Coastal wetlands of Virginia

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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FEB 1975
Coastal Wetlands
of Virginia

Interim Report No. 2

COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CEN
Kenneth L. Marcellus
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QH ginia Institute of Marine Science,
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Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Dr. William J. Hargis, Jr., Director
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
July 1972

Coastal Wetlands of Virginia

Interim Report II

Table of Contents
Page
I. Introduction 1

II. Identificdtion I

A. Definitions 3
1) Tidal Wetland Definitions 3
a) Physical Definitions vs. Biological Definitions 4
b) Tidal Datum Planes 4
c) Legal Aspects of Mean Low Water 5
2) The Establishment of a Physical Definition for 5
Virginia Wetlands
a) Hypothesis 5
b) Surveying Re8ult3 and Evaluation of the 6
Hypothesis
c) A Definition 6
d) Utility and Adequacy of the Definition 10
B. High Priority Areas 10
1) Wetlands 12
2) Shallows 12

III. Inventory 14

A. Floral and Faunal Checklist 14

B. Wetlands 14
1) Aspects of Significance 14
2) Evaluation 15
3) Wetland Information Acquisition 15

C. Shorelines 17

D. Inventory Needs for Better Wetlands Management 17
1) Commonsland 17
2) Wetlands and Marine Biological Products of Commerce .17
3) Shoreline Processes 17
4) A Prototype Inventory Study 17

IV. Research 19

A. Shorelines 19
1) Tidal Creek Flow and Suspended Sediment Load 19
2) Beach Migration Studies 19

B. Wetlands 19
1) Wetland Vegetation Production and Salinity 19

Page

2) Detritus Flux in Tidal Marshes 20
3) Nutrient Flux in Tidal Marshes 21

C. Shallows 22

D. Fish Investigations 22
1) Lower York River Fish Study 22
9) Plsb Mursary Cround Research 22

E. Wetland Foraminifera: Ecology and Distribution 23

V. Additional Research Needs for Better Estuarine 24
Zone Management

A. Wetland classification and project evaluation criteria 24

B. Marsh Grasses 25

C. Bulkheads 2S

D. Island Migration and Effects on Wetland Productivity 25

E. Oi-1 Spills on Wetlands 25

Literature Cited 26

Appendix 27

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1 Measurement Means, Tide Range, Saltbush Line: Tide
Range Ratio., and Quality Estimate for each Site
Surveyed. /Saltbush Line (SBL)7 ......................... 9

2 Productivity of Macrophytic Vegetation and Salinity
Regime in Three Virginia Marshes from July 1 to
November 18., 1971 ....................................... 20

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Location of Survey Sites Used for Determining the
Elevation of the Saltbush Line .......................... 7

2 Dependence of the Minimum Elevation of the Saltbush
Line on Tide Range ...................................... 8

3 Tidal Wetlands of Virginia - A Pictorial Description
of the Definition of Wetlands ........................... 11

Coastal Wetlands of Virginia

Interim Report II

Kenneth L. Marcellus

I. Introduction

The Virginia Institut 'e of Marine Science (VIMS) was directed by
House Joint Resolution No. 69, 1968, "to make a study and report on all
marsh lands and wetlands in the state". In completing the request, the
"Coastal Wetlands of Virginia", Interim Report to the Governor and Gen-
eral Assembly was submitted in 1969.

The subjects of the study were the ecology of wetland areas, their
value to the marine environment., their value to man, and man's relation-
ships with wetlands. The distribution of Virginia's tidal wetlands was
presented along with a description of the dynamics of the flora and
fauna within them.

In addition the report presented recommendations for a wetlands
definition and for the control of unnessary wetland destruction. The
determination of ownership of wetlands and state aquisition of key areas
was cited as necessary for proper management of the coastal zone wet-
lands. Further inventory and evaluation was recognized as being e,ssen-
tial for proper management.

Specific scientific research needs were cited, namely studies of
the interactions of wetlands and marine life., the influences of organic
enrichment on marshes, and the stabilization of shorelines and barrier
islandsP as necessary to provide resource managers with facts on which
to base management decisions.

The Institute has continued its interest in and concern for wetlands.
Our identification and inventory activities and research programs have
the common goal of answering crucial wetlands management questions.

Progress to date rests with the VIMS initiative and capabilities
and with the harmonious cooperation of other individuals, institutions
and agencies, both within and outside the Commonwealth. Further ad-
vances are almost assured, as evidenced by the increased interest in
developing appropriate legislation, regulation and administrative ap-
paratus and procedures for the wise management and preservation of wet-
land areas.

The identification phase of VIMS wetland-oriented activities is an
interdepartmental and interdisciplinary effort to define various physical
and biological parameters of tidal marshes. In addition efforts are
being made to locate high priority wetlands; areas essential to the
welfare of the marine environment, as a whole areas suffering considerable
natural erosion and those areas suffering extensive disruption by man's
activities.

The inventory phase, designed to quantify, evaluate and monitor
wetland areas, providing essential knowledge to the Commonwealth, is
also and will continue to be beneficial in programming the efforts of
the third phase, the research aspect. The wetlands research program is
a broad interdisciplinary, in-depth study of important physical, chemi-
cal and biological processes of tidal marshes. The various fields of
research have been chosen on the basis of their timeliness and of the
necessity to answer key management-oriented questions. The additional
knowledge will result in less guesswork being incorporated at the manage-
ment and engineering levels.

II. Identification

A. Definitions

When an entity enters the realm of interest to man it becomes neces-
sary to identify it in a manner recognizable by all. The definition of
the entity as recognized by various interests may assume many forms.
Such may be the case for the entity wetlands. Though wetlands may be
easily recognized, ecologists, civil engineers and laymen each have their
own specific definition for them.

As requested by the Wetlands Study Commission, created by House
Joint Resolution No. 60, VIMS prepared a definition of wetlands for the
Wetlands Act, (1972 General Assembly). Prior to writing and submitting
a definition, the wetlands definitions of other states were reviewed.

