[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]











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                                                       etland Functions And Values.


                                                                                By Maryann Woh1gemuth


                               Introduction

                                    Throughout the state of Virginia there is a variety                            same values and both are impor-fant in maintaining the
                               of wetland types which range from tidal marshes and                                 health of the Chesapeake Bay and its living resources.
                               swamps near the coast, to nontidal wetlands found any-                                   Wetlands were historically considered wastelands
                               where from the coastal plain to the mountains. Wet-                                 that harbored bothersome snakes and disease-carrying
                               lands are found in topographic depressions or along                                 insects. They were considered useless for most farming
                               rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Wetlands, in general,                            or building because of the unstable, wet substrate.
                               are areas that are Wet or have wet soils during some                                These lands were often drained or filled for farming,
                               part of the growing season. Wetland soils are hydric                                housing, and urban development,. This view has
                               meaning they have an abundance of moisture. Wet-                                    changed significantly as the connection between wet-
                               lands are further characterized by the vegetation that                              lands, wildlife, water quality, and other ecological and
                               they support which is adapted to grow in wet condi-                                 economic values have been studied. Hunters, fisher-
                               tions, which is referred to as hydrophytic vegetation.                              men, trappers, and loggers have always benefited from
                               Wetland vegetationmay include grasses, herbaceous                                   the abundant supply of mammals, fish, waterfowl,.and
                               plants (non-woody), shrubs, and trees. Tidal wetlands                               lumber harvested from wetlands.
                               are found along the coastline where they are influenced
                               by daily tidal fluctuations
                               and include vegetated
                               marshes and swamps or non-
                               vegetated mud and sand
                               flats (Figure 1). Nontidal
                               wetlands are not influenced
                               by tidal inundation and may                                                                                                   Spring or Storm Tide
                                                                                                                      --------------        lg&a
                                                                                  UPLAND                                                           ,
                                                                                                                                         ,e                     Daily High Tide
                               include marshes, swamps,                                         switchgress     black grasi                                                  ------------
     4')                       bogs, and low-lying areas                                       high-tide bush                salt hay' cordgrass                             Daily Low Tide
                                                                                                                             spikegress                                         ----------
                               along the margins of rivers,                                                                  salt marsh aster      smooth cordgrass
                                                                                                                             glasswort          (tall form)
                               streams and lakes. They can                                                                   smooth cordgrass
                                                                                                                             (short form)
                               also be found in isolated up-
                               land depressions or areas
                                                                                                                       V                          V              V
                               where the water table stays                                              IRREGULARLY FLOODED MARSH            REGULARLY INTERTIOAL               ESTUARINE
                                                                                                                                               FLOODED           FLAT          OPEN WATER
                               near the land surface (Fig-                                                                                      MARSH                              (SAY)
                               ure 2). Nontidal and tidal
                                         @w










































                               wetlands share many of the                   Figure 1. Cross-sectional diagram of a tidal salt marsh (adaptedfrom Tiner, 1984).








                  2


                  Figure     Schematic diagram showing wetlands, deepwater habitats, and uplands on landscape. Note differences in
                  wetlands due to hydrology and topographic location (adaptedfrom Tiner, 4984).


                                                                                                                         UPLAND            UPLAND

                                                                                                           UPLAND







                             UPLAND                       UPLAND
                                          High Water                                                                                        ............
                                                                                             High Water
                             ......         ------                                                                                     Water table
                                           Low Water  .......................... .
                        Water table           ----          Water table                      Water                       Stream    Groundwater
                                                                                                                                    Discharge
                                                                                  6.6F.-t
                                                                                           River







                                                                                             V         V
                                      Depressional Welland                  Overflow     Deepwater  Overflow         Seepage Welland  on Slope
                                                                            Wetland      Habitat    Welland


                  Wetland Functions and Values                                           to humans because it provides wildlife for hunting, or
                                                                                         nature study. Location may give the wetland value also,
                      Ecological processes are usually described by func-                for example; a wetland may be important for water
                  tion, such as wildlife habitat support or primary produc-              quality if it is located downstream ofa pollution source,
                  tivity. Function is an ecological process. that may not                there it has the greatest potential for filtering pollutants.
                  directly benefit humanity. The further classification of                   Wetlands provide many ecological and socio-eco-
                  a function by its value connotes usefulness to humans.                 nomic benefits including: water quality improvement,
                  However, in general these terms may be used inter-                     aquatic productivity, fish and"wildlife habitat, shoreline
                  changeably because functions may be values. The loca-
                  tion of the wetland, the human population pressures on                 Ierosion @ontrol, stormwater treatment, flood @rotection,
                  it, or the extent of the wetland may indicate the value of             potable water supplies, economically valuable re-
                                                                                         sources, and recreation. Wetlands are'diverse and
                  a functional ecologic process (Mitsch and Gosselink,
                                                                                         cover a wide range of habitats. Because they do not all
                  1986). For example, wildlife habitat may be important                  provide the same values or functions, generally it is dif-
                                                                                         ficult to deten-nine the functions a w   etland provides
                  Wetlands Program                        December 1993
                  College of William and Mary                                            without site specific analysis. Variables to consider in
                  School of Marine Science                                               assessing the functional values of a wetland may in-
                  Virginia Institute of Marine Science                                   clude:'wetland type, soil characteristics, hydrology,
                  Gloucester Point, VA 23062                                             size, and surrounding upland land use. This report
                  Dr. Carl Hershner, Program Director                                    gives an overview of wetland functions and values.
                  Published by: VIMS Publication Center
                                                                                         Wetland Values to the
                  "A publication of the Virginia Department of Environmental
                  Quality's Coastal Resources Management Program pursuant to             Chesapeake- Bay
                  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Award                      In considering the values of wetlands, it is impor-
                  No. NA27OZ0312-01."
                                   "This paper is funded in part by a granV              tant to understand  'the coupling of wetlands with adja-
                                   cooperative agreement from the National               cent ecosystems, such as streams, rivers, lakes, bays,
                                   Oceanic.and Atmospheric Administration.               uplands, and floodplains. Of particular concern is the
                  9
                                o@ The views expressed herein are those of the
                               z                                                         value Virginia's wetlands may play in improving or
                                   author and do not necessarily reflect the views
                                   ofNOAA or any sub-agencies."                          maintaining the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem. The entire
                                                                                         Bay watershed should be considered in evaluating the
                                             Printed on recycled paper.








