    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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                                    MAINE WETLANDS
                     CONSERVATION PRIORITY PLAN

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                QH     'JREAU OF PARKS AND RECREATION
                76.5    'ATE. PLANNING OFFICE
                .M2     ')s SUBCOMMITTEE, LAND AND WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL
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                                            MAINE WETLANDS
                                      CONSERVATION PRIORITY PLAY

                                          ANADDENDUMTOTHE
                           STATE COMPREHENSIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION PLAN
                                                  (SCORP)

                                              Lissa Widoff

                                              July, 1988

                                 Maine Bureau of Parks and Recreation
                                      Maine State Planning Office
                           Wetlands Subcommittee, Land and Water Resources Council

                                    r     US DepaAment of Coinmerce
                                     NOAA Coasto Services Center Library
                                           22134 South Iffobson Avenue
                                             C                      -to
                                           Charleston, SC 29405-2413

         The preparation of this plan was financed in part through a planning grant from the National Park
         Service, Department of the Interior, under the provisions of the Land and Water Conservation Fund
         Act of 1965 (Public Law 88-578). The plan was also funded in part by a general appropriation to
         the Bureau of Parks and Recreation.

                                                                      Acknowledgernents

                   Many people contributed to various aspects of this report. The members of the Wetlands
           Subcommittee of the Land and Water Resources Council contributed their expertise and carefully
           reviewed this report. Others were contacted for assistance with information on historic losses of
           wetlands, as well as current losses and threats. The staff people of several state and federal
           agencies amicably tolerated my questioning and data gathering, and joined in the support of this
           report.

                   Specific thanks go to Ken Anderson and Gary Donovan of Maine Department of Inland
           Fisheries and Wildlife, Duane Scott and Bill Reid of Maine Department of Transportation, Bob
           Wengrzynek of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service, and Edward Zip
           Kellogg of the University of Southern Maine Library. Finally,-thanks go to Tom Cieslinski, Cindy
           Bastey and Herb Hartman of the Bureau of Parks and Recreation who developed the work plan for
           this project, and to Jim Bernard of the Maine State Planning Office who oversaw its progress and
           completion and provided steady support in concept, content and editing.

                   Credit is due to Hank Tyler for use of the cover photo of the Great Heath in Cherryfield,
           Maine, one of the state's largest wetlands.

                                                                   Executive Summary

                  Maine is 25% wetland. More than 5,000,000 acres of freshwater wetlands and approximately
           160,000 acres of tidal wetlands are currently estimated to occur in Maine. The diversity of climatic
           and physiographic conditions in Maine accounts for the diversity of wetland types and their extent
           in Maine. Forested and shrub swamps are most abundant, while tidal marshes and beach systems are
           least abundant. Each have important natural values and the latter are crucial for the survival of
           many species of migratory birds. Other wetland types in Maine include mudflats and rocky shores,
           freshwater marshes, bogs and fens, floodplain wetlands and other seasonally flooded flats or basins
           with wetland vegetation and/or soils, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service definition of
           wetland.

                  Wetlands have many natural and cultural values and provide many important functions such as
           fish, wildlife and endangered species habitat; flood control, nutrient retention and sediment
           trapping; production of timber and other natural resources; and recreation, education and research,
           and use as natural areas. The "critical edge" or wetland-upland transition zone is extremely
           important for wildlife, providing a buffer protecting the wetland from indirect or secondary
           impacts, such as pollution.

                  Existing wetland inventories give only a partial indication of the extent and type of wetlands
           in Maine. Inventories have used different wetland definitions and classifications, size criteria for
           inclusion and inventory methodologies. Though a number of wetland inventories exist in Maine,
           there is a critical lack of a single comprehensive wetland mapping system that could be used for
           regulatory, planning and management purposes. The absence of a complete mapping or inventory
           system not only precludes the determination of current extent and location of wetlands, it makes
           wetland losses and other trends impossible to monitor.

                  Historically, 1-2% of Maine's original vegetated wetland acreage has been lost or converted to
           other uses. There has also been a net gain in open water wetland areas, althoiLgh extent of this is
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           vegetated coastal and inland wetland areas, but their replacement value for wildlife or other
           functions is not well known.

                  When wetlands are altered or destroyed for various kinds of development, maintenance and
           operating costs are generally higher than wisely developed upland sites. There are more
           environmental and socioeconomic costs associated with wetland alterations that must be considered,
           since these costs will inevitably be passed on to the consumer.

                  Alterations which result -in outright wetland loss include filling, dredging and draining. Losses
           of wetland function,and, value are far more difficult to measure, but are just as serious and in fact
           more widespread. Important here is the loss of riparian or buffer areas adjacent to wetlands which
           are crucial for preserving the integrity of wetland functions and values. The conversion of land
           use around a wetland can also alter or destroy the natural values or integrity of a wetland.

                  The filling of wetlands has occurred throughout Maine's history of settlement as these
           61 wastelands" were "improved" for residential and commercial development. Agricultural activities
           have converted vegetation types and when located in or near floodplains may have reduced some
           natural flood control features. Other wetland values have been lost or reduced, even thought the
           area may still be classified as wetland. Dam construction has created open water habitats while
           often flooding vegetated wetland types.

                  Currently, wetland losses are greatest in smaller wetlands in rapidly developing areas of the
           state, e.g. southern York County, south coastal areas and other high-growth urban centers. Coastal
           salt marshes are experiencing the greatest threats from fringing development, whereas inland

                 wetlands, especially smaller ones, are being filled. While the values of individual sMall wetlands may
                 not be great, they are extremely important within a larger landscape context. The cumulative loss
                 of many small wetlands via development activities may be just as severe as the loss of a smaller
                 number of large wetlands when habitat and cultural values are considered.

                        Inconsistency between state and federal wetland laws, in terms of differing definitions, size of
                 wetland. regulated and exemptions, has complicated matters for developers and regulators alike.
                 Within Maine, different agencies of state government have different mandates, (e.g. DEP regulates
                 activities in wetlands to preserve their functions and MDOT is, required to build safe roads for the
                 public, which may include filling wetlands). Nationally, there are similar conflicting mandates, but
                 these are being merged into a more unified policy in favor of stronger wetland protection.

                        Enforcement and implementation of regulatory wetland protection programs varies at all levels
                 - federal, state and local - and are generally outpaced by the current rate of wetland alterations.
                 Many wetland alterations are'inadequately regulated, especially developments on smaller wetlands
                 and the cumulative impacts on specific wetlands or wetland complexes. Regulation is ineffective in
                 evaluating how seriously or permanently an alteration impairs wetland functions. It is unknown to
                                                                           all
                 what extent certain wetland functions are being lost by what degree of alteration.

                        Many losses of wetland function and value are attributed to activities in upland areas
                 immediately adjacent to wetlands, (e.g. housing and industrial development, landfills). Most
                 regulatory programs deal with the wetland itself and not specific activities on adjacent lands that
                 could adversely affect the wetland indirectly. Regulation may not stop development from occurring
                 near wetlands; however, non-regulatory initiatives (designation, registry, easements, etc.) may
                 provide important opportunities to address problems created by adjacent and upland developments
                 that affect wetlands.

                       Acquisition is often the only means to ensure the long-term protection of certain high-value
                 wetlands and their component species. Permanent protection is also required for buffer areas around
                 these high priority wetlands, to avert the potential for secondary impacts upon protected wetlands.
                 Although the state and private entities have already protected some important wetlands, there are
                 still acquisition needs which have not been met. There is agreement within the conservation
                 community, wildlife biologists and natural area managers, that wetland acquisition is a high priority
                 fos*Aaine. The potential for wetlands as educational resources has scarcely been developed in the
               4 Statm,-and may be contributing to any lack of understanding of the biological and cultural
                 impFanai; a*of these ecosystems.

                                                                 TABLE OF CONTENTS

           CHAPTER                                                                        PAGE

           1. Introduction and Scope                                                            I

           2. Roles and Responsibilities                                                        3

           3. The Distribution of Wetlands in Maine                                             4
                  The Origin of Wetlands in Maine                                               5
                  Major Wetland Types                                                           5
                  Wetland Inventories                                                           9

           4. Wetland Functions and Values                                                   30
                  Intrinsic Values of Wetlands                                               30
                  Ecologocal Values of Wetlands                                              31

           5. Wetland Alterations: Threats and Losses                                        42
                  Historic Wetland Losses                                                    42
                         Land Use History                                                    42
                         Types of Wetland Alteration                                         43
                         Causes and Amounts of Wetland Loss                                  44
                         Cumulative Impacts                                                  52
                         Economic Values of Wetland Loss                                     53
                   -     Case Studies of Wetland Loss                                        53
                         Mitigation                                                          69
                  Present Threats and Losses                                                 56
                  Future Threats and Losses                                                  56

           6. Evaluation of Wetland Protection Programs in Maine                             57
                  Federal Programs                                                           57
                  State Programs                                                             70
                  Private Land Acquisition Efforts                                           80

           7. Wetland Acquisition Priorities                                                 83

           Recommendations                                                                   85

           Literature Cited                                                                  87

           Appendices
                  I Emergency Wetlands Protection Act                                        A-1
                  11 Maine Wetland Inventory Classification                                  A-7
                  III U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wetland
                  Classification                                                           A-1 3
                  IV Comparison between U. S. Fish and Wildlife
                  Service Wetland Classification (Cowardin, 1979)
                  and Classificatibn of U. S. Fish and Wildlife
                  Service Circular 39 (Martin et al., 1953).                               A-1 5
                  V Wetlands Assessment Threshold Criteria                                 A-1 7

                                                                 LIST OF TABLES

          TABLE NO.                                                                  PAGE

          3.1. Estimated Wetland Area of New England.                                     4
          3.2. Comparison of Wetland Inventories in Maine.                              10
          3.3. Total Maine Wetland Inventory Coverage by Type                           11
          3.4. Maine Wetland Inventory Coverage in Acres by
                 Type and County.                                                       14-
          3.5. Total State Wetland Acreage in the Coastal Zone,
                 by System Type, From An Ecological Characterization
                 of Coastal Maine.                                                      20
          3.6. Results of the Maine Peat Resource Evaluation
                 Program.                                                               21
          3.7. Inland Freshwater Wetlands along the Maine Coast,
                 Cape Elizabeth to Calais. A Comparison of Wetland
                 Inventory Results.                                                     27
          3.8. Acres of Wetlands By Type in Maine                                       28
          5.1. Historically and Currently Harvested Peatlands
                 in Maine.                                                              51
          6.1. EPA Region I Listing of Priority Wetlands in Maine.                      61
          6.2. Wetlands Owned, Managed or Designated by the U.S.
                 Department of the Interior in Maine.                                   66
          6.3. Protected Units in the National Coastal Barrier
                 Resources System in Maine.                                             69
          6.4. "A' and "B" Designated Rivers with Noted Wetland
                 Features.                                                              73
          6.5. Department of Conservation-Owned and Managed
                 Wetlands.                                                              78
          6.6. Summary of Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and
                 Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) and Properties with
                 Wetland Acreage.                                                       79
          6.8. Summary of Wetland Protection Programs                                   82

          OCLC: 23464398                Rec stat:      n
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        S Type: a           Bib LvL:  m           Source:               Lang:   eng
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          Indx: 0           Mod rec:              Govt pub: s           Cont:   b
          Desc:  a          Int LvL:              Festschr: 0           ILLus:  a
                            F/B:      0           Dat tp:     s         Dates:  1988,      %
        $     1010       89-620337 %
        $     2040       DLC Ic DLC %
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        S     6090       Ib %
        $     7049       NON %
        S     8100   1   Widoff, Lisse. %
        $     9245   10  Maine wetlands conservation priority plan : Ib an addendum to
        the   state comprehensive outdoor recreation plan (SCORP) / Ic Lissa Widoff. %
        S 10 260         [Augusta] : Ib Maine Bureau of Parks and Recreation, Maine State
        Planning Office, Wetlands Subcommittee, Land and Water Resources Council, Ic
        [19883 %
        $  11  300       91, 26 p. : Ib RL. ; Ic 28 cm. %
        $  12  500       "JULY 1988.11 %
        S  13  504       Includes bibliographical references. %
        S  14  650   0   WetLand conservation Iz Maine. %
        $  15  650   0   Wetlands Iz Maine. %
        $  16  710   2   Maine Land and Water Resources Council. %

                                                                                                         IN

                                                               LIST OF FIGURES

          FIGURE NO.                                                               PAGE

          3.1. Distribution of Inland Wetland Types in Maine By
                County According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data.                     12
          3.2. Distribution of Open Fresh Water Wetlands in Maine
                by County According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data.                  13
          3.3. Distribution of Coastal Wetland Types in Maine By
                County According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data.                     13-
          3.4. Percent of COunty Land Area classified as wetland
                by the Maine Wetland Inventory.                                       15
          3.5. Percent of Total State Wetland Area in the Maine
                Wetland Inventory Found in Each County or Region.                     16
          3.6. The 6 Regions of the Maine Coast Characterization
                Area From An Ecological Characterization of Coastal
                Maine.                                                                19
          3.7. Freshwater and Tidal Wetlands in Maine, 1988
                Estimates (Based on Table 3.7).                                       29
          4.1 The Landed Value of Maine Fisheries From
                1960-1984.                                                            37
          4.2. The Landed Value of Lobsters, Clams and Scallops
                1960-1984.                                                            38
          4.3. The Total Catch of Principal Shellfish Species in
                Pounds From 1960 - 1986.                                              39
          4.4. Numbers of Harvesting Licenses for Shellfish, Worms
                and Commercial Fishing from 1970 - 1984.                              40
          5.1. Estimated Loss of Vegetated Wetlands in Maine Since
                European Settlement.                                                  44
          6.1. Wetlands Protected by Federal Acquisition in Maine.                    67
          6.2. Number of Wetland and Dune-Related DEP applications
                processed, 1980 - 1987.                                               72
          6.3. Wetlands Protected by State Acquisition in Maine.                      75
          6.4. Wetlands in Maine Protected by Registry Programs                       77
          6.5. Protected Wetlands.Held in Private Ownership (and
                Conservation Easements) in Maine.                                     81

                                                    CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

                 The Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986 (Appendix 1) was enacted, by the U.S.
          Congress to promote wetland conservation in order to maintain the public benefits they provide, as
          well as help fulfill international obligations contained in various migratory bird treaties and
          conventions. A broad variety of measures are specifically outlined in the Act to protect wetlands
          and curb wetland losses. The Act amends the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) Act to:

          (1) Eliminate the restriction on acquiring migratory waterfowl areas;

          (2) Require that State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans (SCORPs) specifically address
          wetlands as important outdoor recreation resources; and

          (3) Qualify wetlands as suitable replacement lands for LWCF lands converted to other uses.

                 In addition, the Act requires the Department of the Interior to establish a National Wetlands
          Priority Conservation Plan (NWPCP) specifying the types of and interests in wetlands, to be given
          priority for federal and state acquisition. The NWPCP provides the basic policy framework for the
          various wetland protection efforts underway by different federal agencies.

                 The Maine Wetlands Conservation Priority Plan is an addendum to the Maine SCORP,
          satisfying the requ'irement for a wetlands component as outlined in (2) above. This Plan addresses
          the types and distribution of wetlands in Maine based on available data from existing inventories
          and assessments. No new data was collected. Estimates of historic wetland losses and analysis of
          future threats have been addressed. Existing wetland protection programs were evaluated including
          regulatory, acquisition and registration/designation programs administered at the state and federal
          levels. The natural functions and values of wetlands in Maine are outlined with special reference to
          impending threats and losses in quality and function. These considerations have been coalesced into
          recommendations for wetland acquisition priorities for the state. A set of criteria has been
          developed in consultation with various state agencies and experts that will provide a framework for
          wetlands later proposed for acquisition.

                 This report will serve a dual function by fulfilling the state requirement to the National Park
          Service and a background document to coordinate future state wetland policy development. The
          Land and Water Resources Council approved the broad approach to be taken in the preparation of
          this report. The recommendations proposed at the end of the report include some which are
          applicable to in-state interests only.

                 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is simultaneously developing a State Wetlands Concept
          Plan which will be consistent with this wetland component of SCORP and outline site-specific
          wetland acquisition priorities for the Service. The State Concept Plan is produced by the U.S. Fish
          and Wildlife Service in Concord, New Hampshire and will drive their protection efforts.

                 The net result of these different programs is that for many federally funded land acquisition
          programs, states must fully and cooperatively address the diverse interests in wetlands protection
          before they can remain eligible for these funds.Similarly, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service must
          demonstrate consistency with state wetland protection priorities.

                 In Maine, a subcommittee of the Land and Water Resources Council was established to provide
          guidance and oversight of this effort to articulate a unified interest in a coordinated wetlands
          protection effort. Many unresolved issues remain, yet the unequivocal importance of wetlands in the
          Maine landscape, both culturally and biologically, was supported by all participants.

                         The members of the Wetlands Subcommittee of the Land and Water Resources Council are:

                  James Bernard               State Planning Office
                  Ken Anderson                Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
                  Gary Donovan                Department of Inland. Fisheries and Wildlife
                  John Williams               Maine Geological Survey
                  Tom Cieslinski              Bureau of Parks and Recreation
                  Hollis Tedford              Bureau of Public Lands
                  Walter Foster               Department of Marine Resources
                  Frank Ricker                Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources
                  Duane Scott                 Department of Transportation
                  William Reid                Department of Transportation
                  Judy Dorsey                 Maine Audubon Society
                  Bob Wengrzynek              U. S. D. A. Soil Conservation Service
                  Don Witherill               Department of Environmental Protection
                  John Albright               The Nature Conservancy
                  Dr. Ronald Davis            University of Maine

                                                 CHAPTER 2 - ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

                 Many state agencies and departments retain some control or interest in activities relating to
          the use and protection of Maine's wetlands resources. Responsibilities include the mapping of
          resources, the regulation of development activities, management of wildlife habitat, the designation
          of wetlands as natural areas, wetlands as recreation resources, and even wetlands as economic
          resources. The involvement of each of the state agencies in wetlands will be described in later
          chapters as appropriate and is summarized here.

          Maine Department of Conservation

                 Maine Geological Survey - Responsible for mapping efforts including wetlands, distribution
          and sale of wetland maps, identification of peat resources and other wetland inventory efforts
          both geological and ecological.

                 Maine Bureau of Parks and Recreation - Owns and manages over 2000 acres of wetland
          habitats.

                 Maine Bureau of Public Lands - Owns and manages over 14,000 acres of wetland habitats.

                 Maine Land Use Regulation Commission - Responsible for regulation and monitoring land use
          activities in the unorganized territories of Maine.

          Maine Department of Environmental Protection

                 Bureau of Land Quality Control - Regulates several land use laws that pertain to wetlands
          both directly and indirectly. Laws include Site Location of Development Law, Natural Resources
          Protection Act (coastal wetlands, freshwater wetlands, strearnside and lakeside wetlands) and the
          Rivers Act.

               . Bureau of Water Quality Control - Regulates activities resulting in the discharge of pollutants
          into water bodies and wetlands.

                 Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Materials - Regulates and monitors the disposal of hazardous
          materials into the environment, including the remediation of unauthorized activities. Responsible for.
          the identification of hazardous waste sites, some of which include wetlands.

          Maine Department of Marine Resources - Responsible for the management and protection of
          commercial marine resources including fish and shellfish habitats, and interticlal areas.

          Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife - The Department's mandate is to preserve,
          protect and enhance the inland fisheries and wildlife resources of the state; to encourage the wise
          use of these resources; to ensure coordinated planning for the future use and preservation of these
          resources; and to provide for effective management of these resources. The Department currently
          manages over 16,000 acres of wetlands, and has programs in place to purchase additional areas.

          Maine State Planning Office - Responsible for coordinating policy and planning efforts of natural
          resources agencies through the Land and Water Resources Council and through special projects.

                                           CHAPTER 3 - THE DISTRIBUTION OF WETLANDS IN MAINE

                  Maine, with its variegated coastline and topography shapedby glaciation, has been endowed
           with a diversity of wetlands unmatched in the northeast exclusive of Canada'. Maine has four times
           the wetland area of all New England states combined based on state and national wetland
           inventories, and 63% of the wetland area of New England based on hydric soil types (Tiner and
           Venneman, 1987). In most cases, hydric soils harbor wetla'nd vegetation and communities. The
           wetland area of Maine is nearly equivalent in area to the state of Massachusetts. Maine also has
           the greatest percentage of its land area in wetland compared to other New England States.

           Table 3.1. Estimated wetland area of New England

           a) Based on national and state wetland inventories.

                                                                Percent of
           STATE                     Wetland Area              State's Land Area

           Maine                         5,160,000                   25
           New Hampshire                    95,000                    2
           Vermont                         220,000                    4
           Massachusetts                   587,000                   10
           Rhode Island                     65,000                   10
           Connecticut                     418,000                   14
           TOTAL                         6,545,000

           b) Based on extent of hydric soils (Tiner and Vennernan, 1987)

                                           Area of       Percent of
           STATE                       Hydric Soil       State's Land Area

           Maine                         6,460,000                32.6
           New Hampshire                   983,000                17.2
           Vermont                       1,395,000                24.7
           Massachusetts                   818,000                16.5
           Rhode Island                    112,000                16.6
           Connecticut                     438,000                14.1
           TOTAL                        10,206,000

                  The diversity of wetland types found in Maine is a result of many physical, climatic, and
           biological factors. The maritime influence of a cooler climate, glaciated landscapes and poor soil
           drainage conditions have contributed to the extent and character of Maine's wetlands. The salt
           marsh systems of the southern Maine coast and inland bogs, marshes and swamps are some of the
           general types of wetlands found in Maine.

                                                          4

                                                          THE ORIGIN OF WETLANDS IN MAINE

                       To aid in understanding the diversity of wetland types in Maine, the conditions of wetland
                formation are discussed here. The glaciers which covered Maine until approximately 13,000 years
                ago left a cool, moist and saturated landscape as they retreated. The weight of the ice and the
                volume of melting water caused the sea to inundate coastal Maine and inland areas along some of
                the major river valleys (Stuiver and Borns, 1975). Water filled depressions lined with impermeable
                marine clays left by the transgressing sea. Other areas remained saturated. These poorly drained
                areas gave rise to the extensive wetland areas seen in Maine today. In other cases, wetlands
                formed where a flooding regime was established, or where drainage along a slope favored wetland
                vegetation.

                       The cool climate also favored the growth of many wetland plants. Shallow ponds gradually
                filled with the remains of plant materials and gave rise to a succession of plant communities that
                continued to thrive and maintain the waterlogged conditions in which they.grew. Peatlands (bogs
                and fens) are widespread in Maine, and contain deposits of undecomposed plant material known as
                peat, often several meters thick (Cameron et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983; Tolonen et al., in press).
                In areas with better, but slow drainage patterns, shallower peat deposits formed. Peat deposits
                generally accumulate vertically because organic matter is deposited in a confined area. In many
                cases, however, peatland has been shown to spread laterally over adjacent mineral soils under
                suitable climatic conditions (Davis et al., in prep; Sorenson, 1986).

                       Salt marshes are similar to peatlands in that they are aggrading environments, (i.e. ones
                which accumulate sediment and continue to "grow" over time). As Maine's coastline moved seaward,
                salt marsh communities followed, retaining their proximity to the tidal influence on which they
                depend. Hence, in contrast to peat deposits, salt marsh sediment accumulation (which also contains
                substantial amounts of peat) tends to occur along a diagonal slope below ground.

                       Where ponds and lakes formed that were fed by groundwater or surface runoff, wetland
                vegetation became established along the edges or in calm coves. The rate of renewal of the volume
                of water in the basin and the configuration of the shoreline are two possible determinants of
                whether wetland vegetation invades and to what degree.

