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Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection November 1977 .1'&~' ci f ,c.LibrarY I- U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUt CHARLESTON, SC 29.05-41 3 ; , _lfLO, iilsand Sound .... ::,,, . AntAtlas of r>- Natural Resources \I) 103 -21 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~This document was financed by a grant from Lc,5r~r h~' ~ ~ the Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration C; ~ e u under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 ~~~a-~~ Throughout the history of Connecticut, our people have prospered from the vast resources of Long Island Sound and the coastal area. These resources are of great economic, recreational The Resource Atlas is not intended to be a and environmental value. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~technical publication, but rather a basic source of information which will be interesting and Each year, thousands of our citizens from all over Connecticut fish in the Sound, swim at its understandable to all citizens, including those beaches and take advantage of the numerous products shipped through its ports. Understanding without a background in the natural sciences. With our coastal resources and their interrelationships is vital to assure their preservation and this in mind, three informational aids are included protection for our own benefit and that of future generations. in the Atlas and are described below. I1. For those who would like additional or more To increase this comprehension and to provide fundamental information about Long Island detailed information, there is a suggested Sound and the Connecticut shorelands, the Coastal Area Management Program has prepared reading list at the end of each chapter. the Long Island Sound Natural Resource Atlas. Written in a clear, non-technical style, the 2. Terms which may not be familiar to readers Resource Atlas serves as a basic guide which citizens can use to understand and enjoy these are italicized and explained in the Glossary resources. (Appendix II). 3. Appendix Ilis a list of the scientific names of all The Resource Atlas is divided into chapters on the various components and processes of the plant and animal species mentioned in the the Long Island Sound system. It discusses the physical oceanography of Long Island Sound; Atlas. shoreline features and the forces that create and influence them; and the numerous plant and animal species found in and along the Sound. The Resource Atlas is not merely an inventory of coastal resources and processes. It also stresses the natural systems and the interrelationships between all parts of this complex ecosystem. I urge educational organizations, government agencies and all our citizens to make use of the Resource Atlas. Hopefully, increased understanding of our valuable and fragile coastal resources will lead to greater appreciation of them and greater realization of the need to plan for their future. . ELLA ASSO Governor Foreword ..................................... 2 ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES Chapter 1: Glacial History .................... 4 Blue Crab ..........................................26 1. Terminal Moraines in Southern New England ....... 5 Chapter 2: Physical Oceanography ............. 6 American Lobster ...................................28 2. Moraines in Connecticut and Long Island ........... 5 Chapter 3: Shoreline Features and Processes .... 12 Eastern Oyster ......................................31 3. General Tidal Sequence for Long Island Sound ...... 6 Chapter 4: Natural Systems ................... 15 Hard-shell Clam .....................................32 4. Current Flow Compared to Water Depth ........... 7 Chapter 5: Vegetation ........................ 17 Soft-shell Clam ......................................32 5. Surface Salinity .................................. 8 Chapter 6: Benthos ........................... 22 Ceratium lineatum ...................................34 6. Bottom Salinity .................................. 9 Chapter 7: Crustacea ......................... 26 Skeletonema costatum ................................34 7. General Pattern of Estuarine Circulation ............10 Chapter 8: Mollusks ..........................3 1 Acartia .............................................35 8. Maximum Ebb Tide Surface Currents ..............10 Chapter 9: Plankton ..........................34 Scup ...............................................136 9. Mean Sediment Size .................... ..........1 Chapter 10: Fishes ............................36 Winter Flounder .....................................37 10. Distribution of Shoreline Features ..................13 Chapter 11: Birds .............................40 Blackfish ...........................................37 11. Beach Profile ........................... 14 (foldout) Chapter 12: Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians.. 43 Bluefish ............................................38 12. Energy and Nutrient Flow Through a Simple Chapter 13: Rare and Endangered Species .......45Striped Bass.38 Community.15 Chapter 14: Man and Long Island Sound . ....... 47Atlantic Salmon .....................................39 13. Habitat Zones of the Shoreline ....................16 Appendix I: Scientific Names .................. 48 Shad ...............................................39 14. Common Seaweeds of the Connecticut Shore ........18 Appendix 11: Glossary ......................... 50 Greater Scaup .......................................40 15. Coastal Plant Communities ................... 20, 21 Acknowledgements ............................. 52 Snowy Egret ........................................42 16. Estuarine Benthic Habitats .....................22,23 Figure Credits ................................. 52 Diamondback Terrapin ............................... 43 17. Relativ e Number of Benthic Species ................25 Muskrat ............................................ 44 18. Growth of Benthic Invertebrate Populations Relative to the Seasonal Temperature Cycle .................24 Meadow Vole ....................................... 44 Ospry ................................... 4519. Distribution of Recreationally Important Crabs ...... 27 20. Lobster Distribution ..............................29 Persimmon .....................46 21. Commercial Shellfish Beds ........................33 22. Phytoplankton Population Cycle ...................35 23. Zooplankton Population Cycle .....................35 24. Finfish Distribution: Areas of Greatest Concentration 37 25. Major Waterfowl Wintering Areas and Selected Birdwatching Spots ............................ 41 1. Glacial History Approximately 18,000 years ago coastal eroded an average of 20 meters of surface places. The smaller size and discontinuous materials, deposited by glacial meltwater Connecticut and Long Island Sound were materials from the preglacial New England nature of these moraines is due to minimal streams, are termed outwash. covered by a thick sheet of ice. It is estimated to landscape. The estimate is based on the quantity deposits, presumably resulting from the The basin is bounded on the west by a ridge have been as much as 1000 meters thick in the of all sediments deposited as a result of glacial relatively short-term equilibrium position of the about 20 meters below present sea level and on interior and 400-500 meters thick along its activity that are found on- and offshore in the ice front in that area. the east by another ridge, the Mattatuck Sill. southern margin. This ice sheet was part of the New England region. Such glacial sediments are There are two principle areas at which lines The lowest point of this ridge is approximately Late Wisconsin Glacier, which covered much of collectively known as drift. of terminal moraines intersect the Connecticut 25 meters below sea level. These ridges, together northern North America at the time. It was the Moraines shoreline: the Norwalk area and the Madison- with the lowered sea level during the glacial Moraines most recent of a series of glaciations to have Old Saybrook area. In these areas, relatively period, kept Long Island Sound isolated from spread from the polar regions across the 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet was at its greater quantities of drift have led to the the open ocean. As a result, glacial meltwater continent in the past 10 million years. maximum size, extending across the present formation of sandy plains and beaches. East of pouring into the Sound formed a freshwater Exactly why climatic changes allowed vast Long Island Sound basin to southern Long these areas the drift thins and there are more lake (see Figure 1). layers of ice to repeatedly cover North America Island. The southern margin of the glacier numerous bedrock exposures. Where the drift The Sound remained a freshwater lake until is not well understood. Some think that sunspot remained there for a time in an "equilibrium" cover is thinnest, rocky headlands backed by approximately 8,000 years ago, by which time activity or cosmic dust were responsible, while position, as the movement of the ice southward marshes predominate, sea level had risen to 25 meters below its present others feel that variation in the Earth's motion, was offset by the melting of the ice front due to a Within a 10 kilometer strip of the level. At this point, seawater entered the central movements of the Earth's crust, or changes in regional warming trend. At this time, a large Connecticut coast, numerous islands and shoals basin of Long Island Sound, changing it from a the atmosphere may have been the cause. No quantity of drift was deposited, known as a are found. Some, like the Captain Islands near non-tidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm single hypothesis has yet achieved widespread terminal moraine. The southernmost deposit is Greenwich, the Norwalk Islands, and Falkner of the sea. acceptance, and it is possible that several called the Ronkonkoma Moraine. A somewhat Island off Guilford, are segments of a terminal Continued global warming and the different phenomena were involved, later, more northern equilibrium position moraine. Other islands, like the Thimbles off shrinkage of glaciers led to further rises in sea resulted in the formation of the Harbor Hill Branford, are principally exposed bedrock with level. Present sea level is probably approaching Impact of the Glacier on Southern New England Moraine (see Figure 1). a thin, discontinuous cover of drift. Still other its maximum for the current inter-glacial Among the most dramatic changes brought Evidence indicates that no moraines were shoals and islands fall somewhere between these period. Studies of marsh sediments on the about by glaciation were changes in sea level. At formed in the central basin of Long Island two extremes and appear to be bedrock with a Connecticut coast indicate that sea level rose at the peak, or maximum size, of the Late Sound, which suggests that the glacier receded more substantial mantle of drift. Also offshore the rate of approximately 1.2 millimeters per Wisconsin Glacier, sea level stood about 100 across that area without establishing any are several sandy deltas, including those in year from 8,000 to 3,500 years ago; about 0.8 meters lower than it does today. As a result, large equilibrium positions. Apparently there are no Bridgeport and New Haven. These deltas were millimeters per year until 100 years ago; and 2-4 areas of land once above sea level are now moraines between Harbor Hill on the south side formed by materials deposited by melting millimeters per year (or about 1-1/2 feet per submerged. The great weight of the advancing of the basin and a group of moraines near the glaciers. century) since then. glacier also depressed the land masses in interior Connecticut coastline on the north. The areas by as much as one-third the thickness of the Connecticut moraines, which are located both The Long Island Sound Basin Suggested Reading ice. on- and offshore, are discontinuous and The basin of Long Island Sound, which Bloom, A. L. and Ellis, C. W., Jr., Postglacial The ice masses scoured vast quantities of considerably smaller than the Long Island predates glaciation and is probably a stream- Stratigraphy and Morphology of Coastal rock and soil from the land as they moved south. moraines (see Figure 2). They occur in a zone carved feature, received a relatively thick cover Connecticut. Connecticut Geological Natural It is believed that the Late Wisconsin Glacier which is less than 10 kilometers wide in most of sand and gravel as the ice front receded. Such History Survey Guidebook No. 1, 1965. CONNECTICUT RHODEISLAN Figure 1. Terminal Moraines in Southern New England C~~~ ~~~ OKNKOMACTICUTN Figure 2. Moraines in Connecticut ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~I ~ 1 and L~~~~~~ongECIClan THINISLE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2. Physical i ri 0 Hr, Figure 3. General Tidal Sequence for Long Island Sound 0 Long Island Sound is an estuary; a protected tide, water is flowing eastward out of the Sound MAXIMUM EBB coastal body of water with open connections to through the Race. This is the ebb (outgoing) 1URREN the sea, in which saline seawater is measurably tide. When the water level begins to rise again diluted by fresh water. Ocean water flows in and after low tide, the flood (incoming) tidal 0 out of the Sound through the opening in the currents are bringing water westward, into the eastern end, known as the Race. Fresh water, Sound. The tidal currents rush in and out (flood from the rivers entering the Sound, dilutes the and ebb) with the current speeds at their seawater. Estuarine properties are repeated on a minimum near times of high and low tides. n -. smaller scale in the many harbors and river Figure 4 is a graph of the current flow in the i mouths in the Sound. Thus, Long Island Sound east-west direction measured on November 5 LW TIDE is a large estuary with many smaller estuaries, and 6 near the bottom of the central Sound. It >| 6.2 Hr. such as New Haven Harbor and the mouth of also depicts the water depth measured z the Connecticut River, at its edge. simultaneously at the same location. Notice that Z , Tides high tide occurs when the east-west tidal current 0 speed is almost zero. On the shores of Long Island Sound, the The tidal currents reach their greatest speeds .E waters rise and advance, then fall and retreat in the eastern Sound. The current speeds E with a regular rhythm. The tides are produced diminish to the west (see Figure 3). When a 5.0 i by the gravitational attraction of the moon and knot current is running through the Race, form sun on the ocean water. The rotation of the example, the flow past Stamford may only be earth causes the tide to be semi-diurnal; in other 0.5 knots. (A "knot" is a unit of speed of one MX CURRENT words, the Sound experiences high tide about nautical mile per hour, equivalent to 1.15 9.3 HT. twice a day (once every 12 hours and 25 statute miles.) 9 minutes, to be more exact). The difference in the Saliit water depth between high and low tide is called the tidal range. Long Island Sound is an arm of the sea; The tides in Long Island Sound are driven however, the saline sea water in it is diluted with by the oceanic tide outside the Race. Because of fresh water from the rivers of Connecticut. This 1 the Sound's size and shape, it is particularly dilution is increasingly pronounced moving tuned to amplify the oceanic tide. westward, away from the source of salt water, 1 HIGH TIDE Consequently, the tidal range in the western the ocean. The salinity of the surface water at 12.4 Hr. Sound is larger than the tidal range in the east. the Race is typically about 30 parts salt per 1000 At Stamford, for example, the average tidal parts water, or, as it is scientifically expressed, range is about 2.2 meters (7.2 feet) while at New 30 o/ oo. The salinity diminishes to about 26 London the range is only 0.9 meters (3.0 feet). o/oo at Stamford. Salt water has a greater 0 Associated with the tidal changes in water density than fresh water; therefore, fresh water level are strong tidal currents. Figure 3 shows a floats on more saline water. Consequently, at generalized tidal sequence for Long Island any location the surface water is usually less Sound. As the water level is falling after high saline than the water near the bottom by one or -1 6 50.0 25.0 LU NvNov.JO 0 LU Figure 4. Current Flow Compared to > ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Water Depth 25.0~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~ti"' many estuaries, and they produce a basin. Figure 9shows the distribution of bottom characteristic estuarine circulation of water. sediments in Long Island Sound. 50.0 The heavy, saline bottom water sinks and flows In the central and western basins, a large under the fresher surface water. Thus, saline amount of silt has accumulated. Fine sediment bottom water flows westward into the Sound, is introduced by the rivers and is carried by the while less saline surface waterflowseastward out estuarine circulation into the inner Sound. The A6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of the Sound. Intense mixing of surface and accumulation of silt is aided by the feeding 22.8 bottom water occurs in the shallow near-shore activity of animals inhabiting the muddy regions and over reefs and shoals. This general bottom. Fine grains of silt are bound into much pattern of estuarine circulation is shown in larger fecal pellets by bottom-dwelling animals. Figure 7. The muddy central basin is covered with a layer 22.1 A' The estuarine circulation flows all of the time, of fecal pellets about 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inches) :E ~ X during both ebb and flood tides. Thus, the thick. =Nov.~ IIovX current observed in Long Island Sound is the Every tidal cycle a layer of sediment one or I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sum of the estuarine circulation and the tidal two millimeters thick (less than a tenth of an CLUj currents. The estuarine circulation, however, is inch) is eroded and redistributed within the in21.4 *so slow that it can only be noticed by careful central basin. Throughout the Sound, the tidal ad ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~measurements. In the central Sound, the streams resuspend and redeposit more than LU '<7' ~~~~~~~~~~~~maximum tidal current speed may be 1.0 knot, seven million tons of sediment daily. Despite while the speed of the superimposed estuarine this activity, fine silt is accumulating in the 20.7 circulation is likely to be less than 0.2 knots. In central and western basins of Long Island ~~~~~~.1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . Figure 8 the speed of the maximum ebb tidal Sound at the rate of about a millimeter per year. current at the surface is contoured. The arrowsTeprte in this figure indicate the net, long-term water Teprte velocity measured 2 meters (6.6 feet) above the Long Island Sound is a dynamic 20.0 bottom. This is the estuarine circulation. The environment of strong tidal currents and varied speed of this flow of bottom water diminishes to salinity. The water temperature is also two parts per thousand. Connecticut River is the mnaj or contributor; this the west, and at depths less than about 20 extremely variable. In the Sound, the water The distribution of salinity at any particular one source accounts for more than 70% of the meters (65.6 feet), bottom water flows temperature oscillates from 00 Celsius (320 time depends on many factors, such as the freshwater supply. Nonetheless, the inflow of shoreward into the near-shore mixing zone. Fahrenheit) in the winter to about 220 Celsius magnitude of river discharge and rate of seawater greatly exceeds the freshwater supply. Sdmns(71.60 Fahrenheit) in the summer, a range as evaporation. The salinity distribution shown in An estimated 19,000 cubic meters per second Sdmnsgreat as that of any body of water in the world. Figures 5 and 6 was observed during the (over 5 million gallons per second) enter the The currents sweep the bottom sediments of summer of 1972. Differences in salinity among central Sound from the ocean. Long Island Sound. They have worked theSugseRadn different parts of the Sound result from a sandy bottom of the eastern Sound into largeSugseRadn continuous flow of both fresh water and salt Circulation underwater dunes, or sand waves. The estuarine Riley, G. A. et al., Oceanography of Long Island water through the Sound. On the average, some circulation superimposed on the tidal currents Sound. Bingham Occanog. Coll. Bull., v. 15, 1956. 470 cubic meters (about 120,000 gallons) of The horizontal and vertical salinity produces a net westward transport of sand out Turekian, K. K., Oceans. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: fresh water enter the Sound every second. The differences in Long Island Sound are typical of of the eastern Sound into the central muddy Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. 