                                                                                                                                                            3


                                                                                              metals, pesticides, pathogens, and industrial wastes.
                             Wetland Values                                                   The nutrients of most importance in wetland and
                             ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY VALUES                                     aquatic systems are nitrogen and phosphorous. In ex-
                                Water Quality Improvement                                     cessive quantities, they can cause nuisance algal
                                   0  Pollutant removal (heavy metals, pathogens)'            blooms and subsequent low oxygen levels; however,
                                   0  Sediment trapping                                       they are essential for growth of wetland plants. Dis-
                                   6  Nutrient uptake and recycling                           solved oxygen is produced by plants and is necessary
                                   0  Oxygen production                                       for aquatic animals to survive. The proc'esses occurring
                                   0  Wastewater treatment                                    in wetland systems that impact water quality are plant
                                   0  Stormwater treatment                                    uptake and cycling, filtering, sedimentation, reduction
                                Aquatic and Terrestrial Productivity                          in shoreline erosion, soil adsorption, and soil microbial
                                Fish and Wildlife Habitat                                     activity.
                                   0 Spawning and nesting sites                               Nutrient Uptake and Cycling
                                   0 Nursery areas for young
                                   * Shelter from predators                                        As wetland plants grow they take up inorganic
                                   0 Foraging areas                                           forms of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous) as they die
                              SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUES                                           they release organic or detrital forms (decaying plant
                                   ï¿½  Shoreline Erosion Control                               material) of nutrients. The result is a valuable cycling
                                   ï¿½  Flood Protection                                        and transformation of nutrients in the ecosystem. The
                                   ï¿½  Groundwater recharge and discharge                      transformation from inorganic to organic forms of nutri-
                                   ï¿½  Natural products (timber, fish, waterfowl)
                                   ï¿½  Recreation (boating, fishing, hunting)                  ents reduces potential problems from excessive nutrient
                                   ï¿½  Aesthetics                                              loadings, while providing organic forms of nutrients
                                                                                              that are more useful to aquatic animals (Figure 6).
                         cumulative function of wetlands. A watershed can be
                         defined as all the area that drains by surface or subsur-
                         face flow into the water body being considered (Fig-
                         ure 3). The Chesapeake Bay watershed extends north
                         through parts of New York State and west to the Appa-
                                                                                                                           MY
                         lachian mountains covering approximately 64,000
                         square miles (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1983)(figure
                         3). Approximately 3% of the watershed is comprised
                         of wetlands (Tiner, 1987). Any substance that is
                         added to the land or water within this area has the po-                  - ------
                         tential to impact the water quality and ecology of the                                   PA.
                         Bay system. For example, agricultural or lawn fertiliz-
                         ers applied in western Virginia or New York have the                                Ir-- ------ ---
                                                                                                          MD.               5           3
                         potential to impact the Bay either through surface                                                 -1
                         flow or groundwater flow (Figure 4). Wetlands                                   WVA.                          4       2
                         throughout this watershed have the potential to im-                                                                          DEL.
                         prove or maintain many ecological values in waters                            VA.                  6
                         flowing toward the Bay, especially water quality.                                                     7,
                         Water Quality                                                                                  8

                              Located at the interface between terrestrial and
                         aquatic systems, wetlands often intercept pollutants
                         and nutrients in upland runoff before they reach an ad-
                         jacent waterway (Figure 5). Substances that can affect             Figure 3. Chesapeake Bay watershed and major drainage
                         water quality include nutrients, dissolved gases, heavy            basins (adaptedfrom Chesapeake Bay Program, 1983).








               4


                   The organic forms of nutrients provide the base of               ing season. Even a slight increase in the amount of wet-
               the detrital food web, which may support many com-                   lands in an agricultural watershed reduced the amount
               mercially important fish, crabs, and shellfish (Elder,               of nitrogen leaving the watershed (Jones et al., 1976).
               1985). Detritus is consumed by many small inverteL                        Plants may also take up heavy,metals, and other
               brates, juvenile fish, and oysters, which in turn are                chemical pollutants and incorporate them into their
               eaten by larger fish,birds, and crabs. This pattern of               leaves, roots, and stems (Kadlec and Kadlec, 1979;
               feeding is called a food web and is essential to the vi-             Boto and Patrick, 1979). As the plant dies; the pollut-
               ability of the Chesapeake Bay and for providing fish for.            ants may be buried and removed from the system or re-
               human consumption (Figure 7)., Excessive nutrients                   turned to the water column. If the plant is consumed by
               may come from septic system leakage, sewage effluent,                an animal the pollutants may be passed up the food web.
               runoff from fertilized lawns and farms, and stormwater
                                                                                    Wetland Soil Processes
               outflows. Uncontrolled inputs of nutrients may contrib-
               ute to decreased water clarity by stimulating algal                       Wetland soils have been shown to be more impor-
               blooms. As the algae bloom dies and decomposes, it                   tant at removing nutrients from the overlying %@ater
               may also reduce the oxygen content in the water.                     than plant uptake. Sather et al. (1990) states that chemi-
                   Some wetlands function a's nutrient sinks in which               cal adsorption or adhesion by detritus and chemical pre-
               the net output of nutrien  'ts is less than the net input.           cipitation appear to remove more phosphorus than plant
               Most wetlands are at least seasonal sinks for nutrients,             uptake. Bacteria at the water sediment interface re-
               taking them up during the growing season. This wet-                  move significant amounts of nitrogen from the water
               land function can be very important in managing urban                column (Sather et al.,    1990). Soil microbes such as bac-
               and agricultural runoff with high concentrations of nu-              teria Are also important in degrading pesticides, result-
               trients,which may degrade downstream water quality.                  ing in reduced potential risk even if the soils are
               The research of Cerco and Kuo (1979) concluded that a                disturbed (Boto and Patrick, 1979).,
               tidal marsh creek1that received effluent from a poultry
               processing plant significantly reduced levels of nutri-              Filtering and Sedimentation
               ents and* increased levels of dissolved oxygen. A review                  Wetlands are sites of increased sedimentation,
               by Van der Valk et A (1979) of 17 studies showed that                which improves water quality by reducing suspended
               freshwater wetlands trapped nutrients during the grow-               solids and increases bank stabilization through the accu-
                                                                                                                               mulation of sedi-
                                                                                                                               ment. Wetland
                                                                                                                               vegetation and the
                                                                                                                               associated root
                                                                                                                               mass act to slow
                                                                                                                                             which
                                                                                              topographic                      water flow,
                                                       ... or                                 divide
                                                                                                                               results in settle-
                       evaPo transpiration            IN I
                                                   -Int      i                                                                 ment and deposi-
                                                   It (OA                     ression                                          tion of suspended
                                                                              storage                                          sediments, and the
                                                      r                                                     t
                                                      Ole If.
                                                                                                                               associated pollut-
                                                                                                                               ants, and nutrients
                                                                                                                               (Boto and Patrick,
                                                                                                                               1979). Riparian ar-
                                                                                                                               eas have been
                                                                               . . . . . .                                     shown to retain 80
                                                   q.- - -i-wy_6 rm.-K         1.
                                                   ..@ _. -1 _;_ .                     a?               -
                                                                                                                               percent of sedi
                                                                                               -ROO
                                                                                             V,
                                                                                                                               ment runoff from
                                                                                                                               adjacent agricul-
               Figure 4. The riverine hydrologic cycle, note the subsurfaceflows (adaptedfrom Clark,
               1983).                                                                                                          tural lands