1. Tidal Wetland Definitions

New Jersey recently defined wetlands as any "bank, marsh, swamp,
meadow, flat or other lowland subject to tidal action or coastal storm
flowage, a definition very s'imilar to one adopted in 1965 for Massachu-
setts coastal wetlands. Connecticut's wetlands definition included all-
land lying below an elevation of one 'foot above local extreme high water
and upon which certain species of plants grew or could grow. Maryland's
definition was less inclusive; only land lying below mean high water
which supports aquatic growth was considered wetlands. Georgia defined
tidal wetlands in a somewhat different manner. The term estuarine areas
was substituted for wetland and was defined to mean all land lying below
an elevation equal to five and six tenths (5.61) feet above the mean tide
level.

None of these wetlands definitions however were considered adequate
for Virginia's purposes and problems. Terms such as tidal action and
coastal storm flowage as used in the New Jersey definition are rather
imprecise and subject to considerable controversy. Definitions which
include lands only to the mean high tide line would be seriously inade-
quate for Virginia. Most of the tidal wetlands in the Commonwealth lie
slightly above the mean high water level. The Georgia definition is
also not applicable to Virginia's wetlands. Wetlands by nature are
dynamic and their structure is dependent to a great extent on the tidal
range of the locality in which they are found. They are for the most
part reasonably flat with the mean elevation probably near or slightly
above the mean high water level. Since the mean high water level is a
function of the tide range, and the variation in tide range in Virginia
is nearly five feet, the mea In geodetic elevation of the wetland surfaces
is variable from locality to locality. A definition measuring a speci-
fied vertical distance above the mean tide level would not include all
wetlands in those areas where a large tidal am-p7itude exists, but would
include some upland areas in those locations where the tide range was
small.

a) Physical Definitions verses Biological Definitions

Nearly all the coastal states, which have written into their codes
a definition of wetlands, have incorporated lists of plants commonly
found in low-lying areas as identification aids. One state has a purely
physical definition based on the mean tide level. There are benefits
and drawbacks to the use of either a physical definition or a wholy
biological definition.

A definition based on lists of plants - a biological definition -
woula conceivably be all-inclusive of marshes. Por example, if a given
tract of land near a body of tidal water was vegetated with a specific
combination of plants, it would be considered a wetland. A serious pro-
blem might develop, though, in locating the boundaries of wetlands and
uplands. The question as to where the upland ends and the wetland begins
would result in considerable controversy because of the gradual transi-
tion from one area to the other which occurs in some situations. The
distinction between wetlands and uplands via vegetative characters would
require the assistance of botanists, no-two of whom might agree precisely
on the location of a boundary. In essence a boundary would have to be
arbitrarily selected rather than precisely located.

In addition wetlands are not restricted to those areas covered by
vascular flora. The sand and mud flats which appear at ebb tide, are
dominated by various forms of algaG, diatoms, and invertebrates, some
of which have a tremendous commercial and natural value. Yet vascular
plants may not and often don't grow on those lands and consequently they-
the lands., would not be considered as wetlands - by definition.

Equally important to the marine ecosystem are the steep banks and
sand beaches of the Commonwealth. Though unvegetated in many situations,
activities along them have significant impact on adjacent and remote mar-
ine environments. A botanical definition would not cover these areas.

b) Tidal Datum Planes

Before proposing a physical definition for wetlands it was necessary
to evaluate specific features of tidal waters, namely mean low water,
mean sea level, mean high water and the mean tide range. The paper by
Boon and Lynch (1972) explains the details of tidal datum planes very
well and may be consulted. A brief summary is necessary here, however.

Tides are dynamic, being dependent on gravity and the attraction of
the moon and the sun. As the sun's and the-moon's relative distance
from the earth varies,*so does the amplitude of the tides. Consequently
the extremes of the tide, low water and high water vary daily, monthly
and yearly. In order to average all variations in tide levels, a time
period of 19 years is necessary.

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Marmer, 1951) has therefore de-
fined mean low water as the average of all low water levels over a 19
year period. The mean high water level has been similarily defined as
the average of all high waters over a 19 year period. Mean sea level has

been defined as the average height of the surface of the sea for all
stages of the tide over a 19 year period, usua-Uy determined from hourly
height readings (Boon and Lynch, 1972).

The mean tide range has been simply defined as the difference in
elevation of the mean high water levels and the mean low water levels
determined over a 19 year period. To collect tidal data over a 19 year
period to determine the various sea levels for specific locations is
impractical for most purposes. However, there are methods for deter-
mining, with a high degree of precision, various tidal levels for most
locations. The procedure requires establishing a tide gauge at the lo-
cation in question and then calibrating it with a reference tide gauge
for which 19 year records are available. Tidal data collected over a
period of one month generally allows the acceptable establishment of the
location of tidal datum planes. Boon and Lynch (1972) also discuss in
detail the method of simultaneous comparisons for establishing tidal
datum planes.

c) Legal Aspects of Mean Low Water

Up until the recent session of the General Assembly the term mean
low water did not appear in the Code of Virginia. The term low water
mark had previously been used to define the waterward limit of pro-
perties adjacent to the waters of the Commonwealth. The term low water
mark was defined to mean "ordinary low water., not spring tide or neap
tide, but normal, natural, usual, customary or ordinary low water,
uninfluenced by special seasons, winds or other circumstances." Clari-
fication of the term low water mark occurred in Scott V. Doughty, 124
Va. 358, 97 S.E. 802 (1919).

During the recent session (1972) of the General Assembly, the term
low-water as had appeared in section 62.1-2 was amended to read mean-
low-water. This amendment in recognition of the daily variations in
the location of low water marks will simplify legal disputes over the
position of the mean low water mark as there are precise methods for
its determination.

2. The Establishment of a Physical Definition for Virginia Wetlands

a) Hypothesis

The distribution of vegetation in wetlands is dependent in part upon
the elevation of the water table or in the case of tidal wetlands,, the
period of inundation. A recent discussion of the distribution of tidal
wetland vegetation in Virginia can be found in Kerwin (In press). Be-
cause the water level in tidal marshes is ever-changing, it was hypothesized
that the mean tidal range of any given locality in Virginia might be a
controlling factor in the vertical distribution of wetland vegetation.
If so, the elevation of specific vegetative species above a datum plane
in a location with a small tidal amplitude, the difference being due to
the tidal amplitude.

