Resource inventory of the Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

CM-165

RESOURCE INVENTORY OF THE
APALACHICOLA RIVER AND
BAY DRAINAGE BASIN

ALA.

Lake

Ire.
QH OF
105

E36
1987 Office Of Environmental Services 1987
FLORIDA GAME AND FRESH WATER FISH
COMMISSION

COASTAL ZONE

INFORMATION CENTER

RESOURCE INVENTORY OF THE
APALACHICOLA RIVER AND BAY DRAINAGE BASIN

by
H. Lee Edmiston and Holly A. Tuck

COASTAL ZONE

INFORMATION CENTER

office of Environmental Services

Florida Game and-Fresh Water Fish Commission
Apalachicola, Florida

September, 1987

Partial funding for this project was provided by the
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Office of Coastal
Management, under the Coastal.Zone Management Act of 1972.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction ............................................... 1

Characteristics of the System ............................. 3
Physiography of the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee
Flint River System .................................. 3

Surface Water Classification within the

Apalachicola Basin .................................. 6

Habitats Within the Apalachicola Basin .................. 12
Barrier Island System ........... e ..................... 12
Physiography

Beach and Berm

Dune Fields

Scrub

Pine Flatwoods

Salt Marshes

Sloughs, Freshwater Marshes, and Ponds

Hammocks

Overwash Zones and Grasslands
Apalachicola Bay System ............................... 40
Physiography

Oyster Bars
Submerged Vegetation
Tidal Flats

Soft Sediment

Marshes

Open Water
Apalachicola River Floodplain System .................. 66
Physiography
Floodplain Dynamics
Forested Floodplain
Nonforested Floodplain
Fish and Wildlife Values

Page

Apalachicola River System ............................. 96
Physiography and Hydrology
Riverine.Habitats

Rock

Steep Natural Bank
Gently Sloping Natural Bank
Dike Fields
Submersed Vegetation

Sandbar

Upland System .......................................... 123
Physiography
Upland Habitats
Sandhills

Clayhills

Scrub

Pine Flatwoods

Mixed Hardwoods

Titi Swamps, Bayheads, Shrub Bogs

Cypress Swamps
Seepage Bogs and.Savannahs
Bluffs and Ravines

Caves

Wildlife Values
IV. Land Resources of the Apalachicola Basin .................. 162
Land ownership ........................................ 162
Wildlife Management Areas
State Parks, Recreation Areas, and Special

Feature Sites

Other Public Lands

Private Lands

Land Use .............................................. 177

V. Protection of the Natural Resources of the
Apalachicola Basin ...................................... 183

Page

VI. Problems and Solutions.Facing the Apalachicola
Drainage:Basin .......................................... 190
Barrier Island System .................................. 190
Apalachicola Bay System ............................... 193
Apalachicola River Floodplain System .................. 196
Apalachicola River System ............................. 198
Upland System ......................................... 200
VII. Literature Cited .......................................... 203
VIII. Appendices ................................................ 220

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1. Outstanding Florida Waters located within the
Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin ................. 10

2. Basic vegetative cover types of St. Vincent Island .......... 26

3. Distribution and area of major bodies of water along
the coast of Franklin County .............................. 44

4. Acreage of submerged vegetation assemblages in the
Apalachicola Bay system ........................ 0 .......... 51

5. Distribution and area in acres of submerged vegetation
in the Apalachicola Bay systeur--1980 and 1984 compared .... 53

6. Summary of selected Franklin County shellfish landings ...... 56

7. Summary of selected Franklin Coun ty finfish landings ........ 63

8. Seasonality of important Apalachicola Bay fishes ............ 65

9. Tree species of the Apalachicola River floodplain ........... 77

10. Forest types of the Apalachicola River floodplain ........... 78

11. Area in acres of each forest type for five reaches of
the river .......................... o ....................... 79

12. Threatened and endangered plants of the Apalachicola
River floodplain .......................................... 88

13. Threatened, endangered, and species of special concern
found on the Apalachicola River floodplain ................ 92

14. Important rivers and streams in the Apalachicola basin ...... 98

15. Linear miles of shore habitat for the Apalachicola River
by section and habitat type ............................... 103

16. Catch/effort values for number and weight of fish by
habitats with and without snags for the Apalachicola
River ..................................................... 104

17. Species of fish collected by electro-fishing from all
habitats in the Apalachicola River ........................ 106

18. Dominant fishes in the Apalachicola River ................... 107

TABLE Page

19. Hardwood forest communities ............ 0........ 0 ........... 141

20. Threatened and endangered plants of the Apalachicola
basin ..................................................... 158

21. Land use of the major sub-basins within the
Apalachicola River and Bay Drainage basin ................. 180

22. Apalachicola River and Bay lands on the Conservation
and Recreation Land (CARL) list ........................... 186

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. General location of Apalachicola, Flint, and
Chattahoochee River basin ................................ 4

2. Physiography of the Apalachicola basin ...................... 5

3. Surface water classification in the Apalachicola basin ... 8

4. Outstanding Florida Waters in the Apalachicola basin ....... 11

5. Major features of the Apalachicola estuary ................. 13

6. Major features and beach ridges of Dog Island ........ # ..... 16

7. Distribution of major habitats of Dog Island ............... 17

8. Major features of St. George Island ......................... 19

9. Distribution of major habitats of part of
.St. George Island ........................................ 20

10. Major plant communities of Cape St. George Island .......... 22

11. Typical profiles of habitats of Cape St. George Island ..... 23

12. Major features and beach ridges of St. Vincent Island ...... 25

13. Profile of typical habitats of St. Vincent Island .......... 30

14. Major oyster bars of the Apalachicola estuary .............. 45

15. Submerged vegetation of the Apalachicola estuary ........... 49

16. Bottom sediments of the Apalachicola estuary ............... 57

Major marshes of the Apalachicola estuary .................. 59,

18. Apalachicola and Chipola River floodplains ................. 68

19. Major features of the Apalachicola floodplain .............. 72

20. Forest type and relationship with floodplain ............... 75

21-24. Distribution of vegetative associations of the
Apalachicola floodplain .................................. 81,83,85,87

25. Generalized food web of the Apalachicola floodplain ........ 90

26. Distribution of birds in coastal plain habitats ............ 94

Figure Page

27. Major tributaries of the Apalachicola basin ................ 99

28. Average monthly flows of the Apalachicola River at
Chattahoochee, 1957 to 1984 .............................. 101

29-32. Distribution of shoreline habitats on the Apalachicola
River .................................................... 109,111,113,115

33. Number of fish (CPUE) collected by habitat and river
section from the Apalachicola River ...................... 117

34. Number of gamefish per minute of electrofishing (CPUE) by
habitat for all Apalachicola samples ...................... 119

35. Natural vegetation of the Apalachicola basin ............... 125

36. Water management areas of the Apalachicola basin ........... 164

37. Other public lands of the Apalachicola basin ............... 171

38. Sub-basins of the Apalachicola River and
Bay drainage basin ....................................... 178

vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the following individuals who
-helped in this endeavor: Doug Bailey, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission; Steve Leitman and Jim Stoutamire, Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation; Woody Miley, Steve Travis, and entire staff of the
Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve; Bruce Means of the Coastal
Plains Institute; Ronald Myers, The Nature Conservancy and Ann Johnson,
Florida Natural Areas Inventory. We would also like to thank Edna Hancock and
the staff of the Word Processing Center; Luci Powellq Department of Community
Affairs; and Carol Knox for graphics. A special thanks goes to
Marcie Stephens and Karen Hatcher for their help concerning everything.

viii

1. INTRODUCTION

The Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin encompasses what can be
considered one of the least polluted, most undeveloped, resource rich systems
left in the United States. Through geological, chemical, physical and
biological interactions@ this system has evolved a river with the largest flow
in Florida, the most extensive forested floodplain in Florida, and the most
productive bay in Florida. There are increasing pressures on the system from
development, navigational interests, population increasesq and timber and
agricultural interests. All these interests can coexist with the natural
resources in the system) which currently dominate economics in the' region, if
adequate plans for protection of these resources are developed.

Because of its uniqueness, numerous designations have-occurred to note the
importance of and help protect the Apalachicola system. Not only have state
and federal agencies been involved, but local participation has also been a
key ingredient. in 1979, the lower river and Apalachicola Bay system was
.designated a National Estuarine Research Reserve by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). One of 17 reserves in the country, the
de signation confers protection and management benefits to help ensure the
long-term endurance of the system. The State of Florida designated the lower
Apalachicola River an Outstanding Florida Water in 1979 and included the upper
river in 1983. Thus the ambient water quality of the river, at the time of
designation, is used as the standard which cannot be degraded; instead of
allowing degradation to prescribed statewide values. In 1984 the United
Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) accepted the
Reserve into the International Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program. In 1985
the State of Florida declared Franklin County an Area of Critical State
Concern due to the developmental pressures being exerted in order to help
protect the bay system. All these designations, from state, national, and
international agencies, recognize the Apalachicola River and Bay system as a
unique and environmentally sensitive resource wIhich deserves protection.

The Apalachicola drainage basin includes upland, floodplain, riverine,
estuarine, and island environments which are closely correlated and influenced
by each other. In order to understand how the bay functions, the other
components of the system must also be understood. This document has been
prepared to identify the biological habitats which make up this important
system. It does not include a detailed discussion of the hydrologic links
within the sys'tem or chemical and physical processes which are important to
the productivity of the system. These issues have been dealt with previously
by other.authors mentioned in this document. This report, instead, deals with
habitats and the plants and animals that define and differentiate them. The
locationy basin-wide distributiont and importance of these habitats has also
been included in most instances.

It is important that this report be recognized for what it is. This
document is part of an ongoing effort which involves private citizens,
fishermeny researchers, and localq state, and federal agencies in an effort to
understandq protectt and manage an important and unique natural resource.
Hopefully, this report adds another important piece of information concerning
this system and should be recognized not as an end product in itself. The
information provided has been designed to be useful in helping to implement
long-term management goals for the system. In order to plan and -implement
these type of goals; however, all components of the system must be known and
understood which is the reason for this document.

II. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM

The Apalachicola drainage basin is located within one of the most sparsely
populated regions of Florida. Even so, there has been a tremendous amount of
interest in the system. This has resulted in a large body of research being
done within the last 15 years on the system. However, many gaps exist either
from lack of study or lack of a cohesive union of this information.

Physiography of the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River System

The Apalachicola River basin is only a small part of the much larger
Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River system (ACF). The ACF basin covers the
north-central and southwestern part of Georgia,.the southeastern part of
Alabama, and the central part of the Florida panhandle. It drains an area
covering approximately 19,600 square miles (Figure 1). The Chattahoochee
flows 436 miles from its source in the Blue Ridge Mountains of northern
Georgia, drains a land area of 8,650 square miles, and has 13 dams located on
the river. The Flint flows 350 miles from its source south of Atlanta, drains
a land area of 8,494 square miles, and has 2 dams affecting streamflow. The
Apalachicola is formed by the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint
rivers, flows 107 miles to Apalachicola Bay, and drains a land area of
approximately 2t4OO square miles (COE, 1978). Prior to the construction of
Jim Woodruff Dam, the Apalachicola River formed above the dam's present
location. The river now begins below the dam which forms Lake Seminole and
which is shared by all three state borders.

There are three principal physiographic provinces traversed by the
Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin. These are the Tallahassee Hills,
the Marianna Lowlands, and the Gulf Coastal Lowlands (Figure 2). The
Tallahassee Hills occur on the eastern side of the river from the Georgia
border southward to the Gulf Coastal Lowlands. These two provinces are
separated from each other by the prominent Cody Scarp. The Tallahassee Hills

T N, N. C.

S. C

AL. G A.

FL.

Q ATLANTA
G)

COLUMBUS

THE APALACHICOLA-
CHATAHOOCHEE- FLINT
RIVER BASIN

-C
0
0
r

FL.
BAINBRIDGE
MARIANNA 9
GA.

N CHATTAHOOCHEE

BLOUNTSTOWN
Dead Lakes -k- ?
W E W A H I T C H K Ak)* r/ Apalachicola River
0 10 20 30 Y\ APALACHICOLA
Miles @ZD Apalachicola Bay
Of 4fe)(ico

FIGURE 1. GENERAL LOCATION OF APALACH ICOL A- CHATTAHOOCHEE- FLINT
RIVER BASIN.
4

ALABAMA

GEORGIA
L
MAR I ANNA OWL AN

APALACHICOLA BLUFFS

Chattahoochee

1,A.TALLAHASSEE

o 7,

4n
Codr
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IN
NTAI
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CC

Wewahitch
MINID BAR GULF COASTAL OASTAL
DUNES SWAMPS
Rellct Bar
&pits -Anterlevee
Bayi7Z@e.
@Warnps &
BAR
Tates Hell elict Bar
Swamp & Spits
p2a;l@qZqicola
Cosso% kel
oi
G % I
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FIGURE 2. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE APALACHICOLA Imodified from Leitman et al.,1983.1
hg4

are characterized by long, gentle slopes with round summits. The western
boundary is characterized by steep bluffs overlooking the river with
elevations as high as 325 feet (COE, 1978; Clewell, 1986; Leitman et al,
1983).

The Marianna Lowlands extend from the western bank of the river westward
and are generally north of the Tallahassee Hills region. They were once
highlands but have been eroded substantially by streams and are now a highly
fertile area supporting considerable agriculture. The Chipola River primarily
drains this region. The Gulf Coastal Lowlands are generally flat and sandy
representing uplifted sea bottom, and are below 100 feet in elevation. The
topography and underlying soils which control internal drainage in this region
tend to create either excessively dry or excessively wet swampy conditions.
Numerous relict bars and dunes are also associated with this province
indicating great historic fluctuations in sea level (COE, 1978; Clewell,
1986).

Surface Water Classification Within the Apalachicola Basin

All surface waters of the State have been classified by the Florida
Department of Environmental Regulation (DER) according to their designated
use. Five classes have been designated with water quality criteria designed
to maintain the minimum conditions necessary to assure the suitability of
water for its designated use (DER9 1985). In the Apalachicola drainage basin
three of the five classes of water are present and include:

Class I - Potable Water Supplies
Class II - Shellfish Propagation or Harvesting
Class III - Recreation, Propagation and Maintenance of a
Healthyq Well-balanced Population of Fish and

Wildlife.

Each of these classes have specific water quality standards for parameters
such as bacterial levelsq metalsq pesticides and herbicidesq dissolved oxygen,

etc., designed to protect and maintain the use of the water body. The degree
of protection is variable with Class I waters having the most stringent
standards and Class V waters the least. All surface waters of the State are
classified as Class III waters except those specifically described in
Chapter 17-3.161, F.A.C.

There is only one Class I water located within the entire Apalachicola
.River and Bay drainage basin. Mosquito Creek in northwestern Gadsden County
is used by the City of Chattahoochee as a drinking water source and therefore
is classified as a Class I water from U.S. Highway 90 north to the State line
(Figure 3). As mentioned earlier, Class I waters, those used as potable water
supplies, are afforded the most protection of any waters in the State due to
their designated use.

Class II waters, those used for shellfish propagation or harvesting,
include the majority of the brackish water areas in the estuary (Figure 3).
The entire bay system from Alligator Harbor thru St. George Sound,
Apalachicola Bay, East Bay and tributaries, St. Vincent Sound, and Indian
Lagoon are Class.11 waters with the exception of a two-mile radius near
Apalachicola and the Area north of the Eastpoint Breakwater. This area has
been closed to shellfishing for years due to pollution from the City of
Apalachicola and runoff from Eastpoint. Class II water standards are more
stringent concerning bacteriological quality than any class due to the fact
that shellfishq oysters and clams that are consumed uncooked by man can
concentrate pathogens in quantities significantly higher than the surrounding
waters. The Florida Department of Natural Resources (DNR) maintains a lab in
Apalachicola and conducts surveys to determine water quality in.shellfish
waters. All Class 11 waters are additionally classified by DNR as approved,
conditionally approvedp or prohibited based upon these surveys. As conditions
change areas are closed or opened based on bacterial surveys and major
rainfall events which increase bacterial levels-due to runoff.

All other waters in the Apalachicola Riverand Bay drainage basin are
Class III waters. This includes the.Apalachicola and.Chipola Rivers, Dead
Lake, Lake Wimico, Lake Seminole, and all other creeks, ponds, or surface

ALA.
FLA.

JACKSON

Lake:'
Seminole
eChattahoachee

WASHINGTON
GADSDEN

CALHOUN
L/

BAY
LIBERTY

GULF
FRANKLIN

3.,
2

A
Apalachicola
2
2 0
qo-

0 F

ALL WATERS CLASS III

EXCEPT WHERE NOTED
1-CLASS I MOSOUITO CREEK

2-CLASS 11 APALACHICOLA BAY SYSTEM
3-CLASS III

FIGURE 3. SURFACE WATER CLASSI-FICATION IN APALACHICOLA BASIN.

waters. Class III water standards are less stringent than the other two
classes but are intended to protect recreation and the propagation and
maintenance of a healthy well-balanced population of fish and wildlife (DER,
1985).

Another important designation used by DER is that of "Outstanding Florida
Water (OFW)." There are 15 designated OFWs located within the Apalachicola
River and Bay system (Table 1, Figure 4). These waters are afforded special
protection by the State due to their high quality, recreational or ecological
significance, or their location within state- or federally owned lands. This
designation is intended to preserve the ambient water quality at the time of
designation and not allow any degradation. Stringent at Iandards are applied
regarding proposed alterations or potentially damaging acti vities planned for

these waters.

Table 1. Outstanding Florida waters located within the Apalachicola River
and Bay drainage basin.

Map location Waters within County

1. St. Vincent Island Wildlife Refuge Gulf
2. Cape St. George State Preserve Franklin
3. Dr. Julian G. Bruce, St. George Is. St. Pk. Franklin
4. Apalachicola Bay Franklin
5. Alligator Harbor Franklin
6. St. Vincent Sound Franklin
7. East Bay Franklin
8. Western St. George Sound Franklin
9. Lower Apalachicola River Basin (EEL) Franklin/Gulf
10. Dead Lakes State Recreation Area Gulf
11. Apalachicola River (with 2-1/2 mile Jackson/Gadsden
exceptions) Calhoun/Liberty
12. Chipola River Gulf/Calhoun/Jackson
13. Florida Caverns State Park Jackson

14. Three Rivers State Recreation Area Jackson
15. Torreya State Park Liberty

ALA.
FLA.

JACKSON

13
Lak,@-
Seminolo 1,
*Chattahoochee
chee

WASHINGTON 5
GADSDEN
CALHOUN L1

qr
Z

BAY

LIBERTY

GULF
FRANKLIN

Apalachicola

4
0

0 2
0 F

FIGURE 4. OUTSTANDING FLORIDA WATERS IN THE APALACHICOLA BASIN
see table 1

III. HABITATS WITHIN THE APALACHICOLA BASIN

This section describes the Apalachicola River and Bay system physically
and biologically by dividing it into its various components. These parts
include barrier islands, baysq riversq floodplainst uplands, and the various
habitats which make them both similar and different, and simple and complex.

Barrier Island System

A well developed barrier island system exists at the mouth of the
Apalachicola River. This barrier island complex lies roughly parallel to the
mainland and is composed of four islands: Dog, St. George, Cape St. George,
and St. Vincent islands (Figure 5). In their natural state barrier islands
play a crucial role in the formation of estuaries, lagoons, bays, and
sounds. Barrier islands also provide protection to the coastal mainland which
they border by providing a "first line of defense" to destructive
hurricanes.

Three hurricanes impacted the islands of the Apalachicola Bay system in
1985. The foredunes have been almost completely destroyed and it will take
several years for them to rebuild. In some cases up to 100 feet of beach have
been lost. Many trees along the Gulf side are down and the intrusion of
saltwater into freshwater ponds has occurred on St. Vincent Island.
Scientists are presently studying the effects hurricanes are having on various
aspects of these barrier islands.

The terrestrial (vertebrate) fauna (excluding birds) is often relatively
depauperate on some barrier islands. The species are associated in site-
specific assemblages in the terrestrial, freshwater, and saltmarsh habitats
present. Most terrestrial vertebrates are effective colonizers and are
tolerant of a variety of habitat types, but they are dependent on enough
native terrestrial vegetation to maintain a given population. The importance
of barrier islands to various bird species should not be underestimated.

TATES
HELL CARRABEL
SWAMP

EAST
EAST
PASS
BAY SA-
Us a.
Go aridqe ASTPOINT
APALACHIC& 'o" kal
Point

Soutil)
T.,jjHcEHT
APALACHICOLA

IND&AN
PASS ...... BAY

c1t
"J, 09,

WEST
N PASS
likes
ut

a Miles
COE 01 j

GULF OF MEXICO

FIGURE 5. MAJOR FEATURES OF THE APALACHICOLA ESTUARY.

Sedentary types such as woodpeckersq chickadeesq and titmice are not usually
found but various trans-Gulf migratory species on spring flights use the
islands during unfavorable weather conditions. Birds are also associated with
different habitats, with some species being restricted to one particular
habitat (Livingston and Thompson, 1975).

The various plant communities of barrier islands are dependent on
geological formations and soil moisture gradients. Each barrier island has a
unique plant community profile and structure. Profiles of the four barrier
islands are illustrated in the island descriptions.

Physiography

Dog Island, approximately 1,842 acres in size, is located about 4.3 miles
offshore from Carrabelle in the Gulf of Mexico. The island is approximately
6.8 miles long with a maximum width of 1 mile in the area just west of Tyson
Harbor. Narrow parts of the island range from 328 to 459 feet in width. To
the east, a broad inlet approximately 10.3 miles wide separates Alligator Spit
from Dog Island to the west. East Pass, 2.2 miles wide, separates St. George
Island from Dog Island (Spicola, 1983).

The Island is approximately 4000 years old (Spicolaq 1983) and has one of
the few well-developed beach ridge plains of late Holocene age in the state.
Fluctuations in sea level (range of 10 feet) in the last 5000 to 6000 years
combined with.coastal shoreline processes have created "beach ridge plains" on
the washover barrier. These ridges were built by intermittent deposition,
receiving sand from longshore drift and from offshore material moving directly
to the beach (Stapory 1973). There are five sets of beach ridges
(Figure 6). Four of these, located on the northeastern end of the island, are
alternating recurved then parallel ridges which indicate changes in the
offshore wave conditions. The fifth set can be found on the southwestern tip
of the island, and as the most recent ridge on the northeastern tip, is
recurved and now being formed through littoral drift (Spicola, 1983). Among
these ridges are intervening swalesq depression marshesq or seasonal

wetlands. These intervening wetlands are perennially or seasonally inundated,
depending on rainfall.

Dog Island contains 690 acres of fresh water wetlands and 352 acres of
intertidal wetlands. Three community types (marine, terrestrial and
palustrine) and their natural communities, as defined by the Florida Natural
Areas Inventory, are mapped for Dog Island (Figure 7). Transects of plant
community development found in the wider parts of the island are similar to
that of a "typical barrier island" as defined by Livingston (1983).

Dog Island has been divided into four major areas: East End, Mid-Island,
Cannonball Acres and West End (Figure 6). Elevations tend to vary somewhat
among and within the four distinct,physiographic units of the island. The
East End has low, broad dune ridges and over the past few years has been
accreting. The Mid-Island Unit varies in elevation. The beach dune ridge
runs the length of the central gulf beach and is generally 10-20 ft. high.
Interior scrub dunes behind this ridge are 3-10 feet above mean sea level
(MSL). "The Interior" is the local name for the flatwoods west of Tyson
Harbor. Moccasin Creek is a.man-made canal which drains portions of "The
Interior." "The Mountains" refer to those dunes supporting sand pine scrub
and represent the highest in elevations (13-49 ft. above MSL). Cannonball
Acres is generally low in elevation (3-10 ft. above MSL) with no clearly
developed coastal dunes. Wetlands are present in this area and plant
communities are poorly delimited. The freshwater areas have a shallow profile
with a more brackish underlayment (as much as 20 ppt). Some of the largest
coastal dunes on the island are found on the West End (16-33 ft. MSL). These
are derived from recent deposition of sediments and are usually barren and
unconsolidated by vegetation (Anderson and Alexander, 1985).

Dog Island experiences alternating periods of deposition and erosion.
Erosion is directed from the beaches toward the island's interior. The
central shoreline of Dog Island is presently eroding with the sediment being
moved to either end of the island (Stapor, 1971). This accumulation atboth
ends has not produced an equal amount of new surface because' of the greater
water depths (Tanner, 1975). Winds have moved sediments inland along the

SHOAL

TYSON
MILES
THE HARBOR
INTERIOR

BEACH THE
BEACH RIDGE MOUNTAINS
P51

CANNONBALL
NARROWS 01D

WEST END Acf kfs

FIGURE 6.MAJOR FEATURE AND BEACH RIDGES OF DOG ISLANDImodified from Spicola,19831.

SLOUGH/DEPRESSION MARSH
INTERTIDAL AQUATIC BED
INTERTIDAL MARSH
WET FLATWOODS
MANGROVE

OVERWASH PLAIN/SAVANNAH
BEACH/DUNE
SCRUB
SAND PINE

FIGURE. 7. DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR HABITATS OF DOG ISLAND[ modif ied
from Anderson & Alexander,1985).

central beach which has resulted in formation of a long, more or less
continuous beach dune ridge approximately 2.5 miles long. These dunes are
thought to be no more than 3,000 years old (Gorsline, 1963).' Overwash zones
also occur in the two narrows of the island as well as on the East End.

St. George Island lies adjacent to the mouth of the Apalachicola River and
is connected to the mainland by the Bryan Patton Toll Bridge (Figure 8). The
island is 30 miles.long and is quite narrow, averaging less than one-third
mile in width. It contains approximately 7,340 acres of land and 1,200 acres
of marshes. On the Gulf side there is a narrow band of beaches and low-lying
sand dunes that grade into mixed woodland grass, palmetto, and bayside marshes
(Livingston et al, 1975). St. George Island State Park is located on the east
end of the island and consists of approximately 1,750 acres. Bob Sikes Cut
separates the west end of the island from Cape or Little St. George Island.
This channel was constructed in 1957. St. George Island appears to have
formed in-its present location between 4,000 and 4,500 years ago. The ridges
on the island tend to have an east-west trend and are predominately parallel,
indicating a transverse or offshore drift system. According to Stapor (1973)
St. George Island has been accreting sediment at its northeastern tip at about
64 ft/yr. The beach face in the same area has been retreating 4 ftlyr. for
the interval 1934 - 1970. Of-all the islands St. George is the most easily
accessible and has been modified the most by road building and development

pressures.

Cape St. George Island, or Little St. George Island is approximately 9
miles south of Apalachicola. The island is 9 miles long and varies in width
from 1/4 mile to a maximum width of one mile. The island was acquired by the
State of Florida in 1977, and has been designated as a "state reserve". The
reserve consists of approximately 21300 acres at mean high tide. An
additional 400 acres of perimeter tidal marshlands and lower beach areas which
are inundated by high tidal waters are present. Elevations range from sea
level to 26 feet, but the bulk of the island lies between 3 and 12 feet above
mean sea level MR, 1983). Cape St. George is separated from St. George by
Bob Sikes Cut, about 500 feet wide and St. Vincent Island by West Pass, a

EAST
PASS

0
ST GEORGE
STATE PARK
EAST COVE
CIO

0%j, ......

NICKS
0 2 4
HOLE

MILES

FIGURE 8. MAJOR FEATURES OF ST GEORGE ISLAND.

natural inlet averaging slightly more than 1/2 mile wide. The only access to
Cape St. George is by boat.

Cape St. George Island is a coastal dune/dune flat/washover barrier
formation of recent geologic origin (DNR, 1983). The western and eastern
sections of the island are narrow terraces subject to occasional overwash by
storm surges. The western section is also a drift spit, the westernmost
portion ofwhich is known as "Sand Island." Nautical charts of 1858 show the
presence of two natural passes through the island. These passes, New Inlet
(east of the Cape), and Sand Island Pass (west of the Cape), were probably
opened by hurricane overwash in the 1840s. By 1930, these were closed by
gradual coastal deposition, thus forming one island. The ephemeral inlets are
characteristic of powerful overwash events. Relic inlets become protected
coves (Godfrey and Godfrey, 1976) and new bayshore marshes form on the
substrate created by overwash sediments and relic inlet shoals. This is the
case with the relic New Inlet where prominent marshes and Pilot's cove exist
today (DNR, 1983).

The dune ridges are oriented from northwest to southeast paralleling the
present shoreline west of the Cape. The shoreline east of the Cape runs
northeastward. A dune strand truncates the relic dune ridges of the interior,
blocking swales between the dune ridges. Plant communities of Cape St. George
State Reserve are illustrated in Figure 10. Cross sectional profiles of the
island at representative points are shown in Figure 11.

St. Vincent Island National Wildlife Refuge was acquired by the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior in 1968. The island is
triangular in shape, approximately 9 miles long and 4 miles wide (Spicola,
1983). It consists of approximately 12,358 acres. West Pass separates the
island from Cape St. George and Indian Pass (approximately 400 yards wide)
separates the island from Indian Peninsula.

St. Vincent is somewhat atypical of the barrier islands found along North
Florida, Alabama and Mississippi. Instead of a simple beach and dune
structure, there exists a highly complex topographic and physiographic makeup

Sand Island
A P A L A C H I COL A 8 A Y

SCALE 1:24,000

10 5

7-
10
4 3 3 z
b

Cape St. George 1 1 BEACH-DUNE
Lighthouse 2 OVERWASH PLAIN
3 TIDAL MARSH
4 MESIC FLATWOOD
5 SCRUBBY FLATWOOD
G U L F 0 F M E X I C 0 6 SCRUB
7 SWALE WETLAND
8 HAMMOCK
9 DEPRESSION MARSH
10 GRASSBEDS

F I GURE 10. MAJOR PLANT COMMUNI TIES OF CAPE ST GEORGE ISLAND (DNR,19831

COASTAL STRAND

DUNE FIELD-
CABBAGE
GULF OF SEA OATS PALMS
MEXICO COVE APALACHICOLA
SAY
. . ... .......

..... .. ..*

.. ...... . ...
GULF BERM DUNE BARRIER FLAT SALT MARSH SAND/
BEACH SLACK GRASSLANDS NEEDLE RUSH OYSTER
OVERWASH FRESHWATER SMOOTH CORDGRASS BAR
TERRACES CATTAIL
MARSH

RELIC
DUNE
RIDGE RELIC
SCRUB DUNE
COASTAL RIDGE
STRAND SCRUB
SCRUB
STABLE
DUNES
GULF OF APALACHICOLA

BAY
MEXICO

. .. ..........
... . .... .
GULF FOREDUNE SWALE SWALE WET LAND SCRUBBY SLASH PiNt COASTAL HALODULE
BEACH SEA OATS WETLAND MIXED SAWGRASS FLATWOODS FLATWOODS HYDRIC GRASSBEDS
SAWGRASS MARSH/PINE SCRUB DENSE SHRUB HAMMOCK
MARSH UNDERSTORY UNDERSTORY

FIGURE 11. TYPICAL PROFILES OF HABITATS OF CAPE ST GEORGE ISLAND I DNR,19831.

(Thompson, 1970). Beach ridges run east to west and are predominately
parallel, indicating a transverse or offshore drift system. In the
southeastern corner of the island there are at least four beach ridge sets
which are thought to have been formed by a westerly longshore drift system
(Figure 12). The island is thought to have been formed slightly more than
3,500 years ago. There is a complex ridge and swale topography. Typical
ridges range three to seven feet high and measure 100 feet or more from crest
to crest (Miller et al, 1980). Generally, dunes are highest on the south side
and the very west end of the island. Interdune areas are lowest near the
center and east end of the island (Thompson, 1970). Sets of ridges are
frequently truncated by new deposition leaving a complicated pattern of ponds
and.sloughs. Most of the island has been stable up until a few decades ago.
Since 1970, erosion has been quite spectacular at certain localities. Many
trees have been left standing in the surf zone, but erosion rates have not
been determined for this time interval (Tanner, 1975).

The vegetation from the Gulf side to the interior consists of scrub oak
ridges, slash pine timberlands, sawgrass marshes and tide marshes. The
vegetative composition grades from west to east where, for example, live oak
replaces the scrub oak complex and open water replaces sawgrass marshes
(Thompson, 1970). A file report entitled "Vegetative Cover Types of St.
Vincent National Wildlife Refuge" prepared by the Refuge Biologist, delineates
and describes 17 major plant communities on St. Vincent Island as determined
by a field survey, a published report (McAtee, 1913), and planimetric analysis
of 1:10,000 aerial photography. These 17 communities have been combined into
five landscape categories (Table 2). Typical island profiles, one from east
to west, and the other from north to south, show the general distribution of
plant communities and their relation to topography (Figure 13). One favorable
aspect of the islands' rolling dunes is the interspersion of pine lands with
hardwoods. This provides a dispersion of habitat favorable for wildlife.

A variety of mostly xeric communities is found on island ridges.
Interspersed with-these ridges are xeric to hydric communities consisting of
pine flatwoods, hammocks, marshes, ponds, and sloughs. A general description

ST. VINCENT SOUND

I NDIAN

PASS

u
A.
..........

olp
4 ti@t
CO 4q

0 2
OYSTER'..
MILES POND

'nQ FEATURES AND BEACH RIDGES OF STVINCENT ISLANDimodified from Spicol,19831.

Table 2. Basic Vegetative Cover Types of St. Vincent Island (modified from Thompson, 1970)

% of
Community Type Vegetation Type Acreage Island Dominant Sp. Notes

DUNES Scrub Oak Dune 1,202 9.7 Rosemary Reported to be a consistent
Myrtle Oak and heavy mast producer;
Dwarf Live Oak probably frequented by deer
Chapman's Oak during fall months.
Live Oak

Mixed Live Oak 201 1.6 As above with Intermediate seral stage in
Scrub Oak Dune less Rosemary, succession from Scrub Oak to
more Live Oak Live Oak dune.

Live Oak Dune 505 4.1 Live Oak Located on eastern, higher
Laurel Oak dunes. Source of acorn mast
Cabbage Palm and palmetto berries.

Live Oak - Grass 155 1.3 As above with Located on e*astern side near
grass rather shore dunes. Minor occurrence.
than Saw
Palmetto

Sand Pine - Scrub 7 0.5 Like Scrub Oak Very minor occurrence, wide-
with addition spread on mainland.
sand pine

Hardwood Hammock 185 1.5 Water Oak Good species diversity
Live Oak restricted to rich midden
Hickory soils along north shoreline.
Cabbage Palm Much of the apparent elevation
Magnolia from midden accumulation.
Cedar

Table 2 continued.
% of
Community Type Vegetation Type Acreage Island Dominant Sp. Notes

CABBAGE PALM Cabbage Palm 221 1.8 Cabbage Palm Limited distribution as pure
alone or mixed type. No understory
with Hardwood vegetation.
Hammock

PINELANDS Slash Pine Mixed 29332 18.81 Slash Pine Most common upland type
Understory Magnolia Varies in composition depending
Gallberry upon drainage; usually found on
Lyonia sp. slopes between swales and crests.
All second growth after logging.

Slash Pine 1,234 10 Slash Pine Wetter than Slash Pine - Mixed
Cabbage Palm Magnolia Understory'. Source of palmetto
Hammock Saw Palmetto berries, grapes.
Grape

Slash Pine - 1,040 8.4 Slash Pine Restricted to northeast part of
Saw Palmetto - Yaupon island. Mixed grasses from
Ilex Grasses understory. Source of Yaupon.

Slash Pine - Grass 145 1.2 Slash Pine Restricted to Gulf shore. Minor
Grasses occurrence.

FRESH WATER Sawgrass - Emergent 792 6.4 Sawgrasa occupies lower interdune swales
Marsh St. John's-Wort in vicinity of freshwater ponds.
Buttonbush Occasionally with cordgrass.
willow Colonial bird nesting area.

Cattail Marsh 660 5.3 Cattail Utilized by marsh birds.

Fresh Water Pond 269 2.2 Saggittaria Freshwater fish, reptiles,
Nymphaea -amphibians, and edible plants.
Wood duck nesting area, waterfowl
wintering area. Mostly previously
brackish.

Table 2 continued.
% of
Community Type Vegetation Type Acreage Island Dominant Sp. Notes

TIDAL Tidal Marsh 2,899 23.4 Spartina Most common vegetation type.
AREAS Juncus Probably important source of
Disticalis shellfish.

Salt Water Pond 148 1.2 Chara May be useful for fishing or
Widgeon Grass tide netting.

Beach 377 Sea Oats Shell collecting, surf fishing,
sea turtle nesting.

of barrier island plant communities, wildlife importance and utilization

follows.

Beach and Berm

Beaches.are-semiterrestrial habitats that are subject to constant high
energy forces of wind and wave action. It is a detrital based community in
which primary productivity in the intertidal zone is limited to unicellular
algae. Animals consist of burrowers and interstitial amphipods and isopods,
Many shorebirds, gulls, and terns use the beach for feedingg nestingg and
loafing throughout the year. Plovers, turnstones, and sandpipers are
constantly present at the surf line. Raccons and ghost crabs, along with
other nocturnal visitors, scavenge along the beach drift lines (DNR, 1983).

Berms exist slightly above the elevations of the nomal tide range and are
constantly.being altered by storms and wave action. Storm washes deposit
shell fragments on the landward slope of the berm. Vegetation is sparse.
Annual plants commonly found in this zone include sea-rocket, sea purslane,
Russian thistle, and the seaside spurge.

The relatively undisturbed miles of Gulf beach and berm of the barrier
islands provide essential habitats for a number of endangered and rare birds.
Beaches provide nesting sites for such species as the threatened least tern,
royal tern, sandwich tern, black skimmer, and oystercatcher, a species of
special concern. All of these plus the Caspian tern, and the Eastern brown
pelican, a species of special concern, use sand spits and beach bars for
loafing and roosting (DNR, 1983; Livingston et al, 1975). The threatened
Southeastern snowy plovers and least terns are present on St. George and Cape
St. George. Snowy plovers require expansive open, dry, sandy beaches for
breeding, and both dry and tidal sand flats for foraging. They are the only
Florida bird species which feed and breed on open, dry sandy beaches. Least
terns also nest here but feed in nearby waters. The numbers occurring in
Franklin County have declined sharply with human exploitation of the beaches

..... . ......

.. ......... ..

.............. .... .. .
.... .............. .
.............
.. . .. ...... ......... . ...... .*.;;-,.*.-.@:-.-'.-..-,::::::......::,.,@-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intermediate Slash Pine Tide Marsh Hardwood Slash Pine Scrub Oak Sawgrass
Oak Ridge Ilex Hammock Mixed Dune Slough
Understory

SlashPine Scrub Oak Dune Pine/Grass Beach Gulf Coast
Cabbage Palm
Hammock

FIGURE 13. PROFILE OF TYPICAL HABITATS OF ST. VINCENT ISLAND (THOM PSON,1970 I.

(Livingston et al, 1975). The beaches and berms of the barrier islands are
used in the summer as some of the most important rookery grounds for the
threatened Atlantic loggerhead turtle (DNR, 1983).

Dune Fields

Primary dunes or the foredunes are the first dunes on the seaward side of
the islands. They provide protection for the other dune ridges and plant
communities that lie behind them. Because dunes are subject to daily exposure
of salt spray and sandblast, and the major shifts and wash down of storm
surges, they are considered to be harsh environments. This dune system is
unstable and constantly being alteredt and therefore does not provide a
permanent or continuous barrier to storm surges (DNR, 1983).

The predominant plant found in the dune plant community is sea oats. They
are very effective in building and stabilizing dunes. Sea oats also provide
food for,the red-winged blackbird and other species of birds. Other plants of
the dune community include the railroad vine, beach morning glory, evening
primrose, bluestem, and sand coco-grass MR, 1983; White, 1977; Livingston et
al, 1975). The roots and rhizomes of dune vegetation help to bind the sand
and thereby stabilize the land.

In areas where water has ceased to wash through, a stabilized coastal dune
strand has developed (for examplet some areas of Cape St. George). Overwash
in this stabilized.strand is restricted to the foredune zone, although all of
the other stresses (salt spray, etc.) still exist. Dunes of the stabilized
strand are larger than those of the overwash dune field and tend to align in a
continuous ridge form. With the stabilizing of the seaward ridge, succession
is allowed to proceed behind the dune with scrub thickets replacing grasslands
(DNRI 1983).

Behind the primary dune is usually a wide, relatively flat sandy plain,
containing some small windblown dunes. This interdunal zone is mostly devoid
of larger woody plants found in more established scrub areas towards the

interior of the island. Plant species of this zone include saw palmetto,
yaupon, wax-myrtle, salt-myrtle, goldenrod, marsh elder, and marshhay
cordgrass (White, 1977).

Only a few very rare faunal species are known to require the coastal
strand habitat. The Southeastern snowy plove-r forages on dry, interdune flats
of the overwash dune field. The endangered peregrine falcon migrates through
the islands in the fall and spring. The threatened Southeastern American
kestrel is also an open habitat bird (DNR, 1983).

Scrub

Behind this dune system a zone of more dense vegetation can be found. The
understory vegetation of this zone includes mostly scrub species with a few
scattered slash pines occurring. This scrub community is generally found on
higher, well-drained sites corresponding to old dune ridges (White, 1977) and
is excellent for stabilizing dunes. Dominant plant species found in this zone
are saw palmetto, rosemary, buckthorn, staggerbush, Chapman oak, myrtle oak,
sand live oak, and live oak. Various herbs, lichens and grasses often cover
the open areas (Livingston et al, 1975).

Slash pine scrub grades into a broad vegetation zone with a more dense
cover of slash pine and an understory consisting of scrub species. This slash
pine-scrub community generally occupies flat ground on drier sites. Saw
palmetto tends to form much broader patches (Livingston et al, 1975). Myrtle
oak and sand live oak also form large patches as they do in the scrub on
dunes. Chapman oak and rosemary are present but are not as common as in the
dune scrub communities. The open areas located in the slash pine-scrub
communities are also covered with herbs, grasses, lichens or low, semi-woody
species such as Aristida spiciformis, Rhynchospora megalacarpaq Polygonella
polygama, and Hypericum reductum.

The dunes of Dog Island that are dominated by sand pine are locally known
as "The Mountains." This scrub community is on some of the higher elevations

of the island. The sand pine community of Dog Island represents an uneven
aged community of sand pine. Several sand pines in "The Mountains" are 100
125 years old, whereas the older trees on the adjacent mainland near
Carrabelle are mostly around 80 years old. The understory consists of
relatively few species of plants including rosemary and Cladonia sp. (Anderson
and Alexander@ 1985).

Only one sand pine has been found on Cape St. George (W. Miley, pers.
COMM.) and a few exist on St. George Island. Sand pine scrub exists in one
area of St. Vincent Island. It is limited to about 6.8 acres (Table 2).
Under9tory species are similar to the scrub oak type except the overstory is
sand pine. Sand pine is limited on these barrier islands but is common in the
older dunes on the mainland between Lanark and East Point. Why they are not
very extensive or even occur on these islands is uncertain (Thompson, 1970).

Pine Flatwoods

Slash pine also dominates pine flatwoods. The slash pine-scrub community
usually grades into pine flatwoods which tend to occur on poorly drained or
wet sites. The major associates include a dense understory of fetterbush, saw
palmetto, gallberry2 Lyonia ligustrina.and Lyonia mariana (Cape St. George).
Palmettos form a more dense cover than in the scrub communities. Minor
associates include sundew, St. John's-wort, mint, blueberry, and
huckleberry. Pine flatwoods bordering salt marshes take on a tall understory
of live oaks and occasional cedars and cabbage palms WNRI 1983).

Flatwood species are fire adapted. This community is susceptible to
frequent and often intense fires because of the dense vegetation and heavy
accumulation of litter (particularly during the dry season). The integral
role which fire plays in arresting succession in flatwoods is widely
recognized in the Southeast today.