                                                                                                                                                        5


                         (Richardson, 1989). Wetlands located in depressions                phosphorous and 90 percent reduction in nitrogen in the
                         may retain all the sediment entering them (Novitzki,               outflow waters. Coliform bacteria may also show sig-
                         1979). Benefits are realized by increased water clarity            nificant reductions in sewage effluent after passing
                         and reduced siltation in downdrift, oyster beds, fish              through a wetland (Spangler et al., 1976). Coliforms
                         spawning and nursery areas, seagrass beds, and naviga-             are an indicator of human fecal matter which may con-
                         tion channels (Anderson et al., 1978).                             tain pathogens. Some wastewater heavy metals that are
                              As sediments are removed from the water column,               incorporated in plant tissue can be passed up the food
                         so are attached nutrients, heavy metals, and other tox-            web as organisms feed on the plant parts (Windom,
                         ins. Mitsch et al. (1979) found that large amount@s of             1976; Roman, 1981).
                         phosphorous were deposited with river sediments dur-               Stormwater Management
                         ing river flooding in a swamp. Most wetland sediments
                         accumulate faster than they are removed. This accumu-                  Stormwater runoff is becoming widely recognized
                         lation rate allows the wetland to retain a significant por-        as a significant contributor to water pollution problems.
                         tion of the nutrients and other pollutants buried in the           Stormwater runoff may contain many pollutants,
                         soil (Sather et al., 1990). Heavy metals and other toxic           among them are fuel and chemical spillage, lawn fertil-
                         substances attached to sediment particles will become              izers and herbicides, vehicle drippings (oil, gas, anti-
                         immobile through burial in sediments until they be-                freeze), sediment from erosion or construction
                         come disturbed through dredging or lowering of the                 activities, and sewage from failing systems. Urban ar-
                         water table (Boto and Patrick, 1979).                              eas are beginning to-implement natural methods of re-
                                                                                            ducing these pollutant loads, including vegetated
                         Wastewater Treatment                                               drainage ways and detention basins with their associ-
                              Naturally occurring and artificially made wetlands            ated wetland border. The Commonwealth's Best Man-
                         have been utilized as an economically viable alternative           agement Practices (BMP) Manual for urban areas
                         in wastewater treatment. It has been shown that some,              suggests using wetlands for natural biological treatment
                         wetlands are successful at reducing nutrients, heavy               of stormwater (Virginia State Water Control Board,
                         metals, and bacteria from sewage effluent and other wa-            1979b). Directing stormwater runoff through a wetland
                         ters (Grant and Patrick, 1970; Sloey et al., 1978;                 can be considered a filtering process analogous to run-
                         Kadlec and Kadlec, 1979). In Monterey, a town in                   ning dirty water through a coffee filter. The filtering.
                         western Virginia, a bul-
                         rush wetland was the
                         most economical alter-               WETLANDS PURIFY WATER
                         native for accomplish-                                                                      Sediment trapped by vegetation
                         ing secondary

                         wastewater treatment.
                         (Virginia Natural Re-
                         sources Newsletter,                Sediment and Nutrient-
                         1989). Freshwater wet-                  laden Stream
                         lands filter 60 - 90 per-                                                                                Nutrients absorbed
                         cent of the suspended
                         solids from wastewater
                         addition studies
                         (Richardson, 1989).
                                                                                                                              ..........
                         Boyt et al. (1976) stud-
                                                                                                                                      . . . . . . . . . . . .
                         ied a hardwood swamp
                         that had been receiving
                         sewage effluent for 20
                         years and reported a 98        Figure5. Wetlands help purify water by filtering out nutrients, wastes, and sedimentfrom
                         percent reduction in           runoff andfloods (adaptedfrom Kusler, 1983).








               6




                                                                                                 Figure 6. Simplified diagram of nutrient
                                                                                                 cycling and transformations in a wetland.





                                       Uptake              Marsh                Decay
                                                           Plants                                                     Organic
                                                                                                                     nutrients              Animals
                                                                                                                   detrituis (with
                                     Inorganic                                  Decaying                             associated
                                                                                  Plant                           bacteria-, fungi)
                                     Nutrients.
                                                                                Materia


                                                                     A





                                                          Bactekial
                                                      Decomposition


               process is accompanied by complex biological and                       tersheds that do not have wetlands (Mitsch and
               chemical reactions that occur in the wetland, -resulting               Gosselink-, 1986).
               in significant reductions in total pollutants.                              Wetzel (1989) compared the productivity rates
                    In summary, establishment or maintenance of wet-                  across a wetland gradient beginning on the uplands and
               land buffer zones may significantly improve water qual-                moving into the open water., He reported that the photo-
               ity in the adjacent and downstream water bodies.                       synthetic production of organic matter was greatest in
               Wetlands can improve water quality by five mecha-                      the wetland area. The uplandforest and plants pro-
               nisms: 1) plant nutrient uptake and cycling, 2) soil                   duced less than half the amount of organic matter that
               processes, 3) bacterial processes, 4) sedimentation,                   the wetland prodiiced.
               5) reduction in shoreline erosion (discussed later).                        A portion of wetland production is directly con-
               Primary Production                                                     surned by animals such as mammals, birds, and insects.
                                                                                      The most significant portion is consumed as detritus
                    Wetland productivity provides the source of many                  which is decaying plant material that is colonized by
               wetland functions, including nutrient recycling, fish                  microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). The at-
               and wildlife food and habitat, and food web support.                   tached microbes increase the nutritional content of the.F
               All life is ultimately dependent on the photosynthetic                 plant material, resulting in a highly nutritious and read-
               production of plant material by primary producers.                     ily available food source for many aquatic organisms in-
               Photosynthetic production of plant tissue converts the                 cluding fish, crabs, shellfish, and zooplankton
               sun's energy into a form which can be used by animals.                 (microscopic animals). The fungi and bacteria in
               In this process, nutrients and carbon dioxide are taken                swamps produce vitamin 9 12, which is necessary for
               up and oxygen is released. Primary producers include                   aquatic invertebrates and fish growth (Burkholder,
               grasses, shrubs,  trees, macro-algae, and floating micro-              1956). Floodplain swamp forests are among the most
               scopic plants (phytoplankton). Wetland plants produce                  productive ecosystems due to periodic flooding that
               more plant material than some of our most productive                   supplies organic matter, water, nutrients, and clay
               cultivated farrn fields (Figu   re 8)(Teal and Teal, 1969).            (Bates, 1989).
               Numerous wetland plant adaptations allow for maxi-
                                                                                      Fish and Wildlife Habitat
               mum growth rates that are less common or impossible
               for terrestrial plants, which may be water or'nutrient                      Wetlands are used by a large variety of birds, fish,
               limited (Wetzel, 1989). Watersheds which drain wet-                    mammals, and invertebrates for food,. shelter, and
               land regions export more organic material than do wa-                  spawning and nesting sites. Among the most valued








