    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                                                                                                                          COASTAL ZONE
                                                                                                                     INFORMATION CENTER

                            BAIZRIER B
                            MA                                   EN S RCEBOOK

                      QH
                      105
                      .M4
                                                                       EACH
                                       NAGEM T OU

                      B37
                      1983
                       CA

                   Acknowledgements

                   Smith, Lester B., Jr., Editor, 1983, Barrier Beach Management
                   Sourcebook. Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Office,
                   Boston, 48 pp.

                       This book was developed by the Provincetown Center for                   Finally, the editor thanks Gary Clayton and Jeffrey Benoit
                   Coastal Studies through a contract with the Massachusetts Coast-         and the rest of the staff of the Massachusetts Coastal Zone
                   al Zone Management Office. The editor would like to thank the            Management Office for providing many useful suggestions at
                   many individuals Who contributed in various ways to its prepar-          each stage of the project. Comments on draft manuscripts by
                   ation. The text was developed in part from rough drafts con-             Fran Schofield, Steve Bliven, Michael Penney, and Sandra
                   tributed by scientists and research assistants on the staff of           Sandiford were most helpful.
                   the Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies. The following in-
                   dividuals contributed rough drafts of sections of the book:
                   David Burdick (human alteration section), Jean Kenyon (re-
                   creation section), Janet Cathey (acquisition section) and Janet
                   Stroup (storm section). Robin Lloyd and Elaine Wong served as
                   editorial assistants and helped with the typing. Most of the
                   illustrations were drawn by Terri Ellis and Barbara Terkanian.
                   Charlotte Young designed the cover illustration and drafted
                   several other figures. Dan Lewis prepared the bibliography.
                   Jean Kenyon typeset most of the text. Gillian Drake of Shank
                   Painter Printing Company did the design and layout.

                      For many ideas on barrier beach processes and management
                   the editor thanks Dr. Graham S. Giese, Dr. Stephen P. Leatherman,
                   and Dr. Paul J. Godfrey. Dr. Karl Nordstrom and Dr. Duncan
                   Fitzgerald shared their ideas on dune management. Robert
                   Prescott provided information on seal behavior. Peter Auger
                   shared the results of his studies on turtle nesting. Mark Mello
                   provided many useful suggestions on coastal biology. Ed Thomas
                   of the Federal Emergency Management Agency provided extensive
                   information on storm preparedness. Barbara Waters of the Cape
                   Cod Museum of Natural History reviewed early drafts and gave
                   many helpful suggestions.

                                                                                                     Printed by Shank Painter Printing Company, Provincetown, Mass.

                                                             MASSACHUSETTS COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT OFFICE - 1983

                                                   BARRIER BEACH MANAGEMENT
                                                                                SOUD
                                                                                              XkCEB00K

            ca

                                     Executive Office of Environmental Affairs
                                     Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management                                          Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies
                                     Richard F. Delaney, Director                                                   Editor and Project Director: Lester B. Smith, Jr.

                                     Project Coordinators:
                                     Gary Clayton and Jeffrey Benoit

                                                                                                                           L

                                                              The preparation of this publication was funded by      the Office of Coastal Zone
                                                              Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,      U.S. Department
                                                              Of Commerce, under a program implementation grant to the Commonwealth of
                                                              Massachusetts.
                                                                                                                     C,
                                                                                                                    S tTA1,
                                                                      (ZA=A

                                                              Michael S. Dukakis, Governor                             James S. Hoyte, Secretary
                                                                                                          US Department of Commerce
                                                                                                    NOAA Coastal Services Center Library
                                                                                                            2234 South Hobson Avenue
                                                                                                             Charleston, SC 29405-2413

                   Table of Contents

                                                                                             Introduction

                                                                                             How to Use the Sourcebook      ...........................         iv

                                                                                             Chapter 1    Identification of Barrier Beaches  .............    1.1

                                                                                             Chapter 2    Characteristics of Barrier Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1

                                                                                             Chapter 3    Management of Barrier Beaches     ..............    3.1

                                                                                             Appendices
                                                                                                 A. Executive Orders for Barrier Beaches
                                                                                                     and Off-Road Vehicles   ....................      A-1, A-2
                                                                                                 B. Technical and Educational Assistance     .............    B-1
                                                                                                 C. Bibliography    ................................          C-1
                                                                                                 D. Glossary   ...............     I ....................     D-1

                     Introduction

                         Hundreds of barrier beaches make up much of the Massa-                    This sourcebook builds on the information supplied in the
                     chusetts coastline. These coastal landforms are narrow low-lying          wetland guide; it is not meant to replace it or to represent state
                     strips of land that consist of beach and dunes and extend roughly         wetland policy. The purpose of this book is to give public
                     parallel to the trend of the coast. They are separated from the           officials, interest groups, developers, homeowners, and interested
                     mainland by a water body or wetland. Barrier beaches were                 citizens additional background and tools to use in making man-
                     formed and are constantly changed by coastal processes such as            agement decisions. Techniques to reduce hazards and protect the
                     beach erosion, storm overwash, dune movement, and inlet forma-            resources of these important coastal areas are presented.
                     tion and migration. Structures on barrier beaches are flooded,
                     battered and sometimes destroyed by these natural processes.
                     Costs for these damages are high: over 300 million dollars for
                     the Blizzard of '78 alone. Most of these costs are bourne by the
                     taxpayer through the many subsidized programs for disaster
                     relief, flood and erosion structures, and utilities and roads.
                     Many coastal residents recognize that barriers are protective
                     features which shelter mainland development and productive
                     wetlands and bays. Yet barrier beaches are more widely known
                     by the public as recreational and summer resort areas. How can
                     recreational areas be managed so that the natural resources of
                     barrier beaches are maintained? How can the large storm damage
                     losses and economic costs to the taxpayer associated with de-
                     veloped barriers be reduced? What future physical changes can
                     be expected for specific barrier beach areas? The purpose of
                     this book is to answer some of these questions and to provide
                     the reader with information to seek out the answers to the rest.
                         In 1978 "A Guide to the Coastal Wetlands Regulations"
                     was published by the Massachusetts Department of Environ-
                     mental Quality Engineering with the assistance of the Coastal
                     Zone Management Office. The wetland guide discusses the values
                     and processes of all coastal wetlands and provides guidance in
                     the design of projects for wetland areas and areas bordering on
                     wetlands. Barrier beaches are briefly discussed in the wetland
                     guide and a preliminary list of Massachusetts barrier beaches is
                     provided.
                        After the publication of the wetland guide, the management
                     of barrier beaches received increased attention when Governor
                     King signed Executive Order No. 181 for Barrier Beaches in
                     1980, and federal legislation was proposed to help manage the
                     nation's undeveloped barriers. The Massachusetts Coastal Zone
                     Management Office is carrying out the Executive Order by
                     mapping all of the state's barrier beaches and by providing
                     informational materials such as this sourcebook on barrier
                     beaches.

                    How to use the sourcebook

                        This sourcebook consists of three chapters:           Chapter 1,           TOWN OFFICIAL QUESTIONS                                Page Numbers
                    Identification of Barrier Beaches, Chapter 2, Characteristics
                    of Barrier Beaches, and Chapter 3, Management of Barrier                       How does a barrier beach protect harbors, uplands,
                    Beaches. Chapters I and 2 give essential background information                and wetlands?   ................................             1.4- 1.5
                    necessary for effective management of barrier beaches. Tech-                   How can our town avoid and recover from storm damage?          ... 3.13
                    niques to manage barrier beaches are described in Chapter 3.                   How can our town implement changes in barrier
                    The Table of Contents is brief because each chapter begins with                beach policy?    ....................................             3.17
                    an outline of the material covered within that chapter.                        How have other towns managed their barrier beaches?         ..... 3.17
                        The book is designed to review all aspects of barrier beach                How can we accomodate recreational beach needs?          .......  3.10
                    management for the general reader and to provide references
                    to more detailed books and guides. These sources of informa-
                    tion are given at the end of each chapter and at the end of key                CONSERVATION COMMISSION QUESTIONS
                    subsections within each chapter.
                        The appendices include: Appendix A, the Executive Orders                   How do we find the history of barrier beaches
                    for Barrier Beaches and Off-Road Vehicles; Appendix B, Technical               in our town?   .................................              2.3-2.4
                    and Educational Assistance; Appendix C, the bibliography; and                  How do we inform the public of the value of
                    Appendix D, the glossary. Italicized words in the text are defined             barrier beaches?  ....................................               B-I
                    in the glossary.                                                               What are the effects of coastal engineering structures
                        To assist in using the sourcebook, the following sets of                   on barrier beaches and landward areas?    .............      3.1 - 3.4
                    commonly asked questions and a key for locating answers to                     What damages are inflicted by off-road vehicles and
                    these questions are listed below. The first set of questions might             pedestrians and how can this damage be minimized?. . 3.10 - 3.12
                    be asked by the general public. The remaining sets of questions                What wildlife habitats are found on barrier beaches
                    might be asked by user groups.                                                 and how can we protect them?       ........................          2.7
                                                                                                   How can we acquire our barrier beach for
                                                                                                   conservation and public use?    ..........................           3.7
                    GENERAL QUESTIONS                                      Page Numbers

                    What is a barrier beach?  ..............................            1.1        STATE OR FEDERAL OFFICIAL QUESTIONS
                    What are some examples of barrier beaches?       .........   1.1 - 1.2
                    How do barrier beaches change?      ..................       2.1 - 2.5         How can recreational use of barrier beaches
                    Why are barrier beaches important?       ...............     2.7 -2.9          be provided?    .....................................              3.10
                                                                                                   What regulations are available for barrier beaches?       3.14 - 3.17
                                                                                                   How do coastal engineering structures affect
                    HOMEOWNER AND BEACH ASSOCIATION QUESTIONS                                      barrier beach property?   .........................          3.1 -3.4
                                                                                                   How can we prepare for a coastal storm?       ...............      3.13
                    How do barrier beaches protect property behind it? . . . 1.4 - 1.5
                    How does barrier beach property change over time?. . . 2.3 - 2.5
                    How do coastal engineering structures affect
                    barrier beach property?    .........................         3.1 - 3.3
                    What wildlife habitats are found on barrier beaches
                    and how are they protected?    ..........................           2.7
                    How can recreation on barrier beaches be provided?. 3.10 - 3.12

                      Chapter 1: Identification of Barrier Beaches

                             Description   ..................      1.1
                             Types    ......................       1.1
                             Location    ....................      1.1
                             Identification Criteria               1.3
                             Delineation of Margins     .........  1.5

                      Description of Barrier Beaches
                          A barrier beach is a narrow low-lying strip of land consis-                                                 Tornbolo/
                      ting of beach and dunes, trending parallel to the coast and
                      separated from the mainland by a water body or wetland. Barrier
                      beaches range from natural landforms with well developed vege-                                  Figure 1.2 Illustration of tornbolo
                      tated dunes and few alterations to developed/ altered barrier land-
                      forms with houses, roads, artificial filling, and coastal engineering
                      structures. Barrier beaches are composed of sand and other loose
                      sediments moved and deposited by waves, winds, tidal currents,
                      and storm overwash. They are always changing their form and                    connected at only one end is a barrier spit, and an unconnected
                      shifting landward as they respond to these coastal forces and the              barrier is a barrier island. A barrier that connects an island to
                      gradual rise in sea level that is submerging and eroding the Mass-             the rest of the coast is known as a tombolo. The Massachusetts
                      achusetts coastline.                                                           coast has each of these types of barrier beach (figures 1.3 to 1.6).

                      Types of barrier beaches                                                       Location of Barrier Beacheg
                          Barrier beaches take   different forms depending on how they                   Over 600 barrier beaches are located on the Massachusetts
                      are connected to the mainland (figures 1.1 and 1.2). A barrier                 shoreline exposed to the open ocean and in large tidal bays
                      connected to the mainland at both ends is a bay barrier. A barrier             (table 1.1).

                        Figure 1.1 Illustration of bay barrier, barrier spit, barrier island

                                                                                                                               Barrier Island

                                                                                       Barrier Spit

                                                          Bay Barrier

                                                                             A

                        AA

                  Figure 1.3 Photo of bay barrier                                         Figure 1.5 Photo of barrier island

                  Figure 1.4 Photo of barrier spit                                       Figure 1.6 Photo of tombolo

                  1.2

                                                                                                                        1   2
                                                    Table 1.1
                                      Distribution of Barrier Beaches by                                                3   4          6
                                         Massachusetts Coastal Region
                        Region                      Approximate Number of Barrier Beaches                               7   8
                                                                                                                         kll @
                        North Shore                                  32                                                    f 0_
                        Boston Harbor                                29                                           11    10 Z19
                        South Shore                                  30                                                 @el
                        Cape Cod                                   213                                                  1@1 3
                                                                   233                                                   J-@
                        Martha's Vineyard & Nantucket                                                             --4-, _        \,17
                        Buzzards Bay & Mt. Hope Bay                 120                                                 15  16

                                                                                                                                  18                147  146
                      They form much of the Massachusetts coast that is exposed to
                      the open ocean. Other coastal areas of the state are formed of                                              19'-\,N 20                45
                      solid rock (bedrock), such as Cape Ann, or glacial sediments such
                      as the sea cliffs of Cape Cod or the low-lying uplands that sur-                   23 24                    21   22                      44
                      round Buzzard's Bay.
                          Barrier beach maps published by the Massachusetts Coastal                                                           37
                      Zone Management Office are available for all coastal areas of the                            27   28   29        36              40 41
                      state. An index to these maps is provided in figure 1.7.                                                                  39

                                                                                                                                           38
                                                                                                                   31
                      Identification Criteria of Barrier Beaches                                                        32 @,,33 34    35
                          A barrier beach is distinguished from another coastal feature                                        4    50
                      by using the following criteria which have been developed from                                                      51                 57
                      the coastal wetland regulations: narrow low-lying, parallel to the
                      trend of the coast, separated from the mainland by a water body
                      or wetland, composed of beach and dunes, and affected by dy-                                                                F54
                      namic processes.                                                                                                            [7@56
                      narrow low-lying
                          A barrier beach landform. is generally a narrow low-lying strip           Figure 1.7 Index to barrier beach maps
                      of land due to numerous factors which include: sediment supply,
                      storm frequency, sediment transport patterns and rates, and                   irregular coastal areas barrier beaches typically fill the openings
                      human alterations. In Massachusetts, barrier beaches range in                 between bedrock or glacial geological features (figure 1.8).
                      width from small barriers tens of feet wide to large barriers with            Thus, barrier beaches tend to straighten these otherwise irregular
                      beach and dunes up to a half mile wide.                                       coastlines.
                      parallel to the trend of the coast                                            separated from the mainland by a wetland or water body
                          Barrier beaches are oriented parallel to the trend of the coast.              A wetland or water body is always found between a barrier
                      However, m* some areas the Massachusetts coast is not straight                beach and the mainland. Fresh, salt, or brackish water can be
                      due to the variable distribution of geological features. In these             present in the wetland or water body.
                                                                                                                                                                        1.3

                                                                                                     The coastal dune portion of the barrier beach is located land-
                                                                                                 ward of the beach where sand carried by the wind is deposited
                                                                                                 and builds a hill or ridge. Vegetation, especially beachgrass,
                                                                                                 plays an important role in dune formation, growth and stability.
                                                                                                 On barriers with gravel- or boulder-sized sediment, the dune is
                                                                                                 replaced by a storm ridge deposited or carried to this height by
                                                                                                 storm waves (figure 1. 11),. Storm ridges are similar to coastal
                                                                                                 dunes and they are protected to the same degree by the state
                                                                                                 Wetlands Protection Act.

                                                                                                                                             A-               JdML. -Mi-

                    Figure 1.8 Photo of barrier between irregular shoreline of
                                glacial deposits

                    composed of beach and dunes                                                                                                           _J
                        The two major components of a barrier beach are the beach
                    and dunes. These features are present on both unaltered and
                    altered barrier beaches. The    beach portion of the barrier beach
                    consists of loose sand and gravel, known as sediment, and slopes
                    from the waterline landward    to the dune, storm ridge,   or coastal        Figure 1. 11 Photo of storm ridge
                    engineering structure (figures  1.9 and 1.10).
                                                                                                     Altered or developed barrier beaches with coastal dunes that
                                                                                                 are modified by houses, roads, coastal engineering structures, or
                                                                                                 other alterations (figure 1.10) are protected by the Wetlands
                                                                                                 Protection Act because these features buffer landward areas
                                                                                                 from storms and they are hazardous locations for development.