7 Figure 5. Surface Salinity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. Q n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -~ - - - - - I it~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f I. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SUFAC SAINT 18-20 30-32 Figure 6. Bottom Salinity -I 'I~~~~~~~~~- I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-------- 20-322 9 Figure 7. General Pattern of Estuarine Circulation Figure 8. Maximum Ebb Tide Surface SURFACE CURRENT Currents 11 UNDERCURRENT 1-...\ , ,, 4 "0,---f,2 g , ] ; = ; ,--', XK 'id. "4\4-- I ' SURFACE CURRENTS (KNOTS) -0- ~~in at :cc--C~~~~NET BOTTOM CURRENT (02 KNOTS) 10i I JI i 2 ~ ~~ ~ l,--, , I~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~UFC CURE T (KNTS ~O Y ' x~~-1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~E BOTO C UREN --(.2KNOS \ � J-- ~ ) 10~~~(b Figure 9. Mean Sediment Size /~~~~ ~ ~~~~MA SE I M N S I ZE -- '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IL FIESN .--.---,~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CAS SAND - - 3. Shoreline Features and Processes Connecticut's shoreline has a number of distinct ago rising sea level first began to influence height up to 6 feet, although during infrequent bodies of water along the shore, finer materials land features such as tidal marshes, intertidal Long Island Sound, which was previously a storms and hurricanes larger waves can be carried in by tidal currents are deposited, giving flats, bays, islands, headlands and bluffs, and freshwater lake (see Chapter 1, "Glacial expected. rise to inter-tidal mudflats. At river mouths and, beaches. Figure 10 shows the general History"). Since that time, sea level has As waves approach the shore and break, in some instances, at points of land which distribution of some of the noted landforms continued to rise and has "drowned" features they release energy. This energy erodes and project seaward, tidal currents can act in along the Connecticut shore. These features are which were previously upland, such as river transports shoreline sediments in three ways. conjunction with longshore currents to move a direct result of a number of physical and valleys and glacial moraines. Such land forms as Longshore currents, which are created when material along the shore and modify geologic factors, including glaciation, changing small embayments (New Haven Harbor) and waves break at an angle to the shore, carry magnitudes and directions of longshore sea level, waves, tidal currents and wind. some offshore islands (Norwalk Islands) sediments along (parallel to) the shore. Also, currents. Through the processes of erosion, subsequently appeared. In addition, tides and waves may transport sediments either on- or transportation and deposition, these factors related currents began to affect the Sound. offshore, depending upon the nature of the Winds Winds, in addition to generating created and continue to modify existing Wave Dynamics Surface waves are pro- actual "breaker". The steeper "plunging" waves, are also capable of moving sediments landforms. duced by wind blowing over open water. breakers tend to move material offshore, while along the shore above water level. Their Processes Generally speaking, wave conditions are the less steep "spilling" breakers tend to move influence is most apparent in the formation of h governed by three factos:fetch, or the length of material onshore, sand dunes. As mentioned previously, normal 'unobstructed water over which the wind blows; The zones in which waves exert the most wind direction varies seasonally. Hurricane- su rface by the action of natural forces, such as influence (where breaking occurs) are changed fo rce winds are most likely to occur during the wind and water. Sediments that are eroded from wind blows at a given speed from a given daily due to rising and falling tides (see late summer and fall. Waves generated by the shoreline are transported by wind and wave direction; and the velocity of the wind. As each Chapter 2). hurricane winds cause significant and sudden depositnergy and tidaelsewh curre Tidal marshess, and eventually are of these factors is increased, larger waves can be Tidal Currents Currents created by the action beaches or shoresfilling inlets mudflats are examples of areas resulting from generated. In the Long Island Sound area wind of the tides are also important in the erosion, depositionalf activity direction varies on a seasonal basis, with winds transportation, and deposition of sediments Biological Processes Biological factors are It is important to bear in mind that any blowing generally from the south and southwest along our shores, particularly at inlets, bays and important in the formation of shoreline feature under the influence of a number of during spring and summer months and from the river mouths. When tides enter small coves, features, particularly tidal marshes and dunes. but interrelated factors is dynamic. It north and northwest during the fall and winter. harbors, and other embayments with inlets Beach grass and other dune vegetation as well as must respond to both short and long term sepabust i rreled fators bhsht andyona . Ite Winds blowing from southerly directions (constricted openings), the velocity of the various salt marsh species encourage the trends. Due to the influence of the tides, the generate the waves which most dominate current is significantly higher. The narrower the deposition of sediments by acting as physical zones where wave action affects the shoreline Connecticut's shoreline, inlet, the higher the current velocity. At inlets, barriers to the transport of materials and by newdaily.Changeseinsealevel, on atthe oher As waves traveling across Long Island an equilibrium situation normally exists; that is, stabilizing materials with their root systems. change daily. Changes in sea lon term trends Sound enter water of increasingly shallow there is a balance between the size of the inlet The role of vegetation is discussed in greater chandu modi aust be viewed as long term trends, depth, they become gradually steeper until their and the volume of the tidal exchange. If an inlet detail in Chapter 5. over a pering mod of thousands of years. Because ration crests fall forward as breakers, creating what is is below a certain equilibrium size (due to the Features over a period of thousand s of years. Because of commonly known as surf Since the Sound is deposition of sediment from storms, etc.), feature should be considered as strictly almost entirely sheltered by Long Island and stronger currents will erode the material from Headlands and Bluffs In Connecticut, fea ture should be considered as strictly tableFishers Island, fetch is limited and large waves, the inlet, eventually returning it to equilibrium. headlands may be composed of glacial drift er os ional, depositional or stable, but rather, such as those which break on shores exposed to If, on the other hand, the size of the inlet is and/or bedrock. Their original formation is a each should be viewed as continuously the open ocean, do not reach Connecticut's above the equilibrium, currents are slower and direct result of glacial scouring and deposition. changing. coast. Normally, waves breaking on the may deposit material at the inlet. Where these features are composed of glacial Rising Sea Level Approximately 8,000 years Connecticut side of Long Island Sound range in In bays and other semi-enclosed quiescent drift, which is easily eroded, they provide a 12 NE)N yORo �-' I, - - Lgal u \\.~~ Y Ly B. Glacial drift and beaches y A. Rock and drift; much artificial fill D. Rock and marshes LONG ISLAND SOUND Figure 10. Distribution of Shoreline . Features w, P\tz~~ )1~~1~ II;~~~ ;} SHORELINE FEATURES Fc- Bedrock t Glacial drift Sand or gravel beaches J Y A l Tidal marshes E. Glacial driftandbF. Glacial drift and rock Rock and marshes Artificial fill LONG ISLAND SOUND 13 major source for sediments which are then mainland or two islands; and pocket beaches, sediment, decaying vegetation accumulates, Tidal Mudflats Tidal mudflats accumulate in UPLAND ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~transported to other sites, forming beaches, which occur in small crescent-shaped coves and eventually forming peat. a manner similar to the initial stages of tidal UPLAND ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~marshes and mudflats. In contrast to drift, directly front uplands. Spits and tombolos may Tidal marshes began forming on the coast marsh development. The differences are that MUDIFLAT DUNES BEACH bedrock is highly resistant to erosion and as a be referred to as barrier beaches in instances several thousand years ago, when sea level was sediments have not accumulated above the mid- MARSH result is only weathered slowly by waves, winds where they extend parallel to the mainland, but much lower than it is today. As sea level rose, tide level and the mudflats remain unvegetated. and tidal currents. Headlands are easily are separated from it by a body of water or many marshes that had formed in shallow Tidal mudflats are exposed at each low tide. The recognized as higher hilly forms projecting marsh. Examples of these types of beaches may coastal waters were able to accumulate peat and mudflats at Long Wharf in New Haven are a PRIMARY seaward. Bluff Point is atypical headland which be seen at Griswold Point in Old Lyme (spit), sediment rapidly enough to keep pace with the particularly go od example of this type of coastal SECONDARY DUNE ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~provides a sediment source for Bushy Point and on the Norwalk Islands (tombolo). rise, and therefore are in existence today. Like feature. "T CREST ~HIGH TIDE Beach. As illustrated in Figure I11, beaches show beaches, marshes have also migrated landward Although this chapter has discussed each N~~K~ >SLOUGR LOW TIDE characteristic profiles which are related to as sea level was rising, overriding the uplands on type of shoreline feature separately, no feature Beaches Beaches are g nrlyconsidered towaves, wind, tides and biological activity. their landward edge while being eroded and/o should be considered independent and beerosion-prone; however, t eritalAlthough teprofile shw sfracascovertopped by ohrsedimentary deposits atunrelated to other components of the coastal ~~rRO~~~~~eH ~~development is a result of the depositional ocean-fronting beach, many of the same their seaward edge (see Figure I11). In numerous system. Almost invariably, features occur 'N ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~process. The character of the beach is regulated features are found on beaches along the Sound. places along the coast, marsh peat actually juts together, forming unique and interacting units. ~~~GLACIAL MARSH ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~by the balance between erosional and The seaward portion of the profile (the beach from the seaward edge of beaches, evidencing A headland-marsh-spit complex, such as those ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~depoiFti o nPal forces. When these forces are in proper) changes constantly in response to the former position of the marsh.ocungathmuhsfteCnetitad dynamic equilibrium, beach form remains variations in tidal ranges, weather and surf According to soil scientists, four main Housatonic Rivers (Griswold and Milford constant. When the equilibrium is altered, the conditions, Dunes formed by aeolian classes of tidal marshes are found in Points, respectively), is representative of such a Figure 11, Beach Profile -Normal Beach Profile beach may either grow or diminish in size. For (windblown) sand deposits vary in response to Connecticut: deep coastal, shallow coastal, very unit. In each case a headland provides sediment StoroBeahBPofilhexmplef i f t h e iedienteoureedfthebeac iswindandoandsuppy.begettio (suhwaishalowcoasalnnd etuaine.Deepcoatalaorthellterldgrwthofateisit, hilothespi depleted, either as a result of a natural process Reach Grass) growing on the dunes stabilizes marshes, present mainly in areas west of the provides shelter from waves and storms for the or through the construction of a man-made them and encourages their growth. Dunes Connecticut River, are characterized by peat marsh behind it. The headland is eroding, while feature such as a sea wall, the beach will recede. provide an important reservoir of sand which deposits averaging 5 meters thick. They the spit and marsh may be alternately eroding or If, however, additional sediment becomes may replenish beaches during times of severe represent the State's oldest marshes. Shallow depositional. Each feature responds in a available and is transported to the beach, it may erosion. coastal marshes occur primarily east of the particular way to changing physical conditions, increase in size. Typical beaches in Connecticut are Connecticut River and average 2 meters thick. and in turn, influences other features. Another factor affecting beaches is rising sea relatively narrow with steep faces composed of They began forming within the past 3,000 years. level. As sea level rises, the beach as a system coarser sand and some gravel. They generally Very shallow coastal marshes occur for the most Suggested Reading -may retreat in response to changing balances lack well developed dunes. part in Rhode Island, although a few are present Bascom, W. M., Waves and Beaches. Garden City, between erosion and deposition. Thus, it may in Connecticut. They are generally less than I N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1964. eventually override the land behind it. Such a Tidal Marshes Tidal marshes develop where meter thick and contain a great deal of sand Bloom, A.L. and Ellis, C.W., Jr., Postglacial situation exists at Cedar Island, Clinton, where finer sediments accumulate. When these mixed in with their peat. They are also affected Stratigraphy and Morphology of Coastal peat deposits project from the beach face. sediments build to at least the mid-tide level (the by erosion much more markedly than the Connecticut. Connecticut Geological Natural Several types of beach are found on the water level intermediate between high and low previously mentioned marsh types. Estuarine History Survey Guidebook No. 1, 1965. shores of Long Island Sound. Included are: tides), plants may begin to colonize them and to marshes develop along tidal rivers rather than Hill, D.E. and Shearin, A.E., Tidal Marshes of spits, or projections of sand attached at one end create marsh systems. Plant roots stabilize the on the coastline. When river flow is slowed by Connecticut and Rhode Island. Connecticut to an island or the mainland; tombolos, or sediment and their stems trap additional incoming tides (slack water), muddy sediments Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 709: 34 stretches of sand connecting an island and the sediments. Once plants have colonized the accumulate, forming these marshes. p., 1970. 14 4. Natural Systems Figure 12. Energy and Nutrient Flow Through a Simple Community Along Connecticut's coastline, a number of referred to as a trophic level. distinct types of natural geographic features can Energy is passed from one trophic level to be observed. These features, or habitats, are another. First, energy captured from the sun products of long periods of interaction between and incorporated into the tissues of the plants is the physical and biological environment. Each passed to the herbivores as they graze upon the HERBIVORES habitat is characterized by its own particular plants. The energy is then passed to the complex of plants and animals which have carnivores as they feed upon the herbivores. adapted to the specific physical conditions of Decomposers draw their energy from all trophic the area. This grouping of plants and animals is levels. termed a community. In general, the efficiency of the energy Communities transfer between trophic levels is very low, since each level uses up much of the energy that it The concept of a community may be defined eachAlevel uses upRODUCERSNIVO e preciselyasagrou of plantsandaconsumes through such activities as digestion. more precisely as a group of plants and animals, As a result, the energy available for each interacting with and closely dependent upon succeeding trophic level is substantially one another, that are tied to and strongly reduced. With the exception of the microscopic affected by their particular physical decomposers, fewer creatures can be supported environment. at each succeeding trophic level. For example, it Thefood web is an important component of has been estimated that it takes 800 kilograms of I any community. Plants are the producers of the algae to supply food for 26 kiDECOMPOSERS algae to supply food for 26 kilograms of food web in that they alone are capable of minnows, and 26 kilograms of minnows for a transforming light energy from the sun into one-kilogram bass. food energy. In the presence of sunlight, green plants can use carbon dioxide, water, minerals Nutrients entering the food web are and nutrients to manufacture carbohydrates by generally not lost. For the most part, once they a process known as photosynthesis. Some of have reached the decomposers, they are released this food energy is utilized by the plant to back into the soil and air where they can be re- sustain life, and the rest is stored in various used. Figure 12 illustrates the flow of energy and Habitats largely determined by the texture of the life, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Habitats lreydtrie ytetxueo h plant parts (such as roots, leaves, seeds, etc.). nutrients through the community. sediment surface and the salinity of the These plant parts are eaten by herbivores (plant- Another important feature of a community Communities occur within habitats. On the overlying water. The pelagic environment eaters), such as insects, small mammals, is its productivity. Productivity refers to the coast these habitats may be viewed in four consists of the water column (the mass of water songbirds and others. The herbivores are preyed amount of living material produced in a given broad zones, shown in Figure 13: the subtidal between the surface and the seafloor) itself. This upon by the carnivores (meat-eaters), such as area over a specific length of time. Productivity zone, intertidal zone, water-land interface, and environment may differ in chemical and foxes or hawks. When members of the food web is often related to the amount of food available upland. physical properties such as salinity, dissolved eliminate wastes or die, the wastes or carcasses in an area. Food supply has direct bearing on The subtidal zone is characterized by two nutrients, and suspended sediments, especially are broken down into their component mineral the area's carrying capacity (the amount of major habitats: the benthic and pelagic. The in areas where fresh water rivers enter. It may parts by another group of creatures, the wildlife that it can support). As will be shown, benthic (or seafloor) environment is home for a also differ in depth, current patterns and decomposers, consisting largely of bacteria and habitats present on the coastline vary in their variety of creatures that live upon or within the seasonal temperature. fungi. Each of these groups is individually productivity, seafloor. The type of community present is The intertidal zone, that area which is 15 periodically flooded and uncovered during each Upland habitats occur beyond the influence Sound in winter moderates the coastal climate. Suggested Reading tidal cycle, is similar in some respects to the of normal and spring tides, and are affected by Salt spray reaches the upland usually only Amos, William H., The Life of the Seashore. New subtidal zone. Both benthic and pelagic habitats waves and salt water only during storm tides. during severe storms, but the effect of even this York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966. exist, but the environment is much more severe. The coastal, or "maritime", climate is infrequent salt spray is significant in Odumn, Eugene P., Fundamentals of Ecology. For example, tidal mudflats and sand flats, characterized by more moderate conditions determining what communities exist there. Philadelphia; Saunders, 1971. along with rocky shorelines, are subject to than those occurring inland. The onshore Again, substrate has a strong effect on Rudloe, Jack, The Erotic Ocean, a Handbook for intense heat and drying from the sun at each low breezes of Long Island Sound cool the coast in community development of upland habitats. Beachcombers. New York: World Publishing tide; at high tide saline water inundates the area. summer, while the relatively warm water of the Company, 1971. These extreme variations in the physical environment, in combination with sediment Fiue1.HbttZones of the type, determine to a large extent the I iue1.HbttShoreline composition and structure of communities inhabiting these areas. The water-land interface is that area above the daily influence of tides which is still strongly affected by oceanic processes. Habitats such as beaches, rocky bluffs and the upland borders of salt marshes generally fall into this category. Although above the normal reach of tides, these habitats may be affected by the extra high I U L N spring tides which occur twice monthly. The H IG TIDE upper reaches of most of Connecticut's saltjHIHTD marshes are, for the most part, flooded only twice monthly, while the lower reaches nearest IFI to the water are flooded twice daily. The -NE -Y -h LOW-TIDE community composition of the lower marshes is ; ~ MRT$ECJAE ~ AJ A D . substantially different from the higher marshes. I< j IL 'A L Iit TE IDA Salt spray is an important factor in theI .. > development of communities in the water-land interface. Tiny particles of wind-blown salt _ severely limit the types of plants and animalsI that can survive here; most terrestrial forms of .EIO CLYBYI*Z N life are highly intolerant of salt in theirI ITDL FO IN TO ..I environment.ISPA DRMTC ALY I The substrate (the type of soil or rocks CAGSI . .