Pinewoods provide food, as well as nesting-and escape cover for a variety
of wildlife species. The brown-headed nuthatch and pine warbler are

restricted to pines in the breeding season and the red-breasted nuthatch is
restricted to such areas in the winter. Mature slash pines are important
nesting and perching sites for a few rare and endangered species (Livingston
et al, 1975). The Southern bald eagle and osprey nest in pines close to the
bayshore because of feeding habitats. The Southern bald eagle prefers trees
that provide a large expansive view of the surroundings while the migrating
Cooper's hawk prefers more densely wooded areas along with open habitat for
hunting prey. They may be found in scrubby flatwoods. The Southeastern
kestrel nests in cavities of live pines or snags which are present in the
woodland communities (DNR, 1983).

Salt Marshes

Salt marshes are found on the bay side where they are protected by the
barrier islands and are associated with the shaIlowy low-energy (wave, tide,
etc.) areas (Livingston et al, 1975). Salt marshes act as filters for land
runoff, removing sediments and pollutants. They transfer nutrients from
upland areas to adjoining aquatic systems. -Marshes are also important in
their relationship to land surfaces in the overall system of water movement
involving runoff, tidal currents and wind and storm activities (White,
1977). Overwash sediments and inlet shoals have been shown to be excellent
substrates for tidal marsh development (DNR, 1983).

Sloughs gradually merge with the salt marshes on the bay side of St.
George island. Livingston and Thompson 0975) attribute plant zonation of
such marshes to salinity gradients due to differential evaporation. Brackish
or landward areas of marshes are dominated by needlerush. Juncus is joined by
saltmeadow cordgrass, perennial glasswort, three-square bullrush, saltmeadow
grass, sand sedge, and the shrubs sea myrtle and groundsel in the high
brackish or transitional zone.. Waterward of the transitional zone, Juncus
dominates exclusively to an elevation near mean.high water (DNR, 1983).
Waterward of the mean high water line and the brackish zone lies the salt
marsh community dominated exclusively by smooth cordgrass. This community
requires regular tidal inundation and attains its best development on Cape St.

George behind protective sand/oyster bar barriers which have been deposited by
bay wave action offshore in the Pilot's Cove area (DNR, 1983). The most
landward extent of smooth cordgrass is the margins of small tidal creeks
meandering into the Juncus marsh. The smooth cordgrass of Cape St. George
marshes is short and lacks vigor. Mesohaline estuarine waters of Apalachicola
Bay account for this contrast in community vigor, as smooth cordgrass prefers
tidal environments approaching sea water salinity (DNR, 1983). Barrens also
exist in salt marshes. These barrens are devoid of vegetation and are covered
by tides. As the water evaporates from these areas the salinity rises several
times greater than that of the open sea. Peat deposits, which have built up
after several thousand years of occupation by marsh plants, slow the
percolation rate of water and thus help to increase salinity. These deposits
may become several feet deep (Livingston et al, 1975).

Tidal marshes (2,-898.5 acres) and associated ponds make up the largest
vegetative type on St. Vincent Island. There are also eight or nine saltwater
ponds on the island. They consist of approximately 147.9 acres. Chara and
widgeon grass are present in varying quantities in these ponds (Thompson,
1970). Tidal marshes on Dog Island cover approximately 352 acres. These
marshes are composed primarily of needlerush and smooth cordgrass. Black
mangrove is listed as part of the intertidal marsh community. The Dog Island
populations represent the northernmost occurrence for this species in the Gulf
of Mexico. Herbaceous associates in the mangrove-dominated community include
perennial glasswort and sea lavender. Submerged aquatic beds consist of close
inshore areas of Syringodium, Halodule, and Thalassia (Anderson and Alexander,
1985).

Salt marshes are breeding and nursery grounds for many organisms.
Omnivores and detritivores have been sampled in nearby marshes of Cape St.
George and include Gammarus mucronatus, Neritina reclivata, Melitta spp.,
Corophium, louisianum, Munna revnoldsi, and GitanoRsis.sp. (Livingstony
1983). The more common larval and juvenile fishes that seek out tidal marshes
for shelter and feed on the litter fauna are the anchovy, spot, redfish,
croaker, silver-sides, gobies, sea trout, and Gulf menhaden (DNR, 1983). This
habitat is also important to mammals, reptiles and wading birds of the

islands. The rare Florida mink and the common raccoon are aggressive
predators of the marshes. The mink and the rare Gulf salt marsh snake occur
exclusively in this habitat, as does the Wakulla seaside sparrow, a species of
special concern.

Several species of special concern frequent the tidal marshes, including
the little blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, tricolored heron, black-
crowned and yellow-crowned night herons, and the Eastern least bittern. The
American oystercatcher feeds around the mud flats and bars associated with
tidal marshes (DNR, 1983). Other species of birds associated with salt
marshes include the clapper rail, seaside sparrow, long billed marsh wren and
the sharp-tailed sparrow (Livingston, 1976). The diamondback terrapin is also
adapted to life in salt marshes (White, 1977). The alligator, eastern glass
lizard and the cottonmouth are found in salt marshes but their main
populations occur elsewhere (White, 1977).

Sloughs, Freshwater Marshes and Ponds

Sloughs, freshwater marshesq and ponds are fresh water unless overwash or
extreme high tides occur, which then turn them brackish temporarily. Sloughs
on the barrier islands transport runoff from the dune system northward into
the salt marshes. In low areas sloughs may contain standing water everi during
the drier seasons. The areas with standing water support various freshwater
marsh vegetation types including saw grass, water lilies and Fuirena
scirpoides (Livingston et al, 1975).

Sloughs on St. George-tend to be flanked by pine flatwoods and delimited
by a dense zone of mediume-sized oaks. Laurel oak and live oak occur more
often. Sand live oak may also be among them. Tall slash pines are also
scattered about. Woody plants making up the understory include gallberryg
wax-myrtle, greenbriar@ bamboo vine, poison oak, muscadine grape, wild olive,
yaupon, buttonwoodg royal fernp and sawgrass.

Freshwater sloughs of hydric hammocks on Cape St. George have become
freshwater lagoons. Sawgrass and seashore marsh-mallow line the margins of
these duckweed covered sloughs where sunlight penetrates the hammock canopy
(DNR, 1983).

St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge has approximately 1,404.7 acres of
sawgrass/emergent marsh which occupies the lower elevations of the interdune
area. Species composition varies from area to area but the dominant species
found is generally sawgrass. An association of Hypericum sp. occupies some
low sites, while willow, Baccharis, and buttonbush may occupy other sites.
occasional remnants of more salt tolerant plants such as Spartina and Juncus
are also scattered throughout (Thompsong 1970). Cattail marshes cover another
58 acres of St. Vincent Island (Table 2). Cattails generally occupy a zone of
deeper, more permanent water than that tolerated by sawgrass. These marshes
are situated around freshwater ponds and connecting waterways.

Sloughs found on Dog Island are generally dominated by sawgrass or
cattail. Cattail tends to dominate in human-disturbed sites. Margins of
these communities are characterized by the woody species gallberry,
fetterbusht Persea and willow. Predominant smaller herbs include Eleocharis
cellulosa, Fuirena scirp idesf and Phyla modiflora. The extensive sloughs of
"The interior" have considerable amounts of Eriocaulon compressum, Hypericum.
fasciculatum, and Lachnanthes caroliniana. These species are not frequently
found elsewhere on the island (Anderson and Alexander, 1985).

Freshwater ponds comprise approximately 245 acres on St. Vincent Island.
They occupy the lowest elevation into which most drainage of the sawgrass
sloughs terminate. Species found in these ponds include Scirpus californicus,
Sagittaria latifolia, Nelumbo lutea, Nymphaea odorata, Ceratophyllum demersum.
and Vallisneria americana (Thompson, 1970).

Sloughs, freshwater marshes and ponds support a wide variety of fish,
birds, reptiles and amphibians. Cape St. George has one man-made pond. On
Cape St. George the fish fauna is sparse and is dominated by topminnows which
are usually well adapted for the stress of low dissolved oxygen and extreme

(periodic) fluctuations in the physico-chemical environment (White, 1977).
Freshwater species found on Cape St. George include mosquito fish, least
killifish and sailfin molly. Also present are the largemouth'bass, warmouth
and bluegill (W. Miley, personal communication). Freshwater marshes and ponds
are important habitats for the feeding and breeding habits of many species of
birds. They include species such as the green heron and rails (White, 1977).

The existence of many vertebrates on barrier islands is threatened by
developmental pressures. Vertebrates on St. George Island are more vulnerable

than those found elsewhere because:

1) freshwater communities are minimal in areal extent;

2) small changes in physical parameters can cause rapid and widespread
species compositional changes ultimately affecting vertebrates
occupying upper positions in the food web; and

3) the perched, highly localized water tables forming ponds and other
freshwater sites can be easily drained and are abnormally lowered by
nearby wells (Livingston et al, 1975).

Wildlife other than fish and birds whose existence on St. George Island is
dependent upon continued persistence of freshwater bodies include the Southern
toad, cricket frog, green tree frog, squirrel tree frog, leopard frog, narrow-
mouthed toadq American alligator, mud turtle, Eastern glass lizard, green
snake, banded water snake, ribbon snake, garter snake, and cottonmouth
(Livingston et al, 1975).

Hammocks

Cabbage palm hammocks make up approximately 221 acres of St. Vincent
Island (Table 2). As a pure type it occupies some of the relatively higher
sites such as the Tahiti area where it is associated with live oak and cedar
or as a pure stand. Elsewhere cabbage palm occurs in lower sites. Understory

species in the hammocks on St. Vincent Island are nearly absent. This could
be due to hog rooting or the dense canopy that is formed by the palms
(Thompson, 1970).

Hardwood hammocks are also present on St. Vincent Island. This community
consists of approximately 185 acres and is located along one ridge (dune) on
the north edge of the island (Table 2). This community generally occupies
sites that are quite high and contains a significant amount of litter. The
overstory includes water oak, live oak, pignut hickory, magnolia, cabbage
palm, mulberry, laurel oak, and myrtle oak. The understory includes Yucca,
American beautyberry, Vitus sp., poison ivy, trumpet vine, Virginia creeper,
Hercules club, smilax and wax-myrtle (Thompson, 1970).

Most of the hammocks of Cape St. George Reserve are localized hydric
environments of the Cape region. These fairly-small communities are dominated
by live oak and cabbage.palm, with conspicuous slash pine and an occasional
southern red cedar and southern magnolia as associates. Shrubs consist of
yaupon, wax-myrtleg and Spanish bayonet. Epiphytes, except for the
resurrection fern, are conspicuously absent on the Cape. Lichens are common,
especially the crutose wedding ring. The southern red cedar becomes
increasingly dominant on calcareous substrates such as in midden hammocks.
Xeric hammocks on the island are dominated by scrub live oak (DNR, 1983).

Overwash Zones and Grasslands

Storm surges inundate berms destroying those dunes closest to the Gulf,
and then flow between the remaining dunes into the almost-level grasslands
behind. Sand and shell are deposited in these areas called overwash zones by
the surge. The-overwash energy rapidly dissipates as it crosses the barrier
island. The changes in elevation from the dune field to the rear of the
barrier reveal the lateral extent of overwash deposition. Most of the eastern
and western sections of Cape St. George consist of low terraces subject'to
storm overwash. These sections support grassland communities which are
adapted to various environmental stresses such as salt spray, shifting sand,
lack of nutrientat excessive evapotranspiration, overwash flooding and burial

by sediments (DNR, 1983). The salt and sand deposition,on the grasslands
create a stress that often results in the destruction of invading trees and
shrubs. Only those species adapted to such conditions survive.

Barrier flat grasslands are savannah-like communities that occur on the
flats behind the strand dune field and usually extend to the bayshore and salt
marshes at the rear of the barrier. Vegetative cover is rapidly reestablished
after overwash burial, primarily through the upward growth of rhizomes
(particularly saltmeadow cordgrass), and rerooting near the surface (Godfrey
and Godfrey, 1976). The barrier flat grassland community consists of grasses,
forbs and sedges that persist as long as overwash continues. The grassland is
more sparse closer to the dune field where overwash is more frequent and
becomes denser towards the backshore (DNR, 1983). The dominant species found
is saltmeadow cordgrass. Important associates include needlerush, Solidago
sempervirens var. mexicana, love grass,.Gulf muhly, br6omsedge, Fimbristylis
castanea, three-square bullrush, foxtail, sea pink, white-top sedge, finger
grass, and nodding ladies' tresses.

When enough sand is deposited to raise the stabilized dune strand above
flood level the dune may become covered by lush grass or by a thicket. Trees
and shrubs which begin invading the barrier flat grassland include Southern
red cedar2 cabbage palm, slash pine@ yaupon, wax-myrtle, groundsel, marsh
elder, and the Spanish bayonet. Frequent overwash and kill back must occur on
Cape St. George grasslands because with the exception of cabbage palm, only
young forms of these invading species are found (DNR9 1983).

Apalachicola BaX System

The Apalachicola Bay system is one of the most productive and undeveloped
estuarine systems remaining in the United States. Commercial fisheries in
this area are the lifeblood of the local economy. Approximately 90 percent of
Florida's oyster catch and 10 percent of that in the United States comes from
the Apalachicola Bay system. The annual shrimp harvest is worth even more i n
terms of dollar value than the oyster catch. The entire estuarine system is

currently under pressure from upstream water users, increasing development on
the barrier islandsp overfishing, and an increasing potential for pollution.
The following section is an attempt to describe the system by dividing it into
its component habitats. These individual habitats are all interrelated and
form the complex system known as the Apalachicola Bay system.

Physiography

The Apalachicola Bay system is a wide, shallow estuary located along the
northwest Florida gulf coast that covers an area of approximately 210 square
miles behind,a chain of barrier islands (Gorsline, 1963). Its primary source
of fresh water is the Apalachicola River. The bay system may be divided into
four sections based on both natural bathymetry and man-made structural
alterations: East Bay, St. Vincent Sound, Apalachicola Bay, and St. George
Sound (Figure 5).

East Bay, north and east of the Apalachicola River delta, is surrounded by
extensive marshes and swamps, and has an average depth of three feet (Dawson,
1955). The bay receives fresh water from the numerous distributaries of the
Apalachicola River and Tate's Hell Swamp. The John Gorrie Memorial Bridge is
considered its southern limit. A causeway extending west from Eastpoint, and
a causeway island near the river mouth form partial barriers between East Bay
and Apalachicola.Bay.

To the west is St. Vincent Sound, which is also shallow with an average
depth of.four feet, and contains numerous oyster bars and lumps (Gorsline,
1963). It separates St. Vincent Island from the mainland and is linked to the
gulf by Indian Pass. The maximum water depth in Indian Pass is 24 feet near

its entrance.

Apalachicola Bay is the central and widest portion of the estuary. It is
separated from St. Vincent Sound by shoal areas and oyster bars. To the north
it is separated from the river mouth, delta, and East Bay by the John Gorrie
Memorial Bridge. The western and southern land boundaries of Apalachicola Bay

are St. Vincent Island, Cape St. George Island, and St. George Island. The
bay is connected to the Gulf of Mexico through West Pass, a deep tidal inlet,
and Sikes Cutp a man-made navigation channel which cuts through St. George
Island and divides it into Cape St. George or Little St. George Island to the
west, and St. George island to the east. Depths in Apalachicola Bay average
six to nine feet at mean low tide. The bay floor slopes toward the barrier
islands where depths increase to 10 to 12 feet (Gorsline, 1963). Oyster lumps
are scattered throughout the central bay area and near the Gorrie bridge.
There is a major submerged oyster reef, St. Vincent Bar or Dry Bar, which
extends in a north-south direction from St. Vincent Island's eastern edge
towards Cape St. George. To the east Apalachicola Bay is bounded by Bulkhead
Shoal, a natural submerged bar that extends from Cat Point on the mainland to
East Hole on St. George Island. Construction of a causeway island in the
center of the bar and a causeway extension at St. George Island raised two
portions of this barrier above water level.

St. George Sound extends from Bulkhead Shoal to the Carrabelle River and
East Pass. Numerous oyster barsq lumps, shoal areas, and channels fill
St. George Sound. Its average depth is about nine feet and like Apalachicola
Bay gets deeper toward the barrier islands with a maximum depth of 20 feet.
East Pass, a broad opening between St. George Island and Dog Island, has an
average depth of 14 feet and connects St. George Sound with the Gulf of Mexico
(Gorsline, 1963). Dog Island Sound and Alligator Harbor are included in the
geographical boundaries of the estuary, yet are influenced minimally by the
Apalachicola River due to distance, current direction, and submerged shoals.
Table 3 gives the areas of the major water bodies in the Apalachicola Bay

system.

Several navigation projects in the Apalachicola estuary have resulted in
alterations to the natural environment apart from the previously mentioned
bridgesq causeways, and Sikes Cut. These include,the Gulf Intracoastal
Waterway Channel, the Two-Mile Breakwater and Extension Channel, the Eastpoint
Breakwater and Channel, and the Scipio Creek Boat Basin Channel. All these
alterations contribute to the present configuration of the Apalachicola Bay
system. Their effects on bathymetry have primarily been increasing depth in

areas of channelsy decreasing depth in areas of open-water spoil placement,
and removal of bay bottom area with the creation of the Two Mile and Eastpoint
Breakwater and spoil islands. other man-made changes in bay topography
include the creation of oyster reefs by the planting of cultch in many areas
of the bay (Leitman et al, 1986).

Oyster Bars

Oysters are important and common inhabitants in Apalachicola Bay.
Aggregations of live oysters and empty shells are called oyster bottoms, beds,
banks, reefs, or bars although these expressions are not well defined
biologically and are used interchangeably. Oyster bars referred to in this
system are subtidal and form raised aggregations covering thousands of acres
of bay bottom (Table 3). The American oyster is the dominant component on the
bars, and growth occurs horizontally and vertically because of surfaces
provided by dead shells for larval settlement. This new recruitment
guarantees the survival of the bar as long as environmental conditions remain

favorable.-

Galtsoff (1964) divides environmental factors into positive and negative
categories based upon whether they are favorable or unfavorable to the growth
and productivity of the oyster community. The principal positive factors are
bottom substratep water movements, salinity, temperature, and food. Negative
factors include sedimentation, pollution, competition, diseaset and
predation. The interaction of these factors determines the utilizable
productivity of the oyster community. St. Vincent Sound, Apalachicola Bay and
the western portion of St. George Sound (Figure 14) apparently provide the
best habitat for oysters in the system since the main concentrations of
commercially important bars are located in these areas. The entire
Apalachicola Bay system provides many of the necessary requirements, as
evidenced by the fact that approximately 7 percent of the entire aquatic area
in the estuary is covered by oyster bars (Livingston, 1984). Approximately
40 percent of the aquatic area has been estimated as suitable for oyster bar
development with substrate type being the limiting factor (Whitfield and
Beaumariage, 1977).

Table 3. Distribution and area of major bodies of water along the coast of
Franklin County (North Florida) with areas of oysters, grassbeds,
and contiguous marshes (Livingston, 1984).

Area Oysters Grassbeds Marshes
Water body (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

St. Vincent Sound 5,539.6 1,096.5 --- 1,806.9

Apalachicola Bay 20,959.8 1,658.5 1,124.7 703.4

East Bay 3,980.6 66.6 1,433.5 4,606.1

St. George Sound (West) 14,746.8 11488.8 624.3 751.9

St. George Sound (East) 16,015.5 2.6 2,767.3 810.8

Alligator Harbor 19637.0 36.7 261.3 144.3

Total 629879.3 41349.7 69211.1 81850.4

Percent of total water area 100 7 10 14

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GULF OF MEXICO

FIGURE WMAJOR OYSTER BARS OF THE APALACHICOLA ESTUARYI Livingston, 1983 1.

Production on the commercial bars has been estimated at between 400 to
11200 bushels/acre/year (Ednoff, 1984;'DNR, personal communication). Because
of the relatively mild temperatures in the area, oyster growth is continuous
throughout the year and has been estimated to be among the fastest in the
United States. Harvestable oysters, those larger than three inches, have been
known to be produced from spat in as little as 39 weeks (Ingle and Dawson,
1952). The spawning season is also one of the longest in the United States.
The usual pattern in the bay requires approximately 18 months from planting
dead shell cultch to commercial harvest (Ingle and Dawson, 1953). The
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has been planting cultch in Apalachicola
Bay since 1949 and estimates over 750 acres of bars have been constructed
since then (Futchg 1983). Relaying programs, moving small intertidal oysters
known as coon oysters to areas more conducive to growth, and moving oysters
from polluted to unpolluted areas have also been in effect since 1982. Coon
.oysters are not included in this discussion of-subtidal oyster bars, but will
be included in the tidal flats section.

Because of the abundance of cavities and food and the optimal conditions
on oyster bars, they provide a significant habitat for a variety of
organisms. The oyster-associated community varies somewhat due to the
salinity regimeg which is the most important limiting factor on the bar itself
(Menzel et al, 1966). Prolonged high salinities (i.e., drought) allow
predators to infiltrate the bars and also are indicative of lower food
supplies due to decreased river flow. Prolonged low salinities (i.e., flood)
eliminates many of the predators but also stresses the oyster and can cause
mortality (Menzel and Cake, 1969). Significant predators which are associated
with Apalachicola Bay oyster bars include the boring sponge, southern oyster
drill, flatworm. (oyster leech), mudworm, stone crab, blue crab, crown conch,
snail, and the boring clam (Pearse and Wharton, 1938; Menzel et al, 1966).
The pathogen, Perkinsus marinus also causes significant mortality to adult
oysters during times of stress (Menzel, 1983). Other organisms which inhabit
the bars include the mussel, mud crab, flat crab, horse,oyster, gastropods,
blennies, and the toadfish. This is only a partial list and does not include
commerically important temporary residents or transitory organisms such as
shrimp, crabs, and fish.

While predators and environmental changes can alter the productivity of
the oysters and the composition of the associated community, these effects are
often slow and variable. Swift (1897) listed three natural conditions which
can do significant harm to Apalachicola Bay oyster bars: severe freezes,
prolonged freshets (floods.), and hurricanes. He also mentioned the harm
overharvesting of bars by man can cause. Almost 90 years later two of these
conditions, hurricanes and overharvesting, are causing problems for the oyster
bars of Apalachicola Bay. The 1985 season saw an unusual number of hurricanes
(three) impact this system. Some of the most productive commercial bars in
the bay, Cat Point and East Hole, were 80 to 100 percent destroyed (DNR, 1986;
Livingston, personal communication). This caused the bay to be closed for six
months while research and replanting efforts continued. The bars appear to be
coming back as limitedharvesting has been allowed, but full recovery will
take time. Unfortunately, a severe drought in 1986 has followed the
hurricanes of 1985. Although the full effects are unknown at this time, the
lack of fresh water in the bay means a reduction in the supply of river
derived nutrients and an increase in predation on the bars by species
intolerant of reduced salinity. The other significant condition, a man-made
threat, is overfishing. This controversy is ongoing, and whether or not sound
resource management techniques will prevail is unknown at this time.

Submerged Vegetation

The submerged vegetation found in the Apalachicola Bay system includes
fresh water, brackish water, and marine species. Their distribution is
confined to the shallow perimeters of the system ftivingston@ 1980; CSA, 1985)
because of high turbidity and color values which limit the depth of the photic
zone. Salinity is also an important variable and determines the type of
vegetation present throughout the estuary. High sedimentation rates may also
affect distribution (Livingston, 1984), although the continued resuspension of
silt and clay particles from the sediment layer may be a more important factor
due to the associated decrease in depth of light penetration. Submerged
vegetation covers approximately 10 percent of the aquatic area in the

Apalachicola Bay system (Livingston, 1984) with the majority of it located in
regions of high salinity and low turbidity (Table 3).

The shallow bayside regions of Cape St. George Island, St. George Island
and the mainland areas of St. George Sound support the largest assemblages of
submerged vegetation in the estuarine system (Figure 15). Halodule wrightii,
Syringodium filiforme, and Thalassia testudinum are the only true seagrasses
in the Apalachicola Bay system and are limited to these areas. Syringodium
appears to be the least represented having been found by Livingston (1980) but
not by CSA (1985), although they did not sample the eastern St. George Sound
area.- Thalassia has only been located in small areas of St. George Sound
associated with Halodule. By far the most dominant species is Halodule,
occurring in narrow bands on the bayside of the barrier islands in shallow
waters. The densest grassbeds are located along the northeast shoreline of
St. George Island and consist of Halodule and.Thalassia.

Seagrass beds are important habitats in the marine environment not only
for their high primary productivity but also for the role they play in
sediment accretion, substrate stabilization, and as a nursery, feeding ground,
and permanent home to numerous associated organisms (Phillips, 1980).
Halodule is not only the most tolerant seagrass to variations in temperature
and salinity but also is known as the early colonizer, or pioneer, of
disturbed or unvegetated areas (Zieman, 1982). It can also survive in
shallower water than Thalassia or Syringodium because its shallow, surficial
root system can colonize the sediments within areas of minimal hydraulic
stability such as shorelines. The flexibility of Halodule leaves also allows
it to conform to the damp sediment thereby allowing it to survive during times
of exposure (Fonseca et al, 1981). These factors combined with the limited
availability of suitable areas where seagrasses can develop in this dynamic
system explain the distribution and dominance of Halodule in the Apalachicola
Bay system (Table 4). The benthic red algae Gracilaria has also been found in
significant numbers associated with the Halodule grassbeds. No grassbeds or
submerged vegetation have been found in St. Vincent Sound (Livingston, 1984;
CSA, 1985).

CARF

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GULF OF MEXICO

FIGURE 15. SUBMERGED VEGETATION OF THE APALACHICOLA ESTUARY I Livingston,19831.

Seagrass ecosystems create a diversity of structured habitats composed of
diverse and interrelated groups of benthic and epiphytic micro and macro
algae, sessile and motile epifauna, benthic infauna, and transient motile
fauna (Phillipsq 1980). Sheridan and Livingston (1983) measured one of the
highest infaunal densities recorded in the literature, 104,338 organisms per
m2, working in a Halodule grassbed in Apalachicola Bay. The dominant infaunal
organisms found are tanaids, polychaetes, amphipods, and oligochaetes. Major
biomass contributors of the community are bivalves, gastropods,'and
polychaetes. Blue crabs, pink shrimp, and grass shrimp are the dominant
macroinvertebrates in the grassbed community and vary in numbers significantly
during the year. Sheridan and Livingston (1983) also found that the arrival
of juvenile fish and macroinvertebrates on the grassbed in summer corresponds
to the rapid decline in infaunal densities, thereby showing the importance of
the grassbeds as a nursery and food source. The dominant fishes utilizing the
grassbed are silver perch, pigfish, pinfish, and spotted seatrout in-the
summer, and spot in the late winter and spring.

The John Gorrie Bridge and causeway generally acts as a barrier to the
true seagrasses and none are found north of the bridge because of low
salinities. The only submerged vegetation found south of the bridge besides
the seagrasses already mentioned are Ruppia maritima and Vallisneria
americana. Ruppia, which is typically found alongside Halodule, although not
usually in Apalachicola Bayq is not a true seagrass but rather a freshwater
plant that has developed an extreme salinity tolerance (Zieman, 1982). These
two species are found together only in dense beds near the mouth of the river
in Apalachicola Bay (Figure 15).

The area to the north of the causeway, East Bay, supports extensive beds
of fresh and brackish water species of submerged macrophytes. There appears
to have been a significant species change within East Bay from 1980 to 1984.
Livingston (1980) found the exotic pest MyriophyllMm spicatum covering.
approximately 30 percent of the bays on the west side of East Bay. In 19849
CSA (1985) found.Myriophyllum covering 90 percent of those bays and extending

Table 4. Acreage of submerged vegetation assemblages in the Apalachicola
Bay system (CSA, 1985).

Location Species/Assemblages Area (Acres)

Apalachicola Bay Halodule wrightii 1,145
Ruppia maritima 282

Vallisneria americana

R. maritima 50

St. Vincent Sound 0

St. George Sound H. wrightii 711
wrightii 277
Thalassia testudinum

East Bay R. maritima 166
V. americana

Myriophyllum spicatum 19179
Potamogeton pectinatus
V. americana

R. maritima.
Najas guadalupensis 187
R. maritima 25

R. maritima 55
P. pectinatus

along the river channels into East Bay itself. This species will probably
continue to spread in East Bay and will probably prevent the expansion of
natural species. Other macrophytes that are found associated with
Myriophyllum include Vallisneria, Ruppia, and Potamogeton Pectinatus4 The
other macrophyte associates that occur in East Bay are Ruppia and Vallisneria,
on the eastern side, and Najas quadalupensis, in East and West bayous. The
surveys of submerged vegetation listed by Livingston (1980) and CSA (1985)
show significant differences in acreages between them (Table 5). These
differences are caused by mapping methods, calculation techniques, changes in
species (Myriophyllum), absence of data from eastern St. George Sound (CSA
survey), and possibly the actual loss of submerged vegetation in the bay.

The fresh and brackish water submerged species also provide habitat and
nursery areas for numerous organisms. Dominant organisms associated with
these beds include polychaetes, amphipodsg chironomid larvae, snails,
amphipods, mysids, crabs and shrimp, rainwater killifish, pipefish,
silversides, and gobies (Livingston, 1984).

Because of its position located between upland and offshore habitats,
submerged vegetation links dissimilar ecosystems. It tends to act similarly
to salt marshes in this respect, and is important to the productivity of
estuarine systems because of its function as nursery areas, food sources, and
diverse habitats.

Tidal Flats

On the bayward sides of the barrier islands, along the mainland, and in
shallow water areas associated with salt and freshwater marshes are located
tidal flats, of which little is known in Apalachicola Bay. These unvegetated
expanses of mud or sand are exposed at low tide and submerged at high tide.
.Tidal flats or mud flats are often unappreciated or ignored because their
values are not visible (Clark, 1974). As habitats they are subjected to one
of the most variable environments in the aquatic system. organisms inhabiting

Table 5. Distribution and area in acres of submerged vegetation in the
Apalachicola Bay system---1980 and 1984 compared (Livingston, 1980;
CSA, 1985).

Ground-Truthing Data
Location Tummer Summer
1980 1984

Apalachicola Bay 2,778 1,477

St. Vincent Sound 0 0

St. George Sound 1,542 988

East Bay 3,541 2,153

Total 7,861 4,618

53-

tidal flats must not only cope with extremes of salinity and temperature
(heating and freezing) but also with exposure and desiccation.

The Apalachicola Bay system experiences normal tidal fluctuations of 1.5
to 2 feet, with a maximum range of approximately 3 feet (Livingston et al,
1974). The extent of tidal flats therefore covers most nearshore areas
shallower than 2 feet at mean high water that are unvegetated. The tidal
flats located in the Apalachicola Bay system can be subdivided into two
categories:' the higher salinity areas in St. George Sound and bayward of the
barrier is-lands, and the low salinity areas near the mouth of the river and in
East Bay. Along the length and width of the estuary, all gradations and
mixtures of bottom sediments are found which further differentiate the flats
and the organisms able to live on them. St. George Sound tidal flats are
primarily sand while areas bayward of the barrier islands in Apalachicola Bay
range from sand to clay as the dominant sediment type. Areas of tidal flats
in East Bay are primarily clay sediments while St. Vincent Sound flats contain
more clay than sand Usphording, 1985).

Organisms associated with tidal flats vary with the salinity regime and
the type of substrate, as well as depth of water and time of exposure. The
most visible organisms associated with tidal flats behind the barrier islands
are oysters. Because of the increased stress in the "flat" environment, these
oysters remain small and do not reach the large size of those growing
subtidally on bars. They are commonly called "coon oysters" and have been
used in replanting programs on the subtidal bars. Tidal flats provide
important feeding grounds for finfish at high tide, as well as habitat for a
wide variety of crabs, snails, worms and algae. They,also provide important
feeding and loafing areas for plovers, sandpipers, gulls, ducks, and other
birds which find a wide variety of food to eat left by the tide (Taylor et al,
1973).

Soft Sediment

The largest benthic habitat type found in the Apalachicola Bay system is
.soft sediment, comprising approximately 70 percent of the estuarine area

(Livingston, 1984). This habitat is devoid of vegetation due to high -
turbidity and color values that limit light penetration. Its composition
varies considerably depending on location in the bay (Figure 16). The
sediments in East Bay are primarily sandy clay and clayey sand while
Apalachicola Bay sediments range from clay and silty clay to clayey sand.
St. George Sound sediments are primarily sand with some clayey sand found in
the western regions. St. Vincent Sound sediments are composed of clay in the
west and sandy clay in the east. The entire habitat is subtidal with the
majority of the silt and clay component being river borne and from adjacent
upland areas. Many areas also have up to 2 percent shell fragments associated
with the bottom sediment (Isphording, 1985).

The soft sediment habitat in Apalachicola Bay provides an important source
of food for some of the more dominant fish in the system. Many benthic
invertebrates also use this habitat as a burrowing and feeding substrate. The
associated community is determined by sediment 'composition, organic content,
and water quality parameters. Biological activity can also affect the
sediment composition and animal community. Polychaetes and amphipods are the
numerically dominant organisms of this community. The number and diversity of
organisms present varies considerably, both seasonally and spatially
throughout the estuary. Low salinity areas typically are character ized by
high dominance, low diversity, and variable numerical abundance; while high
salinity areas are characterized by lower numerical abundance, low dominance,
and higher diversity.

Many of the commercially important benthic invertebrates are harvested
from this habitat (Table 6). Shrimp and blue crabs are not restricted to this
environment but feed and burrow extensively here when they leave the
protection of the marshes as they mature. The soft sediments contain
nutrients and detritus brought,in from the river as well as providing an ideal
substrate for bacteria. The Atlantic croaker and spot also feed extensively
in this habitat. Most of the other important benthic invertebrates and
epibenthic fishes are also associated with this habitat at one time during
their life cycle. For a more detailed description of the soft sediment
community consult Livingston (1984).

Table 6. Summary of Selected Franklin County Shellfish Landings (1974-1985)

Total
Blue Crabs Oysters ShriTp Shellfish
1974 ----
Quantityl 1,444 2,454 3,964 7,874
Value2 180 1,371 2,681 4,235

1975
Quantity lp659 2,033 49486 92000
Value 224 1,107 4,300 6,061

1976
Quantity @1,742 2,503 3,160 9,679
Value 300 11591 49570 7,837

1977
Quantity 19106 3,894 49420 9,822
Value 214 2,820- 5,051 89305

1978
Quantity 888 51566 4,931 11,885
Value 189 4,222 5,786 10,441

1979
Quantity lt219 5,810 29714 99883
Value 243 4t869 5,260 10,464

1980
Quantity 19313 6,410 29890 119163
Value 280 5,739 4p690 11,077

1981
Quantity 1,640 6,617 4,788 139764
Value 374 6,463 7,983 159307

1982
Quantity 19011 4,153 3,047 8,319
Value 275 4,150 6,399 109933

1983
Quantity 984 3,936 31621 89541
Value 343 4,158 7,956 12,466

1984
Quantity 19287 61199 49164 119650
Value 372 6,803 79985 15,160

1985
Quantity 1,433 3,786 3,873 9pO92
Value 527 4,311 7p154 11,992

Source: Florida Department of Natural Resourcesp Summary of Florida
Commercial Marine Landings.

Quantity: in 1,000s of pounds.
2 Value: in 1,000s of dollars.

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GULF OF MEXICO

FIGURE16. BOTTOM SEDIMENTS OF THE APALACHICOLA ESTUARY[ Isphording,19851.

Marshes

Marsh systems are among the most productive in the world and are vital
habitats for important sport and commercial species. Marshes found in the
Apalachicola Bay system include fresh, brackish, and salt marshes and cover
approximately 14 percent of the total aquatic area (Livingston, 1980). Their
distribution is mainly limited to the intertidal areas along the perimeter of
the bay and the delta area of the lower river and East Bay (Figure 17). Since
the amount of organic material exported out of the marsh into the estuary is
still being debated (de la Cruz, 1980), the most important function of marshes
may be'as a nursery habitat. Marshes fulfill the three general criteria that
characterize a nursery ground: 1) an area must provide some protection from
predators; 2) it must provide an abundant food supply; and 3) it must be
physiologically suitable in terms of physical and chemical features (Joseph,
1973).

The most developed marsh systems are found in East Bay and along the lower
reaches of the Apalachicola River (Table 39 Figure 17). An extensive system
of tidal creeks and bayous extends northward increasing shoreline area and
suitable regions for marsh development. The marshes here support
predominantly fresh to brackish water vegetation consisting primarily of
bullrushesq cattails, and sawgrass. Black needlerush and cordgrasses are also
present in the more brackish areas of East Bay (Livingston, 1983).
St. Vincent Sound als o supports a large brackish and salt-marsh system,
primarily located along the northeastern areas of St. Vincent Island. The
dominant species are black needlerush, cordgrass, and saltgrass. Freshwater
marshes also occur on St. Vincent Island with sawgrass being the dominant
feature (Thompsong 1970). A survey conducted by Miller et al, (1980) found a
shift in the composition of the freshwater marshes from mostly sawgrass to a
sawgrass and cattail dominated system. Refuge personnel have also recently
seen an increase in cattail coverage with a subsequent decrease in other
species which are more beneficial to wildlife (Terry Carroll, personal
communication). The lagoon and tidal creeks of Cape St. Georgey St. George,
and Dog islands also support narrow bands of brackish and salt marshes. These

CARRA

EAST

SAY

A ALACHICOL ASTPOINT

V4 o4cftil soutio APALACHICOLA
Lr-
114DIAN
PASS . ... ...... BAY
Cf
LAIVO 011,

SA.
WESY
N PASS

61. 0 4 a Mile
C0

GULF OF MEMO

FIGURE 17. MAJOR MARSHES OF THE APALACHICOLA ESTUARY I Livingston,19831.

are generally dominated by black needlerush with lesser amounts of cordgrass
and saltgrass also present (Livingston, 1984).

Plants associated with marshes must contend with rapid changes in
environmental conditions, which restrict the number of species found in these
habitats. Because of stressful conditions, salt marshes typically exhibit low
plant diversity and in many instances consist of one or two species, with
black needlerush and cordgrass dominating in this area. occupying a vertical
gradient of approximately 3-5 feet, the vegetation is not organized into
integrated communities butq instead, the species occur in zones defined by
salinity, tidesq and the soil moisture regime. Brackish marsh habitats are
usually not as stressful as salt marshes and therefore the number of species
found is usually greater (Clewell, 1986). The paucity of species is usually
offset by the extremely dense concentrations of those present. Brackish marsh
vegetation is also more variable spatially than.salt marshes due to the
differing salinity regimes encountered as the,distance from the estuary
increases. Eventually the brackish marsh vegetation is replaced by less
tolerant species and becomes a freshwater marsh when.salinities average less
than 0.5 ppt (parts per thousand). The freshwater marsh system will be
further discussed in the river floodplain section.

Animals associated with marsh systems must also withstand the rapid
changes in environmental conditions. Since only about 10 percent of vascular
plant material produced in the marsh is consumed directly by herbivores
(Heard, 1982), most organisms found in the marsh are predators and
detritivores. Because of the importance of this habitat as a nursery areaq
organisms are typically grouped into permanent and transitory categories.
Permanent residents include invertebrates such as insects, polychaete worms,
amphipods, mollusks, larger crustaceans, and other omnivorous groups which
play an important role in the breakdown of organic matter. Year-round
residents also include mammals such as muskrats, and birds such as the clapper
rail and great blue heron. Transitory residents include such species as blue
crabs, penaeid shrimp, anchovies, largemouth bass, striped mullet, spotted and
sand seatroutq and lepomids (Livingston, 1984). These and other important
estuarine organisms use the marsh habitat as either a nursery ground, breeding

area, or feeding zone. The summer and fall in Apalachicola Bay is the most
critical period when the marsh is used as a nursery area. The marsh is also
important to wildlife such as river otters, raccoons, alligators, and
turtles. Transitory birds in marshes comprise one of the larger herbivorous
groups and are also significant top carnivores in the system. Northeastern
Gulf of Mexico marshes support summer nesting species, migrantsq casual
feeders, and summer visitors (Stout, 1984). Birds of prey that utilize the
marsh system include hawks, owls, ospreys, and bald eagles which not only feed
on fish but also small rodents found in the marsh.

Marshes are unique, multifaceted natural systems which are valuable for
food and nutrient sources, faunal habitats, water purification, shoreline
stabilization, storm buffers, and recreation. These systems have been viewed
as having little value or use until recent times; therefore, many thousands of
acres have been "enhanced" over the years to more "productive" uses by
dredging and filling to convert them to open water or upland areas. The
Apalachicola Bay system has escaped major alteration of the marsh system so
far, although threats from pollution, watershed modification, construction,
and dredge and fill activities continue to destroy small parcels of this
important habitat even as regulatdry measures to protect these areas are
implemented.

Open Water

The simplest habitat to physically define and one of the hardest to
measure is the open water. This habitat is simply the water which occupies
the estuarine basin and is in contact with the Gulf and the river. Depths in
Apalachicola Bay average six to nine feet and all major water bodies in the
estuary combined cover an area of approximately 63,000 hectares (Table 3).
This makes the open water the largest habitat in the system. All the habitats
previously described are similar in that type of substrate is an important
component of the habitat, influencing its character and associated
community. Since there is no substrate associated with the open water
habitat, it is mainly influenced by depth, salinity, temperatureq currents,

and other parameters such as turbidity and color. Turbidity and color limit
light penetration, therefore, the upper layer of this habitat is in the photic
zone while the remainder is below it.

Organisms associated with the open water habitat include, planktonic forms
(weak swimmers at the mercy of currents), and nektonic forms (strong
swimmers). Most planktonic forms are microscopic and are important in the
pelagic food chain. Numerous studies have been conducted on phytoplankton
(Estabrook, 1973; Myers and Iverson, 1977), zooplankton (Edmiston, 1979), and
ichthyoplankton (Blanchet, 1979) and these will not be discussed in this
report. In the Apalachicola Bay system, the majority of organisms which
comprise the sport and commercial fisheries are nektonic (Livin gston, 1984).
Important commercial species such as shrimp and crabs have limited swimming
ability and also utilize the water column. The larva of shrimp, crab,
oysters, and fish are also planktonic and utilize the water column for food,
protection, and distribution purposes.

The major component of the nekton in Apalachicola Bay is dominated by
estuar ine dependent fish. Menzel and Cake (1969) estimate that three-fourths
of the commercial catch in Franklin County is dependent on the estuarine
habitat and condition of Apalachicola Bay. These species include true
estuarine forms, those that use the estuary part of their life cycle for
feeding and as a nursery ground; migratory forms (i.e. anadromous and
catadromous species); and fresh and salt water forms which enter the estuary
when conditions are appropriate. Data supplied to the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS) by local seafood dealers in Franklin County is
summarized in Table 7. These data show that mullet, flounder, and spotted
seatrout (speckled trout) are the three most important commercial species of
fish, both in terms of numbers and dollar value, in the Apalachicola Bay
system. It can also be seen from this table that there has been an overall
decline in estuarine landings from 1971 to 1982, while the percentage catch of
offshore landings has increased. Although this decline is unexplainable at
the present time, fishing pressure is believed to be a major cause. The
Florida Marine Fisheries Commission has imposed a minimum size limit of
16 inches for redfish caught in Franklin County due to declining numbers, and

Table 7. Sunwwry of Selected Franklin County Finfish Landings (1971-1985)

Total
Spotted Estuarine Total
Mullet Flounder Seatrout Redfish Croaker Spot Finfish Finfish
1971 1
Quant*ty 916 91 107 21 27 42 1,204 2,156
Valuei 92 .26 32 3 3 3 159 252

1972
Quantity 1,146 97 124 20 6 29 1,422 2,054
Value 115 29 39 3 1 2 189 257

1973
Quantity, 1,214 79 96 26 6 25 1,446 2,216
Value 158 27 34 4 1 2 226 376

1974
Quantity 645 55 76 28 11 19 834 1,413
Value 91 19 28 6 1 2 147 343

1975
Quantity 984 71 74 36 14 13 1,192 1,679
Value 1.54 23 29 8 < 1 215 400

1976
Quantity 745 66 101 40 4 4 960 1,472
Value 132 23 43 9 1 < 208 431

1977
Quantity 539 59 48 22 1 4 673 878
Value 103 25 22 5 < < 155 268

1978
Quantity 670 40 49 10 10 3 782 1,060
Value 134 6 25 3 1 < 184 327

1979
Quantity 645 56 53 11 2 7 774 1,331
Value 118 29 32 4 < 1 184 634.

Table 7 continued.