It was reasoned that, if the hypothesis were true,, it would be pos-
sible to write a definition describing the vertical extent of wetlands

as some function of the tidal range.

b) Surveying Results and Evaluation of the Hypothesis

The tidal amplitude in Virginia's coastal waters varies from barely
measureable to nearly 5 feet. To test the hypothesis that the vertical
elevation above a datum plane of specific wetland plant species was a
function of the mean tide range, tidal bench marks representing specific
mean tidal ranges throughout the Commonwealth were selected. (See
Figure 1.) At each location two characteristic species of vegetation,
Iva frutescens and Baccharis halimifolia, collectively known as salt-
bushes, ;We-resought and their lowest ation was determined. The ratio
of the mean elevation of the saltbush line above mean low water to the
mean tide range of the locality was then calculated. Table I. lists the
elevations, tidal ranges and ratios of the saltbush line to the tide
range for the vicinity of each tidal bench mark surveyed.

The average ratio for 111 measurements among 24 locations was 1.5,
ranging from 1.1 to 2.2. The median distribution of the values fell
between 1.3 and 1.4. An analysis of regression, an estimate of depen-
dency of one variable upon another., indicated that the minimum elevation
of the saltbush line was highly dependent on the tide range. (Proba-
@bility of error less than .01). The equation for the regression line
was:
Y = 0.65 + 1.12X

where Y is the minimum elevation in feet above mean low water of the
saltbush line in a locality where the tide range is X feet. Confidence
limits about the regression line (at the 95 percent level of confidence;
see Figure 2) indicate the statistically accept ble variability in the
elevation of the saltbush line for various tide ranges.

Convariance analysis of the relationship of the minimum elevation
of the saltbush line and the tide range indicated that 90 percent of the
variation in the saltbush line was related to variation in the tide
range.

The hypothesis was proven to be true: It was found that the lower
limit in vertical distribution of certain species of tidal wetland
vegetation is dependent on the tide range. Therefore a physical defini-
tion based on a tidal datum plane and some function of the mean tide
range was considered feasible.

c) A Definition

The saltbush line was used as a reference mark in estimating the
relationship between wetland vegetation zonation and tide range because
the species were widely distributed and were easily identified. The
two species are found within wetlands, not at their upper limit. Con-
sequently their lowest elevation does not represent the maximum upper
limit of a wetland for a locality. The wetlands which contribute the
most biomass to the detritus food web tend to below lying and to be
inundated by the tides. The lower limit of the saltbush line is gen-
erally within the limits of that zone flooded by spring tides.

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Fig. 1 Location of Survey Sites used for Determining the Elevation
of the Saltbush Line

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95% CONFIDENCE-
LIMITS
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WETLAND DEFINITION LINE-------
@)INDICATES TWO DATA POINTS
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TIDE RANGE (feet)

Fig. 2 Dependence of the Minimum Elevation of the Saltbush Line on
Tide Range

TABLE 1. Measurement means, tide range, saltbush line: tide ranye
ratio, and quality estimate for each site surveyed. /Salt
Bush line (SBL)7
Elevations,
Tide Range in Feet

No. of Mean Range Tide SBL Area
Measurements Range TR Quality
(TR) Rating

Eastern Shore (Seaside)

7B Gargathy Neck 4 4.2 4.1-4.3 3.0 1.4 High
13 Oyster 5.7 4.4 1.3 Low
Rudee Inlet 3 4.8 4.7-4.9 3.4 1.4 Low

Eastern Shore (Bayside)

23 Watts Island 5 2.7 2.7-2.8 1.6 1.7 High
18 Wilsonia Neck 4 2.7 2.4-2.8 1.9 1.4 High
19 Occahannock 2.3 1.7 1.3 Low
22 Onancock 2.5 1.8 1.4 Low
24 Muddy Creek 5 2.9 2.5-3.2 2.2 1.3 High

Western Shore Chesapeake Bay

29 Little Wicomico 5 1.6 1.5-1.8 0.8 2.0 Low
31 Glebe Point 7 2.7 2.3-3.1 1.2 2.2 Low
33 Fleets Bay 7 2.2 2.0-2.6 1.1 2.0 Low
35 Mill Creek 5 2.5 2.4-3.0 1.2 2.2 Low
43 Freeport (Piankatank R.) 8 2.2 1.9-2.5 1.4 1.5 Low
44 Milford Haven 4 1.7 1.5-2.0 1.2 1.4 High
48 New Point 3 2.4 2.4-2.5 1.8 1.3 Low
49 Mobjack Bay 6 @.2 2.9-3.5 2.4 1.3 High
52 Browns Bay 6 3.2 3.0-3.3 2.4 1.3 High
62 Fish Neck Poquoson 9 3.2 2.9-3.5 2.3 1.4 High
Messick 7 3.2 3.0-3.5 2.3 1.4 Low

James River

70 Chuckatuck Creek 6 4.o 3.6-4.3 2.8 1.4 High
74 Fort Eustis 2 3.6 3.6 2.4 1.5 Low
78 Chickahominy River Bridge 8 2.2 2.0-2.5 1.9 1.1 Low

York River

57 Claybank 6 3.4 3.2-3.6 2.8 1.2 High
59 Lester Manor 3 3.7 3.7-3.8 2.8 1.3 Low

Of the 24 sites surveyed, 10 were broad expanses of marsh and were
considered to be significantly valuable to the marine ecosystem. The
remaining 14 were generally narrow fringing marshes. For the purposes
of developing a wetlands definition they were eonsidered to be of lesser
value. The mean ratio of the 10 most valuable areas was 1.4. Because
marshland eXtends above the lower limit of the saltbush line) the ratio
1.4 was raised to 1.51 which was to be multiplied times the tide range
of a locality in order to define the limits of wetlands. Further, it
was decided that mean low water should be the datum on which to define
wetlands for two reasons. One, in Virginia ordinary low water or mean
low water is the datum separating public from private lands. Second,
a much more clear wording of a wetlands definition could be had by using
mean low water as the datum rather than mean sea level or mean high
water.

