
Type X
Type XI
Type XII
Type XIII
Type XIV
Type XV
Type XVI
Type XVII
Common Name
Saltmarsh cordgrass
Saltmeadow hay
Saltgrass
Black needlerush
Groundsel tree
Marsh elder
big cordgrass
Narrowleaf cattail
Arrow arum
Pickerelweed
Reed grass
Yellow pond lily
Saltwort
Freshwater Mixed Vegetation Comunity
Brackish Water Mixed vegetation Community 
Intertidal Beach Community
Sand Flat Community
Sand/Mud Mixed flat Community
Mud Flat Community
Intertidal Oyster Reef Community
Scientific Name
Spartina alternifflora
Spartina patens
Distichlis spicata
Juncus roemerianus
Baccharis halimifolia
Iva frutescens
Spartina cynosuroides
Typha angustifolia
Peltandra virginica
Pontedaria cordata
Phragmites australis
Nuphar luteum
Salicornia sp.
Other Common Wetland Species
Sea lavender
Wax myrtle 
SEa oxeye
Rice cutgrass
Wild rice
Bulrush 
Spikerush
Sea rocket
Southern wildrice
Beggar's tick
Smartweeds
Sweetflag
Water hempMarsh hibiscus
Marsh fleabane
Buttonbush
Bald cyprus
Black gum
Tupelo
Limonium sp.
Myrics sp.
Borrichia frutescens
Leersia oryzoides
Zizania aquatica
Scirpus validus
eleocharis sp.
Cukile edentula
Zizaniopis miliacea
Bidens sp.
Polygonum sp.
Acornus calamus
Amaranthus cannabinus
Hibiscus moscheutos 
Pluchea purpurascens
Cephalanthus occidentalis
Taxodium distichum
Nyssa sylvatica
Nyssa aquatica































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                                                   Wetland Values


                                                   Maryann Woh1gemuth

                            Objectives
            Notes               The purpose of this unit is to review tidal wetland values and functions.

            Length of           Upon completion, students should be able to:
            Presentation:
            1 hr.               * Define the following terms: tidal wetlands, values, functions, watershed,
                                  aquatic productivity, detritus.

                                * Describe how the following values and functions are provided by tidal wet-
                                  lands.


                                1. Water Quality Improvement
                                2. Aquatic Productivity
                                3. Fish and Wildlife Habitat
                                4. Shoreline Erosion Control
                                5. Flood Protection
                                6. Water Supply
                                7. Economic Values
                                8. Recreation Activities


                            Materials

                                1. 35 mm projector
                                2. Movie screen
                                3. Slides
                                4. Handouts


                            Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                1. Review lesson outline
                                2. Review visual aids
                                3. Review references (VIMS Technical Reports 90-5, 91-4, 91-A)
                                4. Be familiar with equipment: slide projector, slide screen


                            Procedure

                                1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                2. Announcements (field work etc...






                                                                                               9/91






            2                                                                                             Wetland Values




                                     3. Explain general comments on lesson, eg. limitations - this is a general intro-
                                     duction to values and fimctions potentially found in wetlands but as wetland
                                     type, geographic position, and other variables change so do the -potential wetland
                                     values
                                     4. Distribute handouts


                                Lecture Notes

                                     I. INTRODUCTION


                                         A. Throughout the state of Virginia there, is a variety of wetland types which
                                         range from tidal marshes and swamps near the coast, to nontidal wetlands
                                         found anywhere from the coastal plain to the mountains. Wetlands are found.
                                         in topographic depressions or along rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Wet-
                                         lands, in general, are areas that are wet or have wet soils during some part of
                                         the growing season.

            Slides 14                    B. Tidal-wetlands are found along the coastline where they are influenced
                                         by daily tidal fluctuations and include vegetated marshes and swamps or non-
                                         vegetated mud and sand flats.

            Slides-5-6                   C. the term 'wetland function      usually refers to the ecological process a
                                         wetland provides, whereas the term 'wetland value' generally connotes use-
                                         fulness to humans. For example: a function may be wildlife habitat support,
                                         while the value to humans may be hunting or fishing.

            Slide 7                      D. Tidal wetlands provide many ecological and socio-economic values includ-
                                         ing: water quality improvement, aquatic productivity, fish and wildlife
                                         habitat, shoreline erosion control, stormwater treatment, flood protection,
                                         potable water supplies, economically valuable resources, and recreation. The
                                         level of these values varies with the type, setting, size, and hydrology of the
                                         particular wetland.

            Slide 8                  11. WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

            Slide 9                      A. Wetlands can filter and trap sediments and pollutants from upland runo      Iff
                                         before they reach an a(bacent waterway. All wetlands within the
            Slide 10                     Chesapeake Bay watershed have the potential to impact water quality in the
                                         Bay. -A watershed can be defined as all the area that drains by surface or
                                         subsurface flow into the water body being considered. The Chesapeake Bay
                                         watershed extends north through parts of New.York State and west to the
                                         Appalachian mountains, covering approximately 64,000 square miles
                                         (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1983).


Wetland Values					3
B. Water pollution problems can be reduced when urban and agricultural runoff pass through a wetland before reaching the aquatic environment.
C. Wetlands can reduce levels of nutrients and increase levels of dissolved oxygen.
Slide 11
As wetland plants grow, thay take up inorganic nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous) and release organic or detrital forms (decaying plant material) of nutrients. the transformation from inorganic to organic forms of nutrients reduces potential problems from excessive nutrient loadings, while providing organic forms of nutrients that are more useful to aquatic animals.
Slide 12
D. It has been shown that some wetlands are successful at reducing pollutants found in stormwater runoff, including lawn fertilizers and herbicides, sediment from erosion, and sewage from failing systems.
Slides 13-14
E. Wetlands are being considered as economical alternatives for acccomplishing secondary watewater treatment. Wetlands have been shown to reduce nutrients, heavy metals, and bacteria from sewage effluent and other waters (eg. Wisconsin Marsh)(Spangler et al., 1976).
F. Wetlands stablize river banks and reduce shoreline erosion, reducing the amount of sediment and nutrient runoff.
G. Three stablize river banks; their roots bind athe soil, while their trunks and branches slow the flow of flooding waters and dampen wave height.
Slide 15
III. AQUATIC PRODUCTIVITY
Slide 16
A. Some wetlands produce more plant material per area than the most productive farmlands (Teal and Teal, 1969).
B. This large amount of productivity provides a food source for fish, birds, invertebrates, and furbearers.
Slide 17
C. Detritus (decaying plant material that is colonized by microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi) is consumed by many small invertebrates, juvenile fish, and oysters, which support higher forms in the food web.
Slides 18-20
D. Benthic macroalgae and microalgae--also important primary producers in wetlands.
Slide 21
IV. FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITAT
Slides 22-23
A. Tidal wetlands are used by a large variety of birds, fish, mammals, and invertebrates for food, shelter, and spawning and nesting sites.






              4                                                                                             Wetland Values




              Slides 24-26                 B. Approximately two-thirds of the fish and shellfish species that are har-
                                           vested commercially are associated with wetlands. These species include:
                                           blue crab, oyster, clam, shrimp, striped bass, menhaden, bluefish, flounder,
                                           sea trout, spot, and croaker (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986).


                                           C. Wetlands are a preferred habitat because of reduced competition, slow cur-
                                           rents, scarcity of predators and an abundant food supply.

              Slides 27-28                 D. Some species, such as mummichogs (minnows) and fiddler crabs, utilize
                                           wetlands throughout their lifespan.


                                           E. Other species, such as striped bass, spawn in waters adjacent to tidal
                                           freshwater marshes, similar to those along the P@munkey River.

                                           F. Many coastal fish, including soot, menhaden, striped bass, and mullet, use
                                           wetlandsas nursery areas for their juvenile stage.


                                           G. Of the nation's endangered and threatened species, 50% of the animals
                                           and 28% of the plants are dependent on wetlands for their survival (Niering,
                                           -1988).


              Slides 29-30                 H. Migratory waterfowl are dependent on wetlands for feeding during their
                                           seasonal stopovers.


              Slides31-34                  1. Various shore and wading birds use wetlands as a food source and a loca-
                                           tion for fiest sites. Atlantic coast salt marshes are used for nesting by birds
                                           such as laughing gulls, Forster's terns, clapper rails,* willets, and marsh
                                           hawks (Tiner, 1984).


              Slides 35-36                 J. Mammals that utilize wetlands include.raccoon, muskrat.


              Slide 37                 V. SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUES/SHORELINE EROSION CONTROL


                                           AL Wetlands provide a buffer against shoreline erosion by reducing wave ener-
                                           gy and current velocity.

              Slide 38                     B. Vegetated wetlands can reduce shoreline erosion by three mechanisms:

                                               1. Increased stability of the sediment-root matrix.


                                               2. Wave damping,as the waves propogate thro     ugh a stand of grass.

                                               3.'Reduction in current velocity from additional friction forces as it flows
                                               through grasses (Dean, 1979).







                                          Wetland Values                                                                            5




                                          C. Wetlands have a complex root and rhizome system that binds shoreline
                                          sediments together which helps reduce the loss of uplands to coastal erosion.

                                          D. A planted salt marsh fringe may be an effective, inexpensive, and ecologi-
                                          cally-preferred alternative to a bulkhead or a revetment (Hardaway et al.,


              Slide 39                    E. Wave height and current speed are also reduced by nonvegetated wet-
                                          lands, such as beaches and mudflats by causing waves to spread out as they
                                          pass over the flat (Thebarge and Boesch, 1978).


              Slide 40                VI. FLOOD PROTECTION


                                          A. Wetlands adjacent to watercourses slow surface water flow and may tem-
                                          porarily store flood waters.

              Slide 41                    B. Wetlands desynchronize peak flows by temporarily slowing and storing
                                          water, which results in a non-simultaneous gradual release of peak waters
                                          minimizing flow downstream (Zacherle, 1984).


                                      VII. WATER SUPPLY


                                          A. Most wetlands areas of groundwater discharge. Groundwater dis-
                                          charge occurs where the groundwater table meets the surface of the land
                                          and discharges as springs or seeps.

                                          B. Some wetlands may recharge groundwater aquifers, but most do not.
                                          Groundwater recharge is the movement of water into a potential drinking
                                          water supply or aquifer. Recharge potential varies according to wetland
                                          type, geographic location, season, soil type, water table location and precipita-
                                          tion (Tiner, 1984).


                                          C. Most estuarive intertidal wetlands are discharge rather that recharge
                                          areas (Carte? et al., 1979).


                                      VIII. ECONOMIC


                                          A. The economic benefits of wetlands are realized in natural products,
                                          shoreline erosion control, stormwater treatment, flood protection, water supp-
                                          ly, livestock grazing, and recreation.
 





             6                                                                                            Wetland Values




                                          For example: The ability of wetlands to control flood waters reduces property
                                          damage from flooding, and reduces costs for flood control structures. Proper-
                                          ty damage from.floods for 1975 in the U.S. was estimated to be $3.4 billion
                                          (U.S. Water Resources Council, 1978). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                                          found that buying wetlands adjacent to the Charles River in Massachusetts
                                          was the most inexpensive solution to flooding problems in the Charles River
                                          Basin (Tiner, 1984).


                                          B. Natural products include timber, fish, shellfish, waterfowl, furbearers,
                                          peat, and wild rice.


             Slide 42-45                  C. Commercially important species such as striped bass, menhaden, bluefish,
                                          flounder, spot, blue crabs, oysters, and clams are partially dependent on coas-
                                          tal wetlands during some part of their life history.


             Slide 46                     D. Economic benefits from tecreational activities are significant: hunting,
                                          fishing,.nature study, photography,


             Slides 47-50             IYL RECREATIONAL, VALUES


                                          A- Recreational activities in wetlands include boating, swimming, fishing,
                                          hunting, and nature study.


                                      X CONCLUSION


                                          Wetlands provide perpetual values, whereas economic benefits from wetland
                                          destruction are finite (Mitsch and Gossilink, 1986).


                                          "In the beginning, -wetlands were considered valueless. Only when most of
                                          the native waterfowl vanished was it determined that wetlands might ensure
                                          the survival of many endangered plants and animals. Only after billions of
                                          dollars were spent on structural flood control that resulted in further flooding
                                          were wetlands recognized for reducing flood peaks. Only after additional bil-
                                          lions were spent to purify streams was it realizedweilands naturally filter
                                          pollutants for free." (Illinois Institute of Natural Resources, 1982)


                                  References

                                      WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT


                                          Anderson, G., J. Brokaw, T. Lassen, G. Mapp, and L. D. Theberge      1978. In:
                                          E. L. Shea and N. B. Theberge, eds. Wetland Evaluation and Management in
                                          Virginia. SRAMSOE No. 211, Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
                                          Gloucester Point, Virginia. 116 pp.






            Wetland Values                                                                                              7



                                         Boto, K G. and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1979. Role of wetlands in the removal of
                                         suspended sediments. In: P. E. Greeson, et. al. Wetland Functions and
                                         Values: The State of Our Understanding. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp.
                                         479-489.


                                         Cerco, C. F. and A. Y. Kuo. 1979. Water quality in a small tidal creek:
                                         Parker Creek, Virginia. SRAMSOE No. 231 Virginia Institute of Marine
                                         Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 112 pp.

                                         Chesapeake Bay Program. 1983. Chesapeake Bay Program: Findings and
                                         Recommendations, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA.
                                         48 pp.

                                         Grant, R. R., Jr. and R. Patrick. 1970. Tinicum Marsh as a water purifier.
                                         In: Two Studies of Tinicum Marsh. The Conservation Foundation. pp. 105-
                                         123.


                                         Kadlec, R. G. and J. A. Kadlec. 1979. Wetlands and water quality. In: P. E.
                                         Greeson, et al. Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Under-
                                         standing. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp. 436-456.

                                         Sloey, W. E., F. L. Spangler, and C. W. Fetter, Jr. 1978. Management of
                                         freshwater wetlands for nutrient assimilation. In: R. E. Good, et al. Fresh-
                                         water Wetlands. Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic
                                         Press, New York. pp. 321-340.


                                         Spangler, F., W. Sloey, and C. W. Fetter. 1976. Experimental use of emergent
                                         vegetation for the biological treatment of municipal wastewater in Wisconsin.
                                         In: Biological Control of Water Pollution, J. Tourbier and R. Pierson, Jr.
                                         (eds.) Univ. Penn. Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 161-172.


                                         Sweeney, J. T. 1980. Measurement and analysis of tidal marsh fluxes of
                                         oxygen demanding materials. College of William and Mary, Virginia In-
                                         stitute of Marine Science Master's Thesis. 122 pp.


                                         Virginia Natural Resources Newsletter. 1989. Vol. 3.


                                         Virginia State Water Control Board. 1979. Best Management Practices
                                         Handbook Agriculture. Planning Bulletin 316. 423 p.


                                     AQUATIC PRODUCTIVITY


                                         Anderson, G., J. Brokaw, T. Lassen, G. Mapp, and L. D. Theberge. 1978. In:
                                         E. L. Shea and N. B. Theberge, eds. Wetland Evaluation and Management in
                                         Virginia. SRAMSOE No. 211, Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
                                         Gloucester Point, Virginia. 116 pp.






            8                                                                                       Wetland Values




                                        Teal, J. and M. Teal. 1969. Life and Death of a Salt Marsh. Boston. Little,
                                        Brown, and Co. 274 pp.


                                    FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITAT


                                        Deegan, L. A., B. J. Peterson, and R. Portier. 1990. Stable isotopes and cel-
                                        lulase activity as evidence for detritus as a food source for juvenile Gulf men-
                                        haden. Estuaries 13:14-19.


                                        Hines, A. H., R. N. Lipcius, and A. M. Haddon. 1987. Population dynamics
                                        and habitat partitioning by size, sex, and molt stage of blue crabs Callinectes
                                        sapidus in a subestuary of central Chesapeake Bay. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 36:
                                        55-64.


                                        McGovern, J. C. and J. E. Olney. 1988. Potential Predation by Fish and In-
                                        vertebrates on Early Life History Stages of Striped Bass in the Pamunkey
                                        River, Virginia. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 117:152-161.

                                        Mitsch, W. J. and J. G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold
                                        Co., New York, NY. 539 pp.

                                        Niering, W. A. 1988. Endangered, threatened and rare wetland plants and
                                        animals of the continental United States. In: D. D. Hook and others, eds. The
                                        Ecology and Management of Wetlands, Vol. 1 Ecology of Wetlands. Timber
                                        Press, Portland, Oregon. p. 227-238.

                                        Rozas, L. P. and C. T. Hackney. 1984. Use of oli@johaline marshes by fishes
                                        and macrofaunal crustaceans in North Carolina.  Estuaries 7: 213-224.


                                        Tiner, R. W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and
                                        Recent Trends.  Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 59 pp.

                                        Wass, M. L., and T. D. Wright. 1969. Coastal wetlands of Virginia. Special
                                        Report No. 10 in Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, Virginia In-
                                        stitute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia. 154 pp.


                                        Weinstein, M. P_ 1979. Shallow marsh habitats as-primary nurseries for
                                        fishes and shellfish, Cape Fear River, North Carolina. Fish. Bull. 77: 339-
                                        357.


                                        Zimmerman, R. J. and T. J. Minello. 1984. Densities of Penaeus aztecus,
                                        Penaeus setiferus, and other natant macrofauna in a Texas salt marsh. Es-
                                        tuaries 7: 421-433.






             Wetland Values                                                                                               9





                                       SHORELINE EROSION CONTROL


                                           Boon, J.D. 1975. Tidal discharge asymmetry in a saltmarsh drainage sys-
                                           tem. Limnology and Ocean. 20(l):71-80.


                                           Dean, R. G. 1979. Effects of vegetation on shoreline erosional processes. In:
                                           P. E. Greeson, et al. Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Under-
                                           standing. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp. 415-426.


                                           Hardaway, C. S., G. R. Thomas, A. W. Azcherle, and B. K. Fowler. 1984.
                                           Vegetative erosion control project: Final report 1984. Virginia Institute of
                                           Marine Science, School of Marine Science, College of William and Mary,
                                           Gloucester Point, Virginia.


                                           Knutson, P. L., R. A. Brochu, W. N. Seelin, and M. Inskeep. 1982. Wave
                                           damping in Spartina alterniflora marshes. Wetlands 2: 87-104.

                                           Theberge, L. and D. F. Boesch. 1978. Values and management strategies for
                                           nonvegetated tidal wetlands. Special Scientific Report No. 90, Virginia In-
                                           stitute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia. 55 pp.


                                       FLOOD PROTECTION


                                           Zacherle, A. W. 1984. A method for evaluating the long-term, cumulative im-
                                           pacts of tidal marsh alterations: the York River system - a case study. Col-
                                           lege of William and Mary, Virginia Institute of Marine Science Mastei@s
                                           Thesis. 197 pp.


                                       WATER SUPPLY


                                           Carter, V., M. S. Bedinger, R. P. Novitski, and W. 0. Wilen. 1979. In: P. E.
                                           Greeson, et al. Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Under-
                                           standing. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp. 344-376.

                                           Motts, W. S. and R. W. Heeley. 1973. Wetlands and groundwater. In: J. S.
                                           Larson, ed. A Guide to Important Characteristics and Values of Freshwater
                                           Wetlands in the Northeast. University of Massachusetts, Water Resources
                                           Research Center. Pub. No. 31, pp. 5-8.


                                       ECONOMIC BENEFITS AND RECREATION VALUES


                                           Burke, D. G., E. J. Meyers, R. W. Tiner Jr., and H. Groman. 1988. Protect-
                                           ing nontidal wetlands. American Planning Association. Washington D.C. 76
                                           PP.







            10                                                                                      Wetland Values




                                        Illinois Institute of Natural Resources, Illinois Wetlands, p. ix. Quoted in
                                        Zinn, J.A. and Copeland, C. 1982. WetIbLnd Management. Congressional Re-
                                        search Service. The Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.


                                       Tiner, R. W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and
                                        Recent Trends. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 59 pp.