Total
Spotted Estuarine Total
Mullet Flounder Seatrout Redfish 'Croaker Spot Finfish Finfish

1980
Quantity 722 90 29 9 3 6 859 1,642
Value 140 47 18 3 1 1 210 954

1981
Quantity 659 68 51 10 6 4 798 1,663
Value 144 37 33 4 1 1 220 1,164

1982
Quantity 653 95 55 7 4 10 820 1,907
Value 151 50 38 3 1 2 245 1,414

1983
CIN Quantity 920 88 55 14 3 13 1,093 2,120
Value 210 47 40 6 1 3 307 1,508

1984
Quantity 896 86 51 9 1 17 1,060 1,585
Value 209- 49 39 4 < 3 305 961

1985
Quantity 482 78 47 8 3 4 622 1,103
Value 116 49 38 4 1 1 209 816
Source: Florida Department of Natural Resources, Summaries of Florida Commercial Marine Landings.
1. Quantity: in 1,000s of pounds.
2. Value: in 1,000s of dollars.

Table S. Seasonality of Important Apalachicola Bay Fishes (modified from
Leitman et al, 1986)

Anchovy Year-round residents. Spawn from spring to fall with a
peak in May. Highest population in summer and fall,
lowest in winter.

Mullet Migrate and spawn offshore October to February. Highest
population in bay in summer and fall. Many young
overwinter in deep holes.

Southern Flounder Present year-round. Many migrate offshore,to spawn in
winter. Juveniles arrive in bay in spring and summer.

Gulf Flounder Migrate offshore in winter. Juveniles return February
through April.

Croaker Adults migrate offshore summer to fall. Juveniles return
in October. Juveniles remain in bay their first summer
and migrate offshore in winter.

spot Juveniles and adults migrate offshore from late summer to
winter and return in later winter, early spring.
Post-larvae return in January.

Spotted Seatrout Generally, year-round residents but may migrate offshore
during low salinity or temperature. Most abundant in
spring. Spawn in spring and summer, sometimes even until
October. Also spawn offshore of barrier islands.

Sand Seatrout Migrate to spawn just offshore of barrier islands from
October to March. Most abundant in summer and early
fall.

Redfish Spawn offshore from September to February. Post-larvae
arrive in bay September to December. Remain in or near
estuary for two years then spend more time at sea.

is considering imposing size limits on spotted seatrout as well. in addition,
the Commission has drafted a new rule that would make redfish a gamefish in
Florida by prohibiting its sale and raising the statewide minimum size limit
to 18 inches. Several other.species, both estuarine and marine, are currently
being investigated for regulation due to their declining numbers. An
interesting item in Table 7 is that while landings have decreased, the value
of the landings have almost doubledg thereby increasing fishing pressure. It
should be realized that the NMFS data is biased toward commercially important
species due to the desirability of these species by the consumer.

A long-term monitoring program by Dr. R. J. Livingston and the Florida
State University Aquatic Study Group takes into account fish species in the
bay which are numerous and are also important in the food chain. Studies by
Livingston (1980, 1983, 1984) and Livingston et al (19749 1976@ 1977) show
that the four most numerous fish in the Apalachicola Bay system are bay
anchovy$ Atlantic croaker, sand seatrout, and spot. While croaker and spot
are commercially fishe d, neither contributes significantly to total
landings. They are important however in the estuarine food chain. The
numerical abundance of fish in the estuary is dependent on the seasons. Low
temperatures and salinities force many species offshore during winter while
others migrate for spawning or nursery reasons@ Table 8 lists the important
fish species in Apalachicola Bay and their seasonality in the system. All of
these fish are found in the open water habitat at some time in their life
cycle, even those which use the marshes and seagrass beds as nursery areas.

Apalachicola River Floodplain System

The floodplain of the Apalachicola River is the largest in Florida and one
of the larger floodplains on the Gulf Coast. Floodplains in the Southeastern
United States are in many instances the last refuge for rare and endangered
plants and animals. Although floodplain land@ like swampland or marsh land,
is usually considered the least desirable in terms of real estate value, it is
probably some of the most valuable land around considering the natural
benefits derived from it.

Physiography

The Apalachicola River floodplain encompasses approximately 15 percent of
its drainage area in Florida@ about 144@000 acres. The Chipola River, about
which little is known, drains the same area as the Apalachicola, but its
floodplain encompasses only 27,000 acres (Wharton et al, 1977; Elder and
Cairns, 1982). Alluvial river floodplains, like the Apalachicola, have broad
flat floodplains due to their annual high water levels (Figure 18). In order
to describe the floodplain, it has been divided into three sections, upper,
middle and lower; in a manner similar to the riverine section to take
advantage of the naturally occurring divisions.

The upper river floodplain, from Chattahoochee to Blountstown, is the
narrowest ranging from one to two miles wide. It is limited on the eastern
side by the steep bluffs of the Tallahassee Hills where elevations up to
325 feet occur (Figure 2)., The western side of the floodplain is bounded by
the Grand Ridge province, a gently rolling region which gradually rises to
elevations as high as 125 feet. Natural riverbank levees are higher and wider
here than the rest of the river ranging up to 15 feet above the surrounding
floodplain and from 400 to 600 feet wide. Since the river is more "contained'i
in this section than in others, the fluctuation in water level is also
greaterg ranging from 19 to 24 feet.

The middle river floodplain from Blountstown to Wewahitchka varies from

two to three miles wide. The Gulf Coastal Lowlands bound both sides of the
floodplain in this section except for the upper reaches which are bordered by
Beacon Slope and Grand Ridge. Generally upland elevations are less than 100
feet throughout this section. The natural riverbank levees are smaller than
in the upper river ranging from eight to 12 feet higher than the surrounding
floodplain and from 200 to 400 feet wide. Water level fluctuations are also
less, ranging from 11 to 19 feet above low stage during flood stage.

ALA.
FLA.

JACKSON

....... .....
Lake..
Seminole
io C hat t ahoochee

WASHINGTON
GADSDEN

CALHOU

BAY
LIBERTY

GULF
FRANKL I N

Apalachico

0
G 0 F
iL

FIGURE 18. APALACHICOLA &CHIPOLA RIVER FLOODPLAINS [Wharton et al,19771

The lower river floodplain from Wewahitchka to Apalachicola exhibits the
.greatest width ranging from 2.5 to 4.5 miles across. It is completely within
the Gulf Coastal Lowlands and surrounding uplands do not exceed 50 feet in
elevation. The natural riverbank levees vary from 2 to 8 feet higher than the
surrounding floodplain and are 50 to 150 feet wide on the average. Water
level fluctuations throughout the year range from 7 feet at Sumatra to 11 feet
at Wewahitchka (Leitman et al, 1983; Leitman, 1983).

Very little seems,to be known.concerning the floodplain of the Chipola
River. Spring fed streams like the Chipola typically have narrow floodplains
due to less flow variability and low sediment loads (Figure 18). The upper
Chipola River water level only fluctuates approximately 1 to 2 feet, caused
mainly by heavy rainfall which keeps the width of the floodplain small. Lower
river water level fluctuation normally, ranges from 4 to 6 feet and again is
mainly dependent on runoff for this variation (FGFWFC, 1959). Part of the
floodplain in the river was permanently inundated and became Dead Lakes when
high floodplain deposits of the Apalachicola River blocked off the
Chipola River north of Wewahitchka (Vernon, 1942). The water level in this
natural lake has since been maintained by an artificial weir. The dead stumps
of cypress and gum attest to the fact that this area was once part of the
floodplain. The Northwest Florida Water Management District has decided to
remove the weir to let the water levels return to naturally controlled
conditions but has been held up by a lawsuit filed by property owners on the

lake.

Floodplain Dynamics

Floodplains represent a zone o f transition between upland and aquatic
systems and; therefore, have characteristics of both. In order to understand
the biota of floodplains, an understanding of how floodplains are formed,
their features, and how they are maintained is necessary. The two most
important parameters responsible for floodplain characteristics are river flow
and sediment load carried by the river. The type of river, the river's
characteristics@ determines the type of floodplain that will develop. As

mentioned previously, the Apalachicola is an alluvial river originating in the
Piedmont and, therefore, its floodplain is typical of alluvial river
floodplains that are continually reworked by the river.

Alluvial rivers characteristically have a variable seasonal flow,
substantial annual flooding, and a heavy sediment load. The continual
erosional and depositional processes acting within the river causes the river
channel to be in a constant state of change, even during low flow. The
deposition and erosion of material in the river eventually creates meanders
which widens the river valley, decreases slope, slows down water velocity, and
allows more sediments to be deposited; thereby continuing the movement of the
river channel laterally. During high flow, rivers not only erode and deposit
sediments on the floodplain, but they are also capable of creating new
channe Is by cutting off meanders or blocking mouths of tributaries forcing
them to create new channels (i.e. Dead Lake and.the Chipola Cutoff). As the
river adjusts and stabilizes, floodplain features are formed which can be
discerned by topography and soil characteristics.

The river channel is the most prominent floodplain feature and its
morphology is dependent on long-term flow patterns (Blench, 1972). The river
channel moves laterally within the floodplain by eroding the concave bank
(outside bank) of a meander and depositing material on the convex bank (inside
bank). The Corley Slough reach of the Apalachicola River has moved
approximately 300 feet from 1959 to 1982 by meandering. It is estimated that
the west bank has been eroding at a rate of 16 feet per year since 1982. Some
of this has been caused by maintenance of the navigational channel; however,
this area has historically been an area of active meandering. Stream bed
degradation due to the Jim Woodruff Dam has been docum ented by the COE,
especially in the upper reaches. Since 1957, the channel bed has been
degraded from three feet at Chattahoochee to 1.4 feet at Blountstown (COE,
1986). As the bed degrades, the flow of water needed to inundate the
floodplain increases and the exchange of water between the river and
tributaries is also affected. Any change in the channel characteristics has
the potential to impact the floodplain and alter habitats which have developed
in response to the channel.

The natural levees of the Apalachicola River play an important role in
determining the amount of time the floodplain is inundated by maintaining the
river within its channel until overbank stage is reached. Natural levees are
formed on the banks of rivers as water spreads out over the floodplain during
periods of overbank flow. As the water spreads out, the velocity decreases
and suspended sediments are deposited parallel to the channel. These natural
levees create a diversified habitat due to their height above the surrounding
floodplain. Old levees can be seen scattered throughout the floodplain
denoting previous river channel locations and meanders (Figure 19). Levees on
the Apalachicola range from 2 to 15 feet in elevation and from 50 to 600 feet
wide, depending on location. Levees not only keep water in the channel during
rising water but they also keep the floodplain inundated longer during
decreasing water levels. During periods of low flow levees are important
features which help keep the'backswamps of the Apalachicola floodplain wet by
preventing local rainfall from draining into the river immediately (Leitman
et al, 1983).

Backswamps or f-lats refer to those areas between the valley wall and the
natural levee which are low in elevation (Figure 19). Small changes in
elevation in these areas, especially in the lower river, create different soil
conditions and help increase the diversity of the floodplain. Backswamp soils
stay wet, saturated or inundated most of the year and are almost imp ermeable,
due to their high percentage of fine silts and clays. Backswamps are also
known as peat-forming environments.

Point bars form on the convex (inside) bank of bends by aggradation of
sediments,(Figure 19). During floods, small ridges are formedwhich act as
temporary levees. As.aggradation continuesq interspersed with periodic
flooding, a series of ridges with swales in between are formed. Because
material eroded from one bend (meander) is usually deposited on the next point
bar downstream, the floodplain is continually reworked (Wharton et al,
1982). Due to the elevational differences, which cause velocity changes, sand
is usually deposited on the ridges and silts and clays in the swales. These
sediment differences influence not only water retention but also vegetational

w a

POND

SLOUGH
CUT POND

OXBOW
LAKE

SLOUGH

(POINT BAR

-y

LEVEE EVEE FLAT BACK
SLOUGH SWAMP
OLD
RIVER LEVEE
CHANNEL

FIGURE 19. MAJOR FEATURES OF THE APALACHICOLA RIVER FLOODPLAIN
PC
@OIN I

(modified from Clewell,19861.

diversity. Due to disposal of dredge material on these sites, few natural
point bars remain unaffected by spoil on the Apalachicola River (Ager et al,
1984).

Other features such as scour channels, hummocks and minibasins, although
not as prominent topo graphically, have a pronounced effect on plant
distribution due to their slight elevational differences. Scour channels are
small waterways which connect tributaries and depressions to the main channel
and create shortcuts for water during high flows. Hummocks are areas of
higher elevation left between scour channels or elevated areas left around the
bases of trees. The small change in elevation of hummocks is enough that
trees which cannot withstand 100 percent inundation can sometimes take root.
Minibasins are small depressions which trap detritus and rainwater and are
responsible for much of the nutrient recycling accomplished on floodplains
(Wharton et al, 1982). All these features together create a diversity of soil
conditions and inundation characteristics, which accounts for the wide range
of plant associations occurring on the Apalachicola floodplain.

Forested Floodplain

Because floodplains occupy the transitional zone between aquatic and
upland areas and are constantly changing, they are difficult to classify into
distinctive habitats besides forested and nonforested. of the 144,000 acres
of floodplain on the Apalachicola River, approximately 85 percent is
forested. The 121,000 acres of forested floodplain is the largest in the
state with almost twice the area of the next largest floodplain. The term
normally applied to forested floodplains in the Southeastern United States. is
bottomland hardwoods and generally includes wooded swampsg shrub swamps and
seasonally flooded basins and flats (which are forested). Florida ranked
second in the nation behind Louisiana in area of bottomland hardwoods with
almost 16 percent of the state in bottomland hardwoods as of 1970 (Turner
et al, 1981).

Attempts to classify bottomland hardwoods and floodplains themselves are
numerous and usually include soil characteristics, degree and duration of
flooding, floodplain features, and floristic characteristics (Cowardin et al,
1979; Larson et al, 1981). Several early studies of the Apalachicola
floodplain identified general features as well as important vegetational
relationships (Harper@ 1911; Kurz, 1938; Hubbell et al, 1956). The most
detailed studies of the floodplain to date, however, are those of Leitman
(1978, 1983a, 1983b) and Clewell (1971, 1977, 1986). According to Clewell
(1977) the major land use of the floodplain since the civil war has been
forestry with most areas timbered between 1870 and 1925. Since that time,
these same areas have been logged once or twice. Prior to the civilwarg much
of the upper river floodplain was used for growing cotton due to the fertile
soils (Leitmang 1985). Therefore, the floodplain vegetation as it is today
has been modified by man for over 100 years.

Clewell (1977, 1986) has identified at least six different vegetation
types in the Apalachicola floodplain, which as he says "...are not always
sharply differentiated from each other." He relates these forest types to
floodplain features with the more water-tolerant species occurring in low
areas and less tolerant species occupying higher elevations (Figure 20). The
relationship between species distribution and elevation is not an accident.
In floodplains, the most important determinant in the distribution of forest
type is the presence of anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic conditions are
related to the hydroperiod characteristics of the river and the elevation of
floodplain features. The height, length of time and seasonality of flooding
affects plant distribution on the floodplain by creating anaerobic conditions
which some species can tolerate and others cannot. Depletion of available
oxygen can occur in saturated soils in as little as three days. Areas which
are inundated less often and for shorter periods support species which are
intolerant of prolonged flooding (anaerobic conditions). Some species such as
bald cypress and water tupelo have modified root structures which allow them
to survive and prosper in low areas which are subject to lengthy flooding
(Wharton et al, 1982).

6 6
5 3 1 .2 3 5 4 3 4&5
RIVER
CHANNEL

Forest Types Features Associated with

I Black willow, cottonwood, Aggrading sand bars
sycamore

2 River birch, ogeechee-tupelo, Steep river banks
alder

3 Swamp chestnut oak, spruce Natural levees
pine, ironwood, water oak,
sweetgum-(mixed hardwoods)

4 Bald cypress, water tupelo Sloughs and oxbow lakes

5 Overcup oak, water hickory, Low terraces
diamond-leaf oak, ash

6 Loblolly pine, sweetgum Slopes toward uplands

FIGURE 20.FOREST TYPE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH
FLOODPLAIN FEATURES I modified from Ciewell,1977;19861.

Leitman et al, (1983) has done the most detailed study on the Apalachicola
floodplain forest types to date. Forty-seven species of trees were identified
and density and basal areas were measured at various transects throughout the
river. The three most predominant trees in terms of number are water tupelo,
Carolina ash, and possumhaw. Based on basal area, the three most predominant
trees are water tupelo, ogeechee tupelo and bald cypress. The floodplain is
dominated by six wet-site species (water tupelo, ogeechee tupelo, bald
cypress, Carolina ash, swamp tupelo and planer tree), which account for
approximately 48 percent of the number and 65 percent of the basal area of
trees found (Table 9). The upper river floodplain exhibits the highest
.diversity with 35 species, while 27 species have been found in the lower river
floodplain.

Six forest types have been identified on the Apalachicola River floodplain
using color infrared photographs and cruise transect data (Leitman, 1983;
Leitman et al, 1983). The dominant and associated species found with them are
the distinguishing characteristics used to separate these types from each
other (Table 10). Acreage and distribution of forest types have also been
included (Table 11).

The pine forest association is found on some of the highest elevations in
the floodplain, near uplands or "islands" of higher elevation than the
surrounding floodplain. This association consisting primarily of loblolly and
other pines occurs mostly in the middle river stretches but is found in all
three sections of the floodplain (Figures 21-24). Because this association
needs drier soil conditionss it represents less than 1 percent of the
floodplain area. Areas in which the pine forest type is found are inundated
less than 10 percent of the year.

The pine and mixed hardwoods forest is found in areas with conditions
similar to the'pine association. Predominant species of this forest type are
sweetgumq sugarberry, water oak, and loblolly pine. it is found throughout
the river but has been found chiefly in the middle river sections and covers
approximately 2 percent of the floodplain area (Figures 21-24).

Table 9. Tree Species of the Apalachicola River Floodplain (Leitman et al,
1983).

Relative Basal Area Relative Density
Species In Percent In Percent

Water tupelo 29.9 12.8
Ogeechee tupelo 11.0 6.6
Bald cypress 10.6 5.5

Carolina ash 5.4 11.5

Swamp tupelo or blackgum 5.0 M
Sweetgum 4.8 3.2
Overcup oak 3.2 2.0
Planer tree 2.9 9.4

Green ash 2.9 2.7
Water hickory 2.9 0.8
Sugarberry or hackberry 2.8 2.1
Diamond-leaf oak 2.5 1.4

American elm 2.4 1.2
American hornbeam 2.0 4.7
Pumpkin ash 1.9 4.4
Water oak 1.8 0.5
Red maple 1.5 4.8
Sweetbay 1.0 0.5
River birch 0.8 0.7
Possumhaw 0.8 10.5
American sycamore 0.6 0.3
Swamp cottonwood 0.4 0.4
Black willow 0.4 0.4
Swamp chestnut oak 0.3 0.1
Box elder 0.3 0.8
other 22 species 2.0 10.7

Table 10. Forest Types of the Apalachicola River Floodplain (modified from
Leitman, 1983).

Predominant Associated Percent
Name Species Species Coverage

Pine Loblolly pine and Sweetgum, sugarberry, 1%
other pines water oak, possumhaw,
American hornbeam.

Pine and mixed Sweetgum, sugarberry, American hornbeamp 2%
hardwoods water oak, loblolly pine. possumhaw, diamond-leaf
oak, green ash

Mixed hardwoods Water hickory, sweetgum, Diamond-leaf oak, water 43%
overcup oak, green ash, oak, American elm,
sugarberry popsumhaw, red maple

Tupelo-Cypress with Water tupelo, ogeechee Overcup oak, pumpkin ash, 24%
mixed hardwoods tupelo, bald cypress, red maple, water hickory,
swamp tupelo, Carolina American elm, green ash,
ash, planer tree diamond-leaf oak, sweetbay

Tupelo-Cypress Water tupelo, bald Carolina ash, planer tree, 15%
cypress, ogeechee pumpkin ash, sweetbay
tupelo, swamp tupelo

Pioneer Black Willow American sycamore, swamp 0.1%
cottonmood, river birch,
green ash

Forested 85%

Table 11. Area, in Acres, of Each Forest Type for Five Reaches of the River
(Leitman, 1983).

Lower Lower Lower
River from River from River from
Forest Upper middle Wewahitchka Sumatra to Mile 10
Type River River to Sumatra Mile 10 to Mouth Total

Pine .136 672 0 204 0 1,010

Pine and Mixed 642 1,440 154 474 0 2,710
Hardwoods

Mixed Hardwoods 129500 32,200 15@800 1,770 48 62,300

Tupelo-Cypress with 19170 1,860 89310 15p8DO 6p920 34,100
mixed hardwoods

Tupelo-Cypress 2,420 2,270 69240 10,300 456 21,700

Pioneer 0 1,50 19 0 0 169

Marsh 0 0 0 0 9,030 9,030

Open water 2t730 39110 19540 2tOIO- 1,260 10,700

Unidentified 1,020 748 81 76 19 1,950

Total 20,600 42,500 32,100 30,600 17@700 144,000

The mixed hardwood forest type is the largest association found in the
Apalachicola floodplain, covering 43 percent of the area. In the upper and
middle river sections, it is found across the entire floodplain covering
78 percent of the area, but is restricted to the natural levees in the lower,
tidally influenced section of the river (Figures 21-24). Predominant species
are water hickory, sweetgum, overcup oak, green ash and sugarberry. There
appears to be a shift in species importance from the upper to lower floodplain
with sweetgum and sugarberry becoming less numerous in the lower river. This
forest type is the association usually found on levees, terraces, and areas
that are inundated from 5 to 30 percent of the year.

The second largest forest type found on the Apalachicola floodplain is the
tupelo-cypress with mixed hardwoods association. Covering 24 percent of the
entire floodplain, it is most often found in the lower river where it covers
41 percent of the area (Figures 21-24). Dominant species of this forest type
are water tupelo, ogeechee tupelo, bald cypress, swamp tupelo, Carolina ash,
and planer tree. Occupying low flats, sloughs and hummocky areas which
provide small variations in elevations,' this is mostly a wet-site forest.
Areas occupied by this forest type are inundated or saturated from 50 percent
(hummocks) to 100 percent (sloughs and pools) of the year.

The tupelo-cypress association is found in areas where the soil is poorly
drained, such as backswamps and low flats. This is also a wet-site forest and
is fotind mostly in the lower river floodplain. It accounts for 15 percent of
the entire floodplain area (Figures 21-24). Dominant species are water
tupelog bald cypress, ogeechee tupelo and swamp tupelo. All four species have
modified root systems which are capable of surviving anaerobic conditions
characteristic of long periods of inundation. Areas in which this forest type
are found usually have heavy clay soils which are inundated more than
50 percent of the year and saturated continuously.

The pioneer forest type is the smallest association on the
floodplain covering only about 169 acres. Black willow is the dominant
species and in many cases is the only species present. Found in narrow zones

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on Itnewly" formed point bars where sand is the predominant soil type, it
occupies a somewhat dry area. Most of this type forest is located in the
middle river where the majority of the meanders occur (Figures 21-24). As the
age of the point bar increases, other species such as sycamore, swamp
cottonwood and river birch appear. Areas in which this forest type are found
are usually inundated at least 25 percent of the year (Leitman, 1983; Leitman
-et al, 1983).

There appears to be very little information concerning the floodplain of
the Chipola River. One'transect of the floodplain has been found which
occurred north of the Dead Lake area above the Highway 71 bridge. At this
point in the river the Chipola is anastomosing and has several channels. The
majority of the floodplain here is characterized by wet flats between the
channels with bald cypress, water tupelo, ogeechee tupelo, planer tree, and
Carolina ash predominant. The higher elevation."island" areas are
characterized by diamond-leaf oak, possumhaw and swamp dogwood. A bay swamp,
which is a rare floodplain feature, is also located at this site characterized
by sweetbay and royal fern (Wharton et al, 1982).

On the whole, the forested floodplain of the Apalachicola River appears to
be split almost evenly between the wet-site species dominated by tupelo and
cypress and the less water-tolerant bottomland hardwood species. Bottomland
hardwood species dominate the upper and middle river floodplain while tupelo-
cypress dominates the lower river forested floodplain. The absence of
elevational differences in the lower river along with tidal influences is
probably an important factor in this change. Blevational differences in the
upper river floodplain vary up to 15 feet, while in the lower river floodplain
relief is limited to 2 feet (Leitman et al, 1983; Leitman, 1983). As
mentioned previously, the distribution of plants on floodplains is directly
related to hydrologic characteristics which cause anaerobic soil conditions.
This relationship is demonstrated quite clearly on the Apalachicola River
floodplain by the forest types present and 'the locations they are found in.

3 BRISTOL

8
5 2 2
LEGEND
1 MIXED HARDWOODS 3 NM75

2 TUPELO-CYPRESS
3 TUPELO-CYPRESS WITH 2
. MIXED HARDWOODS
4 PINE &MIXED HARDWOODS 6
5 PINE 6
6 PIONEER
7 MARSH 3
8 UNIDENTIFIED

9 OPEN WATER

2
C@b
3
3

3
6 NM65
8 2

4 2
85 3

4 3
2 N

2
193
5 C33 3 - NM55
2

3 0 1 2 3 4

Miles

2
6
2
0@; 2
@3
FIGURE 22. DISTRIBUTION OF FLOODPLAIN HABITATS ON THE APALACHICOLA
RIVER.Imodified from Leitman,19831
83

Nonforested Floodplain

The nonforested area accounts for approximately 15 percent of the total
area of the Apalachicola floodplain. This component includes open water,
marsh, and unidentified categories (Table 11). The open water category
includes ponds@ lakes, streams, rivers and excludes the bay area. Open water
covers approximately 7 percent of the floodplain area mapped by Leitman (1983)
and also includes the distributaries of the river which empty into East Bay-
The river and bay habitats have already been discussed and willnot be

included here.

The unidentified areas cover less than 2 percent of the floodplain and
include areas altered by man. These alterations can be clearing, timbering,
agricultural endeavors, construction, or spoil disposal. Most of these areas
occur on the edge of the floodplain where access is easy and flooding is

minimal.

The last category of nonforested floodplain is marshq which covers
approximately 6 percent of the floodplain. All the marsh area is restricted
to the lower 10 miles of the floodplain where it accounts for 51 percent of
the floodplain area. Sawgrass is the predominant species although bullrushes,
cattails, big cordgrass, softrush, and giant cutgrass are also present in the
freshwater areas of the river and distributaries. In the lower reaches of the
river and East Bay) brackish water species such as Spartina and Juncus appear
and mix with freshwater species (Leitman, 1983; Livingston, 1984; Clewell,
1986). Approximately 1,500 acres of this marsh, located on the west side of
the Apalachicola River and north of the Jackson River, was altered in the
1970s and was undergoing a vegetation shift due to ditching and draining
activities. Shrubs and wet-site trees had begun to appear until this property
was purchased by the State and restoration was undertaken by the Florida Game
and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Dike breaching, ditch plugging and
controlled burning have been used to partially restore part of themarsh to
its former function (FGFWFC9 11982).

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Fish and Wildlife Values

The Apalachicola River floodplain is rich in both plant and animal
species. Gholson (1985) in his study of disposal sites within.the floodplain,
lists over 1,000 species of plants which includes canopy, understory, and
ground cover types. In order to appreciate this diversity it should be
realized that these species were found during a study which collectively
looked at less than 200 acres of the entire floodplain in less than two weeks
during the fall of 1984. A*study currently underway through the Apalachicola
National Estuarine Reserve (ANER) has documented over 1,000 species of plants
from the lower Apalachicola River wetlands (ANERRI 1986). Clewell (1977)
lists 16 species of plants only found in Florida on the Apalachicola
floodplain. Preliminary data indicates that at least 22 species of threatened
or endangered plants have been found in the floodplain (Table 12) and more
could probably be added with further study.

The value of the plant diversity to wildlife is important. It has been
estimated that approximately 361,000 metric tons of litter fall on the
Apalachicola floodplain annually. Of this2 211,000 metric tons is strictly
leaf fall with the remainder including berriesq fruits, woody debris, etc.
(Elder and Cairns, 1982). An important aspect of litter fall is not only the
amount, which is high in the Apalachicola floodplain compared with other
similar systems, but also the timing. Maximum litter fall peaks occur in the
floodplain in late fall due mainly to leaf fall. However@ non-leaf fall
remains high and consistent throughout the year. The length of the growing
season which ranges from 256 to 281 days throughout the length of the
floodplain is also a factor. The high diversity of species and variations in
their patterns and seasons of litter fall is responsible for this sustained
input of detritus and nutrients, and is an important energy source in the
floodplain food web.

Because the floodplain is a "fluctuating water level ecosystem,." it is
characterized by pulses of productivity (Odum, 1969). These pulses are based
not only on photosynthesis, but also on the decomposition of organic
material. A typical floodplain food web is shown in Figure 25@ which

3 NM20

2 3 3

2 LEGEND
I MIXED HARDWOODS
3 3 3 2 TUPELO-CYPRESS
2 2 3 TUPELO-CYPRESS WITH
MIXED HARDWOODS
4 2 3 4 PINE &MIXED HARDWOODS
3 2 5 PINE
6 PIONEER
2 7 MARSH

2 8 UNIDENTIFIED
3 3 3 9 OPEN WATER

2 4 NM12

2
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3 2

2 2 2 2 3

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3 2 3
3
9 3 3

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7 7 7
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,4
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APALACHICOLAO @-7

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L

Miles

FIGURE 24. DISTRIBUTION OF FLOODPLAIN HABITATS ON THE APALACHICOLA
RIVER. Imodified from Leitman, 19831

Table 12. Threatened (T) and Endangered (E) plants of the Apalachicola' River
Floodplain (Clewellg,1977, 1986; Gholson, 1985; ANERRt 1986;
FGFWFC, 1987).

Scientific Name Common Name Status

Aristolochia tomentosa Wooly dutchman's pipe T
Asplenium Rlatyneuron Ebony spleenwort T
Baptisia megacarpa Apalachicola wild indigo T
Botrychium biternatum Southern grape fern T
Bumelia_lycioides Buckthorn T
Cryptotaenia canadensis Honewort T
Ilex di@cidua Possum-haw T
Isoetes flaccida Florida quillwort T
Lietneria floridana Florida corkwood T
Lobelia cardinalis Cardinal-flower T

var. cardinalis

Malus angustifolia Crabapple T
Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive fern T

Rhododendron austrinum Florida azalea E
Sabal minor Bluestem palmetto T
Spiranthes cernua Fragrant ladies' tresses T

var. odorata
Spiranthes ovalis oval ladies' tresses T
Spiranthes vernalis Spring ladies' tresses T
Staphylea trifolia Bladdernut T
Thelypteris dentata Downy shield fern T
Thelypteris hexagonoptera Southern beech fern T
Thelypteris palustris Marsh fern T
Woodwardia aerolata Netted chain fern T,

illustrates the importance of both the detrital food chain and the
photosynthetic food chain to floodplain organisms. Some of the benefits man
receives from this food web are also included.

The floodplain forest has been cited as being.the most important wildlife
habitat in northwest Florida (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977). Because of
fluctuating water levels, the interface between the aquatic and terrestrial
systems moves and organisms adapted to these systems must also move.
Important macroinvertebrates found in alluvial floodplains include aquaticq
terrestrial, and species adapted to varying stages in between. They include,
amphipods, isopods, a myriad of insects and insect larvae, clams, snails,
worms, freshwater shrimp, and crawfish. of the macroinvertebrates, the
molluscs (clams and snails) and crawfish appear to be the only groups studied
on the Apalachicola, which is fortunate, since they are important fish and
wildlife food sources. Heard (1977) lists 60 species of snails and clams from
the river'and floodplain, seven of which are endemic. In his study, Ager
et al (1984) found that the Asiatic clam was the most abundant benthic
invertebrate found in the river. The Asiatic clam is an introduced species
which has been out-competing and eliminating native clam species throughout
southeastern rivers (Wharton, 1978). Clams are found not only in the river
but also in sloughs and pools in the floodplain. They are fed on by some
catfish species, shellcracker bream, birds, muskrat, raccoon, otters,
salamanders, and turtles (Pennak, 1978). Another important mollusc found on
the floodplain is the apple snail, which is an important food source of birds,
especially the limpkin.

Crawfish are important food items of mammals@ birds, and fish and their
chimneys are visible evidence of high water tables. Seven species have been
identified from the Apalachicola (Wharton et al, 1981). Holder (1971)
estimates that crawfish account for over one-third of the floodplain biomass
on the Suwannee River. Largemouth bass, bullheads, eels, bowfin, amphiuma,
turtles, otter, raccoon, ibis and other birds, and water snakes utilize
crawfish for food extensively. Alligators are also known to consume them as
part of their diet. Crawfish burrows are also used by small fish and other
aquatic animals as refuges during dry periods when the floodplain dries out
(Neill, 1951).

MAN MAN
(Rec., Food) (Fur) (Rec., Food)
t
Wild Turkey Ducks Raccoon swarrp Rabbit
\Deer Beaver -Mink '*@
f Z I '*@MAN
@quirre -0- Acorns Muskrat (fur)

.(Food,
Rec.) 4-- Berries, Grapes, Mulberry,
Tupelo Fruits Tree Bark
and TWigs

Birds nmrgent and
IMAN *_11' -1 Aquatic Plants
(Food) FLOODPLAIN
I Inorganic @iiid organic
I import; photosynthesis by
1 algae and higher plants;
-Beeso Tupelo.-*- i deCarPOsition by bacteria,
MAN (Honey) Lyeasts, and other fungi.
(Food)

Particulate and Dissolved Algae-Fungi
organic Matter MAN
Fish-Turtles (Food,
in Silt Rec.)

Micro-org molluscs
Annelid Worms b.-MAN
P,
Frog (Food)
Crustaceans-Insect Larvae /el
Salamanders
Insects
(Crawfish)

Raccoon Birds Fish Otter-Mink
MAN
(Fur)
MAN MAN MAN
(Food, Fur, (Esthetics) (Food, Rec.)
Rec.)

Figure 25. Generalized Food Web of the Apalachicola Floodplain (modified from
Wharton, 1970).

Crawfish and other floodplain invertebrates are especially important food
for fish, during high waters, when the floodplain is inundated. Studies have
shown that many fish move out into the sloughs and onto the floodplain when it
is inundated. The floodplain provides space, food, and more habitat for
reproduction and growth (Holder et al, 1970). As the waters recede the fish
concentrate in the sloughs before returning to the main channel. Small fish
are known to survive low-water periods on the Apalachicola floodplain by
remaining in minibasins formed by the root systems of trees (Wharton et al,
1977). Receding waters also wash large quantities of invertebrates into the
river channel where they become an important food source. Studies on other
rivers have related the standing stock of gamefish, the size of the year class
of largemouth bass, and the type of fish found to the duration and extent of
flooding (Lamboup 1962; Bryan and Sabins, 1979). Reduction in flooding
levels, extent, and duration, whether by natural or man-made alterations,
would have a profound effect on riverine fisheries.

The moist, shaded environment of the floodplain with the large
accumulation of detrital material provides an ideal habitat for amphibians and
reptiles. Means (1976, 1977) lists 44 species of amphibians and 64 species of
reptiles found in the Apalachicola River basin. Although not all of these are
found specifically within the floodplain, a significant number are transitory
or permanent residents. Four species of special concern, the American
alligator, Suwannee cooter, Barbour's map turtle, and the alligator snapping
turtle are found in the river.and on the floodplain (Table 13). The Barbour's
map turtle is endemic to the Apalachicola. The alligator snapping turtle,
once commercially important, is still taken for food, although possession of
more than one is prohibited as is their sale. Because of the diversity of
physical habitats, the mild climate, and the strategic location near four
biogeographical areas, the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Gulf Coastal Plain,
peninsular Florida, and the northern area via the Piedmont and Appalachian
regions, the Apalachicola basin supports the highest species density of
amphibians and reptiles in North America, north of Mexico (Kiester, 1971;
Means, 1977). Other important or unique species found in the Apalachicola
floodplain includes the one-toed amphiuma, the Florida red-bellied turtle) the
four-toed salamander, the southern coal skink, and the Georgia blind

Table 13. Threatened (T), Endangered (E), and Species of Special Concern
(SSC) found on the Apalachicola River Floodplain (Means, 1977;
Stevenson, 1977; FGFWFC, 1982; FGFWFC, 1987).

Scientific Name Common Name Status

Amphibians and Reptiles
Alligator mississippiensis American alligator SSC
Graptemys barbouri Barbour's map turtle SSC
Maccroclemys temminckii Alligator snapping turtle SSC
Pseudomys concinna suwanniensis Suwannee cooter SSC

Mammals
Felis concolor coryi Florida panther E
Myotis grisescens Gray bat E
Myotis sodalis Indiana bat E
Ursus americanus floridanus Florida black bear T

Birds
Aramus:quarauna Limpkin SSC
Campephilus principalis Ivory--vbilled woodpecker E
Cistothorus palustris marianae Marian's marsh wren SSC
Egretta caerulea Little blue heron SSC
Egretta thula Snowy egret SSC
Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon E
Falco sparverius paulus Southeastern kestrel T
Grus canadensis Bratensis Florida sandh.ill crane T
Halineetus leucocephalus Bald eagle T
Mycteria americana Wood.stork E
Vermivora bachmanii Bachman's warbler E

salamander from the upper Chipola River floodplain (Means, 1977). The
distribution of amphibians and reptiles within the floodplain is controlled by
the hydrologic conditions of the varied environments. Aquatic or wet species
are found in the tupelo-cypress and tupelo-cypress with mixed hardwood areas
while species less tolerant to water range from the pine to mixed hardwood
associations. There also is considerable overlap and movement through zones
depending on environmental conditions, breeding requirements, and seasonal
changes.

The Apalachicola River floodplain provides not only an abundance of food,
but also a diversity of environments which supports a large and diverse
population of birds year-round. Bottomland hardwoods, in particular, offer
preferred habitat for migratory and overwintering species from the north
(Figure 26) due to the abundance of acorns, seeds, and nuts during winter,
when the surrounding uplands are somewhat dormant. The diverse environments
of the floodplain are utilized by waterfowl, terrestrial, and arboreal species
with their distribution dependent on the hydrological conditions. No
comprehensive studies have been done on the avifauna of the entire
Apalachicola River floodplain at this time. An ongoing study within the
boundaries of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve, which
includes the lower river, bay and barrier islands, has identified 282
species. Of these, 164 species are migratory, 98 are breeding bird species,
and 20 are nonbreeding, summer residents (ANERR, 1986). Eleven of these
species are also listed as threatened, endangered or of special concern
(Table 13), although two species, the ivory billed woodpecker and Bachman's
warbler, have probably been extirpated from Florida.

Among the more prominent forested floodplain species observed by Stevenson
(1977) are the swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, red-shouldere'd hawk,
barred owl, pileated woodpecker, hairy woodpecker, acadian flycatcher, red-
eyed vireo,, prothonotary warbler, Swainson's warbler, northern parula warbler,
yellow-throated warbler, and hooded warbler. In his comparison of bird
abundance below Jim Woodruff Dam in the forested floodplain and above the dam
in the altered and flooded floodplain, he noted significant decreases or
absence of these species in the altered habitat. Eichholz (1980) found what

40-
A

35-

30-
A

25-
A

.t 20-

Z 15-
ui

0PINELAND
cc A ABOTTOMLAND
10- 0UPLANDS
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5 10 is 20 25

SUMMER BIRD DENSITY [birds/hal

FIGURE 26. DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN COASTAL PLAIN
Imodified fromHarris &Gosselink,19861

is believed to be the largest concentration of nesting ospreys, 45 active
nests, in northwest Florida in the lower Apalachicola River floodplain. The
ospreys, along with bald eagles forage extensively in the floodplain marshes
and in the nearby Apalachicola Bay system. Forested floodplains support wild
turkey populations two to three times higher than uplands (FGFWFC, 1978)-and
are also important breeding areas to the wood duck (Gatewood and Hartman,
1977).

Mammals have probably been the least studied group, not only in the
floodplain, but in the entire Apalachicola drainage basin. Means (1977) lists
52 species of mammals found in the drainage basin, which includes caves,
uplands, floodplainp and barrier islands. This list is from a Hall and Kelson
(1959) publication concerning the mammals of North America. While many of
these species are found in the Apalachicola basin, not all are found on the
floodplain. The American beaver and river otter probably utilize the river
and tributaries of the floodplain more than any other mammal. The beaver is
one of the few animals besides man which can change its environment. By
damming small sloughs and backwaters, the beaver can pose a threat to some
floodplain vegetation by changing the hydrologic conditions in selective
areas. other significant mammals expected in the wetter portions of the
floodplain, such as the tupelo-cypress association and marshes include the
raccoon, round-tailed muskrat, mink, and the rice rat (Wharton et al. 1982).

Mammals which prefer the drier areas of the floodplain, characterized by
the mixed hardwood association and the tupelo-cypress with mixed hardwood
association, include the cotton mousep southeastern shrew, marsh rabbit, and
bobcat. Many species nest in the less inundated areas and forage throughout
the floodplain. Important game mammals found in the Apalachicola floodplain
include the white-tailed deer, feral hogg grey squirrel, and Florida black
bear (which can only be hunted within the Apalachicola Wildlife Managem ent
Area). Glasgow and Noble (1971) estimate that bottomland hardwoods have two
to three times the carrying capacity of white-tailed deer than upland pine
forests and almost two times that of upland hardwood forests. The grey
squirrel also is known to reach its highest densities in the bottomland
hardwoods (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977).

Perhaps the most important wildlife function floodplains serve today is-
that of providing large tracts of relatively undisturbed habitat. Not only
are there species which are so specialized that they cannot survive elsewhere,
but many species need large areas in which to roam and cannot survive in small
blocked habitats. Kusler (1983) points out that while wetlands account for
only 5 percent of the land area of the United States, 35 percent of the
threatened, endangeredp or rare animal species need wetlands to survive.

Apalachicola River System

The Apalachicola River is the largest in Florida and ranks 211st in the
United States, in terms of flow. It is also one of the last remaining
undammed large rivers in the country, although its tributaries contain
numerous dams and locks. The importance of the Apalachicola River to the
productivity of Apalachicola Bay cannot be overemphasized. Numerous studies
relating the bay to the river's nutrients (Mattraw and Elder, 1980; 1983),
floodplain litter and detritus (Livingston, 1981; Elder and Cairns, 1982;
Elder and Mattraw, 1983), and flow (Maristany, 1981; Alabama et al, 1984) have
been published and will not be discussed here. The following section will
deal strictly with aquatic riverine habitats, what makes them different, and
theirassociated biological components.

Physiography and Hydrology

The Apalachicola River is formed by the confluence of the Chattahoochee
and Flint Rivers at Jim Woodruff Dam and flows 107-miles to Apalachicola
Bay. Lake Seminole, its headwaters, a 37,500 acre man-made reservoir, borders
the three states of Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Of the 19,600 square miles
in the entire ACF drainage basinf approximately 2,400 square miles
(12 percent) are located within Florida. The main tributary of the
Apalachicola River, the Chipola River, accounts for approximately half of this

draining an area 1,237 square miles, of which 110210 square miles are in
Florida (COE, 1980). Table 14 lists all the important tributaries to the
Apalachicola River which are at least ten miles long (Figure 27).