                                                                                                                                                   7


                        food items in wetlands are plant leaves, detritus, tubers,       River (McGovern and Olney, 1988). Many coastal
                        seeds, snails, clams, worms, frogs, and insects. Approxi-        fish, including spot, menhaden, and mullet, use wet-
                        mately two-thirds of the fish and shellfish species that         lands as nursery areas for their juvenile stage (Wein-
                        areharvested commercially are associated with wet-               stein, 1979). The diet of menhaden has been shown to
                        lands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). These species in-            consist of 30% marsh derived detritus and 70% plank-
                        clude: blue crab, oyster, clam, shrimp, striped bass,            ton (Deegan et al., 1990).
                        menhaden, bluefish, flounder, sea trout, spot, and                   Mitsch and Gosselink (1986) reported that virtu-
                        croaker. Rozas and Hackney (1984) found 29 species               ally all of the freshwater fish and shellfish are partially
                        of fish in a tidal marsh and suggested that shallow              dependent on wetlands (Figure 9). Freshwater fish de-
                        marsh areas are a preferred habitat because of reduc@d           pend on wetlands for food, nursery grounds, and spawn-
                        competition, slow currents, scarcity of predators and an         ing. Almost all recreational freshwater fish spawn in
                        abundant food supply.                                            the aquatic portions of wetlands, often spawning in
                            In 1967-1968, 95% of Virginia's annual fish har-             marshes bordering lakes or in riparian forests during
                        vest was shown to be at least partially dependent on             flooding (Peters et al., 1979, Mitsch and Gosselink,
                        wetlands (Wass and Wright, 1969). Blue crabs use                 1986). Common fish that utilize freshwater wetlands
                        tidal marsh creeks as shelter from predators during              include pickerel, sunfish, bass, crappies, bullheads,
                        molting (Hines et al., 1987). Juvenile blue crabs and 14         carp, herring, white perch and American shad.
                        species of fish were more abundant on flooded salt                   Several anadromous fish (those which migrate
                        marsh surface's than in nonvegetated subtidal areas              from saltwater to freshwater to spawn) spawn in wet-
                        (Zimmerman and Minello, 1984a). Some species, such               lands of the freshwater portions of rivers. For example,
                        as mummichogs (minnows) and fiddler crabs, utilize               the blueback herring spawns on the hardwood forest
                        wetlands throughout their lifespan. Other species, such          floor during flooding (Adams, 1970), and the American
                        as striped bass, spawn in waters adjacent -to tidal fresh-       shad spawns in freshwater streams (Tiner, 1985).
                        water marshes similar to those along the Pamunkey                Striped bass migrate to fresh water areas to spawn al-












                                                                                                 osprey



                                                                                                            TOP CARNIVORES





                                                                                                                             woman
                                                                            microalgae

                                                                                                   PRIMARY
                                                                                                  CONSUMERS
                           PRODUCERS


                                                                                       bacteria
                                                                                         and                                                   MLW
                                                                                         rot Zo
                                                                                               ---.,Ooplankton-.
                                                                                                                    ECO@
                                                                                                                           Y
                                                                                   DECOMPOSERS &                   CONSUMERS
                                                                                   DETRITUS FEEDERS
                                                                                                                                      TERTIARY
                                                                                                                                      CONSUMERS




                                        SAND & MUDFLAT INFAUNA                                                      Figure 7. Food Web.









               8

               lowing the juveniles to utilize tidal fresh wetlands as           alsoused as foraging and nest sites for wading birds
               nursery and feeding areas (Qdum et. al. 1984). Bottom-            such as the herons and egrets (Tiner, 1984). Other birds
               land hardwoods of the southeastern U.S. are important             utilizing nontidal wetlands may include towhees,
               to fish that use them for spawning, feeding, and hiding           chickadees, titmouses, warblers, tanagers, vireos, fly-
               (Sather et al., 1990). Estuarine and marine fish and              catchers, and sparrows (Tiner, 1985). Predacious birds
               crabs have been reported to migrate into freshwater wet-          such as hawks, bald, eagles, ospreys, and owls also feed
               lands for food, spawning, and nursery areas (Conner               and nest in wetlands. Wetland seeds and tubers provide
               and Day, 1982).                                                   essential winter food for ducks and geese (Weller,
                    Wetlands provide a critical habitat for many birds           1979). Bottomland forested wetlands are primary win-
               including waterfowl, migratory songbirds, and shore-              tering grounds for waterfowl, as well as important
               birds. Some species may utilize wetlands year round               breedi'ng areas for wood ducks, herons, egrets, and wild
               while,others use them seasonally for breeding, feeding,           t6rkeys (Tiner, 1984).
               resting, or over-wintering. - Wetland nesting birds in-               Muskrats, beavers, rabbits, river otters, raccoons,
               clude redwinged blackbirds, green herons, least bit-              mice, and white-tailed deer are among the furbearers
               terns, mallards, black ducks, wood ducks, and Virginia            utilizing wetlands. Muskrats may feed on plant parts in-
               rails (Tiner, 1985). Migratory waterfowl are dependent            cluding belowground tubers; they may also feed on in-
               on wetlands for feeding during their seasonal stopovers.          vertebrates found in wetlands such as clams and
               Metzgar et al., (1973) estimated that the Bay's winter-           mussels. Muskrat lodges are often made of tall robust
               ing population of waterfowl has been more than one                plants such as big cordgrass and cattails. White-tailed
               million. Various, shore and wading birds use wetlands             deer depend on wetlands for winter shelter, food, cover
               as a food source and'a location for nest sites. Atlantic          and breeding (Tiner, 1985).
               coast salt marshes are used for nesting by birds such as              Another   major component in wetland wildlife
               laughing gulls, Forster's terns, clapper rails, willets,          populations are the reptiles (t-urtles, snakes) and am-
               and marsh hawks (Tiner, 1984). Coastal wetlands are               phibians (frogs, salamanders). Almost all amphibians



               2500


                                                                                           SALT
                                                                                           MARSH




               2000
                                                                 TROPICAL      FRESHWATER
                                                                 RAIN          WETLAND
                                                                 FOREST




               1500





               1000 -                               COLD                                                WARM
                                                    DECIDUOUS                                           TEMPERATE
                                                    FOREST                                              MIXED
                                                                                                        FOREST

                                                                                                                    CULTIVATED
                                                                                                                    LAND         GRASSLAND
                 500                    BOREAL
                                        FOREST
                            07
                           DESERT
                                                                                  2      @S
                                                                                           M@A
                                                                                            LT
                                                            tTROP.CAL        F @E.ATER      ARSH
                                                                               -  W
                                                                               WETLAND





















               Figure 8. Net primary productivity of selected ecosystems (glin 1year) (adaptedfrom Lieth, 1975 and Teal and
               Teal, 1969).