                                        U. S. Water Resources Council. 1978. Estimated flood damages. Appendix
                                        B., Nationwide Analysis Report. Washington, D. C.







              Wetland Values





                                   Slide Ust

                                          1.  Aerial of tidal creek
                                          2.  Mudflat and vegetated fringe
                                          3.  Aerial tidal wetland
                                          4.  Swamp
                                          5.  Term function and value (text)
                                          6.  Limits on values (text)
                                          7.  Table of values
                                          8.  Water quality values
                                          9.  Schematic, wetlands purify water
                                         10.  Chesapeake Bay watershed
                                         11.  Nutrient cycling
                                         12.  Upland erosion
                                         13.  Discharge pipe
                                         14.  Table, marsh reduction in pollutants in sewage effluent
                                         15.  Aquatic productivity
                                         16.  Wetland productivity, bar chart
                                         17.  Detritus (productivity)
                                         18.  Macroalgae
                                         19.  Microalgae
                                         20.  Food web
                                         21.  Fish and wildlife
                                         22.  Nursery grounds
                                         23.  Goose Creek fish catch
                                         24.  Goose Creek blue crab
                                         25.  Oyster bed on mudflat
                                         26.  Snails on mudflat
                                         27.  Fiddler crab
                                         28.  Fiddlers and S. alterniflora
                                         29.  Ducks
                                         30.  Canada geese
                                         31.  Great blue heron
                                         32.  Egretrookery
                                         33.  Red-winged blackbird nest
                                         34.  Shorebirds feeding in panne
                                         35.  Raccoon
                                         36.  Muskrat lodge
                                         37.  Socio-economic values
                                         38.  Planting vegetation for erosion control






            12                                                                                        Wetland Values





                                     39. Wave run-up
                                     40.   Flood buffer for town
                                     41.   Schematic, flood peak reduction
                                     42.   Pound net
                                     43.   Oyster catch
                                     44.   Fish catch
                                     45.   Wetland associated fish and shellfish
                                     46.   Duckblind
                                     47.   Recreational users
                                     .48.  Recreational fishing
                                     49.   Aesthetic, nature study
                                     50.   Aesthetic, nature study







                                                           Wetland Values Handout




                                                    Wetland Values


                                                    ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY VALUES
                                                           Water Quality Improvement
                                                              Pollutant removal (heavy metals, pathogens)
                                                              Sediment trapping
                                                              Nutrient uptake and recycling
                                                              Oxygen production
                                                              Wastewater treatment
                                                              Stormwater treatment


                                                           Aquatic and Terrestrial Productivity


                                                           Fish and Wildlife Habitat
                                                           ï¿½ Spawning and nesting sites
                                                           ï¿½ Nursery areas for young
                                                           ï¿½ Shelter from predators
                                                           ï¿½ Foraging areas


                                                     SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUES
                                                           o  Shoreline erosion control
                                                           s  Flood protection
                                                           *  Groundwater recharge and discharge
                                                           a  Natural products (timber, fish, waterfowl)
                                                           a  Recreation (boating, fishing, hunting)
                                                           a  Aesthetics




                GlossaU

                     Tidal wetlands         . . . . . . .  land areas periodically flooded due to tidal action.


                     Wetland function           . . . . .  ecological processes wetlands provide, e.g. wildlife habitat.

                     Wetland value          . . . . . . .  connotes usefulness to humans, e.g. hunting or fishing.

                     Watershed         . . . . . . . . .   all area that drains by surface or subsurface flow into a water body.

                     Inorganic nutrients          . . . .  nutrients such as phosphorus or nitrogen that are generally from an
                                                           abiotic origin, e.g. nitrogen (ammonia, nitrite, nitrate).


                                                                                                                           College of William and Mary
                                                                                                                           Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                           School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                               Pr          Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062







         Wetland Values Handout                                                                      2




            Organic nutrients  . . . .nutrients originating from living things (e.g. nitrogen, urea, protein,
                                      nucleic acids').


            Detritus  . . . . . . . . . .decaying plant-material that is colonized by microorganisms (bacteria,
                                      protozoa, and fungi).


            Food web  . . . . . . . . . .set of complex feeding interactions that occur in an- ecosystem; a pattern
                                      of interlocking food chains; a food chain is the. transfer of food energy
                                      from the source, primary producers through a series of organisms with
                                      repeated eating and being eaten.,

            Groundwater discharge     occurs where the-groundwater table meets the surface of the land and
                                      discharges as spnngs or seeps.

            Groundwater recharge.     movement of water into a potential drinking supply oraquif@r.



        Suggested Reading'List

            Wohlgemuth, M. 1990. Tidal Wetland Values. VIMS Technical- Report No'.-90-5. Virginia Institute of
            Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA.


            Wohlgemuth,'M. 1991. Primary Producers and Decomposers of Intertidal Flats. VIMS Technical Report
            No.- 91-4. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA_


            Wohlgemuth, M.* 1991. Nontidal Wetland Functions and Values. VIMS Technical Report No. 91-A.
            Virginia.Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA.

















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                                               Coastal Structures


                                                    Julie G. Bradshaw


                           Objectives
           Notes              The purpose of this unit is to review the various structures used for shoreline
           Length of          protection, including purpose, design considerations, and terminology.
           Presentation:      Upon completion, students should be able to define the following shoreline protec-
           25 min.            tion methods, state their purpose/mode of action, and state the general design
                              considerations associated with each: bulkheads, riprap, marsh toe protection,
                              breakwaters, groins, jetties, and vegetative control.


                           Materials

                              1. 35mm projector
                              2. Screen
                              3. Slides
                              4. Handouts


                           Instructor Preparation Tasks

                              1. Review lesson outline
                              2. Review slides
                              3. Practice with equipment
                              4. Prepare handouts
                              5. Prepare for field trip, if applicable


                           Procedure

                              1. Introduce self and other instructors
                              2. Announcements (explain field trip, if applicable)
                              3. General comments (explain objectives of unit)
                              4. Distribute handouts


                           Lecture Notes

           Slide I            I.BULKHEADS

           Slides 2-4            A. Definition and purpose: vertical walls aligned parallel to the shoreline
                                 which act to retain upland material and prevent wave-induced erosion.






                                                                                              9/91






             2                                                                                          Coastal Structures




             Slide 5                      B. Design considerations and terminology for wood bulkheads (the most corn-
                                          mon type of bulkhead):


             Slide 6                          1. Piles driven or "jetted in".


                                              2. Vertical tongue-and-groove sheet pile driven or jetted in.


             Slide 7                          3. Depth of penetration should equal or exceed exposed portion.


                                              4. Filter cloth: synthetic textile placed between sheeting and backfill
             Slides 8-11                      which prevents soil loss but is water-permeable.


                                              5. Deadmen and tiebacks: anchors on the landward side of the
                                              bulkhead, to which the bulkhead is tied by tiebacks or tie-rods.


                                              6. Screw anchors: another anchoring device (rods that screw into the
                                              upland).


             Slides 12-13,                    7. Return walls: walls located at each end of the bulkhead, ap-
                                              proximately perpendicular to the bulkhead and shoreline', which tie the
                                              bulkhead into the upland and prevent the bulkhead from being flanked.


             SU4 14                   IL RIPRAP REVETMENTS


                                          A- Definitions


             Slide 15                         1. Revetment@ -a sloped structure consisting of multiple layers    of stone
                                              or other material placed along a bank.


                                              2. Riprap: the stone used to build a revetment; often, the structure it-
                                              self is called riprap.


                                          B. Purpose:. dissipation of incoming wave energy, to prevent erosion of the
                                          shoreline against which it is constructed.

                                          C. Design consideratioris and terminology,

             Slide 16                         1. Toe of ripfap should be buried to prevent scouring.

             Slides 17-18                     2. Filter cloth is placed against bank and underneath riprap to prevent
                                              loss of soil and -sediment.

             Slide 19                         3. Core: the smaller stone used as the base of the revetment; not directly
                                              exposed to waves.,






            Coastal Structures                                                                                         3




                                             4. Armor: the larger stone used as the outer layers of the revetment;
                                             directly exposed to waves.


             Slides 20-25                      Size of materials should be sufficient to handle wave energy at the loca-
                                             tion without being dislodged.


             Slides 26-30            M. MARSH TOE PROTECTION


                                         A. Definition: a low-profile rock structure placed channelward of a marsh.


                                         B. Purpose: to protect the marsh from erosive wave energy.


                                            Design considerations same as riprap revetment (above).

             Slide 31                IV. BREAKWATER


                                         A. Definition: an offshore structure which is aligned parallel to the shoreline.

                                         B. Purpose: to intercept and dissipate energy of incoming waves, forming a
             Slides 32-33                quiescent, low energy zone between the breakwater and the shore. Sand
                                         moving along the shoreline may then be trapped in this low energy zone. The
                                         energy may be reduced enough to allow wetlands vegetation to become estab-
                                         lished or spread.


                                         C. Design considerations and terminology.

             Slides 34-38                    1. Fixed breakwaters: generally of stone or gabion baskets (wire baskets
                                             or mattresses which are filled with stone), placed on the bottom.
             Slide 39                        2. Floating breakwaters: may be constructed of tires, logs, specially fabri-
                                             cated boxes and baffles, or other floating materials. Should be firmly
                                             anchored.


                                             3. Breakwaters may be gapped or continuous.

                                             4. Breakwaters may be constructed in a range of heights. Lower profile
                                             structures allow some overtopping by waves.

             Slide2 40-41                    5. Sill: a continuous low-profile breakwater structure.
             Slide 42                        6. Tombolo: name given to the build-up of sand landward of gapped
                                             breakwaters.

             Slides 43-44                    7. As with revetments, stone size should be sufficient to withstand wave
                                             environment of site. Stones are placed on filter cloth on the bottom.






              4                                                                                            Coastal Structures





              Slide 45                 V. GROINS


                                            A- Definition: structures that are perpendicular to the shoreline and extend
                                            intothe water.

              Slide 46                      B. Purpose: to trap sand moving along the shore. When functioning proper-
                                            ly, sand accumulates on the updrift side   of the groin, and the groin acts to
                                            widen and heighten the beach. Incoming waves attack the accumulated sand
                                            before getting to the upland.


                                            C. Design considerations and terminology.

              Slide 47                          1. Updrift and downdrift: refers to longshore drift, or the movement of
                                                sediment along the shore. Sediment may move in both directions along a
                                                particular shoreline. The net direction of movement determines the net
                                                accumulation of sediment by a groin. Groins necessarily deprive
                                                downdrift. shorelines of their sand supply, worsening any existing erosion
                                                problems.

              Slide 48                          2. Timber groins:  as with a bulkhead, piles and tongue-and-groove sheet-
                                                         riven or jetted in.
                                                ing. are d

              Slide 49                          -3. Stone groins: stone is placed on filter cloth: Crogs-section of groin is a
                                                trapezoidal shape.

              Slides 50-51                     .4. Low-proffle: recommended design f6r either timber or stone groins,
                                                in which the elevation of the channelward end of the groin is no greater
                                                than that of mean low water. This allows the sand to bypass the groin
                                                more quickly once the groin cell is fi Jed, lesse ning the interruption of
                                                sediment movement to downdrift, shorelines.

              Slides 52-56                      5. Spuir:. attached.to the downdrift side of the groin and oriented perpen-
                                                dicular to the groin, and parallel to the shoreline. Aligned anywhere be-
                                                tween MLW and the channelward end of the groin. Purpose is to prevent
                                                characteristic erosion of sand immediately downdrift of groin.

              Slide 57                 VI. JETTIES


                                            A. Definition: as with groins, jetties are perpendicular to the shoreline.

              Slide 58                      B. Purpose: jetties are used to define and protect inlets and harbors from
                                            shoaling by trapping sand before it travels across the inlet.






            Coastal Structures                                                                                      5





             Slide 59               V11. VEGETATIVE CONTROL


                                        A. Definition and purpose: use of wetlands vegetation to deter erosion, either
             Slides 60-63               alone or in concert with an offshore breakwater or sill. Vegetation may be
                                        planted or allowed to colonize naturally.


                                        B. Some types of marshes are very good at dissipating wave energy, and form
                                        an effective barrier to wave-induced erosion.


             Slide 64                   C. Not all situations suitable for vegetative control (e.g., freshwater areas;
                                        high energy areas).




                                        Hardaway, Scott & Gary Anderson. 1980. Shoreline erosion in Virginia.
                                        Educational Series No. 3 1. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Sea Grant Ad-
                                        visory Service. Gloucester Point, VA_


                                        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Low cost shore protection ... a property
                                        owner's guide. Norfolk, VA. 159 pp.


                                        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1990. Chesapeake Bay shoreline erosion
                                        study. Feasibility report. Baltimore and Norfolk Districts. 111 pp.






             6                                                                                                          Coastal Structures





                                      Slide List

                                              1.   Title slide
                                              2.   Typical bulkhead
                                              3.   Large timber bulkhead-
                                              4.   Aluminum bulkhead
                                              5.   Cartoon of bulkhead and large.wave
                                                   Jetting in bulkhead sheet piling
                                              7.   Short-sheeted bulkhead
                                              S.   Cross-section of riprap toe protection and bulkhead
                                              9.   Bulkhead with tiebacks, filter cloth
                                            10.    Bulkhead with tiebacks, deadmen
                                            11.    Bulkhead.tiebacks, deadmen
                                            12.    Return wall
                                            13.    Plan view drawing of return walls on bulkhead
                                            14.    Typical riprap
                                            15.    Cross-section drawing of riprap
                                            16.    Riprap construction - digging toe
                                            -17.   Riprap construction - filter cloth and stones in toe trench
                                            18.-   Riprap construction - filter cloth
                                            19.    -Riprap construction r core and armor stone
                                            M.     Storm waves at ferry pier, VIMS
                                            .21.1  Too-small riprap - before
                                            22.    Too-small riprap - after
                                            23.    Very large stone riprap
                                            24.    Riprap construction - toe trench landward of marsh
                                            25.    Riprap after construction
                                            26.    Typical marsh toe protection structure
                                            27.    Cross-section drawing of marsh toe protection structure
                                            28.    Marsh toe protection structure - shows still water behind
                                            29.    Before - construction of VIMS marina marsh toe, protection
                                            30.    After - VIMS marina marsh toe protection
                                            '31.   Plan view drawing of breakwater showing change in shoreline
                                            32.    Gapped breakwater - before
                                            33.    Gapped breakwater - after
                                            34.    Gapped breakwater - taken on breakwater
                                            35.    Gabion gapped breakwaters under construction
                                            36.    Gabion basket breakwater
                                            .37.   Close-up of gabion
                                            38.-   Gabion revetment under construction





           Coastal Structures                                                                                  7




                                   39.   'Vaveguard" floating breakwater/dock
                                   40.   Plan view drawing of sill and perched beach
                                   41.   Marsh toe stabilization/breakwater
                                   42.   Aerial view of gapped breakwaters with tombolos
                                   43.   Construction of breakwater - showing filter cloth
                                   44.   Cross-section drawing of stone breakwater
                                   45.   Typical groin
                                   46.   Aerial view of groin field
                                   47.   Plan view drawing showing groin-adjusted shoreline
                                   48.   Timber groin - showing elevation difference when filled
                                   49.   Typical stone groin
                                   50.   Cross-section drawing of low-profile timber groin
                                   51.   Filled timber groin
                                   52.   Timber groin with spur
                                   53.  'Timber groin with spur
                                   54.   Timber groin with gabion spurs
                                   55.   Timber groin with spur
                                   56.   Flanked groins
                                   57.   Infrared aerial view ofjetties
                                   58.   Aerial view of jetties
                                   59.   Marsh vegetation dissipating wave energy
                                   60.   Planting marsh grass
                                   61.   Recently planted marsh
                                   62.   Same marsh 3 months later
                                   63.   Grading back to reduce erosion and encourage marsh growth
                                   64.   Storm waves on Byrd Hall at VIMS







                                        Ccaotal Structures Handout


            LBULKHEADS


                 A. Definition and purpose: vertical walls aligned parallel to the shoreline which act to retain upland
                 material and prevent wave-induced erosion.


                 B. Terminology.

                      YiRter cRoth: synthetic textile placed between sheeting and backfill which prevents soil loss but is
                      water-permeable.
                      Deadmen: anchors on the landward side of the bulkhead, to which the bulkhead is tied by
                      tiebacks or tie-rods.
                      Screw anchors. another anchoring device (rods that screw into the upland).
                      Return walls. walls located at each end of the bulkhead, approximately perpendicular to the
                      bulkhead and shoreline, which tie the bulkhead into the upland and prevent the bulkhead from
                      being flanked.


            11. RIPRAP REVETMENTS


                 A. Definitions.


                      Revetmemt: a sloped structure consisting of multiple layers of stone or other material placed
                      along a bank.
                      Riprap: the stone used to build a revetment; often, the structure itself is called riprap.

                 B. Purpose: dissipation of incoming wave energy, to prevent erosion of the shoreline against which it is
                 constructed.


                 C. Terminology.


                      Core: the smaller stone used as the base of the revetment; not directly exposed to waves.
                      Armor: the larger stone used as the outer layers of the revetment; directly exposed to waves.


            HHH. MARSH TOE PROTECTRON


                 A. Definition: a low-profile rock structure placed channelward of a marsh.


                 B. Purpose: to protect the marsh from erosive wave energy.


            IV. BREAKWATER


                 A. Definition: an offshore structure which is aligned parallel to the shoreline.


                 B. Purpose: to intercept and dissipate energy of incoming waves, forming a quiescent, low energy zone
                 between the breakwater and the shore. Sand moving along the shoreline may then be trapped in this
                 low energy zone. The energy may be reduced enough to allow wetlands vegetation to become
                 established or spread.                                                            C Ue affilliam and Mary
                                                                              _C@                        institute ofmarine science
                                                                                                   SV=
                                                                                                    chool ofMarine Science
                                                                            qWdWIPr5%rOM GIoucesterPointV&rginja23062








         Coastal Structures                                                                                             2




              C. Terminology.


                    Tombolo:    name given to the build-up of sand landward of gapped breakwaters.


         V.GROINS


              A- Definition: structures that are perpendicular to the shoreline and extend into the water.

              B. Purpose: to trap sand moving along the shore. When functioning properly, sand accumulates on the
              updrift side of the groin, and the groin acts to widen and heighten the beach. Incoming waves attack
              the accumulated sand before getting to the upland.

              C. Terminology.


                    Updrift and downdrift: refers to longshore drift, or the movement of sediment along the shore.
                    Sediment ma*y move in both directions along a particular shoreline.   The net direction of
                    movement determines the net accumulation of sediment by a groin. Groins necessarily deprive
                    downdrift shorelines of their sand supply, worsening any existing erosion problems.
                    Low-profile: recommended design for either timber or stone groins, in which the elevation of the
                    channelward end of the groin is no greater than that of mean low water. This allows the sand to
                    bypass the groin more quickly once the groin cell is filled, lessening the interruption of sediment
                    movement to downdrift shorelines.
                    Spur: attached to the downdrift side of the groin and oriented perpendicular to the groin, and
                    parallel to the shoreline. Aligned anywhere between MLW and the channelward end of the groin.
                    Purpose is to prevent characteristic erosion of sand immediately dovM'drift of groin.


         V1. JET-TIES


              A- Definition: as with groins, jetties are perpendicular to the shoreline.

              B. Purpose: jetties are used to define and protect inlets and harbors from shoaling by trapping sand
              before it travels across the inlet.


         VII. VEGETATIVE CONTROL


              A. Definition and purpose: use of wetlands vegetation to deter erosion, either alone or in concert with
              an offshore breakwater or sill. Vegetation may be planted or allowed to colonize naturally.

         Suggested Reading List

                 Hardaway, Scott & Gary Anderson. 1980. Shoreline erosion in Virginia. Educational Series No. 31.
                 VIMS Sea Grant Advisory Service.


                 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Low cost shore protection ... a property owner's guide. Norfolk,
                 Virginia. 159 pp.
                 'U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 19  90. Chesapeake Bay shoreline erosion siudy. Feasibility report.
                 Baltimore and Norfolk Districts. 111 pp.