                                           Dune
                     Wetland                                       Beach        Nearshore        affected by dynamic processes
                       or                                   I
                    Water Bod@                              i                                        Barrier beaches are constantly reshaped by waves, tides,
                    Figure 1.9 Illustration of unaltered barrier beach                           winds, coastal storms, and sea level rise. During major storms,
                                                                                                 dunes are eroded and at times washed over by storm-elevated
                                                                                                 seas. Inlets may form or shift position during storms as tidal
                                                                                                 waters seek the most efficient route to the ocean. With time, due
                                                                                                 to the gradual rise of the level of the sea, sediment is carried to
                                                                                                 the landward side of the barrier by overwashing and inlet mi-
                                                                                                                                                           rier beach.
                                                                                                 gration. This results in the landward shift of the bar
                     Wetland                                                                     Other coastal features, such as glacial banks and bedrock do not
                       or                 Dune                    Beach        Nearshore         shift landward with rising sea level but gradually disappear as
                    Mater Body 1                                                                 they are submerged. Old charts and maps of coastal areas show
                    Figure 1.10 Illustration of altered barrier beach                            that the shoreline was farther seaward than the present shoreline.

                    1.4

                     Barrier beaches, if left unaltered, usually do not decrease in           coastal bank margin: Most coastal bank margins in Massachusetts
                     width, but the entire landform moves landward.                           consist of glacial sediment. Glacial deposits, which were formed
                                                                                              by the last major ice advance over New England, the Wisconsin
                                                                                              Ice Sheet, are variable in composition and texture in contrast to
                     Delineation of Barrier Margins                                           the homogenous barrier beach deposits. Examples of a coastal
                        The determination of where a barrier beach ends and con-              bank margin are shown in figures 1. 12-1.14.
                     sequently where another coastal feature begins is important for
                     accurate delineation of a barrier beach. The boundaries that
                                                                                                                          e
                                                                                                                                     Y
                     define a barrier beach include the seaward and landward margins
                     and the two lateral margins.
                                                                                                                       0
                                                                                                         lit

                                                                                                                                         21
                     seaward and landward margins
                        A barrier beach's seaward margin is     located at mean low
                                                                                                                                                      Margin
                     water. Its landward margin is located at mean low water when
                                                                                                                                                 -10
                     the water body is affected by tides and at  the annual water line                                                      P M
                                                                                                                                          vid
                     for fresh water areas not affected by tides. When salt marsh or                  -LM
                     tidal flats are located immediately behind the dunes of a barrier
                     beach, then they are included as part of    the barrier landform
                     (figure 1.9).

                     lateral margins
                         Lateral margins     terminate at uplands, water bodies, or
                                                                                                                               @A
                     wetlands. A water body or wetland margin is usually a straight
                     forward determination. However, the upland margin delinea-
                     tion can be difficult to determine when the sediments of the             Figure 1. 13  Map of coastal bank lateral margin
                     upland are similar to those of the barrier beach. The three
                     basic types of upland margin are: coastal bank, dune-upland,
                                                                                              MEMEL_.
                     and bedrock.                                                                                                                  .7 w- W-77" 7w*,--

                          Figure 1. 12 Illustration of coastal bank lateral margin                     Jag,&                     71-

                                                           Coastal
                                                         -Bank-@                                                                  Jwiz

                                                                             Margin

                                                                                                                                      AAA

                                                                                              Figure 1. 14  Photo of coastal bank lateral margin

                                                                                                                                                              1.5

                  dune-upland margin: This boundary, which is shown in figure 1. 15,
                  occurs when coastal dunes are present on top of or seaward of an
                  upland. The upland may consist of glacial sediment, bedrock, or
                  artificial fill. The dune-upland margin can form when a barrier
                  beach builds laterally in front of an upland or when a barrier
                  shifts landward and attaches itself to an upland (figures 1. 16 and
                  1. 17). This margin also occurs when the landward marsh or water
                  body behind a barrier has changed to upland as a result of arti-
                  ficial filling of a portion of the marsh/wetland area. An example
                  of this type of margin is shown in figures 1. 18 and 1. 19.                 ';;7 -4w

                                                                                                        NO
                       Figure 1.15 Illustration of dune-upland lateral margin

                                          Upland

                                                                    ..... .                   Figure 1. 17 Photo of dune-upland lateral margin

                            v A
                                                                     Margin
                                                                                                                   A D@@,l
                                                                                                                                                          e

                                                                                                                                                           S- St
                                                                                                                   Dn43
                                                                                                                                              G    Rd
                                                                                                                     Margint'   Dn-'l'
                                              .0                                              lot                        Dn-2
                                                                         M
                                                                3-

                                                fz
                                                                                                                          S 0 U           D
                                        Tr 3,1@
                                                                                                                  T
                                                                                                      C
                                                                                               T
                                    Margin
                                                                                                   Figure 1. 18 Map of dune upland lateral margin (upland
                                                         Rol:
                                                                                                                 created by artificial filling of wetland).
                     Figure 1. 16 Map of            10if Pam
                                                                                                                 Arrow shows margin.
                     dune-upland lateral margin

                  1.6

                                                                                                     P
                                                                                                                              N
                                                                                                           14                                           Pt
                                                                                                                                                    zz

                                                                                                                                                   L-bliiy
                                                                                                       -ej
                                                                                                                                         E

                                                                                                                          90,4                 Margin
                                                                                                                      Rp-5
                     Figure 1. 19  Photo of dune-upland lateral margin
                                  (upland created by artificial filling of wetland)
                                                                                                 Figure 1.21  Map of bedrock lateral margin

                     bedrock margin: The lateral margin of a barrier beach can ter-
                     minate at bedrock, which is massive rock material formed by
                     metamorphic, igneous, or sedimentary processes. Bedrock can
                     be found in numerous areas of the coast of Massachusetts includ-
                     ing Cape Ann, Manchester, Marblehead, Swampscott, Boston,
                     Dartmouth, and New Bedford. An illustration of bedrock barrier
                     beach margin is shown in figure 1.20. Cape Hedge Beach in Rock-
                     port is an example of this type of margin (figures 1.21 and 1.22).

                       Figure 1.20 Illustration of bedrock lateral margin

                                                                          bedrock

                                                                       Margin

                                                                                               Figure 1.22 Photo of bedrock lateral margin

                                                                                                                                                               1.7

                    Chapter 2: Characteristics of Barrier Beaches

                                                                                                       Day to Day Changes
                             Introduction     .................      2.1                                   Sediment is constantly being moved by waves. When waves
                             Natural Characteristics     .........   2.1                               strike the beach at an angle sand and gravel is picked up. and
                                  Physical  ..................       2.1                               moved along the beach in the same direction as the waves break
                                  Biological   ................      2.7                               (figure 2.1). The movement of sediment along the shore is
                             Land Use Characteristics      ........  2.8                               known as littoral drifting. When sediment is moved by waves
                                                                                                       from one portion of the beach it must be replaced by sediment
                                  Human Alterations      .........   2.8'                              from adjacent updrift areas so that the volume of sediment in
                                  Hazards   ..................       2.9                               any one area is maintained. Ultimately there must be a contin-
                                                                                                       uous source of sediment available to feed this littoral drifting
                                                                                                       process. In Massachusetts, eroding coastal banks are a major
                    Introduction                                                                       source of this beach sediment.
                                                                                                           Another important type of sediment transport that occurs on
                         The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a                   barrier beaches is due to winds which pick sand up off the beach
                    basic understanding of the physical, biological, and land use                      and carry it landward to build dunes. Beachgrass helps build the
                    properties of a barrier beach. This is important so that these                     dune by trapping wind-blown sand and stabilizing its surface.
                    characteristics can be recognized in a specific barrier beach
                    situation. Once these characteristics are understood then the                      Seasonal and Storm Changes
                    reader is prepared to decide which management techniques, as                           In the course of a year, seasonal changes of the barrier beach
                    described in Chapter 3, are appropriate for a particular barrier                   are quite evident. In the summer, when waves are low and long,
                    beach.                                                                             the beach builds up, becoming higher and wider (figure 2.2).
                                                                                                       Sand is moved from the offshore bar to the beach. The seaward
                    Natural Characteristics                                                            edge of the dune may also grow and extend onto the beach.
                         Physical Characteristics                                                      Storms that occur in the fall, winter, and early spring produce
                                                                                                       large steep waves which cut into the beach and cause it to narrow
                         Barrier beaches are always moving. Changes occur every day                    and flatten. This sand is moved seaward to build the offshore bar.
                    as the tide ebbs and flows and as waves strike the beach. Seasonal                 Storms can narrow the beach to the extent that the dunes begin
                    and long-term changes also occur. It is important to understand                    to erode and a dune scarp is formed. Large storms, especially
                    all of these changes because they all bear on how barrier beaches                  those which coincide with higher than average tides, can cause
                    should be managed.                                                                 extensive erosion to the beach and dunes, and at times the entire

                         Figure 2.1    Illustration of littoral drifting

                                                              Sediment movement
                                                                (Iongshore drift)

                     2.1

                      barrier can be overwashed (figure 2.3).                                        During large storms, erosion of the barrier beach can be so
                          When storm overwash occurs, sand eroded from the beach is              extensive that the barrier is entirely breached and a tidal inlet
                      carried landward by the surging water. This sand is dropped on             can form. During the Blizzard of '78 a large inlet formed which
                      the landward side of the barrier in a fan-shaped deposit known as          cut Monomoy Island into two separate barrier islands (figure
                      a washover fan. Beachgrass vegetation usually grows up on wash-            2.4). An inlet such as this is kept open by tidal currents that
                      over fans and initiates the formation of new dunes.

                         Figure 2.2 Illustration of seasonal changes to barrier beach
                            Low ene, @Iv=aver lild

                                                                         sand movement

                                                                                                                                VT@

                             STORM WAVES erode beach
                                                                s-ana riiovement
                                                                                                 Figure 2.4 Photo of Monomoy Island Inlet, 1978

                         Figure 2.3 Illustration of storm overwash

                                                                                             @' AA@
                                                                                                                                "S:
                                               L

                                tr,@ A..

                                K.

                                                                                                                                           5
                                                                                                        A\
                             ST@ORM WAVES ,odebac@h@@@@@

                                                  A                                          B                                           C
                                              Eroded dune                                 Overwash                         Revegetation of washover fan to
                                                                                                                           start the formation of new dunes.

                                                                                                                                                                  2.2

                    scour the inlet channel. Sand moving along the beach, however,               Inventory of Shoreline Change
                    can fill the inlet if this sand movement exceeds the amount                     Past shoreline changes may be used to predict future changes
                    eroded by tidal scour (figure 2.5).                                          in position of the shoreline. For many areas of the coast, histori-
                    Long-term Changes                                                            cal charts and maps may be used to reconstruct how the shore-
                                                                                                 line has changed in position over time. For example, figure 2.7
                        Rising sea level is gradually   submerging the Massachusetts             shows barrier beach changes for Nauset Beach and Monomoy
                    coast. Mean sea level has risen     350-400 feet during the last             Island from 1770 to 1970. Based on geological interpretation
                    12,000 to 15,000 years. and the shoreline has retreated many                 of these changes, future shoreline positions for 1985, 1995, and
                    miles over that time period as shown in figure 2.6. Today the rate           2005 can be predicted. Shoreline trend analysis is very useful
                    of sea level rise is approximately one foot every 100 years as det-          for communities situated behind a barrier system because these
                    ermined from measurements taken of the level of the sea at tide              predicted changes should influence the present and future
                    gauges. This rise produces shoreline retreat on the average of               management of the barrier beach.
                    three feet per year on Outer Cape Cod. The rate of retreat varies               Shoreline change determination based on historical charts,
                    for other areas of the Massachusetts coast depending on several              maps, surveys, and aerial photographs requires technical exper-
                    factors such as: exposure and frequency of storms, type of shore-            tise in the specialized field of coastal geomorphology. Many
                    line material, and extent of shoreline alterations.                          factors must be considered when shoreline positions are compiled
                       While coastal banks may gradually erode and disappear with                such as the scale and precision of maps and the distortions and
                    rising sea level, barrier beaches move landward by storm over-               tidal positions on aerial photographs.        Fortunately historic
                    wash and inlet processes. Through this landward shifting, barrier            shoreline change maps for many areas of the Massachusetts coast
                    beaches retain their general volume and form as sea level rises              have already been compiled and are available from the U.S.
                    whereas other coastal features such as glacial banks and bedrock             Army Corps of Engineers and the Massachusetts Coastal Zone
                    areas are submerged.                                                         Management Office     see Appendix B, Technical and Educational

                      Figure 2.5 Illustration of inlet formation and closing

                                                                                                                                                      .=-i t

                                     A

                                             -4

                                                                                                                                                       ,I

                                                                                                                -s

                                       A                                      B                                  C                               D
                                 Lowered Dune                     Breach occurs during storm         In some instances inlets will
                                                                         to form inlet                     close naturally

                     2.3

                        Assistance and Sources of Information at the end of this section).                Sources of Information
                            Since many factors determine the rate of shoreline retreat,
                        a coastal geornorphologist should be consulted to assist in the                   Barrier Island Handbook, Leatherman, 1979.
                        interpretation of these maps.                                                         This handbook provides a good overview of the scientific
                                                                                                          theories of barrier island (beach) evolution, processes and im-
                                                                                                          pacts.
                                                                                                          A Geologist's View of Cape Cod, Strahler, 1966.
                                                                                                              The geological history of Cape Cod is similar in many re-
                          100 YEARS AGO                                                                   spects to several other coastal regions of Massachusetts, such as
                                                                                                          Buzzards Bay, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket. Therefore,
                                                                                                          this book is a very useful primer on how the Massachusetts
                                                                                            Sea           coast has evolved.
                                                                                            Level
                                                                                                          The Beaches are Moving, Kaufman and Pilkey, 1979.
                                                                                                              This book describes coastal processes and the problems that
                                                                                                          have arisen when these processes have been ignored. It offers
                                                                                                          some useful recommendations on how to choose a safe site for
                                                                                                          development.
                                                                                                          A Manual for Researching Historical Coastal Erosion, Fulton,
                                                                         300 ft. measured                 1981.
                                                                14- 1 shoreline retreat                       This is a useful handbook on how to compile information on
                           TODAY                                                                          historical shoreline change for a particular coastal area.

                                                                                      I ft.
                                                                                      measured
                                                                                      sea level
                                                                                      rise in
                                                                                      100 years
                           100 YEARS FROM                        300 ft. Predicted
                          FROM TODAY                    14-- 1   Shoreline Retreat

                                                                                    ........ . .....

                                                               . ..... ...................
                                                                                    2 ft.
                                                                                    sea level
                                                                                    rise in
                                                                                    200 years

                         Figure 2.6 Illustration of the effects of sea level rise

                        L

                                                                                                                                                                               2.4

                        Figure 2.7 Illustration of shoreline changes for Nauset Beach and Monomoy Island (after Giese, 1978).

                                        1770                                           1810
                                                                                                                                                                                    1850                                       1870
                                                                                                                                      1830
                                            Ch.tkam           "set

                                                     womoy

                                             light

                                       1890
                                                                                        1910                                         1930                                         1950                                       1970

                                                                                                                                          b"
                       !, PV

                                                                                                                                                p

                                                                                                                                                                      V,
                                                      1985
                                                                                                    1995                                         2005

                                                                  inlet                                        .inlet                                           inlet

                        Storms That Affect Massachusetts                                                          Aug.31,1954

                            Due to its geographic location and orientation, Massa-
                        chusetts is vulnerable to two major types of coastal storm:
                        hurricanes and northeasters.

                        Hurricanes                                                                Sept. 21, 1938
                            Hurricanes are intense low pressure systems that form in
                        the tropics during the months of June through October.                                                         Sept. 12-13, 1960
                        Typically hurricane paths have crossed the Massachusetts
                        coast in the Buzzards Bay region in August and September
                        (figure 2.8). The erratic behavior of hurricanes indicates that
                        hurricane paths are not predictable and that hurricanes will
                        not always come ashore, as they have in the past in Buzzards
                        Bay and Long Island Sound. Winds of a hurricane, which are
                        over 75 m.p.h., move counter-clockwise about the center or
                         eye". Therefore, for south-facing coastlines, the highest
                        winds of a hurricane usually do the most damage to the east
                        of a hurricane's eye.
                            Previous hurricanes have funneled storm tides into south-
                        facing bays such as Buzzards Bay, Narragansett Bay and
                        Mount Hope Bay. For the largest storms the effect was to                                                     Sep . 14-15, 1944
                        increase the height of flooding by as much as three feet at
                        the head of the bays from that experienced on the open
                        coast.  The last major hurricane affecting coastal areas of
                        Massachusetts occurred in 1960.

                        Northeasters
                            Northeasters are similar to   hurricanes because they are
                        both generated in a tropical area, follow the trend of the
                        coastline, and generate large storm tides. They differ in
                        frequency, intensity, size and   areas affected. Northeasters
                        affect the coast from the fall   to the spring, generate wind
                        speeds from 30 to 70 m.p.h., and strike northeast facing
                        coastal areas (figure 2.9).
                            Northeasters are large, asymmetrical low pressure systems
                        that produce counter-clockwise winds. Northeasters usually
                        do not have winds as strong as those of hurricanes, but they
                        can cause extensive damage especially if they coincide with
                        the highest tides of the month or year and if they remain                Figure 2.8   Illustration of tracks of selected hurricanes (after
                        stalled off the coast for two to three days. The Blizzard of                          U.S. A.C.O.E., 1978)
                        '78 is an example of such a northeaster. In that storm 29
                        deaths were inflicted and over 250 million dollars worth
                        of damage occurred.