                       In general, natural wetlands exist because of saturated soil conditions, a regular flooding
                regime, impoundment, or seepage, and these conditions have their origin in Maine's glacial history.
                Even areas that were not covered by ice received meltwater or prolonged flooding or saturation
                during post-glacial periods. The diversity of wetland types found in Maine reflects the composite
                assemblage of plants and animals which have adapted to a given set of conditions over millennia.

                                                                 MAJOR WETLAND TYPES

                       The wetland types which will be discussed throughout this report fall into a few broad
                categories. Freshwater wetlands include marshes, swamps and peatlands (bogs and fens). These may
                be isolated wetlands or associated with water bodies such as streams, lakes or ponds. Coastal
                wetlands include salt marshes, interticlal flats, rocky shores and other tidal marshes with varying
                salinity (brackish, fresh/brackish, etc.).

                       In the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, "wetland" means land that has a predominance of
                hydric soils and that is inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and
                duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances does support, a prevalence of
                hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. It is implied here that
                an area must have all these characteristics to be considered a wetland, and is consistent with the

                                                               5

           Army Corps of Engineers wetland definition (33 CFR 328.3(b)) employed in the regulation of the
           discharge of dredged or fill material into wetlands under the Section 404 Program of the Clean
           Water Act.

                 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service defines wetlands for their classification system as:

                 "lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water
                 table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by
                 shallow water. Wetlands must have one or more of the following three
                 attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly
                 hydrophytes, (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil,- and (3)
                 the substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water at some time during the
                 growing season of the year.

                 The term wetland includes a variety of areas that fall into one of five
                 categories: (1) areas with hydrophytes and hydric soils, such as those
                 commonly known as marshes, swamps and bogs; (2) area without hydrophytes
                 but with hydric soils-for example, flats where drastic fluctuations in water
                 level, wave action, turbidity, or high concentration of salts may prevent the
                 growth of hydrophytes; (3) areas with hydrophytes but nonhydric soils, such as
                 margins of impoundments or excavations where hydrophytes have become
                 established but hydric soils have not yet developed; (4) areas without soils
                 but with hydrophytes such as the seaweed-covered portions of rocky shores;
                 and (5) wetlands without soil and without hydrophytes, such as gravel beaches
                 or rocky shores without vegetation." (Cowardin et al., 1979). -

                 In the U.S. Fish and Wildlife classification, deepwater (or aquatic) habitats are those
           permanently flooded lands lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands and are classified
           separately from wetlands as described above. Wetlands and deepwater habitats may be within each
           of the five major Systems defined in the classification: Marine, Estuarine, Riverine, Lacustrine,
           and Palustrine. The Palustrine by definition includes all freshwater wetlands. Wetlands are
           associated at the margins of cleepwater habitats of all other systems.

                 For the purposes of this report, it is the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service definition of wetlands
           that is used in discussions of wetlands. Although deepwater habitats are classified in most wetland
           inventories, later discussions on extent, distribution and threats and losses will not include these.
           Furthermore, this definition of wetland is a biological one and not limited to legal definition of
           wetlands which are included in particular laws or programs. The wetland classification system used
           by the Maine Wetland Inventory is given in Appendix 11 and that used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
           Service is given in Appendix 111.

                 Each of the wetland types found in Maine is represented by a variety of plant associations or
           natural communities and is affected by several variables such as geographic location (or location
           within an "ecoregion"), proximity to the coast, bedrock and surficial geology, drainage, flood
           regime, etc. These variables will be briefly described here.

                 The geographic location of a wetland will influence its species composition. Wetlands in
           northern Maine share a closer affinity.in species composition with Canadian, or boreal systems. For
           example, fens in northernmost and northwestern Maine have vegetation and surface features that
           classify them as "ribbed fens" or "string bogs", such as those in adjacent Canada. Bogs are
           abundant throughout Maine, with different types characteristic of different parts of the state with

                                                            6

                  overlap between them (Davis et al., in prep.). Coastal plateau bogs are restricted to the extreme
                  eastern portion of the Maine coast in Washington and Hancock Counties (Worley, 1980, Damman,
                  1979). Distinctly "domed" bogs are apparently only found in central and eastern Maine, whereas
                  other types, such as kettlehole bogs are found throughout the state.

                         Conversely, wetlands. in southern Maine may contain species which are more common further
                  south and reach the northern limit of their distribution in Maine. One example is Atlantic White
                  Cedar (Chamaecyparis thvoides) which occurs in southern Maine swamps and Oeatlands, occasionally
                  with tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica , another species of southern affinity. Along with these rare
                  occurrences of plant species, associated organisms may likewise be found and similarly uncommon.
                  One example is the butterfly Hessel's hairstreak (Mitoura hesseli) which is associated with Atlantic
                  White Cedar wetlands to the south, and recently discovered for the first time in Saco Heath, a
                  raised bog with Atlantic White Cedar in southern Maine (Maine Natural Heritage Data Base, 1987).

                         The proximity to the coast and tidal influence is another distinguishing factor for many
                  wetlands, especially marshes. Saline or salt marshes are those regularly flooded by the tides. Other
                  tidal marshes are also associated with freshwater systems, such as rivers, and the mixing of saline
                  and fresh water in wetland systems will affect species composition. Saltwater influence diminishes
                  inland from the coast, with a corresponding change in vegetation. Exposed flats are also affected
                  by differing salinity in terms of species composition. The flora of brackish and fresh/brackish
                  intertidal mudflats include several species which are considered rare in Maine. In addition, brackish
                  wetlands associated with water bodies near the coast, such as Merrymeeting Bay, are also important
                  for nesting and feeding waterfowl.

                         The chemical nature of the bedrock or surficial deposits associated with wetlands may affect
                  the water chemistry and hence the vegetation composition of the wetland. Since most of the
                  subsurface geology in Maine is acidic in nature, there are often similar species between similar
                  wetland types. However, in a few areas in Maine, water passing through calcareous (lime-rich)
                  sediments    may enrich a wetland and encourage the growth of a number of lime-loving plants
                  considered rare in Maine, primarily due to the scarcity of these environmental conditions. This
                  condition is found in several "calcareous fens", i.e. shallow groundwater-fed peatlands, primarily
                  restricted to a small region in northeastern Aroostook County. Elsewhere, calcareous sediments
                  along rivershores, such as the St. John River, harbor a unique association of plants, including the
                  federally endangered St. John River endemic, Furbish's Lousewort (Pedicularis furbishiae .

                         The kind of drainage in a wetland is another determinant of the type of wetland or the
                  vegetation composition. Most wetlands are in low-lying areas, and are often catch basins for the
                  associated watershed. Some wetlands may be in a stagnant basin with no outflow. Water levels may
                  fluctuate with spring runoff and ensuing evapotranspiration, yet may stay saturated all year and be
                  inhabited by a suite of species adapted to these conditions. Wetlands may also be in seepage areas,
                  where water moves through the system at a regular rate, providing a steady influx of water,
                  oxygen and nutrients and a natural flushing away of biological waste products. Seepage wetlands
                  may also remain saturated all year, but do not become stagnant.

                         Finally, the vegetation structure imparts a primary distinguishing factor between wetlands.
                  Wetlands may beforested or shrub-dominated (swamp), grass or sedge-dominated (marsh), heath
                  shrub- and moss-dominated (bog) or non-vegetated (mudflat), or a combination o      'f these. It is the
                  vegetation structure as well as composition which has a bearing on the presence of particular
                  animal species at a wetland. Diversity of species and structure contributes to the diversity of
                  animal communities present.

                                                                   7

                 The water regime or flood regime is an important factor in the distribution of wetlands in the
          state. Many wetlands are associated with water bodies which flood seasonally, or at least
          periodically. Inundation of the wetland provides the enrichment necessary for plant growth. In
          Maine, floodplain wetlands are most common along broad and flat river and stream valley systems.
          Floodplain vegetation may vary regionally or locally from silver maple floodplain forests to alder-
          lined stream banks, to sparsely vegetated cobble shores to sedge and rush-dominated marshes along
          slow moving streams. Physical and topographical conditions influence the vegetation structure and
          composition, forming many different kinds of floodplain plant communities. Historically, floodplain
          soils with higher mineral soil content have been more vulnerable to development.

                                                          8

                                                                 WETLAND INVENTORIES

                  Overview

                         A number of different wetland inventories have been conducted in Maine, each with its own
                  purpose, using different wetland definitions, classification, and methodology. None of these are
                  comprehensive for all wetland types on a statewide basis, except for the Maine Wetlands Inventory
                  (MWI) of the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (MDIFW), which provides a usable
                  classification scheme and a statewide approach for use as baseline for comparison of wetlands data
                  in the state.

                         All existing wetland inventories have been evaluated for their usefulness to SCORP,
                  particularly as they may provide accurate acreage estimates for wetland types statewide and
                  regionally. A comparison of different wetland inventories is given in Table 3.2. Since most
                  inventories focus on one region or group of wetland types,- different sources may be used for the
                  best estimates of each type. As justification for this approach, a chronology of wetland inventories
                  is presented here.

                  The Maine Wetland Inventory (MWI)

                         In 1954, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), through its Office of River Basin
                  Studies, conducted the first inventory of wetlands in Maine (USDI, 1954). At that time there was
                  the first inkling of nationwide recognition* of wetlands as important resources, particularly for
                  their value as waterfowl habitat. To avert potential losses, selected wetlands >40 acres in size
                  were selected by MDIFW staff and typed by the USFWS using aerial photo analysis. These were
                  then surveyed on the ground and rated for their value to waterfowl (high-medium-low).

                         The study results have shown that Maine wetlands were not seriously threatened at that time,
                  although wetland "development" to enhance waterfowl productivity was encouraged. Although 2/3 of
                  the wetlands inventoried occurred in inland Maine, it was recognized then as now, that the coastal
                  region contains the highest proportion of high value wetlands, especially true because of the tidal
                  mudflats and marshes which host migratory and wintering shorebirds and waterfowl and sustain
                  commercial shellfish production.

                         A companion study to this followed in 1959, in which permanent water areas in Maine >1 0
                  acres were surveyed. This study found a greater abundance of coastal saline areas than inland fresh
                  areas that were significant to migratory waterfowl (USFWS, 1959). Then in the 1960's, MDIFW, also
                  recognizing the importance of various wetland habitats to waterfowl, began the Maine Wetland
                  Inventory (MWI). The purpose of the inventory was to locate and evaluate existing and potential
                  wetlands in the state, especially those suitable as habitat for breeding waterfowl (McCall, 1972).
                  For approximately ten years (1963-1973) data was collected on wetlands at least ten acres in size
                  and entered into the MWI computerized data base. Information. such as type, location, habitat value,
                  etc. is computerized for each wetland entry, allowing the data base to still serve as a primary
                  management tool for the Department. Wetlands were also identified by major and minor watershed.
                  Thirteen major river drainage systems comprising 129 minor watersheds form the basic unit of
                  organization of the maps and data base.

                                                                  9

                                    Table 3.2. Comparison of Wetland Inventories in Maine

        PARAMETERS             SMI           PRI          FWI          NWI           MCI          MWI(1972)      MWI(1954)

        Date completed         1987          1984         1983         1980          1977         1972           1954

        Duration               I yr.         5 yrs.       6 mo.        5 yrs.        5 yrs.       10 yrs

        Lead Agency            UMO/MGS       MGS          MGS/DEP      USFWS         SPO          MDIFW          USFWS

        Base Map Scale         1:24,000      1:24,000     1:50,000     1:24,000,     1:48,000     1: 125,000     1: 1.25,000
                                             (in prep.)                1:64,000,                    1:62,500
                                                                       1:100,000

        Minimum wetland        150m2         80 ac.       10 ac..      3-5 ac.       5 ac./20 ac.    10 ac.      40 ac.
        Size

        Classification         Timson,       Cameron,     none         Cowardin      general      Martin et      Martin et
        System                   1977         1984                     et al., 1979               al., 1953      al., 1953

        Number of Types        I (salt       1 (Bogs)                  several                    14             14
        identified              marsh)

        Methods                planimetry    aerial       aerial       aerial        aerial       A.P. and       A.P. and
                                              photo        photo        photo        photo,1966      Field Chk.     F.C.
        Photo Scale                          1:20,000     1:40,000     1:80,000                    1:1320

        Regional               coastal       statewide    organized    coastal       coastal      statewide      statewide
           Coverage                                       towns

        Acreage Data           Yes           Yes          Yes          Yes           No           Yes            Yes
                                                          (partial)

        Useful for             Yes           No           Yes          Yes           No           Yes            No
        SCORP

        KEY: SMI=Salt Marsh Inventory (Jacbson et al., 1987); PRI=Maine Peat Resource Inventory (Cameron
        et al., 1984); FWI=Maine Freshwater Wetland inventory (MGS,1985); NWI=National Wetland Inventory
        (USFWS,1980); MCI=Maine Coastal Inventory; MWI= Maine Wetland Inventory (MDIFW).

                        Although all wetland types were documented in the inventory (including open water wetlands),
                  only their suitability or potential as waterfowl breeding habitat was evaluated. Today, MDIFW
                  ground surveys are reviewing more than just waterfowl habitat, recognizing that all wetland types
                  have various wildlife values (G. Donovan, K. Anderson, pers. communication; Jones et a[., 1988). At
                  present, nearly 1.8 million acres of wetland comprise the MWI database, and updates are
                  incorporated incidental to ongoing work (Table 3.3). The distribution of wetland types included in
                  the current Maine Wetland Inventory is illustrated in Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3.

                  Table 3.3 TOTAL MAINE WETLAND INVENTORY COVERAGE BY TYPE:

                  TYPE                                           # ACRES                WETLANDS

                  Flat/Basin                                     10,249                   126
                  Fresh Meadow                                   58,772                 1295
                  Fresh Marsh                                    57,602                 9431
                  Open Fresh Water                               913,003                4224
                  Shrub Swamp                                   208,342                 5559
                  Wooded Swamp                                 .279,599                 5239
                  Bog                                            168,895                2265
                  Coastal Fresh Marsh                            11,399                    27
                  Coastal Open Fresh Water                         1,462                    5
                  Salt Marsh                                     16,917                   140
                  Sound or Bay (mudflat)                         56,689             not determined
                  Unknown                                          1,853                   15
                  TOTALS                                      1,781,798               19,848

                        The MWI is the only statewide inventory which has catalogued acreage of individual wetlands
                  by type and county, and is therefore a useful frame of reference with other inventories (Table 3.4).
                  Figure 3.4 illustrates the extent of wetland in each county as a percent of the total area in the
                  county, based on MWI data. Figure 3.5 portrays the proportion of the total state wetland area
                  found in each county. While Penobscot, Hancock and Washington Counties all have higher
                  percentages of their county area in wetland, nearly half of the state's wetland area is found in
                  Aroostook, Piscataquis and Penobscot Counties combined.

                        The classification system used by the MWI (Martin et. al., 1953)- was a widely used system,
                  and is a precursor to the current USFWS Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the
                  United States in Appendix III (Cowardin et al., 1979). Appendix IV provides a direct comparison
                  between these two systems.

                        Other wetland inventories and researchers have used segments of the MWI data base to review
                  distribution of a particular wetland type, correlate data or determine ownership or land use
                  patterns (Davis et al., 1983; Reed and D'Andrea, 1973).

          Figure 3.1. D istribution of Inland Wetland Types in Maine by County According to Maine Wetland
          Inventory Data
        Distribution of Inlan                  d Wetland Types in Maine By County
                     According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data

            180000--

            160000--

            140000--

            120000--

            100000--

              80000--

              60000--

              40000--                                                    ..                 .....

              20000.-    =
                     0.01
                         ANDR AROO CLW FRAN HAW- KeN KNOX UNC cxm pENo p1sc sAGA sme wALD WAsH yOpK

                                    EM Bog
                                    ED Wooded Swamp
                                    12 Shrub Swamp

                                         Fresh Marsh/Meadow
                                    El Flat/Basin

                                                           12
                               *M:

                                                                    XfflPN

                                                                    ggg

              Figure 3.2. Distribution of Open Fresh Water Wetlands in Maine By County According to Maine
              Wetland Inventory Data

                               Distribution of inland Open Fresh Water Wetlands in Maine
                                                       By County
                                      According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data

                     180000..

                     160000.-

                     140000--

                  A  120000..
                  C  100000
                  R
                  E   80000
                  S   60000

                      40000

                      20000
                                                                                       -ilk
                           0
                             ANDR AROO CUMB FRAN HANC KDN 10M LNC CDFO PRO PISC SAGA SOME WALD WASH YCPX

              Flaure 3.3. Distribution of Coastal Wetland Types in Maine by County According to Maine Wetland
              Inventory Data (excluding mudflats)

                Distribution of Coastal Wetland Types in Maine By County
                        According to Maine Wetland Inventory Data

                   14000

                   12000

                   10000-
                A                                                    Coastal Open Fresh Water
                C   8000-
                R                                                    Salt Marsh
                E   6000-                                            Coastal Fresh Marsh
                S
                    4000-
                    2000-                         czm-
                       0
                          CUMB HANC PWX LINC SACA WALD WASH Y0FK

                                                  13

          Table 3.4. Maine Wetland Inventory Coverage in Acres by Type and County

          COUNTY                     Flat/        Fresh         Fresh          Open Fresh
                                     Basin           Meadow     Marsh        Water
          ANDROSCOGGIN                    5-         2782         1060         17310
          AROOSTOOK                  1901            3483         6907       102469
          CUMBERLAND                    59           1622           903        45349
          FRANKLIN                   1574            3878         1921         36011
          HANCOCK                       53           2961         3658         65505
          KENNEBEC                        0            602        6385         48281
          KNOX                            0            401          660         7445
          LINCOLN                         0          2202         1332         10918
          OXFORD                     3387            2910         4416         47349
          PENOBSCOT                   673            16003        4799       100702
          PISCATAQUIS                 967            2012         4548       173980
          SAGADAHOC                       0          1025           152           817
          SOMERSET                   1320            7953         9141       120866
          WALDO                           0          2648         4077         11665
          WASHINGTON                  315            7455         6003       110784
          YORK                            0            835        1140         13552
                Total                10249          58772         57602      913003

          COUNTY                     Shrub Swamp          Wooded Swamp       Bog
          ANDROSCOGGIN                  1038                   463           3382
          AROOSTOOK                   39005                 83096           31815
          CUMBERLAND                    2214                 2939            1527
          FRANKLIN                    12324                  6109              782
          HANCOCK                       8626                11675            9965
          KENNEBEC                      6638                 3845            2499
          KNOX                            721                  465             783
          LINCOLN                       1738                 1760              266
          OXFORD                      11521                  9015            4073
          PENOBSCOT                   28539                 55413           36644
          PISCATAQUIS                 24099                 50742           33058
          SAGADAHOC                     2774                 1494              157
          SOMERSET                    31843                 24991           12040
          WALDO                         6080                 3462              655
          WASHINGTON                  26836                 22956           30953
          YORK                          4346                 4174              296
                Total                208342               279599           168,895

                                     Coastal              Coastal            Salt       Sounds/
          COUNTY                     Fr. Marsh            Open Fr.Water      Marsh     Bays
          CUMBERLAND                      348                   454            4367
          HANCOCK                         56                      0             751
          KNOX                               0                    0             273
          LINCOLN                         586                     0             931
          SAGADAHOC                   10365                     958            2482
          WALDO                              0                    0,            435
          WASHINGTON                         0                    0            1953
          YORK                            44                      50           4254
          Total                       11399                    1462         16,917        56,689

                                                          14

                                                                                                          Aroostook County

                                                                                                                 6.38%

                                                                           piscataquis County

                                                                                         io.76%

                                                                           89.25
                                                  omerset County                                     Penobscot County
                                                         8,07%
                                                                                                                   10.90%

                                                                                                                                      Washington County

                                                                                                                                                     12.33%
                                                    9J.93%                                           89.101/0

                               W,,,WM MAVO ROOM
                                                                                                           Hancock County

                                                                                                                    9.45%
                                                                                                                                  87.67%

                                                                        Cgpjtoj Region
                                    24.25%
                                                                               7.68%

                                                                                                     90.5 %

                                          ca    Say Region

                                                  7.52%

                                                                          02.12%

                                                                                                                                           STATE OF
                                                                                                                                         MAINE

                                            02.48%                                                                                        COUN TIES

                       Figure 3.4. Percent of county land area classified as wetland by the Maine Wetland Inventory.
                               @4y                                                  15      0                U                                                      I

           Figure 3.5. Percent of total state wetland area in the Maine Wetland Inventory found in each
           county or region.

             Percent of Total State Wetland Area
               in the Maine Wetland Inventory
               Found in Each County or Region           0 Aroostook County
                         7.64%           7%             El Piscataquis County
                 7.440/co                               M  Penobscot County
                                                        10 Somerset County
             8.42%
                                                           Washington County
                                            16.78%
             5.99%                                         Hancock County

                                                           Western Maine Region
              12.03%                                    22 Capitol Region
                                       14.07%
                          12.07%                        El Casco Bay Region
            Total Wetland Area in MWI 1,781,798
                          Acres

                                                16

                  Maine Coastal Inventory (MCI)
                        In the mid-1 970's, the Maine .State Planning Office began the Maine Coastal Inventory (MCI)
                  "to collect and display social, economic and natural resource information for the whole coast" (SPO,
                  1977). The inventory consists of both mapped and statistical information. The coast was divided into
                  29 mapping units, each containing a group of towns. A variety of maps were produced for each of
                  the 29 units and included one each of Topography, Slopes, Watersheds and Water Classification,
                  Soils, Fish and Wildlife (two maps) * Land Cover Types and Recreation Facilities. In most cases the
                  minimum resolution for land types @r wetlands was five acres. The Land Cover Type map and the
                  Fish and Wildlife maps contain wetland location information. The Land Cover Type maps identify
                  wetlands as a land type, including those which are periodically or permanently flooded, such as
                  beaver flowages, bogs, hardwood swamps, tidal flats, salt marshes and shrub swamps. Different
                  wetland types are not distinguished. The Fish and Wildlife maps identify wetlands with important
                  fish and wildlife values such as wetlands important to waterfowl, shellfish beds (e.g. clam flats),
                  tidal flats and other wetlands as identified by air photo interpretation, the MWI, the Department of
                  Marine Resources (DMR)and other sources.

                        The MCI maps provide locational data only, and are based on pre-1 977 data. The base maps
                  are 1:48,000 and could still provide some use to coastal towns for planning purposes, but present
                  knowledge suggests that these are not widely used.

                  An Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine (ECCM) and The National Wetland Inventory (NWI)

                        The most comprehensive broad ecological survey of the Maine coast is depicted in the 1980
                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service report "An Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine" (Fefer and
                  Shettig, eds., 1980). When the USFWS Officeofeiological Sciences (OBS) was established in the
                  early 1 970's, the proposals for offshore energy development led to the selection of four major
                  coastal ecosystems for characterization including the Maine coast. Cape Elizabeth to Calais was
                  divided into six regions (Figure 3.6) and the biology and ecology of the natural wetland, aquatic
                  and terrestrial systems of the landscape were described.

                        Wetlands and cleepwater habitats were described using Cowardin's 1979 classification system
                  (Appendix 111). Detailed floral and faunal characterizations of the different systems were provided
                  by experts in these fields in Maine and compiled into the five primary volumes of the report.
                  Marine, Estuarine, Palustrine, Riverine, Lacustrine and Terrestrial Systems were described in depth
                  and are further broken down @accorcling to vegetation structure and/or substrate. System "Classes"
                  include: Emergent Wetland, Aquatic Bed, Flat, Reef, Rocky Shore, as appropriate to each system.
                  Acreage data for wetlands in Marine and Estuarine intertidal areas, and all Palustrine areas are
                  used for comparison and evaluation for SCORP purposes (Table 3.5). These data are not digitized as
                  they have been in other states with operational geographic information systems (Tiner, 1985a,b).