                                                                                                                                                        9


                          depend on wetlands for breeding. They lay eggs in                 adjacent areas. Maximum wildlife usage may be de-
                          water where their larvae develop and feed on algae as             pendent on preservation of upland buffer areas adjacent
                          well as other foods (Weller, 1979). Frogs often found             to wetlands (Adamus, 1990). Certain species are de-
                          in wetlands include green, bull, and leopard frogs, and           pendent on adjacent upland or aquatic areas for some
                          spring peepers (Tiner, 1985). Amphibians are numer-               part of their life history such as breeding, feeding, pro-
                          ous in some wetlands; 1,600 salamanders and 3,800                 tection, or raising young. For example, trees and
                          frogs and toads were found in a gum tree pond less than           shrubs along a wetland edge make valuable nesting
                          100 feet wide in Georgia (Wharton, 1978). Amphibi-                sites, song perches, and cover for birds. The upland ad-
                          ans are a prime food source for larger animals such as            jacent to a wetland may be favored by wildlife for feed-
                          raccoons, herons, mink, bittems, and fish (Weller,                ing, denning, nesting, cover, roosting, or breeding
                          1981). Turtles and snakes use freshwater wetlands for             (Porter, 198 1). Upland buffers in urban areas may pro-
                          food and cover and move to drier land to deposit eggs.            vide the necessary shield and concealment from human
                          Turtles ar@ most common in freshwater marshes and                 activities to allow for wildlife usage (Porter, 1981).
                          ponds, the most common being box, snapping, painted,              The combination of the wetland and upland fringe pro-
                          pond, and mud turtles (Clark, 1979). Water snakes are             vides an abundance of food close t6 good cover.
                          the most abundant snake in wetlands, though cotton-               Shoreline Erosion Control
                          mouths, garter, and mud snakes are also found.
                              Wetlands are also important in maintaining species                Wetlands located at the interface between upland
                          diversity which is critical to ecosystem balance. Diver-          and aquatic habitats have the potential to reduce upland
                          sity is a measure of the variety of species present in an         erosion by reducing wave energy and current velocity.
                          ecosystem. High species diversity provides resilience             As water moves across the reduced slope 6f shallow wa-
                          to potentially catastrophic events such as disease or en-         ters and wetlands, the energy dissipates. As friction or
                          vironmental disturbance. Of the nation's endangered               drag from the bottom increases the erosive force de-
                          an d threatened species, 50 percent of the animals and            clines. This action occurs in nonvegetated as well as
                          28 percent of the plants are dependent on wetlands for            vegetated wetlands. Wave height and current speed are
                          their survival (Niering, 1988). Preservation of wetland           reduced by nonvegetated wetlands, such as beaches and
                          plants is also important for maintaining direct potential         mudflats by causing waves    to spread out as they pass
                          benefits in the fields of agriculture and medicine (Nier-         over the flat (Theberge and Boesch, 1978). Vegetated
                          ing, 1988). As Ehrlich and Ehrlich (198 1, in Niering,            wetlands can reduce shoreline erosion by several
                          1988) state:                                                      mechanisms. The complex root system binds and stabi-
                                     "The natural ecological systems of Earth,              lizes the sediment; as a wave propagates through vege-
                                which supply these vital services, are analogous            tation additional frictional drag reduces wave energy
                                to the parts of an aeroplane that make it a suit-           and current velocity (Dean, 1979). Wetland vegetation
                                able vehicle for human beings. But ecosystems               also increases deposition of sediment which helps build
                                are much more complex than wings or engines.                the shoreline channelward of the uplands. Wetlands re-
                                Ecosystems, like well-made aeroplanes; tend to              duce the final impact on the upland, thereby reducing
                                have redundant subsystems and other 'design'                erosion of upland areas.
                                features that permit them to continue function-                 As wave action and current speed are reduced by
                                ing after absorbing a certain amount of abuse.              the wetland, sediments in the water settle to the bottom,
                                A dozen rivets, or a dozen species, might never             resulting in improved water quality and the build-up of
                                be missed. On the other hand, a thirteenth rivet            the marsh surface. Knutson et al., (1982) found that
                                popped from a wing flap, or the extinction of a             more than 50% of the energy associated with waves
                                key species involved in the cycling of nitrogen,            passing through a fringe marsh was dissipated.within
                                could lead to a serious accident."                          the first eight feet of the marsh. A planted salt marsh
                                                                                            fringe may be,an effective, inexpensive, and ecologi-
                               For the survival of many fish and wildlife, it is criti-     cally-preferred alternative to a bulkhead or a revetment
                          cal to preserve not only the wetland habitat in which             (Hardaway et al., 1984).
                          the species is most common, but also a portion of the








             10


                 BuIrushesland reed grass have been reported as the          plant Parts. Flood storage may be, reduced when soils
             most successful herbaceous vegetation in freshwater             are already saturat ed or in winter when plant uptake is
             wetlands in erosion abatement (Seibert, 1968; Kadlec,           lower (Carteret al., 1979). The increased friction
             and Wentz, *1974). Forested wetlands or buffer areas            caused by contact with wetland vegetation and rough-
             are also useful in minimizing erosion. Trees stabilize          ness of the gr ound reduce flood current velocities.
             banks of streams and rivers with their deep penetrating         These processes desynchronize peak. flows by temporar-
             roots (Siebert, 1968; Virginia State Water Control              ily slowing and storing water, which results in a non-si-
             Board, 1979aj. Shoreline   erosion Control with vegeta-         multaneous, gra dual release of peak waters, minimizing
             tion has its limitations depending on many factors such         flow downstream (Figure 10), (Zacherle, 1984). This ef-
             as: potential wave energies, current velocities, flood          fect is particularly evident in riverine systems.
             magnitude, Vegetation type, soil type, and slope.                   Estuarine wetlands adjacent to tidal rivers provide
             Flood    .Storage                                               aiempor.ary storage of flood water, but their storage ef-
                                                                             fect may be either increased or reduced by the tidal
                 Wetlands adjacent to watercourses slow surface              stage during flooding (Carteret al., 1979). Boon
             water flow and may temporarily store flood waters.              (1@75) demonstrated that the configuration of meander-
             Wetlands are able to store or remove water through sev-         ing marsh creeks and broad tidal flats can cause diver-
             era] mechanisms, which include: maximum water stor-             sion and retention of peak tidal current flows. The,
             age 'resulting from soil properties specific to wetlands,       ability of wetland vegetation to slow flood waters de-
             plant uptake and evapotranspiration, and open water             pends on the type and density of vegetation and the
             surface evaporation (Carteret al., 197ï¿½). The predomi-          depth of the water (Carteret al., 1979)..
             nantly organic soils of wetlands have better' water reten-           Flood control has become increasingly important
             tion capabilities than mineral soils (Novitzki, 1979).          in urban areas where the rate and volume of stormwater
             Plant evapotranspiration is the loss of water. vapor by         runoff have increased with non-porous surfaces, such









                                  ASH


                                     RIOLE



                                                                          SWALLOW





                                                         RED - WINGED
                                          ALDER 4,),,,     BLACKBIRD                                       RING
                                                       _ATTAIL         PAINTED*                          NECKED
                                                                       TURTLE           JSKRAT            DUCK        WOOD
                                                                                      ML                               DUCK
                                                                  LILY
                                 ROG SEDGES                                                               ALLARD                   LILY
                                             ARROW
                                              ARUM                                                         NAPPING
                                                                                                    11@TURTLE
                                                       SUBME., ED
                                                         AQU I                                                                 SUNFISH
                                                        VEGETATION




             Figure 9. Simplified diagram of the plants and animals of a nontidal wetland and adjacent aquatic habitat.