$FUN.pB present) also affects community development. LTH P1 YIAL Whether the substrate is being eroded, as in ~I hAATRO rocky shorelines, or deposited, as in beaches, isI 2 another determining factor. 16 5. Vegetation Plantlife can be divided into two broad groups: particularly, red algae, which can survive in uncommon. Chorda is a single, long, round in the marsh. The tall form of Salt Water the non-vascular, or primitive plants; and the subdued sunlight, extend their ranges into strand which looks like a swollen string, and Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) grows along vascular, or advanced plants. There are many deeper water. often reaches a length of 45 centimeters. In the the ditches and seaward edge of the marsh, types of non-vascular plants, such as mosses, In Connecticut, a number of seaweed species still deeper water of the subtidal zone grow the where it is inundated daily by the tides. The liverworts, fungi, algae, and lichens. Vascular are characteristic of the intertidal and subtidal delicate, finely branched red algae such as higher portions of the marshes, often called salt plants include most of our large terrestrial zones (see Figure 14). In the rocky intertidal Spermothamnion, Antithamnion, or meadows, are inundated less frequently and are forms, such as grasses, trees, and shrubs. zone, the rocks exposed to the air are often Callithamnion. They are easily dislodged by usually dominated by the short Salt Meadow A characteristic and familiar group of non- covered with heavy growth of two conspicuous wave action and can be found floating freely. Cordgrass (Spartina patens) and Spikegrass vascular plants is the algae, which can be brown seaweeds, Fucus and Ascophyllum, both In tidal pools, rocks and mollusk shells are (Distichlis spicata). A short form of Salt Water divided into two groups. One group consists of of which have air bladders. The bladders allow often encrusted by the red or pink colored Cordgrass sometimes grows in depressions the microscopic floating planktonic or bottom- them to float and thus receive direct sunlight as Hildebrandtia or Phymatolithon. Green algae (pannes) on higher marshes, where evaporation dwelling benthic forms, which will be discussed the tide rises and falls. Other seaweeds, such as such as Ulothrix, Cladophora, and raises the salinity of trapped tidal waterto levels in Chapters 6 and 9; the other group includes Ectocarpus (a brown alga) and Polysiphonia (a Enteromorpha also thrive in the same pools, higher than sea water. Also occurring in pannes seaweeds. red alga), only grow attached to Fucus and attached to the rocky substrate. These thread- and bare areas are a number of other plant The Seaweed Communities Ascophyllum. The red alga Porphyra, like plants float in the quiet water left behind by species: Sea Lavender, Salt Marsh Aster, recognized by its thin, sheet-like appearance, is the high tides. Seaside Gerardia and various species of As their name implies, seaweeds live only in also found in the rocky intertidal zone. Another It is important to note that seaweed Glasswort. Forming a belt near the upland seawater. There are three main types of red alga commonly found here, especially in populations fluctuate with the seasons. Some, border of the marsh is Blackgrass, which is seaweeds: the green algae, the red algae, and the backwash areas, is Chondrus (Irish Moss). Its such as Monostroma, reproduce in early spring actually not a grass but a rush. At the upland- brown algae. Each is characterized by the type highly branched, shrub-like form is especially and die out by late summer. Others, such as the marsh border, Switchgrass and Reed often of pigment it contains. In the Sound, the distinctive. pink Grinnellia, appear in August and occur. Marsh Elder, a shrub which tolerates greatest abundance of seaweeds is in rocky In the intertidal zone of estuaries and tidal disappear after four to six weeks. salt, is frequently associated with Blackgrass or intertidal areas and on rocks on the sea floor. marshes, which are relatively calm Switchgrass. It usually grows at the level of the Sandy and muddy sites are not as suitable for environments in contrast to the rocky intertidid a l highest monthly tides while Switchgrass grows most species of seaweed since the constantly zone, several green algae occur. These include Comprising about 15,000 acres in at the level of occasional storm tides. The shifting sediments do not permit them to the soft, many-branched Cladophora Connecticut, tidal marshes are low-lying areas upland edge of the marsh may often contain the become attached. (Mermaid's Hair); the narrow, strap-like tubes subject to relatively low wave energies and to shrubs Bayberry and Groundsel-tree. In addition to substrate, factors such as of Enteromorpha; and the broad blades of Ulva mixing of fresh and salt water. There are several In addition to the salt marsh community, light, salinity, severity of wave action, water (Sea Lettuce). In recent years, another green different plant communities which can occur in other types of vegetation may occur in tidal temperature, and duration of exposure above alga, Codium, has become locally abundant. It tidal marshes, depending upon their proximity marshes. These other communities may be water all affect the distribution of seaweeds. For is easily recognized by its branching form and to Long Island Sound, elevation above sea level, observed along the shores of the State's larger example, below the intertidal zone, light sponge-like texture. and duration of tidal flooding. estuaries. Further up the Connecticut River, for strongly influences the depth to which seaweeds In water several feet deep at low tide (the The most prevalent is the salt marsh example, as salt water from the Sound becomes can occur, particularly in the turbid waters of subtidal zone), the red alga Rhodymenia is community, which is comprised of a series of increasingly diluted with fresh water and as the Long Island Sound. The type of light available found, intermixed with two brown algae, "belts," or zones, progressing from the seaward tidal range decreases, the salt marsh vegetation for the seaweeds changes at increasingly greater Laminaria and Chorda. The distinctive, strap- edge of the marsh to its upland border. A gradually gives way to Cattail marshes; these in water depths. Seaweeds requiring relatively like Laminaria (kelp) with its tangled, root-like complex set of factors, including tides, salinity, turn are replaced by more complex associations direct sunlight, such as the green algae, occur holdfasts, is often found washed up on the nutrients, oxygen availability and surface of other grasses, sedges, and bulrushes, primarily in shallow water. Brown algae and, beach. Specimens 1-2 meters in length are not elevation all influence the distribution of species including Wild Rice. 17 Figure 14. 'Common Seaweeds of the B L I D I N GI A / Connecticut Shore ~--~~~~~~~~~HIGH= x'- ,, i / PAORPHYRA CHONDRUS LAMINARIA LOW ~ ROCK 71 '< _~`TIDE SAND - - Tidal marshes, in addition to being vegetative propagation is not a rapid form of is Dune Grass. Dune vegetation is unique in that affect, in large part, the observable vegetation botanically specialized, are among the most reproduction, this species spreads into new it not only tolerates the salt spray and shifting patterns. Both the 1938 and 1955 hurricanes had productive biological systems in the world. In areas very sopwly. sands characteristic of dunes, but it actually substantial impacts on the vegetation patterns Connecticut, salt marsh production may range Eelgrass plays an important ecological role flourishes in this habitat. Plant species living of the coast. The wind and salt spray damage from three to seven tons per acre per year. in the subtidal environment. Its roots help to here stabilize their habitat and, in fact, are that resulted from Hurricane Belle in 1976 Productivity is largely in the form of salt marsh stabilize muddy sediments and its leaves slow largely responsible for the establishment and illustrates the effects of storms on the grasses. A substantial part of this production, currents, thus creating calm environments growth of dunes. Sand is held in place by the vegetation. Leaves that had been badly salt- enriched by the work of the decomposers, is which provide excellent habitat for numerous plant roots and accumulates among the plant burned turned brown and shriveled, and trees flushed annually into estuarine waters where it species of mollusks and other invertebrates. stems. Dune Grass is able to grow upward each downed by the wind left openings in the forest becomes a critical part of the aquatic food web. Eelgrass itself also provides an important food year because new roots form progressively cover. It is probable that even such infrequent The great finfish and shellfish production of source for waterfowl, particularly Brant (a higher up the stem as sand accumulates. storms as these have a significant impact on the estuarine waters is directly related to tidal species of goose). On the seaward side of the dunes common long-term composition of upland plant marsh vegetation. Although now fairly common along the associates of Dune Grass include Beach Pea, communities. Connecticut shore, during the 1930's Eelgrass Dusty Miller, and Seaside Goldenrod. Other Mature upland vegetation of the coastal was nearly wiped out throughout much of its characteristic beach plants are Orache, Beach area is comprised primarily of hardwood forest. In protected bays, coves and similar areas of range due to a mold infection called Wasting Clotbur, Seaside Spurge, and Jimson Weed. On Dominant tree species include various oaks and brackish water, a unique plant, Eelgrass, may be Disease. Much of the mollusk population in the the more protected landward side of the dunes a hickories, particularly White Oak, Black Oak, found. This species is one of the few vascular Eelgrass meadows was destroyed, and the Brant shrubby cover sometimes develops, dominated Pignut Hickory and Mockernut Hickory. Also plants to invade the marine environment. Not population suffered a severe decline. by species such as Beach Plum, Bayberry and important are Sassafras, Black Gum, and Black actually a grass, it is more closely related to the Recolonization of the Eelgrass has been very Beach Rose. Many of the plant species Cherry. In general, mature trees are somewhat pondweeds, Potamogeton. slow due to its mode of reproduction, and it has occurring in the latter habitat require the sparse in coastal forests, probably a reflection of Eelgrass grows on muddy sediments still not completely recovered in many areas. protection of the dunes for their survival. Some their greater exposure to the wind. primarily below low tide, where it often forms There is historical evidence that the disease beach species, such as Seabeach Knotweed and Consequently, more sunlight reaches the forest large meadows. The depth to which it exists is, occurs periodically. It has been documented False Beach Heather, are rare in the State floor, stimulating the development of a jungle- limited by light availability. It can tolerate a several times along the Atlantic coasts of North today, partly as a result of the limited amount of like tangle of vines and shrubs. Some important wide range of water salinity, from 35 to 25 o/oo America and Europe. beach habitat available. species are Catbriar, Poison Ivy, Bramble and (parts per thousand). Minerals necessary for its Bittersweet, which are all vines, and Blueberry, normal functioning are derived directly from Vegetation of Beaches and Dunes Upland Vegetation Huckleberry, Viburnum and Hazelnut, which water and sediments. Few relatively undisturbed beach and dune Plant species growing on upland areas are shrubs. Reproduction is accomplished in two ways. systems exist along the Connecticut shore. adjacent to the shoreline are not generally A number of species are limited to the The plant produces flowers and seeds every two Where they do occur, the beach environment subjected to the rigors of the intertidal and dune coastal region. These include the Sweetgum, a years, but its main method of reproduction is itself is essentially devoid of vegetation, save for environment. They are, however, closely southern tree occurring only in extreme vegetative propagation. This is the sprouting of a few specimens of the succulent plant Sea influenced by-the coastal climate, as seen in the southwestern Connecticut, and the American new plants from rhizomes (underground stems) Rocket or an occasional tuft of Dune Grass. On previous chapter. Both the moderate climate Holly, Post Oak and Persimmon, which exist that are sent out by the parent plant. Because the dunes themselves, the most abundant plant and the exposure of the coastline to storms only locally along the shore. It is notable, in 19 fact, that many southern species reach their northern range limits along the Connecticut coast. This is undoubtedly related to the U- SALT MARSH availability of suitable habitat, since many grow UPLAND SALT MARSH typically in sandy soils, and to the milder coastal f / ( climate. Further inland, winters are probably / ( ~ r ( too harsh or the growing season too short to ( WOODLANDS SHRUB UPLAND HIGH MARSH allow for the natural colonization of these THICKET BORDER species. Suggested Reading ( BLACK OAK Hylander, Clarence J., The Algae of Connecticut. '9" Conn. Geological Natural History Survey, PT HICKORY' Bulletin No. 42: 245 p., 1928. SWITCH McKenny, M. and Peterson, R. T., A Field Guide . GRASS SALT MEADOW to Wildflowers of Northeastern and North-central CORD GRASS North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. BEYBAERRY MARSH HUCKLEBERRY ELDER Niering, William A., The Life of the Marsh. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966. VIN S SALT WATER 1( ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SPIKE Petry, L. C. and Norman, M. G., A Beachcomber's / j CORD GRASS Botany. Chatham: The Chatham Conservation BLACK SHORT FORM Foundation, Inc., 1963, 1968. Teal, John and Teal, Mildred, Life and Death of GRA SS the Salt Marsh. New York: National Audubon Society and Ballantine Books, Inc., 1969. Taylor, S. and Villalard, M., Seaweeds of the ~ ~, ~ Connecticut Shore. New London: The Connecticut Arboretum, Bulletin 18:36 p., 1972. Taylor, W. R., Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957. OR~ 20 Figure 15. Coastal Plant Communities INTER- LONG INTERTIDAL ZONE BARRIER BEACH TIDAL ISLAND ZONE SOUND LOW MUDFLAT DUNES BEACH MARSH DUNE SEASIDE BEACH GRASS SALT WATER GOLDENROD PLUM BEACH CORD GRASSPE PLUM BEAC SEA ROCKET 21 6. Benthos All plants and animals living on or in the swimming predators. In the intertidal zone, includes bacteria, yeast, fungi, diatoms, and seafloor are collectively called the benthos, a organisms burrow deeply into the bottom to protozoans. The microbenthos are especially Greek word for "of the deep." The benthos that escape surface predators. Animals living below numerous in the top layer of the bottom live on the seafloor are known as epibenthos, the sediment surface may also use the overlying sediments where concentrations of organic with the plants called epiflora and the animals sediment for protection against fluctuations in matter are highest. They are also found called epifauna. The benthic plants and animals temperature, salinity, and air exposure during deeper in the sediment as well as on the living below the surface of the sediment are low tide. In addition, the seafloor contains surfaces of plants, macrofauna and rocks. known as inflora and infauna, respectively. organic matter which provides a food source for many species. Feeding Habits The majority of benthic Be nthic Organisms t animals feed in one of the following four ways: The epibenthic habitat includes the I. Herbivores feed on plant material and are sediment surface and the water immediately Size Range Benthic organisms can be divided most commonly found in intertidal or well- Infauna:Deposit-feedingclams above it. Organisms living in this habitat into three classes according to size: illuminated subtidal areas where marine 1. Nucula, 2. Tellina, 3. Yoldia include the following types: I) animals such as I . Organisms equal to or greater than I milli- grasses or algae grow. Animals in this group mussels, oysters, barnacles and sea anemones, meter in diameter are commonly referred to include grazers such as snails, which scrape which are cemented or otherwise attached to as macrobenthos or megabenthos. This minute algae from rock surfaces, and sea rocks or other hard surfaces; 2) plants growing group includes all the easily-observed urchins, which consume larger algae. Most on bottom sediments, such as Eelgrass, kelp and animals, including many that are of direct herbivores are epifaunal. other seaweeds; 3) species that are mobile and commercial importance, such as lobsters, 2. Carnivores and scavengers include lobsters, crawl about on the seafloor, such as crabs, crabs and clams. starfish, crabs and bottom-feeding fish that lobsters, starfish and snails; and 4) fish that 2. Organisms of intermediate size, smaller than feed on living and/or recently dead swim just above the bottom or use the bottom as I millimeter, but larger than 0.05 milli- organisms. Most of these organisms are a temporary refuge from predators, such as the meters, are called meiobenthos. These highly mobile epifauna. Winter Flounder. Included in categories I and 2 animals live in the spaces between particles 3. Suspension feeders filter or otherwise are the epifauna that live on top of other plants of sand on the beach and among the individ- intercept particles of organic matter or animals; these include some species of ual sediment particles on the seafloor. The (decomposed plant and animal material) polychaete worms, snails, diatoms, and young (or larvae) of the macrobenthos can suspended in the water column. Com- bacteria. Figure 16 shows these various be temporary members of this size class. The mercially valuable clams, scallops and epibenthic life forms in their habitats. permanent meiofauna, which remain small oysters feed in this way, using gill structures Figure 16 also illustrates various infauna in adult form, include small crustacea, small as food filters. Other suspension feeders (for and inflora. Most infauna either live in polychaete worms, nematodes, and fora- example, barnacles) have modified mouth- permanent tubes within the sediment or move minifera. Many of the meiofauna are parts and legs for filtering food. Some Interstitial (living between par- freely through the bottom. They usually inhabit infaunal, living near the oxygenated surface creatures, such as polychaete worms and sea tides of sediment, in this case, only muddy or sandy sediments, although a few of the sediment. Other species are epifaunal, anemones, use tentacles and nets of mucus. sand) meiofauna: I. Ciliate, 2. animals are capable of boring into solid and living on or above the surface sediment. Most immobile epifauna and infauna are Tardigradez 35 Ostracodr 46 Hydrazoan, 5. Flatworms, 6. semi-consolidated materials such as wood, 3. The smallest creatures, the microbenthos, are suspension feeders. Archiannelid, 7. Nematode rock, peat and shell. Infauna use the seafloor as less than 0.05 millimeters in size and are only 4. Deposit-feeders are predominately infaunal a permanent residence or as a refuge from free- visible under a microscope. This group and feed on particles of organic matter from 22 Figure 16. Estuarine Benthic Habitats (The color-coded boxes are spot magnifications of the corresponding sections of the main diagram.) :I ;5 Epifauna ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~ A.Fone;C.Salp pi :G CrlCln, .SafnMeiofauna and m icroorganisms living on the surface of pla nts, in this case, Eelgrass: 1. Rod- shaped bacterial colonies, 2. Stalked diatoms, 3. Pennate diatoms, 4-5. Bryozoans MUD: - SAND;:::::.:.:::::I ~ROCK Granular Sediments (mud and sand) Shallow Rock Bottom Endolithic (boring) algae and Epifauna: A. Flounder; C. Scallop; Epibenthos: G. Coral Colony; . Sea lFungi, E. Crab Urchin (living in a groove it bored F. Infaunal suspension-feeding clam 23 _ 25 0 20 LU CL E 15 Figure 18. Growth of Benthic Invertebrate Populations Relative to the Seasonal Temperature Cycle LU 10 (nW off either the sediment surface or deeply within bivalves, whose feeding activities produce a the sediment bottom. Some polychaete sediment surface consisting mainly of fecal uu UCa 5 X worms living in permanent burrows use pellets. This loose, unstable surface is easily " DO mucus-covered tentacles to select individual resuspended into the overlying water by tidal IeJ particles from the sediment surface. Some currents of 0.25 knots or greater. High mobile infaunal clams use two long siphons concentrations of these suspended particles can Ce to gather food and reject waste. Many clog or foul the filtering structures of 0 deposit-feeders take in large quantities of suspension-feeders. As particles settle, they may J F M A M J J A S 0 N 'D sediment from which they digest particles of bury newly-settled larvae, or deny certain organic matter. This group includes infaunal epifauna a firm surface for attachment. A MONTHS polychaete worms and sea cucumbers, which comparison of the distribution of muddy and move horizontally through the sediment, sandy sediments in Long Island Sound (Figure ingesting it as they progress. 