                                        Introduction to the Permit Application
                                                  for Wetland Board Members


                                                                Julie G. Bradshaw


                                 Objectives

                                     The purpose of this unit is to introduce wetland board members to the Joint Per-
              Length of              mit Application and explain common mistakes that are made in filling it out.
              Presentation:          Upon completion, students should be able to:
              30 min.

                                     ï¿½ Understand the application form.


                                     ï¿½ Judge whether the application form is complete and consistent.


                                     ï¿½ Discern from a completed application form what an applicant proposes to do.


                                 Materials

                                     1. 35min projector
                                     2. Screen
                                     3. Slides
                                     4. Handouts (Joint Permit Application)
                                     5. Joint Permit Application - copy for instructor to review


                                 Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                     1. Review lesson outline
                                     2. Review Joint Permit Application
                                     3. Review slides
                                     4. Practice with equipment
                                     5. Obtain copies of Joint Permit Application for participants
                                     6. Prepare for field trip, if applicable


                                 Procedure

                                     1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                     2. Announcements (explain field trip, if applicable)
                                     3. General comments (explain objective of unit)
                                     4. Distribute Joint Permit Applications







                                                                                                                   9/91






              2                                                                    Introduction to the Permit Application





                                  Lecture Notes

              Slide 1                 1. GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE APPLICATION


              Slide 2                     A. Basic application form.

              Slides 3-6                      1. 4 pages.

                                              2. General questions about project type, project location, purpose, wet-
                                              lands impacts.

              Slide 7                     B. Appendices


                                              1. 11 of them.


                                              2. One appendix for each type of structure or activity.

                                              3. Includes specific questions about project design and impacts.


                                          C. Adjacent property owner form and other forms.

              Slide 8                     D. Checklist-can use to make sure the application is complete.

                                          E. The application is the source of the information that you, as wetland board
                                          members, will use to evaluate a project and decide whether or not to grant a
                                          permit. From another perspective, once you grant a permit, the application
                                          becomes the standard by which you determine whether the applicant has
                                          complied with the permit.   In order to properly evaluate the application and
                                          monitor permits for compliance, the board should require a complete, consis-
                                          tent application.


                                      II. COMMON MISTAKES MADE IN FILLING OUT THE APPLICATION
                                       7-
                                      FORM


                                          A. Next to simply failing 0 fill in all the blanks, the most commonly made
                                          mistakes generally seem to fall into one of three categories:


                                              1. Applicants do not understand the definition of wetlands or subaqueous
                                              land or how to determine their extent on their property.

                                              2. Applicants do not understand the questions in the application, par-
                                              ticularly the ones asking for distances channelward and landward of the
                                              tidal datums (MLW, MHW). Vertical and horizontal distances are often
                                              confused.






            Introduction to the Permit Application                                                                     3




                                             3. Answers to questions and project drawings are inconsistent with each
                                             other, or drawings are inconsistent with the actual conditions onsite.


                                         B. Examples:


                                             1. Basic Application, p. 15, 0 13. Wetland alteration. Estimates of wet-
                                             land impacts are quite often incorrect and must be determined onsite.
                                             (review wetland definitions)


                                             2. Appendix C-Boat ramps.


                                                 a. # 3. How many feet channelward of MHW and MLW? (emphasize
                                                 that ies a horizontal distance)


                                                 b. 0 4. How many square feet of the ramp located on subaqueous
                                                 land, nonvegetated wetlands, vegetated wetlands? (review wetland
                                                 definitions)


                                                 c. # 9. Dimensions of proposed ramp: length=landward end to chan-
                                                 nelward end; width=distance perpendicular to length.


              Slides 9-10                    3. Appendix D-Bulkheads.


              Slide 11                           a. # 3. How many feet channelward of MHW & MLW (again, em-
                                                 phasize that this is a horizontal distance; the answer here is often in-
                                                 consistent with the drawings).

              Slide 12                           b. # 4. How many linear feet of shoreline to be bulkheaded.

                                                 c. # 5. Overall length = answer to # 4 + length of return walls.


                                             4. Appendix E-Fill.


                                                 a. 0 1. Emphasize horizontal distance.


                                                 b. # 2. Review wetlands definitions.


              Slide 13                       5. Appendix F-Riprap.


                                                 a. # 5. Emphasize horizontal distance.


                                                 b. # 6. Review wetlands definitions.


              Slides 14-15                       c. # 11&12. Explain slope.






              4                                                                       Introduction to the Permit Application




              Slide 16                         6. Appendix G-Dredging or Excavating.

                                                    a. # 2,3,4. Emphasize that #2=new, #3=maintenance, and that they
                                                    call for horizontal distances. Emphasize that #4 has to do with how
                                                    much of #2 & #3 is in wetlands. Often the amounts don't add up, or
                                                    an applicant will say in #2 or #3 that there's intertidal dredging, but
                                                    fail to put this amount in #4.


              Slide 17                              b. #6. Look at base width and top width. From this you can figure out
                                                    what side slopes the applicant expects to achieve--often they are not
                                                    realistic.


              Slide 18                         7. Appendix H--Jetties, Groins, Breakwaters.


                                                    a.  3. Emphasize horizontal distance.


                                                    b
                                                        4. Review wetlands definitions.
                                                     .


                                                    c.  7. Review definition of low-profile design (elevation of channel-
                                                    ward end of groin is no greater than that of MLW).

              Slide 19                              d.  8. Emphasize that the application is asking for distances
                                                    'landward ofthe tidal datums (i.e., how far back into the upland the
                                                    groins will be seated).

              Slide 20                              e.  9. Review definition/purpose of spur.


                                               8. Permit drawings.

              Slides 21-22                          a. Review the drawing checklist.

                                                    b. Often not consistent with information in application.


              Slide 23@                             c. Often fail to,inc ude scale.


                                                    d. Often fail to accurately depict site.


                                                    e. Often fall to have benchmarks/tiedowns--explain that these are
                                                    measurements between ends and turns in structures and permanent
                                                    reference points on the.upland. Benchmarks make it easy to deter-
                                                    mine where the structure will be placed, and provide a standard by
                                                    which permit compliance may be evaluated.

                                               9. Conclusion-restate importance of requiring consistent, complete ap-
                                               plications.






           Introduction to the Permit Application                                                              5





                               Slide List

                                     1.  Title slide
                                     2.  Cover of Joint Permit Application
                                     3.  First page of basic application form
                                     4.  Second page of basic application form
                                     5.  Third page of basic application form
                                     6.  Fourth page of basic application form
                                     7.  List of appendices
                                     8.  Applicant's checklist
                                     9.  Appendix D (bulkheads), page 1
                                    10.  Appendix D, page 2
                                    11.  Cross-section drawing of bulkhead
                                    12.  Plan view drawing of bulkhead and other activities
                                    13.  Appendix F (riprap), page I
                                    14.  Appendix F, page 2
                                    15.  Cross-section drawing of riprap
                                    16.  Appendix G (dredging), page 1
                                    17.  Appendix G, page 2
                                    18.  Appendix H (jetties, groins, breakwaters), page 1
                                    19.  Appendix H, page 2
                                    20.  Cross-section drawing of groin and jetties
                                    21.  Drawing checklist, page 1
                                    22.  Drawing checklist, page 2
                                    23.  Plan view drawing ofjetties







                                                                 HUMAN ACTIVITIES, IMPACTS AND ALTERNATIVES 
                                        


                                                                      Walter I. Priest, III


                                          Objectives  
                 Notes                    The purpose of this education module is to provide a comprehensive and consis-
                                          tent format for the review and evaluation of permit applications.
                 Length of
                 Presentation:            Upon completion, students should be able to:
                 1 hr. 15 min.
                                            Accurately characterize the nature and extent of the proposed construction ac-
                                             tivity.

                 This talk allows           Discern the purpose of the project.
                 less than one
                 minute per slide.          Describe the resources to be impacted.
                 Will have to be
                 timed very                 Identify the anticipated impacts of the proposed project on the adjacent resour-
                 closely by                  ces.
                 speaker.
                                            Analyze alternative actions to reduce the anticipated impacts.

                                           Make recommendations to reduce the impacts to an acceptable level.


                                      Materials

                                          1. 35 mm slide projector
                                          2. Screen
                                          3. Slides
                                          4. Handout materials


                                      Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                          1. Review lesson outline
                                          2. Review visua1 aids
                                          3. Review references
                                          4. Practice with audiovisual equipment


                                      Procedure

                                          1. Introduce yourself and other instructors
                                          2. Annoucements (field work etc ...)
                                          3. Explain general comments on the lesson
                                          4. Distribute handouts



                                                                                                                               9/9194q1
 





              2                                                             Human Activities, Impacts and'Alternatives




                                  Lecture Notes


                                      Permit Application Review

                                      1. PROJECT DESCRIPTION


                                      The purpose of this section is to accurately characterize the nature and extent of
                                      the proposed project so that its impacts can be accurately assessed.


              Slide I                     A- Dredging.


                                              -1. New or maintenance.


                                              2. Method (drAgline, hydraulic cutterhead, bucket and scow etc.).

                                              3.- Dimensions (length, width and depth).

              Slide 2                         4. Spoil disposal method (bermed area, overboard, beach nourishment
                                              etc.).


                                              5. Sediment characteristics.


                                              6. Specific location in project- area.


                                              7. Distance from wetlands.


                                              &  Side slope of dredgecut, 3:1 for mud or 2:1'for sand.


                                              Filling.
              Slide 3                     B.


                                              1. Fill characteristics (particle size, source etc.).


                                              2. Area offill.


                                              3. Cubic yardage.

                                              -4. -Containment method.

              Slide 4                     C.  Bulkheading.


                                              1. Length.


                                              2. Construction materials (type and dimensions).


                                              3. Filter cloth employed.






              Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives                                                                3




                                               4. Position relative to MHW or upper limit of vegetated wetlands.


                                               5. Backfill characteristics (quantity, source and composition).


                                               6. Installation method (jetted or driven).


                                               7. Type of construction (horizontal or vertical).


                                               8. Return walls.


               Slide 5                     D. Riprap.


                                               1. Iength.


                                               2. Cross-section, (height, base width and slope).

                                               3. Construction material (size; quarry stone or rubble).

                                               4. Construction method (armor stone, bedding stone, filter cloth).

               Slide 6                     E. Boat ramp.


                                               1. Dimensions.


                                               2. Construction material.


               Slide 7                     F.  Groins and jetties.


                                               1. Ungth.


                                               2. Spacing.

                                               3. Construction materials (type and dimensions).


                                               4. Design (low profile, spur, T-head).

                                               5. Adjacent shorelines with or without groins.

               Slide 8                     G. Commercial structures.


                                               1. Length or distance channelward.


                                               2. Area.


                                               3. Configuration (e.g., "If-head, "T"-head, finger piers).






            4                                                                      Human Activities,.Impacts and Alternatives




                                                 4. Construction materials (type and dimensions).


             Slide .9                       H.   Submarine pipeline.

                                                 1. Length.


                                                 2. Location.


                                                 3. Placement depth.


                                                 4. Construction method.


                                                 5. Material to be transported.


                                        II. PURPOSE


                                        A statement on the pur- pose of the proposed project is important when consider-
                                        ing alternatives to the proposal.


                                            A.   Use (public and/or private).


                                            B.   Need (public and/or private).

                                            C.   Water dependency (is: the project inherently dependent on its proximity to
                                            the Waterway or not?).


                                        Impact Assessment
                                        IIL EXTENT OF.RESOURCES INVOLVED

                                        An appraisal of the habitat types directly and indirectly involved is critical to as-
                                        sessing the impacts of the proposal. This information can be derived from a site
                                        visit, resource inventories or other sources.


                                            A_   Wetlands.


                                                 1. Tidal and/or non-tidal.


                                                 2. Vegetated and/or non-vegetated.


                                            B.   Subtidal bottom.


                                            -C. Seagrass-beds.-


                                            D.   Sand-dunes.






             Human Activities, Impacts and Alte--natives




                                          E. Shellfish beds.


                                          F. Spawning areas.


                                      IV. POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT


                                      This section involves the detailed evaluation of the potential for the proposed
                                      project to impact any number of ecological and socio-economic values. The follow-
                                      ing is not intended to be a comprehensive list of potential impacts. It is designed
                                      to cover the most frequently encountered situations and to hopefully stimulate
                                      the imagination to consider less routine circumstances.


                                          A. Navigation.

               Slide 10                       1. Channel deepening which would facilitate or increase boat traffic.


                                                  a. Increased erosion from boat wakes.


                                                  b. Increased potential for discharges.

               Slide 11                       2. Siltation.


                                                  a. Uncontained dredge spoil deposition.

                                                  b. Change in natural siltation patterns from structures or dredging.

               Slide 12                       3. Maintenance dredging ftequency.

               Slide 13                       4. New structures that hinder or impede navigation.

                                              5. Proximity of structure to project channel should he no less then 50
                                              feet.


                                          B.  Flood Plain.

               Slide 14                       2. Increase or decrease in tidal amplitude caused by changes in channel
                                              cross section.


               Slide 15                       2. Stream channelization and/or diversion.


                                              3. Effect of the project on flood heights and/or duration.

               Slide 16                       4. Removal of wetland flood buffer areas.






                                                                             Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives




                                         C.   Shoreline Erosion or Accretion.


            Slide 17                          1. Alteration of littoral currents and drift by jetties, groins, etc. and the
                                              resultant changes in scour and deposition patterns.


            'Slide 18                         2. Scouring from changes in inlet configuration.

            Slide 19                          3. Maintenance dredging required in inlets, channels, and dead-end
                                              canals caused by littoril shoaling.

            Slide 20                          4. Removal. of erosion buffering marshesby shoreline protection struc-
                                              tures.


            Slide 21                          -5. Reflectance of wave. energy by vertical structures adjacent to un-
                                              protected areas.


                                         D.   Fish and Wildlife Resources.


                                              1. Loss of wetland and subaqueous habitats will impact production.


            Slide 22
                                                 a.  Detritus production of wetlands.


            Slide 23                             b.  Forage fishes and invertebrates important to aquatic food webs.


            Slide 24                             C.  Nursery area for juvenile fishes.

            Slide, 125                           d.  Commercially important finfish. and 'shelffish.

            Slides 26,27                             Feeding, -nesting and resting areas forWaterfowl, shorebirds and -
                                                 wading birds.


            Slide 28                          2. Turbidity increases.from dredging impact resources through
                                              decreased light penetration and stress onfilter feeders.


            Slide 29                          3. Repopulation of dredged areas upon completion can be expected
                                              within one or two years depending on new water depths, -substrate and
                                              food availability.

            siidt`@O                          4. Spawning areas for anadronious fishes can be adversely impacted by
                                              increased turbidity, loss of habitat and impoundments.

            Slides 31, 32                     5. Rare -or-endangered species have very specific habitat requirements
                                              with little tolerance for modification or disturbance.






             Human Activities, Hmpacts and Altex@natives                                                             7




                                         R Water Quality.


              :91k@g 33                         Dredging.


                                                 a. Degree and duration of turbidity increases are generally greater
                                                 with decreasing size of the waterway.


                                                 b. Increase in biochemical oxygen demand from the resuspension of
                                                 organic sediments.


                                                 c. Effects of resuspension of sediments containing pesticides and
                                                 heavy metals.


              Slide 34                       2. Increase in coliform bacteria levels due to ineffective sewage disposal
                                             including failing septic systems, boats and sewage treatment plants.

              Slide 35                       3. Non-point source inputs of nutrients, sediment and other pollutants
                                             from upland runoff.


              Slide 36                       4. Effects of the removal of marshes on nutrient cycling within the water
                                             body.


                                                 a. Remineralization - conversion of nutrients from organic particulate
                                                 to more available dissolved forms.


                                                 b. Role as a nutrient sink which can absorb pulses and release more
                                                 slowly.


              Slide 37                       5. Dead-end canals.


                                                 a. Poor flushing.


                                                 b. Organic material accumulation.


                                                 c. Nutrient accumulation.


                                                 d. Algal blooms.


                                                 e. Low dissolved oxygen.


              Slide 38                           f. Fish kills.


              Slide 39                       6. Virginia Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit required -
                                             might cause additional degradation.





             8                                                             Human Activities, 'Impacts and Alternatives



             Slides.40,41                    7. Increased potential for spills of petroleum products or other hazardous
                                             materials.


                                         F.  Aesthetics.


             Slide 42                        1. Replacement or removal of dilapidated or derelict structures.-

             Slide 43                        2. Removing or covering of solid fill and rubbish fill areas with topsoil
                                             and seeding.


             Slide 44                        3. Changes in pristine attributes.

                                             4. Unnecessary structures detracting from the natural beauty of the area.

                                         G.  Archaeological and Historical Sites.


             Slide 45                        1. State Historic Preservation Office.


             Slide 46                        2. Virginia Historic Landmarks.


                                             3. National Register'of Historical Properties..


                                         H.  Recreation.


             Slide 47                        1. Enhancement of existing recreational facilities such as improved ac-
                                             cess to waterways.

             Slide 48                        2. Degradation of existing recreational facilities such as restriction* of ac-
                                             cess to waterway.


             Slide 49                        3. Creation of new recreational opportunities.

                                             4. Benefits primarily public or. primarily private.


                                         1.-@Socioeconomics.,


             Slide 50                        1. Local tax base - real estate development.

             Slide 51                        2.. Employment and/or payrolls.


             Slides 52, 53                   3. Government services.

             Slide. 54                           a. Transportaiion.


                                                 b. Schools.








                                
              Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives                                                                      9




                                                 C. Utilities.


                                                 d. Police and firefighting services.

              Slide 55                       4. Foreign and domestic water-borne commerce.


              Slide 56                        5. Commercial fisheries.


              Slide 57                        6. Satellite industries.


              Slide 58                        7. Local zoning and land use plans that control urban growth.


                                              8. Economic effect on applicant (e.g. increased business).

              Slide 59                       9. Externalization of business costs by filling wetlands or discharging
                                             wastewater into river.


                                         J. Water Supply.

              Slide 60                       1. Effects on the quantity and quality of any public or private water
                                             supply.


                                             2. Impacts of impoundments on wetlands and fisheries.


                                                 a. Changes in salinity regime (e.g., reduced freshwater inflow that
                                                 could cause changes in vegetation patterns or fish utilization).

                                                 b. Prevent access to spawning areas.

              Slide 61                       3. Effects on groundwater and aquifers caused by water-intensive in-
                                                dustries that hasten saltwater intrusion and lower groundwater levels.

                                     V. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES


                                     This portion of the process involves malting the determination of which impacts
                                     appear to be avoidable and which appear unavoidable. Ht also includes the
                                     development of reasonable means to reduce the impacts of the proposal and rees-
                                     tablish the values lost when possible.


                                         A. Avoidance of wetlands and subtidal areas.


              Slide 62                       1. Alternative locations.


                                             2. Alternative methods or time periods for construction.

              Slide 63                           a. Access to site.
 





              10                                                              Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives




              .Slide 64                            b. Time-of-year restrictions.


              Slides 65-69                         C. Best Management Practices (BMP's).


                                               3. Alternative means of achieving stated.purpose.


                                           B. Reduction in scope to minimize impacts.

                                               1. Use of reviously disturbed areas that minimize pr *ect impacts to
                                                         p                                             oJ
                                               healthy habitats.


              Slide 70                         2. Use of areas of lesser ecological significance where justified to avoid
                                               impacting the more ecologically important habitats.


              Slide 71                     C.  Restoration of damaged areas.

              Slide 72                     'D.. Compensation for unavoidable losses.


                                       VI. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS


              Slide 73                 This is where the.w6ighing of the public and private benefits versus detriments,
                                       and where the formulation, of recommendations to ensure that the benefits out-
                                       weigh'the detriments, occur.


                                           A-  Any extenuating circumstances or any other relevant information either
                                           pro or con not mentioned in the above paragraphs that might affect recom-
                                           mendation.s.