                                                                                                                                                                  2.6

                                                                                                   formation on shellfish resources in a particular town may be ob-
                                                           CO                                      tained from the town shellfish office.
                                                                                                       Seal haul-out sites
                                                                                                       Migrant, juvenile seals haul themselves out of the water and
                                                                                                   onto barrier beaches along the Outer Cape and Islands. The seals
                                                                                                   haul-out to sun and perhaps rest during low tide. Haul-out sites
                                                                                                   have deep water close to the shore and have a steep bank where
                                                                                                   seals can quickly slide off in times of danger. Variations in haul-
                                                                                                   out behavior occur with the changes in tide level, weather (espe-
                                                                                                   cially sun and wind), ice, and beach conditions.
                                                                                                       Turtle nesting sites
                                                                                                       Turtles, such as the Diamondback Terrapin, migrate to the
                                                                                                   backdune areas of barriers to nest. On Sandy Neck in Barnstable,
                                                                                                   researchers found that ORVs (off-road vehicles) had killed many
                                                                                                   of the young turtles before they were able to reach salt marshes
                                                                                                   and the bay where turtles begin their marine life. As a result of
                                                                                                   recommendations by these researchers, the ORV trails along the
                                                                                                   dune-salt marsh border have been closed. See Recreation, Section
                                                                                                   3 of Chapter 3 for information on managing pedestrian and off-
                                                                                                   road vehicle use near these nesting sites.
                                                                                                       Migratory bird feeding areas
                                                                                                       Migratory shorebirds, such as the Red Knot, use tidal flat
                                                                                                   areas of Massachusetts barrier beaches to feed in preparation for
                                                                                                   their long flight south (figure 2.10). With their high productivity
                                                                                                   of plankton, shell and finfish and aquatic vegetation, these tran-
                                                                                                   quil waters provide migrating shorebirds with crucial resting and
                                      Figure 2.9 Illustration of typical northeaster               feeding areas.
                                                                                                       Colonial shorebird nesting sites
                                                                                                       Colonial shorebirds, such as Terns and Plovers, nest in the
                    Biological Characteristics                                                     foredune/beach zone of barrier beaches. See Recreation, Section
                                                                                                   3 of Chapter 3 for information on managing pedestrian and off-
                        Barrier beaches protect landward wetlands, serve as a habitat              road vehicle use near these nesting sites.
                    for many plants and animals and play a vital role in supporting                    Endangered and threatened species
                    the biological productivity of coastal waters. The following sub-                  Numerous endangered and threatened species of fauna and
                    section briefly describes marsh formation and wildlife habitats,               flora are unique to Massachusetts barrier beaches. Information
                    important biological characteristics of barrier beaches.                       on these species is available from the Natural Heritage Program,
                    Marsh formation                                                                Department of Environmental Management, 100 Cambridge St.,
                        The sediment substrate provided by overwash processes and                  Boston.
                    inlet migration supports the growth and development of wetland
                    plants. Salt marshes, which are some of the most biologically pro-             Sources of Information
                    ductive areas on Earth, form and prosper behind barrier beaches.               A Guide to Coastal Wetlands, Massachusetts DEQE, 1978.
                    Wildlife habitats                                                                  This guide describes the role costal wetlands, such as barrier
                        This section describes some of the important habitats for                  beaches and salt marshes, play in providing storm damage pro-
                    wildlife that are provided by barrier beaches.                                 tection, flood control, and fisheries productivity. The types of
                        Shellfish                                                                  activities regulated by the Wetlands Protection Act are described
                        Shellfish live in the protected sandy tidal flats behind barriers          and recommendations are presented on how these activities can
                    and in the flats and near shore areas in front of some barriers. In-           be designed to avoid damage to the barrier beach.

                    2.7

                                                                                                        Land Use Characteristics

                                                                                                        Human Alterations
                                                                                                            Many land uses of barrier beaches cause alterations of the
                                                                                                        natural characteristics. At one extreme alterations may be quite
                                                                                                        extensive as in the case of urbanized barrier beaches in the
                                                                                                        vicinity of metropolitan areas.       Human alterations to these
                                                             NORTH                                      barriers include residential and commercial construction, roads,
                                                             SHORE                                      sewers, and coastal engineering structures.
                                                                                                            Once year-round houses are constructed on a barrier beach,
                                                                                                        the scenario that often occurs is for the construction of infra-
                                                                                                        structure (sewers, water supply, paved roads, bridges, etc.) then
                                                                                                        the construction of coastal engineering structures to "protect"
                                                                                                        this development.      Rather than protecting the development,
                                                                                                        these engineering structures reduce the protection provided by
                                         BOSTON                                                         the natural characteristics of the barrier landform. Consequent-
                                        HARBOR                                                          ly, storms do more damage to development on the barrier and to
                                                                                                        the engineering structures themselves. Once coastal engineering
                                                                                                        structures are built, it is very difficult to reverse the cycle to
                                                                                                        restore the natural characteristics.
                                                                                                            Storm damaged engineering structures are usually replaced
                                                                                                        with larger, more expensive engineering structures which in turn
                                                    SOUTH                                               encourage more development and investment in the hazard prone
                                                    SHORE                                               location.   Chapter 3, Section I (Human Alteration) presents
                                                                                                        alternatives to this cycle of increasing storm damage by offering
                                                                                                        techniques to correct human alterations. Chapter 3, Section 4
                                                                                                        (Storm Preparation) presents methods to reduce storm damage in
                                                                                                        developed areas.
                                                                                                            In contrast to extensively developed barriers are relatively
                                                                                                        unaltered barrier beaches that are used entirely for recreational
                                                                                                        purposes. Many of these barriers are owned and managed by
                                                                                                        natural resource management agencies, such as the National
                                                                                                        Park Service, the state Department of Environmental Manage-
                                                                                                        ment and local conservation commissions.
                                                                 CAPE COD                                   However, even these undeveloped barriers have some land use
                                                                                                        alterations.  For instance, recreational use by pedestrians and
                                                                                                        off-road vehicles can seriously damage the natural characteristics
                                                                                                        of barrier beaches unless management controls are employed.
                                                                                                        Chapter 3, Section 3 (Recreation) discusses these and other
                                                                                                        potential recreational impacts to barrier beaches and presents
                                                                                                        techniques to manage these impacts.           Chapter 3, Section 2
                                                                                                        (Acquisition) describes government and private programs which
                                                                                                        may be used to acquire barrier beach property for recreation as
                                                                                                        an alternative to development.
                                                                                                            Human alteration on all barrier beaches is managed through
                                                                                                        regulatory programs. Chapter 3, Section 5 (Regulation) lists the
                              Figure 2.10 Illustration of shorebird stopover sites                      federal and state regulatory programs for barrier beaches. Nu-
                                                                                                        merous options for local regulation of barrier beaches are also

                                                                                                                                                                             2.8

                   included in that section.                                                      are considered (Chapter 2, Physical Characteristics and Appen-
                                                                                                  dix B - Technical and Educational Assistance).
                   Hazards
                       Coastal storms cause flooding and erosion to residential and
                   commercial development on barrier beaches. These hazards can                   Sources of Information
                   threaten the safety and health of residents. For example, in the
                   year 1900, 6,000 residents died on Galveston Island when a                     Proceedings of "The Blizzard of '78": its effects on the coastal
                   hurricane overwashed this Texas barrier beach.
                       On barrier beaches in Massachusetts there is a long history of             environment of southeastern New England.
                   life loss and property damage. Table 2.1 lists these storm statis-                 This booklet is the proceedings volume of a conference
                   tics for Massachusetts during this century.                                    sponsored by Boston State College on the Blizzard of '78.
                                                                                                  Accounts of Massachusetts barrier beach damage, particularly in
                                                                                                  the Winthrop and Scituate areas is described. Other topics
                                                                                                  covered include washover identification, sand movement during
                       Table 2.1 Coastal storms of the 20th century                               storms, erosion, and storm models.
                                                                                                  Coastal Flooding in Barnstable County, Cape Cod, Mass.
                       DATE                         DEATHS DAMAGE*               TYPE             Crane, Donald A., Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Water
                       February 6, 1978             29         $250 M             NE              Resources Commission, Boston, 1962.
                       February 19, 1972            -          $9,166,000         NE                  A general overview of storm damage due to coastal flooding
                       January 1961                 -         $10,000,000         NE              in Barnstable County is provided with tabulated information on
                       September 1960                3         $1,222,000            H            storms occurring from 1635 to 1909. Specific information
                                                                                                  on storm damage to Cape barrier beaches is provided, including
                       December 29, 1959            -          $1,352,000         NE              flood hazard maps.
                       September 19, 1954           60         $454 M                H            Massachusetts Coastal Study, ACOE NE Division 1978
                       November 1953                -          -                  NE                  This study provides storm information for 'hurricanes from
                       September 1950               -          $400,000           NE              1938 to 1960, and northeasters from 1909 to 1972. A commen-
                       November 1947                -          -                  NE              tary on the storms provides information on dates, storm type,
                       November 28, 1945            -                             NE              maximum tide, wind, precipitation, and -death and damage
                       August 1944                  40         $2,635,000            H            estimates.    Information on specific types of damage such as
                                                                                                  residential, commercial, and transportation is provided for some
                       April 20, 1940               -                             NE              of Massachusetts' more recent coastal storms.
                       December 26, 1909                                          NE
                       *All damage estimates are corrected to    1977 cost levels.

                       Flood information is available from       Flood Insurance Rate
                   Maps and Flood Hazard Boundary Maps, both of which are
                   available from FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency).
                   These maps delineate areas of a 100-year storm, which is a storm
                   with a one percent chance of happening in any given year.
                   There are two principal types of flood hazard delineated on these
                   maps, the areas that would be flooded by still water (A-zone)
                   and those areas that would experience flooding with velocity
                   (V-zone). The effects of erosion during such a storm are not
                   indicated on these maps.         Since erosion produces shoreline
                   change during these catastrophic storms, these hazards should be
                   considered with flood hazards when management techniques

                   2.9

                       Chapter 3: Management of Barrier Beaches

                                                                                                      management sections are included in this chapter: Section 1,
                               Introduction    .....................        3.1                       human alteration; Section 2, acquisition; Section 3, recreation;
                               Section I    Human Alteration     ........   3.1                       Section 4, storm preparation; and Section 5, regulation. Each
                               Section 2    Acquisition   .............     3.7                       section has information which is applicable to all barrier beaches
                                                                                                      except Section 4, storm preparation, which is concerned only
                               Section 3    Recreation  .............     3.10                        with developed barrier beaches.
                               Section 4    Storm Preparation   .......   3.13
                               Section 5    Regulation  .............     3.14                        Section I        Human Alteration

                       Introduction:                                                                          Introduction    .....................       3.1
                           Management practices for Massachusetts barrier beaches vary                        Coastal Engineering Structures     .......  3.1
                       depending on such factors as historic land use, flooding and ero-                      Dredging   ........................         3.4
                       sion hazards, natural resource values, economics, and ownership.                       Filling and Removal     ...............     3.4
                       At one extreme, some barrier beaches are extensively developed,                        Houses, Roads, and Utilities    .........   3.5
                       for example Revere Beach (figure 3.1). On the other hand, some                         Trails and Paths  ...................       3.6
                       barriers are pristine and virtually free from any alterations. Such                    Dune Building    ....................       3.6
                       unaltered barrier beaches are rare in Massachusetts since most uses                    Beach Building    ...................       3.7
                       of a barrier beach will cause an alteration to one of its character-
                       istics. The key to sound management is to accommodate uses
                       that neither cause deterioration of the natural characteristics,
                       nor increase hazards.                                                          Introduction
                           This chapter assumes that the reader has identified the bar-
                       rier beach (Chapter 1), and is familiar with the natural and land                  This section describes common human alterations to barrier
                       use characteristics of the barrier beach (Chapter 2). Five major               beaches and proposes methods for correcting the adverse effects
                                                                                                      Of these alterations. The types of human alterations are divided
                                                                                                      into the same general categories as appear in the state Guide to
                                                                                                        oas
                                                                                                           tal Wetlands: coastal engineering structures; dredging; filling
                                                                                                      a
                                                                                                       nd removal; houses, roads, and utilities; and trails and paths. For
                                                                                                      each type of alteration, techniques are presented that will help re
                                                                                                      duce storm damage losses and restore characteristics of the bar-
                                                                                   &                  ner beach that provide storm protection and biological values.
                                                                                                      Following the discussion of human alterations, techniques for
                                                                                                      rebuilding altered dune and beach areas of barrier beaches are dis-
                                                                                                      cussed.

                                                                                                      Coastal engineering structures

                                                                                              i           Coastal engineering structures are devices of rock, steel, tim-
                                                                                                      ber or concrete designed and constructed to prevent or minimize
                                                                                                      flooding and erosion of specific sites along the coast. They may
                                                                                                                                                                      ar
                                                                                                      also be constructed to maintain navigation channels and h bors.
                                                                                      "-k             Coastal engineering structures often interrupt the natural process-
                                       Figure 3.1 Photo of Revere Beach                               es of the shoreline. While the purpose of these structures is to trap

                                                                                                                                                                            3.1

                   sediment in front of one person's property, they usually increase              When storms destroy or damage a groin, this is the critical time
                   erosion of adjacent or down-beach properties. These structures                 to consider whether it must be rebuilt or if modifications 2-4 be-
                   are grouped according to their location and design: groins and                 low are feasible.
                   jetties, seawalls and revetments, and offshore breakwaters.                    2. Shorten groin
                                                                                                      By removing the seaward end of a groin to its entrapment
                   groins and jetties                                                             capacity sand can begin to move around the end of the structure
                       These structures are located on the beach perpendicular to                 to restore the down-beach area.
                   the shoreline. As is true of most other coastal engineering struc-             3. Lower height of groin
                   tures, groins and jetties may be constructed of such varied mater-                 Removal of the top of a groin can allow sand to move over the
                   ials as rock, steel, timber or concrete. The most important and                structure, and thus build up the down-beach area.
                   obvious effect of these structures is to interrupt the movement                4. Increase porosity of groin
                   of sediment along the beach. This brings about an increase in                      "Porosity" of a groin refers to the number and size of holes
                   beach width and elevation on the updrift side of the groin or                  between the rocks of a groin. By removing rocks from within the
                   jetty with accompanying loss of beach width and height or erosion              groin, sand can begin to be moved through the groin to the down-
                   on the downdrift side (figure 3.2). The erosion or decrease in                 beach area.
                   volume of the downdrift beach diminishes the storm protection ca-              5. Nourish beach
                   pability of the beach. Resultant changes in sediment size, beach                   "Nourishment" refers to the placement of sand on a beach or
                   elevations, and changes in circulation that may accompany groin-               barrier beach to increase its volume. The feasibility of nourish-
                   and jetty-related erosion may also damage shellfish and finfish                ment should be evaluated in combination with modifications to
                   resources by removing their habitat.                                           the groin structure (described in 1-4 above). Sand used for nour-
                                                                                                  ishment should be similar in size to that of the natural beach.
                                                                                                  Sometimes sand of a larger size is necessary for nourishment if
                                                                                                  all natural sources of sand have been depleted. To determine if
                                                                                                  sand is "compatible" with the nourishment site, scientific assis-
                    Q    0                                          4 if 0..                      tance should be sought (see appendix B).
                                                                                                      Nourishment sand may be obtained from several different
                                 osion                                                                         by different methods. Sand may be moved from up-
                               e                                                                  sources and
                                                                                                  drift of a groin to the downdrift beach with an earthmoving ma-
                     k%j
                                                                                                  chine such as a front-end loader. Sand dredged from navigation
                                                                                                  channels may be pumped onto the eroded beach with hydraulic
                                                                                                  machinery. Typically, sand nourishment must be performed per-
                                                                                                  iodically if the source of natural sand no longer exists for a given
                                                             %            -------
                       @g, in effects           .SHORTENING            REMOVAL                    beach area. Beach erosion rates should be determined (as discussed
                                                                                                  in Chapter 2, Shoreline Change); the sources of sand and the me-
                              Figure 3.2    Illustration of groin alternatives                    chanisms of beach nourishment must be investigated, and the fre-
                                                                                                  quency and volume of sand necessary to maintain the beach must
                                                                                                  be identified. Storm frequency and magnitude can greatly affect
                   Groin -corrective techniques                                                   how much and how often sand nourishment may be required.
                       Several techniques are    suggested to restore beaches affected
                   by groins. Generally it is desirable to make modifications such that           Jetty-corrective techniques
                   sand movement along the beach will be renewed and downdrift                        Jetties are constructed to maintain a navigation inlet in a fixed
                   areas will refill with sand again. Alternatives are presented as fol-          position. Often the corrective techniques used for groins are un-
                   lows.                                                                          workable for jetties because of the need to insure safe navigation.
                   1. Remove groin                                                                As with groins, the alternatives should be reviewed in a step by
                       If it is economically and physically feasible to remove the groin          step fashion to determine which approach is most feasible and
                   this may be the best alternative. Removing the groin leads to a                desirable.
                   straightening of the shoreline: up-beach of the removed structure,             1. By-pass sand across inlet
                   sand will be lost, and down-beach the sand volume will increase.                   To restore the movement of sand along the beach, sand must

                   3.2

                       be moved from the updrift side of the inlet to the downdrift as                 ly with a permanent pumping station set up for inlet systems with
                        shown in figure 3.3. Sand "by-passing" is a mechanical way of                  a large volume of sediment movement along the beach. In Mass-
                       moving sand along the beach. By-passing may be done continuous-                 achusetts, by-passing may be necessary only periodically. Sand is
                                                                                                       dredged as often as is needed to keep the navigation channel from
                                                                                    OCEAN              filling, to maintain the size of the downdrift barrier beach, and
                                                     longshore drift
                                                                                                       to insure that erosion and overwashing of the downdrift barrier
                                                                                                       beach is not accelerated.
                                                           updrift sand
                                                                                                       2. Use dredge material to nourish downdrift beaches
                                                             buildup
                           ........ .. ...                                                                  (See dredging-corrective techniques).