                        The Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine was one, of the first major efforts of the
                  National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) team of the USFWS. Their methodology and resolution has
                  dramatically improved in the ten years since the report was first prepared. At that time, 1:80,000
                  scale black-and-white aerial photos were used to delineate wetlands at least 3-5 acres in size. Now,
                  with color infra-red aerial photography at 1:58,000 scale, wetland units of 1 acre are distinguished
                  (Ralph Tiner, pers. communication).

                        The NWI was completed for the entire Maine coast and maps are presently available through
                  the Maine Geological Survey (MGS). Areas are mapped at 1:62,500 (15') or 1:24,000 (75) but not
                  both. Some areas are available in 1:100,000. Although debate currently exists over the usefulness of
                  NWI maps to Maine, a recent study in Massachusetts of the accuracy of NWI maps found >95%--

                                                                  17

          accuracy in wetland vs. upland delineation, and >85% accuracy in wetland type classification
          (Startwout et al., 1982). In Maine, the Soil Conservation Service field-tested the accuracy of
          selected areas in the NWI mapping project, and found nearly 87% correlation between their
          respective welland delineations.

                 More recent inventories have focused on a particular wetland type, a particular resource value or a
          given geographic region. The vastness of the state's wetland resources has necessitated a narrower
          approach in these instances. The results are uneven, yet these efforts have shed light on previously
          unknown aspects of the state's wetlands in terms of distribution of types and their functions and values
          (Worley, 1982; Sorenson, 1986; Davis et al., in prep.).

                                                         18

                 Fic                                   e
                   wre 3.6. The Six Regions of the Main Coast Characterization Area, From an Ecological
                 Characterization of Coastal Maine (Shettig and Fefer, 1980)

                               10

                            44

                           v

                                                                      79

                                                                       03,

                                                                                         CY

                                                                                   k  ITC

                                                                         00

                                                                                   us"

                                                                                      "CO

           Table 3.5. Total State Wetland Acreage in the Coastal Zone, by System Type, from an Ecological
           Characterization of Coastal Maine (Fefer and Shettig, 1980)

           WETLANDS IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE INTERTIDAL SUBSYSTEMS

                                  MARINE                Regions of    ESTUAR'i NEE                 Regions of
           CLASS                  INTERTIDAL            Abundance           INTERTIDAL             Abundance
                   Non-Vegetated                                                            I
           Beach/Bar                   2897                     6,4            1089                4,6
           Flat                       28,827                6,5,4,1          41,650                2,6
           Reef                           108                    5              138                  3
           Rocky Shore               21,521                 4,65,11            2911                  6

                   Vegetated
           Aquatic Bed                 6202                     1,6            2729              4,5,6
           Emergent                        0                                 13,802                2,6
           Emergent/OW                     0                                    499                  1
           Emergent/UB                     0                                    406                  5
           Flat/Emergent                   0                                        5                1
           Flat/                           0                                      47                 1
           Scrub-shrub
           Scrub-shrub                     0                                      66                 6

           TOT. INTERTIDAL            59,566                                 65,382
           TOT. SUBTIDAL             113,139                                 66,693
           SYSTEM TOTAL              172,705                                130,075

           WETLANDS IN PAILUSTRINE SYSTEM
                                                        Regions of                        Regions of
           CLASS                        Acres           Abundance                 #S      Abundance

                   Non-vegetated
           Open Water (OW)                 3449                  4             1251                  4
           Unconsol. bottom                  52                  4                  1                4
                   Vegetatedi
           Forested                    106,810                   6             5775              6,4,5
           Forested/Shrub                13,728                  5             1086                5,4
           Scrub-shrub                   47,307                  6             3759                  6
           Emergent                        9097                  2             1222                  4
           Shrub/Emergent                  8771                  5              484                  5
           Forested/Emergent               633                   5                81                 5
           Aquatic bed                       57                  4                  1                4

           TOTALACRES                  189,702                               13,650

                   1 The occurrence of a wetland class in combination with open
           water generally occurs on <I% of wetland area for each type and is
           therefore combined into the dominant vegetation class.

                                                                20

                 Maine Peat Resource Inventory (PRI)

                        In the late 1970's, the Maine Peat Resource Inventory (PRI) began. Under the direction of
                 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), several states including Maine started peat resource
                 inventories. The oil and energy crisis of the mid-seventies precipitated DOE encouragement of
                 research on alternative energy sources, such as peat.

                        The Maine Peat Resource Program was administered by the Maine Office of Energy Resources
                 (OER) and conducted by the MGS and Cornelia Cameron, peat resource specialist of the U.S.
                 Geologic Survey in Reston, Virginia. Peat depth, quality and extent was determined for 233 peat
                 deposits throughout the state, totalling 72,957 acres (Table 3.6). The actual acreage of peatland
                 ecosystems (domed bogs, coastal plateau bogs, ribbed fens, etc.) is far greater since the inventory
                 only included acres of commercial peat and peat deposits of at least 80 acres, with a minimum
                 average thickness of five feet and an ash content of < 25%. General estimates of total peatland -
                 acreage are approximately 700,000 acres.

                        The results of the survey were published in a series of MGS Bulletins (Cameron et al., 1984)
                 recording the commercial qualities and extent of each of the 233 deposits, as well as classification
                 of the geological setting in which the peatland formed. A new series of MGS Surficial Geology maps
                 will incorporate the results from the peatland inventory and the freshwater wetland maps, giving
                 more detail to the kind of wetland habitats that are mapped on the 1:24,000 scale surficial geology
                 maps.

                 Table 3.6. Results of the Maine Peat Resource Evaluation Program (Cameron et al., 1984)

                                     NUMBER OF -                                   ESTIMATED RESOURCES
                 COUNTY          DEPOSITS SURVEYED                  ACREAGE            (Short Tons)

                 Androscoggin                  4                    1,160                 2,383,000
                 Aroostook                    43                   11,498                 18,851,400
                 Cumberland                    1                      200                   400,000
                 Franklin                      3                    1,185                 2,414,000
                 Hancock                       5                    1,338                 2,559,200
                 Kennebec                      8                    2,010                 4,260,000
                 Knox                          2                      227                   447,000
                 Lincoln                       4                      402                   776,200
                 Oxford                        5                      563                   932,000
                 Penobscot                    47                   21,666                 40,923,000
                 Piscataquis                  29                    5,896                 8,311,200
                 Sagadahoc                     0                         0                          0
                 Somerset                     20                    7,056                 14,371,800
                 Waldo                         8                    2,893                 4,835,800
                 York                          6                    1,875                 2,923,000

                 TOTALS                      223                   72,957                136,502,400

                                                                  21

          Freshwater Wetland Inventory (FWI)

                 In 1982, the State Legislature ordered a freshwater wetland mapping project for the
          organized towns which led to the identification of many wetlands which were unregulated by
          existing laws. This mapping project, undertaken by the MGS for DEP, formed the basis of the 1985
          Freshwater Wetlands Act, where wetland was defined as non-forested vegetated wetlands >10 acres
          on very poorly drained soils. The newly enacted Natural Resources Protection Act of 1988 broadens
          theTreshwater Wetlands Act definition to include forested wetlands and deletes the soils criteria.

                 The maps,served primarily to locate and identify freshwater wetlands which were unregulated,
          with the maps providing a "red flag" for potential development activities. Of the 8,245 freshwater
          wetlands mapped, acreage calculations were completed only for the 1674 freshwater wetlands mapped
          in coastal towns and comprising 70,000 acres (M.Mullen, unpublished data). The exclusion of
          wetlands less than ten acres in size has led to an underestimate of wetlands in this inventory as
          well. Maps are available from MGS. With the recent changes in freshwater wetland definition to
          include forested types, these are incomplete in terms of their identification of the regulatory status
          of mapped wetlands.

          Salt Marsh Inventory (SM11)

                 The most recent inventory of Maine's salt marshes uses MGS Coastal Geology maps by Barry
          Timson (1977), where several coastal environments are quite finely delineated. Researchers at the
          University of Maine, Orono (UMO) and MGS determined the areal extent of salt marsh in Maine
          by planimetric measurementof ear,@ Timson's 1977 coastal geology maps (Jacobson et al., 1987).
          The minimum size mapped is 150m and all such units were measured. This inventory provides the
          most accurat   acreage calculations of salt marsh in Maine. The total acreage calculated was 18,960
          acres (79 km    with most of the acreage in a few larger systems in the southern half of the coast,
          namely the Wells Embayment, Saco Bay and the Kennebec River Estuary. Numerous salt marshes
          even smaller than the minimum size mapped occur along the coast and would increase this
          estimate.

                 The same methodology for salt marsh acreage calculation could be applied to other coastal
          environments using Timson's maps. The contribution of organic matter by tidal marshes, flats and
          other coastal wetlands to the Gulf of Maine, suggests the importance of accurate documentation of
          the extent of coastal ecosystems.

          National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS)

                 The National Cooperative Soil Survey of the USDA Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has been
          mapping the soils of Maine since the 1950's. Several county surveys are now complete in the
          southern and coastal portions of the state. Northern and inland Maine is still largely unmapped.
          The soil survey reports provide locational information mapping the occurrence of different soil
          types across the landscape. From a classification of soil types, wetland soils are a reasonable
          predictor of wetland community occurrence. Since many wetland types or size classes have been
          excluded from other inventories, these documents provide a baseline for comparison where the
          inventory is complete.

                                                          22

                        Based on soils types (i.e. hydric soils)2, it is estimated that 30% of the cover of Maine, or 6
                 million acres is in wetland soils, with the greatest proportion of this found as forested and shrub
                 wetlands inclu'ding bottomlands, floodplains and swamps. About one million acres of this is in small
                 lakes and ponds and their associated wetlands (B. Wengrzynek, pers. communication). The favorable
                 correlation between wetland soils delineation and NWI maps supports the use of Soil Survey results
                 as the best available wetland maps for the state, using the USFWS wetland definition. However,
                 acreage is not specifically calculated here either.

                 Other Wetland Inventories/Data

                       Other specific wetland inventories include research at universities and surveys by state
                 agencies or private organizations. A peatland data base is being created by Dr. Ronald Davis at
                 the University of Maine at Orono, cataloguing ecological characteristics of all types of peatlands in
                 Maine. The Critical Areas Program has supported surveys of a number of more unusual peatland
                 types including coastal plateau bogs, ribbed fens and eccentric raised bogs. The Nongame Program
                 of MDIFW'is maintaining information on habitats important to rare, threatened and endangered
                 animal species, and often includes data on wetlands.

                       The Maine Natural Heritage Program of The Nature Conservancy maintains an up-to-date
                 computerized and mapped data base documenting the occurrences of rare, threatened and
                 endangered plants, animals and natural communities, the latter including a range of wetland types
                 classified on the basis of species assemblages and hydrologic conditions,. The Natural Heritage
                 Program classification of wetland types and their biotic features will be discussed later.

                       The Land Use Regulation Commission (LURC) provides no wetland acreage calculations,
                 although it maps wetland protection zones (P-WL) on its planning maps, However, wetland acreage
                 in P-WL in LURC territories is estimated to be 3% of the total jurisdiction or about 310,000 acres
                 (Fred Todd, pers. comm.) .

                 Problems and Deficiencies

                       Despite the range of inventories and mapping projects conducted in Maine to date, no single
                 inventory can provide an accurate estimate of acres or numbers of wetlands in Maine by type or
                 by county. By evaluating each inventory and focusing on its strongest aspect, acreage figures can
                 be extracted from different sources for use in describing the types and distribution of wetlands in
                 Maine. However there are many inherent differences between the inventories that make
                 comparisons difficult (Table 3.2). These basic problems and deficiencies are summarized below.

                 1. Inventory purpose - Inventories were undertaken for different purposes and with different goals
                 in mind. This may bias or restrict the type of data collected in each. The Salt Marsh Inventory had
                 the primary purpose of determining extent or acreage, the Maine Wetland Inventory evaluated
                 wetlands for their value as waterfowl habitat and others have been used in land use planning,
                 resource management, regulation or ecological characterization. This in turn determines the
                 classification system used, the methodology, approach, map scales and final products:

                 2. Wetland classification and definition - Comparison of data becomes difficult when the
                 classification of wetlands types and their respective definitions differ. Wetland definition is closely
                 related to the purpose of the. inventory. This problem is compounded when an inventory was

                       2
                          Lists of the hydric soils of Maine are available from SCS
                 for the state and by county where soil surveys are complete.

                                                               23

          conducted using a legal definition of wetland rather than an ecological one. The Freshwater
          Wetlands Inventory is a case in point. The FW1 defined wetlands by size class, > 10 acres, which
          already excludes a large number of small wetlands which are under the greatest threat of loss. The
          inclusion of wetlands only containing ve[y poorly drained soils excludes another large set of
          wetlands found on poorly drained or periodically flooded soils which also harbor wetland
          vegetation and communities. The earlier definition of freshwater wetlands excluded forested
          wetlands, which according to soils and NWI data and maps comprise about 80% of all wetlands in
          Maine (Bob Wengrzynek, pers. comm.). All wetland inventories, except perhaps the NWI, have
          greatly underestimated the acreage and extent of forested wetlands, primarily due to differences in
          definition of what constitutes a forested wetland.

          3. Geographic coverage and distribution of types - Inventories covered different geographic regions
          (e.g. coastal vs. statewide, etc.) or different types. Most inventories encompassed the coastal zone,
          resulting in an absence of usable inland wetland data. Most inventories are not comprehensive on a
          statewide basis nor in coverage of the full range of wetland types. Even detailed regional surveys
          pose some problems. For example, of the several inventories including Maine's coast, all define the
          coastal zone differently: The MCI divides the whole coast into 29 regions, comprising 141 towns and
          The Ecological Characterization divides the coast from Cape Elizabeth to Calais into 6 regions
          consisting of 131 towns.

          4. Map scales - Map scales used in final map products differed among inventories.

          5. Acreage data - Most inventories do not include the calculation of acreage data. Available data
          tends to underestimate actual wetland acreage in the state.

          6. Date of inventory data - Most inventory data or maps of significant wetland areas are several
          years old. New information has rendered some of this data unreliable, by not their omission of
          recent land use changes or changes in wetland values. Inventories were often based on older aerial
          photos for interpretation.

          7. Tracking/Monitoring - None of the inventories except the MWI has a mechanism for updating
          data. There appears to be no system which has the capacity to track changes in particular wetland
          features or parameters, or their ecological or legal status.

          8. Biotic Diversity - Most inventories fail to reflect the natural biological diversity of wetlands.
          Many endangered and threatened species reside in specific wetland types, often with specific plant
          associations. Inventories or mapping projects need to refine their scale of resolution to capture this
          important component of wetlands.

          Discussion

                 The current U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service classification (Cowardin et al., 1979) is the most
          widely used classification system for wetland inventories nationally. Using this system,the National
          Wetlands Inventory Team has completed wetland inventories for all states in USFWS Region 5
          (Northeastern U.S.) except New York and Maine (R. Tiner, pers. communication). To compare data,
          one must first align or "crosswalk" similar wetland types between classifications, and then decide
         -which has the best estimate for each type.

                 The 'classification used by the MWI was an earlier USFWS classification and has been
          crosswalked with Cowardin's (Appendix IV) indicating sbme compatibility of definition. Certain
          types will not readily correspond. For example, the MWI uses the terms "shrub swamp" and "bog"
          to represent separate wetland types. The NWI uses scrub-shrub to represent all units dominated by

                                                          24

                  shrubs or stunted woody vegetation and can therefore be found in either of the MWI types. Taken
                  out of the context of a single wetland system or occurrence (e.g. floodplain, bog, marsh, etc.), the
                  NWI figures can be somewhat misleading. The NWI does, however, provide the best available
                  resolution and classification for delineation of wetland vegetation types in the areas it has mapped.

                         One problem with this fine degree of resolution is that since a single wetland may contain
                  several vegetation classes (emergent wetland, open water, forested wetland, etc.) the unity of the
                  single wetland system as a separate entity may be lost. However, the degree of refinement of
                  these maps allows them to be used in several arenas - planning, regulation, management and
                  research. When these maps are part of a computerized GIS, trends of wetland loss or changes in
                  wetland character (e.g. flooding by beaver activity) can be accurately delineated and recorded over
                  time (Tiner, 1984; Tiner, 1985a,b).

                         Published NWI findings are limited to the 6 regions of the coastal zone as defined in the
                  Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine from Cape Elizabeth to Calais (Fefer and Shettig,
                  eds., 1980) and provides the best available acreage data for wetlands in the coastal zone. This was
                  compared with MWI data sorted for the same towns and regions and unpublished acreage data for
                  MGS-mapped freshwater wetlands in the coastal zone. Comparison of the palustrine wetland data
                  from these three inventories of the coastal zone are used to give an indication of their relative
                  accuracy and comprehensive coverage in the coastal zone (Table 3.7).

                         In NWI, 63% of all palustrine wetland acres mapped are forested and forested/shrub, 25% are
                  scrub-shrub wetlands. 5% are emergent wetland, another 5% are shrub/emergent and 2% are open
                  water. The breakdown of wetland.units mapped is 77% forested, forested/shrub and scrub-shrub, 9%
                  emergent, 4% shrub/emergent and 9% open water. Since a single wetland mapped by NWI may have
                  ..more than one mapped unit, the acreage figures are a more accurate basis for comparison.

                         The FWI included 33% of the number of freshwater wetlands mapped by the NW1. Of the
                  wetlands mapped by the FWI in the coastal zone, 96% were also mapped by NWI, whereas only 39%
                  were mapped by the MWI.

                         According to the NWI, 35% of the Marine System and 49% of the Estuarine System are
                  intertidal wetlands comprising 122,948 acres. Marine and Estuarine intertidal flats occupy the
                  largest area of any single intertidal class, comprising 48% of Marine Intertidal and 66% of
                  Estuarine Intertidal subsystems. Intertidal rocky shores are a close second, occupying 36% of
                  Marine intertidal areas. Emergent Estuarine marshes (salt marshes), comprise 22% of Estuarine
                  intertidal areas, and 11% of the entire Estuarine System. Acres given by NWI (Table 3.5) for
                  Marine and Estuarine Systems can be considered reliable for these wetland types.

                         More than half the acreage mapped by the MWI is in Open Fresh Water which is the
                  equivalent of Great Ponds and is the most common type by acres in every county except Sagadahoc,
                  where Coastal Fresh Marsh is most abundant. However, Open Fresh Water habitats comprise 21 % of
                  the numbers of wetlands mapped. The next most abundant wetland types in acres as well as
                  numbers are wooded and shrub swamps, but their extent in relation to Open Fresh Water may be
                  underestimated. In the NWI, most open water habitats are classified not as wetlands per se but as
                  deepwater habitats. In NWI, only 2% of Palustrine wetlands mapped are in the open water class.

                                                                  25

               Based on the best available data, minimum existing acreage is suggested for each type in the
         state (Table 3.8, Figure 3.7) and is explained as follows:

               a) Estimates for Marine (saline) and Estuarine (brackish) wetlands are determined from NWI
         acreage plus additional estimated acreage for areas not included in the ECCM. Salt marsh acreage
         was taken directly from the recent results of Jacobsons' 1987 salt marsh inventory.

               b) In general, the MWI mapped 37% of the wetland acreage mapped in the NWI regions.
         Therefore, for all Palustrine wetland types, MWI data were extrapolated proportionally. However,
         for shrub swamps and wooded swamps, where the relative coverage of MWI to NWI wetland
         inventory acres in the coastal zone regions was 20% and 6% respectively, a severe underestimate for
         these types is likely with the given extrapolation. SCS Soil Survey Mapping results are given for
         these two types as the best known estimate for their actual extent in Maine (B. Wengrzynek, pers.
         comm.)

               c) Open water wetlands which are also great ponds ( > ten acres in size) are excluded from
         these wetland estimates, however lakeshore and pondshore emergent wetlands and shallow aquatic
         beds are included.

                                               26

                   Table 3.7. Inland Freshwater Wetlands along the.. Maine Coast, Cape Elizabeth to Calais. A
                   compeirison of Wetland Inventory Results in Acres (and Number of wetland units).

                   ECCM          NWI                NWI                       FWI*                  MW1**             mwl**
                   Region        All WILs           Non-For. WLs              All WLs             All WLs             Non-For.WL

                       1         7096                3185                       1302                10739             10461
                                 (758)               (454)                        (53)

                       2       24134                11872                       8722                25265             22107
                               (2424)               (1401)                      (265)

                       3       19349                 6359                       8249                  3604              3217
                               (1848)                (902)                      (247)

                       4       40303                13522                     14877                   8958              6827
                               (3323)               (1715)                      (468)

                       5       40989                16036                     13662                 10017               9380
                               (2584)               (1110)                      (373)

                       6       57831                18292                     15002                 12300             12110
                               (2713)               (1230)                      (268)

                   TOTAL 189,702                    69,266                    61,814                70,883            64,102

                   WL      (13,650)                 (1230)                    (1674)
                   UNITS

                   Key:
                   ECCM = Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine
                   NWI = National Wetland Inventory
                   MWI = Maine Wetland Inventory
                   FWI   Freshwater Wetland Inventory
                   WIL   Wetland
                   WIL Units = Mapped units; wetland classes in NWI, MWI wetland types.
                   Non-For. WL = Non-forested wetlands
                       includes all wetlands on maps, both forested and non-forested
                       includes all wetland types in MWI data base except Open Fresh Water; Regions 1-6 =60,859
                   acres of open freshwater wetlands or 46% of wetlands delineated by MWI.

                                                                    27

           Table 3.8. Acres of Wetlands By Type in Maine

           WETLAND TYPES                  ACRES                    SOURCE                        STATE ESTIMATE

                  SALINE WETLANDS

           Tidal Flat                         28,837                       NWI'                 35,000
           Rocky Shore                        21,521                       NWI                   2,000
           Beach/Bar                           2,897                       NWI                   4,000
           Reef                                    108                     NWI                      500
           Aquatic Bed                         6,202                       NWI                   7,000
           Salt Marsh                         18,960                       SMI                  19,000
           TOTAL                                                                                87,500

                  BRACKISH WETLANDS

           Tidal Flat                         41,700                       NWI                  45,000
           Rocky Shore                         2,911                       NWI                   3,000
           Beach/Bar                           1,089                       NWI                   2,500
           Reef                                    138                     NWI                      500
           Aquatic Bed                         2,729                       NWI                   4,000
           Fresh/Brackish                     12,861                       NWI                  15,000
              Marsh
           TOTAL                                                                                70,000

                  PALUSTRINE WETLANDS

           Floodplains/Flats                  10,249                       MWI                  27,700
           Inland Fresh Meadow                58,772                       MWI                  158,843
           Inland Fresh Marsh                 57,602                       MWI                  155,140
           Shrub Swamp                                                     SCS               1,000,000
           Wooded Swamp                                                    SCS               3,000,000
           Bog                                700,000                      OER/DEP             700,000
                                                                                             5,041,683

           TOTAL ESTIMATED WETLANDS
                  SALINE                                                                        87,50,0
                  BRACKISH                                                                      70,000
                  PALLISTRINE                                                                5,041,683
           TOTAL                                                                             5,195,183

                                                             28

                Fjoure 3.7 Freshwater and Tidal Wetlands in Maine, 1988 Estimates (Based on Table 3.8)

                                       Freshwater Wetlands in Maine

                                                               Bogs

                                                                       Fresh Meadows
                                                                        Fresh Marshes
                                                                         Floodplains

                                                                 --g
                                                                    .. .........

                       Wooded Swamps
                                                                         Shrub Swamps

                                  Total Freshwater Wetlands     5,041,683 Acres

                                            Tidal Wetlands in Maine
                                        (Saline and Brackish Wetlands)

                                                               Rocky shores

                                                                     Beach/Bars
                                                                       Reef

                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                 Tidal flats

                                                                     Salt Marsh

                                                       . .... ......
                                                               Fresh/Brackish
                                                                   Marsh
                                  Total Tidal Wetlands      157,500 Acres

                                                      29

                                            CHAPTER 4 - WETLAND FUNCTIONS AND VALUES

                                                    INTRINSIC VALUES OF WETLANDS

                Wetlands, as unspoiled natural ecosystems have certain values which contribute to their
          aesthetic appeal and the desire to preserve them. While many wetlands have been impacted by
          development, they still may retain important natural values for wildlife, recreation, education, etc.
          Many of these same functions and values may be found in upland habitats, b,ut only wetlands will
          be treated here. The following discussion describes some of the more commonly recognized'
          intrinsic values of wetlands, although many of these do not lend themselves to measurable study or
          quantification (Odum, 1978).