The Apalachicola River can be classified as a large, alluvial river. It
is the only river in Florida which has its origins in the Piedmont and
Southern Appalachians. Characteristics of alluvial rivers include a heavy
sediment load, turbid waterg large watersheds, sustained periods of high flow,
and substantial annual flooding. The majority of its runoff is from distant
precipitation and runoff from numerous tributaries (Clewellg 1986; Wharton
et al, 1982).

The Chipola River is an entirely different type of river. The Chipola
River is classified as a spring fed or calcareous spring run. Its waters come
principally from underground aquifers. originating in southeast Alabama it
flows 125 miles and enters the Apalachicola River below Wewahitchka.
Characteristics of spring fed rivers include a small sediment load, very
little water 1evel fluctuation, stable environmental conditions, and nominal
flooding. The geology, water supply, habitat,.and faunal assemblages between
the two rivers differ greatly (Clewell, 1986; Bass, 1983).

The Apalachicola River can be divided into three Isections based upon its
physiography: lower@ middle, and upper. The lower river (NM 0-35), from
below Wewahitchka to Apalachicola, is tidally influenced up to approximately
navigation mile (NM) 25. The Chipola River joins the Apalachicola at NM 28.
The lower river flows through lowlands with a maximum land elevation less than
50 feet, and is characterized by a wide floodplain. The river itself is
characterized by long straight reaches with few bends in this section. Near
the lower end, numerous distributaries are formed which empty into East Bay.

The middle river section (NM 35-78) runs from below Wewahitchka to below
Blountstown. Land elevations in this section range from 150 feet in the upper
reaches to 50 feet in the lower reaches. The floodplain is not as wide as the
lower river section but is still much wider than the floodplain in the upper
section. The river meanders considerably in this section forming large loops

Table 14. Important Rivers and Streams in the Apalachicola Basin (COE, 1980).

Source
Length Elev. Elev.
Name of-Stream (Miles) (Ft. MSL) (Ft. MSL) Flows Into

Apalachicola River 106.7 45 5 Apalachicola Bay
Depot Creek 25.1 18 5 Lake Wimico
Cypress Creek 15.1 20 0 Indian Bayou
Brothers River, 13.7 0 0 Apalachicola River
Chattahoochee River 25.7 200 80 Apalachicola River
(in Florida)

Florida River 19.6 25 15 Apalachicola River
Mosquito Creek 19.4 290 45 Apalachicola River
Kennedy Creek 15.8 55 5 Apalachicola River
Big Gully Creek 11.5 120 25 Equaloxic Creek '
Flat Creek 11.0 250 45 Apalachicola River
Chipola River 95.8 85 5 Apalachicola River
(in Florida)
Juniper Creek 21.1 175 25 Chipola River
Ten Mile Creek 16.9 205 25 Chipola River
Four Mile Creek 16.3 200 30 Chipola River
Dry Creek 12.8 95 50 Chipola River

Ten miles or longer

jxcysO%

L8We
Seminole mosquitocr*

Flat Cr.

GXDSDEN
tP
IOGNOO
VIP'so cr
Cr.
c "Ouo Ljor"Jkly

Deed
a Z,

d
ULF FFlXt4KV-%t"'

Depot CE

or APALAC"ICOILA SAVA
MA,JOfk 1ft trom cof.,
I:IGUftp- 27' imodWed

and numerous small acute bends. These acute bends are the cause of
navigational problems in this area and some require.frequent dredging by the
COE. At NM 41 a natural cutoff, the Chipola Cutoff2 which has been modified
by man, diverts approximately 25 percent of the Apalachicola River flow to the
Chipola River below. This natural cutoff also formed Dead Lake to the north
which has since been modified by man with water control structures.

The upper river section (NM 78-107) runs from the Blountstown area to
Jim Woodruff Dam. Land elevations in this section are among the highest in
Florida and range up to 325 feet. A unique area of steep bluffs and ravines
is located on the east side of the river below the dam, while the west side is
characterized by gentle rolling hills. The river is characterized by long,
straight reaches with a few wide gentle bends (Leitman et al, 1983). The
entire river falls at a fairly uniform rate of 0.4 feet per mile with the
greatest slope upriver.

Flow is an important factor not only to the bay but also to the river
itself. The mean annual discharge of the river at-Chattahoochee is 22,400 cfs
(USGS, 1981) with summer and fall characterized by low flow and highest flows
occurring in'winter and spring (Figure 28)., The mean annual discharge at
Sumatra is 25,000 cfs, which also includes the discharge from the Chipola
River. During low flow conditions, the Chipola River,-can substantially
increase the flows in the lower Apalachicola River because it is spring fed,
and from the influence of local rainfall.' Minimum and maximum flows in the
river including all presently constructed dams are approximately 9,300 and
200,000 cfs, respectively (COE, 1978). To get an idea of the amount and
importance of the river flow, McNulty et al,,(1972) estimates that the
Apalachicola River discharge accounts for 35 percent of the total freshwater
runoff for the west coast of Florida.

Riverine Habitats

Riverine habitats can be generally subdivided based upon the physical
cover provided for organisms. This physical cover is dependent not only on

100

40,000

35,000-
1929 1957 1929
1956 1983 1983

F4 Source: US.G.S. Water
Resources Data-Florida,
ov
Alabama, et al.119841
30,000

25,000-

20,000-

15,000-

10,000
UL UG
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE J Y A SEPT

FIGURE 28. AVERAGE MONTHLY FLOWS OF THE APALACHICOLA
RIVER AT CHATTAHOOCHEE, 1957 TO 1984

the substrate composition, but also on the shoreline features associated with
the substrate (Bassq 1983). These two factors combine to help d etermine the
amount and type of food available, the type of species which will use the
habitat, and its adequacy as a spawning and nursery area. Six distinctive
habitat types have been located within the Apalachicola River along its 215
miles of shoreline (Ager et al, 1983). These have been catalogued and divided
into steep natural bankg gently sloping natural bank, dike field, sandbar,
rock, and submersed vegetation. The amount and percent of each type of
habitat is listed in Table 15. Surveys of fish populations of each. habitat
based upon electro-fishing samples, have been investigated and.are discussed-
in detail.

The presence of snags on these riverine habitats is an important,
determinant of some habitats and significantly affects the productivity of
these areas. Snags not only provide much needed cover for fish, but are also
an important substrate for invertebrates which fish feedon. Catch rates of
fish are almost twice as high for all habitats with snags as those without
snags (Table 16). The only habitat where the presence of snags did not
increase the catch was the submersed vegetation habitat which already provides
a significant amount of cover and substrate. Removal or covering up of snags
by dredge material eliminates productive habitat from the river.

During his investigations, Aget et al 0984) collected 79 species of fish,
21 of which were found at all six shoreline.habitats throughout the river
(Table 17). Yerger (1977) notes that 86 species of freshwater fish are found
in the Apalachicola River proper if the Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers (an
additional 30 species) and the areas of tidal influence are excluded.
Comparing the freshwater ichthyofauna of Florida streams, Bass (1983)
concluded that the Apalachicola River contained the richest assemblage of
primarily freshwater fish in Florida. Over the years, very little fishery
research has been accomplished on the Chipola River. The Chipola River, with
its large amount of rock habitat,in the upper reaches, apparently supports the
largest population of shoal bass in the state (Bass, 1983). Table 18 shows
the dominant fishes in the Chipola and upper Apalachicola rivers found by
earlier investigators (Brown et al, 1964; Cox et al, 1975).

102

Table 15. Linear miles of shore habitat for the Apalachicola River by section and habitat type, 1982-83
(Ager et al, 1984).

Steep Gently
Natural Sloped Dike Sand- Submersed
Bank >45* Bank <450 Field bar Rock Vegetation Total

Lower River (35.0-00.0)
Shoreline Length (mi) 14.20 42.30 0.93 6.60 0 6.70 70.73
Percent.of Shoreline 20.0 59.8 1.3 9.3 0 9.4

middle River (78.0-35.0)

Shoreline Length (mi) 47.16 10.85 0.34 29.98 0 0 88.33
Percent of Shoreline 53.3 12.2 0.3 33.9

F-
0 Upper River (106.3-78.0)
Lj

Shoreline Length (mi) 28.60 5.11 3.64 14.99 4.47 0 56.82
Percent of Shoreline 50.3 8.9 6.4 26.3 7.8

Total Shoreline

Length of Habitat for
Entire River 89.96 58.26 4.92 51.57 4.47 6.70 215.88

Percent of Habitat type
for Entire River 41.7 10:27.0 2.3 23.9 2.1 3.1

Table 16. Catch/effort values for number and weight of fish by habitats
with and/without snags for Apalachicola River, 1982-83
Ager et al, 1984).

Snags Number Weight No. Samples
Habitat Type Present Fish/Min. Kg/Min. N

Steep Natural Banks Yes 16.5 1.50 25
Steep Natural Banks No 6.3 0.37 6

Gently Sloping Natural Banks Yes 11.7 0.60 33
Gently Sloping Natural Banks No 6.8 0.62 3

Dike Fields Yes 19.8 1.32 35

Dike Fields No 12.4 1.36 6

Sandbars Yes 11.3 0.51 35

Sandbars No 5.6 0.55 27

Rocks Yes 15.7 1.20 2

Rocks No 10.8 0.95 11

Submersed Vegetation Yes 4.6 0.78 9
Submersed Vegetation No 6.9 0.53 13

Mean number for all habitats with snags: 14.1 fish/minute.
Mean number for all habitats without snags: 7.5 fish/minute.

Mean weight for all habitats with snags: 0.95 kilograms/minute.
Mean weight for all habitats without snags: 0.67 kilograms/minute.

104

There are eight diadromous species, four endemic species, seven introduced
species, and two marine species that are commonly found throughout the river
system. The diadromous fish can be further divided into anadromous and
catadromous species. The five anadromous species are Atlantic needlefish,
Gulf of Mexico sturgeon, Alabama shad, skipjack herring, and striped bass.
The Gulf of Mexico sturgeon population in the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint
River system once supported a commercial fishery in the early 1900s, but no
sturgeon have been caught commercially since the 1970s. The striped bass and
its hybrid--the sunshine bass--have been actively stocked in the system by all
three states because of its desirability as a sport and food fish.
Catadromous species in the river include, American eel, mountain mullet, and
hogchoker. The establishment of dams on the system, especially the Jim
Woodruff Dam, appears to have impacted most diadromous species negatively by
limiting their range and closing off important spawning grounds.

The studies by Ager et al (1983) deal specifically with shoreline
habitats. Mid-river habitat, which accounts for a significant portion of the
riverine habitatt is less well known. Observations by USFWS personnel using
SCUBA and observations of dredged spoil material indicate that the bottom
substrate consists of smooth rock, rock rubble, gravel, clam shells, clay,
detritus, or sand depending on river location (USFWS,,1986; Ager et al,
1987). Samples collected by detonating cord in depths ranging from 12 to 55
feet of water in mid-river habitats indicate that carp and carpsuckers
generally dominate in weight of fish caught, but catfish (channel catfish,
white catfish, spotted bullhead, and snail bullhead) account for 32 to
97 percent of the numbers caught (Ager et al, 1987).

Two species which are important inhabitants of the river, although they
are not dominant species, are the Gulf sturgeon and striped bass. Both of
these species have been studied extensively by state and federal agencies.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service currently estimates the Gulf sturgeon
population in the Apalachicola River at approximately 60 individuals. This is
a decrease of 222 fish from their 1983 population estimate (USFWSj 1986a).
Important habitats for this species appears to be rock, deep holes in the

105

Table 17. Species of fish collected by electro-fishing from all
habitats in the Apalachicola River, 1982-83 (Ager et al, 1984).

Roughfish

Spotted gar
Longnose gar
Bowfin

Atlantic needlefish

Spotted sucker

Gizzard shad

Common carp

Foodfish

American eel

Channel catfish

Striped mullet

Gamefish

Sunshine bass

Redbreast sunfish
Bluegill
Redear sunfish
Spotted sunfish
Largemouth bass
Black crappie

Forage fish

Threadfin shad

Coastal shiner

Blackbanded darter

Hogchoker

106

Table 18. Dominant fishes in the Apalachicola River, near Blountstown
(Cox et al, 1975).

Percentage
Species Number

Spotted gar 5.0
Threadfin shad 4.0

Gizzard shad 11.6

Channel catfish 5.4

Spotted bullhead 7.3
Snail bullhead 6.1
Redhorse (Moxostoma sp.) 4.5
Blacktail shiner 5.9

Largemouth bass 7.6

Redbreast sunfish 13.2
'Bluegill 10.4

Total 81.0

Dominant fishes of the Chipola River (Brown et al, 1964).

.Percentage Percentage
Species Number Weight

Notropis sp. 3.3 (tr.)
Spotted sucker 11.8 49.9
Channel catfish 25.1 34.6
Pirate perch 11.6 (0.2)
Warmouth 2.5 (0.1)
Spotted sunfish 9.6 (0.5)
Redear sunfish 4.6 (1.9)
Redbreast sunfish 3.7 (1.3)
Largemouth bass 3.2 (1.8)
Shoal bass 2.7 6.3

Total 78.1 90.8

107

mid-river habitat, in the tailrace of the Jim Woodruff Dam (due to upstream
blockage) and in the deep, still-waters of oxbow lakes before most of these
filled in or were altered (USFWS, 1986b).

Striped bass have been released in both Georgia and Florida in an effort
to replenish this species in the river system. Important habitats for this
species appears to be rock, the tailrace of the Jim Woodruff Dam (due to
upstream blockage of migratory movement), submerged springs (present in the
upper Apalachicola River), and the cool water plumes of spring runs which flow
into the river via tributaries (USFWS, 1986; Wooley and Crateau, 1983). The
construction of the Dead Lakes Dam on the Chipola River in 1962 also impacted
this species by eliminating this important summer cool water refuge (USFWS9
1986b).

Rock

Rock habitatis uncommon in Florida rivers and is limited in the
Apalachicola to small areas in the upper river section (Figures 29-32). The
rock habitat varies from hardq solid limestone to soft sandstone. Limestone
shoals and rubble are also important habitats in the Chipola River, especially
the upper region (Brown et al, 1964). Rock habitats in these rivers are
characterized by swift water velocities, few snags, and sparse overhanging
vegetation (Ager et al, 1984). Approximately 4.5 miles of rock habitat remain
in the Apalachicola River accounting for only about 2 percent of the available
shoreline habitat (Table 15).

Compared to other riverine habitats, the rock habitat ranks third in catch
per unit effort (CPUE) in both numbers and weight of fish (Figure-33). The
rock habitat also produces the lowest number of species found with 35
species. However, this habitat ranks first in both number and weight of
gamefish produced (Figure 34). of the four most abundant species collected
from rock habitats, redbreast sunfish@ bluegiliv largemouth bass, and bowfin,
three are gamefish. Catch rates for largemouth bass are the highest of any
habitat and nocturnal sampling produced catch rates four times higher than

108

CHATTAHOOCHEE
N

4
4 2
NIVI 106

0 1 23 4 3
I1 1 4
Miles

4
1 2

3 4

3
3
4 4

2 -NM95

4
43 5 LEGEND
4 3 1STEEP NATURAL BANK
3 3 2GENTLY SLOPING BANK
44
3DIKE FIELDS
33 4SANDBARS & DISPOSALS ITES
21 5ROCK
3 6SUBMERSED VEGETATION

32
4

24 FIGURE29. DISTRIBUTION OF SHORELINE
42
234 HABITATS ON THE APALACHICOLA
A324'-NM85 RIVER.Imodified from Ager et al,19841
5
5
2
3
2

BLOUNTSTOWN 4
332
2
31 3
4 *BRISTOL 109

daytime sampling rates. Altogether gamefish account for 55 percent of the
total.catch with redbreast sunfish and bluegill comprising 34 percent of the
total catch by themselves (Ager et al, 1984).

Species commonly found in rock habitats in the Apalachicola River include
redear sunfish, gizzard shad, grayfin redhorse, American eel, spotted
bullhead, striped mullett threadfin shad, and blacktail shiner. The tadpole
madtom has been found only in this habitat in the river so far. The
bluestripe shiner, a threatened species in Florida, has also been found in
this habitat (Ager et al, 1984).

Rock habitat not only provides an excellent cover for fish but is also an
important substrate for the production of food organisms fish feed on. This
stable substrate provides attachment sites for algae, moss@ plants, and macro-
invertebrates. Another important function this habitat is used for is
spawning. As mentioned previously, a commercial fishery for Gulf of Mexico
sturgeon used to exist on the river but is no longer viable. Since the
inception of dredging in the river, rock removal has occurred in many areas of
the upper river for navigational purposes. Sturgeon prefer hard bottom for
spawning and it has been theorized that this modification of suitable shallow
areas, along with overfishing and damming, have led to the demise of this
fishery (COE, 1978). Investigations by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission (Cox, 1969; Cox et al, 1975) have also concluded that the removal
of rock shoals has been a major cause in the decline of biological
productivity onthe Apalachicola River.

Steep Natural Bank

The steep natural bank habitat comprises the largest percentage of any
riverine habitat on the Apalachicola River, accounting for 90 miles of
shoreline or approximately 42 percent of the total length. This habitat is
characterized by a clay substrate with snags, roots, and submerged logs. The
slope is greater than 45 degrees, which also accounts for a water depth
usually greater than six feet. This habitat is typically found on the outside
of river bends where stream bank cutting occurs; thereforep currents are

110

4 BRISTOL

2 2

24) 1
21 2 NM75

4
2
2

2 2
4
4 4
4 N

2 4

4
2

4
3 2

4
4
2 4 NM65 0 1 2 3 4
4 1 -L - - - - - -
4 Miles
1

4 2
2
4

4
22
4 1
2
4
4 2 LEGEND
1 .4 1 1 STEEP NATURAL BANK
1 24 1 2 GENTLY SLOPING BANK
4 1 4
4 3 DIKE FIELDS
1 4 -NM55 4 SANDBARS & DISPOSALS ITES
5 ROCK '

4 6 SUBMERSED VEGETATION
2 4
21 1
2 2 4
1 4 2 1
4

2 4
1 43 2
1
4

1
4

FIGURE 30. DISTRIBUTION OF SHORELINE HABITATS ON THE APALACHICOLA
RIVERAModified from Ager et al,19841

usually swift and erosional activities are apparent (Figure 29-32). The steep
bank habitat is located throughout the river (Table 15), but predominates in
the upper and middle sections, (Ager et al, 1983).

Steep natural bank habitat ranks second in both number and weight of fish
caught (CPUE) when compared with other riverine habitats. There is also a
noticeable difference in catch based on location in the river with the upper
river producing twice the number and weight of fish than the same type habitat
in the middle and lower river (Figure 33). Not only does catch rate (CPUE)
rank above that for rock habitat, but,more' species are found in the steep bank
habitat (43 species), although this number is less than the other four
habitats. The most abundant species collected from this habitat are threadfin
shad, blacktail shiners, bluegillp redbreast sunfish, largemouth bass, and
bowfin. The forage species dominate upper river numbers while roughfish
dominate upper river weight. Both these groups decrease in importance
downriver. Gamefish species however increase in importance percent wise
downriver, even though their catch rate declines. This is due to the larger
decreases in numbers of forage and roughfish (Ager et al, 1984).

Species commonly found on steep natural bank habitats in the Apalachicola
River include redear sunfish, black crappie, common carp, grayfin redhorse,
channel catfish and weed shiner. Eleven species of gamefish are found in this
habitat compared to nine from the rock habitat. Even so this habitat ranks
second in gamefish number and weight caught (CPUE)q behind rock habitat
(Figure 34). Catch rates at night have also been shown to be approximately
twice those during daylight hoursq a tendency also exhibited by rock
habitats. The bluestripe shiner2 a threatened species in Florida, is also a
rare inhabitant in the steep natural bank habitat (Ager et al, 1984).

As with other habitats which are located throughout the river, the steep
bank habitat exhibited higher catch rates in the upper river than middle and
lower river sections. Reasons for this include recruitment of individuals

112

4
21

4
4
2

4 LEGEND
4

1STEEP NATURAL BANK
42421 -NM40 2GENTLY SLOPING BANK
2 3DIKE FIELDS
42 4SANDBARS & DISPOSAL SITES
24 5ROCK
1
4 6SUBMERSED VEGETATION
4
4 4
442

4
3
4
2

2
4

-NM30

2
4 2 SUMATRA
N 24 4 2 4
2 1 22 2

4 2414 1 2
4 2
1 1
2

2
0 1 2 3 4 2

Miles 4

4 NIVI 20
2 2

FIGURE 31 DISTRIBUTION OF SHORELINE HABITATS ON THE APALACHICOLA
RIVER.fmodified from Ager et al,19841

113

such as threadfin shad, bluegill, and others from Lake Seminole, abundance of
good habitats, and blockage of upstream migration by the Jim Woodruff Dam
(Ager et al, 1984).

Gentle Sloping Natural Bank

The gently sloping natural bank habitat currently comprises the second
largest habitat type in the Apalachicola River (Table 15). The substrate in
this habitat is a mixture of clay, mud, and fine sand, and typically contains
overhanging trees with many snags and submerged logs. Water depth is
generally less than,4 feet with a slope less than 45 degrees. This habitat
typically is found in the coastal lowlands and on either side of point
sandbars; thereforeq currents are generally slow (Figures 29-32). The gently
sloping bank habitat is found throughout the river accounting for 58 miles of
shorelineq but predominates in the lower river comprising 60 percent of the
shoreline in this section (Ager et al, 1984; 1985).

The gently sloping bank habitat ranks fourth by number and fifth by weight
of fish caught when compared to the other habitats. Catch rates for the upper
river were approximately twice those of the middle and lower sections, a
phenomenon seen in the steep bank habitat also (Figure 33). Even though this
habitat ranks below others in catch.rate, it exhibits the highest number of
species found in any habitat with 56 species, .13 of which are gamefish
species. Of the four most abundant fish found in this habitat, bl uegill,
blacktail shiner, redbreast sunfishq and largemouth bassq three are gamefish
species. By number, forage fish account for 52 percent of the total catch
with blacktail shiners and threadfin shad predominating. Gamefish species
account for 38 percent of the total catch with bluegill predominating
(Figure 34). By weight, roughfish account for 61 percent of tile catch with
bowfin predominating in the upper and middle river and common carp
predominating in the lower river. Two species which were found rarely in this
habitat, gafftopsail catfish and spotted bass were found nowhere else in the

river.

114

NM20
2'1
t
4
2
4 N
24
2
4

2
4

3
4 2
24 0 1 2 3 4
4
4 Miles
2
2

2 - NIVI 12

2
2
2

3
4 2

2 4
2

2
2 4
2
NIV15- 6 6 2

2
6

6
2 2

LEGEND

2
1 STEEP NATURAL BANK
2 GENTLY SLOPING BANK APALACHICOLA*

3 DIKE FIELDS
4 SANDBARS & DISPOSAL SITES

5 ROCK
6 SUBMERSED VEGETATION

FIGURE32. DISTRIBUTION OF SHORELINE HABITATS ON THE
APALACHICOLA RIVER.Imodified from Ager et al,19841

Species commonly found on gently sloping bank habitats include redear
sunfish, spotted sunfish, spotted gar, bowfin, gizzard shadq common carp,
grayfin redhorse, channel catfish, striped mullet, threadfin shad, coastal
shiner and weed shiner. The bluestripe shiner, a threatened species, is a
rare inhabitant of the gently sloping natural bank habitat.

In the upper Apalachicola River this habitat is one of the major types
which has been used for spoil disposal by the COE maintenance dredging
activity. Because of this, gently sloping natural bank habitat is scarce in
the upper river, which accounts for overall low catch rates. Disposal of
dredged material on this habitat type has been shown to reduce the total
number of fish and gamefish in the upper river by 50 percent at these sites.
Similar disposal in other areas of the river has reduced gamefish catches 75
percent at these sites the year following this disturbance. These reductions
appear to persist 5-10 years after disposal on gently sloping natural bank
habitats (Ager et al, 1984; Ager et al, 1985).

Dike Fields

The dike field habitat is an artificial habitat constructed by the COE for
navigation purposes. Each field usually cons ists of three to five individual
dikes. These dikes are constructed perpendicular to the shoreline and are
made of wood piling's or rock. Dike field habitats are characterized by slow
to swift water velocities, depending on river height and location on dike, and
usually have large numbers of snags associated with them. The majority of the
dike field habitat is located in the upper river where most of the navigation
problems used to occur (Figures 29-32). River-wide, dike fields account for
approximately five miles of shoreline (Table 15) and are therefore a larger
habitat type than the natural rock habitat (Ager et al, 1984; Ager,et al,
1985).

116

LOWER RIVER
El MIDDLE RIVER

UPPER RIVER

25 -

22.5-

17.5-

12.5-

7.5-

2.5

STEEP GENTLE DIKE SAND- ROCK SUBMERSED
SLOPE SLOPE FIELD BAR VEGETATION

HABITAT TYPE

Figure 33. Number of fish (CPUE) collected by habitat and river
secti on f rom the Apal achi col a Ri ver sampl es, 1982-83.

117

Dike field habitat ranks first in catch rates for both numbers and weight
of fish sampled in the Apalachicola River. This habitat also@ranks high with
regard to the number of species utilizing it, having produced 55 species of
fish, second only to the gently sloping bank habitat. In terms of numbers,
forage fish account for 60 percent of the catch while gamefish represent
30 percent. In terms of weight, roughfish account for 44 percent of the catch
followed by foodfish, with 31 percent, and gamefish, 24 percent. The most
abundant species collected on dike field habitats include redbreast sunfish,
striped mullet, blacktail shiner, largemouth bass, and threadfin shad. As
demonstrated in other river habitats, the catch declines'downstream of the
.upper river section, with threadfin shad showing the largest decrease
(Figure 33). Dike fields rank third in number of gamefish caught (Figure 34),
but show the highest diversity of gamefish with 14 species represented
(Ager et al, 1984).

Species commonly found on dike field habitats include bluegill, redear
sunfish, spotted gar, bowfin, gizzard shad, common carp, spotted sucker,
grayfin redhorse, American eel, coastal shiner, and weed shiner. Three
species rarely found in the river, bannerfin shiner, mountain mullet, and
yellow perch, have been found only on the dike field habitat by Ager et al
(1984). However, the few numbers found are not significant to indicate
habitat preference.

Dike field habitats, although man-made, provide cover and food for fish in
much the same manner as the naturally occurring rock habitat. Because of
this, and 'the diversity of the habitat itself, they are productive areas in
the river. Unfortunately, they have also been used extensively for spoil
disposal, especially in the upper river where they are most numerous.
Disposal on these sites eliminates the cover and food which attracts fish to
these habitats in the first place. A 50 percent reduction in catch rates of
fish and gamefish has been observed by Ager et al (1985) on dike fields which
have been disturbed by spoil disposal.

118

..... . . . .

4
............

STEEP GENTLE DIKE SAND ROCK SUBMERSED
SLOPE SLOPE FIELD BAR VEGETATION

HABITAT TYPE

Figure 34.Number of gannefish per minute of electrofishing (CPUE)
by habitat for all Apalachicola River sam1ples, 1982-83.

Submersed Vegetation

Submersed vegetation habitat is uncommon in the Apalachicola River and is
only found in the lower river section near the bay (Figures 29-32). The
vegetation characteristic of this habitat is Vallisneria americana,
and is usually found in bands 10 to 100 feet wide parallel to the shoreline.
Water depth is shallow and few snags or overhanging vegetation are present.
Water velocity is also slow, again a characteristic of submersed vegetation
habitats. This habitat is only found in the lower six miles of the river and
accounts for approximately three percent of the total shoreline available
(Table 15).

The submersed vegetation habitat ranks last in catch rate in numbers and
fifth for weight of fish compared with other riverine habitats (Figure 33).
Part of this is due to the fact that this habitat is limited to the lower
river which is less productive than the upper and middle sections. This.
habitat is fairly diverse, being represented by 50 species of fish, ten of
which are gamefish species. The high number of species is misleading however,
due to the large number of estuarine and saltwater fish included. Gamefish
account for 61 percent of the total number of fish caughtq the highest
percentage of any habitat sampled in the river. Compared to other habitats,
however, catch rates for gamefish numbers rank fifth (Figure 34). Largemouth
bass catch rates for submersed vegetation rank second behind rock habitat
catch rates. of the most abundant species collected from this habitat,
largemouth bass, bluegill, American eel, redear sunfish, and striped Mulletp,
three are gamefish species (Ager et al, 1984). Tidal influence is strong in
the lower six miles of the river and undoubtedly affects fish distribution, as
does saltwater influence from the bay.

Species commonly collected from the submersed vegetation habitat in the
Apalachicola River include chain pickerel, spotted sunfish, spotted garp
bowfin, common carp, and golden shiner. Twelve speciesp many of them marine,
have been found by Ager et al (1984) only from this habitat and include gulf
menhaden, brown bullhead, sea catfish, golden topminnowt starhead topminnow,
rainwater killifish, bluespotted sunfish, leather jacketp pinfish, silver

120

perch, spot, and Atlantic croaker. The presence of so many marine species can
be explained by salinity variations. Habitat preferences may be indicated by
the fact that these species have not been collected from gently sloping
natural bank habitats or sand bars and disposal site habitats in the same

areas.

The submersed vegetation habitat appears to be important to the largemouth
bass in the lower river as evidenced by the second highest catch rate in the
river. This high catch rate is in spite of the lowest catch rate for total
fish numbers of any habitat. Apparently, the tape grass beds are used by
young-of-the-year or subadult bass as nursery areas. The submersed vegetation
in the lower river has virtually been eliminated due to saltwater intrusion
caused by the 1985 hurricanes. Although the vegetation is reappearing, the
population of fish normally found in these regions has declined drastically
(L. Ager, personal communication). It is too soon to tell if any long-term
impacts will occur, or how long it will take for the vegetation to reestablish

itself.

Sandbar

The sandbar habitat found in the Apalachicola River consists of two types,
the natural sandbar of which few probably still exist', and the dredged
material disposal sites which are already numerous and continue to increase in
size and number. The sandbar habitat is found throughout the river, with
approximately 50 percent of the total in the middle section alone (Table
15). This habitat is characterized by shallow water less than 4 feet, slow to
moderate water velocities, the absence of snags, and an unstable, shifting,
sand substrate. Natural sandbars traditionally form on the inside of river
bends (point bars); however, on the Apalachicola River, dredge material has
been disposed of upriver, on, and downriver of many of these natural
sandbars. Not only have the natural sandbars decreased, but considerable
gently sloping natural bank habitat has also been converted to a sandbar type
habitat (Figures 29-32).

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The sandbar habitat ranks fifth in catch rates for total number of fish
and last in total weight when compared with the other riverine habitats. This
habitat ranks third with regard to number of species collected with 51, of
which 13 are gamefish species. As with the other habitats represented
throughout the river, total number of fish declines from upper to lower river,
although the differences between the sections are not as large as the other
habitats (Figure 33). Gamefish exhibit the lowest catch rate of any habitat,
being lower than the next highest by almost 50 percent (Figure 34). The five
most abundant species found on this habitat are blacktail shiner, s.triped
mullet@ redbreast sunfish, weed shinerp and threadfin shad. Of these, only
one is a gamefish while three are.forage fish. The dominant forage fish in
the upper river is threadfin shad, but this changes downstream and weed shiner
becomes dominant as shad numbers decline (Ager et al, 1984).

Species commonly collected on sandbar (disposal site) habitat include
sunshine bass, bluegill, redear sunfish, largemouth bass, longnose gar,
gizzard shad, common carp, quillback, spotted sucker, grayfin redhorse,
channel catfish, bluestripe shiner, and hogehoker. Two fish, Morone spp. and
channel catfish, utilize the sandbar habitat nocturnally in significant
numbers compared to their daytime catch rates. The channel catfish
young-of-the-year are evident nocturnally throughout the river while
Morone spp. utilization is only evident in the upper river (Ager et al, 1984).

The sandbar habitat in the Apalachicola River which1does not occur on
point bars, i's mostly man-made, created by the disposal of dredge material
from the navigation channel maintained by the COE. Approximately 52 miles of
shoreline, 25 percent of the total, are currently approved for within-bank
disposal. At least 35 miles of this have been disposed on since 1977, with
the majority of the rest utilized prior to 1977 (FDERq 1984). The river also
currently has approximately 52 miles of sandbar (disposal site) habitat, much
of which is disposal sites. A large portion of this has been changed from the
more productive gently sloping natural bank habitat to the less productive
sandbar habitat. This change will continue a shift from gamefish species,
found on natural habitats, to forage and rough fish species, found on sandbar
habitats (Ager et al, 1984). Studies by Ager et al, (1985) also show

122

reductions of gamefish by 75 percent within the first year after disposal of
material on natural habitats and an overall 50 percent loss of gamefish 5-10
years after disposal.

Upland System

The Florida portion of the Apalachicola drainage basin covers
approximately 2,400 square miles and is evenly divided between the Chipola and
Apalachicola rivers. Commercial forestry is the dominant land use throughout
the drainage basin which includes parts of six counties: Gadsden, Liberty,
Franklin, Gulf, Calhoun, and Jackson (COE, 1980; Alabama et al, 1984). The
Chipola River drainage basin only includes parts of the latter three counties
which are located west of the Apalachicola River. Although the major land use
in each county is forestry operations, Jackson County, in the northern Chipola
basin, also has a large percentage of agricultural lands which are drained by
the Chipola River. A large amount of land is also in public-holdings in all
six counties including state parks, a federal wildlife refuge, a national
forest, and other state and federal lands. Numerous other large holdings are
managed for wildlife and forestry and will be discussed in a later

section.

Physiography

The panhandle is comprised of three principal provinces, the Northern
Highlands, Gulf Coastal Lowlands, and the Marianna Lowlands (Figure 2). In
the ACF drainage basin the Northern Highlands consist of the Tallahassee
Hills, New Hope Ridge, Grand Ridge, Apalachicola Bluff Region, and Cody
Scarp. The Marianna Lowlands interrupts the Northern Highlands but the
continuity of the Highlands is maintained by New Hope Ridge and Grand Ridge
which are located just south of the Marianna Lowlands. New Hope Ridge and
portions of Grand Ridge lie within the Chipola drainage basin.

The Tallahassee Hills are underlain by clastic sediments of old, Miocene
deltas. These sediments contain clay and silt with phosphatic and calcareous

123

deposits scattered randomly (Clewell, 1971). The western portions of the
Tallahassee Hills lie within the Apalachicola drainage basin and end abruptly
as tall (150-325 feet), steep bluffs along the Apalachicola River (Means,
1977; Leitman-et al, 1983; Clewell, 1986). Creeks flow from deep ravines that
cut into these bluffs of western Gadsden and Liberty counties. This area,
located in the westernmost portion of the Tallahassee Hills, is known as the
Apalachicola Bluff or Ravine Region (Figure 2). The Apalachicola Ravine area
contains mostly small order stream bottoms having mesic to hydric plant
communities, steep valley slopes grading from xeric vegetation near the top to
mesic at bottom, and xeric vegetation inhabiting the tops of small divides
between ravines (Means, 1977). Dry, sandy uplands consisting of the longleaf
pine-turkey oak-wiregrass association exist east of the bluffs (Clewell,
1977).

The Marianna Lowlands is a large karst plain formed on limestones of
Oligocene 'and Eocene age that have been elevated by structural lift (Puri and
Vernon, 1964). More caves are located in the Marianna Lowlands than anywhere
else in Florida or throughout the entire Coastal Plain (Means, 1977). The
Marianna Lowlands and Grand Ridge regions, whichoccur mainly in the Chipola
drainage basin, contain both longleaf pine woods and mesic hammocks similar to
those on the bluffs (Clewell, 1977). Erosion has been so extensive in the
Grand Ridge Region that well-developed flatwoodd exist in its southern portion
(Hubble et al, 1956). New Hope Ridge is higher in elevation and more relieved
than Grand Ridge but is not as extensive or as deeply dissected as the
Apalachicola Ravines.

The Gulf Coastal Lowlands are separated from the Tallahassee Hills by Cody
Scarp.I The Lowlands are typified by flatwoods of longleaf pine, saw palmetto,
wiregrass, runner oak, and gallberry, interrupted frequently by poorly drained
depressions and stringers of pond cypress, blackgum, sweetbay, and titi
(Clewell, 1977). This area is also noted for numerous, small but botanically
interesting savannahs (Clewellp 1977; Means, 1977).

The distribution of seven generalized plant communities has been mapped by
Davis (1967) and is shown in Figure 35. This map does not give accurate

124

@'A

J@ J6 J6 it.

let

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

COASTAL STRAND

SAND PINE SCRUB

SANDHILLS

MIXED HARDWOODS AND PINE

PINE FLATWOODS

-------- I SWAMP FORESTS

FRESHWATER MARSH & SAVANNAHS

FIGURE 35. NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE APALACHICOLA BASIN [Davis,19671.

125

locations and distributions of these communities, but demonstrates their
general occurrence and distribution in the ACF drainage basin. Various
intergradations between these communities may exist in a given area or at a
particular point in time.

Because of the diversity of the physical environment, the biota is high in
species richness. The species richness is also due to contributions of the
Gulf Coastal Plain, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Appalachian highway of dispersal,
and Florida peninsula.

Upland Habitats

The Apalachicola River Lis the largest river in Florida and has quite an
expansive floodplain considering the size of the drainage basin located within
Florida. Only 12% of the Apalachicola River drainage basin is located in
Florida with the remainder mostly in Georgia and some in Alabama. Fifteen
percent of the Florida portion of the basin is floodplain and the rest
consists of other palustrine, riverine, lacustrine, and terrestrial
habitats. This section will cover the various terrestrial and palustrine
habitats that are commonly found in the Apalachicola drainage basin. There is
a limited amount of literature on the communities of the basin so many of the
descriptions are taken from studies in the panhandle, in general, and the
Apalachicola National Forestq in particular. Clewell's (19.86) "Natural
Setting and Vegetation of the Florida Panhandle" contains many research
summaries of specific locations, several of which are included in the study
area. Terrestrial vertebrates (including some aquatic species), their
relationships with each other and the various plant communities will be
included in this discussion.

Sandhills

Sandhills represent a xerophytic pine forest community occurring on
hilltops and slopes of rolling hills. The sandhill community is common and

126

widespread, particularly in the karst plains of the Gulf Coastal Lowlands and
New Hope Ridge (Figure 2). Howevert most sandhills have been degraded or
destroyed by timbering, overgrazing, fire exclusion, pine plantations,
residential and commercial developments. Other names that have been applied
to this community are high pinelands (Clewell, 1971), longleaf pine-turkey oak
(FNAIq 1986), and longleaf pine-xeric oak woods (Clewell, 1986).

Sandhill vegetation consists of widely spaced longleaf pines which form an
open canopy allowing sunlight to reach the ground enhancing the growth of the
understory and ground cover. Deciduous oaks such as turkey oak, bluejack oak,
southern red oak, and sand post oak are the most common understory species.
The low dense ground cover is very high in species richness. Wiregrassy
pineywoods dropseed, bracken fern and blueberry are just a few of the many
herbaceous and woody plants that form this nearly continuous ground cover.

Clewell (1971), recognizes three phases of the sandhill community: turkey
oak, bluejack oakq and coastal scrub oak. The turkey oak phase is the most
common and occurs on the driest sites. The bluejack oak phase probably
occupies relatively mesic sites and grows on more fertile sands than the
turkey oak phase (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977). The coastal scrub oak phase is
uncommon and scattered in the Apalachicola Coastal Lowlands, especially near
river systems (Clewell, 1971). Myrtle oak and sand-live oak, two evergreen
xerophytic oaks usually associated with sand pine scrub, are also understory
oaks of the coastal scrub oak phase. Sand post oak, although not forming a
phase representative of the sandhill community, is abundant along the edges of
bluffs where moisture is plentiful (Clewell, 1986).

Sandhills occur on beds of non-calcareous sands over beds of sandy acid
cla y deposited during Pleistocene interglacials. The deep white to yellowish
sandy soils that support this community are well-drained and infertile.
However they tend to contain a bit more organic matter than soils of sand pine
scrub. The heavily leached nutrients are brought back to the surface by the
burrowing habits of animals.

127

The sandhill community is fire adapted and fire maintained. Historically
fires occurred at frequent intervals, perhaps every 1-5 years. These natural
fires occur in the summer and are caused by lightning. Wiregrass and pine
straw provide the continuous fuel that supports frequent, light ground
fires.

Because sandhills is a fire maintained community, many plant species have
adaptations to the frequent ground fires and depend on them for their survival
as do many species of wildlife. Wiregrass, as well as other associated
species, requires summer fires in order to flower. The removal of litter by
fires leaves bare mineral soil which longleaf pine seeds need in order to
germinate. The young pines stay in what is known as the grass stage from 3-15
years. During this stage a long tap root develops for the uptake of water and
nutrients. The bark on the stem becomes very thick and the bud remains at
ground level and is surrounded by a protective tuft of needles. Growth out of
the grass stage is rapid which minimizes its vulnerability to frequent ground
fires. Large mature pines have thick bark which allows them to resist the
damaging effects of fire. These characteristics allow longleaf pines to be
the most fire adapted and*fire tolerant of pine species.

Fire suppression, the alteration of burning seasons, and the changing of
the natural fire frequency, has changed the species composition of sandhill
communities. Hardwoods are very susceptible to fire and the above ground
parts are killed, however, the root stocks which are not killed have the
ability to resprout. Under a normal fire frequency the stands will be open
and the oaks are maintained as shrubs. Less frequent fires allow the oaks to
become small trees and in many areas now support a closed canopy of oaks.
other associates favored by the exclusion of fire include persimmon and winged
sumac. With continued fire suppression sandhills will eventually succeed
towards xeric mixed hardwood-pine (Laessle, 1942; Clewell, 1971).

Sandhills are often associated with and grade into scrub, pine flatwoods,
xeric hammocks or scrubby flatwoods. Sandhills are often found adjacent to
sand pine-rosemary scrub along the coast. It was previously thought that the
vegetational differences between the communities were due to the lower

128

available nutrients in the scrub soil (Harper, 1921; Laessle, 1958). However,
soil differences between them (chemical and physical) are not consistently
great enough to account.for these differences. Fire appears to be the primary
factor for maintaining the boundaries between scrub and sandhill vegetation
(Kalisz and Stone, 1984; Myers, 1985). Fuel builds up quickly in sandhills
and fires are frequent. Sand pine scrub has low fuel supplies and fires are
infrequent. When fires do occur in sand pine scrub they are usually
catastrophic fires and generally do not occur except under extreme fuel and
weather conditions (Kalisz and Stone, 1984). Differences in fire frequencies
and adaptations allow the two communities to coexist. With fire suppression
sand pine scrub species readily invade longleaf pine communities (Laessleg
1968; Kalisz and Stone, 1984; Myers, 1985). Under certain conditions scrub
will burn at frequent intervals and there will be an encroachment of sandhill
species into scrub (Kalisz, 1982; Myers, 1985).

Sandhills provide year-round or seasonal habitat for approximately 30-40
invertebrates and vertebrates, many of which are endangered, threatened, or
species of special concern (Landers and Speake, 1980). Typical animals of
sandhill communities are the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Eastern indigo
snake, pine snake, gopher frog, spadefoot toad, gopher tortoise, red-cockaded
woodpecker, pocket gopher, fox squirrel, cotton mouse, cotton rat, Eastern
cottontail, and Eastern mole (Landers and Speake, 1980; Snedaker and Lugo,
1972). Many of these vertebrates are found mainly in longleaf pine
communities and have adapted to the hot summers and cool winters through the

use of burrows.