                                                                                 Tidal Delta           seawalls and revetments
                                                                                                            Seawalls and revetments are structures placed parallel to
                                                                                                       the  orientation of the shoreline. They are usually located on
                            B                                                                          the  landward side of the beach in front of coastal dunes, if dunes
                                                               Downdrift                               are  present. They may be constructed of steel, rock, timber, or
                                                                 Erosion                               concrete. Seawalls are typically massive structures designed to
                                                                                                       keep landward areas from flooding and eroding (figure 3.4).

                            Tidal
                            Delta

                                                                                                                       4@,

                                                                                                                                                it
                                                     -----------

                                                %;
                                                                                   Dredging
                                       V                                           Operation                               Figure 3.4 Photo of seawall
                                                                                                       Revetments are     usually aprons of rock or concrete       which are
                                                                                                       placed as a covering over the seaward face of a coastal dune or
                                                                                                       placed seaward of a seawall to reduce wave scour at the seawall
                                                                                                       base .
                                                                                  OCEAN
                                                                                                            Seawalls and revetments trap the source of dune sand that is
                                                                                                       required to naturally resupply the beach. Seawalls can also cause
                                                                                                       erosion in front of them due to the reflection of storm waves.
                                                                                                       Over the longer term the most serious adverse effect of seawalls
                                                                                                       and revetments is their interference with the landward shifting
                                                                                                       of the barrier beach. As discussed in Chapter 2, barrier beaches
                                  Figure 3.3 Illustration of jetty alternatives                        must be able to move landward to keep up with rising sea level.

                                                                                                                                                                             3.3

                   If the barriers do not shift landward, storm damage will intensify            material from areas that build up behind the breakwater (see
                   as the size of the barrier is diminished. Likewise, the costs of              dredging-corrective techniques).
                   maintaining a seawall will accelerate, and adjacent non-seawalled
                   barrier areas will experience severe erosion.
                                                                                                 Dredging
                   Seawalls and revetments-corrective techniques                                     Dredging is the mechanical removal of sediment from inter-
                       It is usually difficult to correct the problems associated with           tidal or subtidal areas. It is typically performed to allow safe
                   seawalls. As with groins, the critical time to consider corrective            navigation through inlet channels and shallow bays behind barrier
                   approaches for these structures is immediately after they have                beaches.   Dredging seaward of a barrier beach can adversely
                   been damaged or destroyed by a storm. Instead of automatically                affect a barrier beach by removing a portion of the offshore bar
                   rebuilding the seawall, an effort should be made to determine the             which is part of the barrier beach sand system. It can also change
                   feasibility of one or a combination of the following alternatives.            the coastal processes such as wave direction and height which
                   1. After the storm, evaluate if seawall must be rebuilt.                      determine the shape and volume of the landform. Consequently,
                       Alternatives to rebuilding the seawall may be non-structural              dredging should be done far enough seaward of a barrier beach
                   efforts such as dune construction and beach nourishment. These                and should avoid causing deep holes which change the direction
                   measures may be combined with the relocation or modification                  and height of waves. Dredging should not remove portions of
                   of houses or other buildings behind the seawall. If landward                  tidal flats or subtidal bottom areas behind a barrier beach be-
                   structures are substantially damaged, they may qualify for                    cause the substrate necessary for marsh growth and for the land-
                   relocation financial assistance from FEMA (see Acquisition,                   ward shifting of the barrier is eliminated.
                   Section 2).
                   2. If seawall must be rebuilt, modify seawall design and nourish              Dredging-corrective techniques
                       beach.                                                                    1. Use dredge material to nourish downdrift beaches.
                       Seawalls must be rebuilt in certain situations. For example,                  To maintain the size of downdrift beaches, clean dredged
                   there may be insufficient room to allow artificial dune construc-             material of similar grain size should be used for nourishment.
                   tion; sources of compatible sediment may not be available; or                 The tidal deltas on the seaward (ebb) side and bay (flood) side
                   the expense of any one or a combination of these techniques                   of an inlet are often good sources of compatible beach sediment.
                   may be prohibitive. In these situations techniques to modify the              Frequently such deltas are dredged because they are shallow
                   seawall should be used including: moving the seawall landward,                sand bodies that interfere with navigation. Scientific assistance
                   placing a more gradual face on the seawall, placing a sloped                  should be obtained to aid in the evaluation of proposals for
                   revetment in front of the seawall, and nourishing the beach in                dredging and beach nourishment.
                   front of the seawall.                                                         2. Navigation channels immediately behind barrier beach should
                                                                                                     be moved.
                   offshore breakwaters                                                              When dredging is required to maintain a navigation channel
                       An offshore breakwater is usually constructed in shallow                  immediately behind a barrier beach, the channel should be re-
                   water seaward of and parallel to the barrier beach. It is a massive           located slightly landward to keep up with the rate of barrier
                   structure built to provide a harbor of refuge in the lee of the               beach landward shifting. (See Chapter 2, Shoreline Change, to
                   structure (e.g. the Provincetown Harbor Breakwater) or in an                  obtain information on shoreline change rate). Dredged material
                   attempt to reduce severe storm damage to beachfront property                  of appropriate grain size that is removed from the channel should
                   (e.g. the Five Sisters Breakwater of Winthrop). Breakwaters                   be placed on the barrier beach.
                   interrupt longshore sediment transport by changing the direction
                   and energy of waves. Beaches on the downdrift side are eroded                 Filling and Removal
                   because sand is trapped between the breakwater and the shore.
                   Offshore Brea kwa ters-correc tive techniques                                     Filling refers to the artificial placement of material on a
                                                                                                 barrier beach; removal is the artificial extraction of sediment
                   Dredge behind breakwater and nourish eroding beaches                          from a portion of a barrier beach. Removal reduces the volume
                       Beach areas adjacent to the offshore breakwater which                     of the beach or dunes and diminishes their effectiveness as
                   experience erosion may be nourished periodically with dredged                 storm buffers. Filling and removal changes the natural contours

                   3.4

                     and processes that shape a barrier beach. Filling with sediment                 To completely eliminate the adverse affects and hazards
                     of compatible composition and grain size is called "nourishment"            caused by development on barrier beaches, all structures would
                     (see dredging). Filling with incompatible sediment can change               have to be removed. This is not a reasonable alternative in most
                     the way the barrier beach and dunes respond to coastal forces.              circumstances. However, if a coastal storm does major damage
                     This alteration can result in increased erosion, interference with          to structures on a barrier beach, relocation should be seriously
                     landward movement of the barrier, and disturbance of natural                investigated before rebuilding is considered.
                     vegetation.                                                                     Financial incentives are available to owners of storm-damaged
                                                                                                 dwellings for relocation out of coastal flood areas. Two acquisi-
                     Filling and removal-corrective techniques                                   tion programs, administered by the Federal Emergency Manage-
                         It is very difficult to correct damage caused when inappro-             ment Agency (FEMA), are described in the acquisition section.
                     priate fill has been placed on a barrier beach. Where sediment                  The following additional steps should be taken to minimize
                     removal has occurred, restoration can be achieved by replace-               disturbance caused by houses, roads, and utilities to the natural
                     ment with appropriate grain sized sediment and revegetation with            resources of the barrier beach and reduce hazards associated with
                     beachgrass. A geornorphologist should be consulted to determine             these alterations.
                     the appropriate grain size and volume of sediment to restore the            1. Acquire barrier beach property.
                     barrier beach area.                                                             Acquisition is one of the most effective ways to manage a
                        Artificial dune building is one effective method of restoring            barrier beach. Numerous federal, state, local, and private pro-
                     the barrier beach in areas where dunelines have been removed.               grams are available for barrier beach acquisition (see Acquisi-
                     The design and construction of an artificial dune requires analysis         tion, Section 2).
                     of specific beach and dune characteristics, erosion rates, and              2. Prohibit new construction on the barrier beach.
                     vegetation needs. Sand from the beach should not be used to
                     build dunes, because the volume of the protective beach is                      All new construction should be prohibited on most barrier
                     reduced. Therefore off-site sources of sand, such as sand an       d        beaches.   Several recent judicial and regulatory decisions have
                     gravel pits, must be considered.      Artificial dune building is           concluded    that houses, utilities, and septic systems adversely
                     environmentally preferable to structural approaches, such as                affect the resources of barrier beaches and pose health and
                     groins or jetties. However, it is expensive and is usually used             safety problems. Implementation of prohibitions on new con-
                     only when valuable property and resources are particularly                  struction may be accomplished through local by-laws, (Wetlands,
                     vulnerable to storm damage.                                                 Board of Health, Building Code) and state coastal wetland
                                                                                                 regulations.
                     Houses, Roads, and Utilities                                                3. Prohibit construction in the velocity zone or foredune
                                                                                                     (primary dune) of the barrier beach.
                        Houses, roads, and utilities are types of development existing               It may not be feasible to prohibit all new construction on
                     on some barrier beaches in Massachusetts. Some of these land-               some extensively altered barriers.       However, at a minimum
                     uses have greatly altered the physical and biological character-            construction should be prohibited in the velocity zone or on the
                     istics of barrier beaches and created flood and erosion hazards.            first large dune landward of the beach. (This dune is sometimes
                     Housing development on barrier beaches has led to other types of            called the foredune or the primary dune).
                     alterations such as coastal engineering structures, roads, and              4. Move buildings
                     utilities. Since the signing of Executive Order No. 181 on barrier              As buildings are increasingly threatened by coastal storm
                     beaches in 1980, Massachusetts policy regarding such construc-              damage, they should be moved to a more landward location
                     tion projects on barrier beaches is that state and federal funds            preferably off the barrier beach.       A Coast Guard life-saving
                     "shall not be used to encourage growth and development in                   station, threatened with destruction by storm overwash, was
                     hazard-prone barrier beach areas" (see Appendix A - Executive               recently moved from the Nauset barrier beach in Chatham.
                     Order for Barrier Beaches). Typical projects which encourage                If it is feasible to move the building off the barrier beach, it
                     growth and development of barrier beaches are: new water,                   should be relocated landward as far as possible. A geomorpholo-
                     sewer, and natural gas lines for residential, commercial, or                gist should be consulted to help determine the setback distance
                     industrial purposes; new septic systems; and new or expanded                based on the predicted shoreline change rate (see Chapter 2,
                     roads and bridges.                                                          Shoreline Change).

                                                                                                                                                                    3.5

                   5. Elevate or floodproof existing dwellings and develop a                    of these landforms, thereby reducing the storm protection
                       storm preparedness plan for developed areas.                             provided for landward property and wetlands. The purpose of
                       For those areas where moving a threatened dwelling is not                this subsection is to describe techniques to rebuild altered dunes
                   feasible due to lack of land or financial considerations, dwellings          or create new dunes where they have been completely destroyed.
                   should be elevated or floodproofed to the maximum extent                         Natural dunes are formed when wind- blown sand forms a
                   possible. This should be done after consultation with the local              hill with the help of stabilizing vegetation. The essential ele-
                   building inspectors (see Storm Preparation-Section 4).                       ments for the formation of a natural dune are:
                   6. Restore open-space areas with natural landforms and vege-                     1. sand
                       tation.                                                                      2. wind
                       Most barrier beaches, even developed barriers, have areas                    3. vegetation
                   of open space. These areas may be prime sites for restoring dune                 Altered dune areas may be restored by using techniques
                   landforms by planting beacligrass or replenishing dune sand,                 which help provide natural ingredients for dune building. These
                   Open space areas closest to the beach should receive priority                are presented as follows with the easiest techniques first.
                   for restoration because they are the first line of buffer against
                   coastal storms.                                                              Vegetation
                   7. Use open pile and temporary walkways over dune areas.
                       Foot traffic can kill beacligrass vegetation which stabilizes                If beachgrass or other dune plants have been destroyed by
                   the dunes. Loss of the stabilizing vegetation can cause loss of              human alteration, disease, or other causes, planting may be
                   dune sand by wind erosion. These impacts can be dramatically                 required.   American Beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) is
                   reduced by building walkways on piles or by placing temporary                the best plant to use for this purpose in Massachusetts. Two
                   walkways over foredunes for beach access (figure 3.5).                       options are available for obtaining beachgrass: harvesting the
                                                                                                plants from adjacent, healthy areas, or purchasing plants from
                                                                                                commercial nurseries. Towns and private organizations may wish
                                                                                                to develop a local nursery stock.
                                                                                                    Where disease in beachgrass occurs, bitter panicum may be
                                                                                                planted between the beachgrass to control disease and help
                                                                                                build the dune. Proper foredune slope may be achieved by
                                                                                                decreasing the distance between rows as the dune crest or pro-
                                                                                                posed dune crest is approached from the beach. Planting in
                                                                                                staggered rows parallel to the duneline and b6ach is the most
                                                                                                effective method. If large, flat areas exceeding an acre are to be
                                                                                                planted, mechanical planters may be an efficient planting meth-
                                                                                                od, however, a large well-organized group can easily perform the
                                                                                                same task.

                                                                                                Wind
                                                                                                    In coastal areas strong winds that blow in off the water pick
                                                                                                up  sand from the beach and carry it landward to the dune.
                                                                                                Dune volume depends in part on the frequency of these strong
                                 Figure 3.5 Photo of dune walkover                              sea breezes. Sand is deposited on the dunes because the wind
                                                                                                velocity is reduced here and vegetation traps the blowing sand.
                   Trails and Paths                                                             Fences can be used to build dunes because they reduce wind
                                                                                                velocity and help trap sand.
                       The restoration of barrier beach areas modified by trails and                In highly exposed areas, sets of sand fence installed parallel
                   paths is discussed in the Recreation Section.                                to the beach and dune face build a dune more quickly than
                                                                                                beacligrass plantings (Knutson, 1977).        The most effective
                   Dune Building                                                                technique, however, is to plant beacligrass in conjunction with
                                                                                                fence use.
                       Human alterations to barrier dunes can decrease the volume                   The best fence material to use is snow fence with a 50%

                   3.6

                    porosity, held in place by posts at 10 to 15 foot intervals. Snow                Dune Building and Stabilization with Vegetation, W.W. Wood-
                    fence is widely available, catches sand better than brush fence,                 house Jr., 1978 C.E.R.C.
                    is less expensive than fabric fence, requires less labor to install                   This report discusses the use of fences and vegetation for
                    than fabric or brush fence, and is less subject to vandalism than                dune creation and gives practical information on fencing and
                    fabric fence (Woodhouse, 1978).                                                  planting techniques.
                    Sand                                                                             Planting Guidelines for Dune Creation and Stabilization, P.L.
                        The source of sand for natural dune building is the adjacent                 Knutson, 1977 C.E.R.C.
                    beach. Where beach volume has been reduced by human altera-                           This report provides guidelines for selecting plants, planting
                    tions (such as coastal engineering structures) another sand source               methods, storing and maintaining plants, and estimating labor
                    may be required. Sand which is artificially or mechanically                      requirements for planting projects.
                    brought in to build a dune should be compatible with the sand                    How to Build and Save Beaches and Dunes, J.A. Jagschitz and
                    in adjacent natural dunes (see "nourishment" in the filling and                  R.C. Wakefield, 1971, U.R.I. Marine Pamphlet no. 4.
                    removal subsection). Vegetative plantings should be done in                           This leaflet explains how the individual owner can use snow
                    conjunction with this artificial dune construction.                              fences and vegetation to build and save dunes.
                        The dimensions of an artificial dune should be similar to                    Landscaping the Seashore Cottage, R.A. Goodno, 1978, Coop.
                    adjacent unaltered natural dunes, if the latter are available for                Ext. Service USDA.
                    comparison. If not, a coastal geornorphologist should be consult-                     This leaflet is for homeowners living on the seashore. It
                    ed to determine the optimum dune dimensions and locations (see                   offers suggestions for location and types of landscaping features
                    Appendix B).                                                                     and dune protective planting.
                        Where buildings have replaced dunes, buildings should be
                    moved if possible, to provide sufficient room for construction
                    of an artificial dune.                                                           Section 2         Acquisition
                    Beach Building                                                                           Introduction    .................      3.7
                        When the volume of a beach is reduced by human alterations,                          Federal   .....................        3.7
                    less storm protection is afforded. When this situation exists on                         State  .......................         3.8
                    a densely developed barrier beach, beach building or beach                               Local  .......................         3.8
                    nourishment may be economically justified.             Because beach                     Private  ......................        3.9
                    nourishment is usually very expensive, this technique should be
                    considered only if all other efforts such as acquisition, housing
                    set-backs, etc. have failed (see houses, roads, and utilities sub-
                    section). An economic assessment of nourishment should be
                    performed to evaluate the feasibility of this type of protection.                Introduction
                        Nourishment sand, such as the dredged material that is taken
                    from inlets , should be used for beach nourishment (see dredging                      Public acquisition of barrier beaches is one of the best
                    subsection).                                                                     techniques for protecting the beach's natural characteristics and
                                                                                                     eliminating storm damage, and at the same time increasing
                                                                                                     coastal recreation opportunities. This section describes public
                    Sources of Information                                                           and private programs in Massachusetts for the acquisition of
                                                                                                     barrier beach property.
                    Beach and Dune Nourishment Guidelines, Shore Protection
                    Manual, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, C.E.R.C, 1977.                             Federal
                        This manual contains several useful sections concerning beach
                    and dune building. Guidelines for beach nourishment are dis-                          The federal government acquires barrier beach property
                    cussed including a technical review for determining the compati-                 through its land management agencies, the National Park Service
                    bility of sediment.                                                              and the Fish and Wildlife Service. The National Park Service