          Wetlands as Natural Areas

                Wetlands are often the last areas in a region to be developed. As such, they have a high
          wilderness value, the last enclave of a sense of remoteness and solitude. Quite often, there are
          associated aesthetic qualities which rank high in comparison with other landscape types. The
          interface between land and water, edges and other contrasts add to the scenic qualities of
          we-flands. Small wetlands may contribute to local landscape variety and interest, whereas larger
          wetlands may have diversity and variety within a site providing different visual impressions
          (Smardon, 1973, Adamus, 1983). The unique flora and fauna of some wetlands are attractive to
          viewers and enhance their appreciation of these areas.

                Now, however, due to changing aesthetic values in society, development in or near wetlands
          is desirable. Wetlands are being altered, converted or filled to provide residential proximity to
          wetlands. Adjacent development is now a serious external threat to wetland ecosystems.

          Wetlands for Recreation and Education

                In Maine, both tidal and inland wetlands are areas of great diversity and beauty, and provide
          open space for recreational and visual enjoyment. Recreation in wetlands is usually of a passive
          nature and dispersed. Hiking, boating, fishing, hunting and wildlife observation are typical uses of
          wetlands by the general public. Quite often, it is these activities which contribute an economic
          value to wetlands. National Wildlife Refuges which comprise large areas of wetland were originally
          created to protect migratory waterfowl habitat. These areas receive heavy visitor use and attest to
          the importance of wetlands from a cultural or humanistic viewpoint.

                In Maine, an estimated 20,000 visitors hike the trails at the Rachel Carson National Wildlife
          Refuge and thousands more birdwatch and explore the marsh on the many roads that cross it (A.
          French, pers. comm.). Although there may be some negative aspects of visitation, there is still a
          need to enhance public access to wetlands for recreation, education, and research.

                Wetlands associated with open water bodies tend to have a higher recreational value. The
          naturalness and general environmental quality of a site may be coupled with other values of
          cultural significance such as historic or archaeological values, thereby increasing the recreational
          value. Again, the proximity of NWRs to highly populated areas has contributed to their recreational
          and perceived values.

                While recreational use can be a favored attribute of wetlands, careful management guidelines
          are necessary to prevent unwanted negative impacts associated with human use. Certain wildlife
          species (herons, loons, eagles, etc.) are vulnerable to human disturbance as are rare plant habitats
          and natural communities.

                                                       30

                         The potential of wetlands for general public education and scientific research ma-y vary from
                  interest in botany and ornithology to demonstrating basic ecological principles and concepts of
                  energy flow, biotic change and recycling in natural systems. Wetlands are living classrooms and
                  their value for education has become more important in recent years as outdoor and environmental
                  awareness have increased (Wengrzynek, unpublished). Since the Wells unit of the Rachel Carson
                  NWR has been recognized as part of a National Estuarine Reserve, fundamental kinds of research
                  have begun there and include studies on salt marsh productivity, hydraulic and sediment transport
                  in the Webhannet and Little River estuaries, critical habitats and species biology.

                  Potential Resource Values

                         By preserving a natural system and all the "parts" within it, species and resource values
                  currently unknown may be preserved and eventually discovered. Species may hold medicinal or
                  commercial values that would otherwise be unknown to us if they had not been preserved and
                  available for research. Natural areas also provide baseline conditions which can be models for
                  restoration of degraded habitats.

                         Other potential resource values of wetlands include their importance in public water supplies,
                  both for ground water and surface waters. Wetlands may help protedt the water quality of public
                  water supplies and other surface water bodies. Wetlands may indicate areas of groundwater
                  discharge and may warrant protection to preserve water quality of an aquifer.

                         The high natural productivity of wetlands have unrealized food production     potential for marsh
                  vegetation, aquaculture and -game animal species. Minnesota has been harvesting wild rice
                  commercially for many years. In Maine, the cultivation of cranberries is being contemplated, and
                  natural wetlands containing cranberries may provide essential information on their growth, habitat
                  requirements and insect pests. Natural wetland areas also contribute to the feeding and breeding
                  requirements of many game and non-game species and, if conserved could ensure maintenance of
                  strong populations for public use and enjoyment.

                         Under appropriate management schemes, forested wetlands can provide an important source of
                  timber, despite the physical restraints of harvesting in wetlands. Several wetland tree species such
                  as red maple, northern white cedar, black ash and others provide important wood products.

                                                              ECOLOGICAL VALUES OF WETLANDS

                         Wetlands provide certain services or natural functions that are beneficial to society. These
                  services include reducing floodpeaks of high water periods; retaining, recycling and filtering -
                  nutrients; trapping harmful materials and providing natural habitats for fish and wildlife species,
                  and endangered or threatened plants, animals and natural communities. The ecological services or
                  resource values provided by wetlands in general and in Maine are described below, recognizing that
                  some of these functions are performed by upland habitats as well.

                  Hydrological Functions

                         1) Flood Conveyance and Flood Storage

                         Topography generally determines the ability of a wetland to store and convey floodwater..
                  Riverine wetlands and floodplains usually form natural pathways for the conveyance offloodwater
                  from upstream to downstream points. Inland wetlands may store water during floods and release it
                  slowly to downstream areas, lowering floodpeaks. The vegetation itself may reduce the flow
                  velocity of river floodwater by friction. The amount of friction depends on the type and amount

                                                                   31

          of vegetative cover, but is significant in comparison to river channels without wetlands. Studies are
          still underway to predict the magnitude of the water storage capacity of wetlands, and the
          importance of such variables as wetland area, downstream location, magnitude of flooding and
          degree of encroachment on the wetland (OTA, 1984).

                 Lower floodpeaks are generally found in watersheds with a large percentage of wetland, yet
          total streamflow in the spring was found to be higher in basins with large lake and wetland areas
          (Novitski, 1979). Analysis of flood hydrographs (displays of amounts of water released over time)
          reveal that certain wetland types, especially peatlands with perched (raised) water tables
          temporarily store and then slowly release storm waters (Boelter and Verry, 1977).
          Evapotranspiration rates and other factors contribute to flood storage capacity. Saturated wetlands
          may be unable to moderate floodwater as well as uplands because they may discharge water more
          rapidly under these conditions. Flood height may not be reduced, but water flow may be slowed
          somewhat. Certain undeveloped terrestrial environments may have greater flood storage value
          (Adamus and Stockwell, 1983), however the importance of wetlands for these functions on a local
          level cannot be understated. A study of the wetland and peatland systems in Washington County,
          Maine confirms these concepts (B. Nichols, U.S. Geological Survey, pers. comm.) Very few studies
          have measured inflow and outflow in wetlands to calculate the amount of floodwater stored in
          particular wetlands.

                 The role of vegetation in flooding depends on the degree to which certain vegetation types
          may actually decrease floodflow velocity. The filling and development of wetlands is apt to alter
          this ability. In water storage capacity models generated by the Army Corps of Engineers for the
          Charles River watershed in Massachusetts, a reduction in wetland area would result in a
          proportional increase in floodpeak and flood height, with the potential for millions of dollars in
          flood damage. Filling simply reduces the storage capacity of wetlands. If a wetland is filled above
          the natural floodplain level, the ability of the floodplain to convey or carry and distribute
          floodwater is lost, further contributing to increased flood hazard. The Charles River Plan therefore
          calls for the acquisition and protection of large areas of wetlands in the floodplain to serve as
          natural storage areas. The economic value of this service is valued at over $1 million (1978 dollars)
          which is "the difference between'annual flood losses based on present land use and conditions"
          (CEO, 1978).

                 Draining floodplains (e.g. by ditching or diking) may also increase floodpeaks by speeding
          runoff and reducing potential storage. However, some argue that drainage may actually reduce
          floodpeaks by draining away heavy rains that would otherwise saturate wetlands leaving them
          unable to further capture snowmelt or floodwater in spring (OTA, 1984). In developed landscapes,
          wetlands are more effective than terrestrial environments for flood storage and desynchronization,
          i.e. offsetting the intensity of peak flows over time (Adamus, 1986).

                 2) Groundwater Recharge and Discharge

                 Groundwater recharge refers to the ability of a wetland to supplement groundwater through
          infiltration of surface water to the saturated zone. Given the low permeability of organic soils and
          the relatively impermeable clay layers, the probability that particular wetlands will have this
          function is low (Adamus, 1986). Hence, uplands may provide a greater recharge function than
          wetlands. A study in Minnesota found greater recharge in upland sands and the lowest recharge
          ability found in wetland peats (Verry and eoelter, 1979). Since water quality and quantity of
          recharge varies, the usefulness of this function in public drinking water or other uses cannot be
          presumed without careful site-specific study.

                                                           32

                           Strong evidence exists that wetlands more commonly act as water discharge areas, specific
                    areas, of groundwater contribution to surface waters. Groundwater discharge supplies water to many
                    wetlands and these areas m6y be the only surface water outflow from an aquifer. Filling,
                    sedimentation or impoundment may affect the quantity or quality of water discharge, possibly
                    affecting downstream wetlands.

                    Shoreline Erosion Control

                           This function is important in wetlands associated with open water bodies such as lakes, rivers
                    and along the coast. Natural river currents, tidal wave currents and waves generated by wind along
                    lakeshores, estuaries and barrier islands all may contribute to shoreline erosion, -as do the wakes
                    from boat traffic. Vegetation may reduce erosion because the low-gradient shore and the plants
                    themselves absorb and dissipate wave energy. The binding root structure and peat development in
                    wetlands further stabilize the shore. The dense growth of wetland plants then encourages the
                    deposition of suspended sediment (OTA, 1984).

                           Wetland vegetation does not usually establish itself in high-energy environments susceptible to
                    erosion, but where established, it does control erosion, stabilize soil, encourage sediment deposition
                    and dampen wave energy. Generally, vegetated wetlands experience less erosion (or shoreline
                    retreat) than non-vegetated wetlands. Studies have been undertaken to measure the ability of
                    wetlands to control erosion, including the creation or establishment of vegetated wetlands (e.g.
                    marshes) in highly erodible (disturbed/developed) areas, but success of marsh creation is strongly
                    correlated with lower wave-energy environments. Even small, fringe wetlands along rivers and lakes
                    may be important for shoreline stability/anchoring.

                           The potential economic importance of shoreline erosion control is a major concern in many
                    coastal areas nationwide and as well as in Maine. The loss of public and private property and its
                    associated taxable income, sedimentation of waterways and water bodies, increased turbidity of
                    waters, siltation of fish and wildlife habitat and loss of beaches are a few of the potential
                    impacts. The ability of coastal or other wetlands to moderate storm surges is related to the degree
                    of water saturation of the wetland at the time of the flood or storm event. If the wetland is
                    already saturated by high tide or a previous flood event, its capacity to temper storm water is
                    limited.

                           The dredging of coastal harbors and waterways has historically resulted in the disposal of
                    dredged material onto marshland. Although current laws and practices forbid the disposal of dredge
                    spoils in wetlands, the removal of sand or other mineral sediments may reduce the rate of
                    accretion of these sediments into salt marsh systems, which is necessary for their maintenance
                    relative to rates of sea level rise (Hackney and Cleary, 1987). Dredging activities may also
                    contribute to increased erosion of marsh habitats by increasing rates and volume of water flow
                    through tidal channels and a resultant increase in erosive wave action. This trend has been
                    suggested in Wells, Maine (Almquist, in prep.) and Scarborough Marsh (J. Kelley, pers. comm.).

                    Water Quality Improvement

                           The quality (i.e. the chemical, physical and biological condition) of water flowing-over and
                    through wetlands may be improved by the wetlands ability to retain pollutants and nutrients albeit
                    temporarily. The potential for water quality improvement by a wetland depends on the effect of
                    such storage on an adjacent or connected body of water,,and the timing of nutrient retention and
                    release. Materials captured by wetlands via natural processes include suspended sediments, excess
                    nutrients, toxic chemicals, heavy metals, disease-causing microorganisms and dissolved nutrients
                    such as nitrogen and phosphorous.

                                                                          33

                1) Sediment Trapping

                The ability of wetlands to trap suspended sediment is largely a function of wetland
          vegetation which reduces flow velocity and captures sediment loads. This function is particularly
          important in marine or estuarine environments, such as salt marshes, where nutrient accumulation
          (accretion) takes place. Wetlands may trap sediments for as long as they are inundated by
          sediment-laden waters or until they silt up completely. Floodplain wetlands provide a similar
          function.
          Upstream alteration or destruction of wetlands can create problems downstream by accelerating
          sedimentation of wetlands.

                The absence of this function would result in increased erosion and turbid waters which
          interferes with fishing, swimming, aesthetic appeal of water, aquatic vegetation growth and
          b6ttom-dwelling fauna (invertebrates and spawning fish). High content of organic materials in
          sediments may result in a high biological oxygen demand to break it down in water, thereby
          reducing oxygen availability to aquatic life. Increased development activity in southern Maine has
          resulted in increased sediment loads into wetlands, causing some deterioration and potential loss of
          water quality (Adamus, 1986).

                2) Filtration

                Suspended organic and inorganic materials tend to absorb other pollutants (e.g. nutrients,
          tbxics, pathogens) which are then deposited with the sediment in the wetland. The "fate" of these
          pollutants greatly depends on this trapping and filtering function of wetlands and their ability to
          further degrade or retain harmful materials.

                Persistent harmful materials such as heavy metals and chlorinated or petroleum hydrocarbons
          may be trapped in wetlands either temporarily or permanently. For example, heavy metals remain
          bound in the oxygenated zone of sediment surfaces, whereas they are mobilized under anaerobic
          conditions. Organic compounds such as pesticides which degrade in soil may be trapped by wetland
          soils, efficiently removing them from the aquatic system, and improving water quality. It is
          unknown to what degree wetlands can remove toxic substances from water over the long-term.

              I One negative effect of the use of wetlands to filter toxic materials is the transfer of these
          materials through the food chain,. as may occur with some metals such as mercury (but not in other
          metals like lead). Food chain effects of synthetic materials are becoming better known, but
          experience with persistent organic chemicals like DDT and dioxin warn of the potential dangers.
          Although wetlands may remove toxics from water, this removal may eventually contaminate higher
          trophic levels by food chain transport, unless the affected vegetation is removed from the system.
          Dispo'sal of such removed vegetation can pose difficulties.

                3) Nutrient Retention/Removal

                Excess amounts of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous can cause proliferation of algal
          growth (algal bloom), which can degrade water quality and impinge upon recreational and other
          uses. Ensuing decomposition can then reduce available dissolved oxygen to dangerously low levels.
          Wetlands may trap and assimilate excess nutrients, which may then be recycled as detritus into the
          aquatic system.

                Ducks Unlimited of Canada has experimented with the use of wetlands to treat agricultural
          and domestic waste using cattails and bulrushes. These species were found to secrete an antibody

                                                        34

                  that kills fecal bacteria. Other researchers estimate the value of phosphorus removal by wetlands to
                  be $480-1420. per acre annually.

                        Determination of the aggregate effects of nutrient input vs. output on water quality, and the
                  behavior of wetlands as nutrient sinks is thus far inconclusive, given the variable methodology of
                  existing studies and the many interactive processes. The primary consideration of this function may
                  be site-specific where high nutrient loading to aquatic systems can be moderated by the
                  preservation of certain wetlands. Timing of nutrient inputs and outputs is also important, with some
                  studies indicating much of the nutrient load being retained by wetlands during flood periods
                  (Mitsch, 1977).

                        In Maine, hydrological studies on the Great Heath in Washington County indicate that
                  nutrient retention in the surface peat depends upon the retention time of the water and the water
                  source. The small amount of nutrients in precipitation coupled with active surface water flow
                  contributes to the low nutrient levels in these upper peat layers. Nutrients do accumulate at the
                  lower depths by the partial ddcay of plant materials in situ.

                        In southern Maine, Adamus (1986) found that septic leakage was the largest potential source
                  of nutrients into wetlands he sampled in York County (31%). Highway runoff was the next most
                  serious source (21%) with lesser but identifiable threats also from pesticides (5%), sewage (4%),
                  dumps (3%) and industrial outfalls (2%). There has been direct evidence of increases in nutrients at
                  the outlets of forested watersheds even with housing densities as low as one per acre.

                        Non-point source pollution is a serious threat to the water quality of water bodies and
                  wetlands alike. Runoff from pastureland or sewage effluent may carry disease-causing
                  microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria which can contaminate drinking water, recreational
                  water and commercial fisheries. Such harmful organisms may also be bound in sediment loads
                  trapped in wetlands and either die off or remain viable (OTA, 1984). Very little data are available
                  on the fate of pathogens in wetland systems,

                  Fish and Wildlife Values

                        Wetlands are important to many fish and wildlife species for food, habitat and support of the
                  food chain. Because of their value for food and habitat, wetlands often become a focal point for
                  varied wildlife populations within a particular region. This is illustrated in the National Wildlife
                  Refuge System where nationwide, 40% of the NWR System is wetland while only 5% of the land area
                  of the coterminous states is wetland. Certain species are "wetland specialists" such as waterfowl,
                  freshwater game fish, some endangered species, etc. Losses of wetlands will cause significant and
                  adverse impacts on these indigenous populations.

                        The suitability of wetlands as animal or fish habitat is often strongly correlated to the
                  density and diversity of vegetation. Vegetation diversity is often a major determinant of wildlife
                  diversity. Criteria which are important in such an evaluation are: diversity of wetland types present
                  within a system; dominant wetland types (some types are more valuable to a diversity of species);
                  habitat and physiognomic diversity (height and shape of vegetation); interspersion and contrasts
                  between edges; vegetation cover types; location of wetland in landscape, i.e. whether wetland is
                  associated with a water body; wetland size (small wetlands are important for individual breeding
                  pairs while larger wetlands are important for statewide populations and flocks); naturalness of
                  surrounding habitat types; proximity to other wetla.nds and water chemistry as it affects vegetation
                  type and value as a food source to different species (Golet, 1973).

                                                                35

                 In wetlands with regular flood regimes, nutrient input during spring floods contributes to the
          higher plant productivity in wetlands resulting in their well-known high fertility. It is the periodic.
          drying cycle that allows sediments and nutrients to change chemically and become available to
          plants. Coastal marshes receiving regular nutrient supply have some of the.highest plant
          productivity rates of any natural ecosystem, in part due to the flowing or regularly fluctuating
          wler levels. This high productivity is an important food chain link.The estimated 300-900 g dry wt
          /m /yr produced by Maine salt marshes (Jacobson et al., 1987) ends up as biomass entering the
          carbon cycle of the Gulf of Maine. Up to 20% of net primary productivity may be exported from
          wetland to open water areas, and mostly from areas closest to the water's edge, where detritus
          (organic debris) feeds filter feeders and other detritivores (Nixon, 1980; OTA, 1984).

                 The quantitative significance of wetland-derived cletritus to estuarine food supplies relative to
          detritus from other terrestrial or open-water food sources is not generally known, but varies widely
          with both species and estuary. There is not yet sufficient evidence to conclude tha   't coastal marshes
          play a significant role in supporting marine fish and shellfish productivity through export of
          detritus; phytoplankton is probably more important.

                 Both wetlands and their associated water bodies have multiple values for wildlife species,
          including those which aren't strictly wetland-dependent. Conversely, riparian zones (upland areas
          immediately adjacent to a water body or wetland) may be extremely important to wetland species by
          providing a buffer for maintenance of wetland environmental (e.g. water ) quality, food resources,
          etc. Similarly, some species, including many furbearers, are quite often found in this interface
          between aquatic or wetland and upland habitats (Jones et al., 1988).

                 In coastal areas, wetlands and tidal flats provide valuable habitat for nesting and migratory
          shorebirds, wading birds, waterfowl, gulls, terns and raptors. Salt marshes are generally considered
          high value waterfowl habitat because of the large concentrations of breeding pairs and the use of
          the marshes as overwintering and stopover areas during biannual migrations. Wetland vegetation
          usually comprises a significant component of the diet of ducks, geese and swans. Some species
          prefer the submergent aquatic vegetation, while others, especially geese and swans, favor emergent
          vegetation.

                 Migratory shorebirds include sandpipers, plovers, turnstones, curlews, clowitchers, phalaropes
          and the endangered piping plover. These depend on just a few coastal habitats during their long
          migrations from the Arctic breeding grounds to the South American wintering areas. Most of these
          birds congregate in extensive mudflat areas, such as those between Lubec and Quoddy Head (Lubec
          Flats), where they build up their fat reserves before continuing their migrations. The piping plover
          (Charadrius melodius nests on sand dunes which are highly susceptible to human disturbance.

                 Bald eagles, ospreys and wading birds (herons, etc.), typically nest near open water and feed
          on a variety of fresh and saltwater organisms. These species are especially sensitive to disturbance
          during their nesting periods and management recommendations for their protection in coastal areas
          in southern Maine have been recommended (Jones et al., 1988).

                 Salt marshes and tidal flats are also important for commercially sought fish species, worth
          millions of dollars annually to Maine fishermen. Many of these require wetlands at some stage of
          their life cycle. Juvenile marine fish also use coastal marshes, especially brackish marshes.

                 Mammals like furbearers (e.g. muskrats) live in wetlands banks in houses made of wetland
          vegetation. Many other wildlife species use wetlands although are not necessarily restricted to
          them. The use of different wetland types by different wildlife species is included in Appendix 11.

                                                           36

                         About 30% of all plant and animal species found on'the federal government's list of
                  endangered and threatened species heavily depend on wetlands for food and or habitat, even
                  though only 5% of the nation's area is wetland. In Maine 42% of the official state-listed
                  endangered and threatened plants are found in wetland habitats, including one federally endangered
                  species, Furbish's Lousewort. Of rare and endangered animal species in Maine, 30% are also found
                  in wetlands during at least part of their life cycle or are known to feed or breed in wetlands. The
                  Official List of Maine's Endangered and Threatened Plants is maintained by the Maine Critical
                  Areas Program and state-listed animal species are monitored by the Non-game Program of the
                  Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. Lists can be obtained from these agencies.

                         Of all wetland functions, wildlife habitat may be the most sensitive to disruption. Increasing
                  development has fragmented formerly continuous areas of habitat for wildlife species. Roads
                  separate wetlands, decreasing their value and accessibility for some species, especially mammals and
                  amphibians (Adamus, 1986). Impacts of development include increased pollution and sediment sources
                  as well as human disturbance of wildlife areas. The loss of riparian habitat, upon which many
                  wetlands and resident animal populations depend, is also of great importance.

                         The economic value of wetlands as wildlife habitat is difficult to determine, and cannot be
                  computed simply by license sales or other user values. Economic values include non-consumptive
                  uses such as photography, wildlife observation, etc. and expenses incurred by the user.
                  Consumptive uses such as hunting and fishing, usually include expenses to the user for licenses,
                  food, travel and equipment, which contribute to the value of the wildlife, but not necessarily the
                  wetland itself (Boyle, 1987).

                         An estimated 81 % of Maine's population older than 6 years old participate in non-
                  consumptive uses of wildlife to some clegree. The participation of non-residents brings revenue into
                  the state, but has not been quantified.

                         General consumptive use values for wildlife (namely in hunting and fishing) have been
                  preliminarily evaluated (Boyle, 1987). The total value of waterfowl hunting however is impossible to
                  determine in the absence of accurate numbers of hunters. Furthermore, the value of hunting for
                  different species has not been determined. However, thegeneral increase in hunting and fishing
                  licenses is countered by the general decline in duck hunting participation since 1981 (Boyle, 1987).
                  This latter trend may be attributable to population declines in the more popular game ducks, such
                  as the black duck, as well as increases in hunting costs (licenses and duck stamps).