The definition of tidal wetlands for the Wetlands Act was then writ-
ten as follows:

Wetlands means all that land lying between and contiguous to mean
low water and an elevation above mean low water equal to the factor 1.5
times the mean tide range at the site

d) Utility and Adequacy of the Definition

The utilization of the definition requires the determination of the
mean low water level and the mean tide range for the site or region in
question. The upper limit of wetlands by definition is then located at
the elevation equal to 1.5 times the mean tide range measured above the
mean low water level. The principles of the definition are illustrated
in Figure 3.

After preliminary surveying had been completed, the data evaluated,
and the factor 1.5 suggested as a tentative factor to multiply times
the tide range, close attention was given during succeeding survey trips
to determine whether the elevation 1.5 times the tide range above mean
low water reached agricultural land, hardsurfaced roadways, lawns, pas-
tures, or recreation areas.

Careful observations did not reveal that any such lands would be
included within the limits of the proposed definition even in low-lying
areas as Mathews County, Poquoson, Hampton, Watts Island, and Chincoteague.

The physical definition was therefore considered to be physically
sound, adequate with respect to the most valuable wetlands, and most
respectful of private landowner interests and rights.

B) High Priority Areas

Those sections of the coastal zone which are under immediate pres-
sure of being developed for utilization for purposes other than what
they offer naturally are of prime concern to local, state and national
citizens, groups and agencies. The loss of a natural area can have far-
reaching implications e.g. the loss of habitat for wildlife in general,

TIDAL WETLANDS
OF VIRGINIA

"WETLANDS" means all that land lyi-ng between and
contiguous to mean low water and an elevation
above mean low water equal to the factor 1.5 times
the tide range, and upon which is growing certain
plants,* at the site of the project in the county,
city or town in question.
"See Appendix, page 2-1

U-ER LIMIT 01`@_DEFINITION
ILEA@N W TER
ELEVATION
MEAN EQUAL TO
TIDE 1.5 TIMES
UPLAND RANGE THE 71DE
MEAN LOW WATER RANGE

SALTMEADOW HAY

UPPER LIMIT SALTMARSH CORDGRASS
OF DEFINITION
SALTBUSH LINE MEAN HIGH WATER

BLACK NEEDLERUSH
SALTGRASS

Fig. 3 Tidal Wetlands of Virginia A Pictorial DescrIption of the Definition
of Wetlands

the loss of fish spawning'and nursery grounds, the loss, both direct
and indirect@ of food resources of marine organisms and coupled with pol-
lution, generalized reduction in the quality of the environment. These
areas under pressure to be developed may be classified as high priority
areas. As the principle marine science agency of the Commonwealth, VIMS
has a prime interest as well as a responsibility to the people of Virginia
to identify and evaluate these high priority areas and to make known the
consequences of their intended uses. Within the coastal.zone two areas
of major concern are the wetlands and the shallows.

1. Wetlands

Many factors must be considered in the evaluation of wetland projects.
Aside from the actual ecological value of the marsh, three key factors are
(1) the effects on marine life in the vicinity of the project as well as
elsewhere, (2), the effects of the project on water quality and (3) the
effects, direct and indirect, on other values and attributes belonging to
the people of the Commonwealth.

In the past land-use planners may not have fully evaluated these
facton or even con3idered them at all in some of their "development" pro-
jects. In addition, knowledge of the impact of various activities on
fisheries .7 wildlife and general environmental qualities was quite possibly
unknown or if so, unheeded. Consequently wetland areas were altered or
destroyed. As a result a great amount of wetland area has already been
lost, and other wetlands are being lost daily through needless distur-
lbances.

Because the wetlands of Virginia are essential to marine biological
commerce as well as other public values, and because there are a finit6
amount of wetland areasl it was clearly essential that a wetland manage-
ment program be established and put into operation in order to conserve
the remaining areas. The Wetlands Act (1972 General Assembly) became
the first such program implemented in Virginia to regulate the uses to
which wetlands are put.

2. Shallows

Until recently there has been relatively little said about the tidal
flats and adjacent shallows. Though they have been slighted verbally,
they are little less important ecologically than the marshes.

Mud flats and shallows often have dense algal and diatom populations.
Heterotrophic and holotrophic bacteria are also plentiful and contribute
markedly to the productivity and fertility of these areas. Materials
produced on the flats are often carried into deeper waters by currents
to become part of the complex biological food webs. Upon inundation of
the flats, fishes and crabs move across them from adjacent shallows in
search of food.

Two very important vegetative species of shallow subtidal bottoms
of estuaries are eelgrass, Zostera marina, and widgeon grass, Ruppia
maritima. The expansive be3s-7f`�rmeT-B`y-Fhose two species migh-F-E-e
T-JR-en-e-Fas submerged marshland consisting of the plants, themselves, and

the millions of smaller animals and plants using plant surfaces for at-
tachment and support. The vegetation is not only important as a detritus
producer, but also as a habitat and feeding area for fish, shellfish,
numerous benthic organisms and many species of waterfowl.

In freshwater tidal shallows the above two vegetative species are
replaced by a tremendous variety of rooted aquatics which serve the
same function in those areas.

Though less obvious to the casual observer the macroalgae found
living on the bottom and also attached to the rooted vegetation is of
tremendous ecological significance as an energy producer.

Dredging operations can silt over or actually remove grasses and
algae from large expanses of bottom. Filling activities may not only
cover and obliterate these productive beds, but also cause losses by
siltation on adjacent areas. The impact of the loss due to this activity
is not known in detail., but could obviously be considerable. Considera-
tion is given to the productivity of shallows that may be destroyed by
various activities and the consequences of such destruction on the
economics of the marine ecosystem when high priority areas are evaluated.

III. Inventory

Ecologically 5ound management of natural systems is dependent on a
detailed knowledge of the composition and the dynamics of those systems.
Without a baseline knowledge of the components of systems, the effects of
perturbations cannot be.anticipated or evaluated. An inventory and moni-
toring program, properly designed and implemented contributes vital data
to systems managers, making their decision-making more precise, objective,
and easy. The Institute of Marine Science-is making valuable contribu-
tions to coastal zone managers and researchers via special reports and
publications and through personal communication on specific topics and
projects. All agencies with management and planning responsibilities
are provided consulting services, reports and advice. In addition the
institute has established a Marine Environment and Resources Research
and Management System. MERRMS is essentially a data retrieval system
whereby all pertinent information on file for various considerations of
a given problem can be rapidly accessed and reviewed for management and
research oriented discussions.