                                                                                                                                                                            3.7

                   owns most of the barrier beaches of the Outer Cape in the Cape                     4.    South Beach. Federal Land and Water Conservation
                   Cod National Seashore.       On the Massachusetts North Shore,                 Funds were used to acquire this 68-acre site on Martha's Vine-
                   the Fish and Wildlife Service manages the southern three quarters              yard which includes a barrier beach. The town of Edgartown has
                   of Plum Island as a wildlife refuge and on Cape Cod, Monomoy                   assumed responsibility for managing this area.
                   Island as a wilderness area. In addition, federal Land and Water                   Previously acquired barrier beach properties, such as Salis-
                   Conservation Funds are provided to the state which disburses                   bury Beach State Reservation and Horseneck Beach State Reser-
                   them to local municipalities for land acquisition.                             vation, are the subject of new master planning efforts to improve
                                                                                                  public recreational amenities while restoring and preserving the
                   State                                                                          natural values of the coastal landforms.
                                                                                                      The Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) is the other
                       The Department of Environmental Management (DEM),                          major state land management agency with barrier beach holdings.
                   the Commonwealth's principal land management agency, is                        MDC operates twenty beach areas comprising approximately
                   responsible for acquiring, conserving, and managing most state-                1,000 acres on the shoreline from Lynn to Hull; many of these
                   owned barrier beach properties.                                                areas are barrier beaches including Revere Beach and Nantasket
                       Through the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation                     Beach. While no major properties are currently available for
                   Plan (SCORP), DEM defines its annual program of state acquisi-                 acquisition along Boston Harbor's heavily developed shoreline,
                   tion and local funding for acquisition. SCORP recently recom-                  new acquisition opportunities may arise after future coastal
                   mended an aggressive program of barrier beach acquisition                      storm damage.
                   through the following programs: DEM capital budget outlay,
                   federal Land and Water Conservation Funds, state Self-Help                     Local
                   and Urban Self-Help funds, and Federal Emergency Manage-
                   ment Agency (FEMA) funds. The 1981 capital outlay proposal                         Community acquisition of barrier beaches can serve a variety
                   requested and received legislative approval of a one million dollar            of  local objectives including prevention of development in
                   bonding authorization for the acquisition of coastal properties                hazardous areas, protection of natural buffer areas, enhancement
                   by DEM.                                                                        of recreational opportunities, and protection of wildlife habitat.
                       The Barrier Beach Executive Order also directed DEM to                     Though highly vulnerable to severe damage, coastal property is
                   acquire or assist towns in acquiring remaining undeveloped                     typically very expensive and therefore often considered beyond
                   barrier beach properties.     In response to the Barrier Beach                 the financial reach of community acquisition. However, through
                   Executive Order which establishes a high priority for barrier                  federal and state funding programs, private foundations, local
                   beach acquisition, DEM targeted more than 30 sites for acquisi-                land trusts, and individual donations, communities can reduce
                   tion and management and more than 20 properties for coastal                    the costs of acquiring and managing barrier beach property.
                   towns to consider. DEM technical assistance is available to towns                  In addition to high cost, loss of tax revenue is sometimes
                   interested in the acquisition of these coastal sites.                          perceived as another drawback to local acquisition. Anticipated
                       Examples of DEM initiatives since the Executive Order was                  tax losses, however, may be offset by increased tourism and
                   issued include:                                                                attendant commercial benefits which result from enhanced
                       1. Merrimack Life Saving Station. A 54-acre surplus pro-                   recreational open space. Additionally, land used for open space
                   perty at the northern tip of Plum Island barrier beach was                     rather than for development saves tax money in the long run
                   obtained from the Coast Guard.                                                 as this use places fewer demands on tax-raised revenues. Finally,
                       2. Scituate. Using FEMA       1362 funds (see 1362 Program                 future storm damage costs which are shouldered by the general
                   Section 4), 6 acres of undeveloped barrier beach on Egypt and                  public are avoided in these hazard-prone areas.
                   Peggotty beaches were acquired from ten willing sellers, and                       Examples of Massachusetts barrier beaches in part or full
                   leased to the Town of Scituate for passive recreation use by the               community ownership include: Wingaersheek Beach, Glouces-
                   public. Hull is also a priority area for this type of acquisition.             ter; Peggotty Beach, Scituate; Rexhame Beach, Marshfield;
                       3. South Cape Beach. The Department received legislative                   Saquish Beach and Long Beach, Plymouth; Sandy Neck, Barn-
                   approval for the acquisition of a 131-acre parcel in Mashpee                   stable; Nauset Beach, Orleans and Chatham; Red River Beach,
                   which contains a large barrier beach system. This area is included             Harwich; Sea Gull Beach and Grays Beach, Yarmouth; Davis
                   in the Waquoit Bay ACEC (Area of Critical Environmental                        Beach and Chapin Beach, Dennis; First Encounter Beach, East-
                   Concern).                                                                      ham; Ballston Beach and Gull Island (Pamet North Spit), Truro;

                   3.8

                     Bournes Pond, Falmouth; Esther Island and Muskeget Island,                   A gift of land can provide the donor with attractive tax reduc-
                     Nantucket; and Norton Point Beach, Dukes County. The West-                   tions.
                     port Conservation Commission owns 50 acres on the west end of                   The Trustees of Reservations is a privately -administered,
                     Horseneck Beach.                                                             charitable corporation in Massachusetts whose purpose is to
                         The Division of Conservation Services in the Executive                   acquire and preserve places of significant natural and historical
                     Office of Environmental Affairs administers three programs                   interest for public use. Trustees holdings include the 1352-
                     which assist Massachusetts municipalities in acquiring and/or                acre Crane's Reservation encompassing Castle Neck, Ipswich;
                     developing recreation and conservation areas and facilities:                 the 810-acre Coatue Wildlife Refuge, Nantucket; the 484-acre
                         1. The federal Land and Water Conservation Fund. Estab-                  Cape Poge Wildlife Refuge and the 200-acre Wasque Reservation,
                     lished by Congress in 1965, this fund provides up to 50% reim-               Chappaquiddick; and the Long Point Wildlife Refuge, West
                     bursement to states and their political subdivisions for acquisi-            Tisbury. Additionally, the Trustees operate the largest conserva-
                     tion and development of public outdoor recreation areas and                  tion restriction (1900 acres) in the Commonwealth on Nasha-
                     facilities. Funds are not available for operation or maintenance.            wena Island (Elizabeth Islands); a 175 acre parcel on the eastern
                     One of the requisites for obtaining monies through this fund is              end is a barrier beach.
                     consistency with the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recrea-                    A conservation restriction is a legal means of protecting an
                     tion Plan (SCORP).                                                           area's natural and scenic qualities.      It prevents fundamental
                         2. The Massachusetts Self-Help Program. Established in                   changes in the present land patterns and limits development
                     1961, this fund provides up to 80% reimbursement for the                     while according the owner full title to and exclusive use of the
                     acquisition of conservation lands to communities with estab-                 property.
                     lished conservation commissions. Since the intent of this pro-                  The Nature Conservancy is a national conservation organiza-
                     gram is to preserve lands and waters in their natural state, its             tion which acquires areas of outstanding natural or ecological
                     funds may be used only for acquisition of land for conservation              value through donations or purchase. Some areas are retained
                     or passive recreation purposes.                                              and managed by the Conservancy, while others are transferred
                         3. The Massachusetts Urban Self-Help Program. Established                or sold to other appropriate agencies that are prepared to protect
                     in 1977, this fund provides up to 80% reimbursement for the                  them.   Although the Nature Conservancy currently owns no
                     acquisition of park or recreation lands. To qualify, a city or               barrier beach properties in Massachusetts, it has purchased an
                     town must have a population of at least 35,000 and a park or                 important chain of barrier beaches known as the Virginia Coast
                     recreation commission and conservation commission.                           Reserve. These thirteen islands, ten of which are owned entirely
                         To apply for any of these programs, a municipality must                  by the Conservancy, are held and managed in their undeveloped
                     submit to the Division of Conservation Services, or have on file,            state for research, education, and recreation.
                     an approved open space/re creation plan that has been developed                 Smaller private groups also play an essential role in pre-
                     or updated within the past five years. Each project considered               serving barrier beach property in Massachusetts. The Essex
                     for funding is reviewed for consistency with its conservation/               County Greenbelt Association, a non-profit conservation organi-
                     recreation plan and the SCORP. Requirements for planning                     zation, owns a 65-acre reservation and has a 60-acre conserva-
                     documents and technical assistance are available from the Divi-              tion restriction on the Wingaersheek barrier beach. Five miles of
                     sion of Conservation Services, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston,                 Duxbury Beach owned by the Duxbury Beach Reservation are
                     MA 02202, (617) 727-15 5 2.                                                  leased to the town of Duxbury on an annual basis. The Nan-
                                                                                                  tucket Conservation Foundation owns 323.9 acres in assorted
                     Private                                                                      parcels known as the Coatue Wildlife Refuge.

                         Twenty-two percent of the Massachusetts coastline is pro-
                     tected from future development through ownership by public                   Sources of Information
                     and private conservation agencies. Private organizations which
                     acquire barrier beach property by purchase or gift can provide               State
                     permanent stewardship and transfer or re-sale to public resource             Commonwealth of Massachusetts
                     management agencies. Private agencies also occasionally nego-                Division of Conservation Services
                     tiate acquisitions to avoid the sometimes time-consuming pro-                100 Cambridge Street
                     cedures of obtaining public acquisition authority and funding.               Boston, MA 02202

                                                                                                                                                                    3.9

                   Commonwealth of Massachusetts                                                landward areas against storm damage and flooding. Wildlife
                   Department of Environmental Management                                       populations dependent upon barrier beach systems for nesting
                   100 Cambridge Street                                                         and/or feeding may be disrupted by human visitors. Manage-
                   Boston, MA 02202                                                             ment policies therefore must balance the recreational needs with
                   Private                                                                      other uses and resource values of barrier beaches.
                   The Trustees of Reservation                                                  Parking
                   224 Adams Street
                   Milton, MA 02186      (617) 698-2066                                             One of the major management concerns of barrier beach
                   -rhe Nature Conservancy                                                      recreational use is to provide parking areas for user access with-
                   Eastern Regional Office                                                      out damaging the physical and biological resources.             Since
                   294 Washington Street, Room 850                                              barrier beaches shift landward over time, if at all possible, park-
                   Boston, MA 20108                                                             ing areas and other facilities should be located on adjacent up-
                   Barrier Island Newsletter                                                    land areas off the barrier beach (figure 3.7). This will avoid
                   Published by the National Wildlife Federation                                damages to barrier resources and eliminate the need for costly
                   1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W.                                                  storm damage expenditures.
                   Washington, D. C. 20036      (202) 797-6050                                      If a parking lot is already located on the barrier beach,
                   Directory of Massachusetts Land Conservation Trusts                          moving the parking lot to a more landward area of the barrier
                   Massachusetts Audubon Society                                                beach would permit the maintenance of a foredune ridge which
                   Lincoln, MA 0 1773                                                           would reduce future storm damage.

                                                                                                Facilities
                   Section 3        Recreation                                                      The number of people attracted to a particular area is in-
                                                                                                fluenced by the availability of beach facilities including bath-
                                                                                                rooms, changing rooms, showers, picnic areas, food concessions,
                          Introduction    ................    3.10                              and educational displays.      Motorized shuttle service between
                          Parking   ....................      3.10                              parking areas off the barrier beach and access points on the beach
                          Facilities  ...................     3.10                              is encouraged for public use during the summer season.
                          Pedestrian Traffic   ............   3.10
                          Off-Road Vehicles    ............   3.11                              Pedestrian Traffic

                                                                                                    When many people use a barrier beach, the vegetation and
                                                                                                wildlife may be damaged by excessive foot traffic. Scientific
                                                                                                studies performed at Cape Cod National Seashore and elsewhere
                   Introduction                                                                 indicate that heavy pedestrian traffic can cause damage to
                                                                                                stabilizing vegetation.   Based on these and other studies, the
                       Of the various uses of a barrier beach, recreation is most               following guidelines and educational suggestions are provided.
                   compatible   with conserving natural resources and minimizing                    Guidelines for pedestrian use on dunes
                   hazards. The large numbers of people who are attracted to the
                   natural and scenic qualities of barrier beaches, however, can                    1. Designate and maintain trails across the dunes.
                   present problems of user access and impact. The diversity of                     2. Limit the number of designated access points and trails.
                   recreational use-swimming, sunbathing, fishing, boating, camp-                   3. Confine pedestrian traffic to designated trails and restrict
                   ing, hiking, and off-road vehicle travel--may also cause user                    traffic from the driftline zone and developing dune edge by
                   conflicts and resource alterations. For example, careless recrea-                using fencing and shrub borders. Rugosa rose, bayberry, and
                   tional use may adversely affect the form and volume of coastal                   beach plum provide effective barriers.
                   beaches and dunes which are necessary for the protection of                      4. For heavy use areas, build walkways over dunes. Re-

                   3.10

                     Figure 3.7 Illustration of                                                              b) describe damage that pedestrians can cause to beach,
                                                                                  UPLAND
                                 alternative                                                                 dune, salt marsh, and tidal flat environments.
                                                                                 FACILITY
                                 parking/facility                                  SITING
                                                                                                         2. Signs should be used to:
                                 locations                                                                   a) mark designated pedestrian trails and closed dune
                                                                                                             areas, and
                                                                                                             b) mark sensitive areas including:
                                                                                                              sites of nesting birds, including terns, gulls, herons,
                                                                                                             and shorebirds, and nesting turtles during nesting season;
                                                                                                             -driftline zone or expanding dune edge; and
                                                                                                               ites ofendangered and threatened plants and animals.
                                                                                                             -S

                                                                                                     Off-road Vehicles

                                                                 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
                                                                                                         According to the 1979 report of the President's Council on
                                                                                                     Environmental Quality, Off-Road Vehicles on Public Lands,
                                                                                                     "the off-road vehicle (ORV) problem is one of the most serious
                                                                                                     land use issues we face." Prior to World War 11, few vehicles
                                                                                   MOVE              were seen on coastal beaches, but since 1960, ORV registrations
                                                                                 PARKING
                                                                                 BAYWARD
                                                                                                     nationwide have grown nearly 2,000 percent.
                                                                                                         Five years of scientific studies on ORV impacts on coastal
                                                                                                     e
                                                                                                         ironments in Cape Cod National Seashore concluded that
                                                                                                       nv
                                                                                                     "there is no 'carrying capacity' for vehicular impact on coastal
                                                                                                     ecosystems. Even low-level impacts can result in severe environ-
                                                                                                     mental degradation. The most naturally unstable areas, such as
                                                                                                     the intertidal ocean beach, tend to be the least susceptible to
                                                                                                     damage. (However, this does not imply that there are no nega
                              _..,.,:..BARRIE                                                        tive effects from ORV impact in this zone.) Dunes can be
                                   BEACH
                                                                                                     quickly devegetated by vehicular passage, resulting in blowouts
                                                                                                     and sand migration. Of all the (coastal) ecosystems evaluated,
                                                                                                     the salt marshes and intertidal sandflats are the least tolerant
                                                                                                     of ORV impacts."
                                                                                                         Based on these studies and others performed on the East
                       BAY
                                                                                                     Coast, the following restrictions, guidelines, and educational
                                                                                                     suggestions are provided.
                        movable wooden      walkways that can be taken up during the
                        winter storm season may be the most effective and econo-                     Beach
                        mically desirable. Such walkways help reduce damage to                       OR V use should be prohibited on:
                        dune vegetation. Elevated wooden platforms from which                        1. driftline zones or expanding dune edges,
                        users may view surrounding terrains help confine people and                  2. developing dunes, and
                        minimize adverse impact.                                                     3. nesting areas of Least Terns and other shorebirds.
                        Educational Suggestions                                                      Guidelines for OR V use on beaches
                                                                                                     1. Trails for ORV use should be located such that:
                        1. Provide public educational programs, displays, and signs                      a. drivers follow previously made tracks and
                        that:                                                                            b. the number of access points to the beach is minimized.
                            a) describe the values of the beach, dune, salt marsh,                   2.  Beach trails should be closed during high or exceptionally
                            and tidal flat environments, and                                         high tides so that drivers will not damage the seaward edge of

                                                                                                                                                                         3.11

                  the dunes. (The times of the prohibition will vary due to the                     (The times of the prohibition will vary due to the width of
                  width of the beach and the height,of the high tide.)                              the beach and the height of the high tide.)