                         as roads, parking lots, and buildings. The U.S. Army            cording to wetland type, geographic location, season,
                         Corps of Engineers found that protection of natural Wet-        soil type, water table location and precipitation (Tiner,
                         land systems along the Charles River basin in Massa-            1984). Most estuarine intertidal wetlands are discharge
                         chusetts was the most cost-effective solution to                rather than recharge areas (Carteret al., 1979). May
                         ,controlling flood waters (U.S. Army Corps, 1972; Car-          (1989) observed that the freshwater wetlands on Hilton
                         ter et al., 1979). Mangrove swamps are so effective at          Head Island, South Carolina are important recharge res-
                         reducing flood levels and buffering storm water dam-            ervoirs for the aquifer that supplies potable water. Wet-
                         age that the Federal Flood Insurance program requires           lands have the potential to impact the quantity and
                         coastal communities to prohibit mangrove destruction            quality of potable water supplies as recharge or dis-
                         if they wish to remain eligible for insurance (Tiner,           charge areas.
                         1984). Flood flows in watersheds with wetlands may
                                                                                         Economic and Recreational Values
                         be 80 percent lower than in basins without wetlands
                         (Novitzki, 1979). Mitsch et al., (1979) observed flood-              The economic benefits of wetlands are realized in
                         waters being slowly returned to the river from a swamp          natural products, shoreline erosion control, stormwater
                         months after maximum runoff occurred. This action re-           treatment, flood protection, water supply, livestock
                         sults in reduced flood water heights because water lev.-        grazing, and recreation. Natural products include tim-
                         els have subsided in the river channel as these                 ber, fish, shellfish, waterfowl, furbearers, peat, and wild
                         floodwaters are slowly released (Figure 10).                    rice. Wetland grasses are also used for livestock graz-
                                                                                         ing or are harvested for hay. Recreational activities in
                         Groundwater Discharge and                                       wetlands include boating, swimming, fishing, hunting,
                         Recharge                                                        and nature study. All of these activities and products
                             Some wetlands have been shown to be sites for               derived from wetlands bring direct and indirect eco-
                         groundwater recharge while most have been identified            nomic benefits to the adjacent communities.
                         as areas of groundwater discharge. Groundwat     .er re-             Economic benefits from hunting and fishing are
                                                                                         significant. Commercially important species such as
                         charge is the movement of water into a potential drink-
                         ing water supply or aquifer. Wetlands located at sites          striped bass, menhaden, bluefish, flounder, spot, blue
                                                                                         crabs, oysters, and clams are partially dependent on
                         of groundwater discharge occur where the groundwater            coastal wetlands during some part of their life history.
                         table meets the surface of the land and discharges as
                         springs or seeps.
                         Most wetlands are
                         discharge areas
                                                                     .. .. ......
                                                                -.1-RAINSTORM      . ....................
                         and may be used
                         to supply drinking
                         water. At least 60                                                     Higher flood and highe
                         municipalities in                                                                         r flows
                                                                                                              Lower flood crest and
                         Massachusetts                                                                             lower flows
                         have public wells
                         in or near wet-                                                                                         WETLANDS
                         lands (Motts and
                         Heeley, 1973). In
                         riverine wetlands,
                                                                                                                             NO WETLANDS
                         groundwater aqui-         - - - - - - - - - - -
                                                   <
                         fers; are recharged                                                                                                        0
                                                   0                                                                                                0
                         during floodplain
                         inundation (Ward,                TIME                                                    -0-
                         1989). Recharge
                         potential varies ac-    Figure.10. Wetland values in reducing flood crests andflow rates aft@r rainstorms
                                                 (adaptedfrom Kusler, 1983).








                 12


                 In 1980 furs from muskrats yielded approximately $74                      As wetlands are lost so are their associated bene-
                 million; in 1980 5.3 million people spent $638 million                fits. The short term economic gains acquired through
                 on hunting waterfowl and other migratory birds; and in                wetlands destruWon are relatively easy to measure and
                 1975 sport fishermen spent $13.1 billion to catch wet-                therefore have received a great deal of emphasis in the
                 land dependent fishes in the U.S. (Burke et al., 1988).               past. However, the long term economic and environ-
                 In 1980, 47 percent of Americans spent $10 billion ob-                mental costs of wetland destruction may well outweigh
                 serving and photographing waterfowl and other wet-                    the short term gains.
                 land birds (Burke et al., 1988).                                      Regulation of Wetlands
                     The ability of wetlands to control flood waters re-
                 duces property damage from flooding, and reduces                          In 1972 Virginia enacted a law with the intent to                                  4
                 costs for flood control structures. Property damage                   protect tidal wetlands. while accommodating necessary
                 from floods for 1975 in the U.S. was estimated to be                  economic development. The Virginia Marine Re-
                 $3.4 billion (U.S. Water Resources Council, 1978).                    sources Commission (VMRC) was given the responsi-
                 Wetlands provide perpetual values, whereas economic                   bility of lead state agency. Under the Act's local option
                 benefits from wetland destruction are finite (Mitsch and              alternative most localities have adopted the model ordi-
                 Gosselink, 1986).                                                     nance and administer their programs through local wet-
                                                                                       lands boards and ordinances. Federal wetland
                 Wetland Losses
                                                                                       regulation under the Clean Water Act is administered
                     Human threats to wetlands include drainage, dredg-                by the U.S: Army Corps of Engineers (COE) and over-
                 ing, filling, construction of shoreline structures, ground-           seen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                 ,water withdrawal, and impoundments. Between 1956                     (EPA). The federal jurisdiction covers both tidal and
                 and 1977, coastal and inland vegetated wetland los's in               nontidal wetlands. The Corps and the-VMRC have de-
                 Virginia was approximately 63,@000 acres (Tiner, 1987).               veloped a joint permit application that is used by the lo-
                 Direct conversion of wetlands to cropland was'the ma-                 cal, state, and the federal regula  Itory authorities to
                 jor cause of inland wetland loss (Figure 11). Wetland                 streamline the permit process. The VMRC has avail-
                 lossesIin the coastal area were dominated by urban de-                able a set of Wetland Guidelines which describe tidal
                 velopment which accounted for,43 percent,
                 an d coastal waters (from impoundments) ac-
                                                                                       CAUSES OHNLAND VEGETATED
                 counted for 36 percent (Tiner, 1987) (Figure                                    WETLAND LOSSES
                 12).
                     Coastal wetlands are often lost where-
                 shoreline erosion control structures are built.
                 The natural inland migration of wetlands is                     Other
                                                                            Development
                 slowed or stopped where bulkheads or riprap                      27%                                                  Agriculture
                 are placed along shorelines for erosion con-                                                                             45%
                 trol. As sea level rises wetlands in front of
                 hardened shorelines will eventually be
                 drowned because their natural inland migra-
                 tion has been stopped by the structure.
                 Wave reflection from shoreline defense struc-                         Lakes
                 tures may accelerate erosion on adjacent or                           18%
                 channelward wetlands unless there is a sedi-                                         Ponds           Urban
                                                                                                                        3%
                 ment source that can keep pace with the rise                                           7%
                 in sea.level. Natural events that may cause
                 wetland los  .s include rising sea level, natural        Figure I]. Direct conversion qf wetlands to cropland in
                 succession, the hydrologic cycle, sedimenta-             Virginia was the major cause of inland wetland loss, while other
                 tion,,erosion, beaver dam construction, and              development (mainly channelization projects) and lake and pond
                                                                          construction were also mdjor lossfactors (Tiner, 1987).
                 fire (Tiner, 1984).