These burrows are created by the gopher tortoiseq a species of special
concern (FGFWFC, 1987). Many of the vertebrates listed above use gopher
burrows for nesting, feeding, and escape cover from predators and fire
(Landers and Speake, 1980). The gopher frog, a species of special concern
(FGFWFC, 1987), is rarely found outside the burrows and is therefore dependent
on the gopher tortoise and its habitat requirements. The threatened Eastern
indigo snakes distribution in the.state is limited to areas with extensive
sandhills interspersed with wetland habitats such as drainage ways9 rivers,
swamps, and cypress ponds (Landers and Speake, 1980). Other common residents

129

of the burrows are the oldfield mousep cotton mouse, cotton rat, and Eastern
cottontail. Many kinds of invertebrates are residents and are found
exclusively in tortoise burrows.

The red-cockaded woodpecker, an endangered species (FGFWFC, 1987), prefers
old-growth longleaf pine forests. It is a highly specialized, non- migratory,
cavity dwelling species and is the only woodpecker to roost in cavities of
live pines (Labisky et al.@ 1983). It also needs extensive pine and pine
hardwoods for its foraging requirements. Of all the inhabitants of longleaf
pine forests, the red-cockaded woodpecker is probably in the greatest danger

of extinction because of the drastic loss and decline of its habitat.

Clayhills

Clayhills are xerophytic longleaf pine communities occurring.on an upland
rolling topography. Clayhills exist in the region between the Georgia border
and Cody Scarp. This region is called the Tallahassee Red Hills (Harper,
1914) or Northern Highlands (Puri and Vernon, 1964). Other names that have
been given to this community are longleaf clayhill uplands (Means, personal
communication)@ longleaf pine upland forest, high pineland (FNAI9 1986).
Clayhills are often confused with sandhills. The primary differences between
them reside in their soil characteristics, and a few species of their
vegetative and wildlife composition.

Clayhills are characterized by widely spaced longleaf pines forming an
open canopy. Deciduous oaks such as runner oak and dwarf live oak, chinkapin
oak, post oak, southern red oak, blackjack oakq and bluejack oak are the
dominant understory.species. other understory species include sassafras and
persimmon. Turkey oak, blackjack oak, and bluejack oak are found on ridges
and high slopes where clays have been leached from the topsoil (Means,
personal communication). The ground cover is dense and continuous with
wiregrass and many native grasses and forbs. Wiregrass is always present and
usually the dominant species found. Aristida spp., Sporobolus.spp. and
Andropogon spp. are common. other typical plants include huckleberry,

130

blueberry, goldenrod, indian grass, partridge pea, goldenaster, and bracken
fern (FNAI, 1986).

Clayhills occur on soils derived from clays and sands of the Miocene
Hawthorne formation in-the Tallahassee'Red Hills physiographic region (Puri
and Vernon,.1964; Means and Campbell, 1982). These soils are composed of sand
with variable, sometimes substantial, amounts of clays (FNAI, 1986). The
presence of clay creates a loamy soil which allows moisture to be retained,
unlike the sandy well drained soils of sandhills.

The clayhill community, like the sandhill communityg is also fire adapted
and fire maintained. It depends on frequent ground fires to reduce hardwood
competition and perpetuate the growth of pines and ground cover species
(grasses, forbs, and herbs). Without relatively frequent fires, clayhills
succeed to upland mixed hardwood-pine forests, and eventually to upland

hardwood forests.

Clayhills are often associated with and grade into upland mixed hardwood-
pine forests or upland hardwood forests (FNAI, 1986). Clayhill communities
may be present up slope from these hardwood forests. Going down slope, the
first hardwoods found are shrubby small-leaved evergreen species. Farther
down slope, at the toe of the valley side wall, more,substantial hardwoods are
found. At the very bottom, species composition changes according to the
hydrology of the stream course (Means and Grow, 1985). When fires are
eliminated from the uplands these hardwoods begin moving up slope. Sweetgum
and water oak are usually the first invaders. These belong to the beech-
magnolia association which is'capable of existing in the wettest sites, as
well as extremely dry sites. The beech-magnolia is a climax community,
.replacing the hardwood communities that replaced the longleaf pine communities
(Delcourt and Delcourt, 1977; Means and Grow, 1985).

Clayhills have been substantially degraded throughout their range. These
pinelands today are very different from the native longleaf communities that
existed in pre-settlement days. The old-growth pine stands are all second
growth stands. Many longleaf pines have been logged. One of the more serious

131

threats to clayhills, due to the richer loamy soils, has been the conversion
to agricultural fields. Soil disturbances allow "oldfield successional
communities" to replace the natural longleaf stands, the loblolly-shortleaf
pine association being the major community to become established on oldfields
(Quarterman and Keevert 1962; Means and Campbell, 1982). The loblolly pine
may move up slope from the beech-magnolia association and establish itself on
former longleaf sites. Loblolly and shortleaf pines are both fire intolerant
species and therefore cannot survive frequent fires. However, with continued
fire suppression the loblolly-shortleaf oldfield community will also succeed
to the beech-magnolia association.

The faunal composition of clayhills is very similar to that of
sandhills. Many species are endangered, threatened, or species of special
concern. Typical animals of clayhill communities are the red-tailed hawk,
great horned owl, red- cockaded woodpecker, Bachmann's sparrow, fox squirrel,
white-tailed deer, armadillo, raccoon, opossum, Eastern diamondback
rattlesnake, pine snake, Eastern indigo snake, gopher tortoise, and the gopher
frog. Gopher tortoises are also found in clayhill comunities but they do not
do as well in clayey soils as they do in sandy soils. Many of the same
associations exist in clayhills as in sandhills, and therefore will.not be
repeated in this community description.

Scrub

Scrub may be characterized by a dense shrub forest or a dense shrub-pine
forest. It is probably the least fertile and one of the most xeric plant
communities in Florida. Scrub is almost entirely confined to Florida, with a
few examples occurring in Alabama (Laessle, 1958). In the panhandle scrub is
common near the coast west of the Ochlockonee River. Within the Apalachicola
Drainage Basin scrub occurs on dunes and beach ridges near the coast with
small isolated stands existing inland on relic shoreline features (Clewell,
1986). Kurz (1942) correlated scrubs and other vegetation types with coastal
landforms throughout Florida, including Cochran's Beach in Franklin County and
Beacon Hill in Bay County.

132

Scrub contains fewer species than some of the more mesic and hydric
communities. There are between 15-30 species in a given stand, not including
invading species in disturbed areas or transition zones between adjacent
communities (Clewell, 1986). Sand pine and slash pine are the overstory
species of scrub, however, they will not occur together. Sand pine dominates
the most xeric sites and slash pine may be found on these dry sites or may be
found in the more mesic areas (Clewell, 1986). Sand pines grow in very dense
stands forming a closed.overstory. Slash pines, however, tend to grow in open
stands with an open canopy.

Scrub consists of various evergreen scrub oaks and shrubs making up a
thick, often clumped understory. These plants vary in size from low shrubs a
few inches tall to small trees as tall as 10 feet. Major understory species
of scrub are myrtle oak, Chapman's oak, staggerbush, sand live oak, rosemary,
and Conradina canescens. Saw palmetto is also typical of scrub. Rosemary
grows in open areas.and has a distinctive zone of unvegetated white sand
around each bush. Scrub contains little or no herbaceous ground cover. Those
species that do exist grow as individuals or in patches rather than as a
distinct stratum. Cladonia leporina and Cladonia evansii, which are capable
of forming a very dense ground cover, are the most common species of lichens
found in scrub communities.

Clewell (1986), recognizes three scrub communities: the coastal scrub
community, the sand pine communityp and the slash pine scrub community. An
overstory is lacking in the coastal scrub community, although sand pines or
slash pines may be widely scattered. The understory is usually 3-5 feet tall
although some species may attain a greater height. The coastal scrub
community contains fewer species than other scrub communities. Myrtle oak and
sand live oak are the dominant species; rosemary also being conspicuous.

Sand pine scrub commonly occurs on beach ridges and other, relatively
mature coastal upland land forms (Clewell@ 1986). A dense stand of sand pine
forms the overstory. The understory has the same species composition as the
coastal scrub community.

133

The slash pine scrub communities often occupy interdunal swales between
beach ridges. in many instances slash pine communities are referred to as
slash pine flatwoods. Clewell (1986) indicates, however@ that slash pine
scrub exists and may have the same scrub stratum as sand pine scrub on dry
sites and lacks a herbaceous ground cover on dry and moist sites. Scrub
occurring along the coast is constantly subjected to salt spray and wind.
Along the Gulf Coast sand live oak and other woody plants of scrub appear a,s
if wind-sheared. Wells and Shunk (1937) assert that these plants are not
wind-sheared but are growing in response to injury from salt spr ay. Other
authors maintain, though, that wind and its enhancement of transpiration are
more important factors than salt spray in causing the peculiar forms of
coastal trees and shrubs (Clewelly 1986). Along portions of US Highway 98,
the coast road, this is quite noticeable. The crowns are sloping with the
tallest part. of the crown away from the bay. The vegetation is also somewhat
stunted in growth and the crowns of the oaks and pines are brown, appearing
dead. This is especially apparent after hurricanes.

Scrub is susceptible to burial in active dune fields (Clewell, 1986).
Kurz (1942) describes how slash pines, sand live oaks, and other woody species
survive deep burial by the production of adventitious roots from trunks and
branches. These species will'persist after the dune has moved slowly but
completely through a site, exposing the original soil surface.

Soils supporting scrub are formed from Pleistocene-age marine and aeolian
deposits. These soils are composed of deep@ sterile, well-drained sands and
are very white at the surface. Scrub soils, unlike those of sandhill
communities, exhibit eluviation characteristic of forest soils. Sandhill
soils, like those of grasslands, undergo homogenization of the surface layer
(Myersj 1985). Geologically, scrub soils occur on dunes and beach ridges near
the coast and on relic shoreline features inland (Clewell, 1986).

The sandy soils of scrub contain little or no organic matter and silts and
clays may be present in the upper horizons. Sands along the coast contain
some shell fragments which provide nutrients upon weathering, however, the
shell content in the sands along the coast in the panhandle is generally lower

134

than elsewhere in Florida (Clewell, 1986). Nutrients may be provided to
scrubs along the coast from meteorologic input.- Aerosols, which are rich in
nutrients, of salt spray are intercepted by coastal plants and the soil as
winds move onshore from the Gulf.

Scrub is a fire dependent and a fire maintained community. However, scrub
burns infrequently and has been labeled a "fire fighting association" because
fires burning in adjacent vegetation rarely penetrate the scrub (Myers,
1985). Scrub may burn only once in the lifetime of sand pine which is usually
no more than 50-60 years old (Clewell, 1986). When sand pine scrub does burn,
it is usually during severe burning conditions and high fuel loads (Myers,
1985). Fuel builds up quickly in the crowns of sand pines so when a fire goes
through, it is usually a very hott fast burning crown fire. Sand pines are
intolerant of fire and are generally killed by the intense heat, however, they
have serotinous cones and depend on fire for reseeding the stand. It is
interesting to note that the majority of sand pines found in the panhandle
have open cones. Many of the woody plants found in scrub coppice following
fire'.' Rosemary however, is killed.

Scrub without an overstory of pine on coastal dunes experiences fire
infrequently. Topographic irregularities prevent the vegetation from being
evenly distributed, making it almost impossible for a 'fire to spread for any
distance (Clewell, 1986). The fires in slash pine scrub are usually surface
fires, however, the fuel buildup between fires may be such that the crowns may
singe.

Scrub is associated with and often grades into sandhill, scrubby
flatwoods, coastal strand,'and xeric hammock. The relationship of sand pine
scrub and Isandhill vegetation has been discussed in the sandhill community and
will be mentioned only briefly. The early literature stressed the fact that
scrub and sandhill communities were never mixed and that a well defined
boundary separated the two (Nashp 1895). However, this boundary is not quite
so evident today. Many sandhills near the coast contain a mixture of longleaf
pine-xeric oak species (including turkey oak, bluejack oakip and wiregrass) and
scrub species (including sand pine, myrtle oak, sand live oak, and

135

rosemary). In the absence of fire sand pines and other typical scrub species
will invade sandhill communities. Such transitional communities are common
along the north side of U.S. 08 in Franklin County. It is evident, however,
that the fire regimes not soil differences separate these two vegetation types
and that these fire regimes may account for the distribution of the two types
(Myers, 1985). With continued fire suppression scrub eventually succeeds to
xeric hardwoods.

Because scrub occurs almost exclusively in Florida, it often contains
several endemic plants and animals, many of which are rare and endangered.
However, many of the Florida scrub endemics occur in peninsular Florida. The
scrub fauna of the panhandle is fairly depauperate. There are very few
residents of scrub communities, but several species are temporary residents or
transient species W ildlife species of scrub communities include the Eastern
diamondback rattlesnake, coachwhip, black racer, anoles, six-lined racerunner,
broadhead skink, Eastern glass lizard, slender glass lizard, Eastern mud
turtle, Eastern box turtle, gopher tortoise, southern toad, oak toad, spotted
skunk, loggerhead shrike, yellow-rumped warblerg and ground dove (FNAI, 1986;
Means, personal communication).

Pine Flatwoods

Pine flatwoods are mesophytic communities characterized by one or more
species of pine as the dominant tree species. Mesic flatwoods is the most
widespread community in Florida comprising 30-50 percent of the uplands (FNAI,
1986), and occurs most frequently in areas with flat topography (marine
terraces) (Monk, 1968).

Flatwoods are abundant and widespread throughout the panhandle and are
particularly common in the Coastal Lowlands (Clewell, 1986). Patches of
flatwoods also occur in the lowlands around Marianna and in the Tallahassee
Red Hills (Hubbell et al, 1956). Wet flatwoods or boggy flatwoods are
particularly characteristic of the Tates Hell region of Franklin County
(Clewell, 1986). Pine flatwoods are also referred to as pine savannahs., low

136

flatwoods, mesic flatwoods, wet flatwoods, pine barrens, slash pine flatwoods,
longleaf pine flatwoods, or pond pine flatwo6ds.

The older literature speaks only of longleaf pine in'pine-paimetto
-flatwoods (Clewell, 1971). Quintus A. Kyle emphasized that longleaf pine was
the exclusive tree of the flatwoods in the.Apalachicola National Forest until
the suppression of fire began in the 1930's (Clewell, 1971). Slash pine
plantations have replaced many of the old growth longleaf pine flatwood
communities. Slash pine also occurred naturally in the original-growth
pinelands but was largely res tricted to sites just inland from tidal marshes
and other coastal environments (Clewell, 1986).

The overstory of flatwoods consists of three pine types which separate
flatwoods into three phases. These include: longleaf pine flatwoods, slash
pine flatwoods, and pond pine flatwoods (Hubbell et al, 1956; Clewell, 1971,
1986). Each of these pine species tend to dominate a particular flatwood
community. Howeverg mixed stands of longleaf pine and slash pine can be
found. Clewell (1986) identifies this as a fourth phase. Longleaf pines
and/or slash pines may also be present in pond pine flatwoods. The pines in
flatwood communities are usually widely spaced and form an open canopy.

An understory tends to be absent in pine flatwood, communities. However, a
very dense ground cover of 200 or more species of shrubs and herbs is present
(Clewell, 1971). There is considerable overlap of these species among the
three flatwood community types, with many species occurring in all three
communities. Wiregrass and runner oaks generally dominate the ground cover of
longleaf pine flatwoods; gallberry and saw palmetto are predominant in slash
pine flatwoods; and rusty lyonia and several of the bay trees are
characteristic of pond pine flatwoods (McDiarmid, 1978; FNAI, 1986). Shrubby
species are more conspicuous than herbaceous species except during the first
few months after a fire. Common shrub species include gallberry, runner oak,
dwarf huckleberry, blueberry, wax myrtleg fetterbush, and St. John's-wort
(Clewell, 1986). Common herbs include partridge-pea, butterfly-pea, milk pea,
meadow beauty, blazing starp bog button, blackroot, gopher apple, false

137

foxglove, white topped aster, yellow-eyed grass, and bracken fern (Clewell,
1986; FNAI, 1986).

Longleaf pine flatwoods dominate the drier sites and most commonly occur
between the longleaf pine-turkey oak sandhill phase and the slash pine
flatwoods phase (Monk, 1968; Snedaker and Lugo, 1972). Slash pine flatwoods
dominate poorly drained sites and occur in low spots surrounded by longleaf
pine flatwoods, around flatwoods ponds, in narrow belts around the edges of
bayheads or swamps, and over rather extensive areas of wet soils marked by the
presence of pitcher plants or crayfish burrows (Hubble et al, 1956). The more
acid, poorly drained sites are dominated by pond pine flatwoods. They occur
in extremely flat areas, always at a slightly lower level than bordering areas
of longleaf pine flatwoods. Pond pine flatwoodslare stressed by an excess of
water and tend to have the lowest diversity of the three flatwoods communities
(McDiarmid, 1978). Pond pines are usually scattered, with large areas of
fetterbush. Herbaceous vegetation is scarce (Hubble et al, 1956)

The soils of flatwoods are moderately to poorly drained. They consist of
acid sands, with a moderate amount of organic matter in the upper few
centimeters, and generally overlying an organic hardpan at depths of 1-3 feet
(Harper, 1914; Hubbell et al, 1956; Snedaker and Lugo, 1972). This hardpan
reduces the percolation of water below and above its surface. During the
rainy season water may stand in these areas and in the dry season plant roots
may have trouble penetrating the hardpan layer. The frequency and intensity
of fire is one of the major controlling agents in terms of flat wood succession
toward some other community type. Nearly all plants and animals inhabiting
these communities are adapted to frequent fires and are dependent on them for
their continued existence. In the past, longleaf pine dominated flatwoods.
Longleaf pines, however, are extremely fire tolerant and competition
intolerant. Fire suppression has allowed slash pine, which is tolerant of
competition and fire intolerant, to invade longleaf pine flatwoods. The
elimination of fire in longleaf pine and slash pine flatwood communities
allows succession to proceed towards mesophytic mixed hardwood communities.
In the absence of fire, wetter slash pine flatwoods and pond pine flatwoods
succeed towards bayhead communities (Monk, 1968; Snedaker and Lugo, 1972).

138

Pine flatwoods are associated with and grade into wet flatwoods, scrubby
flatwoods, dry prairies, titi swamps, bayheads, and sandhills.

Flatwoods, depending on successional stage and management activitiest
generally have a high diversity of wildlife populations. Not only are
flatwood communities important for wildlife, but the ecotones, or boundaries
between flatwoods and associated commun ities are used extensively by various
animals. Flatwoods and ecotones surrounding them provide an extensive source
of wildlife food, nesting and escape cover. Animals characteristic of
flatwood communities include black bear, white-tailed deer, raccoon, bobcat,
fox, opossum, striped skunk, cotton rat, cotton mouse, black racer, pine
warbler, red-shouldered hawkf southeastern kestrel, oak toad) and chorus frog.

Mixed Hardwoods

Mixed hardwood forests range from being nearly xerophytic to nearly
hydrophytic communities containing a variety of mixed deciduous and evergreen
upland hardwoods. These forests are well developed and generally have closed
canopies. In the panhandle hardwood forests originally were restricted to
riverine habitats and occasionally to protected habitats along the coast and
around some lakes and sinks (Clewell, 1986). However, with fire protection
and other human disturbances, hardwood forests have spread into other areas
and habitats (pine communities).

Moistureq fire frequency, and the availability of nutrients account for
the variations in species composition between,communities. Because hardwood
communities are so variable in species composition authors have given many
different names to hardwood forest communities. Recent authors (Quarterman
and Keevert 1962; Monk, 1967; Clewell, 1971) refer to hardwood forests of the
southeastern coastal plain as the southern mixed hardwood forest. Other names
applied to hardwood forest communities are sandy hammock (Hubbell et al,
1956), mixed hardwood forest/beech-magnolia forest (Delcourt and Delcourt,
1977), mixed hardwood pine, hardwood hammocks (Pritchard, 1978), pine-oak-
hickory woods, mesic hardwood hammock@ bottomland hardwood forest, coastal

139

hammocks, coastal swamps (Clewell, 1986), upland hardwood forest, and upland
mixed forest (FNAI, 1986).

Many authors (Kurz, 1944; Braun, 1950; Hubbell et al, 1956; Monk, 1967;
Quarterman and Keever, 1962; Delcourt and Delcourt, 1977) consider the beech-
magnolia forest as the climax community of the red hills section of north
Florida. It is considered to be either climax or near-climax.in the pine belt
of the coastal plain of the southeastern U.S. because successional tendencies
lead toward it; because it occurs over a wide range of mesic conditions and on
a variety of soils; because it is not affected by minor climatic differenc es,
hence is geographically widespread; and because of its persistent return after
disturbance, to the same type of forest (Quarterman and Keever, 1962).

Species composition and habitat preference vary considerably in hardwood
forest communities. Clewell (1986) presents a detailed conspectus of hardwood
forest communities (Table 19). Hardwood forests usually have a dense
overstory and a closed canopy. Saplings of overstory species are common.
Smaller trees that rarely attain sufficient height to enter the canopy are
also characteristic of many stands. Tall forests with closed canopies have
sparse understories. open forests tend to have dense understories. The
ground cover consists of both herbs and shrubs and the density of these
species varies from stand to stand (Clewell, 1986).

Broadleaved hardwoods are usually the dominant species of hardwood forest,
however, conifers (pines, cedar) or cabbage palms may dominate some stands.
Evergreen and tardily deciduous species are usually present and sometimes more
abundant than deciduous hardwoods (Clewell, 1986). Xeric sites tend to be
dominated by evergreens, and the mesic and hydric sites tend to be dominated
by deciduous species. Southern mixed hardwood forests may contain a minimum
of 71 tree species from 30 families. A few of these range throughout the
community type, lending floristic continuity, whereas others are restricted to
specific environmental situations (Monk, 1968).

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Table 19. Hardwood Forest Communities (modified from Clewell, 1986).

SOIL-MOISTURE/
COMMUNITIES LOCATION FIRE/SALINITY VEGETATION

Pine-Oak-Hickory Northern Highlands Dry-mesic sandy O-Shortleaf pine, red oak,
of the Piedmont loams, loamy sands/ post oak, mockernut
Rather frequent/None

Mesic Hardwood Hammock Mesic sands or O-Laurel oak, white oak,
loams/Rare/None beech, southern magnolia,
sweetgum, spruce pine

Laurel Oak woods Bluffs and uplands Well drained sands O-Laurel oak, mockernut
which have been kept or loams/Rare hickory, blackgum, red oak,
fire-free and undisturbed post oak, black oak, live
for several decades. oak

U-Dogwood, dwarf-thorn, crab-
apple, and sparkleberry

Beach-magnolia Lower portions of bluffs Mesic (rather moist) O-Dominated by American beech
hammock and ravines; common in sands or loams/Rare and southern magnolia
Tallahassee Hills where fire
and land use have been .
minimal and soil moisture
is adequate.

Mixed hardwood Lower slopes on bluffs and Mesic (well drained) All other combinations of mesic
hammock levees on floodplains. sands or loams/Rare hardwood hammock vegetation;
white-oak forms a narrow zone
on bluffs between the laurel oak
woods and the beech-magnolia
hammocks

O-overstory
U-understory

Table 19 continued.

SOIL-MOISTURE/
COMMUNITIES LOCATION FIRE/SALINITY VEGETATION

Coastal Hammocks Mesic hardwood hammocks Mesic sands with limestone O-Live oak, southern magnolia,
near coast occur next to or shell within root zone/ cabbage palm, southern red
scrub, border tidal Rare/Salt spray sometimes; cedar, slash pine
marshes and coastal sloughs. tidal inundation in
hurricanes U-Yaupon, wax-myrtle, red bay,
wild olive

Coastal Swamps Occur along floodplains Wet-mesic to hydric; O-Cabbage palm, pumpkin ash,
- Tideland Swamps of rivers within zone of limited seasonal red maple, sweetbay, black-
- Cabbage Palm tidal influence and along fluctuation of water-table; gum, southern red cedar,
Hammocks the inland margins of tidal loams or peaty sands/Rare loblolly pine, slash pine
marshes. or, in cabbage palm hammocks,
frequent/Salt spray U-Hazel alder, yaupon, sea
sparingly; tidal inundation myrtle
in hurricanes

NOTES: Bottomland Hardwood Forest described in Floodplain section.

O-overstory
U-understory

- Dominant overstory species of southern mixed hardwoods include beech,
Southern magnolia@ pignut hickory, mockernut hickoryp laurel oak, hophornbeam,
spruce pine, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, white oak, diamond-leaved oak,
water oak, swamp-chestnut oak, maple, and basswood. Understory species
characteristic of hardwood forests include dogwood, Eastern redbud,
sparkleberry, ironwood, wild olive, sweet leaf, and witch-hazel. Ground cover
is usually sparse.

Southern mixed hardwood forests are found on a variety of soils. They
occur on sands and loams covered with leaf litter. These soils are closely
associated with limestone outcrops or sub-surface limestone or with exposed
calcium7bearing Miocene clastics along river bluffs (Clewell, 1971). Some
mesic hammocks occur along spring fed rivers, on the sides of sinks, and on
bluffs near these limestone outcroppings. Species such as cabbage palm,
southern red cedar, and redbud favor the calcareous habitats (Clewell,
1986).

Fire is usually rare in southern mixed hardwood forests. The thick leaf
litter helps to conserve soil moisture. Air movement and light penetration
are generally low due to the dense canopy. Fuel consists of leaf litter
alone; therefore fires that do creep into hardwood forests generally kill the
undergrowth and scar trees. However, crown fires may occur and will kill
nearly all trees, along with understory and ground cover vegetation.

Hardwood forest are often associated with and grade into upland pine
forests or xeric hammocks. Hardwood forests commonly invade communities where
fire has been suppressed or other disturbances have occurred. These
communities include sand pine scrub, sandhills, clayhills, longleaf pine
flatwoods, and slash pine flatwoods. Hardwoods also invade swamps and other
aquatic habitats that have been drained. Transitory communities that contain
a mixture of the original vegetation and the invading hardwood vegetation
occur.on sites where this invasion is taking place (Clewell, 1986).

143

The wildlife present in mixed hardwood forests varies with the
successional stage of the forest. Animals characteristic of early succession
forests include broadly adapted generalists such as cottontail rabbit, quail
and bobcat. More narrowly adapted species like the pileated woodpecker,
turkey, and grey squirrel are typical of later successional stages (Gatewood
and Hartman, 1977). Other animals characteristic of hardwood forests include
the grey rat snake, coral snake, rough green snake, red-bellied snake, box
turtle, eastern glass lizard, broadhead skinkg ground skink, slimy salamander,
green anole, grey tree frog, bronze frog, wood rat, cotton mouse, grey fox,
shrews, moles, white-tailed deer, barred owl, red-bellied woodpecker, and
woodcock (FNAI, 1986).

on upland xeric sites, hammocks are similar to the mixed hardwood forests
of clay soils. Hammocks are best developed in areas where limestone or
phosphatic deposits are near the surface. Hammocks differ from mixed hardwood
forests in that they often lack shortleaf piney beech and other more northern
species. Characteristic species include southern magnolia, laurel oak,
sweetgum, American holly, and cabbage palm (on mesic to hydric-sites). A few*
scattered pines may also be present (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977). The
understory includes muscadine grape, virginia creeper, American beautyberry,
and dogwood. Drier sites have a similar understory with characteristic trees
including live oak, southern red oak, laurel oak, and persimmon. Xeric
hammocks may be found on sandhill sites, well-drained'hatwoods, and fringing
lakes and sinkholes (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977).

Titi Swamps, Bayheads, Shrub Bogs

Titi swamps, bayheads, and shrub bogs share similar community
characteristics and are classified as acid swamp communities by Clewell
(1986). These communities are widespread throughout the drainage basin
occupying depressions within pine flatwoods and grass-sedge bogs. Moisture,
fire frequency, and disturbances affect the abundance and distribution of
these three communities.

144

Acid swamps are thickets or forests of evergreen and tardily deciduous
trees. Common species of vegetation are woody. The total number of species
in acid swamps of the panhandle is low and species composition changes only
slightly between communities. in taller stands an overstory of scattered
pines or bays may be present. Other stands may not be differentiated into a
distinct overstory and understory. Species characteristic of acid swamps
include sweetbay, loblolly bay, swamp bay, red bay, black titi, swamp cyrilla,
little-leaf cyrilla, fetterbush, large gallberry, and myrtle-leaf holly.
Slash pine and pond pine are often present and may be dominant. Ground cover
is absent in closed canopy forests except for scattered patches of sphagnum
MOSS. A herbaceous stratum (generally sedges) may be present in shrub bogs
with open canopies (Clewell, 1986).

Soils of acid swamps contain highly organic, acidic sands often overlain
by peat which may accumulate to several feet deep. The water table is
generally close to the surface except du'ring,droughts. During the rainy
season these communities may be temporarily inundated. Much of the soil
moisture comes from runoff from surrounding communities.

Acid swamps experience irregular fires. The vegetation burns poorly
compared to the vegetation of fireland communities and the leaf litter is
usually too wet. Acid swamps adjacent to pine flatwoods burn more frequently
but unless there are drought conditions only the edges of the swamps burn.
Under extreme drought conditions crown fires may occur, killing all but the
larger pines. Much or all of the peat may burn. Titi and other shrubby
species resprout following fire.

Titi swamps, bayheads, and shrub bogs are usually but not always distinct
from one another. They differ somewhat in their distribution, soil moisture,
and species composition.

Titi Swamps. Titi swamps occur as strands or depressions in flatwoods or
along the borders of some alluvial swamps in north Florida. Broadleaved
shrubs and small trees comprise the principle element of the vegetation. The
vegetation is usually very dense. At least one of the three species of titi

145

(black titi, swamp cyrillap little-leaf cyrilla) will be present and
dominant. Their presence, dominance, and distribution varies between
stands. Myrtle-leaf holly sometimes replaces titi as the principal dominant
in small swamps at the heads of minor drainages. Black titi is usually mo re
abundant than the two cyrillas and tends to occupy slightly higher sites than
swamp cyrilla (Clewell, 1971). Pond pine and slash pine may be present as
overstory species with the understory being dominated by titi.

Understory species characteristic of titi swamps include fetterbush and
large gallberry which are often abundant. Other shrubs usually present
include odorless wax-myrtle, staggerbush, sweet pepperbush, cane, Virginia
willow, bayberry, red chokeberry, and swamp honeysuckle. Woody vines such as
bamboo-vine, muscadine grape, and yellow jasmine may also be present (Clewell,
1986).

The water table of titi swamps is generally near the surface except during
droughts. Therefore, the soils are generally saturated but are not inundated
for long periods of time after rains. Fire frequency is variable but usually
does not exceed 20 years. Fires generally do not occur except under extreme
burning conditions (drought2 high winds, and low humidity).

Bayheads. Bayheads or bay swamps occur in shallow depressions,
particularly in pine flatwoods. They are dominated by broadleaved evergreen
trees. Typical species include sweetbay, swamp bayt and loblolly bay.
Sweetbay is usually present and is the dominant overstory species except when
slash pine is present. Slash pine may be dominant and sometimes forms a semi-
closed canopy. Loblolly bay occupies drier sites than sweetbay. Blackgum may
be abundant in wetter bays, but is usually-represented by a few individuals.
Less common species include pond cypress, white-cedar, red maple, diamond-leaf
oak, water oak, sweetgum, and popash. 'These tend to be present when bays are
adjacent to cypress swamps, cedar swamps or hardwood forests (Clewellt 1986).

Understory species in baybeads are usually those found in titi swamps,
including all species of titi. The understory is quite dense and where
.openings occur, the ground cover is usually sphagnum moss. other ground cover

146

species include Virginia and netted chain ferns. Sedges and grasses may be
scattered and cane may be prominent in openings.

The water table of bayheads is within about four feet of the soil surface
at all times (Clewell, 1971). The soil is moist and generally wetter than
those soils supporting titi swamps. Bayheads have a fire frequency of about
15 to 50 years (Clewell, 1986).

Shrub Bogs. Shrub bogs usually do not have a well-defined understory or
overstory. The trees and shrubs may be dense or they may form rather open
canopies. The vegetation of shrub bogs may consist of various combinations of
species found in titi swamps and bayheads. Open stands contain a distinct
ground cover, often with sedges dominating. -They probably burn more
frequently than most acid swamps.

Common species include sweetbay, blackgum, slash pine, wax-myrtle, pond
cypress, popash, and occasionally white-cedar. Shrubs and vines found in
shrub bogs include fetterbush, sweet pepperbush, bamboo-vine, highbush
blackberry, and titi.

The soils of shrub bogs are often saturated but are usually not saturated
for long periods of time. However, they may be inundated for longer periods
of time where they occur in shallow sloughs or stringers. The fire frequency
of shrub bogs is about 5 to 20 years (Clewell, 1986).

Titi swamps, bayheadag and shrub bogs support various wildlife
populations. Animals use these communities for refuge and cover but other
than reptiles and amphibians few are permanent residents. Transient animals
include raccoon, deer, hog, bear, wood ducks, and others.

Cypress Swamps

Cypress swamps are characterized as shallow, forested wetlands@ that have
water at or just below the surface of the ground, and are dominated by either

147

pond cypress or bald cypress.. These swamps may be located along stream or
lake margins. They may also be interspersed throughout other habitats, such
as flatwoods and savannahs, where they may be represented as circular
depressions called domes or heads. Cypress swamps located along shallow
drainage systems are-referred to as strands or sloughs.

Pond cypress occurs in cypr ess heads or domes, and strands or stringers.
In the lower Apalachicola River region, including Tates Hell, these strands or
stringers are common. Cypress forests in these strands are usually open with
a turf of sedges beneath. Cypress trees will extend into adjacent savannahs
and boggy flatwoods (Clewell2 1986). Cypress domes or heads are generally
characterized by taller, larger cypress trees growing in the deeper water in
the interior and smaller trees growing in the shallower waters along the
periphery.

Pond cypress and bald cypress are the dominant overstory species present
in cypress swamp communities, however they generally do not occur together.
When they do occur together in the same stand, rarely are both species of
equal dominance. Tree diversity in cypress strands tends to be higher than
that of cypress heads. Associated trees and shrubs include swamp tupelo,
slash pine, blackgum, red maple, sweetbay, wax myrtleg and buttonbush. Other
typical plants include dahoon holly, swamp bay, loblolly bay, pond apple,
Virginia willow, fetterbush, chain fern, netted chain fern, poison ivy,
spanish moss, cinnamon fernt orchids, swamp titi, St. John'.s-wort, sphagnum,
and buttonbush. Various marsh plants are often found in the open water within
these swamps (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977; Clewell, 1986; FNAI9 1986).

Soils of cypress swamps are composed of peat which is usually thicker@
towards the center of the dome. Clay pans or lens are present in some'cypress
swamps which help to retain water levels. They also prevent these swamps from
serving as recharge areas for the aquifer.. Water in cypress domes and ponds
is usually from surface runoff. Water levels fluctuate above and below the
soil surface. High water marks may reach 4 feet and during dry periods the
soil may be so dry that it cracks (Clewell, 1977). Vegetational diversity in
cypress domes tends to be inversely proportional to the degree of fluctuation

148

of the water level (Ewel, 1976; C-lewell, 1986). open domes with low biomass
tend to occur where the water level fluctuates considerably, which is also
where the nutrients are in shortest supply. Period of inundation and degree
of fluctuation in cypress swamps are important for the transport of nutrients,
.seed dispersal and germination. Seed dispersal is by water and their
germination requires wet soil. It has been established that cypress is able
to reproduce only in relatively open habitats where the soil is wet but not
subjected to prolonged flooding (Clewell, 1986). However, cypress swamps are
common where prolonged flooding is normal.

Fire is important in maintaining cypress swamps. Hardwood invasion and
peat accumulation would result without periodic fires and cypress domes could
succeed to bottomland forests or bogs. Fire frequency is dependent on
hydroperiods and the frequency of fire of surrounding habitats. It is
greatest at the periphery of the dome and least in the interior where longer
hydroperiods and deep peat accumulations occur. The fire cycle may be as
short as 3 to 5 years along the outer edge and as long as 100 to 150 years
towards the center (FNAI, 1986). Cypress is tolerant of light surface fires
but will be killed by peat fires.

The.fauna of cypress swamps is not well studied, however they are
important habitats for a variety of species. Species found will vary between
those ponds with permanent standing water and those that are seasonally
inundated. Bullfrogs and,newts tend to utilize permanent bodies of water for
breeding, while toads and most salamanders tend to utilize temporary bodies of
water. Fish such as the mosquitofish, killifish, pygmy sunfish, and other
small minnows, are commonly found in those ponds with permanent bodies of
water (Wharton et al, 1977). Many insects also use cypress ponds for various
stages of development. There are very few permanent residents of cypress
swampsp however large aggregations of salamanders, frogs, insects, and birds
may be observed during their breeding seasons. Many of these species are
common residents of surrounding flatwood communities. Cypress swamps also
provide valuable nesting and feeding habitats for ospreys, eagles, and wading
birds. During drought periods, cypress strands may be the only source of
water for many animals. Typical animals found in cypress swamps include the

149

wood duckg swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, great-crested flycatcher,
woodstork, alligator, snapping turtle, mud turtley stinkpot@ Eastern mud
snakeg cottonmouth, barred owlt prothonotary warbler, and pileated
woodpecker.

Seepage Bogs and Savannahs

Bogs and savannahs are low energy wetlands consisting mainly of grasses,
sedges, orchids, insectivorous plants, and an abundance of wildflowers.
Seepage bogs are common in the western half of the panhandle near the coast
and towards the base of slopes. They are commonly found between bay swamps
along creeks or rivers and in pine flatwoods. Seepage bogs also occur along
the Cody Scarp and other escarpments where groundwater seeps to the surface.
These habitats were once extensive in the western panhandle but many have been
converted to pine plantations (Clewell, 1986).

Savannahs are found in areas with little relief. They have a limited
distribution in the Apalachicola River basin in Liberty, Calhoung and Franklin
counties. Evidently the clay soils in Liberty County represent alluvial
de@posits at a time when the Apalachicola River valley was further eastward of
its present location. It may be that the community 4.,restricted largely or
entirely to the lower Apalachicola River watershed (Clewell, 1986).

soils of bogs and savannahs consist of sands, sandy loams, and loamy
sands. The upper horizon is usually a deep peaty sand. The soils are
typically acidic, ranging from pH 3.5 to pH 5.0.( The water table is close to
the surface except during droughts. The soils of these habitats tend to be
wetter than surrounding pine flatwoods and some bays and are also poorly
aerated. Fires are frequent and eliminate litter that accumulates. Nutrient
cycling is dependent on the organisms present and on the frequent release of
nutrients by fire (Folkerts, 1982). Soil acidity, low nutrient levelg
anaerobic soil conditions, and periodic fires inhibit invading

150

species in bog and savannah communities. With fire suppression, succession is
towards mixed-pine hardwood forest communities.

Seepage bogs have no distinct overstory or understory but a few trees and
large shrubs may be widely scattered or in small thickets. Species included
in the overstory and understory include slash pine, pond pine (uncommom), pond
cypress, blackgum, white cedar, sweetbay, swamp bay, titi, large gallberry,
and myrtle-leaf holly (Clewell, 1986).

The ground cover is the prominent vegetational stratum in seepage bogs.
Wiregrass is the dominant grass, but is less abundant or even absent in wetter
sites where species of Rhynchospora may replace it (Clewell, 1986). A variety
of herbaceous heliophytes are found in seepage bogs. At various seasons they
produce remarkable floral displays. These include crow poison, meadow-
beauty, Sebatia sp., and several species of Polygala, Xyris, and
Eriocaulon. Carnivorous plants such as the pitcher plants (Sarracenia) are
the most noticeable. Other carnivorous flora include sundews, bladderworts,
and butterworts (Folkerts, 1982; Clewell, 1986). Herbs are more conspicuous
than shrubs. Rush-featherling and Barbara's buttons are indicators of this
community and are rare or absent from the floristically similar savannahs
(Clewell, 1986).

Savannahs have even a less defined overstory and understory than seepage
bogs. An occasional isolated slash pine may occur on sandy knolls within the
savannah. Other trees and shrubs, if present, will be widely scattered. Pond
cypress, blackgum., sweetbay, and titi of bays and shrub bogs, may be found
along the edges of savannahs. St.. John's-wort is the only shrub of
significance. The ground cover consist of wiregrass, sedges, and other
herbs. Wild flowers such as colic-root, grass-pink, coreopsis, white-tops,
leopard lily, snowy orchid, rose pogonia, milkworts, meadow-beautyp cone-
flower, marsh pinkq pitcher plants, yellow-eyed grass, and crow poison can

also be found.

Except for the insect species associated with pitcher plants of the genus
Sarracenia, the fauna of the bogs is poorly known. Pitcher plants have

151

special adaptations that allow them to entrap, detain@ and digest prey. The
plants contain a decomposing mass of entrapped prey which is a potential food
source for other organisms (Folkerts, 1982). Species that have evolved the
ability to inhabit pitcher plants without being entrapped or digested include
species of mosquitoes, the larvae of sarcophagid flies, larvae of some species
of flies, species of moths, aphids, and several species of mites.

The pools of water within bog and savannah communities are important
habitats for the larvae of the pine barrens tree frog (means and Moler,
1978). Ants and earthworms are common in those communities with normal cycles
of moisture and fire. Burrowing crayfish are common and are important in
redistributing leached nutrients to the surface.

Bluffs and Ravines

The upper region of the Apalachicola River basin contains several unique
habitats such as bluffs and ravines, including both steepheads and ravines of
gully erosion origin. In the Apalachicola basin, these habitats are located
along the eastern escarpment of the Apalachicola River in Liberty County.
High bluffs (approximately 150-200 feet) occurring along the eastern side of
the Apalachicola River, from the Georgia-Florida state line South to just
below Bristol were estimated by Harper in 1914 to cover less than 50 square
miles in Florida (Delcourt and Delcourtt 1977). The greatest topographic
relief in Florida occurs along the bluffs of the Apalachicola River basin
valleys. In areas such as Alum Bluff and Aspalaga the bluffs drop abruptly to
the rivers edge.

Florida ravines are considered first order streams and may be categorized
depending on their formation, which may be from gully erosion or steephead
action. "All ravines north of Cody Scarp were created by the scouring action
of surface runoff during baselevelling; steepheads formed sout -h of the scarp
in the porous sands of the Citronelle Formation" (means and Karlin, in press)..
Howeverv ravines created by gully erosion are not extensive in Florida and
usually dry up during droughts. Steepheads in the Florida panhandle are

152

distributed in an east to west alignment in areas where there are deep porous
sands. Where rivers have cut beneath the water table, seepage flows laterally
from the river valley walls. This seepage flow undercuts the sandy slope and
a steephead is formed which continuously lengthens headward into the sloping
plains between the major rivers of the panhandle (Means, 1981). Steepheads
are characterized by steep sidewalls, up to 100 feet deep at the headwaters,
amphitheater in shape, and may have one or more springs in them. Many of the
best developed steepheads occur in the first order branches of two large
streams (Sweetwater and Beaverdam Creeks) that cut through the escarpment just
north of Bristol (Means, 1985).

The Nature Conservancy's purchase of a 1158 acre tract at Alum Bluff and
an adjacent 3214 acres of Beaverdam Creek (which adds 50 of the best
steepheads to its new Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines Preserve) provides
conservation and protection of important bluffs and steepheadsp their
associated flora and fauna, and Alum Bluff itself (Means, 1985).

The bluff.and ravine region of the Apalachicola basin contains more plant
and animal species than any other area of its size on the coastal plain from
Virginia to Texas. It also contains more rare and endangered species and more
endemics than any other area of its size in Florida. Many of the species that
.exist in the bluff and ravine region commonly occur in the Appalachian
Mountains of north Georgia. Mountain laurel, wild ginger, wild hydrangea,
trailing arbutus, baneberry and rattlesnake plantain are a few of the northern
species (threatened and endangered) that are found in the sheltered depths of
the ravines of the region. These ravines are similar to the mountain cove
valleys of the southern Appalachians. The presence of these species is
attributed to the fact that the headwaters of the Apalachicola River
originates outside the coastal plain and drains the south face of the Blue
Ridge in northern Georgia (Means, 1985).