                  Dunes                                                                             Massachusetts became the first state in the nation to limit
                  OR V use should be prohibited on:                                             ORV use on state owned beaches with the issuance of Executive
                  1. driftline zones or expanding dune edges,                                   Order 190. This order directs the Department of Environmental
                  2. developing dunes,                                                          Management and the Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and
                  3. border zone between dunes and salt marshes/tidal flats or                  Recreational Vehicles to develop guidelines for ORV use on its
                  freshwater wetlands,                                                          properties (see Appendix A - State Executive Orders and Section
                  4. nesting bird areas (including terns, gulls, herons, and shore-             5, Regulation.)
                  birds) and nesting turtle areas during nesting season, and
                  5. sites of endangered and threatened plants and animals.
                  Guidelines for OR V use on dunes                                              Sources of Information
                  I .  Trails should be located such that:
                       a. prevailing winds do not create blowouts;                              The Impact of Off-Road Vehicles on Coastal Ecosystems in Cape
                       b. dune routes do not include sharp turns and steep grade                Cod National Seashore: "An Overview, " S.P. Leatherman and
                       c. trails do not cross unstable dunes; and                               P.J. Godfrey, 1979.
                       d. trails avoid sensitive areas such as nesting areas, blowouts,             This report summarizes the results of extensive research on
                       and sites of endangered and threatened plants and animals.               ORV impacts on coastal ecosystems. It offers recommendations
                  2. To keep ORV use on the designated trail, rutted trails should              to minimize the adverse impacts of ORVs on coastal ecosystems.
                  be repaired.
                  3. Traffic should be confined to designated routes by use of                  Proc. Barrier Id. Forum and Workshop, 'Provincetown, Mass.,-
                  fences (especially strong fences made of cable) and dense impene-             May 1980", Mayo, B. and L. Smith, Eds. 1982. Boston, U.S.
                  trable shrubs.                                                                National Park Service. 207 pp.
                  4.   Efforts should be made to protect the foredune.                              This is a proceedings volume which provides a record of the
                       a. Access points should be minimized.                                    1980 Barrier Island Forum and Workshop. One section includes
                       b. Ramps should be built and maintained.                                 a workshop on human impacts which reports the results of
                       c. Parking and use of blowout areas should be prohibited                 studies on ORV and pedestrian impacts.
                       and controlled by fencing.                                               "Management guidelines for parks on barrier beaches." in Parks:
                  5. When an ORV trail creates an unstable dune area such as a
                  blowout, a reduction in foredune height, or a migrating dune,                 international journal of national parks, historic sites and other
                  then the trail should be closed and this area restored. (See dune             protected areas., Godfrey, Paul J., Jan.-Mar. 1978.
                  building, Section 1, Human Alteration.)                                           This article gives a good explanation of barrier beach pro-
                  Educational Suggestions                                                       cesses. It then goes on to list guidelines for management of park
                  1. Provide public educational programs, displays, and signs                   systems on barrier beaches and guidelines for the prevention of
                  that:                                                                         beach erosion caused by ORV use and pedestrian impacts.
                       a. describe the values of beach, dune, salt marsh, and tidal
                       flat environments; and
                       b. describe the damage that ORV use can cause to beach,
                       dune, salt marsh, and tidal flat environments.
                  2.   Signs should be used to:
                       a. mark designated ORV trails and access points across
                       foredunes.
                       b. mark restricted areas, when appropriate, such as shorebird
                       and turtle nesting areas during nesting seasons, and
                       c. prohibit ORV use during high or exceptionally high tides.

                  3.12

                    Section 4        Storm Preparation                                                     1. Use a respected authority figure to issue the news release
                                                                                                           (for example, an official from the National Weather Service).
                                                                                                           2. Emphasize surrounding associated events such as factory
                             Introduction    ..............................            3.13                closings, etc.
                             Storm Awareness     ...........................           3.13                3. Use a combination of information, testimony, and alarm
                                                                                                           in the presentation.
                             Recovery Plan     .............................           3.13                4. Use film coverage of destruction wrought by previous
                                  Acquisition of Storm-Damaged Property        ......  3.13                storms.
                                      1362   ..............................            3.13                5. Give the location of the storm in distance from specific
                                      CTL Program     ........................         3.13                coastal areas.
                             Rebuilding Policy     ..........................          3.14                6. Use bilingual presentations when appropriate.
                                  Houses  ................................             3.14
                                  Coastal Engineering Structures     .............     3.14           Recovery Plan
                                                                                                           Immediately after a damaging storm, opportunities exist to
                                                                                                      reduce future hazards through a combination of acquisition,
                    Introduction                                                                      house relocation or rebuilding to safer standards, and modifica-
                                                                                                      tion or elimination of coastal engineering structures. A recovery
                         The first  step in preparing for a coastal storm is to assess                plan should consist of an acquisition plan for storm-damaged
                                                                                                      property and a rebuilding policy for houses and coastal engineer-
                    potential landform changes and flooding hazards of the barrier                    ing structures.
                    beach (see Chapter 2, Natural Characteristics). This coastal
                    hazard information should be used to develop a storm prepared-                    Acqusition of Storm-Damaged Property
                    ness program which should also include warning, evacuation,
                    and recovery plans. The warning and evacuation plans for most                          Purchasing storm-damaged property poses a practical alter-
                    barrier beach areas should already be available from local civil                  native to the usual cycle of destruction-reconstruction-destruc-
                    defense or disaster preparedness officials. Unfortunately, many                   tion again. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
                    people do not respond to storm warnings until it is too late.                     offers two programs for acquiring flood-damaged structures.
                    For this reason, a storm awareness educational program is often                   1. 1362 Program
                    an essential part of the storm preparedness program                                    This program allows FEMA to purchase property from
                                                                                                      willing sellers where insured buildings have been damaged more
                    Storm Awareness                                                                   than 50% in a single storm or at least 25% in three storms over a
                                                                                                      five year period. The local or state government is then given the
                         Education concerning hazards associated with a storm in-                     land to manage for open-space purposes.
                    creases the responsiveness of barrier beach residents to emer-                         One of the first applications of this program in the nation
                    gency actions during the actual storm event. Studies by Texas                     occured for storm-damaged property on Peggotty and Egypt
                    A&M University-Sea Grant concluded that making the public                         Beaches in Scituate, Massachusetts.           After houses on these
                    aware of the following information helps increase positive                        barrier beaches were destroyed in the 1978 Blizzard, ten pro-
                    response during a storm:                                                          perties were acquired by FEMA and given to the state for leasing
                         1. Tell what should be done during a storm watch and                         to the town of Scituate.
                         warning.
                         2.   Describe what type and magnitude storm can affect                       2. Constructive Total Loss (CTL) Program
                         specific areas.                                                                   For structures covered by a standard flood insurance policy
                         3. Describe what tidal height is required to block evacuation                where local regulations do not permit rebuilding, and when the
                         of specific areas.                                                           structure is in an extremely hazardous location (such as a coastal
                         4. Tell how long it takes to evacuate specific areas.                        high hazard area), FEMA is authorized to pay up to the full
                         When a storm warning news release is given, the            following         face value of the policy in force. This program has not been used
                    techniques should be employed:                                                    yet in coastal Massachusetts but it may be a useful acquisition

                                                                                                                                                                             3.13

                  tool in some communities. For other forms of purchase, the                     This guide is designed to help coastal homeowners evaluate
                  reader should refer to the Acquisition Section.                            flood risk and decide on measures for floodproofing their homes.
                                                                                             It should be used for homes located in areas subject to flooding,
                  Rebuilding policy: houses                                                  but not flooding accompanied by waves or tidal action.
                      When it is not possible to acquire storm-damaged property,             Design and Construction Manual for Residential Buildings in
                  and rebuilding is planned, the new house or reconstructed house            Coastal High Hazard Areas, FEMA, 198 1.
                  should be sited and designed to minimize future storm damage.                  This manual offers methods of design and construction for
                  The house should be sited as far landward as possible. A protec-           homes located in hazardous coastal areas. Because it is not
                  tive dune should be restored if there is sufficient area (see Human        advisable to build new homes in hazardous coastal areas, this
                  Alteration, Section 1). The design of a proposed new house                 manual should be used as a guide to minimize flood, wind, and
                  should follow the guidelines recommended in "Design and                    erosion damage to homes already built in these areas.
                  Construction Manual for Residential Buildings in Coastal High
                  Hazard Areas" (FEMA, 1981). This manual is also useful in
                  designing improvements for substantially storm-damaged houses.             Section 5 Regulation
                  Floodproofing
                      For houses that have not received major structural damage in
                  a storm or for houses out of the V-zone (high velocity zone),                       Introduction  ................     3.14
                  floodproofing measures should be investigated. For example,                         Federal  ....................      3.14
                  these measures can include floodproofing or elevating the heat-                     State  ......................      3.16
                  ing, plumbing, and electric systems of the house. A new hand-                       Local  ......................      3.17
                  book entitled "A Coastal Homeowner's Guide to Floodproo Ing
                  is available from the Bookstore, Secretary of State, the Common-
                  wealth of Massachusetts. This guide helps the homeowner
                  evaluate flood risk and outlines key steps to follow in flood-             Introduction
                  proofing an existing dwelling.
                  Rebuilding policy: coastal engineering structures                              This section describes the federal, state and local regulatory
                                                                                             programs affecting barrier beaches in Massachusetts. Certain
                      After a coastal storm occurs, a difficult decision facing land         programs require permits for human alterations on barrier
                  managers and owners is whether or not to rebuild destroyed                 beaches or adjacent areas. Other programs described may be
                  coastal engineering structures. When few structures have existed,          used by local governments to further protect the natural values
                  non-structural measures should be pursued in lieu of rebuilding            and reduce storm damage associated with barrier beaches.
                  engineering structures.   Acquisition of the storm-damaged pro-
                  perty (see Acquisition,   Section 2) should also be pursued in             Federal
                  conjunction with such    non-structural measures. When coastal
                  engineering structures   have been used extensively, however,                  The regulation of activities on barrier beaches and in adjacent
                  replacement,of these structures with a non-structural alternative          coastal waters is shared by several federal agencies. The principal
                  such as dune or beach building is less feasible. In these cases,           regulatory activities are administered by the Army Corps of
                  coastal engineering structure-corrective techniques should be              Engineers, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Environ-
                  used to minimize the adverse effects on the resources ot'a barrier         mental Protection Agency, and Office of Coastal Zone Manage-
                  beach (see Human Alteration, Section I).                                   ment as described in Table 3.1. In addition, all federal agencies
                                                                                             are required to comply with Federal Executive Order 11988,
                                                                                             Flood Plain Management, and Executive Order 11980, Protection
                                                                                             of Wetlands.
                  Sources of Information                                                         These executive orders direct federal agencies to avoid ad-
                                                                                             verse impacts associated with activities in flood plains or wet-
                  A Coastal Homeowner's Guide to Floodproofing, Common-                      lands and avoid the direct or indirect support of development in
                  wealth of Massachusetts, (undated).                                        those areas. Each agency must evaluate the possible effects of

                  3.14

                    actions, planning programs, and budget requests to ensure that
                    adequate consideration is given to flood hazards, flood plain                       Table 3.1 Federal Regulatory Programs
                    management, and wetland protection. An agency undertaking
                    or supporting an activity affecting a floodplain or wetland must
                    show that it is the only practicable alternative and must be de-
                    signed to minimize harm to the floodplain or wetland. A public                      Agency:
                    notice must be circulated explaining why this activity must be                      Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE)
                    located in the floodplain or wetland.                                               Authorizing Legislation:
                                                                                                        Rivers and Harbor Act of 1899
                    Regional Policy Statement on Flood Plain Management                                 Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments (1972)
                         The Regional Policy Statement on Flood Plain Management                        Regulatory Program:
                    was adopted through the New England River Basins Commission                         Section 10 Permit Procedure
                    (NERBQ by representatives of the governors of New England                           Section 404 Permit Procedure
                    and New York and the heads of NERBC member federal agencies                         (administered jointly with the EPA)
                    including the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Army                     Areas Regulated:
                    Corps of Engineers. This policy statement was applied to coastal                    Section 10: Requires a permit for structures in navigable
                    flooding problems in the NERBC publication "Dealing with                            waters.
                    Coastal Hazards: Implementing the Regional Policy Statement                         Section 404: Requires permits for discharge, dredge or
                    of Flood Plain Management. " This report recommends ten ways                        fill activities in all waters including fresh water and tidal
                    to reduce the region's vulnerability to coastal storm damage;                       wetlands.
                    these are quoted directly from the report as follows:
                         1. Implement programs to acquire previously developed high
                    hazard properties in lieu of reconstruction.                                        Agency:
                         2. Strengthen the requirement that heavily storm-damaged                       Federal Emergency Management Agency
                    homes and businesses be rebuilt according to floodproofing                          Authorizing Legislation:
                    standards.                                                                          Flood Control Act (1936)
                         3. Keep development away from high hazard areas that are                       National Flood Insurance (1968, amended 1973)
                    still undeveloped.                                                                  Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973
                         4. Improve construction standards for floodproofing.                           Housing and Community Development Act (1977)
                         5. Take account of natural coastal processes in cleanup,                       Regulatory Program:
                    construction, and repair of protective measures.                                    National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) including Flood
                         6. Refocus data collection and analysis activities.                            Insurance Study and Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRM).
                         7. Improve coordination in storm and disaster planning and                     Participating communities must draft, implement and en-
                    recovery operations, as well as in flood plain management pro-                      force a flood plain management plan that meets minimum
                    grams.                                                                              FIA standards, (24 CFR 1909).
                         8. Improve and utilize educational programs to support the
                    programs, plans, and policies of flood plain management pro-                        NFIF Regular Program: After community enters the pro-
                    grams.                                                                              gram and the FIRM becomes effective, the first insurance
                         9. Shift the cost of protection to those who create the risk                   protection is government subsidized for existing structures.
                    and enjoy the benefits of location in coastal hazard areas.                         The second insurance protection and insurance for new
                       10. Utilize Executive Order 11988 (Flood Plain Manage-                           structures is obtained at actuarial rates.
                    ment) and Executive Order 11990 (Wetlands), as well as federal                      Areas Regulated:
                    consistency provisions for approved coastal zone management                         Flood plain areas of all communities that wish to partici-
                    plans, to strengthen disaster and flood plain management plan-                      pate in the program.
                    ning.