                                                                                                                                                             13


                        wetland types, their values, and methods of coastal con-             wetlands in their area, supporting wetland legislation,
                        struction that minimize wetland impacts. These guide-                informing neighbors and developers of the values of
                        lines can be used to assist applicants when filling out              wetlands, and encouraging them to minimize their im-
                        the joint permit application. Other state and federal                pact on wetlands. It is important for citizens to con-
                        agencies that may comment on wetland applications                    sider that any substances such as fertilizers, auto fluids,
                        during the joint permit review include: the U.S. Fish                and pesticides that are distributed or disposed of within
                        and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Serv-                the Bay watershed (Figure 3) may potentially impact
                        ice, Environmental Protection Agency, Council on the                 the waters of the Chesapeake Bay and drinking water
                        Environment, the State Department of Health, State                   supplies.
                        Water Control Board, Shoreline Erosion Advisory Serv-                     Economic development and wetland protection are
                        ice, and Game and Inland Fisheries.                                  not mutually exclusive. Many commercial activities
                             Presently Virginia does not have a state nontidal               and economic growth depend on the productivity and
                        regulatory program. The Commonwealth's                               aesthetic values of the Chesapeake Bay. Without wet-
                        Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act includes nontidal                    lands and their attendent values, expensive alternative
                        wetlands that are connected by surface flow and are                  methods would be required to prevent flooding, control
                        contiguous to tidal wetlands or tributary streams as part            erosion, improve water quality, and provide fish and
                        of Resource Protection Areas. These areas and an up-                 wildlife habitat and recreational opportunities. Our wet-
                        land buffer bordering the wetland will be subject to                 lands resource, if properly managed, will provide these
                        land disturbance restrictions. The land management                   services far into the future. We risk much more than
                        practices are implemented by local governments. The                  just the wetlands if we allow their loss in favor of short
                        intent of the Act is to protect water quality in the                 term economic gain.
                        Chesapeake Bay, through managing lands that have the                      "In the beginning, wetlands were considered value-
                        potential to impact water quality in the Bay and its                 less. Only when most of the native waterfowl vanished
                        tributaries.                                                         was it determined that wetlands might ensure the sur-
                             Concerned citizens can assist in wetland protection             vival of many endangered plants and animals. Only af-
                        through various activities including: attending Wet-                 ter billions of dollars were spent on structural flood
                        lands Board public hearings; locating and monitoring                 control that resulted in further flooding were wetlands
                                                                                                       recognized for reducing flood peaks. Only af-
                                                                                                       ter additional billions were spent to purify
                                CAUSES OF COASTAL WETLAND LOSSES                                       streams was it realized wetlands naturally filter
                                                                                                       pollutants for free." (Illinois Institute of Natu-
                                                                                                       ral Resources.)



                               Coastal
                               Waters
                                 36%                                                   Urban
                                                                                       43%







                                       Other
                                      Factors
                                        11%           Ponds       Agriculture
                                                        5%             5%


                        Figure 12. Urban development in Virginia had the biggest impact
                        on coastal wetlands. Loss of coastal wetland to estuarine waters
                        through impoundments, dredging projects, and sea level rise was
                        also significant (Tiner, 1987).