9) with the distribution of benthic organisms Distribution The distribution of benthos in (Figure 17) shows that areas of fine sand en=BIRTHRATE nC~ T e is ribu of insediments support the greatest numbers of br = BIRTHRATE Long Island Sound is the result of many factors: sediments support the greatest numbers of - br = BIRTHRATE Long Island Sound ins the result io of mrae (a species, while unstable muddy bottoms tend to dr = DEATHRATE the dispersal or concentration of larvae (an support the lowest numbers of species dr = DEATHRATE suppurt the lowest numbers of species. - TEMPERATURE early juvenile form) by currents; competition The benthos respond to the seasonal zt_:{ \ .... \ between different species and among members E of the same species for food and space (known Island Sound (see Figure 18). The temperature Island Sound (see Figure 18). The temperature o /as predator-prey interaction); interactions of the bottom water fluctuates seasonally from &_ I \ between organisms and sediment; and small- 2� Celsius in February and March to 220 co\ scale variations in the habitat, including Celsius in July and August. The numbers of all wU differences in particle size and organic content benthos increase in the spring and early ,.f theof the sediment. For example, low numbers of doposit-feeders in clean sandy sediments can be summer, when the water temperature rises. This ,~ 4 ~f deposit-feeders in clean sandy sediments can be period of increased abundance (season of birth) e- \ /related to low concentrations of organic matter is followed by a period of decline; the majority Z / on which they can feed. / Interaction whch they canisms and of benthic animals are unable to survive the {m \ Interactions between organisms and lower water temperatures in the fall. < AK // / \ sediment are of major importance in controlling '~ \ / ythe distribution of benthos. Deposit-feeding Suggested Reading /> and suspension-feeding benthos have been I- / shown to inhabit different areas of the seafloor. Thorson, G., Life in the Sea. New York: McGraw I 1 . Suspension-feeders are characteristic of sandy Hill, Inc. 1971 LU - sediments, while deposit-feeders predominate in br < dr br < dr br < dr br- dr muddy sediments. Suspension-feeders are , , -I i excluded from muddy sediments by the J F ' M A M J J A S 0 N D presence of deposit-feeding polychaetes and MONTHS 24 Figure 17. Relative Number of Ben thic Species ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I- ---------- I -- '-------- K---- ---/ ,----�---- I f 25 7 Crustacea The crustacea are a group of primitive animals. occur as many as two to three times between Many crustacea are mobile, with adaptations May and September.ee for an active existence, such as specialized legs, When the young first hatch from the eggs benthic environment (that is, on or in the sea economically important forms (such as water column, at the mercy of currents and lobsters) are epibenthos, living on the surface of water quality, this is the most critical stage in the the sea floor. ii�( crab's life cycle. Zoea metamorphose (change) more prominent groups of crustacea, including tranform into juvenile crabs. Les the true crabs, the hermit crabs, the shrimp and A1ii y :-::_:' /b_~ ~ ::.l iiY ~ ~ hnoewrcent of the eggs that hatch will the lobsters. Other crustacea, such as copepods become juveniles. Consequently, and barnacles, will be discussed in Chapter 9, to 2 million eggs are produced "PlCr~~~~~~~~~ankton"bs~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ BThe Blue Crab is most Important for There are a number of species of crabs recreational crabbing. The flaky white meat is commonly found along the Connecticut shore. :". delicious and is considered a delicacy by some Most of these are not commercially or people. Rich in calcium, magnesium, recreationally important, and details of their phosphorous, iron and copper, it is highly distribution and life histories in Long Island nutritious. From July to September it is much Sound are not well known. However, there are a sought after in the bays, coves, tidal marshes few species which are caught recreationally and creeks of Long Island Sound. Anyone and, to a small extent, commercially (see Figure handling the Blue Crab should beware: its quick 19). pincer movements have inflicted many a Blue Crab This species, the best known of The Blue Crab is both a scavenger and a fresh water in upstream reaches of tidal rivers. painful pinch. Connecticut's crabs, ranges from Nova Scotia predator. Its diet includes fish, crabs, shrimp, From May to October, significant numbers can Red Crab Two species of red crab, Jonah and to the northern shores of South America. whelks, snails and mussels that are either dead be found in such places as the salt marshes of the Rock Crabs, are found in Long Island Sound. Although not numerous enough in Long Island or alive. It also feeds upon roots of marsh Connecticut River, Mystic River, Branford Both are edible; the larger Jonah Crab, which is Sound to support a commercial fishery, they are vegetation and upon young clams and oysters. Harbor and Barn Island. caught occasionally by lobstermen, is of considerable recreational importance. The In Long Island Sound the river mouths, In Connecticut the Blue Crab mates in sometimes sold commercially. Rarely body is dark green while the legs are marked shallow bays, and salt marsh creeks are the brackish water between June and October. encountered along the shore, the Jonah inhabits with bright blue and sometimes scarlet. The preferred habitat of the Blue Crab. Although its Females are able to store sperm for at least a deepwater areas, where it constructs mud upper shell is armed with a strong and sharp preferred medium is salt water, it will survive in year so that sperm will be available as often as burrows on the sea floor. Many such burrows spine on both sides. waters ranging from ocean salinity to almost the female spawns (lays eggs). Spawning may are found in the mud substrate of Long Island 26 Figure 19. Distribution of Recrea- tionally Important Crabs ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~27~ ,..--'-'~ ~ "~ .', ','~ti~ ---~' ~ ~. ~--~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~crabs that inhabit soft muddy bottoms. During 7. ~ Y '~ / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~the late fall many hu ndr eds come together to :~;_.'-~.~<~~ .......... A~form a mound of crabs. Each mound (or pod) may cover several square feet of the sea floor. Am~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~The reasons for t his be havior or the conditions that stimulate it are presently unknown. Mole Crab The surf line of sandy beaches is inhabited by the egg-shaped Mole Crab. Common to beaches we st of the Connecticut River, it emerges from the sand when a wave spent�~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ofshre wih nhbisrokyshrlies tdl Sidr rb wodifbreaks on the beach. As the wave recedes it The more~ commonly- encountered red'~~~~~~~~ crab_~ ~ slm hea etrsNonirapidly burrows back into the sand. Migrating [ini Bay~nkx ~--- ~---~ ~- ~up and down the beach with the tide, the Mole Crab feeds upon the material tossed on the 28'~:~' .,~_ - -- -~-?beach by the waves. It is occasionally used as fish bait. Lady Crab This species is found at the subtidal level of sandy beaches. A pink-purple color, the Lady Crab is related to the Blue Crab and shares its aggressive nature. Although it American Lobster appears to be uncommon along much of the �i~~~~~~~~~ B~~~~~~~~Connecticut shore, it m ay be found in larger numbers off the beaches at Rocky Neck and Sound west of Bridgeport. Reproduction Green Crab The most common crab found ClamsH.anmmo asse sa t Prok.yNcnd occurs in early winter, and its entire life cycle is along Connecticut's shore is the Green Crab, spent offshore. which inhabits rocky shorelines, tidal mudflats, Spider Crab Two different species of spider Hermit Crab Sandy bottoms of shallow, quiet The more commonly encountered red crab salt marshes and estuaries. Not native to the crab inhabit Long Island Sound. Both have lagoons and tidal pools are inhabited by a small is the Rock Crab. During the cooler months United States, it was accidentally brought to small bodies from which long slender legs hermit crab, Pagurus longicarpus. Its relative, large numbers settle along rocky shores. Many North America on the bottoms of ships from radiate. Libinia emarginata has nine spines the larger Pagurus pollicaris, lives in deeper inhabit the areas around Millstone Point, European waters. It was first reported in the down the midline of the upper shell (carapace), offshore waters. They both feed on algae and Niantic Bay and Fishers Island Sound. The Boston area around the turn of the century. while the other species, Libinia dubia, has six other tiny organisms. Rock Crab rarely occurs very far up estuaries. The Green Crab is occasionally sold spinesdownthemidline. Moltedshellsoflibinia Both species of hermitcrabuse snail shellsas Reproduction takes place in spring. This species commercially as bait for Blackfish. Its main dubia, which is the more common species in a protective housing for their soft bodies. i s c urrently of little economic or recreational significance for Connecticut, however, is that it Connecticut, are frequently found along the Pagurus longicarpus inhabits periwinkle and importance. p reys upon Eastern Oysters and Soft-shelled shore. mud snailshells, while Paguruspollicarismakes 28 Figure 20. Lobster Distribution 77*1 ~ ~ -4 * WI XX~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ LOBSTER DISTRIBUTION 29 its home in either a whelk shell or a moon snail salinity and the other in the seaward marshes, (other than females carrying eggs) only molt addition, adults generally move inshore and shell. bays, and coves, about once per year. offshore with seasonal changes in water Fiddler Crab These small crabs live on the American Lobster Reproduction begins in late winter or early temperature, moving offshore during fall and mud banks of salt ma rshes and estuaries at the mespring when mating takes place. The females winter and inshore with the onset of summer. The American Lobster closely resembles the mate when their exoskeletons are still soft. The Lobsters have been known to travel over high tide line. The common name is derived Crayfish and, in fact, belongs to the same group sperm is stored, and the eggs are fertilized in the long distances. Some tagged in Rhode Island from the oversized front claw that the males are from the oversized front claw that the males are of crustaceans. It ranges from Labrador to fall after the skeleton has hardened. The females waters have moved as far as Virginia, and from constantly waving or tucking across the front of North Carolina and can be found within Long incubate the eggs on the underside of their tails Connecticut they have traveled as far as their body. Despite its ferocious appearance, Island Sound. A seafood favorite, this species is throughout the winter and they hatch the eggs Massachusetts. From the same areas they have the large claw is used only for courtship or the large claw is used only for courtship or of great commercial and recreational value. the following spring. Females carrying eggs are moved farther offshore than the Continental aggressive displays. The claws of the females are The lobster possesses a hard external often referred to as berried females. Slope. both the same size. skeleton, called an exoskeleton. It has a well Lobsters are omnivorous feeders, eating Lobsters are generally fished in shallow Fi ddl er Crabs are most heavily concentrated developed snout, long antennae, a somewhat both plant and animal matter. They do a good waters, 5 to 50 fathoms deep. They are trapped in areas around the Connecticut River and westward along the Connecticut shore. There cylindrical body and large front claws. Lobsters deal of scavenging, but are also capable of in lobster pots - rectangular frames, often westward along the Connecticut shore. There are naturally dark green on their backs and preying upon animals such as crabs, mollusks, made of wooden slats, with net funnels which are three species: Uca pugnax, Uca pugilator, yellow-orange beneath, but occasionally one and fish. Cannibalism is not uncommon. They permit entrance but no escape. Oily fish, either and Uca rninax. The habitats of the three and Uca minax. The habitats of the three will have bright blue or red markings. tend to be active and feed at night, but in salted or partially decomposed, is the best bait. species overlap, but Uca pugnax tends to inhabit mud banks, while Uca pugilator is more Lobsters live in a variety of habitats on the western Long Island Sound and other areas The average total length of the adult lobster common on drier sandy banks and in Glasswort sea floor. They will often burrow under rocks or where visibility is limited by turbid waters they captured for market is 10 inches; specimens of beds. Uca minax, the largest fiddler crab, is a ledges and under colonies of the Sulfur Sponge. also move about during daylight hours. this size weigh approximately 1/2 to 2 pounds. southern species. Although rare, it does occur in They also inhabit kelp beds and areas where Lobsters are both predators and prey; they are It takes about 5 years for one to reach this size. Connecticut, especially in areas where water there are extensive beds of Blue Mussels, or dig occasionally preyed upon by other creatures, The longest lobster ever recorded was 34 inches, salinity is low. in fine sand and silt, which seem to be their including the voracious codfish. and the. heaviest 45 pounds. preferred habitat. The large front claws play an important role Lobster meat is relatively rich in protein. ~~~~~~~~Shrimp ~Young lobsters hatch from eggs as shrimp- in the lobster's feeding. Of the two claws, one is having almost 62 percent the nutritional value like free-swimming creatures that inhabit the a narrow, sharp pincher, which seizes the prey, of beef. An important industry along the New The Sand Shrimp and two species of grass water column. As they grow, their skeleton is and the other a heavy blunt claw which crushes England coast, lobstering constitutes a multi- shrimp are very common along the shores of periodically shed and replaced by a new one in a it. Lobsters may be right- or left-handed. When million dollar business in the United States. Connecticut, especially in late summer and fall. process called molting. After the eighth molt, a claw is lost through some accident, lobsters where more than 30 million pounds are caught Although economically unimportant, these they become bottom-dwelling juveniles. The are able to grow a new one; the old clawmaybe annually and marketed fresh, frozen, and shrimp are a vital link in the food web of the sea. lobsters continue to grow and molt; at each molt replaced after as little as one molt. Other canned. Many species of fish prey upon them for food. they increase roughly 15 percent in weight. The damaged or lost body parts, particularly legs, uggested Reading Sand Shrimp are encountered off beaches newly-molted lobster is soft and must remain may also be replaced. and at the mouths of estuaries. They are an hidden for about 6 to 8 weeks to escape Lobsters are not uniformly distributed Arnold, Augusta F., The Sea-Beach at Ebb Tide. offshore species that use estuaries as nursery predators while the new exoskeleton hardens. throughout Long Island Sound. As commercial New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. 1968. grounds. Both species of grass shrimp are found The young of the species molt much more catches indicate, a greater number may be Miner, Roy W., Field Book of Seashore Life. New in salt marshes; one in the water with the lowest frequently than the older ones. The adults found in the western Sound (see Figure 20). In York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1950. 30 & Mollusks~~AC The mollusks are a large and varied group of rigors of the rocky shore and must seek quieter animals. The most common types have a soft waters. One of the best known of these species is body enclosed in a hard shell composed largely the edible Eastern Oyster, which is so dependent of calcium. Along the Connecticut shore most on a hard substrate for attachment that mollusks belong to one of two maj or groups: the commercial oystermen spread empty oyster bivalves, which live between two shells held shells on the ocean floor to increase the numbers together by a flexible hinge; and the untvalves, in commercial beds. Another such species, often I which live in a single, usually spiral shell. found washed up on beaches, is a boat-shaped Although there are over 50 species of mollusks univalve called the Atlantic Slipper Shell. This in Long Island Sound, only those species which species begins life as a male and transforms into are important economically or are likely to be a female as it gets larger. These large femalesIi)il. seen by the shoreline visitor will be discussed. frequently serve as a substrate for others of the Habitats species, and one can often find large clusters of various sized individuals. N Mollusks are most visible along the rocky Three bivalve species which are popularU y \ K shores, especially in the areas exposed during food items live in quiet areas with a sandy or low tide. Animals living in this intertidal zone muddy substrate. The Hard-shell Clam (also3 > must be specially adapted to withstand the known as the Quahog, Little Neck, or pounding of waves, extreme temperatures and Cherrystone Clam) moves its hard, rounded the drying action of sun and wind at low tide. shell close to the substrate surface by means of a The periwinkles are the most frequent species in muscular foot. In contrast, the Steamer, or Soft- this habitat. The three common species of these shell Clam, lives a nearly immobile life buried algae-eating snails avoid competition for food deep in the mud. It has only a tiny foot but has a among themselves by living at different levels. long muscular siphon tube, which reaches the The hardy Rough Periwinkle lives near the high surface and draws in water and food particles. Eastern Oyster 4 ~~~tide line, where it has the longest exposure to the The Atlantic Bay Scallop resides in areas where ' air during each tidal cycle; the European Eelgrass grows, It can propel itself through the Periwinkle is the most abundant species in the water by opening and closing its shell with a middle intertidal zone; and the Northern Yellow large muscle. This muscle is the part of the body Periwinkle lives under the brown algae in the that is commonly eaten by man. lowest zones. The Blue Mussel, a popular edible The Mud Snail, or Eastern Mud Nassa, mollusks. The Ribbed Mussel lies buried in the instead of gills for breathing. species, attaches itself to the rocks with strong inhabits tidal mudflats. it leaves an intricate peat along mosquito ditches and tidal creeks,Fedn threads called byssus. It is found in the mid-tide network of trails in the mud while it feeds. The anchored there by root-like byssal threads Fedn and low tide zones and may almost cover the species is very abundant and at low tide similar to those of the closely related Blue All of the above-mentioned species feed on substrate in some areas. thousands of these dark brown snails can be Mussel. The tiny Salt Marsh Snail, or Coffee either algae or dead and decaying matter found Some mollusk species need a hard substrate seen on the damp flats. Bean Snail, can be found near the high tide line. on the substrate or suspended in the water. for attachment but are unable to tolerate the The salt marsh has its own characteristic It is the only local marine snail with a lung However, the mollusk group does include some 31 '"-~/~/,/-' ~" .