                                                                                                                                                                       3.15

                                                                                                  State
                       Table 3.1 Federal Regulatory Programs (continued)                          Coastal Zone Management-Federal Consistency
                       Agency:                                                                        Federal activities such as federally assisted actions, direct
                       Office of Coastal Zone Management (CZM)                                    federal actions and issuance of licenses and permits must be
                       Authorizing Legislation:                                                   consistent to the "maximum extent practicable" with the state's
                       Coastal Zone Management Act (1972)                                         approved Coastal Zone Management Program.                For barrier
                                                                                                  beaches, this means that these projects "do not promote growth
                       Regulatory Program:                                                        and development on barrier beaches, do not damage natural
                       Administration and approval of state coastal zone manage-                  barriers (coastal dunes and beaches) and are safe from flood and
                       ment plans.                                                                erosion related damage."
                       Areas Regulated:                                                           Massachusetts Wetlands Protection Act (G.L. 131, S. 40)
                       State CZM plans subject to approval based on national                          Through the Wetlands Protection Act, local conservation
                       CZM criteria. For approved states, such as Massachusetts,                  commissions review applications for construction activities in
                       federal actions must be consistent with the state plan.                    coastal wetlands such as barrier beaches. Coastal Wetlands Regu-
                                                                                                  lations provide performance standards that proposed activities
                                                                                                  must follow to protect the public interests of the particular
                                                                                                  coastal wetland area, "A Guide to the Coastal Wetlands Regu-
                   Sources of Information                                                         lations" is available to assist in the application of these regula-
                                                                                                  tions to specific sites and projects.
                   Massachusetts Coastal     Zone Management Program and Final                        Barrier beaches are protected by the Wetland Protection Act,
                   Environmental Impact Statement, 1978.                                          because they provide storm damage prevention and flood con-
                       This book describes the Massachusetts Coastal Zone Manage-                 trol. Additionally, barrier beaches provide protection for shell-
                   ment Plan which was approved by NOAA (National Oceanic and                     fish and fisheries resources located behind the landform.
                   Atmospheric Administration), Washington, D.C.                                  Coastal Wetlands Restriction Act (G.L. 130, S. 105)
                   U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Guide for Applicants, U.S. Army                       The Department of Environmental Management places deed
                   Corps of Engineers, 1977.                                                      restrictions on barrier beach, beach, dune, salt marsh, shellfish
                       This pamphlet is designed to assist applicants who are apply-              bed, and salt pond property. These restrictions define permitted
                   ing for a Corps of Engineers permit.                                           and prohibited uses that can occur in these coastal wetland areas
                                                                                                  to protect vital natural resources. The principal difference be-
                   New England Wetlands:         Plant Identification and Protective              tween the Restriction Program and the Wetlands Protection Act
                   Laws, Environmental Protection Agency, 198 1.                                  is that the Restriction Program defines what is allowed and not
                       This manual summarizes New England wetlands laws at the                    allowed on specific parcels through deed restrictions, whereas the
                   federal and state level. It also contains color photographs and                Protection Act regulates activities which may be permitted on a
                   identification information for the lay person on common wet-                   case-by-case basis.
                   land plants.                                                                   Waterways Act (G.L. 91, 21A, S. 14)
                                                                                                      The Division of Waterways within the Department of En-
                   Dealing with Coastal Hazards: Implementing the Regional Policy                 vironmental Quality Engineering regulates work in navigable
                   Statement on Flood Plain Management, NERBC, 1980.                              waters and Great Ponds and acts as trustee over public lands
                       This report provides a summary of storm damage and disaster                below mean low water. Licenses and permits are issued by
                   assistance response for the Blizzard of '78. It discusses problems             Waterways for structures in these areas.
                   with that response and recommends actions which should be                          Waterways Projects
                   taken to improve New England's ability to deal with future                         The Division of Waterways is also the state funding agency
                   storms.                                                                        for dredging and coastal engineering projects. State policy for
                                                                                                  barrier beaches encourages the use of dredged material for
                                                                                                  barrier beach nourishment. Non-structural measures, such as

                   3.16

                    nourishment and dune rebuilding, are encouraged to provide                   Q & A: Questions and Answers on the Massachusetts Wetlands
                    protection from flooding and erosion.                                        Protection Act (G.L. 131, S. 40), Department of Environmental
                    Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act (MEPA) (G.L. 30,                      Quality Engineering, 1979.
                    SS. 61-62 H)
                        MEPA is a state office which helps determine the environ-
                    mental suitability of all state projects.      MEPA requires the             Local
                    preparation of an environmental evaluation for projects under-
                    taken, funded or regulated by a state agency. A short Environ-                   State regulations and restrictions are applicable to all barrier
                    mental Assessment Form is required for projects which have no                beaches of the Massachusetts coast.         However, each barrier
                    significant impact on the environment, whereas an Environ-                   beach is a unique system with specific characteristics and pro-
                    mental Impact Report is required for projects deemed by a state              cesses, and each municipality values its barrier beaches according
                    agency to have a significant environmental impact. Both types                to local interests. For these reasons, barrier beach management
                    of projects are listed in the bi-weekly Environmental Monitor                at the local level is essential.
                    issued by the MEPA Office of the Executive Office of Environ-                    Towns should develop management plans that maintain the
                    mental Affairs.    Citizens are encouraged to comment to the                 natural protection provided by the beach and dunes of the
                    MEPA office on projects listed in the Monitor.                               barrier beach and preserve the productive wetlands behind the
                    A-95 Review                                                                  barrier. Uses of the barrier beach must accomodate the continual
                        This program provides a mechanism for the review of federal-             changes that occur in this dynamic environment. On developed
                    ly funded projects by regional planning agencies, state agencies,            barrier beaches, management must include techniques to reduce
                    and interested citizens. Projects proposed for barrier beaches               future storm damage to buildings and the subsequent need for
                    must be consistent with Executive Order No. 181. Therefore,                  public expenditures for disaster relief.
                    interested parties should ask the local regional planning agency                 Ordinances and by-laws for proper barrier beach management
                    to notify them about projects proposed for local barrier beach               are implemented by local officials such as the mayor or board of
                    areas so that they may provide comments. See Appendix A for                  selectmen. The local conservation commission is appointed by
                    the Executive Order.                                                         the board of selectmen to preserve and protect the natural
                                                                                                 r,@sources of the community. It protects local coastal wetlands
                                                                                                 by using the state Wetlands Protection Act and in some circum-
                    Sources of Information                                                       stances local wetland by-laws. The conservation commission
                                                                                                 may assist the planning board, selectmen, and other town boards
                    A Guide to Understanding and Administering the Massachusetts                 in developing new local zoning by-laws and ordinances.
                    Wetlands Protection Act, Colman and Kline, 1977, Massachu-                       Some barrier beaches in Massachusetts are important recrea-
                    setts Audubon Society.                                                       tional assets for the communities. In these cases it may be useful
                        This guide takes the reader through the procedural aspects               to establish a special purpose commission which represents
                    of the Wetlands Protection Act.                                              varied land use interests. The Sandy Neck Commission of the
                    Environmental Handbook for Massachusetts Conservation                        town of Barnstable is an example of such a commission.
                    Commissions, Dawson and Nickerson, 1978, Association of                          Examples of types of local laws and regulations are as fol-
                    Conservation Commissions.                                                    lows:
                        This is a comprehensive book on laws, regulations, programs,             Conservation or wetlands zoning
                    and techniques concerning the protection of Massachusetts                        This type of zoning controls development in order to pro-
                    Wetlands compiled over a fifteen-year period by the Massachu-                tect the natural characteristics of specific areas.
                    setts Association of Conservation Commissions (MACC).                        Cluster zoning
                    A Guide to the Coastal Wetlands Regulations, Department of                       This type of zoning allows certain areas to be more densely
                    Environmental Quality Engineering and Coastal Zone Manage-                   developed as long as surrounding areas are preserved. This zoning
                    ment Office, 1978.                                                           technique prevents the destruction of all or most natural char-
                        This guide describes the processes and significance of coastal           acteristics of the barrier beach and provides an opportunity
                    wetlands. Alterations frequently proposed for coastal wetlands               for locating development on the least hazardous sites of the
                    are reviewed and their acceptability is discussed.                           landform.

                                                                                                                                                                   3.17

                   Zoning of building density                                                      height above flood level.
                       This type of regulation controls the numbers of structures                  2. buildings do not cause erosion.
                   allowed per given area, and can consequently reduce storm                       3. the soil under the structure will provide for waste dis-
                   damage, dune destruction and stress on local water supply.                      posal and structural support, and
                   Coastal high hazard area zoning                                                 4. the building is able to resist wind, wave, and erosion
                       This type of zoning establishes areas where no further build-               damage.
                   ing is allowed or where building standards are more stringent.              Building ordinances do not regulate the siting of structures on
                   Scientific studies should be conducted to define the coastal high           barrier beaches. Set-back ordinances can specify site require-
                   hazard areas of a particular barrier beach.                                 ments.
                   Dune management districts                                                   Board of Health Ordinance
                       Since one natural characteristic of the barrier beach is the                Erosion associated with coastal high hazard areas of barriers
                                                                                               can damage or destroy septic systems causing pollution of ad-
                   tendency to shift landward (see Chapter 2), communities must                jacent waters and wetlands. Local government can minimize
                   realize that attempts to "stabilize" the barrier beach in a fixed           storm damage to septic systems by requiring strict Board of
                   position actually causes narrowed beaches, necessitates expen-              Health design and siting standards. Systems should be prohibited
                   sive erosion control measures, and increases beach erosion rates.           in sites most vulnerable to damage, such as the foredune ridge.
                   However, certain local management strategies, such as an ordin-
                   ance which designates dune management districts, are compatible             Ordinances related to dune traffic
                   with the natural processes of the barrier beach.                                Pedestrian and ORV traffic are especially prevalent on public
                       A dune district encompasses both the dune and the zone                  lands. Towns can minimize the damage to recreational dune and
                   behind it into which the dune will move, and precludes building             beach areas by adopting ordinances that limit access trails to
                   or other development in this area. (Dune district boundaries                beaches, and prohibit or restrict ORV and pedestrian traffic.
                   must be precise, however, so that the ordinance will be defen-              Revenues received from parking and recreational use permits
                   sible in court.) Detailed scientific studies of dune height, width,         can be used to pay salaries needed for enforcement of these
                   rate of landward shifting, and length of planning period are                regulations.
                   required to establish the dune district dimensions.                             Effective barrier beach management can be achieved by
                   Shoreline set-back requirements                                             using a town's regulatory power to protect public health, safety,
                       To protect against storm damage, especially in areas where              and the environment. The support of an informed public can do
                   the protective dune has been removed or altered, ordinances                 much to help a town achieve a thoughtful b@rrier beach manage-
                   can be adopted that require the placement of buildings a speci-             ment program (also see Appendix B).
                   fied distance from the shoreline. The distance may be deter-                    Conservation commissions and town planners can receive
                   mined by referring to the history of shoreline change for the area          assistance in designing and implementing by-laws and ordin-
                   (see Shoreline Changes, Chapter 2), and the width of the dune,              ances from organizations, which are listed in Appendix B.
                   if present.
                   Coastal Hazards Disclosure Ordinance
                       Local government may pass an ordinance which would                      Sources of Information
                   require sellers of property to provide a written statement con-
                   cerning flood and erosion hazards to potential buyers. This type            Coastal Dunes: Their Function, Delineation and Management,
                   of ordinance is being carried out in a county in California where           Gates, Nordstrom and Psuty, 1979.
                   associations of realtors provide educational material to real                   This book describes the coastal dune district program that
                   estate agents on how to follow the local disclosure ordinances.             was developed for the state of New Jersey. Similar programs can
                   Building codes                                                              be developed for towns in Massachusetts by incorporating tech-
                       Development is already prevalent on many barrier beaches of             niques presented in this book. (Also see State - Sources of
                   Massachusetts. Ordinances setting forth specific barrier beach              Information p. 3.17).
                   building code requirements are therefore necessary. Building
                   codes insure that:
                       1. builders place floor, pilings, and access roads a minimum

                   3.18

                         Appendix A
                         Executive Orders

                                                 COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

                                                               By His Excellency

                                                              EDWARD J. KING                                                                                                 -2-
                                                                   Governor

                                                        EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 181                                                        3.      For state-owned barrier beach property, management plans shall be
                                                                                                                                               prepared which are consistent with state wettand policy and shall be
                                                             BARRIER BEACHES                                                                   submitted to the Secretary of Environmental Affairs for public review
                                                                                                                                               under the provisions of the Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act.

                                                                   Preamble                                                            4.      At a minimum, no development shall be permitted in the velocity zones
                                                                                                                                               or primary dune areas of barrier beaches identified by the Department
                                 A barrier beach is a narrow low-lying strip of land generally consisting of                                   of Environmental Quality Engineering.
                         coastal beaches and coastal dunes extending roughly parallel to the trend of the
                         coast. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow body of fresh brackish or saline                         5.      Coastal engineering structures shall only be used on barrier beaches to
                         water or marsh system. It is a fragile buffer that protects landward areas from                                       maintain navigation channels at inlets and then only if mechanisms are
                         coastal storm damage and flooding.                                                                                    employed to ensure that downdrift beaches are adequately supplied with
                                                                                                                                               sediment.
                                 The strength of the barrier     beach system lies in its dynamic character; its
                         ability to respond to storms by changing to a more stable form. Frequently man                                6.      Dredge material of a compatible grain size shall be used for barrier
                         induced changes to barrier beaches have decreased the ability of landform to provide                                  beach nourishment, if economically feasible.
                         storm damage prevention and flood control. Inappropriate development on barrier
                         beaches has resulted in the loss of lives and great economic losses to residents and to                       7.      The Coastal Zone Management Office shall coordinate state agency
                         local, state and federal governments. The taxpayer, who often cannot gain access to                                   management policy for barrier beach areas.
                         barrier beach areasp must subsidize disaster relief and flood insurance for these high
                         hazard areas.                                                                                                                                       Given at the Exec tive Chamber in Boston
                                                                                                                                                                             this
                                                                                                                                                                             da
                                 Since  barrier beaches are presently migrating landward in response to rising                                                                    f                                    in the
                         sea level, future storm damage to development located on the barriers is inevitable.                                                                y r o 0 r Lor on tho          and nine hundred
                                                                                                                                                                             a d  ei ty and of th          independence of
                                                                                                                                                                             A  eri    two-hundred and     five.

                                 WHEREAS, the Commonwealth seeks to mitigate future storm damage to its
                         barrier beach areas;
                                                                                                                                                                                         I@V 4
                                                                                                                                                                                    EDWARD J. KINC(
                                                                                                                                                                                       GOVERNOR
                                 NOW, THEREFORE, 1, Edward J. King, Governor of the Commonwealth of
                         Massachusetts, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws                                                                 Commonwealth of M
                         of the Commonwealth, do hereby order and direct all relevant state agencies to adopt
                         the following policies:

                                 1.     Barrier beaches shall be given priority status for self-help and other
                                        state and federal acquisition programs and this priority status shall be               Secretary o(Ae Commonwealtrr
                                        incorporated into the Statewide Outdoor Comprehensive Recreation
                                        Plan. The highest priority for disaster assistance funds shall go towards
                                        relocating willing sellers from storm damaged barrier beach areas.                                     GOD SAVE THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

                                 2.     State funds and federal grants for construction projects shall not be
                                                                                                                                                                                   f    4e de      'ive '_namDer
                                                                                                                                                                                              x C T

                                                                                                                                                                                                     a
                                                                                                                                                                                                    t
                                                                                                                                                                                                 a
                                                                                                                                                                                          Lord on. ho      and nin
                                                                                                                                                                                                  of t     i   .
                                                                                                                                                                                           and        hende en

                                                                                                                                                                                                               s

                                        used to encourage growth and development in hazard prone barrier
                                        beach areas.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                           A-I

                                             COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

                                                          By His Excellency                                                                    (c)  exclude ORV use in sensitive environmental areas, specifically,
                                                          EDWARD J. KING                                                                            dunes, salt marshes, and tidal flats, which provide significant
                                                             GOVERNOR                                                                               public interests; and
                                                                                                                                               (d)  assure that soil erosion and damage to vegetation are minimal;
                                                    EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 190                                                                         and
                                                                                                                                               (a)  assure that harassment of wildlife and significant disruption of
                                                                                                                                                    wildlife habitats are minimized; and
                          REGULATION OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLE USE ON PUBLIC LANDS CONTAINING
                                                 COASTAL WETLAND RESOURCES                                                                     (f)  ORV's will not be excluded from public lands but will be chan-
                                                                                                                                                    neled into environmentally acceptable areas.
                              WHEREAS, while off-road vehicles (ORV's) provide enjoyment and recreation                             4. The Secretary of Environmental Affairs, in conjunction with the Commis-
                        for many, their indiscriminate use threatens our public lands. Uncontrolled, they                     sioners of the Department of Environmental Management and Fisheries, Wildlife
                        have severely damaged coastal wetland resources; including dunes, beaches,                            and Recreational Vehicles shall review all guidelines and monitoring procedures to
                        barrier beaches, salt marshes and tidal flats; disturbed wildlife; and conflicted with                ensure compliance with this Executive Order, and shall coordinate and assist when
                        other recreational uses.                                                                              necessary in the development of these guidelines and procedures.
                              Scientific studies conducted for over five years at the Cape Cod National Sea-
                        shore have concluded that even low-level vehicular use can result in severe environ-
                        mental degradation of coastal ecosystems.
                              With the substantial increase in the number of ORV's, and the concomitant
                        increase in the use of our public lands for other recreational purposes, major con-
                        flicts have arisen and will continue to develop.
                              NOW, THEREFORE, I, Edward J. King, Governor of the Commonwealth of
                        Massachusetts, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws                                                             Given at the Executive Chamber in Boston
                        of the Commonwealth, do hereby order and direct that all state agencies shall bal-                                                              this 24th day of December, in the year of Our
                        ance the competing uses of the Commonwealth's public lands and minimize the                                                                     Lord one thousand nine hundred and eighty
                        degradation of its public coastal wetland resources:                                                                                            and of the independence of the United States
                              1. For the purposes of this Executive Order, "Off-road vehicle" (ORV) shall                                                               of Amer' a two huiadred and four.
                        mean any motorized vehicle designed for or capable of cross-country travel on or
                        immediately over land, water, sand, snow, ice, wetland or other natural terrain,
                        except that such term excludes; (a) any registered powerboat, (b) any military, fire,
                        emergency, or law enforcement vehicle, and (c) any vehicle expressly authorized for
                        official state agency use.
                                                                                                                                                                                      EDWA J. KING
                              2. For the purposes of this Executive Order, "public lands" shall mean: (a) all                                                                           GO      NOR
                        lands under the custody and control of a state agency, which contain coastal wetland                                                                 Commonwealth of MassachItts
                        resources; and (b) all lands purchased in whole or in part with state funds, or federal
                        funds administered by the state, which contain coastal wetland resources.
                              3. All state agencies shall be responsible for extablishing scientifically sup-
                        ported guidelines and monitoring procedures for ORV use on public lands. Such
                        guidelines, which are to be submitted to the Secretary of Environmental Affairs for
                        public review under the provisions of the Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act
                        within one year of the effective date of this Executive Order, shall:                                   ecretary    th Colgonw6lth
                                         (a)  balance ORV use with other recreational uses of the public
                                              lands;
                                         (b)  assure that ORV use is consistent with the state coastal
                                                                                                                                        y@Co           cow
                                                                                                                                e,r.ta,