                         Maine's fishery resources include some species which depend on or use wetland habitats for
                  some part of their life cycle. In coastal areas this includes shellfish found in near shore waters
                  which  receive nutrients and cletritus from adjacent salt marsh and wetland systems. Soft shelf
                  clams, bloodworms and sandworms are harvested commercially in intertidal areas.

                         Maine shellfish contribute the largest proportion of the landed value of Maine fisheries
                  (Figure 4.1) especially due to their high value per pound (e.g. lobsters). In 1984, the total shellfish
                  landing was valued at $ 76,476,000. The landed value of principal shellfish species has generally
                  increased (Figure 4.2), even while the total catch in pounds of certain species fell (Figure 4.3).

                  Figure 4.1. The landed value of Maine fisheries from 1960 - 1984 (Colgan et al., 1986).

                                                      MAJNE FISHERIES LANDED VALUE
                                      `120000 -          Nominal Dollars (Thousands) -

                                       100000-

                                       80C)OO -

                                       60000-                                                       Shellfish

                                       40000

                                       2uuuu                                                        Finfish

                                           0
                                                                     r r-T-=    T
                                            6@       64   6 G 6'8 7 0  72. 74   76  718  8@  812 84

            Figure 4.2. The landed value of lobsters, clams and scallops from 1960 - 1984 (Colgan et al., 1986).

                                                                                        LOBSTER

                                      55000  . .....i.....r............i......r..... F....1 .....T.....7....... .....;1......r.....r............ ............ ......
                                      50000             . ........... ......            .....               ..... ...... ...... ......
                                      45000                    ..... .*: ..... ....
                                                                                 :      . I .....L..... . . .....
                                                                          . . ..... ....        . . ..... . ..... ......
                                      40000             . .....           ..... ......L..... Z ..... ............ ..... . ..... ......
                                                                                                                    ....   ...... ..... .I
                        "6            35000                1.......I..... ..... .............               ..... ..... . ..... .. ..... ...... ......
                                      30000     ......! ......
                                                                                                                    ..... ......
                                      25000                ..... J .....
                                                                                        ..... .....         ..... ...... ..... ..... ......
                                      20000             :. ......
                                                           ...... ...... ..... .... . ..... :7 ..... .....%..... . ..... ..... . ......7....... .... ..... . ..... . .....
                                      15000        ..... .                                                  .....
                                      10000
                                             60         62     64     66      68        70  72      74      76      78  80        82     84
                                                   61      63      65     67     69     71      73          75      77 79     81    83

                                      12000  . ..... ..... ...... ......  ..... ......  ..... . ............ ..... . ..... . ..... ...... ......r.....r.....r.... . ......

                                      1
                                           0 . .....
                                      000                                               ..................?

                                      8000   . .....    ..... ......                                                ... .....
                                                                                                    ..... .....            ......
                        "6
                                      6000   . .....                             ......
                                                                      r....             . ..... ........... ..... ..... ... .... .... ...... . ..... ......

                                      4000   . .....                                                                . . . . . .
                                                                                        .....   .. .....    F..... ......  ......

                                      2000   . .....1..... ... . ...... ..... ...... ................. . ..... . ..... ..... . ..... . ..... ........... ..... ..... . ..... ...... ..... ......

                                           0
                                             60         62     64     66      68        70  72      74      76      78  80        82     84
                                                   61      63      65     67     69     71      73          75      77 79     81    83

                                      16000  . ......   ............ ............................ ..... . .... . ..... . ..... . ..... ...... ...... ...................................
                                      14000
                                                   . .....                ..... ..... .....                 ....           .. . ....
                                      ,2000  . ..... .0.....                  . . ..... .....               ....... ........... . .....

                                                        ..........e.....                                                   .... . ..
                                      10000  . ..... f: ..... @:.
                        "6                                                                                          ......
                                      8000   . ......I......:.... .fl ......:..... . .... J ..... ..... .... . ..... . ..... ..... . ... ..... ..... ........
                                      6000      ..... ......
                                                        .... . ...... ...... ....... ....                   !..... ......  ...... .... ....
                                      4000   . .....       ......                       ..... ..... .....   .....   3.....6.... ....4.....6......b.....I
                                      2000         T    r  . ......
                                                                   ...... ....... .... ...... . .. A ..... Z. ...... ... ....7..... . ..... ...... ......
                                           0
                                             60         62     64     66      68        70  72      74      76      78  80        82     84
                                                   61      63      65     67     69     71      73          75      77-79     81    83

                                                                                 38
                                                                                                                    . ..... . ..

                        Finure 4.3. The total catch of principal shellfish species in pounds from 1960 - 1986                                  (Maine State
                        Planning Office, 1988).

                                                                           ILOBSTER,, SHRIMP, AND CRAB
                                              25000         . ...................... .... ..... ..... .... .... . .... ..... ...........rT.....

                                              20000         . ...... ..... .....                                       ......
                                                                                                                              Lobster"
                              0
                              a.

                                                                                                     I ------------- -----
                                              150 00 -          .... . .. .... .... .... .... .... L                 .. ..........   .... .... .... . .....

                                                                                                              Shr
                                                                                                                     imp      ...... ....
                                              10000         . ..... .. . ..... ........... . .... .. . ........ ....                  . .....
                              W

                                                              .... .. . . . .                         .......     . . ..... ..... . .... .... . ....
                              0                  5000-
                                                                                           I Crab

                                                        0
                                                                                                                                                   rl
                                                            60 62      64 66 68 70                 72 74 76 78 80 8 2 84                           86
                                                              61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85

                                                                                                    Year

                                                                    L
                                                                        LAMS, MUSSELS, AND SCALLOPS
                                                                     C

                                                                                     ...............
                                           8000     . ..... . .....r                                .....
                                                                                                                          ......... .....
                                           7000     . ...... :1 ..... . .. . ....
                                 0         6000     . ..... ?      .....                . . .. .....                             ......

                                                                                       . ... ..... . .. . . ....
                                           5000     . ..... ..... .....
                                 0
                                                                                                                                             ..... ......
                                           4000     . .....            Clams
                                                                                                              mussels'
                                           3 0 0 0 -                                                               . . ........
                                 cu
                                 Cn                                                 . . . .
                                                                                    . .            :  :
                                                                   ........ ...                                           ..... .
                                           2000
                                 0
                                                                                . ........... . ..... . .....                                   .. ..... .
                                           1000
                                                                                                                               bcaiiops
                                                  0
                                                    60      62     64     66     68 70          72      74     76      78,    80       82    84      86
                                                            61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85

                                                                                                   Year

                                                                                        39

                       Shellfish species which are increasing in commercial importance are mussels and quahogs.
              One-third of the mussel catch in 1985 was cultivated, and quahogs have only recently gained
              economic importance. The number of harvesting licenses issued from 1970 - 1984 for shellfish,
              worms and commercial fishing is found in Figure 4.4.

                       Canned, fresh and frozen seafood processing of Maine's marine fisheries held a commercial
              value of nearly $70,000,000. and Ermployed 1700 people in 1984. However, the proportion of this
              attributable to shellfish species is minor (Colgan et al., 1986).

              Figure 4.4. Numbers of harvesting licenses for shellfish, worms and commercial fishing from 1970 -
              1984 (Colgan et al., 1986).

                                                                         [LOBSTE@
                                          11000
                                          105W
                                          10000
                                           9500
                                           9DOO
                                           !500
                                                                                                           -- - -------
                                           7500
                                           7000                                      +   J
                                           6500
                                           6000
                                                 1970    1972      1974       1976      1978       1980       1982      1984
                                                    1971      1973      1975       1977      1979       1981      1983

                                                                    CLAM AM MARINE V@OW

                                           6000-                                      ...... ......... .

                                           6000-_

                                           4000-..--

                                           3000

                                           2000  -------

                                                 0
                                                 1970    1972       1974      1976      1978       1980       1982      1964
                                                    1971       1973      1975      1 W7       1979      1981       1 9a3

                                                                10MVERCAL      FISHING AND SCALLOP
                                           1600                                                                            COMM
                                           1400                                                                 -____,..'--Fkshing
                                           1200                                            . ...... ....
                                           I OW00                                                     ......... --]@@scabp
                                            800
                                                                                                 . . ..... .......  ..... Ov.
                                            Goo  . .......                                 ....... .... . ..

                                            400 -
                                                                                F-T
                                            200        1
                                                 1970     1972      1974      1976       1978      1980       1982      19,84
                                                     1971      1973      1975      1977       1979      1981       19S3

                                                                               40
                                                                                     T_
                                                                           - -_ X`

                                                       k -7F

                 Climatic and Atmospheric Functions

                        There has been little research on this topic, but several hypotheses have been suggested
                 regarding the biospheric importance of wetlands.

                        There is growing evidence that wetlands help maintain global atmospheric stability. Terrestrial
                 detritus is a large pool of carbon (e.g. peat) or highly organic wetland soils. Methane (a by-product
                 of anaerobic decomposition) is thought to regulate the ozone layer. Wetland conversion results in
                 accelerated oxidation of organic matter and release of C02 instead of methane.

                        Large bodies of water are known to moderate local temperature and/or precipitation. Similar
                 functions may be associated with wetlands and their associated water bodies or by the large
                 quantities of water they contain and their contribution to local climatic conditions via
                 evapotranspiration.

                                                               41

                                        CHAPTER 5 - WETLAND ALTERATIONS: THREATS AND LOSSES

                                                           HISTORIC WETLAND LOSSES

                 Nationwide, wetland losses are great. It is estimated that 30-50% of original wetland acreage
          in the lower 48 states has been converted to other uses within the last 200 years. Between the
          1950's and 1970's alone, eleven million acres were converted, at a rate of about 550,000 acres per
          year. With federal and state governmental regulations in effect, this rate of loss has slowed
          somewhat, to about 300,000 acres per year (OTA, 1984). Coastal wetlands, which experienced the
          greatest wetland losses during the early periods of settlement, seem reasonably well protected
          through state coastal zone management programs. However, development pressures are greater now
          than ever, resulting in serious degradation of remaining coastal wetlands. Inland freshwater
          wetlands have never been w6ll protected and continue to face serious losses.

                 According to the EPA, New England wetlands are not disappearing as rapidly as other areas
          in the U.S., primarily because of stronger wetland protection laws, fewer remaining wetlands and a
          more environmentally aware population. (EPA, 1986). Historic losses have occurred mostly on
          coastal wetlands, although at present there is increasing development pressure on inland freshwater
          wetlands (OTA, 1984). Trends in Maine mayr be similar to the rest of New England. However,
          regulation of many freshwater wetlands is still inadequate and the large number of wetlands in
          Maine's natural landscape will result in more pressure to develop them as the population increases.

                 More importantly, the absence of statewide comprehensive wetland or land use maps make
          historic losses difficult to assess, future threats difficult to manage, and wetland trend studies
          impossible to produce. Wetland losses include both the physical loss of wetland acreage through a
          variety of manipulative or destructive alterations and loss of wetland function(s) by these same
          physical activities or by chemical or biological alterations. Nationally, the major types of wetland
          alterations are water diversions.through activities such as road building; drainage and channelization
          for agricultural purposes; chemical and nutrient contamination from various development and
          agricultural activities; and the cumulative impacts of other activities conducted in areas adjacent to
          wetlands (OTA, 1984).

                 Historic wetland losses in Maine will -be described in this section and reported by type of
          activity involved. Many of these activities continue to threaten wetlands while others have been
          curtailed by regulation. In some cases, wetlands have been created by human and non-human
                       _h
          influences. T e types of habitats lost or alt@@,e -regions of greatest loss by human activity is
                             @@n_ _c                                                                ---- --d-
          @@@en where          own. In most cases, t ere is no definite acreage documentation of wetFan
         -losses overall, only the-expert recollection of individuals, regulators, planners and field biologists in
          Maine, who supplied the bulk of the following information.

          Land Use History
               I The history of European settlement in Maine and the ensuing patterns of land use give some
          indication of the historic impacts upon wetlands. The early settlements were restricted to coastal
          areas where fishing and farming was the mainstay of most communities. Salt marshes used f6r "salt
          hay" production and the productive fishery resources of offshore estuarine areas enabled a
          continuous -history of habitation along the coast. Urban centers often grew from these coastal
          towns and later followed inland waterways up the major rivers such as the Kennebec and the
          Penobscot. As the timber industry grew, settlements spread further inland, yet maintained the
          critical connection with the sea.

                                                            42

                         The later expansion of urban areas was unconcerned with wetlands, and filling was common
                  along coastal wetlands, adjacent spits, beaches, and along river floodplains. Many of Maine's
                  major coastal towns and cities are situated at the mouths of such rivers, or in protected coves
                  where salt marshes and other wetland communities are prevalent. Examples of wetlands situated
                  on inland river floodplains include: Gardiner, Hallowell, and Augusta along the Kennebec River, and
                  in Bangor along the Penobscot River. Adjacent, silt-laden soils of floodplains and river valleys
                  were also converted to agricultural use, and many river valley farms remain highly productive
                  farmland today.

                  Types of Wetland Alteration Contributina to Wetland Loss

                         There are many causes or motives for wetland alteration that result in wetland loss. Some
                  alterations may result in the total loss of the wetland habitat and natural functions alike, or may
                  slightly or partially impair one or more functions, leaving the wetland intact. Other activities may
                  degrade the wetland more slowly, resulting in eventual loss of function and value.

                         Today most federal and state regulations focus on those activities wh    ich tend to destroy
                  wetlands (i.e. filling and dredging). The placement of fill into a wetland terminates its water-
                  holding capacity, diminishes its ability to sustain wetland vegetation and alters soil characteristics.
                  When filled, wetlands become upland or dry sites and their development potential is much higher.
                  However, the drainage problems associated with developing wetlands may be simply shifted to
                  neighboring areas including residences.

                         Filling wetlands may be intentional as in the creation of residential development sites, or it
                  may be incidental to other activities, such as dredging, where the dredged material is placed in a
                  wetland. Dredging is often done to keep intertidal channels and subtidal areas clear and passable
                  for navigation.

                       . Drainage of wetlands has been less of an issue in Maine, where the pressure to develop
                  wetland sites for agricultural purposes has not been as great as in the midwest. With farm
                  abandonments on the rise, conversion of wetland soils becomes less attractive. Drainage of
                  wetlands may become important when considered in the context of other development activities
                  such as filling or peat mining.

                         All of these activities can be described as conversion from one "land" type to another,
                  generally from wet to dry. Other kinds of conversions may result in a net gain of wetland
                  acreage, or no net change in acreage, but a change in wetland type. Fishery and wildlife
                  management techniques often alter one characteristic of a wetland in favor of another. For
                  example, water-level control structures may increase the area of permanent water and enhance the
                  value of the wetland for waterfowl. Provided that management decisions consider the full range
                  of values present at a given site before determining its appropriateness for change, such effects
                  upon other natural wetland values may be small.

                         Other types of wetland alteration include the clearing of vegetation (by burning, digging,
                  herbicide application, scraping, mowing, grazing or otherwise cutting); the diversion or
                  impoundment of water flow through a wetland by dam construction, channelization, etc.; too much
                  shading of vegetation; and activities on adjacent upland areas which directly or indirectly impact
                  wetlands. The latter may include chemical changes induced by nutrient runoff or the introduction of
                  toxic materials, or the reduction of populations of existing species and/or the introduction of exotic
                  species.

                                                                   43

         Causes and Amounts of Wetland Loss

               Many of the increased development pressures on wetlands relate directly to population
         growth. Increasing urbanization, residential and commercial development, increased roadways and
         use of wetland resources all result in direct and indirect adverse impacts on wetlands. The
         following factors and activities have been identified as contributors to historic wetland loss. The
         net effect of these activities on wetland loss is illustrated in Figure 5.1.

         Ficiure 5.1 Estimated loss of vegetated wetlands in Maine since European settlement.

                                  Estimated Loss of Vegetated Wetlands
                                        Since European Settlement
                                    (Estimated losses represent 2% of total resource) -
             40000--

             35000--

             30000--

             25000--
         C
         r   20000--
             15000--

             10000..

               5000.-

                 0               +-
                     Commercial  Transportation  Hydropower         PIeat    Agriculture
                    and Residential and Roads    and Water      Harvesting
                     Development                 I Storage
                                        Causes  of Wetland Alteration

                                                 44

                  1. Commercial, Residential,and Urban Development

                         Commercial and residential development has been and continues to be an important cause of
                  wetland loss in Maine. Initially restricted to coastal areas and major waterways, inland freshwater
                  wetlands are now subject to the same threats. Typical wetland development involves filling to
                  provide a suitable substrate for construction. In addition to direct and secondary impacts of
                  development on wetlands themselves, impacts from associated upland development is prevalent.

                         The early losses of coastal wetlands to urbanization are based on assumptions of which cities
                  or towns may rest on former wetlands. One can suspect a similar trend is valid for all of New
                  .England, although greatest in southern New England. The urban and residential expansion of the
                  1950's and 1960's had the greatest affect on coastal wetlands as such growth outpaced protection.

                         The extent and nature of such wetland losses are not well documented. While certain
                  wetlands may not have been lost or filledoutright, many development activities have secondary
                  impacts such as water quality deterioration (via stormwater runoff, sewage control, etc.), chemical
                  pollution (industrial, agricultural, etc.) and habitat degradation. The loss of important wildlife -
                  habitat along wetland borders is often at least as important as the wetland itself to some species.
                  Another secondary impact of population growth in and around coastal wetlands was the ditching and
                  partial.drainage of many salt marshes for mosquito abatement. These ditches are still visible on
                  the ground and from aerial photos, although many have since filled in.

                  2. Transportation and Roads

                         Wetland. losses associated with early periods of road building were not recorded, but may
                  range in the hundreds of acres. Federal highway projects document more recent wetland losses and
                  mitigation. Hundreds of acres of wetland are likely to have been filled by the Maine Department
                  of Transportation (MDOT), the Maine Turnpike Authority (MTA) and by the construction of local,
                  town or private roads. Historical reco'rd of wetland fills by roadbuilding is incomplete and archival
                  in nature. Some estimates exist in environmental documentation ("categorical exclusions") for
                  federally funded projects and federally (Corps) permitted activities, but they have not been
                  tabulated foe the hundreds of such cases.

                         Most of the road construction in Maine over the last 40-50 years has been through the
                  upgrading-of dirt roads. The rapid growth rates of the 1950's were accompanied by increased road
                  and hig[WrWt building. At the same time, wetlands were not an area of major concern and actual
                  wetland losses were not recorded. Now, however, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
                  requires federally funded roadway projects consider ways to avoid or minimize wetland losses.
                         There are 22,000 miles  iof public roadways in'Maine and MbOT is responsible for 8,700 miles.
                  For FHWA.projects, MDOT must explain why there are no practicable alternatives to impacting the
                  wetlands and explain why the proposed action,includes all practicable measures to minimize harib
                  to wetlands. Currently, MDOT fills and alters about 10 acres per year, some of which is
                  compensated by the creation and enhancement of wetland perhaps to different types.

                         The Maine Turnpike Authority was responsible for filling large areas of wetland during
                  construction of the Maine Turnpike, possibly in the hundreds of acres. 0
                                                                                           -pen water wetland areas
                ,3@ @reg@@at@d @aswe!@!, as mitigation for some wetland losses, and inadvertently as construction
                  altered drainage patterns. MDIFW coordinated closely with MTA during highway construction to
                  avoid the crossing or disturbance of,certain high value wetlands.

                                                                  45

                                                           LITERATURE CITED

          Adamus, P. R. and L. T. Stockwell. 1983. A Method for Wetland Functional Assessment. Vol. 1.
          FHWA-IP-82-24. U.S. Department of Transportation. Washington, D.C.

          Adamus, P. R. 1983. A Method for Wetland Functional Assessment. Vol. 2. FHWA-[P-82-24. U.S.
          Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.

          Adamus, P.R. 1986. The Cumulative Impacts of Development in Southern Maine: Wetlands: Their
          Locations, Functions and Value. Maine State Planning Office. Augusta, ME 04333. 69 pp.

          Arbuckle, J. and M. Lee. 1987. The Cumulative Impacts of Development in Southern Maine: A study
          of habitat changes in 5 coastal towns. Maine Audubon Society for the Maine State Planning Office.
          Maine State Planning Office. Augusta, Maine 04333. 50 pp. and Appendices.

          Batie, S. S. and L. A. Shabman. 1982. Estimating the Economic Value of Wetlands: Principles,
          Methods and Limitations. Coastal Zone Management Journal 10(3): 255-278.

          Boelter, D. H. and Verry, E. S. 1977. Peatland and Water in the Northern Lake States. U.S.D.A.
          Forest Service. General Technical Report NC-31, North-Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul,
          MN.

          Boyle, K. J., V. A. Trefts, P. S. Hesketh. 1987. A Preliminary Investigation of the Economic Value
          and Use of Maine's Inland Fish and Wildlife Resources. A Report to the Maine Department of
          Inland Fisheries and Wildlife and the Maine Department of Conservation. 52 pp.

          Cameron,C.C.; M.K. Mullen, C.A. Lepage and W.A. Anderson. 1984. Peat Resources of Maine. Maine
          Geological Survey, Department of Conservation, Augusta, Maine. MGS Bull. Nos. 28-32. 5 Vols.

          Colgan, C.S., L.C. Irland, J. Benson. 1986. The Natural Resource Industries of Maine. An Assessment
          and Statistical Repom Maine State Planning Office and Finance Authority of Maine, Augusta, ME.
          135 pp.

          CoWardin, L.M.; V. Carter, F.C. Golet and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and
          Deepwater Habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological
          Services. FWS/OBS-79/31. 131 pp.

          Dahl, T. E. 1985. Use of National Wetlands Inventory Data for Wetland assessment. In: Proceedings:
          National Wetlands Assessment Symposium, June 17-20, 1.985. Association of State Wetland Managers.
          pp. 146-150.

          Damman, A. W. H. 1979. Geographic patterns in peatland development in eastern North America. In:
          Classification of Peat and Peatlands. Proc. of the International Symposium, Hyytiala, Finland, Sept.
          17-21, 1979. International Peat Society. pp 42-57.

          Davis, R.B. (in prep.) Eccentric Raised Bogs in Maine. Report to the Critical Areas Program.
          Davis, A. B., A. Zlotsky, G. L. Jacobson, E. Sorenson and L. Widoff. (in prep.). Maine's Freshwater
          Peatlands: Typology and Distribution. Can. J. Botany.

                                                      87

                 Davis, R.B.; G.L. Jacobson, Jr., L.S. Widoff, A. Zlotsky. 1983. Evaluation of Maine Peatlands For
                 Their Unique and Exemplary Qualities. Report prepared for Dept. of Conservation, Augusta, Maine.
                 186 pp.

                 Eckstorm, F. H. 1904. Penobscot Man. Juniper Press, 1978 (reprint). 362 pp.

                 Fefer, S.I. and P.A. Shettig (Principle Investigators). 1980. An Ecological Characterization of
                 Coastal Maine (North and East of Cape Elizabeth). U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and
                 Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-80/29. 6 volumes.

                 Giffen, R.A. 1988. Filling.Coastal Wetlands. A history of decisions under Maine's Alteration of
                 Coastal Wetlands Act. A report to the Maine Audubon Society. 12 pp.

                 Golet, F. C. 1973. Wetlands and Wildlife. In: A Guide to Important Characteristics and Values of
                 Freshwater Wetlands in the Northeast. Publ. No. 31 Reprint, Water Resources Research Center,
                 University of Mass, Amherst.

                 Golet, F. C. 1978. Rating-the Wildlife Value of Northeastern Freshwater Wetlands. In: Wetland
                 Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding, P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark and J. E. Clark
                 (eds.) Proc. of the Nationa I Symposium on Wetlands, pp. 63-73.