A. Floral and Faunal Checkl.ist

The floral and faunal composition of the Virginia coastal zone, though
fairly well known, has never been compiled into one all-inclusive annotated
checklist. Hence, an exhaustive literature search coupled with detailed
field surveys has provided the data for a comprehensive checklist of the
Biota of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Included in the list are
authors notes and comments on macro and microalgae and higher plants, fishes,
water and wetland-oriented birds, and all invertebrates except insects.
The list will be of value to anyone pursuing information on groups or
specific organisms found within the coastal zone of Virginia.

B. Wetlands

1. Aspects of Significance

Wetlands are vital to the bioeconomy of coastal marine-waters. How-
ever., not all wetlands have equal value to specific organisms in the
marine environment and conversely not all organisms utilize equally the
contributions of a specific wetland.

Specific factors which are considered to be highly significant in
the evaluation of a wetland include the species of vegetation present
along with their abundance and distribution; the elevation of the marsh
surface relative to local tidal features, and the dynamics of internal
water flow. Though each of the factors may be recognized as a separate
featurel they are all interrelated to a certain degree,, with the local
tidal features being a dominant factor.

Simply because low marsh areas are flooded more frequently by high
tides, and are thereby flushed most, they are considered more important
than high marsh areas. In the saltwater regime, the low marsh area is
generally dominated by saltmarsh cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, which

usually produces, annually, a greater biomass of vegetation than any other
wetland species in Virginia. In the freshwater tidal zone no one species
of vegetation can be cited as dominant over all, though arrow arum,
Peltandra virginica,is one species that is often extremely abundant.
Edaphic features as well as intraspecies competition may be significant
in determining what species of vegetation dominates a specific location.
In addition, edaphic factors,, competition and morphological features
may regulate stand density and growth vigor, an aspect which also is use-
ful in determining the productivity of a given wetland.
High marsh areas, because they are irregularly flooded, are of
lesser significance to marine organisms. The biomass per unit area on
high salt marsh areas is generally less than that of low marsh areas.
Where the vegetation on low marsh may he broken off and washed away by
winter storms, such probably occurs infrequently in high marsh areas;
thus contributions from the latter are usually delayed. High marsh ve-
getation decomposition may take place primarily at the location of growth.
Periodic extreme high tides may then sweep away the smallest particles
long after the low marsh vegetation has been removed.

The extent of the marsh-water interface may be highly significant in
determining the ecological value of a wetland. It is believed that,
within limits., the greater the length of shoreline in relation to the marsh
surface area the greater the chances for frequent transport of detrital
materials off the marsh and into the water for incorporation into marine
food webs. In addition extensive and complex drainage patterns within
wetland areas, associated with large shoreline length-marsh surface area
ratios., result in more diversified habitats, a factor which can increase
the utilization of an area by fish and wildlife.

2.. Evaluation

Many other factors in addition to the abundance, and distribution
of grasses, shoreline length .s and marshland elevation must be considered
prior to evaluating the ecological significance of a wetland area to man.
What species of fish or shellfish are found in the area and what is their
relationship to the detritus from the marsh? Additionally, what are the
numbers and the life stages of the organisms of direct or indirect value?
What is the degree of dependence of the organisms of importance on the
Wetland? What contributions to waterfowl populations and mammal popula-
tions does the area offer? What resources of the area are currently
being used by man? These are but a few of the many queries that can be
made concerning the value of a particular wetland area. As each area is
probably unique, all-inclusive statements concerning wetlands in general
are difficult to make. Each area should be investigated and analyzed
separately before ranking it among all other areas.

3. Wetland Information Acquisition

An efficient management system will be dependent on rapid acquisition,
integration and evaluation of pertinent information. When information is
not available., costly delays are eminent. Such has been the plight of
many aspects of coastal zone management.

Data acquisition on plant distribution, stand density, standing
crops, productivity, etc. from wetland areas can be an exceedingly la-
borious and time-consuming task. Wetlands, by their nature are low and
more often than not, very damp. Traversing some marsh areas is vir-
tually impossible because of soft sediment deposits. The collection of
quantitative information from such areas is extremely difficult because
of man's relative immobility there.

In addition to the difficulties in working within marshes, management
questions generally concern only small portions of large areas. Though
information may be available for the general site location, the needed
detail for a specific location is often lacking.

Consequently, personnel usually must visit each site in order to
gather information for the specific management questions. Unfortunately,
with decisions for many different areas often pending at one time, consid-
erable delays on some projects can occur simply because of the inability
of personnel to reach all sites shortly after questions arise.

While visiting specific sites, floristic notes, photographs and re-
cords of other parameters are made. In addition, specific field trips
into unstudied areas are made to expand the inventory date file. A-
long with research activities, notes are made on wetland features in each
site being investigated. Aerial surveillance and photography have also
been utilized to obtain wetland information, broaden perspectives and
decrease the time required for reconnaissance.

Imagery from the National Aeronautical and Space Administration are
being acquired and utilized. High altitude (60,000 feet) photographs
have been examined for perspective overviews of wetlands covering a
broad area. Lower altitude (10,000-20,000 feet) imagery acquired from
the U. S. Department of Agriculture 'NASA and the Virginia Department of
Highways has been examined for greater detail about specific sites.

At present a contract exists between the Virginia Institute of
Marine Science and NASA-Wallops for securing and evaluating low al-
titude (1000-5000 feet) imagery. Overflights of the Eastern Shore
barrier islands and marshes and of York River-Pamunkey River wetlands
have been made. The low altitude, high resolution imagery has been
helpful in evaluating shoreline processes over time and for mapping
wetland vegetation and waterway distributions.