The Apalachicola ravines biotic region contains mostly small-order stream
bottoms with mesic to hydric plant communities, steep valley slopes which
grade from xeric vegetation at the top to mesic and hydric vegetation at the

153

bottom. Xeric communities inhabit the tops of small divides between ravines
(Means, 1977).

The xeric communities on the upper reaches of the ravines are represented
by sandhills (longleaf pine, wiregrass, turkey oak, and other oaks, etc.) or
slash pine plantations. The sidewalls of the ravines are very steep, being 45
degrees or greater. Along the upper portion of the ravines, forests of oaks,
hickories, and other shrubby hardwoods are found. The Alabama spiny-pod or
Ashe's magnolia (both endangered species) may also be present. Farther down
the slope is a beech-magnolia forest with spruce pine, American holly,
dogwood, white oak, pignut hickory, maple, bay, cedar, beech, basswood, ash,
sourwood and other deciduous trees. According to Delcourt and Delcourt,
(1977), "the magnolia-beech forest of the Apalachicola River bluffs represents
the second mesic upland magnolia beech forest quantitavely documented for the
original vegetation of the Gulf Coastal Plain and is the first such record for

Florida".

The bottom area consists of a dense understory of evergreen shrubs which
forms an almost impenetrable wall of twisted and tangled stems. Appalachian
mountain laurel, holly, vacciniums, star anise (principal evergreen shrub),
Florida yew, and Florida torreya trees are present. The Florida yew and
Florida torreya (endangered species) are both endemic.s. to the bluff and ravine
region. The valley floor is characterized by a thick leaf litter layer and
the community is more mesic. Hardwoods and shrubs that prefer permanently
saturated but not inundated soils are present in this zone. A clear, cool
brook emerges from the sand at the base of the slope. Surrounding this brook
are mosses, liverworts, and ferns. The air temperature is usually about 68
degrees (Means, 1985).

The bluff and ravine region of the Apalachicola basin supports a variety
of species including the one-toed amphiuma and the copperhead. Birds are the
most abundant. The leaf litter supports a variety of tiny amphipods,
springtails, orthopterans, beetles, spiders, dipterons, earthworms, and
millipedes. The ravines contain the greatest abundance of northern streamside
salamanders, which are different from their cousins elsewhere. Distinct

154

species of salamanders of the ravine region are Desmognathus apalachicolae
(recently named), Eurbislineata, Pseudotriton ruber and Desmognathus fuscus
(Means and Karlin*, in press).

Caves

The eastern Gulf Coastal Plain generally consists of alternating carbonate
terranes and clastic deposits. Limestone exposed in southwestern Georgia,
extending into the eastern panhandle of Florida and a small portion of
southeastern Alabama, forms a large karst plain called the Marianna
Lowlands. Caves are found predominantly in these karst areas. Erosion has
removed overlying clastics, exposing limestone to extensive solution,
eventually allowing the invasion of underground cavities by life forms (Means,
1977).

Both terrestrial and aquatic caves may be found in a cave system. Aquatic
caves may vary from shallow pool systems to totally submerged systems.
Terrestrial caves can be considered essentially dry aquatic caves, because all
caves intially develop under aquatic conditions. "Terrestrial caves may occur
at the bottoms of dry sinkholes or be associated with ancient springs, shallow
holes or aquatic caves that have been exposed by lowqr water tables" (FNAI,
1986). Sinkhole lakes and occasionally blackwater streams may lead into
aquatic caves. During heavy rainfall terrestrial caves may exhibit aquatic
conditions and during droughts aquatic caves may resemble terrestrial caves.
Permanent pools of water may be found in natural depressions in cave-floors
where the aquifer inundates the lower cavities.

Water color and mineral content varies from cave to cave depending on the
presence of tannins, rainwater, limestone, mud, and organic silts. Aquatic
caves with flowing water usually have a low pH, low concentration of dissolved
carbonates and a rich fauna, whereas pools that are fed by seepage or dripping
water tend to have a higher pH, high concentration of dissolved carbonates, a
low content of organic matter suitable for food, and a less rich fauna.
Characteristics of aquatic cave waters may vary seasonally depending on input-s

155

from the surrounding environment but for the most part they are very stable
environments. Terrestrial caves maintain a fairly constant tempe rature and
humidity. The air temperature tends to be warmer at the cave entrance and
cooler farther into the cave (FNAI, 1986).

The area around cave entrances may be densely vegetated with plants from
the surrounding community: however, light penetration and plant numbers
decline in the mouth of the cave. Where light penetrates into caves, species
of algae, mosses, liverworts, and occasionally ferns grow. Beyond the limits
of light penetration, plants are generally absent or limited to a few
inconspicuous species of fungi that grow on guano or other organic debris
(FNAI@ 1986).

There are very few cave-adapted organisms found in the Apalachicola River
drainage basin "(containing the whole of the Marianna Lowlands and the
southern portion of the Dougherty Plain physiographic regions)" and those that
have been found are endemics. Larger fauna occur in cave ecosystems of the
Appalachian region to the north, but not many species of troglobites (cave-
adapted animals) inhabit the air passages of caves in the eastern Gulf Coastal
Plain. However, the number of aquatic troglobites is large; the reason being
that most of the solution cavities are presently filled with water (Means,
1977).

A few endemics have been recognized as occurring in the region. The
Georgia blind salamander and the endemic crayfish (Cambarus cryptodytes), both
troglobitic species, are known to be abundant in caves in Jackson Countyq
Florida. The group of troglobites known for the region are the Chattahoochee
fauna, named for the anticline which brought limestone terrane@s to the surface
in the Marianna Lowlands-Dougherty Plain physiographic region. Eight of the
caves (maybe more) in the Marianna Lowlands-Dougherty Plain region contain the
Chattahoochee fauna (Means, 1977).

Species found in the caves of the Marianna Lowlands include the
troglobitic isopod (Asellus hobbsi) and two epigean salamanders Eurycea
bislineata and Eurycea longicauda,(troglophiles). Trogloxenes spend a

156

considerable amount of their time in caves, but they must periodically leave
the caves to feed or breed. Many species of bats, some salamanders, and cave
crickets are a few examples. Individuals that may regularly live in caves but
whose conspecifics also inhabit surface communities with moist microhabitats,
are troglophiles. These include organisms such as cave orb spiders, crickets,
fish, and salamanders. Some animals are obligatory cave dwellers that possess
special adaptations for living in darkness (troglobites) and include species
such as the blind cave crayfish, blind cave salamanders, cave amphipods, and
isopods (aquatic caves); cave mites, cave spiders, springtails and earwigs
(terrestrial caves of north Florida).

Wildlife Values

This section has described community characteristics of the various upland
habitats existing in the ACF drainage basin. The vegetative and wildlife
composition mentioned, consists of those species that are dominant in or found
exclusively in these habitats. Many other species of plants and animals are
present. Because the Apalachicola River drainage basin contains such a
diversity of habitats and has contributions from neighboring areas, it may
have more species of plants and animals than anywhere else in temperate North
America. The high species richness of the area incli44es many rare,
endangered, threatened and endemic species. Table 20 lists many of the
endangered and threatened plants of the basin, however, this list is not
complete and the numbers have probably increased since these lists were
made. Species of special concern or those species under review for listing
are not included on this list.

A high species richness does not exist for plants alone. The highest
species density of amphibians and reptiles in North America north of Mexico
occurs in the upper Apalachicola River basin. The warm climate, high
humidity, and rainfall allow for the high numbers of turtles, frogs,
salamanders and snakes, and low numbers of lizards (Means, 1977). Many
wildlife species require a variety of habitat types and successional stages to
meet their requirements for shelterg dietq reproduction and escape cover.
Some species are adapted to and depend on a single habitat type; others

157

Table 20. Threatened and Endangered Plants of the Apalachicola Basin.
(Sources: see plant appendix)

SPECIES

Scient*fic Name Common Name Status Habitats

Actaea pachypoda Baneberry T bluffs
Adiantum capillus-veneris Venus-hair fern E bluffs, sinks
AnemoiTe--l-la thalictroides Rue anemone T bluffs
Aquilegia canadensis Columbine E calcareous woods
Asclepias viridula Southern milkweed or Green T flatwoods
milkweed
Asplenium platyneuron Ebony spleenwort T hammocks
Asplenium. resiliens Blackstem spleenwort T hammocks
Aster spinulosus Pinewoods aster T flatwoods
X=M caroliniana Mosquito fern, Water fern T swamps
Baptisia megacarpa Apalachicola wild indigo T bluffs
Botrychium biternatum Southern grapefern T hammocks
Bumelia lycioides Buckthorn T hammocks
Callir e papaver Poppy mallow T pine-oak-hickory woods
Calopogon barbatus Bearded grass pink T flatwoods, bogs
Calopogon pallidus Pale grass pink T flatwoods, bogs
Calopogon tuberosus Grass pink (unnamed) T flatwoods, bogs, marshes
around cypress ponds
Cleistes divaricata Rosebud orchid or spreading T flatwoods
pogonia
Conradina glabra Apalachicola rosemary or T sandhills
panhandle rosemary
Cornus alternifolia Pagoda dogwood T bluffs
Croomia pauciflora Few-flowered croomia E bluffs
Epidendrum conopseum Greenfly orchid T hammocks, sinks, gum,
swamps
Epigaea repens Trailing arbutus E dry hammocks
Erythror;lu-mumbilicatum Dogtooth lily or dimpled T bluffs, hammocks
dogtooth violet
Gentiana pennelliana Wiregrass gentian E flatwoods
Habenaria repens Water spider orchid or T marshes, cypress swamps
creeping orchid
Harperocallis flava Harper's beauty E bogs
Hedeomagraveolens Mockpennyroyal E sandhills, flatwoods
Hepatica nobilis Liverleaf E bluffs
Hexastylis arifolia Heartleaf T bluffs, hammocks
Hydrangea arborescens Wild hydrangea T bluffs
Hypericum lissophloeus Smooth-barked St. John's- E sinks, pond margins
wort
Ilex ambigua Carolina holly, Sand holly T sandhills, scrub, dunes,
dry hammocks
Ilex decidua Possum haw T dry upland forests

158

Table 20 continued.

SPECIES

Scientific Name Common Name Status Habitats

Illicium floridanum Purple anise creek swamps, seepages
on bluffs
Isoetes flaccida Florida quillwort T swamps, ponds
Kalmia latifolia Mountain laurel T bluffs, creek swamps
Leitneria floridana Florida corkwood T coastal hammocks
Liatris provincialis Godfrey's,blazing star or E dunes, sandhills
Godfrey's gayfeather
Lilium. catesbaei Catesby lily T flatwoods, bogs
Linum westii West's flax T bogs, cypress, pond
I
margins
Lobelia cardinalis Cardinal flower T coastal hammocks
Lupinus westianus Gulfcoast lupine T sandhills, scrub
ycopodium appressum Southern clubmoss T bogs, moist flatwoods
Macbridea alba White birds-in-a-nest E bogs, flatwoods
Magnolia ashel Ashe's magnolia E bluffs, bayheads,
hammocks
Magnolia pyramidata. Pyramid magnolia E bluffs
Malaxis unifolia Green adder's mouth T bluffs, sinks
Malus angustifolia Crab apple T bluffs, hammocks
Matelea alabamensis Alabama spiny-pod E bluffs
Matelea floridana, Florida milkweed E bluffs, pine-oak-hickory
woods
Medeola virginiana Indian cucumber-root T bluffs
Nolina atopocarpa Florida beargrass E flatwoods
onoclea sensibilis Sensitive fern T moist hammocks
ophioglossum petiolatum Stalked Adder's-tongue T moist roadsides
Opuntia stricta Prickly pear T disturbed sands near
coast
Oxypolis greenmanii. Giant water-dropwort E acid swamps,
giant water cowbane
Parnassia grandifolia Grass-of-parnassus E boggy cypress strands
Phlebodium aureum. Golden polypody T epiphytic in cabbage
palms
Pinckneya bracteata Hairy fevertree T creek swampsq titi
swamps, bogs
Pityopsis flexuosa Panhandle golden aster E sandhills
Platanthera White fringed orchid T marshes
blephariglottis
Platanthera cristata Crested fringed orchid or T cypress swamps
Platanthera flava. Southern rein-orchid T spring-fed river swamps
Platanthera integra Orange rein orchid T flatwoods
Platanthera nivea Snowy orchid T bogs
Pogonia ophioglossoides Rose pogonia T flatwoods, bogs

159

Table 20 continued.

SPECIES

Scientific Name Common Name Status Habitats

Polygonella macrophylla Large-leaved jointweed T dunes, scrub
Rhexia lutea Meadow beauty T flatwoods, bogs
Rhexia, parviflora Small-flowered meadowbeauty E margins of cypress swamp
or Apalachicola meadowbeauty
Rhododendron austrinum Florida flame azalea E bluffs, hammocks
Rhodod@ndron serrulatum Swamp honeysuckle T flatwoods, titi and
bay swamps
Ruellia noctiflora Night-flowering ruellia T bogs, coastal flatwoods
Sabal minor 11 Dwarf palmetto or bluestem T wet hammocks, bluffs
Sarracenia leucophylla White-top pitcher-plant E bogs, creek swamps
Sarracenia psittacina Parrot pitcher-plant T flatwoods, bogs
Selaginella apoda Meadow spikemoss T stream banks
Selaginella arenicola Sand spikemoss T sandhillsq dunesq
scrub
Spiranthes cernua var. Nodding ladies' tresses T river swamps, bogs
odorata
Spiranthes gracilis Slender ladies's tresses T flatwoods, sandhills
Spiranthes ovalis Lesser ladies' tresses T bogs, moist hammocks
Spiranthes praecox Grass-leaved ladies' tresses T flatwoods, pinelands,
Spiranthes vernalis Spring ladies' tresses T flatwoods, cypress
swamps
Staphylea trifolia Bladdernut T moist bluffs, creek
bottoms
Stewartia malachodendron Silky camellia E bluffs, steapheads,
bayheads
Taxus floridana Florida yew E hammocks@ cedar swamps
of Apalachicola River
Thelypteris hexagonoptera Beech fern T bluffsq hammocks
Thelypteris interrupta, T coastal hammock
Thelypteris kunthii Southern shield fern T calcareous woods
Thelypteris palustris Marsh fern T stream banks
Thelypteris quadrangularis Aspidium fern (unnamed) T ravines
var. versicolor
Tillandsia bartramii Wild pine, air plant T moist woods
Torreya taxifolia Florida torreya E hammocks near
Apalachicola River
Trillium lancifolium Lance-leaved wake-robin E bluffs
Veratrum woodii False hellebores . E bluffs
Verbesina chapmanii Chapman's crownbeard savannahs, bogs,
flatwoods
Viola hastata Halberd-leaved yellow E bluffs
violet
Woodsia obtusa Cliff fern T bluffs
Woodwardia areolata Netted chain-fern T acid swamps, lime sinks
Xyris longisepala Karst pond yellow-eyed grass E margins of sandhill
Xyris scabrifolia Harper's yellow-eyed grass T bogs

160

however, need several habitats to fill these requirements. Animal species may
find their life requirements in different habitat types during different
seasons of the year. The interspersion of different habitat types within the
normal home range size of the species in question is essential to the creation
and conservation of ideal habitat (Harris and Skoog, 1980). Uplands and the
interspersion of wetland communities Among them provide valuable feeding,
breeding, nesting and escape cover.

161

IV. LAND RESOURCES OF THE APALACHICOLA BASIN

The Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin is sparsely settled
with a 1980 population of approximately 113,000 people living in the six
counties surrounding the basin (Alabama et al@ 1984). Of the 4,055
square miles covered by this six county region, approximately 60 percent is
within the drainage basin. This area includes a variety of land use
categories, private and public ownership, and various management schemes
employed for utilization of these resources.

Land Ownership

The majority of the land within the Apalachicola basin is privately
owned, much of-it by timber companies, although a considerable amount is
owned by state and federal governments. Most of this publicly owned
land is within Liberty, Franklin, and Gulf counties and includes almost
the entire floodplain of the lower Apalachicola River. Publicly owned
lands have been acquired for a variety of different reasons including
recreation, wildlife management, conservation, and the protection of
environmentally unique or irreplaceable resources. Land ownership
patterns and characteristics are examined in this section.

Wildlife Management Areas

There are seven wildlife management areas (WMA) in the Apalachicola River
drainage basin. The acreage of these lands open to public hunting is
,considerable and therefore is an important part of the resource base. These
areas are used primarily for hunting, however they also provide opportunities
for non-consumptive recreational activities such as hiking, nature study,
fishing, and picnicking. These privately or publicly owned lands are
administered by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (FGFWFC) and
are separated into two categories, Type I and Type II wildlife management

162

areas. Under Type I management, the hunting activities on the land, whether
privately or publicly owned, are supervised by the FGFWFC. The Commission
provides boundary markers, check stations are installed and manned where
possible, mini mum road maintenance is provided, in some cases food plots are
planted, and controlled burning and other habitat improvements are
accomplished. Under Type II managementp the landowner is responsible for
maintaining the management areas and issuing the permits (Gatewood and
Hartman, 1977; F. Smith, personal communication). Wildlife management area
permits are required to hunt in all wildlife management areas. State and
federal regulations are enforced on all management areas. The seven wildlife
management areas within the Apalachicola basin (Figure 36) are all Type 1.

Apalachee Wildlife Management Area. The Apalachee WMA consists of 5$114 acres
on the western shores of Lake Seminole in Jackson County. The management area
is federally owned by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. A large portion of
the management area is burned on an annual basis. Within the management area
are fields of cereal crops that are grown by local farmers. Farmers are
required to leave 20 percent of their crops for wildlife consumption
(T. Breault, personal communication).

Apalachicola Wildlife Management Area. The Apalachicola WMA consists of
559,000 acres in the Apalachicola Nati onal Forest in Liberty, Wakullap and
Franklin counties. The land is federally owned and is actively managed by the
U. S. Forest Service in cooperation with the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission. The majority of the forest is in multiple use management.
Hunting is a part of this management, along with prescribed burningp timber
management, dove fieldsp population surveyst deer track counts, and monitoring
red-cockaded woodpecker colonies. The Apalachicola WMA is the only management
area in the basin where the black bear can be hunted. The New and Sopchoppy

rivers have their headwaters in the area. The Ochlockonee River transverses

@the center of the forest and the Apalachicola River flows along the western
boundary. Because of its location and size, it is probably the most diverse
management area in the region (Gatewood and Hartman, 1977).

163

ALA.
FLA.

Laka
55emkmol

*Chattahoochee

Apalachee
dischicola Apalachicola
16
A. W. E. A.

.0 Edward Bull
JIM 0. U. Parker
M-K Ranch
OF Robert Brent

FIGURE 36. WATER MANAGEMENT AREAS OF THE APALACHICOLA BASIN.

164

Apalachicola Wildlife and Environmental Area. The Apalachicola Wildlife and
Environmental Area (AWEA), located in Franklin and Gulf counties@ consists of
28,762 acres purchased by the State of Florida under the Environmentally
Endangered Lands Program. The AWEA is publicly owned by the trustees of the
Internal Improvement Trust Fund, however, it is managed by three other
agencies. The FGFWFC is the lead managing agency and the Division of Forestry
of the Department of Agriculture and the Division of Historical,Resources of
the Department of State are cooperating agencies.

The AWEA lies within the Apalachicola River floodplain and extends from
the mouth of the Apalachicola River to the northern tip of Forbes Island. The
major habitat of the area is floodplain swamp dominated by tupelo and
cypress. Freshwater marsh can be found on the west side of the floodplain and
salt marsh is present near the mouth of the river (FGFWFC, 1986).

Current management of the AWEA consists of maintaining boundary lines and
establ ishing and enforcing regulations for use of the area. Management
programs on the AWEA that have been conducted in the past or proposed for the
future include prescribed burningt water level management which,is directed
towards restoring natural water regimesy wildlife management consisting of
regulating fishing and huntingg resolving nuisance bear problems, and
recreation (FGFWFC, 1986).

Edward Ball Wildlife Management Area.. The Edward Ball WMA consists of 65,025
acres in Gulf County and is privately owned by St. Joe Paper Company. Lake
Wimico is within the boundaries of the management area. Major habitat types
include low pinelands and hardwood swamps. The FGFWFC conducts prescribed
burns on a 5-7 year rotation. Old road beds are planted to bahia grass,
fertilized, mowedp and maintained primarily for turkey and quail (T. Breault,
personal communication).

G. U. Parker Wildlife Management Area. The G. U. Parker WMA consists of
22,480 acres in Calhoun and Gulf Counties, and is privately owned by Neal Land
and Timber Company. The management area is bordered by the Apalachicola River
on the east and the Dead Lakes and Chipola River on the west. Cypress stands

165

border both sides of the management area. These stands blend into river
swamps which edge up a gentle slope to a mixture of second growth pine and
hardwoods. High pine flatwoods occupy the center of the area (Gatewood and
Hartman, 1977). The FGFWFC conducts prescribed burns on approximately 5,000
acres/year and on a 3-5 year rotation (T. Breault, personal communication).

Robert Brent Wildlife Management Area. The Robert Brent WMA consists of
80,750 acres in Gadsden and Liberty counties. The management area lies just
west of Lake Talquin. Only the western portion of it lies in the Apalachicola
River drainage basin. Robert Brent WM& is privately owned by St. Joe Paper
Company and managed by the FGFWFC. There is no intensive management on the
management area, except for monitoring various wildlife populations and
conducting public hunts (T. Breault, personal communication).

M-K Ranch Public Waterfowl Area. The M-K Ranch Public Waterfowl Area consists
of 3,320 acres in Gulf County. The land is privately owned by M-K Ranch and
is managed by M-K Ranch and the FGFWFC. M-K Ranch uses the waterfowl area for
rice production and the FGFWFC is responsible for controlling water levels and
managing the land for waterfowl (T. Breault, personal communication)
Waterfowl and coots can only be hunted during the established waterfowl hunts,
which are made possible through funds derived from the Florida waterfowl

stamp.

State Parks, Recreation Areas, and Special Feature Sites

State parks have been established primarily to preserve and maintain a
natural setting of exceptional quality, while permitting a full program of
compatible recreational activities. Each area displays some special quality'
of statewide or broad regional significance intended to attract visitors to it
from long distances. State recreation areas are provided to meet the more
active recreation demands of the general public. They are selected to ensure
the availability of the most desirable types of recreational resources in its
locality. Normally more extensive uses are allowed in a state recreation area
than in a state park, although certain included areas of exceptional natural

166

value may be set aside for special protective management. State special
feature sites provide recreational enjoyment through visitation, observation,
and study. These special feature sites are either historical or
archaeological by type, but they may also have a special geological,
botanical, or zoological trait. Special feature sites must be of unusual or
exceptional character, or have a statewide or broad regional significance
(FDNR, 1987a). The Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of
Recreation and Parks is the managing agency for state parks, recreation areas,
and special feature sites (Figure 4).

St. George Island State Park. Dr. Julian G. Bruce St. George Island State
Park occupies lp883 acres at the eastern end of St. George Island in Franklin
County. St. George Island State Park is also included within the boundaries
of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve. The park contains
more than 9 miles of undeveloped beaches and dunes. Slash pine and scrub oak
habitats dominate the interior portion of the island and low flatwoods, sandy
coves, and salt marshes are found along the bayshore.

in the past, there has been minimal.alteration of the natural systems in
the park. The pines were turpentined during the early and middle 1900's.
Scars from this activity may still be seen on many of the larger slash
pines. During World War II 'the island was used for numerous training
exercises by troops from bases located on the adjacent mainland. The
principle alteration has been the grading and filling for roads on the
backside of the primary dune system. The dunes have also been subject to some
impact from vehicles. Jeep trails can be seen in the pine woods and in large
open areas. Since the completion of the causeway in 1965 the major activity
by visitors has been the use of the beaches for recreation. Public activities
in the park include picnicking, hiking, primitive/backpack camping, swimming,
and fishing (FDNR, 1985a).

Florida Caverns State Park. The most impressive feature of this 11,783-acre
park is the intriguing network of caves. These caverns include a series of
connecting rooms, which are closely hung with myriads of cave formations. The
caves are the most fascinating feature; howeverl the park provides extensive

167

hiking trails that meander along the Chipola River floodplain, through
limestone outcroppings and hardwood hammocks.

American beech, Southern magnolia, white oak and dogwood are prominent in
the park. A number of plants that occur in the southern Appalachian Mountains
of north Georgia are also found in this unique botanical area. A variety of
wildlife species are frequently encountered in the park. Rare and endangered
cave-dwelling animals inhabit certain protected caves. Recreational
activities include guided tours of the caverns, nature study, picnicking,
camping, swimming, fishing, spelunking, and canoeing (FDNR, 1985b).

Torreya State Park.. Bluffs rising more than 150 feet above the Apalachicola
River make Torreya State Park one of the most scenic and distinctive state
parks in Florida. Deep ravines, which have been eroded by streams through the
centuries, shape and divide some of these steep bluffs. These bluffs and
ravines are forested by many hardwoods and other plants that commonly occur in
the Appalachian Mountains of north Georgia. Habitats of the park include the
river floodplain swamp, hardwood hammocks, and high pinelands. The park is
named for a species of rare Torreya that occurs only on the bluffs of the
Apalachicola River. The rare Florida yew, the U.S. Champion bigleaf magnolia
and many other rare plants are also present. Wildlife includes beaver, deer,
grey fox, the rare Barbour's map turtle, and many species of birds.
'tls along' the river and
Recreational activities include hiking the nature trai
bluffs, camping, and nature study (FDNRI 1985d).

Three Rivers State Recreation Area. Three Rivers State Recreation Area

consists of 834 acres and has four miles of shoreline on Lake Seminole at the
Florida-Georgia border. It is named for the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers,
which merge to form the Apalachicola River below Lake Seminole. The park
contains hardwood hammock and high pineland communities. Animals such as
white-tailed deer, fox squirrels, grey fox, and quail inhabit these
communities. Alligators and alligator snapping turtles can be found in the
lake. Public use includes picnicking@ camping, fishing, and boating (FDNR,
1985c).

168

Dead Lakes State Recreation Area. The Dead Lakes State Recreation Area
overlooks Dead Lakes which was formed naturally when levees on the
Apalachicola River blocked the Chipola River. The high water killed most of
the trees in the floodplain of the Chipola river in this area. The 83-acre
recreation area is forested with longleaf pines and carpet grass. A variety
of native plants and animals may be observed along the trails. Many dead
trees can still be seen in the lake. The park offers picnicking, fishing,
boating, camping, and nature study (FDNR, 1984).

Fort Gadsden_Special Feature Site. Fort Gadsden is a historical, special
feature site consisting of 78 acres in the lower river. Fort Gadsden is also
contiguous with the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve and may
be considered for inclusion in the Reserve. The British built a fort in 1814

as a base for the recruitment of Indians and blacks during the war of 1812.
in 1815 they abandoned the fort, along with its artillery and military
supplies,'to their allies. It later became known as the Negro Fort and was a
threat to supply vessels on the river. A few years later Lt. James Gadsden of
the Engineer Corps was directed by Andrew Jackson to build a fortification
there as a supply base. in 1853, Lt. James Gadsden made the famed Gadsden
Purchase. Jackson was pleased with Lt. Gadsden's zeal and named the fort,
Fort Gadsden. The fort was occupied by confederate troops until July 1863,
when malaria drove them out of the lowlands along the river. Fort Gadsden
receded into oblivion after the war was over (FDNR@ 1983a).

Other Public Lands

Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve. The Apalachicola National
Estuarine Research Reserve (ANERR) was designated in 1979 and is located in
Gulf and Franklin counties. The Reserve, the largest of the existing 17
national estuarine reserves, encompasses approximately 1939758 acres, most
(135,680 acres) of which are state-owned submerged lands. It includes the bay
and many of its associated tidal creeks and marshes, that portion of the
Apalachicola River floodplain that lies south of river mile 21, and some of
the barrier islands offshore.

169

The ANERR, which is administered by the Florida Department of Natural
Resources, consists of several independently managed subunits in which there
is extensive multiple agency involvement. The major role of ANERR in land
management is to coordinate and assist in management activities by other
agencies and to provide technical input into management activities through the
ANERR research and education programs. These subunits provide a variety of
recreational and commercial activities. The upland regions within the Reserve
that were acquired by state and federal governments include 28,762 acres of
the Apalachicola River flo.odplain (AWEA), St. George Island State Park (1,883
acres), Cape St. George State Reserve (2,300 acres), St. Vincent National
Wildlife Refuge (12,358 acres), East Bay CARL Lands (4,744 acres), Unit 4
(75 acres purchased as part of the EEL program) bordering East*Holei and a 17
acre tract (Trust for Public Lands) adjacent to St. George Island State
Park. These units are discussed below and are shown in Figure 37 (ANERR9
1986).

Cape St. Geor&e State Reserve. Little St. George Island was acquired by the
State of Florida in 1977 through the EEL Program of Florida's Conservation Act
of 1972. This purchase was made in order to protect the island from
development and.to contribute to the protection of Apalachicola Bay. The Cape
St. George lighthouse, which is maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard, and a
surrounding 6-acre parcel are owned by the U.S. Government. A majority of the
6-acre parcel was assigned to the U.S. Army Aviation Center for use as a
helicopter landing area during training exercises. In 1982 Little St. George
Island was classified as a "state reserve" and was named Cape St. George State
Reserve after the prominent cape landform on the gulfshore. The Cape consists
of approximately 2,300 acres at mean high tide with an additional 400 acres of
perimeter tidal marshlands and lower beach areas which are inundated by high
tidal waters. The Reserve is managed by the Department of Natural Resources,
Division of Recreation and Parks (FDNR, 1985). Cape St. George State Reserve
is included within the, boundaries of the Apalachicola National Estuarine
Research Reserve and is cooperatively managed to meet the goals of the
Estuarine Research Reserve (ANERR, 1986).

170

CALHOUN

0
AD
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LAKIS
SAY

WEWA"ITCHKA

GULF

-co 71

v FRANKLIN

PORT
ST JOE LAKIE
wimico

@ALA69_1__cq. L A

_.PAY
ANERR
NWFWMD
%46 %Go
M-K LANDS Sl%. of- -4*-*
ANF OF

FIGURE 37. OTHER PUBLIC LANDS OF THE APALACHICOLA BASIN.

171

Disturbance to the island has been minimal. Various Indi an cultures
occupied the island for hundreds of years. Pottery shards dating from A.D.
750 to 1450 occasionally are found on portions of the island. Turpentining
operations occurred from 1910-1916 and again from 1950-1956. Many of the pine
trees on the island are catfaced from these operations. The greatest
disturbance on Cape St. George Reserve didn't occur until the mid-1960s. At
this time it was used for an amphibious military training operation. Heavy
equipment was used to cut roads and flatten some of the dune ridges (FDNR,
1985).

Scrub is found on the old relict dune ridges and sea oats dominate the new
primary dunes along the beach. Freshwater marshes and ponds are found in the
low swales between the old dune ridges and pine flatwoods occupy the low flat
areas. Extensive savannahs with scattered cabbage palms are found on overwash
portions at the east and west ends of the island. Salt marshes occupy
.portions of the bayshore. One small coastal hammock is also present.

Wildlife on the island is fairly depauperate. Raccoons are the most
common mammal found on the island. Feral hogs, gray squirrels, and cotton
rats are also present in fewer numbers. There are few amphibians and reptiles
on the Cape, however, cottonmouths are common in the ponds and marshes. The
Cape is very important for spring and fall migrations of birds because it
provides a rest over stop. More importantly the Cape provides important
nesting areas for threatened species such as loggerhead turtles, snowy
plovers, and least terns, and species of special concern such as
oystercatchers.

Management on the Cape includes prescribed burning and the removal of
exotic plants and animals. Recreation consists of hiking, primitive camping,
nature study, swimming, and fishing. Primitive camping is permitted at
designated sites at West Pass, Sikes Cut and the Goverment Dock (FDNR, 1985).

St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge. Since the early 1900s and prior to 1968
St. Vincent Island was privately owned and used primarily as a private hunting
and fishing preserve. In 1968 the island was acquired by the U.S. Fish and

172

Wildlife Service and is now St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge. In addition
to St. Vincent Island, which covers 12,358 acres, the refuge includes a 86-
acre mainland tract as well as a 45-acre island within St. Joseph Bay (USFWS,
1983a).

There has been very little disturbance on St. Vincent Island. Apalachees,
Creeks, and Seminoles entered the area around the 1600-1700s. Kitchen middens
are located on various portions of the bayshore. Since this time, the island
has had only a few owners. These owners used the island for growing beef
cattle and harvesting timber. Many areas on the island were clearcut in the
1940s and have been allowed to regenerate naturally. St. Vincent was also
managed as a private hunting reserve, at which time various exotic wildlife
species were introduced. These included zebras, elands, black bucks, ring-
neck pheasants, and Asian jungle fowl. Quail and turkey were also released on
the island (USFWS, 1986c). The exotic species were removed as part of the
acquisition agreement but the sambur deer, a large deer native to Asia, became
acclimated and have been allowed to remain (USFWS, 1983). The only major
construction on the island has been the building of lodges, outbuildings,
water control structures, and a network of roads.

St. Vincent is a protected national wildlife refuge and is not presently
under development. The main purpose for St. Vincent's establishment as a
national wildlife refuge"in 1968, was for migratory waterfowl management. It
has become an important refuge for: (1) providing habitat for endangered and
threatened species, (2) retaining unchanged biocommunities by protecting
natural areas and (3) developing primitive area public use concepts which
provide extremely high quality wildlife/wildlands experiences in a natural
environment. The highest priority wildlife objective is to provide
protection, habitat preservation and habitat management for endangered species
such as the Artic peregrine falcon, threatened species such as the Southern
bald'eagle, loggerhead sea turtleg Eastern indigo snakeg and species of
special concern, such as the brown pelican, and American alligator (USFWS,
1983).

173

Plant communities of St. Vincent Island are more diverse and complex than
those found on St. George and Little St. George islands. These vary from
beach and berm, dune, tidal marsh, dense saw palmetto areas, fresh water
marshes and ponds, cabbage palm and magnolia hammocks, oak hammocks, pine
flatwoodst and scrub oak ridges.

St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge also has a greater diversity of
wildlife utilizing its resources. A few of the species supported by the
island are white-tailed deer, sambur deer, feral hogs, turkeys, bald eagles,
ospreys, raccoons, opossum, gopher tortoises, and alligators. The beaches of
the refuge are important for nesting shorebirds and loggerhead sea turtles.
Introduced indigo snakes inhabit gopher tortoise burrows in the inner dunes.
The island also supports resident and migratory species of shorebirds, water
birds, wading birdsy gulls, ternsg and ducks (USFWS, 1986c).

Management of St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge is'by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. Access to the refuge is by water and visitors must
provide their own boats. No transportation facilities are available. Public
use on the island includes fishing (salt or freshwater; however, freshwater
fishing is closed due to saltwater intrusion until further notice), hiking,
wildlife observation, photography, and shelling. Some 14 miles of beaches
along the south and east shores of the refuge and apg@oximately 80 miles of
inland trails are open to daytime public use. Primitive camping and open
fires are allowed only at designated areas and during managed hunts. Managed
hunts for deer, feral hogs, and turkey are held annually at specified times.
A special permit from the refuge is required for these hunts (USFWS, 1986c).

Northwest Florida Water Management District. In late 1985, through the Save
Our Rivers program, over 35,000 acres of bottomland hardwood swamp were
purchased by the Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD) in
conjunction with The Nature Conservancy. This purchase is in the lower
floodplain of the Apalachicola River and borders the Apalachicola National
Forest to the east and the ANERR to the south. A management plan for hunting,
beekeeping, timbering, and recreational uses is currently being developed by

174

the NWFWMD. These lands may be incorporated into the ANERR in the future
(ANERR, 1986).

M-K Ranch. In 1980, M-K Ranch, a 339000-acre cattle ranch, ditched and diked
approximately 10,000 acres of the Apalachicola River floodplain without
obtaining any permits. A total of 163 violations (13 creeks, 150 drainage
canals) was found by the Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers. In an out-of-court settlement the ranch was required to restore
hydrologic patterns to approximately 8,000 acres. This was accomplished by
the efforts of M-K and several state agencies. In addition to the restoration
project, M-K negotiated the sale of approximately 9,000 acres to the state and
donated an additional 3,000 acres. These lands are managed by the FGFWFC and
may become part of the Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve
(ANERR9 1986).

Apalachicola National Forest. The Apalachicola National Forest (ANF) is
located in Franklin, Liberty, Wakullaq and Leon counties with the majority of
it being in Liberty County. The ANF consists of approximately 557,400 acres
which are administered by the U.S. Forest Service. Over 80 percent of the
land within the national forest is federally owned. Most of the private lands
within the forest are small homesitesq farm lands or timber lands. The ANF is
isolated from large populated areas and there is no significant degree of
development in the area (USDA, 1975).

The ANF is located within six watersheds: Apalachicola River, New River,
Ochlockonee River, Sopchoppy River, Lost Creek, and Wakulla River. There are
a variety of habitats on the ANF including high pinelands, pine flatwoods,
savannahs, bays, cypress swampsg and creek swamps. Dry, grassy longleaf
pineland type dominates the northeastern corner of the forest and is scattered
throughout the rest of the forest. Longleaf pinef natural slash pine, and
planted slash pine forests are also scattered throughout the ANF. Titi
swamps, bay swamps and savannahs are found within the pine flatwoods.

The ANF is a wildlife management area (Apalachicola Wildlife Management
Area) managed by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission and the U.S.

175

Forest Service. It provides habitats for a variety of important game species
such as white-tailed deer, black bear (can only be hunted on this management
area), squirrel, and turkey. Quail and waterfowl also exist but at less than
desirable densities. Fishery resources can be found in the many lakes,
rivers, and streams. Red-cockaded woodpecker colonies are located in some of
the mature pine stands. The U.S. Forest Services is responsible for providing
and protecting existing habitat for this endangered species (USDA, 1975).

The Apalachicola National Forest offers recreational opportunities that
include swimming, boating, picnicking, and camping at developed facilities,
and hunting and fishing in designated areas.

Private Lands

As mentioned previously, a majority of the land in the basin is pr ivately
owned and many of the owners are timber companies. Most of these lands are
primarily used for timber management with some portions in wildlife management
areas. Other private landowners, such as The Nature Conservancy and the Trust
for Public Land, have purchased several areas for preservation and

conservation.

In 1982 The Nature Conservancy acquired 1,182 acres on the Apalachicola
River. This tract, known as the Alum Bluff tract or the Garden of Eden,
.includes Alum Bluff and most of Kelly Branch. Two years later The Nature
Conservancy acquired an adjoining 3,187 acres from St. Joe Paper Company by
swapping an identical amount of Liberty County timberland. The area is called
the Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines and is being managed as a preserve by The
Nature Conservancy. This tract is in Liberty County and is approximately
3 miles south of Torreya State Park. The Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines
contain at least 50 prime steepheads. The bluffs and ravines also exhibit the,
state's longest exposed geological section. Alum Bluff is one of the
Southeast's most significant fossil sites. This area is similar to Torreya
State Park in that it contains a great assemblage of rare and endangered
species (Means, 1985). The area has a strange mix of northern species,

176

Florida endemics, and relicts of a bygone worldwide flora. Among these are
the Florida yew, torreya and croomia.

The majority of Dog Island, 1,100 acres, is owned by the Cayahogua Trust,
a private land trust; 145 acres are owned by The Nature Conservancy; 10 acres
by the bog Island Conservation District; and 595 by other private land
holders. The land owned by The Nature Conservancy and all but 38 lots of the
land owned by the private trust are set aside for preservation. on the
remaining 38 acres, two housing sites may be sold for development each year
for the next 20 years. If these sites are not sold each year, they will be
given to The Nature Conservancy (ANERR, 1986).

Timber companiesy such as Stone Container Corporation (formerly Southwest
Forest Industries), Neal Land and Timber Company, St. Joe Paper Companyf
Buckeye Cellulose Corporationg Coastal Lumber, Florida Timberland, and Prosper
Timber Company own large tracts of land and are the major private landowners
within the basin. They also own a majority of the floodplain in Gadsden and
Calhoun counties and approximately 50 percent of Liberty County. Other
private landowners owning large parcels of land include Travelers Development
Corporation, Sottera Inc., FICO Farms, and M-K Ranch.

Land Use

Land-use characteristics influence runoff patternsy types of pollutants,
water quality and quantity, and virtually the health of river systems. It is
therefore important to know these patterns in order to assess the resources of
a river system. The Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, as part
of the 208 Non-Point Source Project, has mapped all the drainage basins and
sub-basins in the state with regard to land use (Figure 38). Although this
data was compiled in 1981 and collected in the mid-1970s, very few changes
have occurred in this region since then to invalidate the information. While
land uses throughout the basin are similar, there are variations in the sub-
basins which are important. Because of this the drainage basin has been.
divided into sub-basins for a more detailed discussion of land use (Table 21).

177

ALA.

Lake

.. ........
............
...........
............

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............
. ....... ......
..........
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-...................
... . ............. _
..............I.......
.... . . .. .......
...............

...........

.......................
................
.............
.................

....... ....
............... ......
..........
.............. ......
..........
. ... .............
.....................
. ... .......... ....
........... ........
....................

..................
...........
..........
......... ......
...............
.................
...... I @.............
. .. ... .. ......
............. ..

..... . .......
...............
......... .

$I' Apalwbicaa River
Cbipola River
qW%' 0 Lake Seminole

Bay and LsJa@
0 F Tates Hell -
Alligator Haxbor

FIGURE 38. SUB-BASINS OF THE APALACHICOLA RIVER AND BAY DRAINAGE BASIN.

178

The largest sub-basin, covering 1,080 square miles, is the Apalachicola
River drainage basin (Figure 38). Forestry is by far the number one land use
in this basin accounting for over 57 percent of the total area. The majority
of this, almost 77 percent, is in evergreen forests9 primarily slash pine
plantations. The remaining 23 percent of the forested.land is comprised of a
mixed forest type containing a combination of evergreen and hardwood trees.
Wetlands comprise the second largest land use category accounting for almost
29 percent of the basin land area. The majority of this, 95 percent, is
forested wetlands, much of which is Apalachicola River floodplain and river
swamp. Nonforested wetlands are only found in the lowest reaches of the
basin. Agricultural uses, primarily',cropland and pastures, account for
approximately 10 percent of the basin area and are concentrated mostly in the
upper reaches of the drainage basin. The last two significant land use
categories, water and urban, comprise 2 percent and 1 percent of the basin
area, respectively.

The Chipola River basin, covering 1,023 square milesq is the second
largest sub-basin and empties into the Apalachicola River at river mile 28
(Figure 38). Like the Apalachicol a, the Chipola basin is dominated by forest
land.which accounts for 55 percent of the drainage area. A larger portion of
this however, 92 percent, is evergreen forests with the remainder comprised of
mixed forest land. Agricultural land use is high throughout the entire
Chipola basin accounting for over 26 percent of the @asin area. Almost all of
this is comprised of cropland and pastures. Jackson County, which is in the
upper reaches of the basin, is economically dependent on agricultural
activities. Wetlands account for 15 percent of the basin with almost all of
this classified as forested wetlands. The lower wetland acreage in the
Chipola basin is due to the smaller floodplain of the Chipola River and also
agricultural development in parts of the floodplain. Urban areas, 63 percent
residential, account for almost 2 percent of the basin area.

The Lake Seminole sub-basin drains into Lake Seminole and the upper
Apalachicola River and covers 185 square miles (Figure 38). Although most of
this area drains into Lake Seminole, it is within Florida's boundaries and

179

Table 21. Land Use of the Major Sub-basins of the Apalachicola River and
Bay Drainage Basin (in acres) (DER, 1981).