                 Gutis, P.S. 1988. Troubled Seas: Global Red Tides of Algae Bring New Fears. The New York Times.
                 May 3, 1988.

                 Hackney, C.T. and W.J. Cleary. 1987. Salt marsh loss in Southeastern North Carolina lagoons:
                 importance of sea level rise and inlet dredging. Journal of Coastal Research, 3(1)93-97.
                 Charlottesville, ISSN 0749-0208.

                 Haynes, G. H. 1889. Ellsworth, Maine. The picturesque city of the east. Green Lake, the tourist's,
                 angler's and hunter's paradise. Journal Press, Lewiston, ME. obl. pp.24.

                 Horwitz, E. L. 1978. Our Nation's Wetlands: An Interagency Task Force Report. Council on
                 Environmental Quality. 70 pp.                                                         I.,.

                 Jacobson, H.A.; G.L. Jacobson and J.T. Kelley. 1987. Distribution and Abundance of Tidal Marshes
                 Along the Coast of Maine. Estuaries 10(2): 126-131.

                 Jones, J. J. 1986. The Cumulative Impacts of Development in Southern Maine: Important Wildlife
                 Habitats. Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, Maine.

                 Jones, J. J., J. P. Lortie, U. D. Pierce, Jr. 1988. The Identification and Management of Significant
                 Fish and    Wildlife Resources in Southern Coastal Maine. Maine Department -of Inland Fisheries and
                 Wildlife, Augusta, Maine, 043.33.140 pp.

                 Maine Department of Conservation. 1982. Maine Rivers Study. Maine D.O.C. and U.S.D.I. National
                 Park Service. 249 pp.

                 Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. 1988. Maine Wetland Inventory Data Base.
                 Unpublished Data. Augusta, Maine. 04333.

                 Maine State Planning Office. 1986. Coastal Program Core Laws and Their Administration. Augusta,
                 ME 04330.

                                                             88

           Maine State Planning Office. (in prep.) The State of the Environment. Augusta, ME.

           Martin, A. C., N. Hotchkiss, F. M. Uhler, and W. S. Bourn. 1953. Classification of the Wetlands of
           the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 20. 14 pp.

           McCall, C.A. 1972. Manual for Maine Wetlands Inventory. Maine Dept. of Inland Fisheries and
           Wildlife, Game Division. Augusta, Maine. 38 pp.

           Mitsch, W. J., Dorge, C. L., and Weimhoff, J.R., 1977. Forested Wetlands for Water Resource
           Management in Southern Illinois, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign ? Water Resources
           Center, Research Report No. 132, NTIS No. PS 276659.

           Novitski, R. P. 1979. The hydrologic characteristics of Wisconsin wetlands and their influence on
           Flood, Streamflow and sediment. In: Wetland Functions and Values: The State of our Understanding,
           P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark and J. E. Clark, (eds.)., Proc. of the National Symposium on Wetlands.
           American Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN. pp.377-388.

           Odum, E.P. 1978. The Value of Wetlands: A Hierarchical Approach In: Wetland Functions and Values:
           The State of our Understanding. E. P. Greeson, J.R. Clark and J.E. Clark (eds.). Proc. of the-
           National Symposium on Wetlands. American Water Resources Assoc., Minneapolis, MN. pp 16-25.

           Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). 1984. Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation. U. S. Congress,
           Washington, D. C. OTA-0-206. 208 pp.

          ,Payson, H. 111. 1982. The economic impact of less dredging by the Army Corps of Engineers:
           Selected Maine ports through 1990. For New England Governors Conference. Maine State Planning
           Office, Augusta, Maine.

           Platt, R. H. 1987. Coastal Wetland Management: The Advance Designation Approach. Environment
           29(9):16-43.

           Platt, R. H. 1987. Coastal Wetland Management: Strengthening EPA's Role. Report prepared for the
           Office of Wetlands, E.P.A. Land and Water Policy Center, Univ. of Mass., Amherst. 46 pp plus
           Appendices.

           Reed and D'Andrea.1 973. The Tidal Wetlands Dilemma. Conservation Priorities Plan. Land and Space
           Planning, South Gardiner, Maine.

           Scheirer, B. 1982. A Report on Unauthorized Wetland Filling in Wells, Maine. U.S. Dept. of the
           Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Unpublished report. 8 pp.

           Sewall Company, 1945. Report on the Proposed Flowage Area Above Long Falls Dam in TWP 3 R 4,
           BKP, WKR, Carrying Place, Dead River, Flagstaff, Bigelow, Eustis and Coplin for Central Maine
           Power. Old Town, Maine. 9 pp. and maps.

           Shaw, S. P. and C. G. Fredine. 1956. Wetlands of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
           Circular 39. 67 pp.

           Smarcion, R. C. 1973. Visual-Cultural Values of Wetlands. In: A Guide to Important Characteristics
           and Values of Freshwater Wetlands in the Northeast. (J. S. Larson, ed.) Publication #31 Reprint.
           Water Resources Research Center. University of Mass., Amherst. pp 9-12.

                                                          89

                 Sorenson, E. 1986. The Ecology and Distribution of Ribbed Fens in Maine. Critical Areas Program
                 Planning Report No. 81. State Planning Office, Augusta, Maine 04333.

                 Spencer, H. E., Jr. 1963. Man-made Marshes for Maine Waterfowl. Game Div. Bull. No. 9, Dept.
                 Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, Augusta, Maine, 04333. 79 pp.

                 Startwout, D.J. 1982. An Evaluation of the National Wetlands Inventory in Massachusetts. Proc. of
                 In-Place Resource Inventories Workshop. University of Maine, Orono, Maine. pp 685-691.

                 State Planning Office. 1977. Maine Coastal Inventory Handbook. Coastal Planning Program. Land Use
                 Information Series - IV. 31 pp.

                 Stockwell, S.S. and M. Hunter, Jr. 1983. A Description of the Wildlife in 27 Maine Peatlands. Report
                 prepared for Maine Dept. Of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. 144 pp.

                 Stuiver, M. and H. W. Borns. 1975. Late Quaternary Marine Invasion in Maine. Its Chronology and
                 Associated Coastal Movement. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 86:99-104.

                 Tiner, R.W. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends. U.S. Fish and
                 Wildlife Service. National Wetlands Inventory, Newton, MA 59 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1985a. Wetlands of Delaware. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands
                 Inventory, Newton Corner, MA and Delaware Dept. of Natural Resources and, Environmental Control,
                 Wetlands Section, Dover, DE. Cooperative Publication. 77 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W. 1985b. Wetlands of New Jersey. U.S. Fish   and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands
                 Inventory, Newton Corner, MA. 117 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W. and B. Veneman. 1987. The Hydric Soils of New England. University of Mass. Cooerative
                 Extension Bull. C-1 83, Amherst, MA. 27 pp.

                 Tolonen, K., R. B. Davis and L. Widoff. (in press). Peat accumulation rates in selected Maine
                 peatlands. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, Maine. Bulletin No. 33. 97 pp.

                 U.S. Department of the Interior. 1954. Wetlands Inventory of Maine. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,'
                 Office of RIver Basin Studies. Boston, MA. 30 pp + map.

                 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1959. Inventory of Permanent Water Areas of Significant Value to
                 Waterfowl in the State of Maine. U.S. Dept. of the Interior. March, 1959.

                 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1965. A Supplementary Report on the Coastal Wetlands Inventory of
                 Maine. U.S. Dept of the Interior. 11 pp.

                 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Environment Canada. 1986. North American Waterfowl
                 Management Plan. U. S. Dept. of the Interior and Canadian Wildlife Service. 33 pp.

                 Verry, E. S. and Boelter, D. 1979. Peatland Hydrology. In: Wetland Functions and Values: the State
                 of Our Understanding, P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.). Proc. of the National
                 Symposium on Wetlands. American Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN. pp. 389-402.

                 Worley, 1. A. 1980. Botanical and Ecological Aspects of Coastal Raised Peatlands in Maine. Maine

                                                              90

          State Planning Office, Critical Areas Program, Augusta, Maine. Planning Report No. 69. 175 pp.
          Worley, 1. 1982. Botanical and Ecological Aspects of Coastal Raised Peatlands in Maine. Critical
          Areas Program Planning Report No. 69. State Planning Office, Augusta, Maine 04333.

                                                       91

               00 SrAT. 3582                 PUBLIC LAW 99-645--NOV. 10, 1986                                                           PUBLIC LAW 99-645-IIOV. 10, 1986                             100 STAT.11
                               Public Law 99-645                                                                                (7) wetlands constitute only a small pares.              of the land
                               99th C6ngress                                                                                  area of the United States. are      eatiniated to have been reduced
                                                                An Act                                                        by hair in the contiguous States since the founding -of our
                                                                                                                              Nation. and continue to disappear by hundreda.of thousands of
                               To promft the conservation of miltratm waterfowl and to offset or p event                      acres each year,
               Now. 10. 19M                                                                              the                    (8) certain activities of the Federal Governmerit have inappm
                 (S.7401         serious iose or wetlands by the aNuisition of wetlands and other essential habitat,          priately altered or sasisted in the alteration of wetlands.
                                 and for other pu.                                                                            thereby unnecessarily stimulating iknd accelerating the low of
                                 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the                              these valuable resources and the eiivironmental and economic
              .Vetlands        United States ofAmerica in Congress assemblec@                                      4          benefits that they provide; and                                                >
              RVOM.   Act of                                                                                                                                                                                 Z)
              9146.            SEMON 1. SHORT TITLE.                                                                            (9) the existing Federal. State, and private cooperation in                  V
              6 u9c 3901                                                                                                      wetlands conservation should be strengthened in order to mini-                 M
              ote.               This Act may be cited as the "Emergency Wetlands Resources Act                               mize further losses of these valuable areas and to assure                      :3
                               of 1986". '                                                                         I          their management in the public interest for this and future                    9:
              6 V.9c 2901.     SEC L VINDINGS AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSF.                                                       generations.                                                                   X
                                                                                                                           (b) PuRposE.-It is the purpose of this Act to plion             in concert
                                 (8) ANDINcs.-The Congress rinds that-
                                                                                                                         with other Federal and State statutes and programs. the conserva.                   (D
                                      (1) wetlands play an integral role in maintaining the quality                      tion of the wetlands of the Nation in order to maintain the public                  _n
                                   of life through material contributions to our national economg.                       benefits they provide and to help fulfill international obligations                 (D
                                   food supply, water supply and quality. nc.:)d control. and fis                        contained in various migratory bird treaties and conventions with                   a-
                                                                                                                                                                                                             CD
                                   wildlife, and plant resources, and thus to the health, safety,                        Canada, Mexico. Japan, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and
                                   recreation, and economic well-being of all our citizens of the                        with various countries in the Western lff!misphere by-
                                   Nation;                                                                                      (1) intensifying cooperative efforts among private interests                 M
                                      (2) wetlands provide habitat essential for the breeding, spawn-                                                                                                        3
                                                                                                                              and local, State. and Federal governments for the management                   (D
                                   ing, nesting, migration, wintering and ultimnte survival of a                              and conservation of wetlands-, and
                                   major portion, of the migratory and resident fish and wildlife of                                                                                                         (0
                                                                                                                                (2) intensifying efforts to protect the wetlands of the Nation               (D
                                   the Nation; including migratory birds. endangered species,                                 through acquisition in fee, easements or other interests and                   :3
                                                                                         infish, shellfish                    methods by local, State, and Federal governments and the                       1<
                                   commercially and recreationally important F                                                                                                                               0
                                   and other aquatic organisms, and contain many unique species                               private amtor.                                                                 ::E
                    >              and communities of wild plants;                                                                                                                                           CD
                                      (3) the migratory bird treaty obligations of the Nation with                       SEC. I DEFINITION&
                                   Canada. Mexico. japan. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.                         For the purpose of this Act-
                                                                                                                                                                                                             CL
                                   and with various countries in the Western Hemisphere require                                 (1) The term "Committees" means the Committee on Mer-                        co
                                   Federal protection of wetlands that am used by migratory birds                             chant Marine and Fisheries and the Committee on Interior and                   :0
                                   for breeding, wintering or migration and needrd toechieve and                              Insular Affairs of the House of Representatives and the                        CD
                                   to maintain optimum population levels, distributions. and pat@                             Committee on Environment and Public Works and the Commit-                      0
                                   terns of migration;                                                             I                                                                                         C
                                                                                                                              tee on Energ
                                                                ish, wildlife, and plants dependent on                                                                                                       0
                                      (4) wetlands. and the r                                                                              . y and Natural Resources of the Senate.
                                                                                                                                (2) The term "designated unit" means a unit of the National                  CD
                                   wetlands. provide significant recreational and commercial bene-                            Wildlife Refuge System designated by the Secretary under sec-                  0)
                                   rite. including-                                                                           tion 201(aX2).                                                                 >
                                          (A) contributions to a commercial marine harvest valued                             1 (3) The term "hydric soil" means soil that. in its undrained
                                        at over $10.000,000,000 annually;                                                     condition, is saturated, flooded. or ponded long enough during a
                                          (B) su port for a major portion of the Nation's multi-                                                                                                             (0
                                        million T,                                                                            growing season to develop an anaerobic condition that supports
                                                  ollor annual fur and hide harvest; and                                                                                                                     ca
                                          (C) Fishing. hunting, birdwatching, nature           observation                    the growth and regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation.
                                        and other wetland-mlated recreational activities that gen-                              (4) The term "hydrophytic vegetation' means a plant growing
                                        erate billions or dollars annually;                                                   In-
                                      (5) wetlands enhance the water quality and water supply or                                     (A) water, or
                                   the Nation by serving an groundwater recharge areas, nutrient                                     (B) a substrate that in at least periodically deficient in
                                   traps, and chemical sinks;                                                                      oxygen during a growing season as a result of excessive
                                      (6) wetlands provide a natural means of flood and erosion                                    water content.
                                   control by retaining water during periods of high runoff,                                    (6) The term "wetland" means land that has a predominance
                                   thereby protecting against loss of life and property;                                      of hydric soils and that is inundated or saturated by surface or
                                                                                                                              groundwater at a frequency and duration sufflicient, to support,
                                                                                                                              and that under normal circumstances does support. a preva-
                                                                                                                              lence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in
                                                                                                                              saturated soil conditions.

               100 STAT. M                     PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV. 10, 1986                                                              PUBLIC LAW 99-M-NOV. 10, 1986                                 100 STAT.
                                         TITLE I-EXTENSION OF WETLANDS L40AN ACT                                                   (13) a valid lifetime admission permit as authorized in section
                                                                                                                                   4(aX5) of such Act.
                                  SEQ 101. EXTENSION OF WETLANDS LOAN ACT.                                                     (2) Permits for a single visit to any designated unit shall be made
                                                                                                                              available by the Secretary of the Interior for a reasonable fee. but
                                    (a) AVAILABTUTT or APPROPRIATIONs.-The first section of the Act                           not to exceed $3 ror individuals or $7.50 per vehicle. For purposes or
                                  entitled "An Act to promote the conservation of migratory water.                            this subsection, the term "single visit" means a more or less
                                  fowl by the acquisition of wetlands, and for other ementisil water-                         continuous stay within a designatA4 unit by a person or group
                                  fowl habitat, and for other purposes", approved October 4, 1961 (16                         described in subsection (d). Payment of a single visit fee and issu-
                                  U.S.C. 715k-3). is amended by striking out "September 30,1986!' and                         ance of a single visit permit shall authorize exits from and re-entries
                                  inserting in lieu thereof "September 30,1988".                                              to a single designated unit for a period of from one to fifteen days.
                                    (b) RzpAymENT PRovisioNs.-Section 3 or such Act (16 U.S.C.                                Such period shall be defined for ea@h designated unit by the Sec-
                                  715k-5) is amended by striking out the first three sentences.                               retary based upon a determination ef the period of time reasonably
                                                                                                                              and ordinarily necessary for such a single visiL
                                  Trl@LE 11-REVENUES FOR REFUGE OPERATIONS AND THE                                             (3) Special admission permits for uses such.as group activities may
               Wildlife PA%p                  MIGRATORY BIRD CONSERVATION FUND                                                be issued in accordance with procediires and at fees established by
               syrtem.                                                                                                        the Secretary.
               16 use 3911.       SEC "I. SALE OF ADMISSION PERMIT ATCERTAIN REFVGE trNrM                                      (4) A person may not be required twi purchase an admission permit
                                    (a) SAts or ADuissioN NRMrffl.-(I) Notwithstanding the Land                               under subsection (a)(1) in order to travel by private noncommercial
                                                                                                                              vehicle over any road or highway-
                                  and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 (16 U.S.C. 4601-4 et seq.).                              . (AXi) established is part of the National Federal Aid System
                                  in order to provide additional revenues for the conservation of                                  (as defined in section 101 of title 23, United States Codek. and
                                  wetland resources of the Nation and for the operation and mainte-                                  60 commonly used by the pub] ic as a means of travel between
                                  nance of refuges-
                                         (A) the Secretary of the Interior may. at units of the National                           two places which are outside the designated unit; or
                                                                                                                                     (B) to any land in which such person has a property interest if
                                       Wildlife Refuge System designated by the Secretary under para-                              such land is within any designati A unit.
                                       graph (2@-
                                              (i) charge fees for admission permits;                                           (5) A person may not be required to purchase tin admission permit
                                              60 sell Golden Eagle passports and Golden Age passports;                        under subsection (aXI) for entrance or admission to a unit of the
                                              (iii) issue at no charge lifetime admission            rmits as                 National Wildlife Refuge System created, expanded, or modified by
                   >                       authorized in section 4(aX5) of the Land and Cater Con.                            Public Law 96-487.                                                               16 u9c a)
                                                                                                                               (c) DisimiBUTION or Amouirm Commcmm-Amounts collected                           a*&
                                           servation Fund Act of 1965 (16 U.S.C. 4601-4-4601-1 It,                            from the sale or admission permits under this section and from fees
                                         (B) the amounts collected by the Secretary as a result of the                        collected at any unit of the National Wildlife Refuge Sy tem under
                                       activities described in subparagraph (A) sh" be distributed as
                                       provided in subsection (c).                                                            subsections (b) and (c) of section 4 of the Land and Water Conserva.
                                                                                                                e
                                    (2) The Secretary shall designate a unit of the National Wildlif                          tion Fund Act of 1965 (16 U.S.C. 46WL-6a Ab). 10i shall be distributed
                                  Refuge System for purposes of this Act if the Secretary determines,                         as follows:
                                  with respect to such unit. that-                                                                   (A) Thirty per centum shall be available to the Secretary of
                                         (A) The level of visitation for recreational purposes is high                             the Interior until expended. The Secretary shall use such
                                       enough to justify the collection of fees for admission permits for                          amount-
                                       economic reasons.                                                                                  (i) first, to defray the cost Pf collection;
                                                                                                                                          (ii) next, for operation anti maintenance of the collecting
                                         (B) There is a practical mechanism in existence for im.                                       unit; and
                                       plementing and operating a "stem of collecting fees for admis.                                                                   and maintenance of all units
                                       sion permits.                                                                                      (iii) next, for operation
                                                                                                                                       within the National Wildlife Refuge System. except those
                                         (C) Imposition of a fee for admission permits is not likely to                                units created, expanded, or modified by Public Law 96487.
                                       result in undue economic hardship for a significant number of                                 (B) Seventy percent shall, be deposited into the migratory bird
                                       visi" to the unit.
                                    (b) EXCEMONS.--4 1) The Secretary may not require an admission                                 conservation fund established under section 4 of the Act of
                                  permit under subsection (aXI) for entry by a person into a des.                                  March 16.1934 (16 U.S.C. 718d).
                                  ignated unit if such person is the holder of-                                                 (d) PERsoNs AccomPANYiN(; PFRmrrmzL-A person who holds a
                                                                                                                              stamp, passport, or permit described in subsection (b) shall be
                                         (A) a valid migratory bird hunting and conservation stamp                            entitled to general entrance into. any designated unit, along with-
                                       issued under section 2 of the Act of March 16, 1934 (16 U.S.C.                                (1) any persons accompanying such person in a single. private,
                                       718b) (commonly known an the Duck Stamp Act),
                                         (B) a valid Golden Eagle Passport issued under section 4(aXI)                             noncommercial vehicle; or
                                                                                                                                     (2) where entry to the area is by any means other than single.
                                       of the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 (16 U.S.C.                              private. noncommercial vehicle, the person and any accompany-
                                       4601-6a(aXIA,
                                         (0 a valid Golden Age Passport issued under section 4(aX4) of                             Ing spouse, children, or parents.
                                       such Act; or                                                                             (e) RiFzrsIcnoN&-A permit ismed under this section is
                                                                                                                              nontransferable. Such a permit may not authorize any uses for