                                           B. Recommendations for additions, deletions or modifications in the proposal
                                           including any reasonable alternatives necessary to make the project environ-
                                           mentally acceptable.-


                                   References

                                       Clark, J.R. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Considerations for Management
                                       of the Coastal Zone. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C@ 178 pp.


                                       Daiber, F.C. 1986. Conservation of Tidal Marshes. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
                                       Inc., New York, NY. 341 pp.'


                                       Mulvihill, E.L., C.A_ Fransico, J.B. Glad, KB. Kaster, and R.E. Wilson. 1980.
                                       Biological impacts of minor shoreline structures on the coastal environment:
                                       state of the art review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Pro-
                                       gram. FWS/OBS-77/51.2 vol.






            Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives




                                Slide List

                                      1.  Dredge
                                      2.  Disposalarea
                                      3.  Fill in wetlands
                                      4.  Bulkhead construction
                                      5.  Riprap construction
                                      6.  Boat ramp
                                      7.  Groin with spur
                                      8.  Commercial pier
                                      9.  Pipeline crossing
                                      10. Tangier Island harbor aerial
                                      11. Overboard disposal area
                                      12. Channel across sand shoal
                                      13. Norshipco drydock
                                      14. Cabin Point Creek Inlet
                                      15. Flood hydrograph
                                      16. Flood plain marsh
                                      17. Buckroe Beach groins
                                      18. Wave overtopping groin
                                      19. Salt Ponds inlet
                                      20. Filled fringe marsh
                                      21. Yorktown Beach
                                      22. Detritus debris
                                      23. Goose Creek fishes
                                      24. Beach haul seine
                                      25. Oyster baskets
                                      26. Egret
                                      27. Willet nest
                                      28. SAV bed
                                      29. Bucket dredge
                                      30. Striped bass
                                      31. Egret rookery
                                      32. Skimmer nest
                                      33. Soloman dredge
                                      34. Scummy water
                                      35. Papermill Creek
                                      36. Filled fringe marsh
                                      37. Chickahominy Haven
                                      38. Fish kill






            12                                                           Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives




                                     39.   Wastewater treatment plant
                                     40.   Oil spill
                                     41.   Toxic spill
                                     42.   Sunken menhaden boat

                                     43.   Urban waterfront
                                     44.   Halstead property - Back Bay.
                                     45.   Jamestown aerial
                                     46.   Fort Monroe aerial
                                     47.   Fisherman in boat

                                           Sailboat
                                     49.   Duckblind
                                     50.   Sarfan Canal
                                     51.   Lonestar
                                     52.   New house
                                     53.   Fire hydrant
                                     54.   Road construction.
                                     55.   Dominion terminals
                                     56.   Pound net fishermen
                                     57.   Miles Oyster Co.
                                     58.   Hampton River
                                     59.   Discharge pipe
                                     60.   Stumpy Lake Spillway
                                     61.   Perdue
                                     62..  Bulkhead landward of marsh
                                     63.   Scotts Creek Marina
                                     64.   Turbidity curtain
                                     65.   Boat'lift
                                     66.   Dry stack storage
                                     67.   Riprap rather than bulkhead
                                     68.   Gapped breakwaters
                                     69.   14nestar
                                     70.   High marsh vs. low marsh
                                     71.   Monkey Bottom
                                     72.   Goose Creek
                                     73.   Closing






                        Human Activities, Impacts and Alternatives Handout


           1. PROJECT DESCRIPTION                                       B. Flood plain

               A- Dredging                                              C. Shoreline erosion and accretion

               B. Filling                                               D. Fish and wildlife resources

               C. Bulkheading                                           E. Water quality

               D. Riprap                                                F. Aesthetics

               E. Boat ramp                                             G. Archaeological and historical sites

               F. Submarine pipeline                                    H. Recreation

               G. Groins and jetties                                    1. Socioeconomics

               H. Commercial structures                                 J. Water supply


           11. PURPOSE OF PROJECT                                   V. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES


               A. Use                                                   A. Avoidance of wetlands and subtidal areas


               B. Need                                                  B. Reduction in scope to minimize impacts


               C. Water dependency                                      C. Use of previously impacted areas

           111. EXTENT OF RESOURCES INVOLVED                            D. Use of areas of lesser ecological significance

               A- Wetlands                                              E. Restoration of damaged areas


               B. Subtidal bottom                                       F. Compensation for unavoidable losses

               C. Seagrass beds                                         G. Alternative locations

               D. Sand dunes                                            H. Alternative methods of construction

               E. Shellfish beds                                        I. Alternative means of achieving stated purpose

               F. Spawning areas                                    VI. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

           IV. POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE                                 A. Extenuating circumstances
           PROPOSED PROJECT
                                                                        B. Modifications and conditions
               A. Navigation

                                                                                                    College offilliam and Mary
                                                                                 01.                Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                    School ofMarine Science
                                                                                             OQrOM  GloucesterPoint, Virginia 23062









                                              The Role of the Wetlands Board


                                                                 Lyle M. Vamell

             Notes              Objectives

             Length of               The purpose of this module is to explain the basic foundation and functions of the
             Presentation:           Wetlands Board within the joint permit process. This entails explanations of (1)
             25 min.                 how and why the Wetlands Bokrd was formed, (2) the functions of the Wetlands
                                     Board as compared to other permit-granting bodies (the VMRC and the Corps of
                                     Engineers), and (3) its function as a decision-maker at the local level.


                                Materials

                                     1. 35 mm slide projector
                                     2. Screen
                                     3. Slides
                                     4. Handouts


                                Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                     1. Review outline
                                     2. Review and choose visual aids
                                     3. Prepare handouts (if any)
                                     4. Review references (VIMS Technical Report 91-2)
                                     5. Ensure that equipment is in good working order


                                Procedure

                                     1. Introduce yourself and others as required
                                     2. Announcements
                                        a. Will take questions at end of talk or as we go along
                                        b. With limited time this can be only a limited overview


                                Lectum Notes

                                     I will explain to you today your role in the Joint Permit Application Process AND
                                     your role as a decision-maker towards applications.











                                                                                                                  9/91






            2                                                                            The Role of the Wetlands Board





            Slide 1                  1. MANDATE: CODE OF VIRGINIA


            Slide 2- Urge                A. Chapter 2. 1 of the Code of Virginia (sections 62.1-13. 1 to 62.1-13.20)
            audience to                  declares wetlands policy and defines the management of jurisdictional wet-
            become familiar              lands.
            with these
            chapters of the              B. Chapter 2.2 of the Code of Virginia (sections 62-1-13.21 to 62.143.28)
            Virginia Code                declares coastal primary sand dune policy and defines the management of
                                         dunes and beaches.


            Slide 3                  11. WETLANDS AND DUNES ORDINANCE


                                         A. Your local government (county board of supervisors 'or city council)
                                         adopted the Wetlands Zoning Ordinance and/or the Coastal Primary Sand
                                         Dune Zoning Ordinance prior to the formation of this board.


                                         B. Municipalities which have not adopted the Wetlands Zoning Ordinance or
                                         the Coastal Primary Sand Dune Zoning Ordinance have the VMRC act as
                                         their Wetlands Board.


                                         C. These ordinances give you, the Wetlands Board, the authority to regulate
                                         the-use and development of your municipality's wetlands, dunes and beaches
                                         within the guidelines set forth by law.

            Slide 4A                 III. ORDINANCE SUMMARIES: PERMISSIBLE USES


                                         A- The Wetlands Zoning Ordinance defines jurisdiction, outlines the permit
                                         process and operational procedures for the Wetlands Board, and outlines per-
                                         missible uses of wetlands. These uses are summarized below:


                                             1. Construction and maintenance Of noncommercial structures supported
                                             by pilings.


                                             2. Cultivation and harvesting of shellfish and bait worms.


                                             3. Noncommercial recreational activities provided no structures are re-
                                             quired beyond those which are permissible under (1) above.

                                             4. Cultivation and harvesting of agricultural, forestry or horticultural
                                             products; grazing and haying.


                                             @5. Conservation, repletion and research activities.


                                             6. Government authorized navigation aids.







            The Role of the Wetlands Board                                                                       3




                                            7. Emergency decrees for protection of public health.


                                            8. Normal maintenance, repair or addition to existing wetland crossings
                                            provided no waterway is altered and no additional wetlands are covered.


                                            9. Governmental activity on wetlands owned or leased by the Common-
                                            wealth.


                                            10. Normal maintenance of drainage ditches provided no additional wet-
                                            lands are covered.


                                            11. Outdoor recreational activities which do not impair the functions of or
                                            alter the contour of wetlands.


             Slide 4B                   B. The Coastal Primary Sand Dune Zoning Ordinance defines jurisdiction,
                                        outlines the permit process and operational procedures for the Wetlands
                                        Board, and outlines permissible uses of dunes and beaches. These are sum-
                                        marized below:


                                            1. Construction and maintenance of noncommercial walkways and/or ob-
                                            servation platforms which do not alter the dune contour.


                                            2. Plantings of vegetation or placement of sand fences for the purpose of
                                            dune stabilization.


                                            3. Sand replenishment activities provided no sand is removed from the
                                            coastal primary sand dune.


                                            4. Normal maintenance of erosion control structures which may abut a
                                            coastal primary sand dune.

                                            5. Normal maintenance or repair of existing roads or railroads provided
                                            no primary dunes are altered.


                                            6. Recreational activities provided the primary dune and/or its vegetation
                                            is not altered.


                                            7. Conservation and research activities of state governmental agencies or
                                            institutions.


                                            8. Construction and maintenance of governmental authorized navigation
                                            aids.






            4                                                                       The Role of the Wetlands Board





                                    IV. APPOINTMENT OF BOARD MEMBERS


                                        A- Any municipality which adopts the Wetlands Zoning Ordinance must also
                                        create a Wetlands Board.


                                        B. TheWetlands Board shall consist of either 5 or 7 residents of the respec-
                                        tive municipality.

                                        C. The Wetlands Board is appointed by the same governing body which
                                        -adopted the Wetlands Zoning Ordinance..

                                        D. Excepting initial terms of office, each member shall serve a five year term.

                                        E. Members may serve successive terms.

                                    V_ MUNICIPAL JURISDICTION: CITIES AND TOWNS


                                        A. Cities or towns within counties, which have adopted the Wetlands Zoning
                                        Ordinance have-one (1) calendar year, from the county's' adoption date to
                                        adopt the Wetlands Zoning Ordinance (if they desire to manage their wet-
                                        -lands separately).

                                        B. If cities or towns within the county do not adopt the Wetlands Zoning Or-
                                        dinance- within the allotted. time, the county's Wetlands Board automatically
                                        retains jurisdiction of wetlands within the town's boundaries.


                                    VI. OFFICERS


                                        A. Each Wetlands Boardwill elect, from its membership, a chairman.


                                        B. Other officers may be elected if deemed necessary, such as a vice-chair-
                                        roan who serves as chairman in his/her absence.


                                        C. Each elected -officer' s term will be one (1) year.

                                        D. Officers may serve successive terms.

                                   _VII. PERMIT REVIEW

                                        A. This Wetlands Board Was formed for the management of use of Virginia!s -
                                        tidal wetlands.


                                        B. Management is achieved through a permit process. Any activity which
                                        encroaches upon or over jurisdictional wetlands (with few exceptions as out-
                                        lined previously) -requires a permit from the Wetlands Board, the United







             The Role of the Wetlands Board                                                                             5




                                          States Army Corps of Engineers, and in come cases the Virginia State Water
                                          Control Board.


                                          C. Each party requesting use of Virginia's jurisdictional wetlands must apply
                                          for a permit directly to the Wetlands Board or through the VMRC.


              Slide 5                     D. The JOINT PERMIT APPLICATION was created to streamline the per-
                                          mit process. This permit application package is the document from which all
                                          project requests are reviewed by the Wetlands Board, the VMRC, VIMS, Vir-
                                          ginia State Water Control Board, Virginia Department of Conservation & His-
                                          toric Resources, Virginia Department of Transportation, adjacent property
                                          owners and other claimants such as oyster ground leaseholders.

              Slide 6                     E. The United States Environmental Protection Agency, United States Fish
                                          & Wildlife Service, and the United States Department of Commerce National
              Discuss Flow                Marine Fisheries Service review the application for the permi 't required from
              Chart                       the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The permit process is outlined
                                          in the accompanying flow chart.


                                      VIII. DECISION-MAKING


                                          A- Your primary role is to review the application and determine whether the
              Slide 7                     benefits outweigh the detriments, or whether the detriments outweigh the
                                          benefits.


                                          B. You are NOT alone in this determination. You have several avenues of in-
                                          formation to help you weigh your decision.

                                              1. The Application. Review the application carefully. A wealth of infor-
              Slide 8                         mation is included in an accurately completed application. Inaccuracies
                                              should be addressed.


                                              2. Site Visit. Essentially, a "picture" is worth a thousand words. A site
              Slide 9                         visit is a necessary step in order to accurately assess the situation upon
                                              which you will be making a decision.

              Slide 10                        3. Public Comment. This will bring to light socio-economic benefits
                                              and/or detriments from the persons who may be affe   cted.

              Slide 11                        4. VIM Evaluation. We report on each application filed. VIMS wet-
                                              lands staff (we) provide you with an accurate and unbiased evaluation of
                                              the environmental impacts of the proposed project. We enumerate
                                              specific impacts and comment on potential secondary impacts and other
                                              environmental concerns.






              6                                                                         The Role of the Wetlands Board




              Slide 12                       5. VIMS Published Literature. The Virginia Wetlands Report (publish-
              Slide 13                       ed periodically), a monthly Technical Report Series addressing wetlands
              Slide 14                       issues, and a special series on wetlands flora are published by the VIMS
                                             Wetlands Program. These are intended to educate you on the importance
                                             of wetlands and their basic functions and values.


              Slide 15                       6. VIMS Wetlands Staff. We are available to answer questions as well
                                             as perform selected duties in support of the boards.


                                         C. If the benefits outweigh the detriments, then approval of the project as
                                         proposed may be in order.

                                         D. If detriments outweigh benefits, you have several options:


                                             1. Deny project;


                                             2. Require the project be modified; or

                                             '3. Require mitigation (this should always be your LAST option).


                                     IX VMRC REVIEW OF WETLANDS BOARD DECISIONS


                                         A. The VMRC has the authority to review Wetlands Board decisions as out-
                                         lined insection 62.1-13.11 of the Virginia Code.

                                         B. As stated, the VMRC SHALL review a decision if-

                                             1. An appeal is taken to, the VMRC by the applicant or municipality;

                                             2. The Commissioner of the VMRC requests to review a decision, or;


                                             3. 25 or more property holders from the municipality of the proposed
                                             project petition the VMRC. Requests for revi 'ew must be made within ten
                                             (10) days of the decision by the Wetlands Board.


                                         C. The VMRC may modify, remand or reverse Wetlands Board's decisions if
                                         they deem necessary upon review. This authority is granted them in section
                                         62.1-13.13 of the Virginia Code.


                                         D. Judicial review, if necessary, may be pursued after review by the VMRC.


                                 References

                                     Laws of Virginia Relating to the Marine Resources of the Commonwealth, 1989
                                     Edition and 1990 Supplement.






            The Role of the Wetlands Board                                                                      7





                                Slide List

                                      1.  Code book cover
                                      2.  Code Chapter 2.1 & Table of Contents
                                      3.  Wetlands Ordinance
                                     4A   Permissible uses of wetlands not requiring a permit
                                     4B.  Permissible uses of dunes not requiring a permit
                                      5.  Cover of Permit Application packet
                                      6.  Permit process flow chart
                                      7.  Weighing scale: benefits vs. detriments
                                      8.  Sample application drawing
                                      9.  Project site photograph
                                     10.  Photograph of a public hearing
                                     11.  VIMS report
                                     12.  Virginia Wetlands Report cover
                                     13.  Technical Report cover (91-2)
                                     14.  Wetlands Flora cover
                                     15.  Member of staff shown on-site









                                                The Role of the Wetlands Board Handout

                                                Virginia's Shoreline Permit Process





                                                                                    VIMS                 Local Staff


                                                             Wetlands               0 DAYS                  Public            30 DAYS        DECISION*
                                                               Board               Site Visit              Hearing






                  Completed                                                 VMRC-VIMS
                 Joint Permit                      VMRC                       Site Visit                     Public                          DECISION
              Application Form                                                                               Hearing          SEAS
                                                                                                                              COE
                                                                                                                              VMRC
                                                                                                              STATE           VIMS
                                                                                                                              WCB
                                                                                                                              VDGIF
                                                            COZ7                              Public        45 DAYS
                                                                  s         15 DAYS     P Notice &                            Joint           DECISION
                                                                                            Site Visit                    Processing
                      KEY                                                                                                  Meeting

                                                                                                                          ---------------
                      VDGIF     Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries                                              Corps
                      VMRC      Virginia Marine Resources Commission                                      FEDERAL             EPA
                      VIMS      Virginia Institute of Marine Science                                                     <    FWS
                      WCB       Water Control Board                                                                           NMFS
                      SEAS      Shoreline Erosion Advisory Service
                      COE       Council on the Environment
                      EPA       Environmental Protection Agency
                      FWS       Fish and Wildlife Service
                      NMFS      National Marine Fisheries Service
                      Corps     Corps of Engineers
                      *VMRC Review of Wetlands Board Decision


                            * appeal by applicant or municipality
                                                                                      '%%'..@@STATE




                            * at request of Commissioner of Marine Resources
                            * petition by 25 or more property owners from the municipality of the
                               proposed project                                                                                College of William and Mary
                                                                                                                               Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                               School ofMarine Science
                      VMRC May Modify, Reverse or Remand the Wetlands Board Decision                                           Gloucester Point Virginia 23062
                      Judicial Review








                                      Wetlzmda Rem-rd Operational Procedures


                                                                 Mrk J. Havens


                                 objectives

                                      The purpose of this unit is to familarize students with the proper procedure for a
                                      wetlands board public meeting.
             Length of
             Presentation:            Upon completion, students should be able to explain and use the following terms
             20 min.                  or procedures:


                                      ï¿½Quorum
                                      ï¿½Virginia's policy concerning wetlands
                                      ï¿½Public testimony
                                      ï¿½Public and private benefits vs. detriments
                                      ï¿½Closing hearing to public comment
                                      ï¿½Bond or letter of credit
                                      ï¿½Denial without prejudice
                                      ï¿½Appeal process


                                 Materl*als

                                      1. 35 mm. slide projector
                                      2. Movie screen
                                      3. Slides
                                      4. Handouts


                                 Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                      1. Review lesson outline
                                      2. Review visual aids
                                      3. Review reference material (VIMS Technical Report 91-2, Coastal Resources
                                      and the Permit Process: Definitions and Jurisdictions)
                                      4. Practice with equipment: slide projector


                                 Procedure

                                      1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                      2. Announcements (other workshops, etc.)
                                      3. Explain general comments on lesson, eg. limitations - this module is a general
                                      procedural format and any procedure adopted by the board should first be
                                      reviewed by its city or county attorney
                                      4. Distribute handouts




                                                                                                                  9/91





            2                                                                  Wetlands Board Operational Procedures




                                 Lecture Notes

                                     1. INTRODUCTION


                                         In order for a meeting to function properly and efficiently, it is necessary to
                                         follow procedural guidelines. Following such guidelines will allow the meet-
                                         ing to proceed quickly and avoid unnecessary delays or confusion.


                                     11. PRIOR TO MEETING/HEARING


                                         A. The board members and staff should review basic materials. This may in-
            Slide 1                      clude the Virginia State Wetlands Act (Section 62. 1, Chapter 2. 1), Coastal
                                         Primary Sand Dune Protection Act (Section 62.1, Chapter 2.2), the Virginia
                                         Marine Resources Commission guidelines, and appropriate VIMS Technical
                                         Reports found in the Virginia Wetlands Management Handbook.

                                         B. The board members and staff should study all applications, and VIMS
                                         reports. If needed, questions may be raised, tentative evaluations, motions,
                                         conditions, and time limits developed.