//'?//X/ //////// meat-eating species; indeed, some of the major 20,000 acres under town control. predators on the bivalves are certain species of Unfortunately, much of the coast, especially univalves. The most notorious is the Atlantic bays and harbor areas, has been closed to Oyster Drill, which uses a file-like tongue, or recreational shellfishing because of domestic radula, to drill a round hole in the shell of its pollution. Commercial oystering is still prey. It then feeds on the soft inner parts and practiced, but in 1970 production was reduced thus is a major enemy of commercial shell- to only about 16,000 bushels. fishermen. The Northern Moon Snail and the Hard-shell Clams and whelks are still Atlantic Moon Snail also drill into their prey's harvested commercially as a food source. In shell, but the Channeled Whelk and Knobbed Connecticut, 23,000 bushels of Hard-shell Whelk each use a strong foot to pull their prey's Clams and 10,000 bushels of whelks were taken Hard-shell Clam shells apart. While the Atlantic Oyster Drill in 1970. The Atlantic Bay Scallop and Soft-shell prefers rocky or gravel substrate, the round Clam harvest is presently very small. moon snails and large whelks search for their Work is currently underway to improve the prey in soft substrates. Connecticut oyster supply by spawning oysters Economic Importance oin hatcheries and raising the juveniles under controlled conditions. In addition, adult oysters Mollusks have been of economic in the Sound are moved from polluted waters to significance throughout Connecticut's history. cleaner sites off Long Island where they remain For coastal Indians, they were an easily for a minimum of two weeks. In cleaner waters, collected food source and their shells were used the oyster can flush itself clean of pollutants to as tools and containers. Especially important the degree that is required by present health were the Hard-shell Clam and the Blue Mussel, standards. They may then be sold commercially for the Indians used their shells to make (see Figure 21). wampum beads that served in ceremonial ~.._.____ ~~\~~~~ ~~~functions and as a medium of exchange. _________"___ ~ ~~~Prior to World War II, Long Island Sound Suggested Reading _____________________ supported a major oyster industry, which Carson, R., The Edge of the Sea. Boston: Bay Scallops, Blue Mussels, and whelks were Cape Cod to Cape May. New York: Dover {\(l[[I/______________________ - also harvested for local consumption in the Publications, Inc., 1971. early 1900's. Morris, Percy A., A Field Guide to the Shells of __\\_________=_______________ At present there are about 40,000 acres of our Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. Boston: Houghton _ State-owned shellfish grounds with another Mifflin Co., Inc., 1947. Soft-shell Clam 32 Figure 21. Commercial Shellfish Beds -j ~~~~~~~~It ItV1 ~~~I N 1 .1- 33 9. Plankton Plankton are tiny organisms that either swim or separate and each produces a new one. Diatoms drift in oceanic and fresh waters. They include have no active means of floating, moving or animals, or zooplankton, and plants, or adjusting their depth in water; they depend :, phytoplankton. In contrast to fresh water mainly on their physical structure to slow their plankton, a considerable portion of oceanic rate of sinking. Such adaptations as bladder- plankton is temporary; that is, some like shapes, needle shapes and projections Ceratium lineatum organisms spend only a part of their life cycle in branching from the shells serve this purpose. planktonic form. For example, fish are Some species also produce a low-density sap to planktonic only in the larval stage. Temporary reduce their weight. Diatoms are an important plankton are collectively known as food for many herbivores. Typical of the meroplankton. diatoms in Long Island Sound are Skeletonema Plankton are an extremely important part of costatum, Thalassionema spp. and Paralia the biological communities of the marine dulcata. environment. Phytoplankton are theproducers Unlike diatoms, many dinoflagellates are of the marine food web. By converting light, able to swim by means of whiplike appendages Skeletonema costatum energy, water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide calledflagella, and thus are able to adjust their into living material, phytoplankton produce a position in the water. Their shells contain A major group of zooplankton includes the Sound and in the shallow waters along the vast abundance of food for various forms of external features such as spines, which are used larvae of many organisms such as barnacles, Connecticut shore. They inhabit all levels of the animal life, including zooplankton and larger for flotation and for protection against shrimp, crabs, polychaete worms, mollusks, water column, from just beneath the surface to herbivorous species (see Chapter 4). Those predators. They are capable of surviving low starfish and fish. These larval forms, which are the bottom. Some species move up and down in phytoplankton that are not eaten eventually die levels of light and nutrients. Dinoflagellates are plankton only during the juvenile stage of their the water column depending on the time of day and are either decomposed by bacteria as they less important in the food web than diatoms life cycle, are collectively called meroplankton. or the season. sink or are eaten by benthic organisms when because many organisms are unable to digest They too are important prey for larger animals. Seasonal Cycles they reach the sea floor. their shells. In Long Island Sound, During their lifetime, zooplankton excrete dinoflagellates are represented by species such The seasonal distribution of plankton large amounts of waste materials. These wastes as Ceratium lineatum. Plankton are found throughout the open depends upon the interaction of many factors, and the remains of some dead zooplankton are waters of the Sound, in coves, salt ponds, and including biological interrelationships, light broken down directly by decomposers, allowing saline areas of the major rivers. The levels, water temperature and the supply of the return of nutrients to the system. Zooplankton include many forms, such as phytoplankton are more abundant in the nutrients. In Long Island Sound, the cycles are Zooplankton are preyed upon by larger copepods and the young, or larvae, of benthic western end of the Sound than at the eastern generally characteristic of temperate waters; yet organisms, and dead zooplankton are also fed organisms and larger swimming animals. end. In the central Sound area they are found in there are some major differences. upon by scavengers. Copepods are small shrimp-like creatures with greater numbers inshore than offshore. In all Experiments have shown that long antennae and numerous legs. They are areas they can occur far down the water column, phytoplankton growth in the Sound is limited generally capable of locomotion through the yet during their most prolific period, greater by the amount of the nutrient nitrate, rather Two major groups of phytoplankton are the water column. Copepods are extremely concentrations appear nearer the surface than than phosphate, present in the water. In fresh microscopic diatoms and dinoflagellates. A important as prey for many marine organisms. the bottom. water systems in Connecticut, phosphate tends diatom is composed of two shells which fit Examples of copepods occurring commonly in Zooplankton distributions are similar to to be the limiting factor to phytoplankton together in a box-like arrangement. the Sound are Acartiaspp., Temoralongicornus those of phytoplankton. The greatest numbers growth. Another difference is that the great Reproduction occurs when the two shells and Pseudocalanus minutus. of zooplankton occur at the western end of the increase, or bloom, in phytoplankton abund- 34 ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION, BY MONTH 40 oo o PHYTOPLANKTON COPEPODS 0 LARVAE OF BENTHIC x> INVERTEBRATES I-m' MISCELLANEOUS ,, 20 U. phosphate (probably from fresh water runoff), 0 while nitrate levels remain low. Because of the gm low nitrate levels, the phytoplankton c population begins to decrease, yet the zooplankton continue to increase to a peak in K summer. By September and October, Z zooplankton begin to decrease in number, 0 although some remain and continue to feed on MA M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M the phytoplankton. The feeding, combined with the effect of decreasing daylight, causes the phytoplankton population to reach an annual low level during November and December (see figures 22 and 23.) 125 Within the zooplankton population, Acartia copepods are numerous throughout the year with peaks of abundance in May-June. These ance takes place during winter when the water peak numbers gradually decrease to a low level _ _ temperature is at a minimum, rather than in the which remains stable from December to z Z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ spring when the temperature levels start to February. Larvae of benthos are almost non- 0 increase. existent from November to April, with the I- During October and November, the exception of barnacle larvae, which are often h z population levels of plankton are low; as a very abundant from January through March. result, the water is less turbid and greater In May there is a general increase in numbers .. amounts of light can penetrate. At the same and species of larvae of the benthos. Clam, . time, nutrient rich water enters Long Island snail, polychaete worm and crustacean larvae Sound along the bottom through the Race and peak in numbers in early July. They disappear N becomes mixed throughout the water column rapidly from the water column as they settle to 50 by the action of strong winds. Thus, nitrates and the bottom. Im phosphates are present in their annual The total population of fish eggs and larvae c maximums in the surface water during early shows a similar cycle. Much less abundant than winter. Because of the increased amount of light the invertebrates, they peak in number and : and nutrients, diatoms, which can withstand variety in May, June and July, when most fish Z low temperatures, suddenly bloom into huge species of temperate waters spawn. populations. This usually occurs in February. The zooplankton, which feed on the Suggested Reading phytoplankton (particularly diatoms), start to Wood, R. D. and Lutes, J., Guide to the 0 increase in abundance during March and April. Phytoplankton of Narragansett Bay, Rhode M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M During the spring, water temperature rises Island. Dept. of Botany, University of Rhode and there is a slight increase in the amount of Island, 1967. Figure 23. Zooplankton Population Cycle 35 '~~~~~~~~~ , . 10. Fishes ;�� Scup Marine Fishes and net fishery along the east coast. They are On the average, a female produces about Cape Cod to Long Island. equally important to sport fishermen. Their 500,000 eggs annually. Incubation lasts from 15 Blackfish feed on mussels, clams, barnacles Saup The Scup, or "Porgy," is a slender fish abundance and food value make them one of to 18 days. The fish are born with an eye on each and crabs. They will even feed on lobster, about half as deep as it is long. Its scales are the more popular saltwater "panfish." They are side of the head. Metamorphosis, during which swallowing the smaller ones whole and large and thick, its eyes high on the side of the heands tailrked, aits e ion tesine o easily caught, biting eagerly on sandworms and one of the eyes migrates to the upper side of the cracking the larger ones with their crushing head, its tail forked, and its dorsal fin single and withshairk sne Its drsinsine and clams. In 1970, the Salt Water Angler Survey, head, commences at hatching and is complete teeth. In the spring they move into shallow long with sharp spines. Its irrideseence and olong with strsinges. Oits idesce conducted by the National Marine Fisheries within 10 to 12 weeks. At that time the young waters and in the winter they move out to silver color make it strikingly pretty. On its sides e bcoo mae 1oistt strik ypret ts, fkd Service, reported that anglers from New Jersey permanently settle to the bottom. Young fish slightly deeper water, where they spend the cold and back are 12 to 15 distinct stripes, flecked with light blue. The general range of the Scup is to Cape Cod caught over 1.8 million kilograms. remain in shallow waters for their first year of season with little movement or feeding. Their with light blue. The general range of the Scup is lffvrt ansaeaogrcysoeaon along the east coast from North Carolina to Winter Flounder The Winter or Blackback life. Cape Cod Flounder, which is a member of the flatfish As adults, Winter Flounders migrate into breakwaters, submerged wrecks, piers and Cape Cod. Flounder, which is a member of the flatfish shoal waters in late autumn when water docks, over boulder-strewn bottoms and on Scup, which are apt to swim in schools, family, ranges from Labrador to Northte rat al n ack e deen mse ad temperatures fall, and back into deep water in mussel beds. prefer smooth or rocky bottoms. They feed on Carolina. It is one of the most abundant species temperatures an ac in ate in d the spring when water temperatures rise. A Spawning takes place in late spring and crustaceans, worms, young squid, and other in New England and New York waters. From vruterateans smas, mou sq andu nothainNew ongland, ter nor bat hrbo sexually mature fish is 2 to 3 years old and about early summer. The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, invertebrates. A small fish, most adults do not Maine to Long Island, there is no bay, harbor, 15 to 25 centimeters long. depending upon the water temperature. The exceed 30 to 35 centimeters in length and .5-1 inter-island passage, or stretch of open coast te nter lon g dependn on h e t teer a h The Winter Flounder is highly dependent on young fish move into the very shallow shore kilogram in weight. They appear near the shore where it is not caught. estuarine areas for spawning, feeding and area and estuaries, where they spend the along southern New England in early May and The Winter Flounder is small-mouthed and nursery areas. The dredging and filling of summer. usually withdraw from the coast in late October. right-handed, meaning that when the fish is nursery areas. The dredging and filling of summer. wetlands and estuaries, as well as pesticides and Although the Blackfish is not of commercial They apparently prefer water no colder than 70 viewed from the upper side, the abdomen is on ome cia industrial and domestic pollution, have had significance, it is one of the most popular game Celsius; this factor seems to determine how far the right. This feature easily distinguishes it ti aesi iLon ad snan is onsir offshore they move during the winter. This from adverse impacts on this species. fish in Long Island Sound and is considered by offshore they move during the winter. This from the Windowpane, Four-spotted, and The Winter Flounder is important to the anglers to be one of the best table fish. The species is so sensitive to low temperature that Summer (Fluke) Flounders, which are all left- ei t er lounder isin eeren fhe es th is he commercial trawl fishery. Also, flounder fishing experienced fisherman seeks this species in the large numbers have been known to perish handed. Flounders have a unique adaptation uring suddendsp e n snown wtoper.hih nabd lo es thae to bendiq a thio is an important recreational activity along the spring and fall, when it is found near rocky, during sudden cold spells in shallow water. which enables them to blend with their entire New England coast. This thick and underwater reefs. The most popular baits are In Long Island Sound, spawning takes place surroundings. Over light sandy bottoms, the meaty flatfish is prized by anglers as one of the Fiddler Crabs, Green Crabs, Hermit Crabsin June. The young are 5 to 8 centimeters long flounder becomes light in color and burrows meaty flatfish is prized by anglers as one of the Fiddler Crabs, Green Crabs, Hermit Crabs, in June. The young are 5 to 8 centimeters long flounder becomes light in color and burrows tastiest of all fish. The Salt Water Angling Sandworms and clams. They resist so strongly by September and are up to 10 centimeters long slightly in the sand, thus becoming well tastiest of all fish. The Salt Water Angling Sandwors and clams. They resist so strongly Survey estimated that in 1970 over 10.9 million when hooked that a stout rod is needed to landby November. Apparently, little growth occurs camouflaged. Over darker areas, the flounder's Survey estimated that in 1970 over 10.9 million when hooked that a stout rod is needed to land by Nvemer.Apprenly, itte gowt ocurs camouflaged. Over darker areas, the flounder's kilograms of flounder were caught by sport them. Blackfish taken in Connecticut usually during the winter months, since 10 centimeter skin color darkens to match its background. kilograms of flounder were caught by sport them. Blackfish taken in Connecticut usually fishermen in New England. range in weight from 1 to 4 kilograms. fish are abundant in the spring. This characteristic aids the flounder in escaping fishermen in New England. range in weight from to 4 kilograms. The species has had frequent population predation. Blackfish The Blackfish, or Tautog, is gray, Bluefish The Bluefish, sometimes called peaks since about 1879. The cause of these In New England, spawning occurs from green, brown or black, with darker blotches of Snapper or Chopper, is found throughout much fluctuations is unknown, but some have January to May. They spawn at night on sandy the same color on the sides. It ranges along the of the world and abounds in Long Island suggested that they are due to overfishing. bottoms in water ranging from 2 to 72 meters in Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to South Sound. It is sea-green and silver in color. Little Scup are important to the commercial trawl depth and from 00 to 40 Celsius in temperature. Carolina, and is most abundant from the tip of is known of the age and size of either males or 36 y.)