           100 STAT. 3586                 PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV. 10, 1986                                                            PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV.10,1986           100 STAT. 3
                             which fees are charged under the Land and Water Conservation                             terest in wetlands which should be given
                             Fund Act of 1965 (16 U.S.C. 4601-4 et seq.).                                             Federal and State acquisition.
                               (f) EsTAblishmENT or FEES; POSTING or NoTices.-(1) All fees                               (b) CONSULTATION.-The Secretary shall establish the plan re-
                             established pursuant to this section shall be fair and equitable. In                     quired by subsection (a) after consultation with-
                             establishing such fees, the Secretary shall consider the following:                            (1) the Administrator of the Environmental Protection
                                    (A) The direct and indirect cost to the Government.                                   Agency;
                                    (B) The benefits to the permit holder.                                                   (2) the Secretary of Commerce;
                                    (C) The public policy or interest served.                                                (3) the Secretary of Agriculture; and
                                    (D) The comparable fees charged by non-Federal public                                   (4) (the chief executive officer of) each State.                  State and loe
                                 agencies.                                                                              (c) FAcToRs To Be CONSIDERED.-The Secretary, in establishing          governments.
                                    (E) The economic and administrative feasibility of fee collec-                    the plan required by subsection (a), shall consider-
                                 tion and other pertinent factors.                                                           (1) the estimated proportion remaining of the respective types
                               (2) The Secretary shall require that notice that a fee has been                            of wetlands which existed at the time of European settlement;
                             established under this Section-                                                                 (2) the estimated current rate of loss and the threat of future
                                                                                                                          losses of the respective types of wetlands; and
                                    (A) be prominently posted at each designated unit and at                                 (3) the contributions of the respective types of wetlands to-
                                 appropriate locations in each such unit; and                                                    (A) wildlife, including endangered and threatened spe-
                                   (B) to the extent practicable, be included in publications                                 cies, migratory birds, and resident species;
                                 distributed at such units.                                                                      (B) commercial and sport fisheries;
                               (g) VoLunteer-The Director of the United States Fish and                                         (C) surface and ground water quality and quantity, and
                             Wildlife Service may accept services of volunteers to sell admission                              flood control;
                             permits under this section or to sell Golden Eagle and Golden Age                                   (D) outdoor recreation; and
                             Passports or Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps. The                                    (E) other areas or concerns the Secretary considers
                             Director may use funds appropriated or otherwise made available to                                appropriate.
                             the Service to cover the cost of any surety bond that may be
                             required of a volunteer performing the services authorized under                         SEC. 302. REMOVAL OF RESTRICTION ON ACQUISITION.
                             this subsection.                                                                           Section 7(a)(1) of the Land and Water Conservtion Fund Act of
                             SVC 202. PRICE OF MIGRATORY BIRD HUNTING AND CONSERVATION                                  1965 (16 U.S.C. 4601-9(a)(l)) is amended by striking out "national
                                        STAMP.                                                                        wildlife refuge areas under section 7(a)(5)of the Fish and Wildlife
           16 USC 718b.          Section 2(b) of the Act of March 16, 1934 (16 U.S.C. 718(b)), is                       which are authorized to be acquired by the Migratory Bird Con-
                             amended in the first sentence--                                                          servation Act of 1929. as amended (16 U.S. 715-715s)" and insert-
                                    (1) by striking out "7.50" and inserting in lieu thereof                         ing in lieu thereof "national wildlife refuge areas under section
                                 "$10.00";                                                                            7(a)(4) of the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 (16 U.S.C 742(f)(a)(4) and
                                    (2) by striking out "any hunting year and inserting in lieu                       wetlands acquired under section 304 of the Emergency Wetlands
                                 thereof "hunting years 1987 and 1988. $12.50 for hunting years                       Resources Act of 1986".
                                 1989 and 1990, and $15.00 for each hunting year thereafter."
                                 and                                                                                  SEC. 303. INCLUSION OF WETLANDS IN COMPREHENSIVE STATEWIDE OUT.
                                    (3) by inserting "available for obligation and" before "attrib-                              DOOR RECREATION PLANS.
                                 utable                                                                                 Section 6 of the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965
           16 U9C 3912        SEC. 203. TRANSFERS TO MIGRATORY BIRD CONSERVATION FUND.                                 (16 U.S.C. 4601-8) is amended-
                                                                                                                             (1) in subsection (d), by adding at the end thereof the following
                               Notwithstanding any other provision of law, an amount equal to                             new paragraph:-
                             the amount of all import duties collected on arms and ammunition,                          "For fiscal year 1988 and thereafter each comprehensive state-
                             as specified in subpart A of part 5 of schedule 7 of the Tariff                          wide outdoor recreation plan shall soecufucakkt address wetlands
           19 U8C 1202.       Schedules of the United States. shall. beginning with the next fiscal                     within that State as an important outdoor recreation resource as a
                             year quarter after the date of enactment of this Act, be paid                            prerequisite to approval, except that a revised comprehensive state-
                             quarterly into the migratory bird conservation fund established                          wide outdoor recreation plan shall not be required by the Secretary,
                             under section 4 of the Act of March 16, 1934 (16 U.S.C. 718d).                           if a State submits. and the Secretary, acting through the Director of
                                                                                                                      the National Park Service, approves,as a part of and as an adden-
                              TITLE 111--STATE AND FEDERAL WETLAND ACQUISITION                                          durn to the existing comprehensive statewide outdoor recreation
                                                                                                                      plan, a wetlands priority plan developed in consultation with the
           16 U9C 3921.      SEC. 301. NATIONAL WETLANDS PRIORITY CONSERVATION PLAN.                                   State agency with responsibility for fish and wildlife resources and
           state and local                                                                                               consistent with the national wetlands priority conservation plan
           governments.        (a) Im General.-The Secretary shall establish, and periodically                      developed under section 301 of the Emergency Wetlands Resources
                                review and revise, a national wetlands priority conservation plan                        Act or, if such national plan has not been completed, consistent with
                             which shall specify, on a region-by-region basis or other basis consid-                  the provisions of that section";
                             ered appropriate by the Secretary. the types of wetlands and in-

        iTAT. 3588                  PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV. 10, 1986                                                                      PUBLIC LAW 99-M-NOV. 10, 1986                                      100 STAI
                             (2) in subsedion (01), by inserting. in the first sentence                                 SEC- 40L REP011TS TO CONGRESS.                                                         le USC I
                           thereof. after "For the acquisition of land, waters, or interests                               (a) IN GENrs.Ai.-The Secretaryi' in consultation and cooperation
                           in land or waters" the following: ", or wetland areas and in-                                with the Secretary of Agriculture. shall prepare and submit to the
                           terests therein as identified in the wetlands provisions of the                              committees-
                           comprehensive plan"; and                                                                             (1) by March 30,1987, a report regarding the status. condition.
                             (3) in subsection (fX3),, by adding at the end thereof the                                      and trends of wetlands in the lower Mississippi alluvial plain
                           following- ": P@,vvide&4 That wetland areas and interests therein                                 and the prairie pothole regions of the United States; and
                           as identified in the wetlands provisions of the comprehensive                                        (2) by September 30, 1987, a report regarding trends of wet,
                           plan and proposed to be acquired as suitable replacement prop-                                    lands in all other areas of the United States.
                           erty within that same State that is otherwise acceptable to the                                 (b) CONTENTS ov RzPoRTs.-The reports required under subsection
                           Secretary. acting through the Director of the National Park                                  (a) shall contain-
                           Service, shall be considered to be of reasonably e
                                                                                           ,,quivalent
                           usefulness with the property proposed for conversion.                                                (1) an analysis or the factors responsible for wetlands deBtruc-
                                                                                                                             tion, degradation, protection and enhancement;
                      SEC. 3H. FEDERAL ACQUISITION.                                                                             (2) a compilation and analysis of Federal statutory and regu.                  Tazm
                        The Secretary is authorized to purchase wetlands or interests in                                     latory mechanisms, including expenditures, financial assist,
                      wetlands, which are not acquired under the authority of the Migra-                                     ance. and tax provisions which-
                      tory Bird Conservation Act of 1929 (16 U.S.C. 715-715s), consistent                                            (A) induce wetlands destruction or degradation; or
                      with the wetlands priority conservation plan established under                                                 (B) protect or enhance wetlands;
                      section 301.                                                                                              (3) a compilation and analysis of Federal expenditures result,
         SM.          SEC. 30L RESTRIMON ON USE OF EMINENT DOMAIN IN ACQUISITIONS.                                           ing from wetlands destruct-ion, degradation, protection or
          ad                                                                                                                 enhancement;
                        The powers of condemnation or eminent domain shall not be used                                          (4) an analysis of public and private patterns or ownership of
                      in the acquisition of wetlands under any provision of this Act where                                   wetlands;
                      such wetlands have been constructed for the purpose of farming or                                         (5) an analysis or the environmental and economic impact of
                      ranching, or result from conservation activities associated with                                       eliminating or restricting future Federal expenditures and
                      farming or ranching.                                                                                   financial assistance, whether direct or indirect. which have the
                                                                                                                             effect of encouraging the destruction. degradation, protection or
                      TinE IV-WETLANDS INVENTORY AND TREND ANALYSIS                                                          enhancement of wetlands. including-
                                                                                                                                     (A) public works expenditures;
                      SEC. 401. NATIONAL WETLANDS INVENTORY PROJEM                                                                   (B) assistance programs such as price support Plogg Irks,                 Loam
                        (a) IN Gr:NERAi.-The Secretary. acting through the Director of                                            commodity loans and purchase programs and disaster
                      the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, shall continue the                                             assistance programs;
                      National Wetlands Inventory llro*ect and shall-                                                                (C) soi I conservation programs; and
                             (1) produce. by September 30,1988, National Wetlands Inven-                                             (D) certain income tax provisions;                                        Taus.
                           tory maps for the areas that have been identified by the Service                                     (6) an analysis of the environmental and economic impact of                    Tam&
                           an top priorities for mapping, including-                                                         failure to restrict future Federal expenditures, financial assist-
                                  (A) the entire coastal zone of the United States;                                          ance, and tax provisions which have the effect of encouraging
                                  (B) floodplains of major rivers; and                                                       the destruction, degradation, protection or enhancement of wet-
                                  (C) the Prairie Pothole region;                                                            lands, including-
                             (2) produce, by September 30. 1998, National Wetlands Inven-                                            (A) assistance for normal silviculture activity (such as                  AgaricultL
                           tory maps for those portions of the contiguous United States for                                         lowing, seeding, planting, cultivating, minor drainage, or                 wri-Itu
                           which final maps have not been produced earlier;                                                       Earvesting for the production of fiber or forest products);                  ammodi,
                             (3) produce, as soon as racticable, National Wetlands Inven-                                            (B) Federal expenditures required incident to studies                     For"ta a
                           toriy maps for Alaska ans other noncontiguous portions of the                                          evaluations, design. construction, operation, maintenance                    forest P"
                           United States; and                                                                                     or rehabilitation of Federal water resource development
                             (4) produce. by September 30. 1990, and at ten-year intervals                                        activities. including channel improvements-,
                           thereafter, reports to update and improve the information con-                                            (0 the commodity loans and purchases program and                          tA*m
                           tained in the report dated September 1982 and entitled "Status                                         cotton, feed grain, wheat. and rice production stabilization                 Agri-alt-
                           and Trends of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitat in the Cotermi-                                           programs administered by the Department of Agriculture;                      agricultu
                           nous United States, 1950's to 1970's".                                                                 and                                                                          w...di,
        MW low          (b) NoTica.-The Secretary shall notify the appropriate State and                                             (D) Federal expenditures for the construction of publicly                 Highwa."
                      local units of government at such time as he proposes to begin map                                          owned or publicly operated highways, roads, structures, or
                      preparation under subsection (a) in an area. Such notice shall                                              facilities that are essential links in a larger network or
                      include, but is not limited to. the identification of the area to be                                        system; and
                      mapped. the proposed schedule for completion, and the identifica-                                         (7) recommendations for the conservation or wetlands re-                       State and
                      tion of a source for further information.                                                              sources based on an evaluation and comparison of all manage-                      v--

    100 STAT. 3590          PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV. 10,1986

         ment alternatives, and combinations of management alternatives, such as State and local actions, Federal actions, and initiatives by private organizations and individuals.

                           TITLE V--MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS

    6 USC 668dd       SEC 501. MIGRATORY BIRD TREATY ACT.

        Section 6(b) of the Act of July 3, 1918 (16 U.S.C. 707(b)) is amended bydeleting "shall" the first place it appears therein and by inserting in lieu thereof "shall knowingly".
        Sec. 502.  BAYOU SAUVAGE URBAN NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE.

             (A) pURPOSES OF rEFUGE--The purposes of the Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge are--
                (l)  to enhance the populations of migratory, shore, and wading birds within the refuge;
                (2)  to encourage natural diversity of fish and wildlife species within the refuge;
                (3)  to protect the endangered and threatened species and otherwise to provide for the conservation and management of fish and wildlife with the refuge;
                (4)  to fulfill the international treaty obligations of the United States respecting fish and wildlife;
                (5)  to protect the archeological resources of the refuge;
                (6)  to provide opportunities for scientific research and environmental education, with emphasis being given to the ecological and other values of wetlands; and
                (7)  to provide opportunities for fish and wildlife oriented public uses and recreation in an urban setting.
             (b) ACQUISTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF REFUGE.-
                (1)  ACQUISITION.-Within four years after the effective date of this section the Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter in this Act referred to as the "Secretary")
                     shall acquire the approximately nineteen thousand acres of lands and waters, and interests therein, located in Orleans Parish, Louisiana, that are depicted on the
                     map entitled "Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge". dated September 15,1986, and on file at the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior.
                     The lands and waters, and interests therein, acquired under this paragraph comprise the Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge. The acquistion shall be made through donation,
                     purchase with donated or appropriated funds, or exchange,or through any combination of the foregoing.
                (2)  ESTABLISHMENT.--At such time as sufficient lands and waters, and interests therein, have been acquired under paragraph (1) to constitute an initial area that can be administered to carry out the purposes set forth insubsection (a), the Secretary shall establish the Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge by publication of notice to that effect in the Federal Register.
                (3)  BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS--The Secretary may make such adjustments with respect to the boundary of the Bayou sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge as may be necessary to facilitate the acquisition of lands and waters, and interests therein, for the refuge and to facilitate the administration of the refuge.
                   (c)  ADMINISTRATION OF REFUGE.--The Secretary shall administer all lands and waters, and interests therein, acquired under subsec

                                PUBLIC LAW 99-645-NOV. 10, 1986             100 STAT. 3

                        tion (b) in accordance with the provisions of the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee) to carry out the purposes set forth in subsection (a).  The Secretary may utilize suchg additional statutory authority as may be available to him for the conservation and development of wildlife and natural resources, the development of outdoor recreation opportunities, and interpretive environmental education as he considers appropriate to carry out such purposes.  Within two years after the effective date of this section, the Secretary shall complete a master plan for the development of the Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge.
                       (d) 	AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.-There are authorized to be appropriated to the Department of the Interior-
                          (1) from funds not otherwise appropriated from the Land and Water Conservation Fund, such sums as may be necessaryfor the acquisition of lands and waters, and interests therein, for the Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife refuge; and
                          (2) $5,000,000 for the development of the refuge
                        The moneys appropriated under subparagraphs (1) and (2) shall remain available until expended.
                       (e) EFFECTIVE DATE-- This sectiontakes effect on the later of the date of enactment of this Act or October 1, 1986.
                       Approved November 10, 1986.

                     LEGISLATIVE HISTORY- S. 740 (H.R. 1203):
                      HOUSE REPORTS: NO. 99-86, PT. 1 accompanying H.R. 1203 (Comm. on Merchant
                                     Marine and Fisheries).
                    SENATE REPORTS: No. 99-445 (Comm. on Environment and Pulbic Works).
                    CONGRESSIONAL RECORD. Vol. 132 (1986):
                       Oct. 3, considered and passed Senate.
                       Oct. 14, considered and passed House.

       Appendix 11 List and Definition of Maine Wetland Inventory Wetland Types (Maine Department of
       Inland Fisheries and Wildlife)

                TYPE 1 - seasonally Flooded Basins or Flats

                     These flats occur in upland depressions, whichmay fill
                with water during periods of heavy rain or melting snow, and
                along river courses, where flooding ordinar 'ily occurs in
                late fall, winter, or spring. The soil is covered with
                water or is waterlogged during variable seasonal periods,
                but is generally well-drained during the growing season.
                Where the water recedes early, smartweeds, fall panicum,
                chufa, wild millet, and cockleburs are likely to occur.*
                Areas that are only temporarily submerged rarely develop any
                wetland vegetation. Ducks often use flooded upland
                depriessions when feeding - eating seeds that were present
                before flooding and invertebrates that developed wither
                before or after submergence.

                TYPE 2 - Inland Fresh Meadow.

                     These meadows often fill sha llow lake basins or
                potholes; they may also be found bordering the landward side
                of shallow marshes. The soil is waterlogged to within a few
                inches of the surface during the growing season. Vegetation
                characteristic of northern meadows includes cares, rushes,
                redtop, reed grasses, mannagrasses, prairie cordgrass, and
                mints. When associated with permanent water areas, fresh
                meadows are commonly used by nesting.waterfowl. Deer and
                moose frequent them while resting and feeding.

                TYPE 3 - Inland Shallow Fresh Marsh.

                     Shallow marshes may nearly fill shallow lake basis or
                potholes, or they may border the landward side of deep fresh
                marshes occupying such depressions. The soil, normally
                waterlogged during the growing season, may be flooded with
                as much as 6 inches of water. Common plant species found in
                northern regions are plume grass, rice cutgrass, carex, and
                giant burreed. various other marsh plants (cattails,
                arrowheads, pickerel weed, smartweeds) may also be found.
                These marshes are used heavily by nesting and feeding
                waterfowl, and they are visited frequently by other birds,
                moose, deer, and various furbearers.

                TYPE 4 - Inland Deep Fresh Marsh.

                     These marshes often occupy shallow  lake basins and
                potholes, or they may border open water  occurring in such
                areas. The soil is covered with 6 inches to 3 feet of water
                during the growing season. Shallow-water vegetation
                consists mainly of cattails, plume grass, spikerushes, and

                  The scientific names of all plants mentioned here and on
                  the following pages are listed at the end of this
                  Appendix.

                                             A-7

                      wild rice; pondweeds, duckweeds, coontail, spatterdock
                      sometimes occur in the more open areas. These areas are
                      important not only to nesting and feeding waterfowl, but
                      also to numerous other wildlife species, such as herons and
                      rails, muskrats, otters, and beavers, turtles, frogs, and
                      fish.

                      TYPE 5    Inland Open Fresh Water.

                            open fresh water of variable    depth occurs in artificial
                      lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. It      may also be found in
                      shallow lake basins, potholes, or     streambeds, and is
                      commonly fringed with marsh vegetation. In shallow areas
                      (less than six feet) vegetation may include pondweeds, wild..
                      celery, coontail, water milfoil, water lilies, and
                      spatterdocks. These open water areas are useful to diving
                      ducks, coots, and occasionally to geese. The bordering
                      vegetation provides cover and the open surface areas are
                      particularly good for brooding and resting.

                      TYPE 6 - Shrub Swamp.

                            Shrubby swamps occur primarily along sluggish streams.
                      The soil is generally waterlogged but may be covered with a
                      foot or more of water. Alder and dogwood predominate on the
                      drier areas; willow, buttonbush, and sweet gale characterize
                      the wetter sites. These swamps are used to varying degrees
                      by ducks, moose, deer, woodcock, and raccoons.

                      TYPE 7 - Wooded Swamp.

                            These swamps occur along sluggish streams, on flat
                      uplands, and in shallow lake basins or potholes. The soil
                      is normally waterlogged but may be seasonally covered with
                      as much as one foot or more of water. (When such areas are
                      flooded for a period of one or more years, the trees die and
                      the site reverts to a meadow-for a period of one or more
                      years, the trees die and the site reverts to a meadow
                      association). Northern swamps are composed of tamarack,
                      arborvitae, black spruce, balsam fir, red maple, and black
                      ash. The coniferous swamps usually have a thick carpeting
                      of mosses; deciduous swamps often support duckweeds,
                      smartweeds, and other herbaceous vegetation. Wooded swamps
                      are frequently used by hole-nesting ducks, feeding
                      waterfowl, deer, moose, beaver, and numerous small birds and
                      mammals.

                      =E 8 - Bog.

                            Bogs occur most often in shallow lake basins, and
                      potholes, along sluggish streams, and on flat uplands. The
                      soil is generally saturated and supports a spongy
                      ground-cover of mosses or other plant material. Vegetation
                      May be woody, herbaceous, or both. Northern representatives

                                                      A-8

                include Labrador-tea, leather-leaf, cranberries, carex,
                cottongrass, sweet gale and sphagnum moss. Stunted black
                spruce and tamarack may also occur. In Maine, these bogs,
                especially those with an interspersion of open water,.are of
                importance to some nesting waterfowl. Moose, deer, beaver,
                and hares also-frequent these areas.

                TYPE 12 - Coastal Shallow Fresh Marsh.

                     These marshes occur along tidal rivers and adjacent the
                landward side of deeper marshes. The soil is waterlogged
                and may be flooded with as much as 6 inches of water at high
                tide. Vegetation consists of various grasses and sedges,
                cattails, arrowheads, smartweeds, and arrow-arum. These
                marshes are highly important to feeding wildfowl and herons;
                they are of lesser importance to mink, raccoons, and snipe.

                   E 13 - Coastal Deep Fresh Marsh.

                     These deep marshes occur primarily along tidal rivers.
                During the growing season the soil is covered with 6 inches
                to 3 feet of water at average high tide. Common plants
                found are cattails, wildrice, pickerel weed, and
                spatterdocks; pondweeds, widgteon grass, and other submerged
                species often occur in marsh openings. Where suitable
                vegetation dominates, these marshes are heavily used by
                feeding waterfowl, sora rails, and herons. Raccoons, mink,
                muskrats, and fish also utilize these areas.

                TYPE 14 - Coastal Open Fresh Water.

                     These waters are of variable depth and occur in tidal
                rivers and sounds. Vegetation is generally found at depths
                less than six feet and consists of pondweeds, naiads, wild
                celery, coontail, water milfoils, and waterweeds. Such
                areas are heavily used by diving ducks and other water
                birds, and by fish.

                TYPE 16 - Coastal Salt Meadow.

                     Salt meadows border the landward side of salt marshes,
                or open water. The soil is always saturated during the
                growing season but is rarely inundated by tidal water.
                Indigenous plant species are salt meadow cordgrass (Apartina
                patens) and black rush; common three-square occurs in
                fresher areas. Salt meadows are of great importance to
                resident and wintering waterfowl, particularly when well
                interspersed,with potholes and ditches. Such areas support
                large populations of amphipads, clams, and snails, and
                afford wildfowl an ample source of food.

                TYPE 18 - Regularly Flooded Salt Marshes.

                     Salt marshes occur most often-along coastal bays. At

                                            A-9

                    average high tide during the growing season, the soil is@
                    covered with six inches or more of water. The predominant
                    plant species is saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina
                    alterniflora). open water areas often support widgeon
                    grass, eelgrass, and Sago pondweed. Feeding wildfowl use
                    these wetlands heavily, as do herons, rails, other shore
                    birds, fish, and shellfish.

                    TYPE 19 - Sounds and Bays.

                         This type consists primarily of mud flats laid bare at
                    low tide and occurring along salt-water rivers, sounds, and
                    bays. Vegetation, if present, may consist of eel-grass,
                    widgeon grass, Sago pondweed, and muskgrasses. These tidal
                    flats support large shellfish populations and are extremely
                    important to wintering waterfowl populations.

                         It should be emphasized that each of these wetland
                    types is generally found in conjunction with one ore more of
                    the other types; very seldom will an area be found that is
                    entirely fresh meadow or entirely deep fresh marsh. When
                    classifying a wetland, select the type which most closely
                    identifies the greater portion (50-75%) of the area as it is
                    delineated on the map.

                                            A-10

                                    Glossary of Plant Names

                   These are the common and scientific names of plants
            referred to in this appendix (from Fernald, 1950 and
            Fasset, 1957).

                   Common Names                   Scientific Names

                   Alders                          Alnus spp. B. Ehrh.
                   Arborvitae                      Thuja occidentalis L.
                   Arrow-arum                      Peltandra virgnica (L.)
                                                         Kunth.
                   Arrowheads                      Sagittaria spp. L.
                   Balsam Fir                      Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
                   Black Ash                       Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
                   BlackrUsh                      JUncus gerardi Loisel.
                   Black spruce                  Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP
                   Bulrushes                       Scirpus spp. L.
                   Buttonbush                     Cephalanthus occidentalis L.
                   Carex                           Care- spp. L.
                   Cattails                        Typha spp. L.
                   Chuf a                          Cyperus esculentus L.
                   Cockleburs                     Xanthium spp. L.
                   Common three-square            SCirPUs americanus pers.
                   Coontail                      Ceratophyllum demersUm L.
                   Cottongrass                     Eriophorm spp. L.
                   Craberr ies                    Vaccinium spp. L.
                   Dogwoods                        Cornus spp. L.
                   Duckweeds                       Lemnaceae
                   Eelgrass                        Zostera marina L.
                   Fall panicum                    Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.
                   Giant burreed                   SparganiUM eUrYCarpUM Engelm.
                   Gr asses                        Gr am ineae
                   Labrador-tea                    Ledum groenlandicum Oeder.
                   Leatherleaf                     Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.)
                                                         Moench .
                   Mannagrasses                    Glyceria spp. R. Br.
                   mints                          Labiatae
                   Muskgrasses                     Chara spp. L.
                   Naiads                          Najas spp. L.
                   Pickerel weed                  Pontederia cordata L.
                  Plumegrass                      Phragmites communis Trin.
                   Pondweeds                       Potamogeton spp. L.
                   Prairie cordgrass               Spartina pectinata Link.
                   Red Maple                       Acer rubrum L.
                   Redtop                          Agrostis stol0nifera. L.
                   Reed grasses                    Calamagrostis spp. Adams.
                   Rice cutgrass                   Leersia oryzoides (L.) Swartz.
                   Rushes                         Juncus spp. L.
                   SAgo pondweed                   Potamogeton pectinatus L.
                   Saltmarsh cordqrass             Spartina alterniflora Loisel.
                   Saltmeadow cordgrass            Spartoma patens (ait.) Muhl.
                   Sedges                          Cyperaceae

                                                    A-11

                          Smartweeds                                                          Polygonum  spp. L.
                          Spatterdocks                                                        Nuphas spp. Sm.
                          Sphagnum moss                                                       Sphagnum spp.
                          Spikerushes                                                         Eleocharis spp. R. Br.
                          Sweet gale                                                          Myrica gale L.
                          Tamarack                                                            Larix laricina (DuRoi) K.
                                                                                                   Koch

                          Water lilies                                                        Nymphaea spp. L.
                          Water milfoils                                                      Myriophylius spp. L.
                          Waterqweeds                                                         Elodea spp. Mich.
                          Widgeon grass                                                       Ruppia marinima L.
                          Wild celery                                                         Vallisneria americana
                                                                                                   Michx.
                          Wild millet                                                         Echinochloa spp. Beauv.
                          Wild rice                                                           Zizania aquatica L.
                          Willow                                                              Salix spp. L.