                                         C. On the day of the meeting/hearing, staff telephones a reminder to board
            Slide 2                      members, confirmis the availability of the meeting chamber, checks that
                                         lights and speakers are on, sets out name plates; pads and pencils; brings ap-
                                         propriate area maps, State and local laws; photographs of sites, posts agen-
                                         das for the public.


                                     III. HOLDING THE MEETINGS/HEARINGS


                                         A. Preliminary.


                                             1. Chairman calls meeting to order.
            Slide, 3
                                             2. Chairman or staff takes visual attendance and confirms a quorum.


                                                 a. A quorum is four members of a seven member board present or
                                                 three members'of a five member board present. If a quorum is not
                                                 present, the board should adjourn until a quorum can be established.

                                             3. Chairman explains the purpose of the meeting. Reads opening state-
                                             ment.


                                                 a. Sample opening statement- The                wetlands board is now
                                                 in session. (Gavel) Let the record show that - members of the
                                                 board are present. This (does/does not) constitute a quorum. Before






             Wetlands Board Operational Procedures                                                                             3




                                                    we begin the hearing, I will read excerpts from the code of Virginia to
                                                    let everyone in the room know what it is that we are trying to do. We
                                                    are carrying out the Policy of the Commonwealth as stated in Title
                                                    62.1:


                                                        "En order to protect. the public interest, promote the public health,
                                                        safety and economic and general welfare of the Commonwealth,
                                                        and to protect public and private property, wildlife, marine
                                                        fisheries, and natural environment, it is declared to be the public
                                                        policy of this Commonwealth to preserve the wetlands, reaches,
                                                        and primary coastal sand dunes; to prevent their despoliation
                                                        and destruction; and to accommodate necessary economic develop-
                                                        ment in a manner consistent with their preservation."


                                                    We will be guided by this policy as well as by the legal standards and
                                                    the VMRC guidelines. That is the rather difficult task we will try to
                                                    accomplish in this hearing.


                                                    Now let me explain the procedure for each hearing item. To begin,
                                                    we will discuss the project requested. We will then read the recom-
                                                    mendation by VIMS. If the person who has made the request or that
                                                    person's agent is here, I will ask him or her to speak. If there are
                                                    others in the room who want to comment, it will be their turn next.
                                                    After that, the board will make its decision. When you come to the
                                                    podium please state your name and address for the record. Try to be
                                                    brief so that all parties can be equally heard.

                                                    Finally, the applicant will receive a memo advising him of the action
                                                    taken. Unless appealed, board approval will result in a permit
                                                    within 14 days. If the request is denied, the applicant may appeal to
                                                    the VMRC within 10 days from today.

                                                4. Chairman states where agendas are posted for the public.

                                                5. Chairman calls for comments, questions, corrections on the minutes.

                                                6. Chairman inquires about old business.


                                            B.  Hearing Items

              Slide 4                           1. Chairman may shift the hearing order, administer oaths, limit presen-
                                                tations, and discussions. If a time limit is set, it should be stated before
                                                anyone in the audience speaks. You should not halfway through a hear-
                                                ing decide that people are taking too long and impose a time limit on the
                                                remaining speakers. Everyone should be afforded the same opportunity
                                                to express their concerns.





            4                                                                 Wetlands Board Operational Procedures




                                             2. Chairman or staff state case number and present a brief description of
                                             the proposed project.

                                             3. Chairman or staff read VIMS comments-into the record if supplied.


                                             4. Chairman requests the applicant or designated representative to come
              Slide@-5                       forward to the podium, to state name and mailing address with ZIP, and
                                             to give any additional testimony or answer questions as required by the
                                             board.


                                                  NOTE* any material submitted to the board at the public
                                                hearing must be kept by the board.- It is good policy to state this
                                                early so that people who have aerial photos, etc., realize that they
                                                must be kept by the board as part of the public record of the hearing.

                                             5. Chairman asks if anyone else wishes to speak on behalf of the applica-
                                             tion; anyone opposed. Chairman asks one more time for anyone else who
                                             wishes to speak either in opposition or support of the application.

            Slid@ 6                          6. Chairman closes hearing to the public.


                                             7. Chairman asks for comments from the board members. The Record
                                             should display a consideration of social, economic, physical, and environ-
                                             mental impacts as they relate to the policies and standards contained in
                                             the Wetlands and/or Sand Dune Acts. A benefits vs. detriments con-
                                             clusion format is helpful.

             Slide 7                         8. Chairman asks for an evaluation and recommendation from the staff.


                                             9. Chairman asks for any additional comments from VIMS (if present).

                                             10. The Chairman will entertain a motion on the question or ask, "What
                                             is your pleasure?" Motions may include the following:


                                                a. Approval as submitted:


            Slide 8                             b. Approval in a modified form with stated conditions/time limits
                                                (either at the request of the applicant or board members).

                                                c. Approval with bonding or letter*of credit required (money required
                                                of applicant by the board and placed in an account to ensure com-
                                                pliance with permit requirements).


                                                d. Denial.






             Wetlands Board Operational Procedures




                                                   e. Denial without prejudice (to deny the specific permit but allow the
                                                   applicant to submit a new application to accomplish the same pur-
                                                   pose but in a different manner).


                                                   f. Direct the applicant to provide more information prior to final ac-
                                                   tion.


                                                   g. Defer a decision for up to 30 days. Caution: If a decision is not
                                                   made within 30 days, the permit is automatically approved as sub-
                                                   mitted. The applicant may request a deferral removing the 30 day
                                                   limit.


                                               11. The motion is seconded and chairman calls for voice or roll call vote.


                                               12. Chairman, as appropriate, informs applicant & VMRC he or she will
              Slide 9                          be notified in writing 48 hours after the decision; 10 days to appeal;
                                               description of the appeal process; receive permit in mail; permit dated 14
                                               days from approval date; need to apply for any changes including exten-
                                               sion of time.


                                               13. Chairman or board staff fills out Wetlands Board Modification Sheet.


                                       HV. OTHER THAN HEARING ITEMS


                                               1. Chairman calls for other new business, violations.

                                               2. Asks for comments, communications, letters from members.

                                               3. Asks for comments, questions, introductions in audience.

                                               4. Announces future meetings, conferences.

              Slide 110                V. HELPFUL HINTS


                                   References

                                           Virginia Wetlands Act, Section 62. 1, Chapter 2. 1, Code of Virginia.

                                           Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act, Section 62. 1, Chapter 2.2, Code
                                           of Virginia.


                                           Virginia Institute of Marine Science Technical Report Series. 1990-1991. Wet-
                                           lands Program. Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), Gloucester Pt.,
                                           VA.





          6                                                             Wetlands Board Operational Procedures




                                     Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1982. Wetland Guidelines.
                                     Prepared by the Department of Wetlands Ecology, Virginia Institute of
                                     Marine Science, printed by VMRC, Newport News, VA. 57 pp.


                                     Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1986. Coastal Primary
                                     Sand Dunes/Reaches Guidelines. VMRC, Newport News, VA. 57 pp.


                                     Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1990. Criteria for the Siting
                                     of Marinas or Community Facilities for Boat Mooring. VMRC, Newport
                                     News, VA. 8 pp.






           Wetlands Board Operational Procedures                                                                 7




                               Slide List

                                     1.   List of review readings
                                     2.   Prior to meeting
                                     3.   Holding public hearing
                                     4.   Hearing items
                                     5.   Hearing items - continued
                                     6.   Hearing items - continued
                                     7.   Board decision

                                     8.   Motions

                                     9.   After board decision
                                     10.  Helpful hints






                Wetlands Board Operational Procedures Handout No. I





                   1. Meeting called to order
                   2. Attendance recorded, quorum confirmed
                   3. Chair explains purpose of meeting, reads opening statement*
                   4. Chair states where agendas are posted
                   5. Chair calls for comments, questions, corrections on minutes
                   6. Chair inquires about old business


                   *Many boards choose to read the policy statement at the beginning of the Wetlands Act


            Hearing Items

                   1. Chair may shift hearing order, administer oaths, limit presentations and discussions
                   2. Chair or staff state case number and present brief description of proposed project
                   3. Chair or staff read VIMS report into record
                   4. Applicant or representative speaks
                   5. Others speak
                   6. Chair closes bearing to public


            Board Discussion


                   1. Chair asks for comments from Board members
                   2. Record should display a consideration of.
                           a. Social concerns

                           b. Economic concerns
                           c. Physical concerns

                           d. Environmental concerns

                   3. Chair asks for staff evaluation/recommendation
                   4. Chair asks if any additional comments from VIMS
                   5. Chair entertains motion


                   A benefits vs. detriments format is recommended






                                                                                              College offilliam and Mary
                                                                                              Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                              School ofMarine Science
                                                                                              GloucesterPoint; Virginia 23062







     Wetlands Board Operational Procedures Handout No. 1                   2




     Motions May Include

          1. Approval as submitted
          2. Approval in modified form
          3. Approval with bonding or letter of credit required

          4. Denial
          5. Denial without prejudice
          6. Direct applicant to provide more information
          7. Defer decision for up to 30 days


     After Board Decision


          1. Chair informs applicant and audience of appeal process
          2. Time limit on permit


     Glossary

          Quorum  ... . . . . . . . . . .a quorum is obtained when there are 3 members of a 5 member
                                 board or 4 members of a 7 member board present.


          Bond or Letter of Credit money required of applicant by the board and placed in an
                                 account to ensure compliance with permit requirements.

     Suggested Reading List

          Virginia Wetlands Act, Section 62. 1, Chapter 2. 1, Code of Virginia.


          Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act, Section 62. Chapter 2.2, Code of Virginia.


          Virginia Institute of Marine Science Technical Report Series. 1990-1991. Wetlands Program.
          Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), Gloucester Pt., VA.


          Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1982. Wetland Guidelines. Prepared by the
          Department of Wetlands Ecology, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, printed by VMRC, Newport
          News, VA. 57 pp.


          Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1986. Coastal Primary Sand Dunes/Reaches
          Guidelines. VMRC, Newport News, VA. 57 pp.


          Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1990. Criteria for the Siting of Marinas or
          Community Facilities for Boat Mooring. VMRC, Newport News, VA. 8 pp.






                        Wetlands Board Operational Proeedures Handout No. 2





                 Just Prior to Meeting Staff Should:


                            1. Telephone reminder to Board Members


                            2. Confirm availability of meeting chamber


                            3. Check lights and speakers


                            4. Set out name plates, pads, and pencils


                            5. Bring appropriate area maps


                            6. Bring state and local laws


                            7. Bring photographs of site


                            S. Post agendas for public





                                                                                                                                                         Prog M


                                                                                                                                     College offilliam and Mary
                                                                                                                                     Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                     School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                     Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062






                        Wetlands Board Operational Procedures Handout No. 3





                 Helpful Hints-0


                            1. Require speaker from public to approach
                                       Board, state name/address, speak, return to
                                       audience


                            9,. Limit speakers to issues germane to
                                       Wetlands Board


                            3. Allow everyone an opportunity to speak

                            4. Direct all public comment or questions to
                                       Board


                            5.         Di'scourageinteractilon between audience
                                       and speaker


                            6.         State decision rationale in benefit vs.
                                       detriment format






                                                                                                                                                         Program


                                                                                                                                     College ofWilliam and Mary
                                                                                                                                     Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                     School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                     Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062









                                                    Guide to Wetlands Board
                                                         Modification Sheet


                                                               Pamela A. Mason


              Notes              Objectives
              Length of              The purpose of this unit is to review the purpose and correct use of the wetlands
                                     board modification sheets.
              Presentation:
              10-15 min.             Upon completion, students should be able to properly fill out a board modification
                                     sheet for various projects.


                                 Materials

                                     1. 35 mm projector
                                     2. Movie screen
                                     3. Slides
                                     4. Handouts


                                 Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                     1. Review lesson outline
                                     2. Review visual aids
                                     3. Practice


                                 Procedure

                                     1. Introduce yourself and others as appropriate
                                     2. Announce any special information
                                     3. Distribute handouts



                                 Lecture Notes

                                     1. WHAT IS A MODIFICATION SHEET


                                         A- It is generated by the VIMS Wetlands Program database. It has two iden-
                                         tical columms listing shoreline activities and wetlands types. The first
                                         column is filled in with the applicable information from the proposed project
                                         in the permit application. The second column is used to record the shoreline
                                         activity and its impacts permitted by the Wetlands Board.







                                                                                                                 9/91






            2                                                               Guide to Wetlands Board Modification Sheet





                                     II. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT


                                         A. Often VIMS reports include alternatives to minimize project impacts. The
                                         inclusion of these alternatives, or any other changes, by the applicant or as
                                         required by the Board often modifies the environmental impacts of the
                                         project. The modification sheet provides spaces for notation  of the impacts of
                                         the project as permitted. Returning the information to VIMS allows for cor-
                                         rections to be made to the database. The data is then used to calculate an-
                                         nual permitted shoreline activities and their impacts to wetlands, dunes and
                                         subaqueous bottoms.


                                     III. EXAMPLES
             Slides 1-3
                                         A. Riprap. This project involves the construction of 167 feet of riprap.


                                             1. In the first scenario the riprap is constructed in the wetlands with a 6
                                             foot encroachment resulting in the fill of 501 square feet of wetlands and
             Slides 4-6                      impacting 1002 square feet.

                                             2. In the second scenario the riprap is placed behind the wetlands result-
                                             ing in 84 square feet filled and 167 square feet impacted.

             Slides 7-8                  B. Bulkhead (once again the structure is 167 fe .et i7n length).

                                             1. First scenario - bulkhead is built in the wetland with a 6 foot-encroach-
             Slides 9-10                     ment resulting in 1002 square feet of tilled (impacted) wetlands.

                                             2. Second scenario - bulkhead is built behind the wetlands with 167
                                             square feet of filled (impacted) wetlands.






            Guide to Wetlands Board Modification Sheet                                                             3




                                Mide List

                                      1.   Riprap in wetlands - plane view
                                      2.   Riprap in wetlands - side view
                                      3.   Riprap in wetlands - modification sheet
                                      4.   Riprap behind wetlands - plane view
                                      5.   Riprap behind wetlands - side view
                                      6.   Riprap behind wetlands - modification sheet
                                      7.   Bulkhead in wetlands - side view
                                      8.   Bulkhead in wetlands - modification sheet
                                      9.   Bulkhead behind wetlands - side view
                                      10.  Bulkhead behind wetlands - modification sheet





                               Guide to Wetlands Board Modification Sheet Handout

                                                To Be Included With Permit And Sent To VMRC


               Application Number: XX-XXXX

               Name:           John Doe
               Location:       Waterview
               Waterway:       Chesapeake Bay                 a tributary to Chesapeake Bay

                                                                        ACTIVITIES


                           Proposed                                                                  Permitted
               Bulkhead (ft.)                                                                     Bulkhead (ft.)
               Commercial Structure    (ft2)                                                      Commercial Structure (ft2)
               Existing Slips (no.)                                                               Existing Slips (no.)
               Proposed New Slips (no.)                                                           Proposed New Slips (no.)
               Filled Wetlands (ft2)                                501                           Filled Wetlands (ft2)                       84
               Filled Subtidal  (ft2)                                                             Filled Subtidal (ft2)
               Boat Ramps      (ft2)                                                              Boat Ramps (ft   2)
               New Dredging (Y3)                                                                  New Dredging (y   3)
               Maintenance Dredging (y3)                                                          Maintenance Dredging (y3)
               Intertidal Dredging (y3)                                                           Intertidal Dredging (y3)
               Disposal    (y3)                                                                   Disposal (y3)
               Riprap (ft.)                                      167                              Riprap, (ft.)                           167
               Breakwaters (ft.)                                                                  Breakwaters (ft.)
               Groins (no.)                                                                       Groins (no.)
               Groin Length (ft.)                                                                 Groin Length (ft.)
               Overhead Crossings (ft.)                                                           Overhead Crossings (ft.)
               Submarine Crossings (ft.)                                                          Submarine Crossings (ft.)
               Subtidal    (y3)                                                                   Subtidal (y3)

                                              AMOUNT OF WETLANDS IMPACTED BY PROJECT


                           Proposed                                                                  Permitted
               Type I          Saltmarsh Cordgrass (ft2)          1002                   rpe I      Saltmarsh Cordgrass (ft2)             167
               TypeII          Saltmeadow Community    (ft2)                            Type II      Saltmeadow Community (ft2)
               Type III        Black Needlerush (ft2)                                   Type III     Black Needlerush (ft2)
               Type V         Saltbush Community (ft2)                                 Type IV      Saltbush  Community (ft2)
               Type V          Big Cordgrass Comm. (fO)                                 Type V       Big Cordgrass Comm. (ft2)
               Type VI         Cattail Community  (ft2)                                 Type VI     Cattail Community (ft2)
               Type VII        Arrow Arum-Pickerel  (ft2)                               Type VII     Arrow Arum-Pickerel (ft2)
               Type VIII       Reed Grass COMM. (ft2)                                   Type VIII    Reed Grass Comm. (ft2)
               Type IX         Yellow Pond Lily ft2)                                   Type IX      Yellow Pond Lily (ft2)
               Type X          Saltwort Community (ft2)                                 Type X       Saltwort Community (ft2)
               Type XI         Freshwater Mixed (ft2)                                   Type XI      Freshwater Mixed (ft2)
               Type XII        Brackish Water Mixed (ft2)                               Type XII     Brackish Water Mixed (ft2)
               Type XIII       Intertidal Beach  (ft2)                                  Type XIII    Intertidal Beach  (ft2)
               Type XIV        Sand Flat Comm. (ft2)                                    Type XIV     Sand Flat Comm. (ft2)
               Type XV         Sand/Mud Flat (ft)                                      Type XV      Sand/Mud Flat (FT2)
               Type XVI        Mud Flat Comm. (ft2)                                      Type XVI     Mud Flat Comm. (ft2)
               Type XVII       Intertidal Oyster (ft2)                                  Type XVII    Intertidal Oyster (f2)
               Intertidal Rubble/Riprap (ft2)                                           Intertidal Rubble/Riprap (FT2)
               Subtidal Bottom    (ft2)                                                 Subtidal Bottom (t-t2)

                                                                                                                       College of William and Mary
               Certified By-                                                                                           Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                                                                           Wetlands                            School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                Program                       Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
 







                                               WsWsn6l Mitilgatilon, Compensation


                                                                 Thomas A. Barnard, Jr.




                                        Upon completion, students should be able to:
              Length of                 o Erplain the terms mitigation and compensation within the regulatory context.
              Presentation:
              30 min.                   0 Understand and use the recommended procedures when employing these
                                          management tools.


                                        o Recognize concerns regarding the limitations of these concepts within wet-
                                          lands management.




                                        1. 35 mm slide projector
                                        2. Screen
                                        3. Slides
                                        4. Handouts


              This talk            Hnstructor Preparation Tasks
              contains slides of        1. Review outline
              actual compensa-          2. Review and choose visual aids
              tion wetlands.            3. Prepare handouts (if any)
              You may wish to           4. Review references
              add slides of             5. Ensure that equipment is in good working order
              created wetlands
              with which you
              are familiar.        P2,0ceduya
              Slides depicting          1. Introduce self
              examples of               2. Announcements
              compensatory                  a. Will take questions at end of talk only, or as we go along
              wetlands should               b. With limited time we will not be able to analyze all aspects in depth
              be used as a talk             c. Suggest reading the VIMS Technical Report 90-7, Compensatory Mtiga-
              supplement at                 tion Within the Tidal Wetlands of Virginia
              the end of the                d. For further in-depth. discussion, see Kusler and Kentula, 1990
              presentation.             3. Distribute handouts





                                                                                                                           9/91





              2                                                                           Wetland Mitigation, Compensation




                                   LS&Ulre NOtBB

              Slide 1                   1. DEFINMONS


                                        IL TECHNICAL DISCUSSION


                                            X Scientific questions.

              Slide 2                           1. How long does it take to produce a wetland-of equal value to a natural
                                                system?


                                                    A. A saltmarsh can be established in 3 years or less; a non-tidal
                                                    swamp may take 40 or more years.