~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ Figu e24, Finfih Distribution: Areas Winter Flounder BlacktJishlx of Greatest Concentration 'r-, All< <1 - -/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~FIFSDI-'STRIBUTION I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~LCBC FLOUDE I -' ,----,~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~SU BLACKFSH STRIPED BASS 37 )3 Bluefish Striped Bass ~" ' I' , .... females at maturity. Traveling in large schools, gillnet fishery with an annual harvest of about 5 gradually tapers off. A 1.5 kilogram female is in the fishery resources of early America. young as well as adult Bluefish are voracious million kilograms valued at over 3 million about 4 years old, and a 23 kilogram female is Together with the Codfish, it was among the and carnivorous feeders. dollars. about 15. first natural resources in colonial America to be Bluefish are found both inshore and The Bluefish is perhaps the most important After they are 2 years old, Striped Bass subject to mandatory conservation methods: offshore. Young Bluefish (or Snappers) move game fish in Long Island Sound. Young as well travel in large schools. They are carnivorous, the General Court of Massachusetts Bay southward along the coast during late fall, and it as adult Bluefish are avidly sought from boats, feeding on other fish and on considerable Colony in 1639 ordered that neither fish be used is not known whether they return to the Sound piers, jetties and bridges by anglers ofall ages. It quantities of invertebrates, especially as fertilizer for farm crops. The first public (free) the following year or in any future year. Adult is one of the most active and hard-fighting fish crustaceans. school of the New World was made possible fish have an inshore-offshore migration pattern. in the Sound. Those caught range in weight In the spring, segments of the Striped Bass through money derived, in part, from the sale of They usually begin to arrive in Long Island from barely over 57 grams to 7 kilograms. The population from Chesapeake and Delaware Striped Bass. A portion of the money was also Sound in May when water temperatures reach Salt Water Angling Survey reported that in Bays migrate northward along the coast to used to help the widows and orphans of men 120 to 150 Celsius. The fish follow the warmer 1970 over 22.7 million kilograms of Bluefish southern New England and the Gulf of Maine. formerly engaged in service to the Colony. water by entering the inner bays of Long Island were caught by anglers in the area from New Some of the Bass from the Hudson River also The early settlers in New England left or going to the western end of the Sound. Large York to Maine. migrate into Long Island Sound as far east as records attesting to the abundance of Striped numbers of Bluefish arrive in the general area the Connecticut River. These migrants remain Bass. However, the construction of dams Anadromous Fishes during July and August after spawning in in the New England area throughout the blocking access to spawning areas, the domestic offshore waters. The offshore migration takes Striped Bass The Striped Bass, also referred summer until the fall, when they return to their and industrial pollution of rivers, and, to some place in the fall when water temperatures in the to as Striper, Linesider, Rock or Rockfish, is a home area, extent, overfishing, both sport and commercial, Sound drop back to approximately 130 to 150 member of the sea bass family. On the east coast Although Connecticut law prohibits all played a part in the decline of this species in Celsius. the species ranges from the St. Lawrence River commercial fishing of Striped Bass, it is one of its northern range. This species has withstood repeated in Canada to the St. Johns River in Florida. It is the more important game species in Long Island fluctuations in number in the northern part of easily identified by dark longitudinal stripes Sound. It is also an important species elsewhere Atlantic Salmon The Atlantic Salmon is the its range. Bluefish were plentiful off southern running parallel to the rows of scales. along the Atlantic coast, with an annual best known and most widely prized of the New England in colonial times. As early as The Striped Bass is anadromous, which commercial catch of over 4.5 million kilograms. salmonid family, which also includes trouts and 1764, however, they disappeared from southern means it lives in salt water but returns to fresh The 1970 Salt Water Angling Survey estimated chars. The salmon is an anadromous fish, one New England waters, not to reappear until water to spawn. From March to July it ascends that from Maine to the Carolinas 780 thousand that ascends fresh water streams to spawn. The about 1810. In 1945 they again reached a very rivers to spawn. The number of eggs produced sport fishermen caught over 14 million Striped salmon spends the first one to three years of its low level in this area; the total New England by each female varies: a 1.5 kilogram female can Bass that year. This amount exceeded the entire life in fresh water and then migrates to the sea catch was 11,800 kilograms, while 1.1 million produce about 14,000; a 23 kilogram female can commercial catch. The bulk of the sport to live for one or more years before returning to kilograms were harvested along the Atlantic produce about 5 million. In water with a fishermen's catch consists of fish in the I to 5 the home stream to spawn. The trip upstream is and Gulf coasts. temperature of 180 Celsius, the eggs hatch in 2 kilogram range, but fish from 18 to 23 known as a "run." Following the spawning, the Many consider the Bluefish to be an days. At the end of the first year, the young kilograms are also caught. The largest Striped spent fish leave the nest and those that survive excellent table fish, but it has never supported a range in size from 7 to 15 centimeters. Bass recorded, which was taken by commercial (approximately ten percent) return to the sea, commercial fishery of any magnitude in New Females reach maturity in 4 or 5 years while gear, weighed 57 kilograms; the sport record is then back to the stream at a later date to spawn England. However, from New York to Florida males are mature at age 3. Growth is rapid 33.2 kilograms. again. this species does support an active commercial during the first 10 years of life and then The Striped Bass played an important part The body color of the Atlantic Salmon 38 Atlantic Salmon Shad varies: stream-dwelling young fish, very similar and federal fisheries agencies. The intent of this five years at sea. Dams and other human Connecticut River, which they instinctively to Brown Trout, are brownish-olive with red program is to recolonize a portion of the river activities have exterminated them from many of recognize as their birthplace. spots on the sides and two (occasionally three) with Atlantic Salmon and to return American the streams in which they were once found. In The American Shad is important to dark spots on the gill cover. The sides are Shad to their historical spawning area. The Connecticut the only remaining run is in the Connecticut's economy, as it supports a marked with darker blotches called parr marks program includes construction of fish passage Connecticut River. In the past, American Shad valuable commercial fishery in the lower and the tail is forked. When ready to migrate to facilities at dams on the river's main stem and ascended the river as far as Bellows Falls, Connecticut River and a high quality sport the sea, young salmon, called smolts, become selected tributaries, as well as hatchery Vermont, but dam construction, begun in 1794 fishery. The 1976 commercial catch was nearly dark blue-green above and silvery below, with production and stocking of up to 1,000,000 in Holyoke, Massachusetts, prevented the fish 180,000 kilograms, with an estimated worth of an overall silvery sheen. Scales become sMolts each year. Due to stocking efforts, the from swimming further upstream to spawn. In about $600,000. Most sport fishing in the temporary and are easily lost. After reaching the return of 5 adult salmon to the river has been 1955 a fishway was constructed at Holyoke, and Connecticut River is done below the Enfield sea, adults are blue-black above with bright documented. One male, taken alive in the in 1976 over 345,000 Shad reached the next Dam. Sport fishing techniques include trolling silver on the sides. As spawning time Holyoke fishway in 1976, was used to fertilize upstream barrier at Turners Falls, and casting with flies, spinners and small jigs. approaches, the silvery flanks turn black in some 32,000 eggs from female salmon from the Massachusetts. It is hoped that proposed fish Boned Shad and Shad roe are considered females and a dirty red in males, and the males Penobscot River in Maine. It is hoped that these passage construction will return Shad to their delicacies by many people. The boning process develop a hooked inner jaw. eggs and others from returning salmon will former spawning grounds by 1981. is difficult to master but is done commercially In the past, the Atlantic Salmon have ranged produce salmon with a genetic makeup more Shad first enter the Connecticut River early by a few individuals, and boned filets are over the entire North Atlantic, as far south as suited to the Connecticut River. in April and make their way to their place of available throughout the Shad season. The Portugal on the European shore and to the The restoration of this great fish to the birth, where they spawn from mid-May to early traditional Connecticut River Shad Bake Connecticut River along the American coast. Connecticut River will be a long and difficult July. Spawning takes place over various types includes charcoal-broiled filets, deep-fried roe Natural runs of Atlantic Salmon up the task but one well worth the effort. of bottoms in the main stem of the river and in with strips of bacon, and fresh strawberry Connecticut River have not occurred since larger tributaries. Eggs hatch in four to seven shortcake for dessert. about 1800. A dam built at Turners Falls, Shad The American Shad is atypical member days, depending on water temperature. With diligent management the Connecticut Massachusetts, in 1794 was the beginning of the of the herring family, with soft-rayed dorsal and Feeding on plankton and various forms of River Shad will continue to provide a welcome end for this once abundant fish. Although the anal fins, a deeply forked tail and large scales. It insect life, young American Shad grow rapidly addition to the State's economy, a unique size of former runs in the Connecticut River are is dark bluish or greenish above, and white and and are about 100 millimeters long by early fall, recreational opportunity, and a delightful not well documented, it is certain that relatively silvery on the lower sides and belly, with a dusky when they begin their downstream migration, addition to our table. large numbers returned each year. spot close behind the gill cover. Generally, all have left the rivers by early Since the 1860's a number of attempts have The American Shad is the largest of the November. It is believed that young Shad spend been made to restore salmon to the Connecticut herrings found in Connecticut waters and is their first two years close to shore in the North Suggested Reading River. Early attempts met with failure due to reputed to reach 6.36 kilograms. The record size Atlantic and then begin a long migration which Technical Committee for Fisheries Management inadequate fish passage facilities at the various documented from the Connecticut River is takes them north and east to the Grand Banks, of the Connecticut River Basin, Connecticut River dams and destructive commercial fishing slightly over 5 kilograms. then south through the mid-Atlantic. They Atlantic Salmon Restoration Program, 1971. methods which were practiced in the lower river Shad range from the St. Johns River in finally come close to shore off the Carolinas in Thomson, K.S., Weed, W.H. 1II, and Taruski, A. and along the shores of Long Island Sound. In Florida to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada. January of their fourth or fifth year. As the G., Salt Water Fishes of Connecticut. State 1967, a cooperative restoration program was It is an anadromous species, returning to the water temperature is rising in the spring, they Geological and Natural History Survey of begun by the Connecticut River Basin states stream where it was born to spawn after four or make their way north until they reach the Connecticut, Bulletin 105, 1971. 39 Birdlife along the Connecticut shore is egrets, such as the Black-crowned Night Heron / characterized by its great variety and and Snowy Egret. Beach nesters include the \ abundance. Some 387 species have been known Least Tern and Piping Plover. Some upland- ...... to occur throughout the State, and many of species are the Hooded Warbler, White-eyed these have appeared at the coast at one time or Vireo and Carolina Wren. Greater Scaup another. This diversity is largely the result of the Transients generally are sighted along the number of distinctive and highly productive coastline in greatest abundance from August to here also winter here. Autumn migrants begin State and federal governments. Money derived habitats available for birds. November and from March through May. to arrive in large numbers in late September and from the license fees is put back directly into Habitats These seasons are usually the best ones for bird continue to increase through November. Major waterfowl management. It is used for watching. Because the Connecticut coast spring movements northward take place from acquisition of important wildlife areas, habitat Habitats fall into six broad categories: (1) possesses such a variety of habitats and also March through April. improvement and research on waterfowl open water areas, such as bays, coves, rivers, because it lies along a major eastern migration In winter the concentrations of ducks in biology. and Long Island Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; route, the Atlantic Flyway, vast numbers of Long Island Sound and the protected coves of There are a number of shoreline areas that (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore birds visit it annually. the Connecticut shore are considerable. In West islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including Several groups of birds are particularly Haven, around 8,000esp called and other coastal birds. Some o f the betrvng w terfo woodlands, old fields and agricultural land. notable as coastal migrants (transients). These Broadbill or Bluebill) are regularly counted by locations are shown in Figure27 Theyarealso Open water, marshes and mudflats produce vast include the shorebirds, birds of prey, and State wildlife biologists. Greater Scaup, Black discussed briefly below quantities of essential food for birds, including waterfowl. Shorebirds, including plovers, Ducks, Mallards and Canada Geese are the insects, worms, amphipods, crabs, clams, snails, turnstones, sandpipers and yellowlegs, nest in most abundant wintering species, but others, A. Great Meadows - Long Beach, Stratford: finfish, Widgeon Grass, Wild Rice and Eelgrass. the arctic tundra and winter as far south as including Red-breasted Mergansers, Common Mudflats, marsh and sandspit; privately and Beaches and islands provide very specialized South America. During migration they stop in Goldeneyes, Buffleheads, Scoters, American town-owned. One of the finest areas in and limited nesting habitats for a number of Connecticut to feed in the tidal marshes and Widgeons (Baldpate), Canvasbacks, Connecticut for birdwatching. A number of Connecticut's rarer species. Uplands, with their mudflats. Birds of prey congregate along the Oldsquaws and Mute Swans, have significant species nest here. The Least Tern, Piping variety of plant communities and land types, coast mainly in autumn, and evidence suggests populations. Species occurring less frequently Plover, and Common Gallinule nest at few provide important habitats for terrestrial birds. that shoreline features aid them in their include Gadwalls, Pintails, Green-winged Teal, other spots in the State. Heavy concentra- Seasonal Occurrence migration south. At this season large Shovelers (also sometimes called Broadbill), tions of migrant shorebirds and waterfowl congregations of species can be observed. On Ruddy Ducks, Redheads, Ring-necked Ducks, also use the area during the spring and Some of the birds that occur in the coastal the morning of September 28, 1975, observers Snow Geese and Brant. Figure 27 illustrates autumn. area are summer residents, some are spring and witnessed a flight of 1,000 Sharp-shinned principal waterfowl wintering areas. B. Milford Point - Wheeler Wildlife Area, fall transients, and others are winter residents. Hawks past Lighthouse Point Park in New Milford: Marsh, mudflat and sandspit; Summer residents are, for the most part, Haven. Recreational Importance largely State-owned. Similar in many those species that actually breed on the coast. Certainly one of the most important groups Waterfowl are, as a group, among the most respects to Great Meadows. Hunting is They include many species which do not breed of migrants that move along the coastal area are important game species in the State. Every year permitted on State land. Excellent place to elsewhere in the State. Some characteristic the waterfowl, many of which winter along the in late autumn and winter, each licensed hunter look for breeding marsh and beach birds, marsh breeders are the Seaside Sparrow, Sharp- coast. Large flocks of ducks, geese and swans is permitted to take a designated number of migrant shorebirds. tailed Sparrow, Clapper Rail, Mallard and form a prominent group of wintering coastal birds of different species. These quotas, set on C. Lighthouse Point Park - New Haven Black Duck. Feeding in the marshes and birds. Most of Connecticut's migrant and both a daily and a seasonal basis, are termed bag Harbor, New Haven: Upland, marsh, mudflats and nesting on low trees and shrubs on wintering waterfowl arrive here from the far limits. Bag limit regulations and other laws mudflat and open water; the park itself is offshore islands are the spectacular herons and north or west, although some species that breed concerning waterfowl hunting are set by the town-owned and offers a good view of the 40 Figure 25. Major Waterfowl Wintering Areas and Selected Birdwatching Spots AELOWER CNNETICU RIVER L A .CAN , BLANT 1'~~~~4 harbor. Particularly good for watching occasion, even such oddities as the Barrow's waterfowl, migrating raptors (birds of prey) Goldeneye, Tufted Duck and European and land birds. Unusual gulls, such as the Widgeon may be found here. Black-headed and Little Gull, may occa- G. Bluff Point State Park, Groton: Marsh, sionally be seen at New Haven Harbor. mudflat, upland and sandspit. Hunting is / * D. Hammonasset State Park, Madison: Grassy permitted. An excellent spot for watching fields, marsh, mudflats and beach. Although migrating land birds; also fairly good for / parts of the park receive heavy recreational shore and beach birds. The Roseate Tern use, an amazing variety of birds breed in and occurs here regularly during the summer use the marshes. During the migration months. In autumn, the shrubby vegetation season and winter, the broad, grassy fields is excellent for warblers. The vagrant ( , provide excellent habitat for such un- Orange-crowned Warbler has been seen � common species as the American Golden here in late October. Plover, Buff-breasted Sandpiper, and H. Barn Island, Stonington: Marsh, mudflat Lapland Longspur. A Reddish Egret, a bird and upland; State-owned. Hunting is previously unrecorded in Connecticut, was permitted. Important area for breeding seen at the park in 1975. marsh birds, including rails, songbirds and E. Lower Connecticut River, Old Lyme-Lyme- waterfowl. Several species of herons, Old Saybrook-Essex: Marsh, mudflats, including the Little Blue Heron, are upland and sandspit; marshes largely State- commonly seen here in summer; during owned, sandspit and surrounding areas spring and fall this is an excellent spot to see privately owned. Hunting is permitted on the uncommon Louisiana Heron. State land. Along with Great Meadows, this area ranks as one of the most important Suggested Reading areas in the State for birdlife. Breedingfe Histories of North American rails, waterfowl, bitterns and numerous Birds. 20 vols., Washington, D.C., U.S. Nat. songbirds may be seen in the marshes. In Museum 1967. addition, terns, herons and great concentra- ' tions of migrant shorebirds use the area. Bull, J., Birds of the New York Area. New York: This is a good place to look for both Bald Harper and Ro, 1964. and Golden Eagles, although the Bald Eagle Mattiessen, Peter, and Palmer, Ralph S., The is more commonly seen. Other rarities, the Shorebirds of North America. Paintings by Gray Kingbird and Scissor-tailed Fly- Robert V. Clem. Edited by Gardner D. Stout. New catcher, also were sighted here. York: The Viking Press, 1967. Snowy Egret F. Niantic River, East Lyme-Waterford; Peterson, R.T., A Field Guide to the Birds, (2nd Thames River, New London - Groton: The edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, lower reaches of both these rivers are good 1947. places to watch for many varieties of Robbins, C.S., Birds of North America. New wintering waterfowl in Connecticut. On York: Golden Press, 1970. 42 12. Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians found if a thorough search is made among the mammals, birds and crabs. Other predators, tufts of marsh grass. A third species of rodent, including the Long-tailed and Short-tailed the Meadow Jumping Mouse, is also a common Weasel, occasionally make their homes in salt inhabitant of the salt marshes. Perhaps the most marshes in the piles of dead vegetation and interesting of the three species discussed here, it debris that collect at the high tide line. is the smallest rodent found near the coast. It is In addition to the above species, most of unique in that its hind legs are proportionately which are land-dwelling, marine mammals may /�4~~--~ #3l a larger than those of other rodents; this is an be observed along the Connecticut shoreline adaptation forjumping. Its very long tail aids its from time to time. As a group, marine mammals balance. All of these small rodents subsist upon are a relative rarity along the shore because plant material, insects, and other tiny animals. Long Island Sound is largely cut off from the Diamondback Terrapin Muskrat A much larger rodent, the Muskrat, open sea, where they normally occur. However, is one of the most familiar and valuable of the Harbor Seal sometimes frequents the rocks A number of mammals, reptiles and Also, species occurring in salt marshes must s o o t s fond al off Stonington and Groton during the winter amphibians can be found in the various coastal tolerate marsh mammals. Although it is found in saltnd on rarer occasions species such as toeaewater salinity and periodic tidal months, and on rarer occasions species such as marshes, it is considerably more abundant in communities. Mammals are warmblooded, flooding. Despite these adverse habitat features, tidal marshes dominated by Cattails. It is the Harbor Porpoise may be sighted in the furbearing animals that bear their young live. wh ich are not present in the upland community, primarily a herbivore and eats plant species Sound or in one of the major rivers. On Reptiles are coldblooded animals with a scaley a number of mammals flourish here such as Cattails. Its presence is often indicated extremely rar e occasions whales have been epidermi. Some eproduc by layig eggssuch asCattails Its prsesuch as Cattails. Its presence is often indicatedve bee e pidermis. Some reproduce by laying eggs, Shrews Two species of shrews, the Masked by large mounds of vegetation on the marsh reported in the Sound, as in 1975 when a while other members of the species give birth to b ag onso eeaino h as ibc hl ece tefi rtn and Short-tailed Shrew, are both quit common surface, which comprise its den; it may alsowhile other members of the species give birth to and Short-tailed Shrew, are both quite common surface, which comprise its den; it may also Finback Whale beached itself in Groton. live young. The word Amphibian means "both live young. The word Amphibian means "both in salt marshes. These species, which live among construct less conspicuous dens in mud banks. sides of life." The animals of this group spend a the marsh grasses, eat the abundant insects and One of the Muskrat's adaptations for its aquatic Reptiles and Amphibians the ars grases ea theabudan insctsand One of the Muskrat's adaptations for its aquatic portion of their life in the water. They are portion of their life in the water. They are tiny marine animals found in the marsh. A third existence is its sleek, thick fur, which is also In Connecticut there are 42 known species of coldblooded and reproduce by laying eggs. coldblooded and reproduce by laying eggs. species, the Least Shrew, is essentially unknown prized in the fur trade. The Muskrat is in fact reptiles and amphibians, many of which may be Mammals in Connecticut although some suspect that it one of the most commercially important fur- found in the coastal region. These include The various coastal habitats support a wide exists in limited numbers in salt marshes in the bearing animals in the country today. Although turtles and snakes, which are reptiles, and frogs variety of mammals. Most species found in the western portion of the State. it is heavily trapped in Connecticut, it remains and toads, which are amphibians. The variety of mammals. Most species found in the coastal region also occur inland, but some are SmallRodents A number of small rodents an abundant species and a characteristic occurrence of a particular species depends upon particularly abundant along the shoreline. may also be found in salt marshes. The White- inhabitant of the coastal region. the presence of suitable habitat. Thus, a species Perhaps the coastal community most footed Mouse often moves into marshes from Other Species Other species of mammals may that requires moist woodlands for habitation Other Species Other species of mammals may heavily used by mammals is the salt marsh. adjoining woodlots, its primary home. The also be associated with salt marshes. In can generally be found wherever such habitats There are several conditions which determine Meadow Vole is found in large numbers in the particular, a number of the larger predatory are located, including the coastal area. particular, a number of the larger predatory what animals are present in this environment. marshes and is probably the most abundant species find the marshes to be suitable hunting Diamondback Terrapin The Diamondback The nature of salt marsh vegetation, which coastal mammal. Its presence is easily detected grounds. Mammals such as the Raccoon and Terrapin is the only reptile in Connecticut consists mainly of various grasses, with no trees, by the numerous tunnels it makes through the Red Fox, which inhabit upland areas, will often which occurs exclusively along the coast. This is one determining factor. marsh grasses. Its curious domed nest may be make forays into the marsh hunting small aquatic turtle is limited to salt or brackish water marshes, where it feeds on dead fish, Other Species Many other species of aquatic crustaceans, mollusks and some plant material. reptiles and amphibians can be found along the Adjacent sandy beaches are also important for edges of salt marshes and adjacent bodies of the deposition and hatching of its eggs. water where the salinity is low. Common In the early 1900's Terrapin meat became inhabitants of these areas include the Green such a popular delicacy that the price for a Frog, Bullfrog, Pickerel Frog, Spotted Turtle, dozen adult females was as high as $120. Due to Painted Turtle and Northern Water Snake. The subsequent overhunting, populations declined Snapping Turtle seems to be more tolerant of until it became uncommon to rare throughout salt and can be found throughout the salt much of its range. In some areas it was marshes. completely eliminated. With the decline in its Sandy areas along the shore are good places Muskrat popularity as a food item, the Terrapin has to find the Fowler's Toad, a close relative of the become more common and it is now probably more common American Toad. Though they present in all major Connecticut salt marshes. may both be found inland, the coastal area Sea Turtles The true sea turtles, those that offers the sandy soil that the Fowler's Toad inhabit the open ocean, normally are found only prefers. The Hognose Snake, a major predator in tropical or subtropical waters, but on the Fowler's Toad, is also partial to such occasionally they travel north in the Gulf habitats. Stream and wander into Long Island Sound. Records show that the Loggerhead Turtle, Suggested Reading Green Turtle and Leatherback Turtle have been Babbitt, L.H., The Amphibia of Connecticut. seen, though very rarely, along the Connecticut Connecticut Geologcal and Natural Hitory shore. Survey Bulletin 57, 1937. Eastern Spadefoot A rare amphibian, the Burt, W.H. and Grossenheider, R.P., A Field / ' toad-like Eastern Spadefoot, formerly occurred Guide to the Mammals, (2nd ed.). Boston: IN/ V R in a few locations along the Connecticut coast. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964. This unusual species spends most of its life Conant, R., A Field Guide to the Reptiles and below ground, although it bred in tiny ponds of Amphibians, (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton glacial origin (kettle holes) in the vicinity of New Mifflin Co., 1975. Haven. Until the 1930's, many thousands came Goodwin, G.G., The Mammals of Connecticut. out to the kettle holes to breed on warm, rainy Connecticut Geological and Natural History nights in late spring and summer. Its old Survey Bulletin 53, 1935. breeding sites have since been destroyed by Lamson, G.H., The Reptiles of Connecticut. urbanization, however, and it has not been Connecticut Geological and Natural History recorded in this area since 1935. Survey Bulletin 54, 1935. Meadow Vole 44 13. Rare and Endangered Species In Connecticut, a number of the plant and Direct removal of individual species by man animal species that occur in the coastal area are was formerly a major factor in reducing the not found elsewhere in the State. This is largely populations of a number of coastal vertebrates. due to the unique features of the coastal In the late 19th century most species of herons, environment. A number of these species, in Osprey egrets and terns were nearly eliminated from addition to being specific to the coast, are found large portions of their range by plume hunters. there only rarely and locally. The elaborate plumes and tail feathers of these destroys habitats, he creates them, and he Another example of a species severely birds were used in women's hat decorations. Causes of Rarity directly removes organisms. affected by habitat destruction is the Osprey, a The hunting was ended by international treaty Natural Factors A species may be rare within Natural Factors A species may be rare within Habitats are destroyed through fish-eating hawk primarily associated with in 1918, and now small numbers of many the State for a variety of reasons. Often a urbanization, recreational development, coastal habitats. Ospreys were once locally species, including the Great Egret, Little Blue species' habitat requirements (in other words, agriculture, filling or draining wetlands, air and abundant breeders in the State, particularly Heron, and Yellow-crowned Night Heron, are the soil, water, food, light and other conditions water pollution, and numerous other activities. around the mouth of the Connecticut River. In breeding in areas along the southwestern necessary for its survival and reproduction) An example of a species affected by habitat the 1940's there were over 100 pairs nesting in Connecticut coast. may be so specific that fewlocalities are suitable destruction is the Piping Plover. In the vicinity of the river. By the 1950's, however, Direct removal of plantlife continues to for its colonization. The Piping Plover, a small Connecticut, the amount of naturally-occurring population levels began to decline. Chlorinated deplete some species, particularly those with shorebird that builds its nest on sandy, habitat suitable for the plover is small to begin hydrocarbons (toxic chemicals such as the attractive flowers or those with purported undisturbed beaches, is rare in Connecticut for with; it has been further reduced by man's pesticide DDT) were being deposited into Long medicinal uses. this reason. development. Island Sound through agricultural runoff and A species may also be rare because it is at the The current rarity of the Persimmon is also municipal wastes. Fish accumulated these Other factors Pests, diseases, or parasites limit of its may also begraphic rangre because it is at thelly related in part to habitat destruction. It was substances in their tissues, and the Ospreys have been important factors in the depletion of relatedodiminihingamounts ofsuita formerly a native species in a few isolated areas which fed upon the fish were either directly some plant and animal species. The destruction related to diminishing amounts of suitable walong the coast, but its total population is now killed or their reproductive capacity was of Eelgrass during the 1930's by "Wasting habita at the fringes of the range, which in iturn comprised of seven trees, all standing at severely reduced. As a result, the number of Disease" is an example. The recent range is partially related to differences in climate. The Lighthouse Point Park in New Haven. A little Ospreys now inhabiting the State has decreased extensions of other species, such as the Glossy climate of the coastal area, mild in comparison over 100 Persimmons were present at to approximately 10 pairs, or less than 5% of Ibis, a wading bird, account for their rarity in with that of inland localities, is probably a Lighthouse Point in the 19th century, but as a their former numbers. the State. In Connecticut, the Glossy Ibis is near major reason why mrany elimlnts treach thePir sresult of the 1938 hurricane and intensive Habitat creation, on the other hand, often the extreme edge of its breeding range and has northern range-limit there. Thbe Persimmon, ua development of the park for recreation, most of allows the colonization of non-resident species, not as yet increased in numbers. In addition, small tree with edible fruit, is such an example. a fu rit b esmay treae wthedie uit, fs schaex them were lost. The remaining trees are dying of which do not normally occur in the area. This is some species have found rarity to be Species may reach their range limit for other old age. No new trees have begun growing in particularly evident in pasturelands and other advantageous, and have evolved to be rare; for rmetitonsa withspnclieng predatin by orec ent years because the Persimmon's normal artificially maintained grasslands. Species some species it can be an effective means of competitionr withseis ofth i rasngnte mode of reproduction, sending up root sprouts, characteristic of midwestern prairies, such as avoiding predators. central parts of their range. is hampered by continued human activities the Short-billed Marsh Wren, will invade these There are other factors, too numerous to Influence of Man Man influences the around the trees. In other locations, stands of sites but will otherwise be nearly or completely outline here, which also contribute to rarity. abundance of species in three major ways: he Persimmon have been completely eliminated. absent from the State. The suggested reading at the end of this chapter 45 Ii provides additional information. organisms with specific genetic attributes are selected. Thus a specific population of a species, Ecological Role of Rare Species rare because it is at the limit of the species' The loss of any particular rare species in the geographic range, and which has evolved a State would in many cases have very little effect slightly different genetic makeup than other on ecosystems as a whole. The disappearance of members of the species, may someday prove a patch of rare orchids or a small colony of best suited to withstand some new set of songbirds, for example, would usually not have environmental conditions and may even a major effect on the overall functioning of an provide genetic material from which a new ecosystem. However, it must be realized that all species will evolve. native species are members of communities. Rare species are of considerable significance Communities function as interrelated units in in a number of other ways as well. Many serve as performing such vital processes as nutrient important tools in helping biologists cycling, oxygen production, and food characterize ecologically distinctive geographic production. If members of the community are areas because of their habitat specificity. They continually removed, or if key members are are ideal organisms for numerous types of eliminated, the system will cease to function in biological research, including ecological, an optimal manner. physiological, evolutionary, and genetic In addition, rare species serve as very studies. sensitive indicators of environmental quality. As has been discussed, rare species often require Suggested Reading very specific habitat conditions or are very Dowhan, J. J. and Craig, R. J., Rare and sensitive to environmental changes brought Endangered Species of Connecticut and Their about by man. When they begin to disappear Habitats. Connecticut Geological and Natural from an area the evidence is strong that History Survey Report of Investigations No. 6, environmental quality is deteriorating. As 1976. environmental quality deteriorates, man Greenway, J.C., Jr., Extinct and Vanishing Birds ultimately suffers. of the World. New York: Dover Publications, Inc ., It is important to realize that species that are 1967. rare today may not always be rare. As Gosnell, M., Please Don't Pick the Butterworts. environmental conditions change over time, National Wildlife. 14:33-37, 1976. Persimmon 46 Lon IsandSon Long Island Sound is an estuary. Ocean water water to provide a valuable source of food, to result both from removal of chemicals necessary have deteriorated. freely enters the Sound and becomes less saline provide a means of transportation, to satisfy for photosynthesis and from overloading In attempts to create more beaches, groins because of dilution by fresh water from the recreational needs, and to receive and dilute estuaries with chemicals to the point where and jetties were constructed for the purpose of many incoming rivers. Estuarine waters are rich wastes from industrialization. plants cease to function. trapping sand and thus enlarging beaches. After and highly productive due to the combination Prior to the Civil War, people regarded the One of the more recent impacts on estuaries large amounts of money were spent, it was and circulation of ocean water, fresh water and resources of estuaries and oceans as limitless, is the discharge of heated water resulting from recognized that the long term effect of much of nutrients. The fresh water tends to float on the From the mid-nineteenth century on, cooling processes in industry and electricity the construction was accelerated erosion and heavier salt water; when this occurs, the industrialization occurred along the shores with production. The increase in water temperature the consequent loss of beaches. nutrent ar trppe beow he urfce nd itte cncen fr is lng ermeffects. In recent appears to be a favorable condition for less Human activity in estuaries has not always remain in the estuary. Carried landward twice a times, the concept of the sea as a limitless desirable marine forms such as the shipworm, taken the form of environmental manipulation day by the action of the tides, the nutrients resource has been proven erroneous. Yet, oyster drill and starfish. Also, if the heated water through careless practices. Aquaculture, for enrich the marshes over which they flow. Other despite the fact that the need for wise is not sufficiently diluted with cooler waters, the example, has increased the yield of some additional ofatr thisatla have descrialdestuaries management of this valuable resource has amount of dissolved oxygen in the receiving estuaries for food. Often human control can be complexoand facosciatmaenaturlngare become apparent, many of man's activities, waters eventually becomes reduced. This, in positive, as exemplified by the creation of complex and fascinating. particularly in the watersheds that lead to the turn, alters the existing biological populations. artificial reefs and impoundments, pollution The marine environment of estuaries places ocean, place considerable stress upon the The chemicals that are discharged by abatement, management of fisheries and many demands upon the organisms that live marine environment. The modification of river municipal and industrial facilities have entered wildlife along the sea coast, and estuarine there. Relatively few species are able to adapt to flow and the municipal and industrial discharge marine food webs, sometimes with adverse modifications to enhance production of marine the fluctuating levels of salinity. This is a key into rivers are two activities that cause great effects. For example, PCB's (polychlorinated life for human consumption. reason why the actual number of different impact to the Long Island Sound estuary. biphenyls) were ingested by terns when they fed With wise management of the estuarine species in an estuary is relatively small on marine fishes, causing birth defects among environment, the multiple and often conflicting compared to the open ocean, although each Dam construction is the most common form their offspring. Some effects of agricultural use uses of this natural system by man are possible. species appears in greater number. Species that of modification of river flows. Dams reduce of insecticides, primarily chlorinated Because the marine resources of the world are inhabit estuaries have adapted to tolerate the both the volume and velocity of rivers entering hydrocarbons such as DDT, are discussed in common property, man has an obligation to harsh conditions; genetic adaptations have estuaries. Dams may also block the movement Chapter 13 - "Rare Species." prudently manage these resources for the people become so specific that most organisms that live of anadromous fish in their efforts to reach As people concentrated around seacoasts, of today and the generations of the future. in estuaries cannot breed or reproduce in any suitable spawning grounds. alteration to the landforms in estuaries were other type of habitat. Subtle effects, such as siltation problems, made to suit human needs. Under the guise of Suggested Reading Unlike other components of the estuarine can result from the modification of rivers. With reclamation, tidal wetlands and shallow, Clark, J., Coastal Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.: ecosystem, man has the ability to manipulate decreased river velocities, materials suspended underwater lands were filled, primarily with The Conservation Foundation, 1974. the environment to suit his needs, and the effects in the water tend to settle on the bottom of river dredge spoil. Although the effects of each dredge of his activities may often be overlooked in mouths rather than be carried into deeper and fill activity is localized, the cumulative Hay, J. and Farb, P., The Atlantic Shore. New studies of estuarine systems. water. This necessitates frequent dredging to effect has radically changed saltwater, tidal, and York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1966. Historically, the development of maintain the depth of navigational channels. water circulation patterns and has resulted ina Inman, D.L. and Brush, B.M., The Coastal civilizations has been most intense along sea More important still is the alteration of natural significant loss of habitat. Water conditions Challenge. Science 181:20-168. coasts. Today, the heaviest population densities chemical elements necessary for primary essential for spawning and for nursery areas for Leopold, A.S., A Sand Count) Almanac. Oxford occur in coastal areas, where people use the productivity in estuaries. Such changes can many species of commercially important fish University Press, Inc., 1966. 