Chipola Apalachicola
River River Lake Bay and Tates
Basin Basin Seminole Islands Hell Total

Urban 10529 7806 1000 2002 4017 25353

Agricultural 174455 70238 53260 -0- 138 298091

Rangeland -0- 62 -0- -0- -0- 62

Evergreen Forest 329341 305006 41488 18286 153003 847124

Mixed Forest 28929 93042 7976 405 104199 234551

Water 5548 14685 10337 140887 4653 176110

Forested Wetlands 100951 188134 3648 1401 73453 367587

Nonforested Wetlands 168 9957 546 6306 6854 23831

Barren 4609 2310 79 3246 461 10705

Miscellaneous -0- 52 137 1173 358 1720

'TOTAL 654529 691292 118471 173706 347136 1985134

180

should be considered within the drainage basin. Agriculture is the major land
use accounting for 45 percent of the basin area. This is in contrast to the
previously discussed sub-basins which are dominated by forested land. The
second largest land-use category, forest land@ accounts for 42 percent of the
basin area and is predominantly evergreen forests. Water area ranks third in
land-use area covering almost 9 percent of the basin. Wetlands, primarily
forested wetlands, account for approximately 3 percent of the basin area and
are primarily located in floodplain and river swamps. Urban areas cover
another 1 percent of the basin.

The mainland and islands surrounding Apalachicola Bay, St. Vincent,'and
St. George sounds, which drain directly into these waterbodies, are also a
part of the drainage basin (Figure 38). These areas are usually not included
in drainage acreage calculations because they do not empty directly into the
river. They are part of the basin, however, and will be included. If the
water area is included, the sub-basin covers 271 square miles, 220 square
miles of which are bays and estuaries. When the water area is not includedy
forest is the predominant land use accounting for 57 percent of the.basin land
area. Wetlands cover 23 percent of the basin land area, dominated by
nonforested areas, primarily fresh and saltwater marshes. Beaches, which are
classified under the barren land-use categoryg cover 10 percent of this
basin. Urban areasq almost entirely residential, account for 6 percent of the
basin land area and include both incorporated and unincorporated areas.

Another sub-basin usually excluded'from consideration because it does not
drain directly into the Apalachicola River, drains Tates Hell Swamp, New
River, and Carrabelle (Figure 38). This sub-basin affects East Bay,
St. George Sound, and Alligator Harbor and encompasses 542 square miles.
Forest land predominates in the basin covering 74 percent of the land area,
and is fairly evenly divided between evergreen forest and mixed forest.
Wetlands rank second in land use accounting for 23 percent of the basin
area. Ninety-one percent of these fall into the forested wetlands category.
Water and urban areas each encompass approximately 1 percent of the area
within this basin.

181

overall, the drainage basin, which affects the Apalachicola River and Bay
area and is located in Florida@ encompasses 3,102 square miles. This basin
encompasses two major river systems; the Apalachicola and Chipola, a major bay
system - the Apalachicolat and a large swamp - Tates Hell S wamp. Forest land
covers over half this area comprising almost 55 percent of-the total basin
area. The majority of this, 78 percent,. is evergreen forests, much of which
is slash pine plantations utilized by pulp and timber companies. Wetlands,
94 percent forested wetlands, cover approximately 20 percent of the basin
area. Agricultural land use covers another 15 percent of the basin and is
mainly found in the upper regions in Jackson and Calhoun counties. Open water
encompasses 9 percent of the basin area dominated by the bay system. Urban
areas- cover approximately I percent of the basin, with residential land use
being predominant. All of these land-use statistics point out that this basin
is sparsely settled and populated with lumbering, farming, and fishing
providing the economic backbone of the region.

182

V. PROTECTION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE APALACHICOLA BASIN

Throughout this resource inventory the uniqueness of the biological
communities within the Apalachicola River and Bay drainage basin has been
repeatedly documented. The economic importance of the bay to Franklin County,
as well as the State of Florida, has also been documented. Federal, state and
county governments have all been involved in efforts to protect this natural
resource. The primary methods which have been used to protect this system
from degradation can generally be divided into three categories: land
acquisition, restoration, and a wide range of governmental regulations. Brief
descriptions of eac h category and their usefulness are the focus of this
chapter.

The method used least often in this particular basin involves habitat
restoration. The limited use of this category is primarily due to the
relatively undeveloped nature of the basin; however, this method will almost
certainly become more important in the future as development pressures
increase. The major restoration accomplished in the Apalachicola basin
involves M-K Ranch in Gulf County, which has been previously mentioned. State
and federal agencies required them to reconnect approximately 9,000 acres of
floodplain, which had been illegally diked, back to the Apalachicola River.
This was accomplished primarily by breaching dikes and filling in ditches
which had allowed the area to be isolatedt drained, and farmed. This single
project has been described by Environmental Protection Agency officials as the
largest wetland restoration project accomplished to date under the Clean Water

Act.

in January, 1987, the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
issued a two-year permit to the Corps of Engineers for maintenance dredging on
the Apalachicola River navigation channel. One of the specific conditions
included in this permit set up an interagency team, which includes DER,
FGFWFC, DNR9 NWFWMD, NMFS, FWS, and the COE, to investigate techniques and
procedures for restoration and enhancement of altered riverine and floodplain
habitats (DER, 1987). Studies by Ager et al. (1984,1985) have documented the

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impacts of.within-bank spoiling, the most prevalent method on the river, on
fish habitat and community structure. Eichholz et al. (1979) has documented
the impacts of spoiling on vegetation and wildlife in the floodplain. The
interagency team is currently analyzing options, techniques, locations, and
funding sources for demonstration programs before recommending the types and
extent of restoration needed to mitigate for past and future impacts.
Restoration or enhancement of these dredge spoil sites will probably be the
major thrust of any activity in this category in the future.

Land acquisition has been used extensively in the Apalachicola'system as a
means of protecting sensitive, unique, and economically important habitats. A
description of state and federally owned lands is contained in Chapter IV.
State and federal agencies own approximately 225,000 acres of land within the
Apalachicola basin, which includes approximately 21 percent of the land area
within the Apalachicola National Forest. This total does not include water
area such,as bay bottom in the lower basin. Public ownership therefore
accounts for approximately 12 percent of the land area in the entire dra. inage

basin.

The majority of land purchases within the basin in the last 10 years.have
been in the floodplain of the river and marsh areas surrounding the bay.
These acquisitions have been for environmental rather than recreational
reasons and have been designed to protect Apalachicola Bay and its natural
resources from pollution problems associated with potential habitat
alterations. These purchases include the Cape St. George State Reserve,
Apalachicola Wildlife and Environmental Area, East Bay CARL lands, and the
NWFWMD Apalachicola River floodplain tract.

The Northwest Florida Water Management District is currently negotiating
with Neal Land and Timber Company for the.purchase of approximately 45,000
acres of Apalachicola River floodplain using money from the Save Our Rivers
Trust Fund. They are also negotiating to buy the 3,000-acre Atkins Tract, an
environmentally unique area on the river. If these negotiations are
successful approximately 90 percent of the floodplain will be in public
ownership. These purchases,, if completed, will probably.mark the end of large

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land acquisitions in the drainage basin. However, several important small
tracts remain which should be acquired.

The State of Florida is presently evaluating eight tracts of land within
the Apalachicola drainage basin which are listed on the Conservation and
Recreation Lands (CARL) acquisition list. These projects have been
prioritized by the state as to their order of importance and are currently
combined into three listings. During this evaluation period the boundaries
for each project are drawn based on habitat importance, recreational
importance, preservation importance, ease of acquisition (number of owners),
and the overall size needed to accomplish the stated objectives. A list of
these projects, a description and their ranking is included in Table Z2.

The most important tract of land remaining in private ownership is
probably the commercially-zoned parcel on St. George Island adjacent to Nick's
Hole. This parcel includes the third most productive drainage area in the bay
(ANERR,1986). In the past, plans for a marina with concurrent development
have been proposed for this area, but these plans have not been pursued
seriously due to environmental concerns. This parcel, which covers
approximately 125 acres, includes bayfront, interior, and beachfront areas.
Currently, only the part which affects the bay is being considered for
acquisition; however, there is considerable pressure to buy the whole parcel.

Cat Point, which is within 100 yards of one of the most productive oyster
bars in Franklin County, is another important tract of land currently under
evaluation for acquisition., Thirty-one acres of approximately 115 acres in
this project have recently been offered for sale to the state. The other six
parcels listed are included for reasons of recreational value, uniqueness, to
provide a buffer around the bay, or to complete the purchase of parcels within
or between previously acquired state lands. While these parcels are
important, Nick's Hole and Cat Point should be acquired before considering any
of the other areas due to their importance.

As the more sensitive tracts of land are acquired by the state and land
purchases cease, the means of protecting the natural resources of the bay

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Table 22., Apalachicola River and Bay Lands on the Conservation
and Recreation Lands (CARL) List (DNR, 1987).

Project Ranking Acreage Reason for Proposed Purchase

Apalachicola River 3 552 Buffer around bay, preservation,
and Bay Phase I and recreation.

1. Nick's Hole
2. Cat Point
3. East Hole
4. Shell Point
Bayfront
5. Apalachicola
Bayfront
6. Sike's Cut

Lower Apalachicola 4 7,800 Buffer around bay, preservation,
(East Bay CARL Lands) and private holdings within the
boundaries of the ANERR.

Gadsden County Glades 19 1,800 Unique and endangered
communities.

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shift to the third method mentioned. previously. This last method involves
government regulations such as planning, zoning, and land-use restrictions,
and in the final analysis is the method which will determine the fate of the
Apalachicola Bay system. The state realized this several years ago when it
designated Franklin County an Area of Critical State Concern and required the
local governments to deal with stormwater management, septic tanks, pollution
sensitive segments, and to prepare reports dealing with fisheries and the
environmental status of the bay. A copy of the "Apalachicola Bay Area
Protection.Act" (HB 1202), which accomplished this, has been included in the
Appendices.

Franklin County and its municipalities have passed several new ordinances
and updated others in order to comply with the provisions of the above
mentioned act. To date, the most important ordinance enacted by the county is
the Critical Shoreline District (No. 87-1) and the accompanying Pollution
Sensitive Segment Maps. This ordinance provides for strict regulations for
development on all lands 150 feet landward of wetlands of Franklin County.
Lot clearing and impervious areas are to be minimizedg especially within the
first 50 feet landward of wetlands, in order to minimize stormwater runoff.
Development within the first 50 feet is also prohibited except for pervious,
non-habitablet pile supported, or water dependent structures, such as docks,
piers9 gazebos, etc. Standard septic tanks are prohibited within the 150-foot
Critical,Shoreline District, and only approved alternative wastewater
treatment systems are allowed within 75 to 150 feet of wetlands if the area is
not served by a central wastewater system. All development within this 150-
foot zone must also submit a site plan and stormwater management plan with the
application for a county development permit. This ordinance is intended to
maintain and protect the water quality and wetlands surrounding the
Apalachicola Bay system by preserving the natural buffering system which
currently exists. This buffer system of natural vegetation and marshes
filters stormwalter runoff and helps minimize the adverse impacts which can be
caused by development. A copy of.the Critical Shoreline District Ordinance
has been included in the Appendices.

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Franklin County has also amended its Zoning Ordinance to conform to the
requirements of the Apalachicola Bay Area Protection Act. The City of
Apalachicola is in the process of amending its Land Development Code so that
it also protects the bay and river system. Significant new additions to the
city ordinance include the creation of a Riverfront District with specific
regulations to deal with stormwater runoff, site plan review requirements, and
density. These new sections are designed to provide for orderly and
progressive development while at the same time protecting the natural
resources of Apalachicola Bay. The county has also drafted a Stormwater
Management Plan Ordinance which is currently being reviewed by the
Apalachicola Bay Area Resource Planning and Management Committee and state
agencies to determine whether or not it fulfills the requirements of
RB 1202. Other ordinances currently being developed by state and local
officials for Franklin County include a Subdivision Ordinanceg a Planned Unit
Development Ordinance (PUD), a Sign Ordinance, a Nuisance Ordinance, and more
amendments to the Zoning Ordinance. So far, the City of Carrabelle, the only
other municipality in the county, has yet to pass any ordinances to comply
with the requirements of HB 1202.

The Area of Critical State Concern designation passed by the 1985 Florida
Legislature is scheduled to expire in June, 1988, if it has been determined
that all local regulations9' comprehensive plans, and the administration of
these regulations are adequate to protect the Apalachicola Bay area. If it is
determined that the regulations are not adequate, then the designation would
continue and would be renewed annually until such time as the county and its
municipalities have complied with the requirements of HB 1202.

The specific nature of the language used in the act concerning the removal
of the designation should be pointed out. It includes the phrase "...the
administration of such regulations and plans..." Prior to designation,
ordinances existed which were designed to help protect the natural'
resources. However, many were ambiguous and perhapsg more importantlyg their
application and enforcement were spotty at best. In fact, many argue that
Franklin County was designated an Area of Critical State Concern for this very
reason. The new ordinances adopted or proposed for adoption for this area,

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likewiseq will fail if they are not applied fairly, across the board for all
citizens. Therefore, it is imperative that the state guarantee that the
proper administration of these regulations be carried out before it
relinquishes its mandate in Franklin County.

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VI. PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FACING THE APALACHICOLA DRAINAGE BASIN

The Apalachicola drainage basin provides diverse and productive habitats
for a wide range of plants and animals. Although these habitats have been
dealt with separately, they are interrelated and affect each other
considerably. The uplands influence the floodplain habitats by runoff, fire,
and as a source of animal diversity. The river influences the floodplain
character by volume of flow, frequency of flooding, sediment load, and timing
of flooding. The river and floodplain are responsible for the character and
productivity of the bay because of the volume of water, nutrients, and quality
of water they deliver. The barrier islands help hold in the mixture of
nutrients and freshwater long enough for utilization by estuarine organisms
enabling Apalachicola Bay to be the productive bay it is. A threat to any
component of the system has the potential to impact the entire system and
these effects should be understood prior to any alteration of the system and
should be avoided as necessary. Potential threats, along with possible

solutions are discussed below.

Barrier Island System

The four barrier islands which help make up the Apalachicola estuarine
system have been physically altered by the hurricanes of 1985. Barrier
islands are shifting environments and eventually their habitats are able to
readjust to natural situations. Cape St. George and St. Vincent islands are
owned by the state and federal governments respectively, and are therefore
protected from most man-made alterations. Dog Island is sparsely developed
with 70 percent of the island currently restricted to minimal disturbance.

St. George Island, the only barrier island accessible by car, is mostly
privately owned and most of the development along the coast is occurring in
this area. There are approximately 700 dwelling units currently on the
island, many of which support only weekend residents. The Department of
Community Affairs estimates over 4,000 units are possible when the island is

190

fully developed (FDCA, 1986). Most dwelling units on the island are now on
septic tanks and the majority of planned units.are also scheduled to be put on
septic tanks. Currently the majority of the island's drinking water comes
from a potable water system operated by the St. George Island Utility Company.
However, many residents have private wells to supply heat pump and lawn care
needs. Since St. George Island is the only barrier island which has the
potential for large scale development, problems and possible solutions to the
problems caused by increased development are discussed below.

Nutrient enrichment of freshwater ponds, coastal marshes, and adjacent
estuarine waters can be caused by septic tank leachate moving horizontally
through surficial waters. Improper installation of septic tanks and
installation in unsuitable soils can allow nutrients and pathogens to leave
drainfields. Improper maintenance of these systems can lead to similar
results. Overenrichment by nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates can
cause algae blooms-, noxious aquatic plant problems9 increased rates of
sedimentation, and dissolved oxygen deficits in aquatic systems. Increased
pathogens lead to human health concerns due to contaminated water as well as
fish and shellfish resources. Several studies (Livingston, 1983; USEPA, 1981:
Porter, 1985; FDNR1 1986) have either documented or commented on the
possibilities of septic tank leachate problems on St. George Island.'

Because of these concerns the State of Florida has mandated that a
centralized wastewater treatment system be operational on St. George Island by
the end of 1989. Furthermore, if the system is not operational within this
period, only Class I aerobic treatment units will be permitted on the northern
side of the island. A copy of the Executive Summary of the St. George Island
Sewerage Study which details the reasoning, recommendations, and
responsibilities of this study is included in the Appendix (FDCA, 1986). The
establishment of a centralized sewer system and the elimination of existing
septic tanks on the island should alleviate the possibility of septic tank

leachate contamination.

Nutrient enrichment, contamination, and filling in by sediment of pondsy
marshes, and sloughs can be caused by uncontrolled stormwater runoff from

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developed areas. When pervious natural areas are converted to impervious
surfaces the amount of stormwater runoff increases dramatically with
concurrent increases in types and amount of pollution. Types of contaminants
found in runoff from developed areas include heavy metals, oils and greases,
nutrients, toxic chemicals, bacteria, and sediments. These contaminants come
from motor vehicles, lawn chemicals and fertilizers, animal wastes (pets),
increased chemical usage, and incre ased erosion. Besides having many of the
same impacts as septic tank leachate, stormwater runoff can cause water
quality problems because of heavy metal, toxic chemicals, and oil and grease
contaminants. In high enough concentrations these contaminants can cause fish
and wildlife losses and become a human health hazard.

To alleviate the impacts caused by stormwater runoff, Franklin County
passed the Critical Shoreline District Ordinance this year (see Appendix).
This ordinance has been previously discussed in Chapter V. The county is also
in the process of drafting a stormwater management ordinance for areas of the
county outside the Critical Shoreline District. With the adoptionof these
two ordinances and proper enforcement, the impacts of stormwater runoff from
future development should be minimized.

The inevitable loss of natural habitat on St. George Island, due to an
influx of people and construction of vacation homes@ is not likely to cease.
Upland habitats such as scrub, pine flatwoods, and dunefields appear to be
most susceptible to.alteration. The Florida Department of Natural Resources
under provisions of Chapter 161, F.S., is responsible for establishing a
coastal construction control line designed to protect the coastal dunes
fronting the Gulf of Mexico. A permit is required in order to build seaward
of this line. This statute protects the primary or frontal dune in most cases
but allows for development in the dunefields landward of this,line. There are
no constraints concerning clearing in the scrub or pine flatwoods habitats.

Loss of scrub and pine flatwood habitats will undoubtedly reduce the
nesting and escape cover available to migratory and resident bird species
which utilize these areas. Because the eastern end of the island is a state
park and density restrictions of one uni t per acre on most of the western end

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(The Plantation) reduces clearing, large amounts of this habitat may not be
lost. The other barrier islands still provide significant amounts of these
habitat types. The loss of breeding bird habitat for black skimmers and least
terns is also of concern. The causeway leading to St. George Island currently
is one of the more important nesting areas in the panhandle for these species
(Jeff Gore, personal communication). Increased traffic to the island as well
as alteration of the causeway soils by highway construction and repair could
make this'area unacceptable to these nesting species. So far, cooperation
between the state and the local government has managed to lower the speed
limit during the summer nesting period on the causeway and postpone repair
work until the nesting season is over. Continued cooperation will be
necessary to maintain protection for these migratory species' nesting areas.

A final concern which is related to an increased human presence on St.
George Island involves destabilization of the dune system, which helps prevent
erosion and overwash during storm events. Foot traffic degrades dune systems
by reducing important stabilizing vegetation. Fortunately, the dunes on the
east and west ends of the island appear to be somewhat protected by boardwalks
or walkovers. As foot traffic and construction in the central region of the
island increasest the impact on these dunes could increase erosion and sand
movement. Franklin County prohibits vehicular traffic on the beaches which
helps protect the dunes. Currently this does not appear to be a major
problem, although degradation of the dune systems in various heavily used
areas is apparent.

Apalachicola Bay System

Of all the components of the Apalachicola drainage basin, the estuarine
system is pro bably the most vulnerable because it is influenced significantly
by the other four systems. Runoff from the uplands and barrier islands ends
up in the bay either through the river or marsh system. The flow and quality
of water available to the bay after upstream users have tapped the river,
directly affects the productivity of the estuary. Many of the potential
problems facing the estuarine environment such as nutrient enrichment and

193

increased bacterial contamination have already been discussed and are related
to upland development. These problems appear to have been addressed by
regulations concerning types, densities, and methods of development.

Another concern related to the productivity of the Apalachicola Bay system
deals with unpermitted dredge and fill operations. While many of the marshes
in East Bay and along St. Vincent and Cape St. George islands are protected,
there remains significant quantities in St. Vincent Sound, Apalachicola Bay,
and St. George Sound which are not. This is not to suggest that all marshes
in the system should be acquired by the State. The Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation and the U.S. Army Corps-of Engineers have
jurisdiction over activities in these marshes. Considering the importance of
these marshes as nursery areas, strict enforcement of regulations and
requiring mitigative actions to offset losses is necessary. Education and
coordination between localy statep and federal agencies is essential to inform
developers and homeowners of the regulations governing wetlands and the
reasons for these regulations.

Increased alteration of marshes also affects runoff, erosion, filtration
of pollutants9 and the turbidity of adjacent waters. Increased erosion causes
the.loss of marsh vegetation while increased sedimentation helps fill in
existing marshes, changing their species composition or eliminating them
entirely. increased turbidity reduces light penetration, thereby decreasing
productivity. This reduction of light can eliminate submerged vegetation
which also affects the stability of bottom sediments.

There are currently two new marinas and the upgrading of an existing one
proposed for St. George Island. Two existing marinas in Apalachicola are also
being renovated. Marinasp even those designed properly, cause water quality
degradation. The Florida Department of Natural Resources automatically closes
any oyster beds within a specified radius of any marina. The distance is
calculated based on the size of the marina, flushing ratesq and the facilities
provided by the marina. Types of pollution from marinas include toxic
chemicals (contained in some marine paints)9 petroleum dischargesq heavy
.metals, and bacterial contamination.

194

The two marinas being renovated in Apalachicola should not degrade water
quality in the area further. These renovated marinas will have pump out
facilities,.restrooms, full time harbormasters, and strict regulations
governing discharges Which the existing marinas do not have. Therefore, even
with increased boat traffic, little or no additional pollution should occur.
The water quality in these basins may actually improve if everything@functions
as planned. A two-mile radius around Apalachicola is already closed to
oystering because of pollution and it is unlikely any additional area will be
closed due to these renovated marinas. The proposed marina on St. George
Island at Sikes Cut could have some impact in certain areas of the bay;
however, since details are currently unavailable, it is unknown what these
impacts might be. A proposed marina at Nick's Hole will probably not proceed
beyond the planning stage, due to the sensitive nature of the area and the
State's interest in acquiring this property. In order to reduce the
possibility of water quality degradation, any marina in Apalachicola Bay
should provide an advanced design, safeguards against contamination, strict
regulations, and methods to enforce these regulations prior to being
permitted. They should also avoid sensitive habitats or shellfishing areas.

Perhaps the biggest potential problem facing Apalachicola Bay today is the
equitable distribution of its fishery resources. As mentioned previously
overharvesting of oysters has been a problem since commercial harvesting began
in the late 1800's (Rogers, 1987). The oyster bars appear to have come back
significantly since their devastation by hurricanes in 1985. The return of
these productive bars was aided by closures and limited harvesting
regulations. The Florida Marine Fisheries Commission has drafted a rule to
allow the limited use of oyster dredges on private leased bars in Apalachicola
Bay. This rule. has been recommended to the Governor and Cabinet for
approval. Local oystermen are concerned about enforcement and keeping the
dredges off public bars.

Increased fishing pressure throughout the State has meant increased
regulations concerning commercial and recreational harvests. Daily limits,
size limits, quotas on total poundage takeng and outright bans have affected

195

redfish, spanish mackerel, and king mackerel harvests this year. There are
also increasing pressures concerning recreational versus commercial fishing
impacts. Resolution of these issues will not be easy. Currently, all sides
appear to be unwilling to compromise and seek an equitable solution.

Finally, the reduction of freshwater inputs from upstream continues to be
a concern which cannot be addressed locally. As the usage of freshwater
continues to increase in the more developed areas in Georgia and Alabama,, less
flow is available to Apalachicola-Bay. This reduction in the volume of water
could become critical in summer months or during prolonged droughts. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers is currently carrying out a "308 study" which
addresses water needs and develops a water budget for the entire Apalachicola-
Chattahoochee-Flint River basin. This study appears to be stalled at the
moment but should be completed in the next one to two years. A positive step
which has occurred during this project is that Apalachicola Bay has been
officially recognized as a water user in the system. During droughts the
bay's freshwater needs must also be considered, rather than receiving-water
remaining after upstream users needs are satisfied.

Apalachicola River Floodplain System

Approximately.half of the Apalachicola floodplain is currently owned by
the state of Florida which is also negotiating to buy more. The upper
Apalachicola-floodplain is mostly owned by timber interests which have, in the
past, harvested mostly by selective cutting techniques. The Chipola River
flooAplain is almost entirely in private ownership except for parts of the
lower river below Dead Lakes and is more intensively developed, primarily by
agriculture. The threat to floodplain areas not protected by the state is
mainly from the destruction of natural communities by timbering and subsequent
conversion to agricultural lands, or pine plantations. Development in the
Apalachicola River floodplain is unlikely in most areas; however, the
floodplain system could be impacted by other activities occurring in the

system.

196

Probably the biggest threat to areas within the floodplain near the river
is navigation maintenance performed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(COE). The navigation channel requires yearly dredging to maintain it and
currently the COE is dredging over one million cubic yards a year (USCOEf
1986). The ma ority of this dredged material, sand, is deposited in within-
bank spoil sites which the river removes during high water, if the material is
not piled too high. In the past this has been a continuing problem along with
the blocking of sloughs and creeks with spoil, which changes the hydrology in
certain areas of the floodplain. The placement of dredged spoil material on
floodplain sitesy though limitedp also impacts the floodplain hydrology along
with permanently altering these tracts.

As mentioned previously the two-year dredging permit issued in January,
1987 to the Corps of Engineers created an interagency team to investigate
within-bank and floodplain spoil sites, to recommend mitigation measures,to be
used on the river, and-to put together a plan of study to deal with these
issues. During this time, the Corps of Engineers has also received authority
for the first time to op.en.up slovghs and creeks which have previously been
filled in by past spoiling activities. The interagency team is currently
determining which sloughs should be opened first as experimental cases.
Although disagreements still exist within the interagency team and violations
of the permit are still continuingy this cooperation remains the best method
to resolve some of the issues concerning the floodplain,impacts caused by
maintenance dredging activities. Other issues such as additional floodplain
spoil sites, bend easings and cutoffs, and river training works still need to

be addressed.

The conversion of upland habitats to agricultural uses will also impact
the character of the adjacent floodplain because of increased runoff,
sediments, pesticides, fertilizers, and a decrease in the movement of wildlife
caused by reduced available habitat. Since floodplains act as corridors for
wildlife, it is important that they not be broken up into parcels but remain
continuous systems. Because the floodplain is also important to fish during
high water any impacts could also affect fish communities Lin the river. Very
little besides state acquisition of floodplains and encouraging agricultural

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and silvicultural interests to use Best Management Practices (BMP's),
developed by interagency coordination, has been accomplished in this area.

One method which can be accomplished to increase the quality of the
floodplain habitats and possibly mitigate for impacts elsewhere is better
management of state-owned lands. In the last few years the state appears to
be taking a lead role in managing public land better. The Northwest Florida
Water Management District has recently developed a draft management plan for
its Save Our Rivers lands. The Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission has also
funded several new positions to manage some of its public lands, especially
floodplain tracts like the Apalachicola Wildlife and Environmental Area.
Better management of these lands could help decrease illegal harvesting of
floodplain timber such as bald cypress, decrease illegal hunting, and improve
the quality of important wildlife habitats.

Apalachicola River System

The riverine habitats appear.to have been impacted considerably. Dredge
and spoil activities associated with the authorized navigation channel have
affected every type of habitat in the.river. Approximately 25 miles of
sh oreline have been converted to les.s productive sand bars by within bank
disposal of dredge material. Although riverine habitats by their nature are
less stable than many other habitats, the conversion to sand bar habitats in
the Apalachicola River has been quick,.relative to natural occurrences. The
riverine system is also the only component of the River'and Bay drainage basin
in which a reduction in productivity has been documented. This has been
caused by a combination of physical destruction of the natural habitat from
rock removal, dredgingp and spoil disposal, and the creation of Lake Seminole
(Seaman, 1985). These activities are related to the navigation channel
maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The activities mentioned above have both resulted in a loss of habitat for
fish. Anadromous fish such as the Gulf sturgeon and striped bass have been
impacted significantly. The construction of the Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam in

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1957, the Dead Lakes Dam in 1962, and other dams on the Chattahoochee and
Flint rivers has reduced the unrestricted river area to only 17 percent of its
historic range (Wooley and Crateaug 1983). These restrictions have resulted
in the loss of historic spawning grounds for sturgeong especially rock
habitat, and the elimination of many of the available thermal refuges which
are important to striped bass in the summer.

Since the declines in the numbers of Gulf sturgeon and striped bass,
several methods for mitigation have been investigated. Both species have been
studied by state and federal agencies, with the identification of important
habitat areas and restocking of striped bass the major effort undertaken so
far. Stocking of a hybrid, the sunshine bass, has occurred extensively in the
system. Methods to enhance fish passage through the dam have also been
discussed. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has recently made funds available
to be used exclusively for mitigation of impacts caused by previous dam
construction. A proposal is being submitted by the Corps and state and
federal fish and wildlife agencies to locate a fish hatchery at Jim Woodruff
Dam specifically for these species. This would be a positive step toward
restoring these two fisheries in the system, provided habitat restoration
activities are undertaken concurrently.

Maintenance dredging along with spoil disposal and rock removal in the
Apalachicola River has not only affected the remaining important habitat for
Gulf sturgeon and striped bass, but has also affected other game fish as
well. The destructiomof productive riverine habitat and conversion to less
productive sand bar habitat has resulted in a loss of fishery resources in the

system.

In the last several years special conditions have been inserted in
maintenance dredging permits to reduce some of the impacts associated with
these activities. Historically large scale snag removal operations occurred
even when there was no hazard to navigation. These snags, which provide
important habitat and cover, were removed from the river. Current conditions
require that these snags be removed only when they interfere with navigation
and that they be put back in the river, preferably on less productive habitat

199

such as spoil disposal areas. Another new agreement incorporated into the
permit requires the COE to only dispose on agreed upon sites which are mainly
limited to unproductive sand bar habitat, much of which has been previously
spoiled upon. Currently an interagency team is investigating methods to
rejuvenate old sites so new unaltered disposal sites will not be necessary,
and develop plans to enhance or restore old disposal sites for mitigation

purposes.

Upland ystem

The-upland habitats within the drainage basin have been described without
regard to predominance or alterations which have occurred. Because of fire
suppression and pine plantations much of the original habitat has been altered,
over the last hundred years. Sandhills and clayhills in particular have been
either altered by fire suppression and the creation of pine plantations or
they have been destroyed by timbering, overgrazing, development@ and the
conversion to agricultural fields. Pine flatwoodsy which is one of the
dominant habitats in the basin, have also been altered significantly. The
primary alter@tion has been caused by timbering operations in which longleaf
pines are replaced by slash pines because of their faster growth. The methods
used in planting and maintaining these pine plantations generally exclude
longleaf pine regeneration. In Florida alone from 1959 to 1970 the area of
slash pine increased by 22 percent (Sheffield et al, 1983). This increase has
slowed since, primarily due to increased planting of sand and loblolly pine.
However, very little new longleaf pine areas are being re-established.

The loss or alteration of these habitats impacts wildlife such as the red-
cockaded woodpecker, pine snake, and gopher frog. Gopher tortoises and,their
associated communities, while not limited to longleaf pine forestsp are also
affected due to changes in the surrounding habitat and the increased density
of trees found in pine plantations. There appears to be little that can be
done to slow down this conversion on private lands because of the economic
importance of the pulp industry and the increased need for more wood
products. However, state and federal agencies resp onsible for managing public

200

lands can and should be moreinvolved in maintaining natural communities on
their lands. This appears to be the only alternative to losing natural
communities such as longleaf pine forests.

Scrub habitat, which is mainly found near the coast (in Panhandle
Florida), is mainly threatened by increasing development. Since this habitat
is the only "high and dry" community in many coastal areas, it is natural that
development would occur within it. As development pressureg.increase, more
scrub habitat will disappear in the panhandle. Eventually the largest stands
remaining will probably occur on public lands.

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VII. LITERATURE CITED

Ager, L. 1986. Personal communication. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission. Midway, Florida.

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215

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218

VIII. APPENDICES

1. Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of the

Apalachicola Basin ........................................... 222

2. Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin ................... 226

3. Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin .................. 233

4. Checklist of Important Macroinvertebrates of the
Apalachicola Basin ............................................ 238

5. Checklist of Mammals of the Apalachicola Basin ................. 239

6. Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin ................... 241

7. Apalachicola Bay Area Protection Act HB1202 .................. 273

8. Critical Shoreline District Ordinance of Franklin.County ....... 290

9. Executive Summary of the St. George Island Sewerage Study ...... 299

220

Notes on Appendices

The following checklists of species from the Apalachicola Basin
include species that have have been listed by various authors,
however, these lists should not be considered complete because other
species may exist but have not been listed for the study area.

Initials following common names indicate the status that the
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission has listed the species as
in the Official Lists of Endangered and Potentially Endangered Fauna
and Flora in Florida, 1987.

E - Endangered

T - Threatened

SSC - Species of Special Concern

The initials following the scientific name of each species
indicates the general location that has been noted for that individual
species. However, this does not restrict the species to this
particular location.

B - Bay -primarily brackish and saltwater species.

C - Cape St. George

D - Dog Island

G - St. George Island

M - Mainland -includes wetlands and uplands from Georgia border
to the bay.

R - River -primarily freshwater species.

V - St. Vincent Island

221

Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Apalachicola Basin

Amphibians

Salamanders

Flatwoods salamander' Ambystoma cingulatum M
Marbled salamander Ambystoma opacum M
Mole Salamander Ambystoma talpoideum M
Tiger Salamander Ambystoma tigrinum M
Two-toed amphiuma Amphiuma means M
one-toed amphiuma. Amphiuma pholeter M
Southern dusky salamander Desmognathus auriculatus M
Dusky salamander Desmognathus fuscus M
Two-lined salamander Eurycea bislineata M
Longtail salamander Eurycea longicauda M
Dwarf salamander Eurycea quadridigitata M
Georgia blind salamander (SSC) Haideotriton wallacei M
Four-toed salamander Hemidactyli scutatum M
Gulf coast waterdog Necturus beveri M
Spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens M
Slimy salamander Plethodon Rlutinosus M
Dwarf siren Pseudobranchus striatus M
Mud salamander Pseudotriton montanus M
Red salamander Pseudotriton ruber M
Lesser siren Siren intermedia M
Greater siren Siren lacertina M

Frogs

Northern cricket frog Acris crepitans M G
Southern cricket frog Acris gryllus M D G C V
Florida cricket frog Acris j. dorsalis V
Southern cricket frog Acris &. Rryllus M
Oak toad Bufo quercicus M V
Southern toad Bufo terrestris M G C V
Eastern narrowmouth toad Gastrophryne carolinensis M C V
Bird-voiced tree frog Hyla avivoca M
Gray tree frog Hyla chrysoscelis M
Green tree frog H)rla cinerea M G C V
Spring peeper Hyla crucifer M
Pine woods tree frog Hyla femoralis M V
Barking tree frog Hyla gratiosa M
Squirrel tree frog Hyla squirella M D G C V
Little,grass frog Limnaoedus ocularis M V
Southern chorus frog Pseudacris nigrita M
Ornate chorus frog Pseudacris ornata M

222

Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Upland chorus frog Pseudacris triseriata feriarum, M
Gopher frog (SSC) Rana areolata M
Bullfrog- Rana catesbeiana M V
Bronze frog Rana clamitans clamitans M
Pig frog Rana grylio M C V
River frog Rana heckscheri M
Northern leopard frog Rana pipiens M D G V
Southern leopard frog Rana sphenocephala G C V
Eastern spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookii M

Reptiles

Turtles

Atlantic loggerhead turtle (T) Caretta caretta caretta C V
Snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina M
Common snapping turtle Chelydra s. serpentina V
Chicken turtle Deirochelys reticularia M
Gopher tortoise (SSC) Gopherus polyphemus M V
Barbour's map turtle (SSC) Graptemys barbouri M
Eastern mud turtle Kinosternon subrubrum M D G C V
Atlantic ridley (E) Lepidochelys h2Mpj V
Alligator snapping turtle (SSC) Macroclemys temminckii M
Diamondback terrapin Malaclemys terrapin M G C
Suwannee cooter (SSC) Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis M
Florida cooter Pseudemys Y-loridana floridana M V
Florida red-bellied turtle Pseudemys nelsoni M
Yellow-bellied turtle Pseudemys scripta scripta M
Loggerhead musk turtle Sternotherus minor M
Stinkpot Sternotherus odoratus M
Eastern box turtle Terrapene carolina M G C
Gulf coast box turtle Terrapene E. major D G C V
Florida softshell Trionyx ferox M C V
Gulf coast softshell Trionyx spiniferus M

Crocodilians

American alligator (SSC) Alligator mississippiensis M D G C V

22.3

Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Lizards

Green anole Anolis carolinensis M D G C V
Six-lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sexlineatus
sexlineatus M D G C V
Coal skink Eumeces anthracinus M
Southern coal skink Eumeces a. Pluvialis M
Mole skink Eumeces egregius M
Five-lined skink Eumeces fasciatus M C
Southeastern five-lined skink Eumeces inexpectatus M
Broadhead skink Eumeces laticeps M G C V
Slender glass lizard Ophisaurus attenuatus M
Island glass lizard Ophisaurus compressus M G C
Eastern glass lizard Ophisaurus ventralis M G C V
Eastern fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus M
Ground skink Scincella lateralis M G C

Snakes

Copperhead Agkistrodon contortrix M
Cottonmouth. Agkistrodon piscivorus M G
Florida cottonmouth Agkistrodon p. conanti D G C V
Scarlet snake Cemophora coccinea M G C
Northern scarlet snake Cemophora c. copei V
Black racer Coluber constrictor M G
Brownchin racer Coluber c. helvigularis M D G V
Southern black racer Coluber S. priapus V
Eastern diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus M D G C V
Ringneck snake Diadophis punctatus M
Indigo snake (T@ Drymarchon corais M
Eastern indigo snake (T) Drymarchon c. couperi V
Corn snake Elaphe autt;ta M D G
Corn snake Elaphe &. guttata D G V
Rat snake Elaphe obsoleta M V
Gray rat snake Elaphe o. spiloides V
Mud snake .. Farancia abacura M
Eastern mud snake Farancia a. abacura V
Rainbow snake Farancia erytrogramma M
Eastern hognose snake Heterodon Platyrhinos M
Southern hognose snake Heterodon simus M
Mole snake Lampropeltis calligaster
rhombomaculata M
Common kingsnake Lampropeltis getulus M
Apalachicola kingsnake Lampropeltis Retul n. subspeciesM

224

Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Scarlet kingsnake Lampropeltis triangulum
elapsoides M
Coachwhip Masticophis flagellum M G
Eastern coachwhip Masticophis f. flagellum D G V
Eastern coral snake Micrurus fulvius M
Green water snake Nerodia cyclopion M
Florida green water snake Werodia c. floridana V
Red-bellied water snake Nerodia erythrogaster
erythrogaster M
Southern water snake Nerodia fasciata D G V
Gulf salt marsh snake Nerodia f. clarkii G
Banded water snake Nerodia f. fasciata M G C
Brown water snake Nerodia taxispilota M
Rough green snake Opheodrys aestivus M G V
Pine snake (SSC) Pituophis melanoleucus M
Glossy water snake Regina rigida M
Queen snake Regina septemvittata M
Pine woods snake Rhadinaea flavilata M
Black swamp snake Seminatrix pygaea M
North Florida swamp snake Seminatrix p. PyRaea V
Pygmy rattlesnake Sistrurus miliarius M
Dusky pygmy rattlesnake Sistrurus m. barbouri V
Brown snake Storeria dekayi M
Midland Brown snake Storeria d. wrightorum V
Red-bellied snake Storeria occipitomaculata M
Southeastern crowned snake Tantilla coronata M
Eastern ribbon snake Thamnophis sauritus M D G C, V
Common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis M G V
Eastern garter snake Thamnophis s. sirtalis V
Rough earth snake Virginia striatula M V
Smooth earth snake Virginia valeriae M

Sources: Blaney, 1971; Livingston et al, 1975; Means, 19 77;
U.S. Dept. of Commerce and DER, 1979; Dog Island Conservation
District, 1981; Collins et al. 1982; Leonard and Baker, 1982;
DNR, 1983; Christman, 1984; FGFWFC, 1987.