                                                    b. The question of when created systems reach ecological parity with
                                                    natural systems cannot be answered at this time.


                                                2. How do we measure success?


                                                    a. There are many different ways.


                                                        1. Productivity.


                                                        2. Vegetative cover.


                                                        3. Diversity of species.


                                                        4. Densities of organisms.


                                                        5. All of the above.


                                                    b. There is no standard measure of success in wetland systems at this
                                                    time.


                                                3. Compensation in Virginia has met with mixed success to this point.


                                                4. On-site vs. off-site compensation can only be evaluated on a case-by-
                                                case basis.


                                                    a. On-site is intuitively best.


                                                    b. When on-site is not feasible, off-site in the same basin may be
              Go thmugh the                         preferred.
              rest of the ques-
              tions on slide 2                  5. Many more technical questions such as the ones shown on this slide
              very briefly.                     need to be evaluated before compensation becomes a standard practice.






             Wetland Mitigation, Compensation                                                                                     3




                                        1HX. POLICY QUESTIONS


                                             A. How much compensation is enough?

               Slide 3                            1. Compensation is generally not 100% successful.


                                                  2. There is a loss of wetland function between the time the natural wet-
                                                  land is lost and the created compensation system is fully established.


                                             B. How can one ensure the created wetland will survive?


                                                  1. Proper planning.


                                                  2. Knowledgeable experts.


                                                  3. Bonding the activity.


                                                  4. Monitoring.


                                             C. Can "low value" wetland be enhanced and become of higher ecological
                                             value?


                                                  1. Case by case determination.

               The list of ques-                  2. Little scientific research in this area.
               tions in slide 3
               should be dis-                D. What are the legitimate forms of wetland compensation?
               cussed as time al-
               lows.                              1. Restoration?


                                                  2. Preservation?


                                                  3. Enhancement?


                                                  4. Donating money for research?


                                             E. Is monitoring necessary?

                                                  1. Should be determined on a case-by-case basis.

                                                  2. Larger projects are more likely to require monitoring.





            4                                                                           Wetland Mitigation, Compensation




                                      IV. COMPENSATION POLICY IMPLEMENTATION


                                            NOTE       As can be. seen from the preceding discussion, there remain
                                          numerous questions regarding the use of compensation as a management
                                          tool. For this reason Virginia has basically taken a "go slow" approach in its
             Slide 4                      mitigation-compensation policy. An applicant must meet an initial set of
                                          criteria before being allowed to destroy and compensate wetlands. When com-
                                          pensation is allowed, the supplemental guidelines must be followed.


                                          A. Specific criteria.

             These lists are                  1. The proposal musteliminate or minimize all possible wetlands losses.
             only partial.
             Other options                        a. Look at alternative sites.
             should be added.'
                                                  b. Reduce the size of the project.


                                                  c. Redesign to avoid wetland encroachment.


                                              2. The proposal must be water dependent in nature.


                                                  a. Marina.


                                                  b. Boat ramp.


                                                  c. Shipyard.


                                                  d. Port facilities,


                                              .3. Proposal niust be in wetlands by necessity and have overwhelming
                                              public and private ben  efits.


                                          B. Supplemental guidelines.


                                              1. A detailed plan, including a scaled plan view,, drawing, shall be sub-
             Slide 5                          mitted describing the objectivesof the wetlandcompensation, the type of
                                              wetland to be created, the mean tide range at the site, the proposed eleva-
                                              tions relative to a tidal datum, the exact location, the areal extent, the
                                              method of marsh establishment and the exact time frame from initial
                                              work to completion.


                                              2. Once the grading is completed at the planting site, it should be in-
                                              spected by a competent authority to insure that the elevations are ap-
                                              propriate for the vegetation to be planted and that the surface drainage is
                                              effective.





            Wetland Mitigation, Compensation




                                             3. The compensation plan and its implementation must be accomplished
                                             by experienced professionals knowledgeable of the general and site-
                                             specific requirements for wetland establishment and long-term survival.


                                             4. A performance bond or letter of credit is required and shall remain in
                                             force until the new wetland is successfully established; a minimum of two
                                             growing seasons.


              Slide 6                        5. The compensation marsh should be designed to replace as nearly as
                                             possible, the functional values of the lost resource on an equal or greater
                                             basis. In general this means creating a marsh of similar plant structure
                                             to that being lost. This may not be the case where a lesser value marsh is
                                             involved (i.e. Group 4 or 5 wetlands). A minimum 1:1 areal exchange is re-
                                             quired in any case.


                                             6. The compensation should be accomplished prior to, or concurrently
                                             with, the construction of the proposed project. Before any activity under
                                             the permit may begin, the permittee must own all interests in the mitiga-
                                             tion site which are needed to carry out the mitigation.

                                             7. All reasonable steps must be taken to avoid or minimize any adverse
                                             environmental effects associated with the compensation activities them-
                                             selves


                                             8. On-site compensation is the preferred location alternative, with off-site
                                             in the same watershed as a consideration, when on-site is not possible.
                                             Locating a compensation site outside the river basin of the project is not
                                             acceptable unless it is done as part of a state-coordinated program of
                                             ecological enhancement.

              Slide 7                        9. In selecting a compensation site, one aquatic community should not be
                                             sacrificed to "create" another. In cases where dredged material must be
                                             placed overboard, the area may be used to create marsh, oyster rock or
                                             improve the resource value of the bottom.


                                             10. The type of plant community proposed as compensation must have a
                                             demonstrated history of successful establishment in order to be accept-
                                             able.


                                             11. The proposed activity should stand on its own merits in the permit
                                             review. Compensation should not be used to justify permit issuance.

                                             12. Manipulating the plant species composition of an existing marsh com-
                                             munity, as a form of compensation, is unacceptable.





           6                                                                        Wetland Mitigation, Compensation




                                            13. Nonvegetated wetlands should be treated on an equal basis with
                                            vegetated wetlands with regard to compensation and mitigation, unless
                                            site-specific information indicates one:is more valuable than the other.


            Slide 8                         14. Both short- and long-term monitoring of compensation sites should be
                                            considered on a case-by-case basis. For unproven types of compensation
                                            the applicant will be responsible for funding such monitoring as is
                                            deemed necessary.

                                            15. Where on7site replacement for noncommercial projects is not feasible,
                                            compensation for small wetland losses (less than 1,000 sq. ft.) should be
                                            avoided in favor of eliminating loss of the natural marsh to the maximum
                                            extent possible.


                                            16. Conservation or other easements to be held in perpetuity should be re-
                                            quired for the compensation marsh. Easements accepted by the Commis-
                                            sion will be processed in accordance with the provisions of Section
                                            62.1-13.17 of the Code of Virginia.

                                            17. All commercial projects which involve unavoidable wetland losses
                                            should be compensated.


                                References

                                            Barnard, Thomas A-, Jr. 1990. Compensatory Mitigation Within the
                                            Tidal Wetlands of Virginia. Wetlands Program,Virginia Institute of
                                            Marine Science, College of William and Mary. Technical Report 90-7.

                                            Kusler, John A. and Mary E. Xentula, eds. 1990. Wetland Creation and
                                            Restoration: the Status of the Science. Island Press. Washington, D.C. 591

                                            pp-

                                            Virginia Marine Resources Commission. 1989. Wetlands Mitigation-Com-
                                            pensation Policy. Newport News, Virginia.






           Wetland Mitigation, Compensation                                                                     7




                               Slide List

                                     1.  Definitions
                                     2.  Technical questions
                                     I   Policy questions
                                     4.  Specific compensation criteria
                                     5.  Supplemental compensation guidelines (1-4)
                                     6.  Supplemental compensation guidelines (5-8)
                                     7.  Supplemental compensation guidelines (9-13)
                                     8.  Supplemental compensation guidelines (14-17)






                      Wetland Mitigation, Compensation Handout



          Glossary

                Compensation   . . . . . . . . .any actions taken which have the effect of substituting some form
                                              of wetland resource for those lost or significantly disturbed due to
                                              a permitted activity; generally habitat creation or restoration.
                                              Compensation is a form or subset of mitigation.


                Mitigation   . . . . . . . .. . . .all actions, both taken and not taken, which eliminate or
                                              materially reduce the adverse effects of a proposed activity on the
                                              living and nonliving components of a wetland system or their
                                              ability to interact.


          Suggested Reading List

                Barnard, Thomas A-, Jr. 1990. Compensatory Mitigation Within the Tidal Wetlands of Virginia.
                Wetlands Program, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary. Technical
                Report 90-7.


                Kusler, John A. and Mary E. Kentula, eds. 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration: the Status of the
                Science. Island Press. Washington, D.C. 591 pp.

                Virginia Marine Resources Commission. 1989. Wetlands Mitigation-Compensation Policy. Newport
                News, Virginia.





















                                                                                               Program


                                                                                   College offilliarn and Mary
                                                                                   Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                   School ofMarine Science
                                                                                   GloucesterPoint; Virginia23062









                                                    MzAnes and marine




                                                            Kirk J. Havens




                                  The purpose of this unit is to outline the marine environmental concerns involv-
                                  ing marina construction and operation.
            Length of             Upon completion, students should be able to:
            Presentation.
            I hr. 20 min.
                                  ï¿½ Define the following terms: direct and indirect impacts, dissolved oxygen,
                                     fecal coliforms, modelling, flushing time, petroleum products, dry storage,
                                     biochemical oxygen demand, pump-out facility, wake-induced erosion, zonation
                                     mooring, and Best Management Practices.


                                  ï¿½  Contrast:


                                  1. Dry storage vs wet storage
                                  2. Direct impacts vs indirect impacts
                                  3. Flushing model vs dissolved oxygen model

                                     Discuss and design:

                                  1. A zonation mooring area
                                  2. A spill contingency plan
                                  3. Stormwater Best Management Practices for a marina
                                  4. A marina pollution management plan
                                  5. A marina patron education plan

                                  Students should have a strong working knowledge of the Commonwealth!s
                                  Criteria for the Siting of iWarinas or Community Facilities for Boat Mcoring.


                              matsnbslo

                                  1. 35 mm. projector
                                  2. Movie screen
                                  3. Slides
                                  4. Handouts










                                                                                                           9/91






           2                                                      Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations




                                ffhatructor Preparation Tasks

                                    1. Review lesson outline
                                    2. Review visual aids
                                    3. Review reference material (Criteria for the Siting ofMarinas or Community
                                    Facilities for Boat Mooring)
                                    4. Practice with equipment: slide projector


                               Procedure

                                    1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                    2. Announcements (field work, etc...
                                    3. Explain general comments on lesson, eg.' limitations  this a general introduc-
                                    tion concerning marine environmental review of marina applications
                                    4. Distribute handouts


                               Lecture Notes

                                    I. INTRODUCTION


                                       Marina development and protection of the marine environment are not
                                       mutually exclusive activities. Marina development can generally be divided
                                       into two categories in regard to marine environmental impacts: direct and in-
                                       direct impacts.

           Slides'1-8               II. DIRECT IMPACTS


                                       A. Shoreline Defense Structures.


                                           1. 'Bulkheads- Only for erosion control and as landward as possible.


                                           2. Riprap- Preferable over bulkheads but as landward as possible.


                                           3. Breakwaters- Most preferable if conditions warrant.

           Slides 944-                 B.  Upland Support Facilities.

                                           1. Dry Storage- preferable to wet slips, less incidental pollution.


                                           2. Travel lifts- open pile piers, ability to move to work yard.


                                           3. Boat work yard- gravel yard with cement washdown pad and set-
                                           t1ing tank.





            Marinas and Mariine Environmental Considerations                                                               3




             Slides 15-23                 11 Dredging and FieTs.

                                               1. Depths- buffer ftom wetlands, minimum depths needed, connect to am-
             Explain dif-                      bient depths, type of sediment (clay, sand), type of dredge - hyftenhfic or
             ference between                   cRsmoheU. Utilization of namstion mooring.
             hydraulic and
             clamshell.                        A. Spoils disposal area away from wetlands, sized properly.
             Discuss zonation
             mooring.                          3. Pier shading- crossing over wetlands minimized, height of pier a mini-
                                               mum of one foot less than pier width above vegetatior).


                                      HH. INDHRECT HMPACTS


                                          A. Shoreline Erosion.


             Slides 24-27                      1.                 erosion- can be significant along shorelines with ex-
                                               posed points of land in narrow creeks or coves and steep banks with easi-
                                               ly-erodable material.

                                               2. Refiectivewave enen%y- bulkheads tend to reflect wave energy to
                                               unprotected adjacent areas and may cause increased erosion. The fur-
                                               ther landward the bulkhead is located the less it is exposed to wave ener-
                                               gy. Riprap dissipates wave energy and is preferable over bulkheads.


                                          B.   Pollution


             Slides 28-31                      1. Petroleum products- incidental pollution from automobile oil runoff,
                                               outboard motor lubricants and exhaust gases, incidental fuel spills, bilge
                                               drainings, etc. can be expected in the normal operation of a marina.
                                               Petroleum products can increase biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
                                               and decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water column.
                                               Petroleum products can have lethal impact on marine larvae at concentra-
                                               tions as low as 0. 1 mg/liter and sublethal effects, such as disruption of
                                               physiological processes of feeding and reproduction, at concentrations of
                                               10 to 100 ggAiter. All marinas that deal with petroleum products should
                                               have a spill contingency plan.

             Slides 32-45                      2. PlaBtics- Litter in the form of uncompacted garbage can be ex-
                                               pected. During the peak boating season, approximately two and one-half
                                               to five cubic yards (one-third to one-half of a dump truck load) can be ex-
                                               pected per day per 400 boats. Plastics have been found in the stomachs
                                               of sea birds, marine mammals, marine turtles, and fish, and can cause in-
                                               testinal blockage, stomach and intestinal ulcerations, inhibit feeding,
                                               damage anatomical structures and contribute synthetic chemicals to body
                                               tissues. Marinas should have numerous, easily accessible trash con-
                                               tainers located' throughout the facility.






           4                                                            Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations




                                               3. Organic matter- food, excess cooking waste, fish entrails, etc. can in-
                                               crease the biochemical oxygen demand in surrounding waters and
                                               decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen available to marine life. This
                                               is especially important in areas of reduced flushing.

            Slide* 46                          4. Recycling stations- Bins for recycling aluminum, plastics, glass, and
                                               paper should be supplied. A tank for recycling oil should be located on a
                                               bermed- concrete pad.


                                           C.  Sewage.

           "Slides47-48'                       1. Human health risk- Pollution of waters by. fecal matter from warm-
                                               blooded animals is a means whereby disease can spread. Oysters and
                                               clams pump large volumes of water, filter out suspended matter and ac-
                                               cumulate substances to levels far in excess of that found in the water.
                                               Known pathogens associated with feces-contaminated shellfish include,
                                               typhoid fever, infectious hepatitis, dysentery, and. gastroenteritis. Recre'a-
                                               tional activities such as swimming require clean water to protect par-
                                               ticipants from sickness.

            Slide'49-                          2. Nutrient loading-'Sewake that enters the marina water, either
                                               directly-from boats or from improperly functioning or poorly located. sep-
                                               tic systems, causes an increase in the nutrient supply of adjacent waters
                                               as well as an increase in -the biochemical oxygen demand.

            Slide 50                           3. Pumpout facilities and portable toilet dum.         stations- These
                                               facilities can help reduce the amount of fecal matter entering the water.
                                               Such facilities should be clearly identified, cleanly maintained and easily
                                               accessible.


                                           D.  Stormwater Runoff.


            Slides 51-52                       1. Potential Impacts- Stormwater runoff can impact water quality by
                          -                    washing pollutants, such as sediment, nutrients, petroleum hydrocar-
                                               bons, metals, and bacteria, into the marina waters. Excessive amounts of
                                               suspended solids can adversely impact marine organisms by direct
                                               stress on adults and juveniles, hindering successful development of eggs
                                               and larvae, and reducing food abundance. Addition of nutrients and'
                                               petroleum products can increase biochemical oxygen demand, decrease
                                               dissolved oxygen levels, and have toxic effects on marine organisms.

            Slides 53-56                       2. Preventative Measures- Stormwater concerns can be addressed by in-
                                               corporating Best Management Practices (BMP), such as vegetative
                                               buffers, grass filter strips, gravel parking areas, grassed swales, and
                                               retention basins in series.






            Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations                                                              5





                                      IV. DHSSOLVED OXYGEN


                                          k Description - Bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and larger marine or-
             Slide 57                     ganisms in general require oxygen to live. Phytoplankton produce oxygen
                                          as a by-product of photosynthesis, but also consume oxygen in respiration.
                                          During daylight periods, oxygen production usually exceeds oxygen consump-
                                          tion and the excess oxygen raises the amount of oxygen dissolved in the
                                          water. During night periods photosynthesis ceases and there is no oxygen
                                          production, but there is continued respiration of oxygen by the phytoplankton
                                          and other marine organisms. Consequently, oxygen concentrations are
                                          reduced during nighttime. When sunlight is again available at dawn, the
                                          phytoplankton begin producing oxygen and dissolved oxygen levels rise
                                          dramatically. This is, in part, due to the increase in the phytoplankton
                                          population that can occur during nighttime when the majority of
                                          phytoplankton reproduction occurs and the oxygen-starved condition of the
                                          cells. During the daylight hours the phytoplankton population is reduced by
                                          grazing and the cycle repeats itself. Accordingly, the lowest dissolved oxygen
                                          levels occur just before dawn.

             Slide 58                     B. Importance - Low dissolved oxygen levels can lead to stress and mortality
                                          of marine organisms. Dissolved oxygen levels below 3.0 mg/1 have been
                                          shown to exert significant negative effects on growth and production rates of
                                          estuarine fishes. Dissolved oxygen levels below 3.5 mg/l have been shown to
                                          increase mortality in aquatic insects. Fish embryonic and larval stages are
                                          especially vulnerable to reduced oxygen concentrations because their ability
                                          to extract oxygen from the water is not fully developed, and they cannot move
                                          away from adverse conditions. It is believed that a dissolved oxygen level of
                                          around 5.0 mg/1 is sufficient to support a well-rounded population of fish.

             Slide 59                     C. Marina Impacts - Inadequate flushing of the marina, excessive depths,
                                          and pollutant and nutrient loading of the marina proper can increase the
                                          biochemical oxygen demand and decrease the dissolved oxygen levels.


                                      V.  FLUSHING


                                          A. Environmental Concerns - Flushing and circulation are important physi-
                                          cal characteristics that determine the dispersion and transport of pollutants.
                                          Pollutants that are not flushed will accumulate in the bottom sediments and
                                          increase the demand on the available dissolved oxygen and increase toxic
                                          levels of marina bottom sediments.

                                              1. Pollutant accumulation- Runoff from marinas may introduce pol-
                                              lutants that can degrade the quality of adjacent waters. Without proper
                                              design, pollutants such as sediments, pesticides, herbicides, oil and road
                                              dirt, heavy metals, and nutrients, may be washed from a marina into the






             6                                                        Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations




                                              water. Not only may these substances be toxic to marine life at certain
                                              concentrations, but they may have sublethal effects. These sublethal ef-
                                              fects may include reducing the ability of some marine organisms to sur-
                                              vive predation or competition, reducing the ability to reproduce, giving
                                              some organisms competitive advantages over other organisms, or causing
                                              anatomical anomalies.


                                              2. Fecal coliforms-  Coliform bacteria are commonly used as an index of
                                              fecal contamination because they are easily identified and counted.
                                              These bacteria are alway's present in the human intestinal tract and,
                                              generally, an increase in fecal coliform counts may indicate an increase in
                                              pathogen density.- The measure of bacterial contamination is a statistical
                                              value called the Most Probable Number (MPN) for the number of or-
                                              ganisms in a given volume of water.