                14


                Literature Cited

                Adams, J.G. 1970. Clupeids in the Altamaha River, Georgia.               Clark, J.E. 1979. Fresh water wetlands: habitats for aquatic
                      Coastal Fisheries office, Georgia Game and Fish Com-                    invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish. In: P.E.
                      mission, Contribution Series No. 20. Brunswick, GA.                     Greeson, JR. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.) Weiland Func-
                Adamus, P. R., R. D. Smith, and T. Muir. 1990. manual for                     tions and Values: The State of Our Understanding.
                      assessment of bottomland hardwood functions. EPA                        Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp. 330-343.
                      600/3-90/053. Prepared by U.S. Army Engineer Water-                Clark, J.R. 1983. Coastal Ecosystem Management, A techni-
                      ways Experiment Station. Vicksburg, MS.                                 cal manual for the conservation of coastal zone re-
                Anderson, G., J. Brokaw, T. Lassen, G. Mapp, and L. D. The-                   sources, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company,
                      berge. 1978. In: E. L. Shea and N. B. Thebergq, eds.                    Malabar, Florida.
                      Wetland Evaluation and Management in Virginia.                     Conner, W.H. and JW. Day, Jr. 1982. The ecology of for-
                      SRAMSOE No. 211, Virginia Institute of Marine Sci-                      ested wetlands in the southeastern United States. In: B.
                      ence, Gloucester Point, Virginia. 116pp.                                Gopal, R.E. Turner, R.G. Wetzel, and D.F. Whigham,
                                                                                              (eds.) Wetlands Ecology and Management. National In-
                Bates, R.D. 1989. Biomass and primary productivity on an
                      early successional flood plain forest site. In: R.R.                    stitute of Ecology and International Scientific-Publica@
                      Sharitz and JW. Gibbons (eds.) Freshwater wetlands                      tions. UNESCO, Paris and Dept. of Science and
                      and wildlife. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at Char-                  Technology, New Delhi. pp. 69-87.
                      leston, South Carolina, March 24-27, 1986. U.S. Depart-            Dean, R.G. 1979. Effects of vegetation on shoreline
                      ment of Energy. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA                    erosional processes. In: P.E. Greeson, JR. Clark, and
                      as DE90005384.                                                          J.E. Clark (eds.) Wetland Functions and Values: The
                Bender, M.E. and D.L. Correll. 1974. The use of wetlands as                   State of Our Understanding. Amer. Water Resources A@_
                      nutrient removal systems. Chesapeake Research Consor-                   soc. pp. 415-426.
                      tium, No. 29, VIMS Contribution No. 624. Gloucester                Deegan, L. A., B. J. Peterson, and R. Portier. 1990. Stable
                      Point, VA., l2pp.                                                       isotopes-and cellulase activity as evidence for de-tritus as
                Boon, J.D. 1975. Tidal discharge asymmetiy in a saltmarsh                     a food source for juvenile Gulf menhaden. Estuaries
                      drainage system. Limnology and Ocean. 20(l):71-80.                      13:14-19.
                Boto, K.G. andW.H. Patrick, Jr. 1979. Role of wetlands in                Ehrlich, P. and Ehrlich A. 1981. Extinction: the causes and
                      the removal of suspended sediments. In: P.E. Greeson,                   consequences of the disappearance of species. Random
                      J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.) Wetland Functions and                 House, New York. Quoted in Neiring, W.A. Endan-
                      Values: The State of Our Understanding. Amer. Water                     gered, threatened and rare wetland piants and animals of
                                                                                              the continental United States.
                      Resources Assoc. pp. 479-489.
                Boyt, F.L., S.E. Bayley, and J. Zoltek, Jr.  1976. Removal of            Elder, J.F. 1985. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Speciation and
                      Nutrients From Treated Municipal Wastewater by Wet-                     Flux in a Large Florida River-Wetland System, Water
                      land Vegetations. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed. 49: 789-799.                Resources Research, 21: 724-732.
                Burke, D.G.,  E.J. Meyers', R.W. Tiner, Jr., and H. Groman.              Grant, R. R., Jr. and R. Patrick. 1970. Tinicum Marsh as a
                      .1988. Protecting nontidal wetlands. American Planning                  water purifier. In: Two Studies of Tinicurn Marsh. The
                      Association. Washington D.C. 76 pp.                                     Conservation Foundation. pp. 105-123.
                Burkholder, P.R. and L.M. 1956. Vitamin B12 in Suspended                 Hardaway, C. S., G. R. Thomas, A. W. Azcherle, and B. K.
                      Solids and Marsh Muds Collected Along. the Coast of                     Fowler. 1984. Vegetative erosion control project: Final
                      Georgia, Limnol. &   IOceanogr. I : 202-8.                              report 1984. Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
                                                                                              School of Marine Science, College of William and
                Carter, V., M.S. Bedinger, R.P. Novitzki and W.O. Wilen.                      Mary, G  Ilouce-ster Point, Virginia.
                      1979. In: P.E. Greeson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark                 "ines, A. H., R. N. Lipcius and A. M. Haddon. 1987. Popu-
                      (eds.). Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our
                      Understanding. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. pp. 334-                    lation dynamics and habitat partitioning by size, sex, and
                      376.     -                                                              molt stage of-blue crabs Callinectes sapidus in a subestu-
                qerco, C. F. and A. Y. Kuo. 1979. Water quality in a small                    ary of central Chesapeake Bay. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
                      tidal creek: Parker Creek, Virginia. SRASOE No. 231                     36:155-64.
                      Virginia Institute'of Marine Science, Gloucester'Point,            Illinois Institute of Natural Resources, Illinois Wetlands, p. ix.
                      Va. 112 pp.                                                             Quoted in Zinn, J. A. and Copeland, C, 1982. Weiland
                                                                                              Management. Congressional Research Service The Li-
                Chesapeake Bay Program. 1983.        Chesapeake Bay Program:                  brary of Congress, Washington D.C.
                      Findings and Recommendations, U.S. Environmental                   Jones, J.R., B.P. Borofka, and.R.W. Bachmann. 1976. Fac-
                      Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA. 48 pp.
                                                                                              tors Affecting Nutrient Loads in Some Iowa Streams.
                                                                                              Water Research 10: 117-122.






                                            Wetland Values and Functions
                                                              Exam Questions

                       1. What are the two major types of wetlands, based on water source, and how do they differ?




                       2. In general, what is a wetland? (soil, plants, moisture regime)






                       3. The Chesapeake Bay watershed receives ground and surface water from the following areas:
                                  a. all those areas adjacent to the tidal waters of the Bay
                                  b. lands in Maryland and Virginia that drain toward the Bay
                                  'c. the 64,000 square mile area that extends north into New York and west to the Appalachian mountains


                       4. Name nine functions and/or values provided by wetlands:
                                  1.

                                  2.

                                  3.

                                  4.

                                  5.
                                  6.

                                  7.
                                  8.
                                  9.


                       5. Wetland plants may improve water quality through the following mechanisms. List two:


                                  2.


                       6. Give an example of a food web. List at least four.organisms.




                       7. Nutrients are only removed by wetland plants, soils are ineffective in improving water quality.
                                  True or False


                       8. All wetlands provide all the functions listed in this education unit.
                                  True or False


                       9. Provided you do not live adjacent to a tidal waterway that flows into the Chesapeake Bay, you can fertilize your
                            lawn and drain used moter oil in your backyard without impacting the Bay.
                                  True or False


                                                                                                                  College of William and Mary
                                                                                                            +     School of Marine Science
                                                                                                                  Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                                                                                                  Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062








              2


              10. Wetlands can remove toxicants and other pollutants from the water column through plant uptake and increased
                  sedimentation.
                        True or False


              11. Describe how wetlands improve water quality through filtering and sedimentation.





              12. Why are wetlands being used as a viable alternative for wastewater treatment?





              13. List three pollutants storrnwater runoff may contain:


                        2.

                        3.


              14. List two methods of reducing pollutant loads from stormwater runoff in urban or developing areas:


                        2.


              15. What are primary producers? Give 3 examples:



                        2.



              16. Wetlands are much more productive, in terms of amount of.plant tissue produced, than our most productive agri-
                  cultural fields.
                        True or False


              17. What is detritus and what is its value to an ecosystem?




              18. List four commercially important species that are associated with wetlands:

                        2.

                        3.

                        4.


              19. List four reasons why marsh areas are a preferred habitat:



                        3.

                        4.








                                                                                                                                         3


                         20. List four ways birds may use wetlands:
                                   I
                                   2.
                                   3.

                                   4.


                         21. List five birds that may utilize wetlands:
                                   1.
                                   2.
                                   3.

                                   4.

                                   5.


                         22. List five mammals that may inhabit wetlands:
                                   1.

                                   2.
                                   3.

                                   4.

                                   5.


                         23. Why is species diversity important?






                         24. How do nonvegetated wetlands reduce shoreline erosion?






                         25. How do wetlands desynchronize peak flood flows?



                             How do they reduce flood current velocities?



                             How do they store and remove water? List three mechanisms:
                                   1.

                                   2.

                                   3.


                         26. Explain the curves in Figure 10 of the text.








            4


            27. Explain groundwater recharge and discharge and how wetlands may be associated with these.



            28. List seven economic benefits of wetlands:
                      'I.

                      2.

                      3.

                      4.

                      5.

                      6.

                      7.


            29. List. four human threats to wetlands:


                      2.

                      3.

                      4.


            30. How do'shoreline structures such as bulkheads and riprap impact wetlands?




            3 1. What regulations does Virginia have in place to minimize loss of tidal wetlands?




            32. What two lead federal agencies.are involved in wetland regulation?


                      2.


            33. What are the Wetland Guidelines and where can they be found?






            34. Describe how wetlands and economic growth can co-exist and compliment each other.




            35. What can you as a citizen do.to get more involved in wetland protection?





            36. What is the most important or useful information you learned from this education unit?








                                                                                                                                                                15


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