                                                                  A-12

              Appendix III U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of
              the United States (Cowardin et al., 1979).

                                     System                                  Subsystem                                 Class

                                                                                                                       Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                             Subtidal
                                                                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                                                                                                       Reef
                                     Marine
                                                                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                                                             Intertidal -                         - Reef
                                                                                                                  - Rocky Shore
                                                                                                                  - Unconsolidated Shore

                                                                                                                       Rock Bottom
                                                                             Subtidal                             - Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                                                                  - Aquatic Bed
                                                                                                                  - Reef

                                     Estuarine                                                                         Aquatic Bed
                                                                                                                  - Reef
                                                                                                                  - Streambed
                                                                             Intertidal                           - Rocky Shore
                                                                                                                  - Unconsolidated Shore
                                                                                                                  - Emergent Wetland
                                                                                                                  - Scrub-Shrub Wetland
                                                                                                                  - Forested Wetland

                                                                                                                  - Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                  - Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                                                                  - Aquatic Bed
                                                                             Tidal                                     Streambed
                                                                                                                       Rocky Shore
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Shore
                                                                                                                       Emergent Wetland

                                                                                                                       Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                                                             Lower Perennial                      - Rocky Shore
                       z             Riverine                                                                     - Unconsolidated Shore
                                                                                                                  - Emergent Wetland

                       z                                                                                               Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                  - Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                             Upper Perennial                           Aquatic Bed
                                                                                                                       Rocky Shore
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Shore

                                                                             Intermittent                              Streambed

                                                                                                                       Rock Bottom
                                                                             Limnetic                                  Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                     Lacustrine                                                                        Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                             Littoral-                                 Aquatic Bed
                                                                                                                       Rocky Shore
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Shore
                                                                                                                       Emergent Wetland

                                                                                                                       Rock Bottom
                                                                                                                       Unconsolidated Bottom
                                                                                                                       Aquatic Bed
                                     Palustrine                                                                        Unconsolidated Shore
                                                                                                                       Moss-Lichen Wefland
                                                                                                                  F
                                                                                                                       Emergent Wetland
                                                                                                                       Scrub-Shrub Wetland
                                                                                                                    -Forested Wetland

                                                                                      A- I

                                                APPENDIX IV

               Camparison Between U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wetland Classification (Cowardin, 1979)
               and Classification of-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 39 Martin et al., 1953).

                     Circular 39 type and references for examples of typical vegetation         Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                                                                                                                                              Water
                                                                                                    Classes           Water regimes          chemistry
                     Type I-Seasonally flooded basins or flats
                       Wet meadow (Dix and Smeins 1967; Stewart and                           Emergent Wetland Temporarily Flooded Fresh
                         Kantrud 1972)                                                        Forested Wetland     Intermittently          Mixosaline
                       Bottornland hardwoods (Braun 1950)                                                            Flo@ded
                       Shallow-freshwater swamps (Penfound 1952)

                     Type 2-Inland fresh meadows
                       Fen (Heinselman 1963)                                                  Emergent Wedand Saturated -                  Fresh
                       Fen, northern sedge meadow (Curtis 1959)                                                                            Mixosaline
                     Type 3-Inland shallow fresh marshes -
                       Shallow marsh (Stewart and Kantrud 1972; Golet and                     Emergent Wetland     Semipermanently         Fresh
                         Larson 1974)                                                                                Flooded               Mixosaline
                                                                                                                   Seasonally Flooded
                     Type 4-Inland deep fresh marshes
                       Deep marsh (Stewart and Kantrud 1972; Golet and                        Emergent Wetland     Permanently Flooded     Fresh
                         Larson 1974)                                                         Aquatic Bed          Intermittently          Mixosaline
                                                                                                                     Exposed
                                                                                                                   Semipermanently
                                                                                                                     Flooded
                     Type 5-Inland open fresh water
                       Open water (Golet and Larson 1974)                                     Aquatic Bed          Permanently Flooded     Fresh
                       Submerged aquatic (Curties 1959)                                       Unconsolidated       Intermittently          Mixosaline
                                                                                               Bottom                Exposed
                     Type 6-Shrub swamps
                       Shrub swamp (Golet and Larson     1974)                                Scrub-Shrub          All nontidal regimes    Fresh
                       Shrub-carr, alder thicket (Curtis 1959)                                 Wetland               except Permanently
                                                                                                                     Flooded
                     Type 7-Wooded swamps
                       Wooded swamp (Golet and Larson 1974)                                   Forested Wetland     All nontidal regimes    Fresh
                       Swamps (Penfound 1952; Heinselman 1963)                                                       except Permanently
                                                                                                                     Flooded
                     Type 8-Bogs
                       Bog (Dansereau and Segadas-vianna 1952; Heinselman 1963)               Scrub-Shrub          Saturated,              Fresh
                       Pocosin (Penfound 1952; Kologiski 1977)                                 Wetland                                       (acid only)
                                                                                              Forested Wetland
                                                                                              Moss-Lichen
                                                                                               Wetland
                     Type 9-Inland saline flats
                       Intermittent alkali zone (Stewart and Kantrud 1972)                    Unconsolidated       Seasonally Flooded      Eusaline
                                                                                               Shore               Temporarily Flooded     Hypersaline
                                                                                                                   Intermittently
                                                                                                                     Flooded
                     Type 10-Iniand saline marshes
                       Inland salt marshes (Ungar 1974)                                       Emergent Wetland     Semipermanently         Eusaline
                                                                                                                     Flooded
                                                                                                                   Seasonally Flooded
                     Type 11-Inland open Wine water
                       Inland saline lake community (Ungar 1974)                              Unconsolidated       Permanently Flooded     Eusaline
                                                                                               Bottom              Intermittently
                                                                                                                     Exposed
                     Type 12-Coastal shallow fresh marshes
                       Marsh (Anderson et al. 1968)                                           Emergent Wetland     Regularly Flooded       Mixohaline
                       Estuarine bay marshes, estuarine river marshes                                              Irregularly Flooded     Fresh
                         (Stewart 1962)                                                                            Sernipermanently
                       Fresh and intermediate marshes (Chabreck 1972)                                                Flooded-Tidal

                                                                                      A-1 5

                                       ApPENDix iV continued

                                Circular 39 type and references for examples of vegetation                 Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                                        Water
                                                                                                             Classes            Water regimes          chemistry
                                Type 13-Coastal deep fresh marshes
                                  Marsh (Anderson et al. 1968)                                         Emergent Wetland      Regularly Flooded       Mixohaline
                                  Estuarine bay marshes, estuarine river marshes                                             Semipermanently         Fresh
                                   (Stewart 1962)                                                                              Flooded-Tidal
                                  Fresh and intermediate marshes (Chabreck 1972)

                                Type 14-Coastal open fresh water
                                  Estuarine bays (Stewart 1962)                                        Aquatic Bed           Subtidal                Mixohaline
                                                                                                       Unconsolidated        Permanently             Fresh
                                                                                                         Bottom                Flooded-Tidal
                                Type 15-Coastal salt flats
                                  Panne, slough marsh (Redfield 1972)                                  Unconsolidated        Regularly Flooded       Hyperhaline
                                  Marsh pans (Pestrong 1965)                                             Shore               Irregularly Flooded     Euhaline

                                Type 16-Coastal salt meadows
                                  Salt marsh (Redfield 1972; Chapman 1974)                             Emergent Wetland      Irregularly Flooded     Euhaline
                                                                                                                                                     Mixohaline
                                Type 17-Irregularly flooded salt marshes
                                  Salt marsh (Chapman 1974)                                            Emergent Wetland      Irregularly Flooded     Euhaline
                                  Saline, brackish, and intermediate marsh (Eleuterius 1972)                                                         Mixohaline

                                Type 18-Regularly flooded salt marshes
                                  Salt ma@sh (Chapman 1974)                                            Emergent Wetland      Regularly Flooded       Euhaline
                                                                                                                                                     Mixohaline
                                Type 19-Sounds and bays
                                  Kelp beds, temperate grass flats (Phillips 1974)                     Unconsolidated        Subtidal                Euhaline
                                  Tropical marine meadows (Odum 1974)                                    Bottom              Irregularly Exposed     Mixohaline
                                  Eelgrass beds (Akins and Jefferson 1973; Eleuterius 1973)            Aquatic Bed           Regularly Flooded
                                                                                                       Unconsolidated        Irregularly Flooded
                                                                                                         Shore
                                Type 20-Mangrove swamps
                                  Mangrove swamps (Walsh 1974)                                         Scrub-Shrub           Irregularly Exposed     Hyperhaline
                                  Mangrove swamp systems (Kuenzler 1974)                                 Wetland             Regularly Flooded       Euhaline
                                  Mangrove (Chapman 1976)                                              Forested Wetland      Irregularly Flooded     Mixohaline
                                                                                                                                                     Fresh

                                                                                           A-1 6

                APPENDIX V Wetlands Assessment Threshold Criteria

                             NATIONAL WETLANDS PRIORITY CONSERVATION PLAN

                               WETLANDS ASSESSMENT THRESHOLD CRITERIA

              INSTRUCTIONS: Complete this page to determine whether a wetland site
              (refer to Wetlands Profile guidance) qualifies for acquisition consideration
              under the National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan.

              Use the attached guidance for estimating wetland losses, threats and
              functions and values thresholds.  The guidance is organized in the same
              sequence as the threshold criteria and will direct the user to an
              appropriate conclusion. Complete all questions and statements.

              1. WETLANDS PROFILE:

                 a.  Wetland Site Name:                  File No:
                 b.  USGS 1:24,000 Map Quadrangle Name:
                 c.  Township:          Section:
                 d.  Longitude:            Latitude:
                 e.  City:                   County:               State:
                 f.  Ecoregion:                (refer to Cowardin,  et al., 1979, p.27).
                 g.  Size:          (acres). Date of wetlands assessment:

              2. WETLAND Loss PRIORITY: (circle one) 1   2      3     4     5
                 Must be priority level 1, 2, or 3 to meet threshold.

              3. IS THE WETLAND SITE THREATENED (refer to the attached guidance under
                 Wetland Threats)? Must be circled "yes" to meet threshold.

                            YES                 NO

              4.  WETLAND FUNCTIONS AND VALUES
                  Check all that apply. Must check at least two to meet threshold.

                       a.   Wildlife
                       b.   Fisheries
                       c.   Water Supply/Quality, Flood and Erosion Protection
                       d.   Outdoor Recreation
                       e    Other Areas or Concerns

              5. CONCLUSION

                            Yes, wetland site meets all threshold criteria and qualifies
                            for acquisition consideration under provisions of the National
                            Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan.

                            No, wetland site does not meet all the threshold criteria and
                            therefore does not qualify for acquisition consideration under
                            provisions of the National Wetlands Priority Conservation
                            Plan.

                                                          A-17

                  National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan - May 1988

                                   GUIDANCE FOR ESTIMATING WETLAND LOSSES,
                                       THREATS AND VALUES THRESHOLDS

                  1. WETLANDS PROFILE

                  Complete items (a) through (g) to give a name and address to each wetland
                  site.

                  For the purpose of the National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan, a
                  wetland site is an identifiable property, tract, area, or region containing
                  wetlands or a complex (aggregation) of physically- or functionally-related
                  wetlands. A wetland site may contain a variety of wetland types,
                  interspersed habitat of other types and associated upland buffer areas.
                  The boundary of the site should be specific and as geographically restricted
                  as practical, determined by application of sound acquisition principles.
                  In other words, regardless of size, a wetland site should be treated in
                  terms of a unit which would generally fit the acquisition goals, process
                  and needs of the user.

                  2. WETLAND LOSSES

                  Wetlands will be classified as follows: System, subsystem, class and water
                  regime according to Cowardin et al., 1979 (refer to key on next page).
                  Estimate percent of site for each type.

                           TYPE                                     PERCENT OF SITE

                           system
                                  subsystem
                                          class
                                                    water regime

                  a.
                  b.
                  c.
                  d.
                  e.
                  f.
                  g.
                  h.
                  i.
                  j.
                  k. Upland
                                                             Total    100

                  Example:

                                    System:Estuarine
                  E:2:E M:N         Subsystem: Intertidal
                                    Class:Emergent
                                    Water Regime:Regularly Flooded

                                                       A-18

               National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan - May 1988

               Letter and number key for classificaticn of wetlands to the level of water,
               regime:

               SYSTEMS AND SUBSYSTEMS

                  M Marine                        R Riverine
                        1 Subtidal                      1 Tidal
                        2 Intertidal                    2 Lower Perennial
                                                        3 Upper Perennial
                                                        4 Intermittent                                                                    4  Intermittent
                                                        5 Unknown Perennial

                  E Estuarine                     L Lacustrine
                      1 Subtidal                      1 Limnetic
                      2 Intertidal                    2 Littoral

                  P   Palustrine
                        No Subsystem              Upland

               Classes

                  AB  Aquatic Bed                  RS  Rocky Shore
                  EM  Emergent                     SB  Streambed
                  FO  Forested                     SS  Scrub-Shrub
                  ML  Moss/Lichen                  UB  Unconsolidated Bottom
                  RB  Rocky Bottom                 US  Unconsolidated Shore
                  RF  Reef

               WATER REGIME MODIFIERS

                  A   Temporary
                  B   Saturated                        L Subtidal
                  C   Seasonal                         M Irregularly Exposed
                  F   Semipermanent                    N Regularly Flooded
                  G   Intermittently Exposed           P Irregulary Flooded
                  H   Permanent
                  J   Intermittently Flooded

               Wetland losses by type. Determine whether the wetland types identified
               above are decreasing, stable or increasing. Apply to the formula and
               priority table on the next page.

               If supportable infonnation is available to substantiate trends for various
               wetland types other than that shown by the NWI trends study, this
               information may be used to support departures from the trends groupings
               presented above.

               Explain:

                                                    A-19

                    National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan - My 198

                    In the absence of more reliable data, the following ccnclusions based on
                    Prayer St Al. (1983) ray be used:

                       Decreasing:   Palustrine'emergent
                                     Palustrine forested
                                     Palustrine scrub-shrub
                                     Estuarine intertidal emergent
                                     Estuarine intertidal forested
                                     Estuarine intertidal sanib-sIxub
                                     Marine intertidal

                       Stable:       Estuarine intertidal r=i-vegetated
                                     Estuarine subtidal
                                     lacustrine

                       Increasing:   Palustrine open water
                                     Palustrine unconsolidated shore
                                     Palustxine non-vegetated

                       Decreasing wetlax-Ad types                          % OF SITE X 1=
                       Stable wetland types                                % OF SITE X 2=
                       Increasing wetland types                            96 OF SITE X 3--
                       Uplands                                             96 OF SITE X 3=

                            a.  Priority 1 (0-139)                                                           t
                            b.  Priority 2 (140-179)
                            c.  Priority 3 (180-219)       WE LVM LOSS PRICRITY
                            d.  Priority 4 (220-259)
                            e.  Priority 5 (260-300)

                    3. WEMANDS THPY-PaS

                    For the purpose of the National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan, threat
                    is defined as the likelihood that a wetland site, or portion thereof, wi-11
                    be destrcyed.or degraded,, directly or indirectly,, through human actions.

                    In establishing the threat threshold, a wetland site is cm-Lsidered to be
                    threatened if an estimated > 10 percent of the site's wetland functions
                    and values are likely to be@-destroyed or adversely affected through direct,
                    indbxect., or cuTulative inpacts over the next tan years considering:

                            1. the array of potential -wetland threats; and

                            2. the prcbable degree of protection provided by the varicus
                               relevant laws, ordinances and regulations.

                                                            A-20

              National wetlands Priority conservation Plan - may 1988

              At a minimum, the following items should be considered when evaluating
              wetland threat (indicate activities that either destroy or degrade wetlands
              at the site)

                 a.               or filling
                 b.      Agricultural conversion or use
                 C.      livestock grazing
                 d.      Groundwater withdrawal/depletion
                 e.      Toss of instream flows
                 f.      Residential or commercial development
                 g.     oil, gas, mineral development
                 h.      Power plants
                 i. 	   Transportation (roads and bridges)
                 J.      Navigation project, port, marina or pier
                 k.      Water deve1opment project(s)
                 l.      Water pollution
                 m.      other, (e.g., timber or vegetation removal, mosquito control
                         practices, diverse ownership with no individual commitment to
                         protection):

              Indicate all laws, ordinances or          that have same degree of wetland
              protection potential for this site:

                 a.      Clean Water Act (Corps section 404 regulatory program)
                 b .     River and Harbor Act (Corps section 10 regulatory program)
                 C.      Endangered Species Act
                 d .     Water Resources Development Act 1986
                 e.      Food Security Act of 1985
                 f.      local zoning or ordinances (e.g., local wetland or floodplain
                         zoning)
                 g.      State ordinances or authorities (e.g., State wetland protection
                         laws, state permit program for activities in wetlands)
                 h.      Coastal wetlands Protection Law
                 i.      Inland Wetlands Protection law
                 j.      Owner(s) favors protection
                 k.      other:

              Considering the relative effectiveness of the combination of the above
              factors to protect the public values and services of the wetlands, is the
              wetland site threatened using the definition of threat?

                                                                   YES       NO

                           If yes, explain type, degree and imminence of
                           threat:

                                                    A-21

                    National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan - May 1988

                    4. WETLAND FUNCTIONS AND VALUES

                    It is assumed that virtually all wetlands provide important public benefits
                    in several functions is and values categories. Many wetlands, however, have
                    been recognized, identified and/or listed as having certain of these
                    functions and values. In order to lead to greater objectivity and provide
                    a technique for u by persons of many disciplines, this wetlands assessment
                    method relies on documented data or information rather than allowing for
                    interpretation by users across many disciplines.

                    Indicate all functions and values which can be attributed to wetland
                    site. If any of the statements within a category (wildlife, fisheries,
                    water supply/quality, flood and errossion protection, outdoor recreation and
                    other areas or concerns) is affirmative, check that category on the cover
                    sheet, under item 4.

                      A. Wildlife (endangered and threatened species, migratory birds and
                           resident species)

                           1.    Y    N         Are Federal or State threatened or endangered
                                                plants or animals known to use the wetland
                                                site on a regular basis? If yes, list species
                                                names:

                           2.    Y    N         Have any wildlife resources of the wetland
                                                site been recognized, identified, or listed
                                                by a Federal or State agency, conservation
                                                organization, institution (educational or
                                                research) or private group due to specific
                                                legislation, designations or management or
                                                planning documents (e.g., high wildlife value,
                                                declining populations/numbers, edge of range,
                                                Audubon Blue List, list(s) or species of special
                                                concern or emphasis)? If yes, list
                                                recognition:

                           3.    Y    N         Has the wetland site been specially designated,
                                                or is it part of a region specially designated,
                                                by a Federal or State agency or private group
                                                as important for migratory birds or resident
                                                wildlife (e.g., referenced in the North American
                                                Waterfowl Management Plan or a State Waterfowl
                                                Concept Plan or on a list maintained by The
                                                Nature Conservacncy? If yes, list designation:

                                                       A-22

              National Wetlands Priority Conservation plan - may 1988

                  B. Commercial and Sport Fisheries

                      1.    Y    N          Does commercail fishing occur on the site?
                                            If so,     fishery:

                      2.    Y    N          Does sport fishing occur on the site? If so,
                                            name fishery:

                      3.    Y    N          Does the wetland site have fishery resource
                                            value (s) (e.g. anadromous fishery, spawning,
                                            nursery, juvenile or foraging habitat) that is
                                            recognized, identified or listed by a Federal
                                            or state agency, conservation organization,
                                            institution or private group due to specific
                                            legislation,, designations, or management or
                                            planning documents? if so, name recognition:

                  C. Surface and Ground Water Quality and Quantity and Flood Control

                      1.    Y    N          Are the groundwater recharge and/or discharge
                                            (water supply) functions of the wetland site
                                            recognized, identified or listed by a Federal,
                                            State, or local agency, conservation
                                            organization, institution or private group due
                                            to specific legislation, designations, or
                                            management or planning douments (e.g., sole
                                            source aquifer, municipal water supply)? If
                                            so, name recognition:

                      2.    Y    N          Are the water quality functions (e.g., nutrient
                                            assimilation, sediment trapping, toxic substance
                                            uptake and transformation) of the wetland site
                                            recognized, identified or listed by a Federal,
                                            State, or local agency, conservation
                                            organization, institution or private group due
                                            to specific legislation, designations, or
                                            ranagement or planning documents (e.g.,  presence
                                            of a downstream dredged channel or reservoir
                                            which requires periodic dredging, eutrophic
                                            waterbodies downstream, low dissolved oxygen
                                            problems, fishkills)? If so, name recoqgnition:

                                                 A-23

                  National Wetlands Priority Cons@rvation Plan - May 198

                         3.    Y    N          Are the flood oontrol, erosion and/or shoreline
                                               damage reduction functions of the wetland site
                                               recognized, identified or listed by a Federal,
                                               State, or local agency, conservation
                                               organization, institution or private group due
                                               to specific legislation, designations, or
                                               ranagement or planning documents (e.g., flood
                                               control project, wetland site within the 100-
                                               year floodplain, identified by a city as
                                               iqportant for coastal shoreline protection)?
                                               If so, name recognition:

                     D. Outdoor Recreation

                         1.    Y    N          Is there a recognized or documented demand foi
                                               the recreational opportunities available in
                                               the wetland site? If yes, explain:

                          .2.  Y    N          Is the wetland site within 50 miles of a
                                               Metropolitan Statistical Area or within 50
                                               rrLiles of a tourist area receiving rore than
                                               100,000 visitors per year7 If yes, name
                                               location:

                     E. Other Areas or Cbncerns

                         1.    Y    N          Does the wetland site have ecological or
                                               geological features consistently considered
                                               by regional scientists to be rare for wetlands
                                               in the region (e.g., fens in the midwest,
                                               cypress swanps in northern States, spring
                                               camunities in various regions)? If yes,   name
                                               the feature:

                         2.    Y    N          Is the wetland site included in a national or
                                               statewide listing of historical or
                                               archaeological sites? If yes, name list:

                                                        A-24

              National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan - May 1988

                     3.    Y    N         Is the wetland site being used, or could it
                                          be used, for educational or research purposes
                                          (e.g., used by a nature center, school, camp,
                                          or college, essential to an on-going
                                          environmental research or monitoring program)?
                                          If yes, name use:

                     4.    Y    N         Does the wettland site have other public values
                                          of concern to the Secretary of the Interior?
                                          If yes, name and document:

                                                    A-25

                   National. Wetlands Priority Consexvation Plan  May 1988

                      5. Conclusion

                      7b qualify for acquisition consideration under the provisions of the
                      National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan, a wetland site mist: 1)
                      include predominantly (50 percent or greater) wetland types which are
                      rare or declining in the ecoregion; 2) be threatened with I    and/or
                      degradation; and 3) offer inportant vali   to society in two
                      identifiable functional categories. References, literature citations,
                      agency contacts and personal caTmmcations mist be provided to support
                      the assessment and conclusions rade in this checklist.

                      6. Map of Wetland Site

                      Reproduce and mftdt a USGS quadrangle rap, National Wetlands Inventory
                      Map or other appropriate rap delineating the wetland. site, its principal
                      features where appropriate (e.g., bald eagle nest sites) and other
                      relevant features of the assessment area where appropriate (e.g..,
                      downstream mmicipal water supply or public a       point)

                                                           p@-26

                                                                                                   L
                                                                         1@1 millimill III * .
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