                                      VI. MODELS


                                          A. General concept - In everyday usage, the term "model" refers to a simple
                                          representation of something-real. A model car, for example, may have the
             Slides 60-61                 general shape of a car but it is not exactly like the real thing. It may not
                                          have doors that open, windows that roll down, or a motor that runs. Models
                                          of nature should be considered in the same light. Models are used to try to
                                          make complex situations simpler. The key point in model making involves
                                          the assumptions that are used. Suppose you want to predict the amount of
                                          litter that will accumulate every year along a certain section of roadway.
                                          You could 'Just guess, of course, but you would be more credible if you had a
                                                     J
                                          rationale for your prediction. Maybe you could look up how many cars travel
                                          the roadway per year. Then you could conduct a survey of people to deter-
                                          mine what percentage of the population would litter and how much litter
                                          comes from each car. Suppose you find that 10,000 cars travel the roadway
                                          per month and your survey tells you that 10% will litter. You also assume
                                          1/2 lb of litter per car. You can now make a prediction using this assumed in-
                                          formation. There are a couple of ways you can talk about this model. You
                                          could just say "Ten thousand cars travel the roadway each month. Ten per-
                                          cent or one thousand cars will litter one-half pounds each. This will result in
             Slide 62                     five hundred pounds of litter each month or six thousand pounds of litter
                                          each year." Or you could put it in, an equation:

             Slide 63                     Annual litter amount= 0.10x 10,000x 12 x 0.5

                                          Or you could state the model in terms of ii series of commands to a computer.






             Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations                                                                   7




              Slide 64                      1) Take 10% of 10,000
                                            2) Multiply by 0.5
                                            3) Multiply by 12
                                            4) The result (6,000) is the amount of litter generated per year in pounds
                                            along the stretch of roadway.

                                            It is important to keep in mind that no matter how you state your annual lit-
                                            ter amount model, whether in plain English, mathematically, or through a
                                            computer, it is the same model. The important message here is - trans-
                                            lating a bad model into computer commands does not make it good.
                                            Additionally, models may not take into account all the factors at work.
                                            Maybe the people that travel this area are more environmentally minded and
                                            will litter less than those surveyed. Maybe the people who do litter will not
                                            litter everytime or will litter along a different area. Possibly there is a gas
                                            station at the intersection of this roadway and some people may clean litter
                                            out of their cars before travelling this stretch. The point is that models will
                                            not be able to address all the factors at play. Also, the assumptions used in
                                            the initial formulation of the model must have some validity. The take home
                                            message here is that when confronted with a model prediction, make
                                            sure the assumptions used are stated up front and have a basis in
                                            fact. In other words, make sure they used the right kind of glue when put-
                                            ting the model together.


              Slide 65                      B. Fecal Coliforms - Models have been developed to predict the fe    cal coliform
                                            Most Probable Number (MPN) for certain conditions. These models take into
                                            account the number of boat slips, the average number of persons per boat,
                                            the expected occupancy rate, the amount of fecal coliforms produced per per-
                                            son over time, fecal coliform decay rate, and the percentage of marine
                                            sanitary device (MSD) failure. The percentage of MSD failure is a driving
                                            force in predicting fecal coliform concentrations. Simply put, percent MSD
                                            failure is the expected number of boat holding tanks that are pumped directly
                                            into the marina waters. This percentage is derived from survey estimates
                                            and educated guesses and can vary considerably. It is directly related to the
                                            care and concern of the users of the facility. The number used will determine
                                            the extent of fecal coliform dispersal into the adjacent waters. A reasonable
                                            MSD failure rate is probably between 25% and 50%. However, what is
                                            generally not taken into account is the natural load of fecal coliforms at the
                                            specific site and the nonpoint source input from surrounding fields or inade-
                                            quate septic tanks.


              Slide 66                      C. Dissolved Oxygen - Models have been developed to predict the levels of dis-
                                            solved oxygen that can be expected given certain conditions in different water
                                            bodies. These models attempt to take into account the biochemical oxygen
                                            demand (BOD) loading rate that can be expected for the area in question, the
                                            flushing time, the oxygen demand from the bottom sediments, and the reaera-
                                            tion rate. BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen which will be consumed






             8                                                       Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations




                                          as water constituents are oxidized by a variety of biological and chemical
                                          reactions. As stated earlier in the section concerning the expected amount of
                                          fecal coliforms, this loading rate is largely dependent upon the expected
                                          marine sanitary device failure. Simply stated, the amount of oxygen con-
                                          sumed in the basin is a function of the amount of 'organic material (fecal mat-
                                          ter, hydrocarbons, plant detritus, etc.) that enters the area and the
                                          temperature. A properly designed marina management plan and stormwater
                                          management plan can have significant effects in BOD loading into the
                                          marina basin.


                                      VIL MARINA OPERATION PLAN


             Slide 67                     A. Marina Management Plan- A marina management plan is an impor-
                                          tant part of a marina operation. A management plan should include educa-
                                          tion of marina users and staff, an oil s -pill contingency plan, professional
                                          janitorial services, secured and conveniently located trash receptacles, and
                                          recycling centers.

             Slide 68                     B. Patron Education- An important aspect of marina management is the
                                          education of the marina users. Pollution of the marina's waters is directly re-
                                          lated to the care and concern of the marina users. Education of the marina
                                          patrons -to certain little things that can be done to reduce the user's impact
                                          on the ecosystem should be a high priority.


                                              1. Signs locating recycle centers, trash feceptacles.

                                              2. Brochures on preventative measures c@ncerning pollution.

             Slides 69-71             VIII. VIRGINIXS CRITERIA FOR THE SITING OF MARINAS OR
                                      COMMUNITY-FACILITIES FOR BOAT MOORING


                                          A. Review of the General Siting Criteria.


                                          B. Review of Specific Siting Criteria.


                                 References



                                      DIRECT IMPACTS


                                      Chuniura, G. L. and N. W. Ross. 1978. The environmental impacts of marinas
                                      and their boats, a literature review with management considerations. University
                                      Of Rhode Island Marine Memorandum 45, Narragansett, RI, 32 pp.

                                      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Coastal Marina Assessment Hand-
                                      book.'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region W, Atlanta, GA.






             Marinas and Mayine Environmental Considerations                                                                9





                                       INDIRECT IMPACTS


                                       Anderson, J. W. 1982. Oil Pollution: Effects and Retention in the Coastal Zone.
                                       In: Proceedings of the international symposium on the utilization of coastal
                                       ecosystems: planning, pollution and productivity. Chao and Kirby-Smith (Eds.)
                                       1985. Duke University Marine Laboratory, p. 197-214.


                                       Donahue, W. H., M. F. Welch, W. Y. Lee and J. A. C. Nicol. 1977. Toxicity of
                                       water soluble fractions of petroleum oils on larvae of crabs. In: Pollutant effects
                                       on marine organisms. 0. S. Giam. (Ed.), Lexington Books, Massachusetts.


                                       Jacobson, S. M. and D. B. Boylan. 1973. Effect of seawater soluble fraction of
                                       kerosene on chemotaxis in a marine snail, Nassarius obsoletus. Nature: 241:213.


                                       Linsley, R. K and J. B. Franzini. 1979. Water-Resources Engineering. McGraw-
                                       Hill Book Co., New York.


                                       Subrahmanyam, 0. B. 1980. Oxygen consumption of estuarine fish in relation to
                                       external oxygen tension. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 67A:129-133.


                                       United Nations. 1982. Waste discharge into the marine environment- principles
                                       and guidelines for the Mediterranean action plan. World Health Organization
                                       and U.N. Environmental Program. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 422 pp.

                                       Virginia Marine Resources Commission. Subaqueous, Community Facility, and
                                       Wetlands Guidelines.


                                       Wehle, D. H. S. and F. C. Coleman. 1983. Plastics at Sea. Natural History
                                       92(2):20-26.


                                       Zabawa, C. and 0. Ostrom (Eds.) 1960. Final report on the role of boat wakes in
                                       shore erosion in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. Prepared for Coastal Resour-
                                       ces Division, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD. 216 pp.






                10                                                                    Marinas andMarine Environmental Considerations





                                          Slide List

                                                  1.   Marina overview
                                                  2.   Text slide: direct and indirect impacts
                                                  3.   Text slide: direct impacts
                                                  4.   'Text slide: shoreline defense structures
                                                  5..  Mid-tide bulkhead protecting vegetated wetlands
                                                  6.   Bulkhead landward of marsh fringe
                                                  7.   Riprap landward of marsh fringe
                                                  8.   Breakwaters
                                                  9.   Text slide: direct impacts - upland support facilities
                                                 10.   Dry storage facility
                                                 11.   Travel lift
                                                 12.   Gravel workyard
                                                 13.   Washdown pad with grate
                                                 14.   Cross-section of washdown apron and settling tank
                                                 15.   Text slide: direct impacts - dredging and piers
                                                       Dredge buffer off wetlands
                                                 17.   Cross-section of dredge cut connecting to ambient depths
                                                 18.   Rosegill disposal blowout
                                                 19.   Dredging: clamshell, hydraulic
                                                 20.   Clamshell dredge
                                                 21.   Hydraulic dredge
                                                 22.   Zonation mooring, cross-section
                                                 23.-  Shading impacts of piers
                                                 24.   Text slide: indirect impacts
                                                 25.   Text slide: indirect impacts - shoreline erosion
                                                 26.   Boat wake erosion
                                                 27.   Reflective wave energy
                                                 28.   Text slide: indirect impacts - pollution
                                                 29.   Gas tank in boat
                                                 30.   Fuel dispensers on concrete pad
                                                 31.   Text slide: spill contingency plan
                                                 32.   Cartoon
                                                 33.   General debris
                                                 34.   Offloading trash
                                                 35.   Sea], (monk)
                                                 36.   Turtle (loggerhead)
                                                 37.   Turtle stomach contents (2 lbs plastic)
                                                 38.   Potato chip bag found in throat of turtle






             Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations




                                       39.   Gull in six-pack ring
                                       40.   Fish in six-pack ring
                                       41.   Numerous trash containers
                                       42.   Secured, easily accessible trash containers
                                       43.   Trash receptacles
                                       44.   Fish/cleaning waste
                                       45.   Food/organic waste
                                       46.   Recycling center
                                       47.   Text slide: indirect impacts - sewage
                                       48.   Health risk sign
                                       49.   Exposed septic tank
                                       50.   Porta potty/pumpout sign
                                       51.   Text slide: indirect impacts - stormwater runoff
                                       52.   Pipe discharging into basin
                                       53.   Text slide: Best Management Practices
                                       54.   Gravel walkways
                                       55.   Vegetative buffer strips
                                       56.   Grassed swales
                                       57.   Photosynthesis slide
                                       58.   Fish kill
                                       59.   Artist drawing of poor marina basin
                                       60.   Model car
                                       61.   Real car next to model car
                                       62.   English statement
                                       63.   Equation
                                       64.   Computer commands
                                       65.   Schematic of fecal coliform. inputs
                                       66.   Schematic of BOD components
                                       67.   Text of management plan
                                       68.   User education
                                       69.   Text of general siting criteria
                                       70.   Text of specific siting criteria
                                       71.   Closing slide







                  Marinas and Marine Enviromnental Considerations Handout


                                                                  W"Voy_\
                                                                             _17e
                                                                  L
                                                                    I

                                                      Ar E)OSTiNG BOTTOM


                                                            Zonation Mooring














                                                                                   BULKHEAD
                                                                                   AND FILL


                                                         W., OREDGIED BOTTOM





                                                           BOX CUT DREMING


            Glossary

                Best Management
                Practices (BMP)  ......     standardized methodologies used to minimize adverse impacts to the environment.


                Biochemical Oxygen
                Demand (BOD)     ......     a measure of the demand on a water body's dissolved oxygen supply that will be
                                            generated, over a specific time period, by the biological decomposition of organic
                                            material. A high BOD may temporarily or permanently so deplete the oxygen in
                                            water that aquatic life is killed.


                Clamshell or dragline
                dredging    ..........      method of dredging that employs a crane and large metal bucket. Usually used in
                                            small scale sandy-sediment situations.


                Coliform bacteria   .....   bacteria found in fecal matter of warm-blooded animals.


                Dry stack storage   .....   the practice of storing boats on upland until needed by owner.

                Flushing time    .......    the measure of time required to transport a conservative
                                            pollutant from some specific location.
                                                 (I @11SING 87L

                                                    A
                                                                 .7
                                                                   @W
                                                          IM







































                Hydraulic dredging ....     method of dredging that employs a centriftigal pump to
                                            move a slurry of water and material from the bottom
                                            through a system of pipes to the disposal site.      College of William and Mary
                                                                                                 Virginia Institute ofmarine Science
                                                                                                 School ofMarute Science
                                                                                                 Gloucester Point, Virginia=92








              Marinas and Marine Environmental Considerations Handout                                                                                                2




                   Marine Sanitary
                   Device (MSD)             .......        permanently installed onboard sanitation devices on boats having heads. Generally
                                                           classified into three types. Types I and II discharge sei wage after some level of
                                                           treatment. Type III is a holding tank that prevents discharge.

                   Model       ..............              a representation or abstraction of a real system; an attempt to present some of the
                                                           important features of the real system in a simplified way to aid understanding.


                   Oil s
                         pill contingency plan             a specific plan detailing a methodology for containing an oil spill near or in the
                                                           marina.


                   Photosynthesis                          the process which occurs in the chloroplasts of green plants in which simple sugars
                                                           are formed from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light and chlorophyll.

                   Phytoplankton           . . . . . . .   free floating aquatic plants'.

                   Sediment Oxygen
                   Demand (SOD)                            a measure of the amount of oxygen which will be consumed as bottom sediment
                                                           coristituents are oxidized by a variety of biological and chemical reactions.

                   Stormwater@ runoff           . . . . .  material washed during a rain event from upland facilities, spills and discharges
                                                           from boats on the uplands. This material can include sediment, nutrients, petroleum
                                                           hydrocarbons, metals, and bacteria.


                   Sublethal effects          . . . . . .  introduction of toxics or pollutants that cause a disruption of physiological processes
                                                           such as feeding and reproduction or make an organism more susceptible to predation.

                   Suspended solids           . . . . . .  small particles of solid materials that resist separation by conventional means.
                                                           Suspended solids level, along with BOD, is used as a measure of water quality.

                   Uncompacted garbage                     garbage such as plastics, paper, aluminum, styrofoam, food wastes, etc. blown,
                                                           washed, or thrown into or near a waterway.

                   Wake-induced erosion             . . .  the wearing away of land due to water energy generated by motor boat wakes.

                   Zonation mooring            . . . . .   the practice of locating boats of shallow draft nearshore, and those boats requiring
                                                           deeper drafts closer to the channel in naturally deeper water.


             Suggested Reading List

                   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Coastal Marina Assessment Handbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
                   Region IV, Atlanta, GA.

                   Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRQ. 1982. Wetland Guidelines. Prepared by the Department of Wetlands Ecology,
                   Virginia Institute of Marine Science, printed by VMRC, Newport News, VA. 57 pp.


                   Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1986. Coastal Primary Sand DunestReaches Guidelines. VMRCI- Newport News,
                   VA. 61 pp.


                   Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC). 1990. Criteria for the Siting of Marinas or Co mimunity Facilities for Boat
                   Mooring. VMRC, Newport News, VA. 8 pp.








                                              Animal Adaptations
                                          to the Tidal Environment


                                                     Kirk J. Havens


                           Objectives
           Notes               The purpose of this unit is to review some of the adaptations animals have
                               evolved to cope with life in the intertidal zone.
           Length of
           Presentation:       Upon completion, students should be able to:
           30 min.
                               ï¿½ Define the following terms: osmoregulator, osmoconformer, aerobic, anaerobic,
                                 facultative, desiccation, conduction, convection, euryhaline, stenohaline,
                                 pneumostome, glycoprotein, hyperosmotic, permeability, operculum, diffusion,
                                 air/water oxygen consumption ratio.


                               ï¿½ Describe different adaptations and how they relate to elevation in the inter-
                                 tidal zone.


                               9 Contrast:


                               1. Euryhaline & stenohaline
                               2. Osmoregulator & osmoconformer
                               3. Aerobic & anaerobic


                                 Describe the intertidal adaptative function of:


                               1. Pneumostome
                               2. Operculum
                               3. The gills of intertidal crabs
                               4. Shell gaping


                           Materials

                               1. 35 mm projector
                               2. Movie screen
                               3. Slides
                               4. Handouts












                                                                                             9/91





              2                                                                 Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment



                                    Instructor Preparation Tasks

                                         L  Review lesson outline
                                         2. Review visual aids
                                         3. Review reference material (VIMS Technical Report 90-1)
                                            Practice with equipment: slide projector


                                    Procedure

                                         1. Introduce self and other instructors
                                         2. Announcements (field work, etc...
                                         3. Explain general comments on lesson, eg. limitations - this is a general intro-
                                         duction of adaptations of some of the more common intertidal animals to oxygen
                                         uptake, temperature fluctuations, salinity changes, and desiccation
                                         4. Distribute handouts.


                                    Lecture Notes

              Slides 1-2                 1. INTRODUCTION


              Slide 3                    The ability to survive in the harsh intertidal environm ent requires different
                                         physiologic characteristics. An intertidal animal experiences stress from a wide
                                         range of factors such as tempeiiture fluctuations, salinity changes, desiccation,
              Slide 4                    and oxygen availability.

                     5-6                 11. TEMPERATURE


                                            A.   Heat

              Slides 7-8                         1. Water retention - In many intertidal animals such as snails and bar-
                                                 nacles, water is retained for much of the intertidal period. Water held
                                                 under the shell can significantly increase the time animals can maintain
                                                 evaporative heat loss without incurring lethal concentrations of body
                                                 fluids.

              Slide 9                            2. Size and shape -'An increase in size of upper shore animals com-
                                                 pared with those on the lower shore would reduce the relative surface
              Explain conduc-                    area through which heat gain by radiation occurs, and would also mini-
              tion, silhouette                   mize the rate of change of body temperature, since it takes longer for the
              area, and convee-                  tissues of a large animal to equilibrate with the surrounding environmen-
              tion.'                             tal temperature during the low tide period. An increase in size and in
                                                 shell sculpturing provides an effective means both of reduction of heat
                                                 gain by radiation and increase of heat loss by convection. Strong shell






               Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment                                                                              3



                                                    sculpturing represents an increased surface area through which heat can
                                                    be transferred to the environment relative to the silhouette area. The
                                                    silhouette area represents the surface area through which heat gain oc-
                                                    curs. However, as body size increases, an increase in heat gain by con-
                                                    ducti  on would result unless there is a change in other characteristics.
                                                    In gastropods this change is in the size of the basal area. As the size of
                                                    the animal increases, there is a relative reduction in the basal area which
                                                    effectively reduces heat gain by conduction from the substrate. Some
                                                    high shore snails have been observed hanging from vertical surfaces
                                                    during the summer by means of a dried mucous sheet which is attached
                                                    to the front lip of the shell. The only point of contact is the lip of the shell
                                                    so that heat gain by conduction is effectively eliminated by this method of
                                                    attachment.


                Slide 10                            3. Color --The. possession of    a light-colored shell increases heat loss by
                                                    emission relative to absorption. It has been observed that upper shore
                                                    animals are generally light in color while lower shore species are darker.
                                                    A detailed study of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator, revealed that the crab
                                                    can blanch its carapace during the middle of the day. This shell blanch-
                                                    ing mechanism results in an increase in reflectance of solar heat of about
                                                    50% between unblanched and blanched crabs.


                Slides 11-14                    B.  Cold


                                                    1. In  traceHular ice formation - Intertidal invertebrates appear to be
                                                    unusual in their tolerance of intracellular ice formation. Intertidal
                Slide 15                            animals are more resistant to freezing than subtidal animals. It is has
                                                    been shown that at -15 degrees C the percentage water frozen in some
                                                    mussels, snails and oysters was 65%, 67%, and 56% respectively. Some
                                                    snails and mussels could even survive for several days at -22 degrees C
                                                    when the percentage water frozen in their tissues was as high as 76%.