Upon receipt of imagery for specific areas, corrections for tilt
and yaw are made with a Kelsh Plotter. Subsequent to corrections linear
and areal measurements are made using planimeters and digitizing systems.
The digitizing systems, usage time generously donated by the NASA-Langley
Research Center, have greatly facilitated wetland and shoreline studies.
The digitizing system automatically records on data cards specific
coordinates along the boundaries of various features of interest. The
data are then processed by the computer facilities at the Institute.
Special programs allow the information to be retrieved in a number of
tabulated forms. In addition the data can be conveniently stored and
at future dates recovered and analyzed in conjunction with data obtained
then.

C. Shorelines

Those areas fronting the ocean or exposed to expansive bodies of
water are highly dynamic. The passage of an atmospheric storm may re-
sult in profound movements of the land-water interface. Though an un-
derstanding of the mechanics involved in shoreline erosion and accre-
tion is only obtained through detailed research and which is essential
for management decisions., informative and useful information can be
obtained through analysis of periodically published maps.

One of the Insti tutets current investigations has been to evaluate the
changes in the tidal shorelines of the state as they have changed during
the past 110 years. Maps from the U. S. Geological Survey, from as
early as 1859 and as recently as 1970 have been used for the analysis.
A report on the study will he published at a later date.

D. Inventory Needs for Better Wetlands Management

1. Commonsland

Perhaps the most important consideration in the wetlands inventory
is ownership. At present there is confusion over ownership, acreages
and boundary line locations. A compounding matter has arisen through
island migration as has occurred on the Eastern Shore. This.is a legal
concern of paramount importance to the state, and to localities, with
respect to taxation and acquisition investigations.

2. Wetlands and Marine Biological Products of Commerce

Wetland areas of significant importance to the marine bioeconomy
must be delineated in light of future needs of current legislative pro-
ceedings. More specific measurements of the interrelationships with
wetlands of oysters, clams, bluecrabs, and the many species of commer-
cially and recreationally important fishes must be investigated. Though
such investigations fall within the mid and long-term research activities
of the Institute the output will have a direct input into the classifica-
tion mechanisms of the inventory program.

3. Shoreline Processes

A program whereby shorelines in key locations are monitored should
be initiated. The degradation of shoreline vegetation, natural or other-
wise, or the deterioration of existing stabilization structures can re-
sult in severe economic and biologic losses of wetlands, and uplands, due
to erosion during storms, and to the covering of valuable shellfish
grounds and fish spawning and nursery areas by the sedimentation of shore-
line materials. A monitoring program would allow corrective measures to
be taken prior to significant damage occurring. Photographic remote
sensing techniques have the greatest potential for immediate use in this
inventory need.

4. A Prototype Inventory Study

As requested by the Gloucester County Planning Commission an evalua-

tion of the county's shoreline and wetland areas was made in mid-winter,
1971. Personnel examined specific wetland tract's, estimated their ecolo-
gical value, and provided recommendations for their future usage. In
addition., shoreline features such as erosion sites, areas of potential
for public beaches, and sites for boat launching facilities were located.
Suggestions were provided which would help county officials determine how
to evaluate the impact of new industries on the environment as well as
evaluate other coastal zone uses.

The study, just being completed, was extremely beneficial in asses-
sing the pertinance of information, data presentation methods, and time
requirements necessary for high quality, useful surveys.

IV. Research

VIMS wetlands research activities have been coordinated inter-
departmentally to study the total realm of the wetland-estuarine ecosys-
tem. This approach allows an integrated appraisal of relationships
between physical and biological parameters and will greatly aid in the
economic evaluation of wetlands.

The research areas selected were chosen on the basis of their im-
portance to answering immediate wetland management questions. The work
has been designed to evaluate the natural loss and accretion of wetlands,
the seasonal rates of production and total amount of vegetation produced
on marshes in different salinity regimes, the seasonal pattern of detri-
tus movement and nutrient flux in salt marshes, and the biological com-
position and function of the shallows. In addition, seasonal fish dis-
tributions are being evaluated with respect to the productivity of the
water throughout tidal-water rivers. The following sections discuss the
various research projects currently in progress.

A. Shorelines

1. Tidal Creek Flow and Suspended Sediment Load

As is well known many wetlands are interlaced with a complex series
of creeks and channels. Of lesser knowledge though is the flow rate and
suspended sediment load of those creeks on flooding and ebbing tides.
A unique sampling device to evaluate sediment transport processes in salt
marsh drainage systems has been designed and is being used to help ans-
wer such basic questions as: What amounts of material, both organic and
inorganic are transported into and out of the marsh? What are the sources
of the materials? Where are they deposited? What are the long-term
trends of the transport processes in terms of creek evolution? This
research problem has reached the state of field data collection and re-
sults will soon be ready for preliminary analyses.

2. Beach Migration Studies

Considerable emphasis is being placed on the dynamics of shoreline
erosion along the Eastern Shore barrier islands. Records of movement
rates are being made and concepts of stabilization are being considered.
Photographic remote sensing techniques are being utilized to help evaluate
specific changes, especially the dynamics of the coastal inlets and
Wachapreague Inlet in particular. Studies of shoreline movements in
other areas will be initiated in the coming year.

B. Wetlands

1. Wetland Vegetation Production and Salinity

That high-salinity tidal marshes rank among the most productive areas
of the world has been well documented. Yet, the relative productivity of
a given wetland plant species throughout the salinity range in which it
is found is not well known, nor is the relative productivity of low

salinity marshes in general.

The requirements of wetland evaluation surveys prompted the develop-
ment of the wetland production study currently'bej'ng conducted. Via the
harvest method, the vegetation production on three marshes located in
different salinity regimes is being studied. Along with vegetation
data, soil samples are being collected and analyzed for their phosphorus,
nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium content.

Cursory analysis of the productivity of the three marshes suggested
that low salinity marshes are more productive than high salinity marshes,
with marshes in mid salinity regimes being intermediate in productivity.
Table 2 lists the salinity regime and productivity of three Virginia
marshes during 1971.

TABLE 2. Productivity of Macrophytic Vegetation and Salinity Regime in
three Virginia Marshes from July 1 to November 18, 1971.