                                              wetland policy, as defined under the state Coastal Wetland
                                              Protection Act and regulations;                                                              GOD SAVE THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

                        A-2

                       Appendix B
                       Technical and Educational Assistance

                       FEDERAL ASSISTANCE                                                                                  Flood Plain Management Services Program (FPMS)
                                                                                                                               Technical information, planning assistance, and guidance is
                       Soil Conservation Service (SCS)                                                                         available to state, local, and private citizens to help identify
                                                                                                                               flood hazards and implement wise floodplain management
                       21 Cottage St.                                                                                          plans.
                       Amherst, MA 01002                                                                                   Flood and Erosion Control Programs
                       (413) 549-0650                                                                                          Activities undertaken by the ACOE* in coastal areas include:
                                Resource Conservation and Development Program (RC & D)                                              -aquatic plant control
                                     Designed to speed up resource programs as a base for economic                                  -small beach erosion control projects
                                     development and environmental protection. Soil and water                                       -(small) flood control, coastal protection works for
                                     resource information is available.                                                             Public shores rehabilitation
                                Flood Plain Management Assistance Program                                                           -emergency coastal protective works
                                     Assistance in carrying out flood hazard evaluations, invent-                                   -protection of essential public works
                                     ories of natural and beneficial values. Technical data available                               -snagging and cleaning for flood control
                                     in flood plains to aid planning and regulating of flood plains.                                -(small) navigation projects including stream channelization
                                Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP)                                                                    *initiated through the District Engineer
                                     Financial/technical assistance available to help control water                        Other
                                     pollution, particularly non-point sources of pollution resulting                          Technical data/assistance concerning the mapping and/or
                                     from poor soil conservation practices. Supplements local                                  restoration and/or management of wetlands is available.
                                     initiative.                                                                 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                       National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)                                    I Gateway Ctr.
                       Whitehaven Building                                                                       Newton Corner, MA
                       Rockville, MD                                                                             (617) 965-5100
                       (301) 443-8780                                                                                      Biological Services Program
                                Office of Coastal Zone Management                                                              Scientific data available on fish and wildlife resources and their
                                Coastal Zone Management Program                                                                supporting ecosystems.
                                     Assistance varies with each state. CZM useful in identifying                          Wetlands Inventory
                                     other state/federal assistance programs, providing legal aid/                             Assistance and information available on identifying, mapping,
                                     consultation, technical data, regulatory information and                                  maintaining, or restoring wetland areas.
                                     interpretation.                                                                       Land and Water Resource Development Planning Program (LWRDP)
                                Estuarine Sanctuary Program                                                                    Consultation, field evaluation and planning assistance available
                                     Financial assistance for  the purpose of acquiring, developing,                           for proposed water and related land projects. Recommend-
                                     or operating estuarine    areas set aside to serve as National                            ations on conservation measures may also be supplied.
                                     field laboratories.
                                Coastal Energy Impact Program (CEIP)                                             E.P.A.
                                     Financial assistance available to help local communities cope               Regional Office
                                     with burden of development of large energy facilities in their              JFK Federal Building
                                     locality through grants and loans.                                          Boston, MA
                                National Ocean Survey                                                            (617) 223-7223
                                Coastal Hazards Initiative (CZM Coastal Hazards Assistance Program)                        Regional Water Quality Planning (Section 208)
                                     To achieve the Initiative's goal of reducing loss (of life and                            Funds available to states and designated regional areas for
                                     property) in coastal areas, NOAA has available a variety of                               preparation of water quality plans aimed at control of non-
                                     technical data and information relevant to risk assessment,                               point pollution.
                                     evacuation planning, coastal mapping, storm surge modelling.
                                     Financial assistance is available through CZM and the Sea                             Other Assistance
                                     Grant Program.                                                                            Technical assistance with implementation of floodplain
                                                                                                                               management plans and wetlands restoration.
                       U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE)                                                        F.E.M.A.
                       New England Division                                                                      Division of Insurance and Mitigation
                       424 Trapelo Road                                                                          J.W. McCormack Post Office and Courthouse Building
                       Waltham, MA 02154                                                                         Rm. 462
                       (617) 894-2400

                                                                                                                                                                                                13-1

                       Boston, MA 02109
                       (617) 223-2616
                                National Flood Insurance Program                                                     Wetland Restriction Program
                                     Up-to-date floodplain mapping and consultation is available.                           Orthophoto maps are available of most state barrier beach
                                F.E.M.A. Services                                                                           areas.
                                     Floodplain management planning, assistance, and engineering
                                     assistance concerning siting of structures in flood hazard areas            Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational Vehicles
                                     is available.                                                               100 Cambridge St.
                                                                                                                 Boston, MA 02202
                                                                                                                 (617) 727-3151
                                                                                                                            Assistance on colonial shorebird nesting sites.

                       STATE AND REGIONAL AGENCY ASSISTANCE

                       Coastal Zone Management Office                                                            ASSISTANCE FROM NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
                       100 Cambridge St.
                       Boston, MA 02202
                       (617) 727-9530                                                                            Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies
                                Scientific assistance on barrier beach identification, evaluation of             Box 826
                                characteristics, and all phases of management; planning and legal                Provincetown, MA 02657
                                assistance; educational assistance includes coastal hazard guide-                (617) 487-3622
                                books, pamphlets, films, and slide shows.                                            Technical Assistance:
                       Conservation Services                                                                                Geological and biological assistance on barrier beach identification,
                       100 Cambridge St.                                                                                    assessment of characteristics and all phases of management.
                       Boston, MA 02202                                                                              Educational Assistance:
                                                                                                                            Weekly seminars for the public often covering barrier beach man-
                       (617) 727-1552                                                                                       agement; pamphlets, reports and audio-visual material on barrier
                                Planning   and funding assistance for acquisition of barrier beach                          beaches.
                                properties.                                                                      Massachusetts Audubon Society
                       Department of Environmental Quality Engineering                                           South Great Road
                       Division of Wetlands Protection                                                           Lincoln, MA 0 17 7 3
                       1 Winter St.                                                                              (617) 259-9500
                       Boston, MA                                                                                    Technical Assistance:
                       (617) 727-9706                                                                                       Biological assistance on barrier beach characteristics.
                                Coastal wetland regualtory assistance through the northeast and                      Educational Assistance:
                                southeast regional offices. Coastal Wetland legal assistance through                        Publications on environmental issues which include barrier beach
                                the DEQE legal office.                                                                      management.
                       Department of Environmental Management                                                    Conservation Law Foundation
                       100 Cambridge St.                                                                         3 Joy Street
                       Boston, MA 02202                                                                          Boston, MA 02108
                       (617) 727-3151                                                                            (617) 742-2540
                                State Assistance Program                                                             Technical Assistance:
                                     Planning assistance  for coastal hazard assessment and storm                           Legal assistance on regulatory aspects of management.
                                     preparation.                                                                    Educational Assistance:
                                                                                                                            Pamphlets published through the Massachusetts Association of
                                Natural Heritage Program                                                                    Conservation Commissions on regualtory issues.
                                     Information is available on rare plants and animal species and
                                     significant plant communities and aquatic habitits. This in-                Sea Grant
                                     formation can be used for planning, conservation, and en-                   Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
                                     vironmental impact assessment.                                              Woods Hole, MA
                                                                                                                 (617) 548-1400

                       B-2

                     Technical Assistance:
                           Scientific assistance on identification, characteristics and manage-
                           ment of coastal areas.
                     Educational Assistance:
                           Reports on barrier beach scientific studies.
                     Resources for Cape Ann
                     (Massachusetts Audubon Society)
                     159 Main Street
                     Gloucester, MA 01930
                     (617) 283-0598
                          Technical Assistance:
                                 Biological assistance characteristics and management for the
                                 North Shore region.
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Pamphlets on barrier beach management techniques for the
                                 North Shore region.
                     Massachusetts Association of Conservation Commissions
                     Lincoln Filene Center
                     Tufts University
                     Medford, MA
                     (617) 628-5000, x 352
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Two meetings each year for Conservation Commissions with
                                 sessions on barrier beach management.
                     Massachusetts Marine Educators
                     Biology Department
                     8 Ashburton Place
                     Boston, MA 02108
                     (617) 7234700, x 246
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Clearinghouse for barrier beach related curriculum material.
                     Cape Cod Museum of Natural History
                     Route 6A
                     Brewster, MA 02631
                     (617) 896-3867
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Curriculum material on Cape Cod barrier beaches; talks, displays
                                 and library include barrier beach information.
                     Association for the Preservation Of Cape Cod
                     Orleans, MA 026$3
                     (617) 2554142
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Several pamphlets related to barrier beaches; audio-visual material
                                 on barrier beaches.

                     Massachusetts Wildlife Federation
                     12 School Street
                     S. Hamilton, MA 0 1982
                          Educational Assistance:
                                 Curriculum material on barrier beaches through the national or-
                                 ganization, National Wildlife Federation.

                                                                                                                                                                                       B-3

                      Appendix C
                      Bibliography

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                                                                                                            Clark, John R. & Turner, Ross.       "Barrier islands: a threatened, fragile
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                                                                                                            Clark, John R. Coastal ecosystems: ecological considerations for manage-
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                      Univ., 1979. 62p. (pub.)

                                                                                                                                                                                        C-1

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                     Davis, John H., Jr. Stabilization of beaches and dunes by vegetation in
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                     ville, FL Univ. of Florida, 1975. 52p. (pub)                                             incetown, MA. Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies Tech Report
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                     C-2

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                     Mitchell, J.K. "The rush to the shore: how to live with coastal erosion."                  Resources for Cape Ann. First aid for damaged beaches. Gloucester, MA
                     Landscape Architecture, April 1975, pp. 170-177.                                           Resources for Cape Ann, n.d. (pub)

                     New England Municipal Center. You are never completely safe ... emergency                  Resources for Cape Ann. Protecting Gloucester's dunes: their condition
                     management: a handbook for local government officials. Durham, NH                          today; recommendations for tomorrow. Gloucester, MA. Resources for
                     New England Municipal Ctr., 1980. (pub)                                                    Cape Ann/Mass. Audubon Society, 1980. (pub)

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                     implementing the regional policy statement on flood plain management.                      ment for a pebble baymouth bar: Mann Hill Beach, Scituate, Massachusetts.
                     Boston. New England River Basins Comm., 1980. 7 1 p.                                       Wellesley, MA. Wellesley College, 1977. 90p. (unpublished Masters thesis)

                     New England River Basins Commission. The ocean's            reach: digest of a             Savage, R.P. & Woodhouse, W.W., Jr. "Creation and stabilization of coastal
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                     1975. 100p. (NPS-OSS)                                                                      and barrier beaches of the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode
                                                                                                                Island, and Connecticut. New York. Open Space Institute, 1979. (pub)
                     Olsen, Stephen B. & Grant, Malcolm J. Rhode Island's barrier beaches:
                     Volume 1, a report on a management problem and an evaluation of options.                   Seltz, Johanna. The dune book: how to plant grasses for dune stabiliza-
                     (U.R.I. Marine Technical Report no. 4). Kingston, R.I. Univ. of Rhode                      tion.  (Univ. of North Carolina Sea Grant Publications). Raleigh, NC
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                                                                                                                Group, 1981. unpublished
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                     proach." ALP Journal, April, 1978, pp. 170-180.                                            Steiner, Alan J. & Leatherman, Stephen P. An annotated bibliography of
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                     D.C. National Parks and Conservation Association.                                          1975. 65p. (pub/NSF)

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                     C-4

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                                                                                                                                                                                           C-5

                   Appendix D
                   Glossary                                                                                    groin: a narrow elongate coastal engineering structure constructed on the
                                                                                                               beach perpendicular to the trend of the beach; its intended purpose is to
                                                                                                               trap longshore drift to build up a section of beach.
                   A-Zone: flood    zone subject to still water flooding during a storm with
                   a 100 year recurrence interval.                                                             hurricane: an intense tropical cyclone with winds which move counterclock-
                                                                                                               wise around a low pressure system; maximum winds exceed 75 mph.
                   barrier beach: a narrow low4ying strip of land consisting of beach and dunes
                   extending parallel to the trend of the coast and separated from the mainland                jetty: a narrow elongate coastal engineering structure constructed perpen-
                   by a fresh, brackish or salt water body or marsh.                                           dicular to the shoreline at inlets; designed to prevent longshore drift from
                                                                                                               filling the inlet and to provide protection for navigation.
                   barrier island: a barrier beach that is unconnected to the mainland.
                                                                                                               mean high water (mhw): the average height of all of the high waters recorded
                   barrier spit: a barrier beach that is connected at one end to upland and un-                at a given place over a 19 year period.
                   connected at the other end.
                                                                                                               mean low water (mlw): the average height of all of the low waters recorded
                   bay barrier: a barrier beach that is connected at both ends to upland.                      at a given place over a 19 year period.

                   beach: unconsolidated sediment subject to wave, tidal and coastal storm                     mean sea level (msl): the average height of the surface of the sea at a given
                   action which forms the gently sloping shore of a body of salt water and                     place for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period.
                   extends from the mean low waterline (including tidal flats) landward to the
                   duneline, coastal bankline or the seaward edge of coastal engineering                       northeaster: a large asymmetrical low pressure system that produces counter-
                   structures.                                                                                 clockwise winds from 30 to 70 mph which strike northeast facing coastal
                                                                                                               areas.
                   bedrock: a general term for the rock, usually solid, that underlies soil or
                   other unconsolidated surficial sediment.                                                    nourishment: the placement of sediment on a beach or dunes by mechanical
                                                                                                               means.
                   boulder: a detached rock with a diameter of 256 mm (10 in.) or greater.
                                                                                                               overwash: the uprush and overtopping of a coastal dune by storm waters.
                   breakwater: a linear mound-like coastal engineering structure constructed                   Sediment is usually carried with the overwashing water and deposited as a
                   offshore parallel to the shoreline; designed to protect landward property,                  washover fan on the landward side of the dune or barrier.
                   a harbor or anchorage from storm waves.
                                                                                                               revetment: an apron-like sloped coastal engineering structure constructed
                   coastal bank: the seaward face or side of an elevated landform, other                       on a dune face or fronting a seawall; designed to dissipate the force of
                   than a coastal dune, which lies on the landward side of a coastal beach, land               storm waves and prevent undermining of a seawall.
                   subject to tidal action or other wetland. Some coastal banks are uncon-
                   solidated and erode to supply sediment to beaches, dunes and barrier                        seawall: a vertical wall-like coastal engineering structure constructed parallel
                   beaches.                                                                                    to the beach or duneline and usually located at the back of the beach or
                                                                                                               the seaward edge of the dune.
                   conservation restriction: a legal agreement, either voluntary or involuntary,
                   designed to restrict use of privately owned land for conservation purposes.                 sediment: solid fragmental material that originates from weathering of
                                                                                                               rocks and is transported or deposited by air, water, or ice. Essentially all un-
                   downdrift: in the direction of the predominant movement of sediment                         consolidated materials.
                   along the shore.                                                                            storm ridge: a low ridge of coarse gravel, cobbles and/or boulders piled up
                   dredging: the removal of sediment or excavation of tidal or subtidal bottom                 by storm waves; located at the inner margin of the beach and not reached
                   to provide sufficient depths for navigation or anchorage.                                   by average waves or spring tides.

                   dune: any natural hill, mound, or ridge of sediment landward of a coastal                   tombolo: a barrier beach that connects an island to the mainland or to
                   beach deposited by the wind or storm overwash; sediment deposited by                        another island.
                   artificial means and serving the purpose of storm damage prevention and
                   flood control.                                                                              updrift: the direction opposite that of the predominant movement of sed-
                                                                                                               iment along the shore.
                   entrapment capacity: when the updrift side of a groin or jetty is filled com-
                   pletely with beach sediment.                                                                upland: a general term for high land or ground that is elevated above the
                                                                                                               floodplain.
                   foredune: the first dune or dune ridge landward of the beach.
                                                                                                               velocity zone (V-zone): flood zone subject to velocity water flooding during
                   gravel: rounded rock particles with diameters from 2 to 7 5 mm (1 /6 to 3 in.)              a storm with a 100 year recurrence interval.

                                                                                                                                                                                             D-I

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