                Discuss desicca-                    2. Anti-freeze molecules - Since high levels of water in the tissues of
                tion effects of                     intertidal animals may be bound up as ice, the capacity to withstand
                freezing.                           freezing must involve not only the ability to accommodate the presence of
                                                    ice within the tissues, but also to withstand severe dehydration of the
                Explain                             body fluids. Studies have shown that animals inhibit ice formation by
                glycoproteins.                      the synthesis of glycoprotein and protein anti-freeze molecules.


                                            III. SALINITY


                Slide 16                        A. Osmoconformers and asmoregulators - The major mechanisms of
                                                adaptation by animals to salt involve control of the body's internal environ-
                Explain osmotic                 ment. The majority of simple marine animals are osmoconformers while the
                pressure.                       more complex marine animals tend to osmoregulate. Osmoconformers






             4                                                              Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment



                                           maintain their body fluid equal with sea water, so that a change in the con-
             Slides 17-19                  centration of sea water Will result in a corresponding change in the body
                                           fluids. Osmoregulators maintain their body fluids hyperosmotic to (more
             Slides 20-21                  salty than) sea water. This poses two physiological problems. Water flows in-
                                           wards because of the higher salt concentration inside, while solutes flow out-
                                           wards.. Salts are replaced by active transport from the sea water, but this
                                           process requires an expensive expenditure of energy..

             Slide 22                      B. Shell permeability - Transport of salts from sea water into the body re-
                                           quires a large amount of energy. To reduce this energy cost, the permeability
             Define per-                   of the shell or body wall is reduced and the concentration gradient between
             meability.                    the blood and the sea water is lowered. For example, the cuticle of crabs
                                           generally follows a permeability of low to high from terrestrial to intertidal to
                                           subtidal conditions. The higher in the intertidal area the lower the shell per-
                                           meability. This adaptation also reduces water loss during exposure to -air
                                           and helps prevent desiccation.

                                           C. _Euryhaline and stenohaline - Animals that        can withstand wide fluc.-
                                           tuations in salinity are termed euryhaline (from the Greek word eurys -
                                           wide). Those animals that can tolerate only narrow salinity changes are con--
                                           sidered stenolialine (from the Greek word stenos - narrow). Most intertidal
                                           animals are euryhaline, but they may be either osmoconformers or os-
                                           moregulators.


                                      IV. DESICCATION
             Slides 23-25.
                                           A. Structural adaptations - Desiccation is generally not a serious problem
             Slide 26                      for mobile intertidal animals. However it may be a major problem for sessile
                                           animals living near the high tide line such as som   'e barnacles and molluscs.
             Point out opecular            Structural features allowing survival at the high tide line by barnacles in-
             andpneumostome.               clude thick shells, large bodies, and the use of a small pneumostome
                                           through which air is drawn into the mantle cavity after the valves are closed.
                                           The pneumostome is a small, diamond-shaped opening between the oper-
                                           cular valves. . In addition, water loss through the shell during exposure to
                                           air is reduced in amphibious and terrestrial crustaceans compared to aquatic
                                           species.
             Slide 27
                                           B. Behavorial adaptations - Some intertid       al fish have fine grooves in their
             Slides 28-29                  skin which hold moisture when exposed to air and allow the fish to survive
                                           up to several days out of water. Other fish burrow into the moist substrate
                                           until the subsequent inflow of the tidal water. Some bivalves, such as oysters
                                           and mussels, close their shells tightly during low tide or partially close their
                                           shell in a behavior known as sheR gaping. Shell gaping is considered a be-
                                           havioral adaptation which permits aerial respiration and colonization of the
                                           intertidal zone. Fiddler crabs retreat to their burrows as the tide rises and
             Slides 30-32                  plug the burrow entrance with mud. During extended periods of low tides






              Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Enviroment                                                                               5




                                               which tend to dry out tidal flats, the crabs will open the burrows, but remain
                                               at the bottom of the burrow in the moist soil. An interesting side note con-
                                               cerning fiddler crabs if; that their activity at low tide is not related to the
                                               presence or absence of water, but rather to the lunar phase. If fiddler crabs
                                               are taken inland far from water they still become active when low tide would
                                               occur at their now location. A general relationship concerning desiccation
                                               and shore position is that desiccation rates are always found to be lower in in-
                                               vertebrates living at the water-air interface than in related fully aquatic
                                               animals. For intertidal animals such as molluscs, barnacles, crabs, and so
                                               on, the rate of water loss to the air correlates closely with the vertical dis-
                                               tribution on the shore. Animals found in the higher or more landward posi-
                                               tion are exposed to a longer duration of air exposure at low tide. These
                                               animals have adapted to this environment by decreasing their rate of water
                                               loss.


                                          V.   OXYGEN


                Slide 33                       A. Respiration - It is generally believed that intertidal animals have two
                                               major respiratory options when exposed to air at low tide; either to isolate
                Slide 34                       themselves completely from the atmosphere and rely on anaerobic path-
                                               ways for energy production, or to maintain gas exchange in air to support
                Discuss aerobic                aerobic metabolism. However, most intertidal invertebrates probably be-
                and anaerobic.                 have as facultative anaerobes, simultaneously using various anaerobic path-
                                               ways as well as aerobic metabolism, when exposed to air. Oxygen and carbon
                Define facultative.            dioxide have very different properties in air and in water. Air contains 20 to
                                               40 times more oxygen per unit volume than water. Conversely, carbon
                                               dioxide is much higher than oxygen in water. In addition, gas diffusion is
                                               higher for oxygen and carbon dioxide in air compared to water, thus making
                                               oxygen more readily available in air. As a result, flow across an animals
                                               respiratory surface, such as a gill, must be higher in water than in air.

                Slide 35                            1. Physiological adaptions- When high shore barnacles are exposed
                                                    to air, water is expelled from the mantle cavity. The periodic opening and
                                                    closing of the pneumostome allow gas to enter, mainly by diffusion. This
                                                    adaptation, which is not found in low shore or subtidal barnacles, is care-
                                                    fully regulated to ensure aerial respiration while avoiding excessive
                                                    water loss.


                                                    Dual breathing is a common an method, for respiring in crabs when living in
                                                    the intertidal area. Many intertidal crabs use their gills for respiration
                Explain air/                        when exposed to air. When exposed, most of the water is drained away
                water oxygen con-                   from the gill chamber, which is then ventilated in air. Some species,
                sumption ratio.                     however, are able to retain gill water that is recirculated externally over
                                                    the carapace for the purposes of aeration and for evaporative cooling.
                Slide 36                            Some intertidal crabs such as the shore crab, Carcinus maenas, increase
                                                    their heart rate when exposed to air, which compensates for decreased
 





               6                                                                 Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment



                                                  arterial oxygen content and allows for maintenance of a completely
                                                  aerobic metabolism. Conversely, in some subtidal species, heart rate is
                                                  considerably decreased in air, which correlates with a low air/water
                                                  oxygen consumption ratio and a partial reliance upon anaerobic meta-
                                                  bolism, which leads to lactate accumulation. A convenient way to
                                                  evaluate the ability of intertidal invertebrates to breathe air is to
                                                  measure the air/water oxygen consumption ratio. Generally, the higher
                                                  the shore elevation where the animal thrives, the greater its reliance
                                                  upon air breathing.

               Slide 37                           2. Behavorial adaptations - Periodic exposure to-air on a predictable
                                                  time basis is the rule for true intertidal animals. Most intertidal animals
                                                  are basically designed for water breathing and can withstand only short
                                                  term air exposure. Some animals isolate themselves from air as com-
                                                  pletely as possibleby burrowing into the bottom or closing their shell.
                                                  Others are able to use the aerial environment for respiratory gas ex-
               Slide 38                           change, but must suffer some degree of desiccation, such as shell gaping
                                                  in bivalves. Finally, some seek residual water to avoid permanent air ex-
               Slide 39                           posure, but can spontaneously leave whe      n the oxygen in the water is
                                                  used up. As stated earlier, some crabs are air breithers and use their
               Slide 40                           gills or gill cavity lining for gas exchange. But many also require periodic
                                                  visits to water to rehydrate or replenish their water stores in the gill
               Slide, 41                          cavity or shell.


                                         VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS


                                         It is, necessary to point out'the role food resources play in the distribution of
                                         animals in the intertidal area. Wolcott (1973) made an important general
               Slide 42                  hypothesis which states that where the distribution of a species borders on an un-
                                         exploited or under-exploited food resource, selection may favor an extension in
                                         range of the species to the limits of its tolerance of temperature, desiccation and
                                         salinity extremes. Reproductive gain due to opportunistic range extension must
                                         then be assumed to offset the increased chances of death. Thus, species that
                                         have juveniles that are initially,established low on the shore and migrate up-
                                         wards tend to exploit the food resources at high tide levels. There is a good cor-
                                         respondence between potentially lethal conditions and the tolerance of the
                                         individuals. Such species tend to have generalized food requirements, and the in-
                                         creased chances of mortality in the stressful habitat are offset by rapid growth,
                                         maturation, and a large reproductive capability.






            Animal Adaptations to the Ti6a@ Environment                                                             7



                                 Refe'rences


                                     TEMPERATURE


                                     Wilkens, J. L. and Fingerman, M. 1965. Heat tolerance and temperature relation-
                                     ships of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator, with reference to body coloration. Biol.
                                     Bull. 128(l):133-142.


                                     Williams, R. J. 1970. Freezing tolerance in Mytilus edulis. Comp. Biochem.
                                     Physiol.,35:145-161.


                                     SALINITY


                                     Engel, D.W. and Eggert, L.D. 1974. The effect of salinity and sex on the respira-
                                     tion rates of excised gills of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. Comp. Biochem.
                                     Physiol., 47: 1005- 1011.


                                     Kinne, 0. 1964. The effects of temperature and salinity on marine and brackish
                                     water animals. 11. Salinity and temperature-salinity combinations. Oceanogr.
                                     Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 2: 281-339.


                                     DESICCATION


                                     Brown, A.C. 1960. Desiccation as a factor influencing the distribution of some
                                     South African gastropoda from intertidal rocky shores. Port. Acta. Biol. (B), 7: 11-
                                     23.


                                     Newman, W.A. 1967. On the physiology and behavior of estuarine barnacles.
                                     Proc. Symp. Crustacea 111. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 1038-1066.


                                     OXYGEN


                                     Micallef, H. and Bannister, W.H. 1967. Aerial and aquatic oxygen consumption of
                                     Monodonta turbinata. J. Zool. Lond., 151: 479-482.


                                     Sandison, E.E. 1966. The oxygen consumption of some intertidal gastropods in
                                     relation to zonation. J. Zool. Lond., 149: 163-173.


                                     GENERAL


                                     Daiber, F.C. 1982. Animals of the Tidal Marsh. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., N.Y.
                                     320 pp.


                                     Newell, R.C. 1972. Biology of Intergidal Animals. Marine Ecological Surveys
                                     LTD. Kent, U.K. 781 pp.






           8                                                            Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment



                                    Vernberg, W.B. and F.J. Vernberg. 1972. Environmental Physiology of Marine
                                    Animals. Springer*-Verlag, N.Y. 285 pp.

                                    Wolcott, T.G. 1973. Physiological ecology and intertidal zonation in limpets (Ac-
                                    maea): A critical look at "limiting factors". Biol. Bull., 145: 389-422.






            Animal Adaptations to the Tidal 2nviyanment                                                                9



                                 Slid@ List

                                       1.   Oyster ishell/marsh intertidal area
                                       2.   Split screen slide of intertidal area - submergence and emergence stress
                                       3.   Text slide - temperature, salinity, desiccation, oxygen
                                       4.   Text slide - temperature - extreme heat, freezing cold
                                       5.   Text slide - temperature - extreme heat
                                       0.   Hot, cummey intertidel are& - Leat stress
                                       7.   Barnacles - water retention
                                       8.   Mud snails - water retention - minimize heat stress
                                       9.   Graph - shell sculpturing in relation to elevation
                                      10.   Lethal temperatures relative to shore elevation of certain intertidal species
                                      11.   Fiddler crabe - shell blanching
                                      12.   Text slide - temperature - ftezing cold
                                      13.   lee and snow in the intertidal area - cold stress
                                      14.   Ice in marsh
                                      15.   Ice on shore
                                      16.   Oysters - resistance to freezing
                                      17.   Text slide - salinity - osmoregulation and osmoconformers
                                      18.   Graph - salinity - blood/seawater concentrations
                                      19.   Text slide - salinity - osmoconformers
                                      20.   Blue crab feeding on fiddler crab - blue crab (osmoconformer)
                                      21.   Text slide - salinity - osmoregulators
                                      22.   Ghost crab - osmoregulation
                                      23.   Blue crab - shell permeability
                                      24.   Text slide - desiccation - structural and behavioral adaptations
                                      25.   Split screen slide
                                      26.   Text slide - desiccation - structural adaptations
                                      27.   Barnacle anatomy - opercular valves and pneumostome
                                      28.   Text slide - desiccation - behavioral adaptations
                                      29.   Minnow in mud - grooves to retain water
                                      30.   Shell gaping
                                      31.   Fiddler crab plugging burrow
                                      32.   Fiddler crab plugging burrow
                                      33.   Numerous fiddler crabs feeding at low tide
                                      34.   Text slide - oxygen - physiological and behavioral adaptations
                                      35.   Text slide - oxygen - aerobic and anaerobic
                                      36.   Text slide .. wrygen - physiological adaptations
                                      37.   Graph - air/water consumption ratio
                                      38.   Text slide - oxygen - behavioral adaptations






           10                                                        Animal Adaptations to the Tidal Environment



                                    39. Burrowing clam/worm slide
                                    40. Shell gaping in the Pen Shell bivalve
                                    41. Ghost crab and ghost crab burrows -. needs to moisten gills periodically
                                    42. Dead fiddler crab with four Spartina alterniflora seeds










                                                                             0
                                                                      Animal Adaptabions
                                                   to the Tidal Environment Handout


                                                                                 Salinity (%o)
                              0             17       35        4.2 17          35      42     17         35       42 17          35       42

                                        150-                                                                                                 150
                                        125-
                                                                                                                  120
                                        100.                                           90                                             100
                                                                                                            98
                              0    CD               -a.@
                                   (n    75  08-0-85           87 85           87              81
                                  -0-*
                              0           50                                                                                50                        MHW
                              0

                                                   Ocypode
                                                                             Uca                                                                      MLW

                                                                                                Pachygrapsus

                                                                                                                               Cancer


                                                 Comparison of osmoregulation between different
                                                          crab species along a shoreline gradient






                                                                                     1     Leaf Barnacle
                                                                                     2     Littorina Snail
                                                                                     3     Shore Crab
                                                                                     4     Ribbed Mussel
                                                                                     5     Common Mussel
                                                  5.0 2.6             1.18
                                                                                           0.66
                                                   1 2                                                         0.04
                                                                        3                     4                   5
                                                          Oxygen Consumption
                                                                  AWWater Ratio
                                                                                                                                      100
                                                                                                                          r, /n








                                                                                                                                             -6@prowc

                                                                                                                                             College of William and Mary
                                                                                                                                             Virginia Institute ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                             School ofMarine Science
                                                                                                                                             Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062






         Animal Adaptations Handout                                                                                                          2


         Glossary

               Aerobic     . . . . . . .   Pertaining to conditions requiring free oxygen.
               Anaerobic       . . . . .   Capable of growing in absence of oxygen.
               Conduction-                 The movement of heat, sound waves, or nerve impulses through cells or tissues
                                           without bulk motion of the matter.
               Convection         ....     The diffusion of heat through a liquid or gas by motion of its parts.
             -Desiccation        . . . .   The act. of drying thoroughly; exhausting or depriving of moisture.
               Diffusion     . . . . . .   The process by which substances in a solution tend to become uniformly
                                           distributed.
               Euryhaline                  Capable of withstanding wide variations in osmotic pressure or salinity.
               Facultative                 Not limited to a specific condition; having the ability to live under varying
                                           conditions.
               Glycoprotein'               A protein/carbohydrate mixed substance that retards freezing.
               Hyperosmotic . . . Maintaining a condition where an organism's body fluids are of greater osmotic
                                           pressure than the surrounding water.
               Operculum       . . . . .   Flaps or plates which close the      *opening in barnacles.
               Osmoconformer .             An organism which is able to change its body fluid osmotically to adjust to the
                                           osmotic pressure of the Water in which it lives.
               Osmoregulator               An organism which maintains a constant osmotic concentration in its body fluid
                                           regardless of the medium in which it lives.
               Permeability                Factors associated with the transfer of substances across a membrane.
               Pneumosome                  The external opening of the respiratory chamber in some molluscs and
                                           crustaceans.
               Stenblialine . . . . Capable of withstanding only slight variations in salinity.

         SUggested Reading List

               Barnes, H., Barnes, M. and Finlayson, D. M. 1963. The metabolism during starvation of Balanus
               balanoides. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K., 43:213-233.

               Barnwell, F. H. 1966. Daily and tidal patterns of activity in individual fiddler-crabs (genus Uca) from the
               Woods Hole region. Biol. Bull., 130:1!.7.

               Daiber, F. C. 1982. Animals of the Tidal Marsh. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., N.Y. 320 pp.

               Fox, H. M. and Taylor, A. E. R. 1955. The tolerances of oxygen by aquatic invertebrates. Proc. Roy. Soc.
               Lond.. B., 143:214-225.

               Gibson, R. N. 1969. The biology and behavior of littoral fish. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 1:367-410.

               Lent, C. M. 1969. Adaptations of the ribbed mussel Modiolus a'emissus (Dillwyn) to the intertidal
               habitat. Amer. Zool., 9:283-292.
               Palmer, J. D. 1962. A persistent diurnal phototactic rythm in the fiddler crab, Uca pugnax. Biol. Bull.,
               123:507-508.

               Teal, J. M. and F. G. Carey. 1967. The'metabolism of marsh crabs under conditions of reduced oxygen
               pressure. Physiol. Zool., 40:83-91.
               Vern ,berg, W. B. 1963. Respiration of.digenetic trematodes. Ann. New York Acad. Sci.., 113:261-271.







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                   Rk.                          VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCE                                  X f1w     1111A" Ff"
                                  Program                SCHOOL OF MARINE SCIENCE                                      I*       owl 0
                                                      COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY



                                             CERTIFICATE OF TRAINING


                                                                        presented to


                                                            5ohn Q Public


                                                                     for completion of
                                         TIDAL WETLANDS WORKSHOP


                                                                       conducted at

                                                                Gloucester Point, Virginia
                                                                        7 June 1991






                 Maryann Wohlgemuth                                                           Carl Hershner
                 Workshop Coordinator                                                         Wetlands Program Director





























                                                                                          J3 3
                                     5                                                           31


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                                                                        0
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                                            0.
                                        '425

                                                                                                   21



                                                                OA







                                                                                                          2/91


                                                         The Campus of
                                                 The College of William & Mary
                                               Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                                    School ofMarine Science

                         1. WATERMEN'S HALL            13. HOXTON HALL                 25. PAGE HOUSE
                         2. MARINE CULTURE LAB         14. HOLBEN HOUSE                26. CENTRAL RECEIVING
                         3. MAURY HALL                 15. WHITE HOUSE                 27. CLAYTON HOUSE
                         4. DAVIS HALL                 16. STEVENSON HOUSE             28. FRANKLIN HALL
                         5. FERRY PIER HOUSE           17. MELVILLE HOUSE              29. NEWPORT HALL
                         6. BROOKE HALL                18. CONRAD HOUSE                30. BOAT SHED
                         7. BYRD HALL                  19. COASTAL INVENTORY FACILITY  31. OYSTER HATCHERY
                         8. SEDIMENT LAB               20. RALEIGH HOUSE               32. SAV GREENHOUSE
                         9. SERVICE CENTER & WET LAB   21. JEFFERSON HALL              33. TURTLE GREENHOUSE
                        10. MAINTENANCE SHOP           22. HALL HOUSE                  34. SCIENTIFIC STORAGE
                        11. REED HOUSE                 23. BROWN HOUSE                    BUILDING (Under
                        12. MASEFIELD HOUSE            24. WILLIAMS HOUSE                 construction)


















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