Marsh Productivity Salinity 0/00
Gms/m2/study period Mean Range

Wachapreague 356 31 29-33

Carter Creek 467 11 3-19

Ware Creek 546 4 1-11

A more detailed analysis of the data especially with respect to
individual species and their responses to soil nutrient concentration
will be made at the termination of the project. The results of this
research problem will have immediate application in VIMS Wetlands clas-
sification and ranking program.

2. Detritus Flux in Tidal Marshes

The "life" of marsh vegetation does not stop at the end of the grow-
ing season,, although its form and appearance undergoes dramatic changes.
Mechanical, biological and chemical mechanisms, through time, break the
vegetation into smaller and smaller particles that eventually reach
colloidal size and finally their molecular constituents.

Throughout the process of decomposition the particles serve as energy
sources for microscopic and macroscopic organisms. The mechanism of energy
transfer from high salinity marshes into the marine environment has been
extensively studied in more southern coastal marshes. However, the meso-
and oligohaline regions of the estuaries have not been studied in great
detail, especially in Virginia. Yet, a major portion of the annual fish
and shellfish harvest comes from these medium to low salinity areas. As
part of the estuarine research program, a study of the seasonal detritus
flux in a mesosaline and an oligosaline marsh is being conducted.

The objective of this research project is to determine the import and
export of detritus during complete tidal cycles at various times of the
year. Samples taken at intervals of one hour will be analyzed for the
concentration of the dissolved and the particulate organic carbon fraction
and the inorganic carbon fraction. Preliminary results indicate that the
concentration of carbon in the water is highest at low slack tide and
lowest at high slack, suggesting a net export of the material. By cor-
relating carbon concentrations with tidal flows, the wetlands contribu-
tions of energy to the estuaries will be better understood.

3. Nutrient Flux in Tidal Marshes

The productivity of a water body is, among other factors, dependent
on the load of nutrients it carries. Nitrogen and phosphorus, the two
nutrients considered to be limiting in the potential primary productivity
capable of being obtained, are largely present in their inorganic oxidized
forms; nitrate and phosphate. As estuarine waters flood tidal marshes,
the grasses, the phytoplankton and the algae assimilate the nutrients
and incorporate them as new growth. Subsequently the plant materials may
be eaten by other higher organisms or may die and be washed out of the
marsh. The eventual release of their nutrients to the water via the pro-
cesses of decomposition starts the cycle anew.

Preliminary results of the research indicate that river water tends
to supply inorganic nitrogen to the marshes, but the marshes supply
phosphates, organic nitrogen compounds and ammonia nitrogen to the river.
In addition there appears to be a tendency for slightly more primary pro-
duction to occur in marsh waters on flooding tides than an ebbing tides.

The objectives of the research are to determine, quantitatively, the
forms of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus entering and leaving marshes,
the rations of similar forms and the rates of conversion of nutrient forms
unavailable for primary productivity to those forms which are available.
Answers to these questions,may prove highly significant in evaluating wet-
land areas in terms of their influence on the rates of eutrophication of
estuaries.

C. Shallows

The eelgrass beds of the shallows as mentioned earlier should be given
much greater emphasis. A recently completed study of the infauna of eel-
grass beds substantiates their value in the marine,environment.

The objectives of the study were to examine the distribution, rela-
tive abundance and community structure of infauna in various eelgrass
beds in the Chesapeake-York River and in an eastern shore embayment.

The results of the study indicated that within eelgrass beds animal
density was very high in comparison to unvegetated areas and that there
was a general decrease in species abundance with decreasing salinities.

Eelgrass is recognized as having considerable utility in stabiliz-
ing sediments as well as providing habitat and detrital food to marine
organisms (Orth, 1971).

D. Fish Investigations

1. Lower York River Fish Study

As part of the analysis of lower York River fish populations, the
species composition and utilization of,eelgrass beds is being investigated.
The shallow water seining conducted periodically in conjunction with deep
water trawling has indicated that many species of fish, especially juve-
niles of direct or indirect economic importance, are often abundant in the
patches of eelgrass. Evidence such as this suggests a necessity for an
inventory of the distribution and extent of eelgrass in the Cheaapeake
Bay and tributaries. Development projects having potential detrimental
effects on this vital vegetation should be reexamined for less damaging
alternatives.

2. Fish Nursery Ground Research

Other investigations, also conducted by the Ichthyology department,
are centered about estuarine fish nurseries. Emphasis rests upon the
ecology of each species within its respective nursery and the monitoring
of adult populations within Virginia's rivers.

Measurements of nutrient levels., primary productivity, species com-
psoition and abundance of plankton, and food habits of juvenile fishes
are being made to help assess fish production in specific rivers. Several
species of herring including the American Shad, are of major interest in
this study because of their importance to the commercial fishing industry.

Tidal marshlands are significantly important to fishes in an indirect
sense, e.g. nutrients released through the decomposition of plant materials
are utilized by phytoplankton which may be consumed by other planktonic
organisms and those in turn by fishes. In addition plant detritus serves
as attachment sites and/or nutritional sources for variety of'biological
forms., both plant and animal. Fishes may consume the detritus and utilize
the various bilogical forms as food.

In addition the marshland creeks and pools serve as reproductive and
nursery areas for many of the fishes preyed upon by the numerous species
which enter the estuary during part of the year.

The present research it being conducted in the James, the Rappahan-
nock and York Rivers, each of which is influenced by a different pollu-
tion load. Comparisons of fish statistics for each of the three river
systems will allow a more detailed understanding of the influences of
pollution and of wetlands in fish production.

E. Wetland Foraminifera: Ecology and Distribution

The most important factor in the evaluation of an effect of some
environmental alteration after it has occurred is the knowledge of what
the conditions were beforehand.

Only recently have there been attempts at monitoring and recording
existing conditions in wetlands so that data would be available for the
determination of the effect of various influences. One possible way of
evaluating previous conditions is to look at the paleomarsh sediments.
The ecology and distribution of Foraminiferida in an estuarine marsh
system are being examined with this in mind. Significant differences in
species and population densities between high and low marsh areas and
between different marshes within the James River estuary have been noted.

Attempts to correlate marsh foraminiferal populations with measured
environmental parameters for the purpose of establishing base lines from
which changes due to pollution or sea level changes may be measured will
be made.