47 The scientific names of only those species that Glasswort Salicornia spp. Spermothamnion repens Bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix are likely to occur in Connecticut are Grinnellia americana Spikegrass Distichlis spicata Brant Branta bernicla included. Groundsel-tree Baccharis halimifolia Spikerush Eleocharis rostellata Brown Trout Salmo trutta Species for which only scientific names are Hazelnut Corylus spp. Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngitessubruficollis listed do not have common names. Hildebrandtia prototypus Switchgrass Panicum virgatum Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana Irish Moss Chondrus crispus Ulothrixflacca Carolina Wren Thryothorus ludovicianus Kelp Laminaria agardhii Viburnum Viburnum spp. Canada Goose Branta canadensis PLANTS Marsh Elder Iva frutescens White Oak Quercus alba Canvasback Aythya valisineria American Holly l1ex opaca Mermaid's Hair Cladophora spp. Widgeon Grass Ruppia maritima Ceratium lineatum Ascophyllum nodosum Mockernut Hickory Carya tomentosa Wild Rice Zizania aquatica Channeled Whelk Busycon canaliculatum Antithamnion cruciatum Monostroma pulchrum Clapper Rail Rallus longirostris Bayberry Myrica pensylvanica Orache Atriplex patula Codfish Gadus callarias Beach Clotbur Xanthium echinatum Oriental Bittersweet Celastrus orbiculata ANIMALS Common Gallinule Gallinula chloropus Beach Pea Lothyrus japonicus Persimmon Diospyros virginiana Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula Beach Plum Prunus maritima Phymatolithon laevigatum Acartia spp. Diamondback Terrapin Malaclemys terrapin Beach Rose Rosa rugosa Pignut Hickory Carya glabra American Lobster Homarus americanus Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica Black Cherry Prunus serotina Poison Ivy Rhus radicans American Toad Bufo americanus Eastern Spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookii Black Huckleberry Gaylussacia baccata Polysiphonia spp. American Widgeon Mareca americana European Periwinkle Littorina litorea Blackgrass Juncus gerardi Pondweed Potamogeton spp. Atlantic Bay Scallop Pecten irradians European Widgeon Mareca penelope Black Oak Quercus velutina Porphyra spp. Atlantic Moon Snail Polynices duplicata Fiddler Crab Uca pugnax, U. pugilator and Blueberry Vaccinium spp. Post Oak Quercus stellata Atlantic Oyster Drill Urosalpinx cinerea U. minax Bramble Rubus spp. Reed Phragmites communis Atlantic Slipper Shell Crepidulafornicata Finback Whale Balaenoptera physalus Callithamnion corymbosum Rhodymenia palmata Bald Eagle Haliaetus leucocephalus Fowler's Toad Bufo woodhousei fowleri Catbriar Smilax rotundifolia Salt Water Cordgrass Spartina alterniflora Barnacle Balanus spp. Gadwall Anas strepera Cattail Typha spp. Salt Marsh Aster Aster tenuifolius Barrow's Goldeneye Bucephala islandica Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Chorda filum Salt Meadow Cordgrass Spartina patens Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Codium fragile Sea Lavender Limonium nashii nycticorax Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica Dune Grass Ammophila breviligulata Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca Black Duck Anas rubripes Grass Shrimp Hippolyte zostericola Dusty Miller Artemesia stelleriana Sea Rocket Cakile edentula Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus Gray Kingbird Tyrannus dominicensus Ectocarpus siliculosus Seabeach Knotweed Polygonum glaucum Blackback (Winter) Flounder Psuedopleuro- Great Egret Casmerodius albus Eelgrass Zostera marina Seaside Gerardia Gerardia maritima nectes americanus Greater Scaup Aythya marila Enteromorpha spp. Seaside Goldenrod Solidago sempervirens Blackfish, or Tautog Tautoga onitis Green Crab Carcinides maenas False Beach Heather Hudsonia tomentosa Seaside Spurge Euphorbia polygonifolia Blue Crab Callinectes sapidus Green Frog Rana clamitans Fucus spp. Sour Gum, or Tupelo Nyssa sylvatica Blue Mussell Mytilus edulis Green Turtle Chelonia mydas 48 Green-winged Teal Anas carolinensis Osprey Pandion haliaetus Short-tailed Weasel Mustela erminea Harbor Seal Phoca vitulina Painted Turtle Chrysemys picta Shoveler Spatula clypeata Hard-shell Clam (Quahog, Cherrystone, or Paralia dulcata Skeletonema costatum Littleneck Clam) Mercenaria mercenaria Pickerel Frog Rana palustris Snapping Turtle Chelydra serpentina Hermit Crab Pagurus longicarpus and Pintail Anas acuta Snow Goose Chen hyperborea P. pollicaris Piping Plover Charadrius melodus Snowy Egret Leucophoyx thula Hognose Snake Heterodon platyrhinos Pseudocalanus minutus Soft-shelled Clam, Steamer Mya arenaria Hooded Warbler Wilsonia citrina Raccoon Procyon lotor Spider Crab Libinia emarginata and L. dubia Jonah Crab Cancer borealis Red Fox Vulpes fulva Spotted Turtle Clemmys guttata Knobbed Whelk Busycon carica Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator Starfish Asterias forbesi Lady Crab Ovalipes ocellatus Reddish Egret Dichromanassa rufescens Striped Bass Morone saxatilis Lapland Longspur Calcarius lapponicus Redhead Aythya americana Sulfur Sponge Cliona spp. Least Shrew Cryptotis parva Ribbed Mussel Modiolus demissus Temora longicornus Least Tern Sterna albifrons Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris Thalassionema spp. Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea Rock Crab Cancer irroratus Timber Rattlesnake Crotalus horridus Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula Little Blue Heron Florida caerulea Rough Periwinkle Littorina saxatilis White-eyed Vireo Vireo griseus Little Gull Larus minutus Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis White-footed Mouse Peromyscus leucopus Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta Salt Marsh (Coffee Bean) Snail Melampus Yellow-crowned Night Heron Nyctanassa Long-tailed Weasel Mustela frenata bidentatus violacea Louisiana Heron Hydranassa tricolor Sand Shrimp Crangon septemspinosus Mallard Anas platyrhyncos Sandworm Nereis spp. Masked Shrew Sorex cinereus Scoter Melanitta spp. Meadow Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonius Scissor-tailed Flycatcher Muscivoraforficata Meadow Vole Microtus pennsylvanicus Scup (Porgy) Stenotomus chrysops Mole Crab Emerita talpoida Sea Anemone Metridium marginatum Mud Snail (Eastern Mud Nassa) Nassa obsoleta Sea Cucumber Pentacta frondosa Mute Swan Cygnus olor Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus spp. Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus Seaside Sparrow Ammospiza maritima Northern Moon Snail Lunatia heros Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus Northern Water Snake Natix sipedon Short-billed Marsh Wren Cistothorusplatensis Northern Yellow Periwinkle Littorina obtusata Sharp-tailed Sparrow Ammospiza caudacuta Odsquaw Clangula hyemalis Ship Worm Teredo navalis Orange-crowned Warbler Vermivora celata Short-tailed Shrew Blarina brevicauda 49 Appendix 11: Glossary Aeolian wind-blown; used in reference to microscopic algae or plankton present in breaking down dead plant and animal allows anadromous fish to return to their wind-blown sand deposits, or dunes. the water column. material. place of birth to spawn by providing a Algae the simplest of green plant forms, Bluff a cliff of rock or sedimentary material. Deposit feeder animals (generally benthic means of getting over obstructions such lacking roots, stems and leaves. Bluffs often occur along the seashore or animals) that feed on particles of organic as dams. Amphibians the group of animals that rivers. matter either from the sediment surface Flagella whiplike projections, used in loco- includes frogs, toads and salamanders. Breaker a wave that falls over and "breaks" or from within the sediment. motion, that occur on certain species of The larvae usually live in water and into foam as it approaches the shoreline. Dynamic equilibrium the state of fluctuation tiny organisms, including some of the breathe through gills, whereas adults Byssus the threads present on many species of around some average position caused by zooplankton. usually live on land and breathe through mollusks that are used to attach them to the counteracting effects of opposing Flood tide an incoming ocean tide. their skins and lungs, but return to water a surface. agents such as erosion and deposition. Food web the network of feeding relation- to lay their eggs. Carapace a hard shell-like covering on the Dorsal fin fin running along. the spine or ships in a biological community. Anadromous oceanic or estuarine species upper side of the body of some animals, backbone of a fish. Gill net a curtain-like net suspended vertically (specifically fish) that migrate into fresh such as turtles or crabs. Drift sediments deposited as a result of glacial in the water; a fish thrusting its head water to breed. Carnivore an animal that feeds largely upon activity. through it is caught by the gills. Atlantic Flyway a major path of bird other animals. Ebb tide an outgoing ocean tide. Glaciation the formation of ice sheets, migration roughly paralleling the east Carrying capacity the largest number of a Epibenthos animals and plants that live on specifically the formation of glaciers. coast of North America. particular population that a given the surface of the seafloor. Groin a shore protection structure built Bag limit the number of individuals of a game environment can support. Epifauna animals that live on the surface of (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) species allowed to be taken by a hunter Community a group of plants and animals, the seafloor. to trap sediment or retard erosion of the during a day or over the course of the interacting with and closely dependent Epiflora plants that live on the surface of the shoreline. hunting season. upon one another, that are tied to and seafloor. Habitat a type of area where the physical and Barrier beach a strip of beach runningparallel strongly affected by their particular Estuarine circulation In Long Island Sound, biological living requirements of a species to the shore, but separated from it (at physical environment. estuarine circulation involves more or community are met. least for the most part) by a body of water Continental Slope the Continental Shelf is heavy, saline water sinking to the bottom Headland land which projects out from the or marsh. the submerged shelf of land that extends and flowing westward into the Sound, mainland into the open sea. Bedrock solid rock which underlies the from the exposed edge of a continent for a while less saline water stays near the Herbivore an animal whose diet consists surface sediments. In some places it is variable distance to the point where the surface and flows eastward out of the chiefly of plant material. exposed at the surface as an outcrop. steeper descent to the ocean bottom Sound. Holoplankton tiny organisms that spend their Benthic (organisms) see benthos. begins. The descent is called the Conti- Estuary a protected coastal body of water entire life cycle floating or swimming in Benthos animals and plants that live on or in nental Slope. with an open connection to the sea, in the water column. the seafloor. Crustacea a large class of primitive animals which saline seawater is measurably Infauna bottom-dwelling marineanimalsthat Berried female carrying eggs; used in relation that includes the true crabs, hermit crabs, diluted by fresh water. live beneath the surface sediments. to lobsters. lobsters, shrimp, and barnacles. They are Exoskeleton an external skeleton; present in Inflora bottom-dwelling marine plants that Berm a formation of sand deposited above primarily aquatic, and characteristically many invertebrate species, such as crabs, live beneath the surface sediments. normal high water by wave action. possess eyes, jointed legs, segmented lobsters, insects, and shrimp. Intertidal zone the area between high-tide Bivalves mollusks that possess two shells, bodies, and external skeletons. Fetch the length of unobstructed water over mark and low-tide mark. such as clams and oysters. Decomposers microscopic organisms, gen- which the wind blows, generating waves. Kettle hole depressions in the ground surface Bloom a dramatic increase in the number of erally bacteria and fungi, which act in Fish passage a man-made structure that left by the melting of a block of glacial ice 50 that had been covered by glacial drift. Nutrient "food" items essential for an length of time. filtering or otherwise intercepting Larva a juvenile form of those organisms that organism's survival, including carbo- Race a relatively narrow gap that connects a particles of decomposed plant and animal undergo a dramatic structural change hydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals. . sheltered body of water with the open sea. material that are suspended in the water upon reaching adulthood. Organisms living creatures, either plant or Seawater flows in and out of this gap. column. Longshore currents currents, created when animal. Radula a file-like tongue, present in many Terminal moraine sediment mounds depos- waves break at an angle to the shore, Outwash sediments deposited by streams mollusks, which is used to tear up food ited by a glacier at its southern margin which travel parallel to the shoreline. formed from melting glaciers. and ingest it. when the rate of glacial expansion Macrobenthos (megabenthos) bottom- Panne a slight depression on the surface of a Reptiles the group of animals which includes southward was offset by melting. dwelling marine organisms that are salt marsh where salt accumulates and snakes, lizards, turtles, and others. They Tidal mudflat an intertidal area characterized greater than or equal to 1 mm in diameter. where the plant species present are are usually covered by scales or horny by a lack of vegetation. Mammal warm-blooded vertebrates, often different from those in the surrounding plates, breathe through lungs, lay eggs, Tidal range the difference in water depth possessing fur, that bear their young live marsh. and live on land. between high and low tide. and feed them with milk. Peat a layer of partially decomposed plant Rhizome a creeping plant stem found at or Tombolo a projection of sand connecting two Megalopa an advanced larval stage of the true materials that accumulates on the land below the surface. islands or an island to the mainland. crabs. surface in environments of high acidity Scavenger an animal that feeds on the dead Trophic level a level in the food chain; each Meiobenthos bottom-dwelling marine and little available oxygen, such as remains of other animals and plants. group of organisms that obtains food organisms greater than 0.05 mm but less marshes and bogs. Shoal elevated portion of the seafloor, from its ultimate source - the sun, water, than 1 mm in size. Pelagic (environment) the open water, or composed of rock or sand. Such areas are carbon dioxide, etc., in the same number Meroplankton organisms which spend only water column, of the marine environ- often frequented by fish. of steps. Examples are the producers and the juvenile part of their life cycle as ment. Slough an area of soft muddy ground, a herbivores. plankton. Phytoplankton minute plants, suchasdiatoms low-lying area. Turbid refers to water reduced in clarity due Metamorphosis the process of undergoing a and dinoflagellates, which are present Smolt a juvenile stage of the salmon. to the presence of suspended matter. dramatic change in structure during an floating in the water column. Spawn the process of laying eggs; used in Univalve a mollusk whose shell is composed organism's life cycle. Plankton minute plants and animals that relation to fish. of only one piece, such as the periwinkles, Microbenthos bottom-dwelling marine float or swim in the water column. Spit a sandy projection of land attached at moon snails, and oyster drills. organisms that are less than 0.05 mm in Pocket beach a beach which occurs in a small, one end to the mainland or an island. Upland land lying above the level where water size. crescent-shaped cove and directly fronts Spring tides exceptionally high and low tides. flows or where tidal flooding occurs. Mid-tide the tidal level intermediate between uplands. This happens when the sun and moon are Vascular plants plants that have distinct mean high and mean low tide. Pods aggregations of crabs. in line with the earth, thus exerting a structures for transporting water and Molt to shed the skin, feathers, or external Prey an animal that is captured by another stronger gravitational attraction upon it. nutrients. skeleton. animal for food. Substrate a land or sub-marine surface; often Water column an imaginary section of water Moraine an accumulation of earth and stones Producers green plants which use nutrients, -used in reference to a surface where plants from the surface to the bottom. that were carried by a glacier and water and carbon dioxide to transform and animals can attach or burrow in some Water-land interface the area where land and deposited when the ice melted. light energy into organic matter through manner. water meet. Mudflats see tidal mudflat. the process of photosynthesis. Producers Subtidal zone the area of a beach that lies Zoea a juvenile free-swimming stage of crabs. Nonvascular referring to plants with no form the basic link of many food chains. below the level of low tide. Zooplankton minute animals that live in the organized water and nutrient transport Productivity the amount of living material Surf waves breaking at the shoreline. water column. system. produced in a given area over a specific Suspension feeder an organism that feeds by 51 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements Coastal Area Management Program staff involved in writing, Figure Credits editing and typing: The following people made contributions to the text of the Catherine Colbeth Figure 5. Surface Salinity: National Marine Fisheries Resource Atlas: Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory Robert Craig Henry Bokuniewicz, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Mary Ann Dickinson Figure 6. Bottom Salinity: National Marine Fisheries Yale University Doreen Dreyer Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory Susan C. Craig, Biological Sciences Group, University of Robert Leach Connecticut Rles Meach Figure 9. Mean Sediment Size: National Marine Fisheries Charles McKinney Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory Robert E. Dubos, Biological Sciences Group, University of Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory Connecticut Joanna Remmer Figure 10. Shoreline Features: Bloom, A.C., Coastal Geo- Oliver T. Edstrom, Department of Environmental Protection, Arthur Rocque morphology of Connecticut J effrey A. Gebert, Department of Geology and Geophysics,rp Figure 16. Estuarine Benthic Habitats: Dr. Donald Rhoads, Jeffrey A. Gebert, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Marjorie Zidel Yale University Yale University Marjorie Zie Yale University Thomas Hoehn, Department of Environmental Protection, Figure 17. Benthos - Number of Species: National Marine Marine Region Fisheries Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory Robert A. Jones, Department of Environmental Protection, Marine Region Design and cover: Allen Carroll Figure 18. Growth of Benthic Invertebrate Populations Michael W. Lefor, Biological Sciences Group, University of Line drawings: Ronald Boisvert Relative to the Seasonal Temperature Cycle: Dr. Connecticut Maps and graphs: State of Connecticut Department of Donald Rhoads, Yale University George C. Maltezos, Department of Environmental Protection, Transportation Figure 20. Lobster Distribution Zuboy, Coleman and Jones, Marine Region Computerized Catch/Effort Reporting System for Richard F. Modlin, Noank Laboratory, University of Commercial Fisheries Management (DEP Report) Connecticut James Murphy, Department of Environmental Protection, A special note of thanks to: Figure 21. Commercial Shellfish Beds: U.S. Dept. of the Water Compliance Unit Dr. W. F. Bohlen Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- William Niering, The Connecticut Arboretum at Connecticut Dr. Hugo Thomas istration, State of Connecticut Shellfish Atlas College Figure 22. Phytoplankton Population Cycle: Conover, S.M., Carrolee J. Rathbun, Noank Laboratory, University of Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954. Connecticut Chapter IV, "Phytoplankton". Bulletin of the Sarah W. Richards, Little Harbor Laboratory, Inc. Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Vol. 15. Sally L. Taylor, The Connecticut Arboretum at Connecticut College Figure 23. Zooplankton Population Cycle: Deevey, G.B., Martine Villalard-Bohnsack, The Connecticut Arboretum at Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954. Connecticut College Chapter V, "Zooplankton". Bulletin of the Josephine Yingst, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Vol. 15. Yale University 52