V. Additional Research-Needs for Better Estuarine Zone Management

A. Wetland Classification and project evaluation criteria

Possibly the most important aspect of any management program is the
criteria upon which operational decisions are.-made. The lack of criteria
results not only in hap-hazard business operations but also in deviations
from the general policy upon which the management program was established.

The management of tidal wetlands of Virginia., the provisions for
which were established by the 1972 General Assembly,.will require the class-
ification and ranking of wetlands by type. VIMS is currently developing
criteria by which this task may be accomplished. One prerequisite to
the development and use of a wetlands classification and ranking system
is a detailed knowledge of all major inhabitants, their life requirements,
their relationship to the physical, chemical and biological dynamics of
the environment, and their values to man.

Existing literature and knowledge are being drawn upon to formulate
these wetland classifications and ranking criteria. As the criteria are
used and tested it is certain they will help identify areas of insufficient
knowledge where research efforts should be concentrated. In addition
information acquired from research may demand alterations in the criteria
to strengthen weak point.

An additional set of criteria for evaluating wetland projects must
also be developed for the management system. Though idealistic evaluation
criteria may be proposed a prerequisite to their practical use is a con-
ceptual understanding of the values a management system, respectful of
all rights involved, can accept under a given set of circumstances. These
criteria may possibly be more challenging to establish and implement than
the wetland classification and ranking criteria because of the more complex
social-economic development problems that must be answered.

The criteria by necessity must not be influenced by political boun-
daries but must consider the resource values on a regional basis. The
criteria must allow for accurate evaludtion of the :importance of specific
wetlands to marine resources and to wildlife in general. They must also
allow for the evaluation of the potential public benefit to be derived
from a proposed wetlands project versus its potential detriment to re-
sources of public importance. The resources being dealt with, though
often in private ownership, do have direct and indirect values in many
ways to many more people than just the owners of the wetland properties.

The Wetland project evaluation criteria will be continously evaluated
for their accuracy, objectivity, efficiency and practicality. It is al-
most certain that alterations and modifications of the initial criteria
will be made as new information from research and social studies become
available.

Though the establishment of criteria for classification and evaluation
of wetlands and wetlands projects is not research in the sense quite often
envisioned by most individuals, it is definitely research from a manage-
ment point of view. It is the application of the knowledge from basic
research and problem oriented applied research to a management problem
of broad perspective.

B. Marsh Grasses

Research on the effect of marsh grasses and shrubs in preventing
shore erosion is needed. Methods of growing, transplanting and establish-
ing such plants on beaches need to be devised. Eel grass beds obviously
retard erosion by slowing wave action and forming seasonal berms on the
beach. The extent of this value needs to be demonstrated and publicized.

C. Bulkheads

Attention needs to be focused on the establishment of bulkhead lines
and the need for controlling such activity. Legislation relating to such
lines needs to be reviewed, perhaps in consultation with the directors of
agencies concerned with bulkheading. The matter of pier construction also
should be reviewed.

D. Island Migration and Effects on Wetland Productivity

Further research needs to be done on the effect of island migration
on the productive shallows and marshes of the Eastern Shore seaside bays.
The costs and benefits of measures to control erosion should be carefully
evaluated and compared with the long-term effects of no action being
taken.

E. Oil Spills and Wetlands

The potential deleterious effects of oil spills on wetlands is
another area of extreme importance. VIMS has made preliminary investi-
gations of the effects of oil on wetland vegetation and is planning to
continue and expand its research in that field.

LITERATURE CITED

Boon, III, J. D. and M. P. Lynch, 1972. Tidal Datum Planes and Tidal
Boundaries and Their Use as Legal Boundaries; A Study with Recom-
mendations for Virginia., Virginia Institute -of Marine Science
Spec. Sci. Report. 22. 61 p.

Kerwin, J. A. (In Press) Classification and Structure of the Tidal
Marshes of the Poropotank River., Virginia.

Marmer, H. A. 1951. Tidal Datum Planes; U. S. Govt. Print. Off. 142 p.

Orth, R. J. 1971. Benthic Infauna of Eelgrass, Zostera marina,, Beds.
79 p.

APPENDIX

The wetlands definition as printed below was extraced from
the Wetlands Act,

Code of Virginia, 62.1-13.3 (f)

"Wetlands means all that land lying between and contiguous
to mean low water and an elevation above mean low water equal to
the factor 1.5 times the mean tide range at the site of the
proposed project in the county, city or town in question; and
upon which is growing on July one, nineteen hundred seventy-two
or grows thereon subsequent thereto, any one or more of the
following: saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), salt-
meadow hay (Spartina patens), saltgrass, (Distichlis spicata),
black needlerush (Juncus roemerianus), saltwort (Salicornia spp.),
sea lavender (Limonium spp.), marsh elder (Iva frutescens),
groundsel bush (Baccharis balimifolia), was myrtle (Myrica sp.),
sea oxeye (Borrichia frutescens), arrow arum (Peltandra virginica),
pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), big cordgrass (Spartina
cynosuroides), rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides), wildrice
(Zizania aquatica), bulrush (Scirpus validus), spikerush (Eleo-
chris sp.) sea rocket (Cakile ecentula), southern wildrice
(Zizaniopsis miliacea), cattails (Typha spp.), threesquares
(Scirpus spp.), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), bald
cypress (Taxodium distichum), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), tupelo
(Nyssa aqutica), dock (Rumex spp.), yellow pond lily (Nuphar
spp.), marsh fleabane (Pluchea purpurascens), royal fern
(Osmunda regalis), marsh hibiscus (Hibiscus moscheutos), beggar's
ticks (Bidens sp.), smartweeds (Polygomun sp.), arrow-head
(Sagittria spp.), sweet flag (Acorus calamus), and switch grass
(Panicum virgatum).

DATE DUE

GAYLORDINo. 2333 PRINTED IN U.S.A.
DRC

0
A CHESAPEAKE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, INC. PUBLICATION
Supported by funds from the RESEARCH APPLIED TO NATIONAL NEEDS @R'ANNJ PROGRAM
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