225

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin

Red-throated loon Gavia stellata G C
Common loon Gavia immer D G C
Pied-billed grebe Podily;b-us j2odiceps M D G C V
Horned grebe Podiceps auritus D G C V
Red-necked grebe Podiceps grisegena M G
Brown booby Sula leucogaster V
Northern gannet Sula bassanus G C V
American.white pelican Pelecanus erythrorhynchos D C V
Brown pelican (SSC) Pelecanus occidentalis M D G C V
Double-crested cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus M D G C V
Anhinga Anhinaa anhinga M C V
Magnificent frigatebird Fregata magnificens G C V
American bittern Botaurus lentiginosus M D G C V
Least bittern Ixobrychus exilis M D G C V
Great blue heron Ardea herodias M D G C V
Great egret Casmerodius albus M D G C V
Snowy egret (SSC) Egretta thula M D G C V
Little blue heron (SSC) Egretta caerulea M D G C V
Tricolored heron (SSC) Egretta tricolor M D G C V
Reddish egret (SSC) Egretta rufescens D
Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis M D G C V
Green-backed heron Butorides striatus M D G C V
Black-crowned night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax M D G C V
Yellow-crowned night-heron Nycticorax violaceus M G C V
White ibis Eudocimus albus M G C V
Wood stork (E) Mycteria americana M C V
Fulvous whistling-duck Dendrocygna bicolor G
Snow goose Chen caerulescens M C V
Canada goose Branta canadensis M G C V
Wood duck Aix sponsa M D G C V
Green-winged teal @n_as crecca M D C V
,American black duck Anas rubripes M D G C V
Mottled duck Anas fulvigula G C V
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos M D G C V
Northern pintail Anas acuta D G C V
Blue-winged teal Anas discors M D G C V
Northern shoveler An as clypeata M G C V
Gadwall 'Anas strepera N. G C V
American wigeon Anas americana M D G C V
Canvasback Aythya valisineria G C V
Redhead Aythya americana M D G C V
Ring-necked duck Aythya collaris M G C V
Greater scaup Aythya marila M D G C V
Lesser scaup Aythya affinis M D G C V
Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis G
Black scoter Melanitta nigra G

226

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Surf scoter Melanitta perspicillata G
White-winged scoter Melanitta fusca G
Common goldeneye Bucephala clangula G C V
Bufflehead Bucephala albeola M D G C V
Hooded merganser Lophodytes cucullatus M D G C V
Red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator D G C V
Ruddy duck Oxyura iamaicensis M G C V
Black vulture Coraxyps atratus M C V
Turkey vulture Cathartes aura M D G C V
Osprey Pandion haliaetus M D G C V
American swallow-tailed kite Elanoides forficatus M D G C V
Mississippi kite Ictinia mississippiensis M
Bald eagle (T) Haliaeetus leucocephalus M D G C V
Northern harrier Circus cyaneus M D G C V
Sharp-shinned hawk Accipiter striatus M G C V
Cooper's hawk Accipiter cooperii M D G C
Red-shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus M D G C V
Broad-winged hawk Buteo platypterus M C V
Short-tailed hawk 'Nu-teo brachyurus M
Red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis M D G C V
Rough-legged hawk Fu-teo lagopus D
Golden eagle Tq_Ui1a chrysaetos V
American kestrel Falco sparverius M D G C
Southeastern kestrel (T) Falco sparverius paulus M
Merlin F-alco columbarius M D G C V
Peregrine falcon (E) Falco peregrinus D G C V
Wild turkey Meleagris Rallopavo M V
Northern bobwhite Colinus virginianus M G V
Black rail Laterallus Jamaicensis M G C V
Clapper rail Rallus longirostris D G C V
Florida clapper rail Rallus 1. scotti M
King rail Rallus eleaans M G C
Virginia rail Rallus limicola M G C
Sora Porzana carolina M D G C V
Purple gallinule Porphyrula martinica M C V
Common moorhen Gallinula chloropus M C V
American coot Fulica americana M D G C V
Limpkin (SSC) Aramus Ruarauna M
Sandhill crane Grus canadensis M
Florida sandhill crane (T) Grus S. pratensis M
Black-bellied plover Pluvialis squatarola D G C V
Lesser Golden-plover Pluvialis dominica G
Snowy,plover Charadrius alexandrinus G C V
Southeastern snowy plover (T) Charadrius a. tenuirostris M
Wilson's plover Charadrius wilsonia D G C V
Semipalmated plover Charadrius semiplamatus M D G C V

227

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Piping plover (T) Charadrius melodus D G C V
Killdeer Charadrius vociferus M D G C V
Mountain plover Charadrius montanus G
American oystercatcher (SSC) Haematopus palliatus D G C V
Black-necked stilt Himantopus mexicanus G
American avocet Recurvirostra americana G
Greater yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca D G C V
Lesser yellowlegs Tringa flavipes M D G C V
Solitary sandpiper Tringa solitaria M G C V
Willet Catoptrophorus semipalmatus D G C V
Spotted sandpiper Actitis macularia M D G C V
Upland sandpiper Bartramia longicauda M
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus D G
Long-billed curlew Numenius americanus G C
Marbled godwit Limosa fedoa D G
Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres D G C V
Red knot Calidris canutus D G C V
Sanderling Calidris alba D G C V
Semipalmated sandpiper Calidris pusilla D G C V
Western sandpiper Calidris mauri D G C V
Least sandpiper 7alidris minutilla M D G C V
White-rumped sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis G
Baird's sandpiper Calidris bairdii -G
Pectoral sandpiper Calidris melanotos M G C
Dunlin Calidris alpina D G C V
Buff-breasted sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis G
.Short-billed dowitcher Limnodromus-Rriseus D G C V
Common snipe Gallinago Rallinago M D G C V
American woodcock Scolopax minor M G C
Wilson's phalarope Phalaropus tricolor G
Parasitic jaeger @tercorarius parasiticus D G
Laughing gull Larus atricilla M D G C V
Franklin's gull Larus pipixcan C V
Bonaparte's gull Larus philadelphia M D G C V
Ring-billed gull 'Earus delawarensis M D G C V
Herring gull Larus argentatus M D G C V
Lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus G
Great black-backed gull Larus marinus G
Gull-billed tern Sterna nilotica G C V
Caspian tern Sterna caspia D G C V
Royal tern @terna maxima D G C V
Sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis D G C V
Common tern Sterna hirundo D G C V
Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea G
Forster's tern Sterna forsteri M D G C V
Least tern (T) Sterna antillarum C V

228

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Sooty tern Sterna fuscata G
Black tern Chlidonias ajM D G C V
Black skimmer Rynchops niger D G C V
Razorbill Alca torda G
Rock dove Columbia livia M G
White-winged dove Zenaida asiatica D G C V
Mourning dove Zenaida macroura M D G C V
Common ground-dove Columbina passerina M D G C V
Black-billdd cuckoo Coccyzus erythropthalmus G C
Yellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanus M D G C V
Mangrove cuckoo Coccyzus minor G
Groove-billed ani Crotophaaa sulcirostris G
Common barn-owl Tyto alba M D G C V
Eastern screech-owl Otus asio M V
Great horned owl Bubo virginianus M C V
Barred owl @Tt_rix varia M V
Short-eared owl Asio flammeus G
Lesser nighthawk Chordeiles acutipennis G
Common nighthawk Chordeiles minor M D G C V
Chuck-will's widow Caprimulxus carolinensis M D G C V
Whip-poor-will Caprimulgus vociferus M G C
Chimmey swift Chaetura Pelagica M D G C V
Ruby-throated hunmingbird @_rchilochus colubris M D G C V
Belted kingfisher Ceryle alcyon M D G C V
Red-headed woodpecker Melanerpes erythrocephalus M D G C V
Red-bellied woodpecker Melanerpes carolinus M D G C V
Yellow-bellied sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius M G C V
Ladder-backed woodpecker Picoides scalaris D
Downy woodpecker Picoides pubescens M G C V
Hairy woodpecker T17c-oides villosus M
Red-cockaded woodpecker (T) Picoides borealis M
Northern flicker Colaptes auratus M D G C V
Pileated woodpecker Dryocopus pileatus M V
Ivory-billed woodpecker (E) Campephilus principalis M
Eastern wood-pewee Contopus virens M D G C
Yellow-bellied flycatcher Empidonax flaviventris G
Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens M G
Willow flycatcher Empidonax traillii G
Least flycatcher Empidonax minimus G
Eastern phoebe Sayornis Phoebe M D G C V
Vermilion flycatcher Pyrocephalus rubinus G
Ash-throated flycatcher Myiarchus cinerascens G
Great Crested flycatcher Myiarchus crinitus M D G C V
Western kingbird Tyrannus y-er-ticalis G
Eastern kingbird Tyrannus tyrannus M D G C V
Gray kingbird Tyrannus dominicensis D G C V

229

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Scissor-tailed flycatcher Tyrannus forficatus G
Purple martin Progne subis M D G C V
Tree swallow Tachycineta bicolor M D G C V
Northern rough-winged swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennis M G C V
Bank swallow Riparia riparia M G C
Cliff swallow Hirundo pyrrhonota G
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica M D G C V
Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata M G C V
American crow Corvus brachyrhynchos M D
Fish crow Corvus ossifragus M D G C V
Carolina chickadee Parus carolinensis M G C V
Tufted titmouse Parus bicolor M
Red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis M G
White-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis M
Brown-headed nuthatch Sitta pusilla M D G C V
Brown creeper Certhia americana M G C V
Rock wren Salpinctes obsoletus
Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus M D G C V
House wren Troglodytes aedon M D G C V
Winter wren Troglodytes troglodytes G
Sedge wren Cistothorus platensis M D G C V
Marsh wren Cistothorus palustris M D G C V
Marian's marsh wren (SSC) Cistothorus p. marianae M '.
Golden-crowned kinglet Regulus satrapa M G C V
Ruby-crowned kinglet Regulus calendula M D G C V
Blue-gray gnatcatcher Polioptila caerulea M D G C V
Eastern bluebird Sialia sialis M D G C V
Veery Catharus fuscescens M G C
Gray-cheeked thrush Catharus minimus M D G C
Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus M D G C V
Hermit thrush Catharus Ruttatus M D G C V
Wood thrush Hylocichla mustelina M D G C
American robin Turdus migratorius M D G C V
Gray catbird Dumetella carolinensis M D G C V
Northern mockingbird Mimus polyglottos M D G C,V
Brown thrasher Toxostoma rufum M D G C V
Water pipit Anthus spinoletta M G C
Sprague's pipit Anthus spargueii G
Cedar waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum M G C V
Loggerhead shrike Lanius ludovicianus M D G C V
European starling Sturnus vulgaris M G.
White-eyed vireo vireo griseus M D G C V
Bell's vireo Vireo bellii G
Solitary vireo Vireo solitarius M G C V
Yellow-throated vireo Vireo flavifrons M D G C
Philadelphia vireo Vireo philadelphicus D G

230

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Red-eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus M G C V
Black-whiskered vireo Vireo altiloquus G
Bachman's warbler (E) Vermivora bachmanii M
Blue-winged warbler Vermivora pinus M G C
Golden-winged warbler Vermivora chrysoptera M G
Tennessee warbler Vermivora peregrina M G C
orange-crowned warbler Vermivora celata M D G C
Nashville warbler Vermivora ruficapilla G
Northern parula Parula americana M G C V
Yellow warbler Dendroica petechia M D G C V
Chestnut-sided warbler Dendroica pensylvanica M G C
Magnolia warbler Dendroica magnolia M D G C
Cape May warbler Bendroica tigrina M D G C V
Black-throated blue warbler Dendroica caerulescens M G C V
Yellow-rumped warbler Dendroica coronata M G C V
Black-throated gray warbler Dendroica nigrescens G
Black-throated green warbler Dendroica virens M G C V
Blackburnian warbler 5endroica fusca M G C
Yellow-throated warbler Dendroica dominica M G C V
Stoddard's yellow-throated warbler Dendroica T. stoddardi M
Pine warbler Dendroica pinus M D G C V
Prairie warbler Dendroica discolor M G C
Palm warbler Dendroica palmarum M D G C V
Bay-breasted warbler Dendroica castanea M@ D G C V
Blackpoll warbler Dendroica striata M G C
Cerulean warbler Dendroica cerulea M G
Black-and-white warbler Mniotilta varia M D G C V
American redstart Setophaga ruticilla D _G C
Prothonotary warbler Protonotaria citrea M D G C V
Worm-eating warbler Helmitheros vermivorus M G C
Swainson's warbler Limnothlypis swainsonii M
Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus M G C
Northern waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis M G C V
Louisiana waterthrush Seiurus motacilla. M G C
Kentucky warbler Oporornis formosus M G C
Connecticut warbler Oporornis agilis M G
Common yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas M D G C V
Hooded warbler Wilsonia citrina M D G C
Wilson's warbler Wilsonia pusilla M
Canada warbler W71'sonia canadensis G
Yellow-breasted chat Icteria virens M G C V
Summer tanager rubra M D G C V
Scarlet tanager Piranga olivacea. M G C
Western tanger Piranga ludoviciana G
Northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis M D G C V
Rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus M D G C

231

Checklist of Birds of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Blue grosbeak Guiraca caerulea M D G C
Indigo bunting Passerina cyanea M D G C V
Painted bunting Passerina ciris M G C V
Dickcissel aLiLa americana G
Rufous-sided towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus M D G C V
Bachman's sparrow Aimophila aestivalis M G
Chipping sparrow Spizella passerina M D G C V
Clay-colored sparrow Spizella pallida G
Field sparrow Spizella pusilla M D G C
Vesper sparrow Pooecetes gramineus M G V
Lark sparrow Chondestes grammacus G
Savannah sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis M D G C V
Grasshopper sparrow Ammodramus savannarum M G C
Sharp-tailed sparrow Ammodramus caudacutus M D G C
Seaside sparrow Ammodramus maritimus M D G C V
Wakulla seaside sparrow (SSC) Ammodramus m. junciolus M
Fox sparrow Passerella Tliaca G
Song sparrow Melospiza melodia M D G C V
Lincoln's sparrow Relospiza lincolnii G
Swamp sparrow Melospiza georgiana M D G C V
White-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis M D G C V
White-crowned sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys C V
Dark-eyed junco Junco hyemalis M G C
Snow bunting Plectrophenax nivalis G
Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus M D G C V
Red-winged blackbird 'Agelaius phoeniceus M D G C V
Eastern meadowlark Sturnella magna M D G C V
Yellow-headed blackbird Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus G
Rusty blackbird Euphagus carolinus M G C
Brewer's blackbird Ruphagus cyanocephalus D
Boat-tailed grackle Quiscalus Maja D G C V
Common grackle Quiscalus quiscula M G C V
Brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater M D G C V
Orchard oriole Icterus spurius M D G C V
Northern oriole Icterus Ralbula M D G C
Purple finch Carpodacus purpureus M
Pine siskin Carduelis pinus M G
American goldfinch Carduelis tristis M D G C V
.,House sparrow Passer domesticus M

Sources: Livingston et al, 1975; Means, 1977; Stevenson, 1977;
U.S. Dept. of Commerce and DER, 1979; St. Vincent National
Wildlife Refuge, 1980; Dog Island Conservation District, 1981;
Leonard and Baker, 1982; DNR, 1983; Christman, 1984;
FGFWFC, 1985; Russell, 1985; Cole, 1986; FGFWFC, 1987.

232

Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin

Gulf of Mexico Sturgeon (SSC) Acipenser oxyrhynchus desot0i R
Diamond killifish Adinia xenica R B
Mountain mullet Agonostomus monticola R
Alabama shad Alosa alabamae R
Skipjack herring Alosa chrysochloris' R
Orange filefish Aluterus schoepfi B
Shadow bass Ambloplites ariommus R
Bowfin Amia calva R B V
Florida sand darter Ammocrypta bifascia R
Striped anchovy Anchoa hepsetus B
Bay anchovy Anchoa mitchilli R B
Ocellated flounder Ancylopsetta quadrocellata B
American eel Anguilla rostrata R B
Pirate perch Aphredoderus sayanus R
Sheepshead Archosargus probatocephalus R B
Sea catfish Arius felis R B
Southern stargazer Astroscopus y-graecum B
Gafftopsail catfish Baare marinus R B
Silver perch Bairdiella chrysura R B
Frillfin goby Bathygobius soporator R
Gulf menhaden Brevoortia patronus R B
Yellow jack Caranx bartholomaei B
Crevalle jack Caranx hippos B
Bull shark Carcharhinus leucas R B
Blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus B
Quillback Carpiodes cyprinus R
Flier Centrarchus macropterus
Black sea bass. Centropristis melana B
Atlantic spadefish Chaetodipterus faber B
Striped burrfish Chilomycterus schoepfi B
Atlantic bumper Chloroscombrus chrysurus B
Sand seatrout Zynoscion arenarius R B
Spotted seatrout Cynoscion nebulosus R B
Sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon variegatus R B
Carp Cyprinus carpio R B V
Atlantic stingray basyatis sabina R B
Sand perch Diplectr formosum B
Spottail pinfish Diplodus holbrooki B
Fat sleeper Eormitator maculatus V
Gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum R
Threadfin shad Dorosoma petenense R B
Everglades pygmy sunfish Elassoma evergladei R V
Okefenokee pygmy sunfish Elassoma okefenokee R
Banded pygmy sunfish 71-assoma zonatum R
Ladyfish Elops saurus R B
Bluespotted sunfish Enneacanthus gloriosus R

233

Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Banded sunfish Enneacanthus obesus R
Silverjaw minnow Ericymba buccata R
Creek chubsucker Erimyzon oblongus R
Lake chubsucker Erimyzon sucetta R V
Redfin pickerel Esox americanus R
Chain pickerel Esox nilter R
Brown darter Etheostoma edwini R
Swamp darter Etheostoma fusiforme R
Goldstripe darter Etheostoma. parvipinne R
Gulf darter Etheostoma swaini R
Banded darter Etheostoma zonale R
Fringed flounder Etropus crossotus B
Spotfin mojarra Eucinostomus argenteus R B
Silver jenny Eucinostomus SRla R B
Golden topminnow Fundulus chrysotus R V
Banded topminnow, Fundulus cingulatus R
Marsh killifish Fundulus confluentus R B
Gulf killifish Fundulus grandis R B
Starhead topminnow fundulus notti R
Blackspotted topminnow @undulus olivaceous R
Longnose killifish Fundulus similis R B
Mosquitofish Gambusia affinis R G C
Eastern mosquitofish Gambusia affinis holbrooki V
Darter goby Gobionellus boleosoma R B
Sharptail goby Gobionellus hastatus B
Freshwater goby Gobionellus shufeldti R
Naked goby Gobiosoma bosci R B
Code goby Gobiosoma, robustum R B
Butterfly ray Gymnura micrura B
Scaled sardine Harengula Densacolae B
Least killifish Heterandria formosa R C V
Lined seahorse Hippocampus erectus B
Clear chub Hybopsis winchelli R
Carolina blenny Hypsoblennius hentz B
Southern brook lamprey Ichthyomyzon lagei R
Snail bullhead Ictalurus brunneus R
White catfish Ictalurus catus R B
Yellow bullhead Ictalurus natalis R B
Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus R
Southern brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus V
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus R
Spotted bullhead Ictalurus serracanthus R
Brook silverside Labidesthes sicculus R
Scrawled cowfish Lactophrys quadricornis B
Pinfish LaRodon rhomboides R B
Spot Leiostomus xanthurus R B

234

Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Spotted gar Lepisosteus oculatus R v
Longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus R B
Florida spotted gar Lepisosteus platyrhincus R
Redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus R
Green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus R
Warmouth Lepomis gulosus R C v
Crangespotted sunfish Lepomis humilis R
Bluegill Lepomis macrochirus R C v
Dollar sunfish Lepomis marginatus R
Redear sunfish Lepomis microlophus R B v
Spotted sunfish Lepomis punctatus R B
Pygmy killifish Leptolucania ommata R v
Bluefin killifish Lucania goodei R B
Rainwater killifish Tu-cania parva R B
Gray snapper R B
ianus Rriseus
.Tarpon MeRalops atlantica R B
Rough silverside Membras martinica R
Tidewater silverside Menidia beryllina R B v
Southern kingfish Menticirrhus americanus B
Northern kingfish Menticirrhus saxatilis B
Clown goby Microgobius gulosus R B
Green goby Microgobius thalassinus B
Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus R B
Shoal bass (SSC) Micropterus coosae R
Spotted bass Micropterus punctulatus R
Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides R B C v
Spotted sucker Minytrema melanops R
Fringed filefish Monacanthus ciliatus B
Planehead filefish Monacanthus hispidus B
White bass Morone chrysops R
Sunshine bass Morone hybrid R
Striped bass Rorone saxatilis R
Grayfin redhorse Moxostoma sp. R
Striped mullet tf@ cephalus R B v
White mullet Mugil curema. R B
Speckled worm eel Myrophis punctatus R B
Golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas R B
Bluestripe shiner (SSC) Notropis callitaenia R
Ironcolor shiner Notropis chalybaeus R
Dusky shiner Notropis cummingsae R
Fugnose minnow Notr02is emiliae R
Redeye chub Notropis harperi R
Sailfin shiner Notropis hypselopterus R
Highscale shiner Notropis hysilepis R
Bannerfin shiner Notropis leedsi R
Longnose shiner Notropis longirostris R

235

Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Taillight shiner Notropis maculatus R
Coastal shiner Notropis petersoni R
Flagfin shiner Notropis signipinnis R
Weed shiner Notropis texanus R
Blacktail shiner Notropis venustus R
Bluenose shiner Notropis welaka R
Bandfin shiner Notropis zonistius R
Black madtom Noturus funebris R
Tadpole madtom Noturus gyrinus R
Speckled madtom Noturus leptacanthus R
B.rotula Ogilbia cayorum B
Leatherjacket Oligoplites saurus B
Shrimp eel Ophichthus gomesi B
Bean's cusk eel Ophidion beani B
Gulf toad fish Opsanus beta B
Pig fish Orthopristis chrysoptera R B
Gulf flounder Paralichthys albigutta B
Southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma R B
Gulf butterfish Peprilus burti B
Harvestfish Peprilus paru B
Yellow perch @erca flavescens R
Blackbanded darter Percina nigrofasciata R
Sailfin molly Poecilia latipinna R B G C V
Black drum Pogonias cromis R
Atlantic threadfin Polydactylus octonemus B
Bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix B
Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus R B
Atlantic midshipman Porichthys porosissimus B
Leopard searobin Prionotus scitulus B
Bighead searobin Prionotus tribulus B
Flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris R
Cownose ray Rhinoptera bonasus B
Spanish sardine Sardinella anchovia B
Red drum Sciaenops ocellata R B
Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus maculatus B
Look-down Selene vomer B
Creek chub Semotilus atromaculatus R
Southern puffer Sphoeroides; nephelus B
.Northern barracuda Sphyraena borealis B
Bonnethead Sphyrna tiburo B
Star drum Stellifer lanceolatus B
Sauger Stizostedion canadense R
Atlantic needlefish Strongylura marina R B
Blackcheek tonguefish Symphurus plagiusa B
Dusky pipefish Syngnathus floridae R B
Chain pipefish Syngnathus louisianae B

236

Checklist of Fishes of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Gulf pipefish Syngnathus scovelli R B
Inshore lizardfish Synodus foetens B
Hogchoker Trinectes maculatus R B
Southern hake Urophycis floridanus B

Sources: Breder, 1948; Eddy, 1969; Livingston et al, 1975;
Hoese and Moore, 1977; Livingston et al, 1977; Yerger, 1977;
COE, 1978; McClane, 1978; U.S. Dept. of Commerce and DER, 1979;
Bass, 1983; DNR, 1983; Ager et al, 1984; Christman, 1984;
Livingston, 1984; Ager et al, 1985; FGFWFC, 1987.

237

Checklist of Important Macroinvertebrates of the Apalachicola Basin
(those mentioned in the text)

Crustaceans

Blue crab Callinectes sapidus B
Crawfish Cambarus sp. R
Crawfish Cambarus striatus R
Crawfish Cambarus diogenes R
Amphipod Cor@p-hiur;':louisianum, B
Crawfish Faxonella clypeata R
Amphipod Gitanopsis spp. B
Amphipod Gammarus spp. B
Stone crab Menippe mercenaria B
Amphipod Melita spp. B
Isopod Munna reyn ldsi B
Mysid Mysidopsis spp. B
Mud crab Neopanope texana B
Ghost crab Ocypode quadrata B
Grass shrimp Palaemonetes spp. B
Brown shrimp Penaeus aztecus B
Pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum B
White shrimp Penaeus setiferus B
Flat crab Petrolisthes armatus B
Crawfish Procambarus acutus R
Crawfish Procambarus howellae R
Crawfish Procambarus paeninsulanus R

Molluscs

Mussel Brachidontes spp. B
Asiatic clam Corbicula manilensis R
American oyster Crassotrea virginica B
Boring clam Martesia smithi B
Crown conch Melongena corona B
Snail Neritina reclivata B
Snail Odostomia impressa B
Horse oyster Ostrea equestris B
Apple snail Pomacea paludosa R
Southern oyster drill Thais haemastoma B

Miscellaneous

Boring sponge Cliona spp. B
Flatworm (oyster leech) Stylochus frontalis B
Mudworm. Polydora websteri B

238

Checklist of Mammals of the Apalachicola Basin

Opossum Didelphis virginiana M C V
Southeastern shrew Sorex longirostris M
Short-tailed shrew Tlarina brevicauda M
Least shrew Cryptotis Parva M
Eastern mole Scalopus aquaticus M G V
Southeastern brown bat Myotis austroriparius M
Indiana bat (E) Myotis sodalis M
Gray bat (E) Myotis grisescens M
Keen's myotis Myotis keeni M
Eastern pipistrelle Pipistrellus subflavus M
Big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus M
Red bat Lasiurus borealis M
Seminole bat Lasiurus seminolus M
Hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus M
Northern yellow bat Lasiurus intermedius M V
Evening bat Nycticeius humeralis k
Rafinesque's big-eared bat Plecotus rafinesquii M
Brazilian free-tailed bat Tadarida brasiliensis M
Nine-banded armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus M
Marsh rabbit Sylvilagus valustris M
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus M
Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis M G C V
Fox squirrel Sciurus ni&Sr M
Southern flying squirrel Glaucomys volans M
Southeastern pocket gopher Geomys pinetus M
American beaver Castor canadensis M
Marsh rice rat Oryzomys palustris M V
Eastern harvest mouse Reithrodontomys humulis M
Oldfield mouse Peromyscus polionotus M
Cotton mouse Peromyscus gossypinus M G V
Golden mouse Ochrotomys nuttalli M
Hispid cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus M G C V
Eastern woodrat Neotoma, floridana M
Woodland vole Microtus pinetorum M
Round-tailed muskrat R-eofiber alleni M
Black rat Rattus rattus M
Norway rat Rattus norvegicus M
House mouse Mus musculus M
Red fox Vulpes.vulpes M
Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus M
Florida black bear (T) Ursus americanus floridanus M
Raccoon Procyon lotor M G C V
Long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata M
Mink Mustela vison M
Eastern spotted skunk Spilogale putorius M
Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis M

239

Checklist of Mammals of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

River otter Lutra canadensis M V
Florida panther (E) Felis concolor coryi M
Bobcat L)mx rufus M D
White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus M V
Sambar deer Cervus unicolor V
Feral pig Sus scrofa M C V
West Indian manatee (E) Trichechus manatus latirostris R B
Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphin Tursiops truncatus B

Sources: Livingston et al, 1975; Means, 1977; U.S. Dept. of
Commerce and DER, 1979; DNR, 1983; Christman, 1984;
ANERR, 1986; FGFWFC, 1987.

240

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin

Acacia farnesiana V
Three-seeded mercury Acalypha gracilens M G C V
Three-seeded mercury Acalypha rhomboidea M V
Acanthospermum hispidum D
Box-elder Acer negundo M
Red maple Tc-er rubrum M G C V
Silver maple Acer saccharinum M
Sugar maple Acer saccharum M
Florida maple Acer saccharum ssp. floridanum M
Acmella repens M
Water-hemp Acnida cannabinus V
Baneberry (T) Actaea pachypoda M
Southern maidenhair fern (E) Adiantum capillus-veneris M
Aeschynomene americana M
Aeschynomene indica G
Aeschynomene viscidula M D V
Red buckeye Aesculus RAZIA M
Gerardia a2hylla V
Gerardia Axalinis divaricata M V
Gerardia Agalinis fasciculata M D G C
Gerardia Agalinis filifolia D C V
Gerardia Axalinis maritima D C V
Gerardia Agalinis pinetorum M D G V
Gerardia Agalinis purpurea D
Gerardia Agalinis setacea V
Autumn bentgrass Agrostis perennans M
Mimosa, Silktree Albizia iulibrissin M D C
Yellow colic-root TI-etris lutea M
White colic-root Aletris obovata M
Wild onion Allium canadense M G
Allium inodorum, C
Hazel alder Alnus serrulata M D C
Alligator-weed Alternanthera philoxeroides M C V
Chaff-flower Alternanthera sessilis M
Alysicarpus vaginalis G
Southern water hemp Amaranthus australis M D G C V
Amaranthus tuberculatus V
Amaranthus viridis D G
Common ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia M D G C V
Scarlet ammannia Ammannia coccinea M V
Toothcups Ammannia latifolia, D G C V
False-indigo Amorpha fruticosa. M G V
Amorpha herbacea V
Pepper-vine Ampelopsis arborea M G C V
Ampelopsis cordata M
Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum D G C

241

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Texas-star Amsonia tabernaemontana M
Chaffweed Ana allis minima D G V
Bushy beardgrass Andropogon glomeratus M V
Busby beardgrass Andropogon glomeratus var.
glaucopsis V
Bushy beardgrass Andropogon glomeratus var.
pumilus D G C V
Beardgrass Andropoxon gyrans V
Beardgrass Andropogo@ gyrans var.
stenophylla M
Beardgrass Andropogon longiberbis M
Broomsedge Andropogon virginicus M D G C V
Broomsedge Andropogon virginicus var.
alaucus M D G C V
Rue anemone (T) Anemonella thalictroides M
Angelica dentata M
Purple silkyscale Anthaenantia rufa M
Green silkyscale Anthaenantia villosa M
Ground nut Apios americana M
Wild celery Apium graveolens G
Marsh parsley Apium leptophyllum M D G
Dogbane, Indian hemp Apocynum cannabinum M V
Columbine (E) Aquilegia canadensis M
Arabis canadensis M
Devils-walkingstick Aralia spinosa M
Sandwort Arenaria lanuRinosa V
Thyme-leaved sandwort Arenaria serpyllifolia D G
Carolina poppy Argemone albiflora D
Green dragon Arisaema dracontium M
Big threeawn Aristida condensata V
Aristida gyrans V
Mohr's threeawn. Aristida mohrii V
Tall threeawn Aristida patula V
Arrowfeather Tristida purpurescens D G C V
Bottlebrush threeawn Aristida spiciformis D G C V
Wiregrass, Pineland threeawn Aristida stricta M
Snake root Aristolochia serpentaria M
Pipevine (T) Aristolochia tomentosa M
Leopard's-bane Arnica acaulis M
Indian plantain Arnoglossum atriplicifolium M
Indian plantain -Arnogloss diversifolium M
Indian plantain Arnogloss ovatum M
Red chokeberry Aronia arbutifolia M G V
Cane Arundinaria Rigantea M
Arundinaria tecta M
Milkweed Asclepias cinerea M

242

.Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Milkweed Asclepias lanceolata M V
Milkweed Asclepias pedicellata D
Milkweed Asclepias perennis M
Milkweed Asclepias viridiflora M
Southern milkweed (T) Asclepias viridula M
Asimina longifolia var.
spathulata M
Small-fruited pawpaw Asimina-parviflora M
Ebony spieenwort (T) Asplenium platyneuron M V
Blackstem spleenwort (T) Asplenium resiliens M
Aster adnatus M
Climbing aster Aster carolinianus M
Aster chapmanii M V
Aster concolor M
Aster dumosus M V
Aster eryngiifolius M
Starved aster Aster lateriflorus M
Aster puniceus ssp. elliottii M
Aster shortii M
Pinewoods aster (T) Aster spinulosus M
Aster subulatus M G C V
Perennial salt marsh aster Aster tenuifolius M D G C V
White-topped aster Aster tortifolius M V
Aster vimineus M
Seabeach orach Atriplex pentandra D G C V
Yellow foxglove Aureolaria flava M
Aureolaria pedicularia M V
Black mangrove Avicennia germinans D
Common carpetgrass Axonopus affinis M V
Big carpetgrass Axonopus furcatus M
Mosquito fern, Waterfern (T) Azolla caroliniana M
False willow Baccharis angustifolia D G C V
Groundsel tree Baccharis glomeruliflora M D G
Groundsel tree, Sea myrtle Baccharis halimifolia M D G C V
Blue hyssop Bacopa caroliniana M
Water hyssop Bacopa monnieri M D G C V
Balduina uniflora M
Bamboo Bambusa multiplex M
White wild indigo Baptisia lactea M
Wild-indigo Baptisia lecontei M
Apalachicola wild indigo (T) Baptisia megacarpa M
Bartonia verna D V
Saltwort Batis maritima D G C V
Rattan vine Berchemia scandens M C
River birch Betula nj&U M
Beggar-ticks R-d-ens alba var. radiata M D G

243

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Spanish needles Bidens bipinnata M D
Bidens cernua V
Beggar-ticks Bidens discoidea M
Beggar-ticks Bidens frondosa M
Wild goldenglow Bidens laevis V
Beggar-ticks Bidens mitis M C
Rayless goldenrod Bigelowia nudata M
Cross-vine Bignonia capreolata M
False nettle, Bag hemp Boehmeria cylindrica M G C V
Apalachicola daisy Boltonia apalachicolensis M
Boltonia asteroides M
717 -ff-
Doll's daisy, False aster Bolt=ia Usa M
Borreria Borreria laevis M
Sea oxeye, Sea daisies Borrichia frutescens M D G C V
Southern grapefern (T) Botrychi biternatum M
Brassica oleracea var. capitata D
Little quaking grass Briza minor M
Rescuegrass, Bromegrass Bromus unioloides M D
Buckwheat vine Brunnichia ovata M
Bluehart Buchnera floridana M D C V
Watergrass Bulbostylis barbata M
Bulbostylis capillaris M V
Bulbostylis ciliatifolia M D C V
Bulbostylis ciliatifolia var.
coarctata G C
Black-haw, Gum bumelia Bumelia lanuginosa M G C V
Buckthorn (T) Bumelia lycioides M
Burmannia capitata M
Sea rocket Cakile constricta D G C V
Sea rocket Cakile edentula G C V
Calamintha dentata M
American beautyberry' Callicarpa americana M D C V
Poppy mallow (T) Callirhoe papaver M
Water starwort Callitriche heterophylla V
Bearded grass-pink (T) Calopogon barbatus M
Pale grass-pink (T) Zalopogon pallidus M
Grass-pink (T) Calopogon tuberosus M V
Sweet-shrub (T) Calycanthus floridus M
Cup-seed Calycocarp lyonii M
Hedge bindweed Calystegia sepium M C
Trumpet-vine, Scarlet creeper Campsis radicans M V
Zanavalia maritima V
Yellow canna Canna flaccida C V
Marijuana Cannabis sativa M
Butter cress Cardamine hirsuta M
Pepper root Cardamine laciniata M

244

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Cardamine pensylvanica M D
Cardamine pensylvanica var.
I brittoniana M V
Carex abscondita M
Carex albolutescens M D C V
Carex baltzellii M
Carex caroliniana M
Carex cephalophora M
Carex cherokeensis M
Carex crebriflora M
Carex crus-corvi M
Carex debilis M
Carex fissa var. aristata M
Carex folliculata. M
Carex-frankii M
Carex glaucescens M
Carex gracilescens M
Carex howei M
Carex hyalinolepis M V
Carex intumescens M
Carex joorii M
Carex louisianica M
Carex lupulina M
Carex lurida M V
Carex physorhyncha M
Carex reniformis G
Carex stipata M
Carex styloflexa M
,Carex tribuloides M
Carex turgescens M
Carex verrucosa V
Deer's tongue, Vanilla plant Carphephorus odoratissimus M G C V
Carphephorus paniculatus M
Carphephorus pseudoliatris M
Ironwood, American horn beam Carpinus caroliniana M
Hottentot fig Carpobrotus edulis D
Water hickory Carya aquatica M V
Bitternut hickory Carya cordiformis M
Pignut hickory Carya glabra M V
Pecan Carya illinoensis V
Shagbark hickory Carya ovata V
Mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa M
Partridge-pea Cassia fasciculata M G C V
Wild senna Cassia marilandica M V
Wild sensitive plant Cassia nictitans M
Coffee weed Cassia obtusifolia M D G

245

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Catalpa Catalpa bignonioides M
Sugarberry, Hackberry Celtis laevigata M V
Southern sandspur Cenchrus echinatus D
Coast sandspur Cenchrus incertus D G C V
Dune sandspur Cenchrus tribuloides D G C V
Centella asiatica M D G C V
Butterfly-pea Centrosema virginianum M D V
Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis M D G C V
Mouse-ear chickweed Cerastium glomeratum G
Rosemary Ceratiola ericoides M D G C V
Hornwort Ceratophyll demersum V
Ceratophyll muricatum C V
Redbud Cercis canadensis M
Chaerophyll procumbens V
Wild chervil Chaerophyll tainturieri D G V
Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides M
Sand-dune spurge Chamaesyce ammannioides M D G C V
Hairy spurge Chamaesyce hirta M
Chamaesyce humistrata M C
Eyebane Chamaesyce hyssopifolia D G C V
Milk purslane Chamaesyce maculata M D G V
Eyebane Chamaesyce nutans V
Spikegrass Chasmanthium latifolium M
Spikegrass Chasmanthium laxum M
Spikegrass Chasmanthium nitidum M
Spikegr4ss Chasmanthium ornithorhynchum M
Spikegrass Chasmanthium sessiliflorum M V
Lamb's quarters Chenopodium album D
Mexican tea Chenopodi ambrosioides M D G V
Pitseed goosefoot Chenopodi berlandieri var.
boscianum G C
Fingergrass Chloris glauca M C V
Fingergrass Chloris petraea M D G C V
Bush goldenrod Chrysoma pauciflosculosa D G C V
Chrysopsis gossypina ssp.
gossypina f. decumbens V
Chrysopsis Rossypina ssp.
hyssopifolia M
Water hemlock Cicuta mexicana M C
Camphor tree '@innamomum camphora M D
Yellow thistle Cirsium horridulum M D G C V
Cirsium nuttallii V
Marine-ivy Cissus incisa M V
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus D
Sawgrass Cladium iamaicense M D G C V@
Cladonia evansii M G C V

246

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Cladonia leporina M G C V
Rosebud orchid (T) Cleistes divaricata v
Leather-flower Clematis crispa M
Clematis Alaucophylla M
Leather-flower Cle-matis viorna M
Sweet pepperbush Clethra alnifolia M
Black titi Cliftonia monophylla M v
Butterfly-pea Clitoria mariana G C V
Tread softly Cnidoscolus stimulosus D G C V
Coralbeads -Cocculus carolinus M v
Wild taro Colocasia esculenta M
Common dayflower Commelina diffusa M G
Dayflower Commelina erecta M G C V
Dayflower Commelina erecta var.
angustifolia D
Dayflower Commelina virginica M
Mist flower Conoclinium coelestinum M G
Scrub rosemary Conradina canescens M D G C V
Apalachicola rosemary (T) Conradina glabra M
Conyza bonariensis M C
Horseweed Conyza canadensis M D
Horseweed Conyza canadensis var. pusilla M G C V
Coreopsis falcata v
Zoreopsis Rladiata v
Coreopsis lanceolata M C v
Coreopsis linifolia M v
Pagoda dogwood (T) Cornus alterniflora M
Silky cornel Cornus amomum M
Flowering dogwood Eo_rnus florida M
Stiff cornel Cornus foemina M
Swamp dogwood Cornus stricta M
Corydalis flavula M
Harlequin slender fumeroot Corydalis micrantha var.
australis M
Parsley haw Crataegus marshallii. M
Crataegus spathulata M
Green haw Crataegus viridis M
Swamp lily Crinum americanum M C
Crinum zeylanicum M
Few-flowered croomia (E) Croomia pauciflora M
Rattle-box Crotalaria lanceolata G
Rattle-box Crotalaria purshii M
Rabbit-bells Crotalaria rotundifolia M C v
Rabbit-bells Crotalaria spectabilis M D G
Wooly croton Croton capitatus M G
Croton elliottii M

247

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Croton glandulosus var.
septentrionalis M D C. V
Silver-leaf croton, Beach tea Croton punctatus D C V
Honewort (T) Cryptotaenia canadensis M
Toothache grass Ctenium aromaticum M,
Cucumber Cucumis sativus D
Cuphea aspera M
Waxweed Cuphea carthagenensis M D C
Field dodder Cuscuta campestris G C
Compact dodder Cuscuta compacta M D V
Dodder, Love vine Cuscuta pentagona D C
Cynanc angustifolium D G C V
Cynanch scoparium V
Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon M D V
Wild comfrey Cynoglossum virginianum M
Cyperus aristatus M
Cyperus brevifolius M
Cyperus compressus D G V
Cyperus croceus M D V
Cyperus distinctus G V
Yellow nut grass, Chufas Cyperus esculentus G V
Yellow nut grass, Chufas Cyperus esculentus var.
macrostachyus D
Cyperus filiculmis C
Cyperus haspan M D. G V
Cyperus iria M
Cyperus lanceolatus V
Cyperus lecontei D G C
Cyperus odoratus M D C V
Cyperus polystachyos var.
texensis D G C V
Cyperus pseudovegetus M
Cyperus retrorsus M D G C V
Cyperus robustus M
.Nut grass Cyperus rotundus G
Cyperus sesquiflorus M
Cyperus strigosus M
Cyperus surinamensis M D G V
Cyperus tetragonus V
Cyperus virens G V
Titi, Leatherwood Cyrilla racemiflora M
Cyrill racemiflora var.
parvifolia V
Crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium aegyptium D G
Jimsonweed Datura stramonium D
Wild carrot Daucus pusillus D C V

248

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Climbing hydrangea, Wood vamp Decumaria barbara M
Larkspur Delphini carolinianum M
Tansy mustard Descurainia pinnata D G V
Beggar's lice Desmodium ciliare D
Beggar's lice Desmodium incanum M
Beggar's lice Desmodium lineatum M
Beggar's lice Desmodium paniculatum M G C V
Beggar's lice Desmodium strictum V
Beggar's lice Desmodium viridiflorum C V
Dichanthelium aciculare D G C V
Dichanthelium acuminatum M
Dichanthelium commutatum. M C V
Dichanthelium dichotomum M D C
Dichanthelium erectifolium D V
Tichanthelium oligosanthes V
Dichanthelium ovale C
Fichanthelium sabulorum D G C
Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon G C
Dichanthelium tenue M
Pony-foot Dichondra carolinensis M D G C V
Starrush Dichromena colorata D G C V
White-tops Dichromena latifolia M G
Dicliptera. brachiata M
Dicliptera halei M
Southern crabgrass -Diaitaria ciliaris M D G C V
Pangolagrass DiRitaria decumbens D
Slender crabgrass Dixitaria filiformis M C V
Blanket crabgrass DiRitaria serotina M V
Dioclea multiflora. M
Poor joe, Buttonweed Diodia teres M D G C' V
Buttonweed Diodia virginiana M D G C V
Wild yam Dioscorea villosa M
Persimmon Fiospyros virginiana M G C V
Leatherwood Dirca palustris M
Saltgrass f1stichlis spicata M D G C V
Dwarf sundew Drosera brevifolia G V
Pink sundew Drosera. capillaris M D G C V
Dew-threads Drosera tracyi M
Mock strawberry Duchesnea indica M
Sheathed galingale Dulichium arundinaceum M
Purple coneflower Echinacea purpurea M
Jungle-rice Echinochloa colona M G
Barnyardgrass Echinochloa crusgalli M D G V
Echinochloa muricata M
Coastal cockspur Echinochloa walteri D G C V
Burhead Echinodorus cordifolius M

249

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

EcliT)ta alba m G C V
Water-hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes m
Silverthorn Elaeagnus pungens D
Eleocharis acicularis V
Eleocharis albida V
Roadgrass Eleocharis baldwinii m G
Eleocharis cellulosa M D G C V
Eleocharis elongata C
Knotted spikerush Eleocharis equisetoides V
Pale spikerush Eleocharis flavescens D C V
Eleocharis geniculata M D G C
Eleocharis interstincta V
Black spikerush Eleocharis melanocarpa m
Eleocharis minima V
Eleocharis montevidensis m G C V
Eleocharis obtusa m
Eleocharis olivacea D C
Eleocharis parvula D
Eleocharis tortilis m
Eleocharis tuberculosa m
Eleocharis vivipara V
Elephant's-foot Elephanto2us carolinianus m
Florida elephant's-foot ElephantoRus elatus V
Purple elephant's-foot Elephantopus nudatus 'M
Goosegrass Reusine indica M D G V
Virginia wil 'd rye Elymus virainicus m V
Pan-american balsamscale Elyonurus tripsacoides D G V
Green-fly orchid (T) Epidendrum conopseum m
Trailing arbutus (E) Epigaea repens m
Thalia lovegrass Eragrostis atrovirens m V
Bahia lovegrass Eragrostis bahiensis
Elliott lovegrass Eragrostis elliottii M D G C
Pond lovegrass Eragrostis itlomerata m
Bigtop lovegrass Eragrostis hirsuta D
Teal lovegrass Eragrostis hypnoides m
Tufted lovegrass, Carolina lovegrass Eragrostis pectinacea m
Indian lovegrass Eragrostis pilosa m
Coastal lovegrass Eragrostis refracta m G C V
Red lovegrass Eragrostis secundiflora ssp.
oxylepis D G V
Purple lovegrass Eragrostis spectabilis M D V
Eragrostis tephrosanthos m
Fireweed Erechtites hieracifolia M D C V
Centipede grass Eremochloa ophiuroides M D G C
Plumegrass Erianthus brevibarbis m V
Sugarcane plumegrass Erianthus giganteus M D G C V

250

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Narrow plumegrass Erianthus strictus M
Southern fleabane Erigeron quercifolius M
White-tops Erigeron strigosus M
Erigeron vernus M v
Hat pins Eriocaulon compressum D
Common pipewort Eriocaulon decangulare M v
Longleaf cupgrass Eriochloa michauxii v
Eryngi baldwinii M v
Eryngi prostratum M
Coral bean, Cherokee bean Erythrina herbacea M G C V
Dogtooth-violet (T) Erythronium umbilicatum M
Strawberry bush Euonymus americanus M
Burningbust Euonymus atropurpureus M
Dog fennel Eupatorium capillifolium M D G C V
Dog fennel Eupatorium compositifolium M D 'G v
Eupatori cuneifolium v
Dog fennel Eupatorium leptophyllum D
Semaphore eupatorium Eupatorium mikanioides D G C V
Eupatori mohrii M D G C V
Boneset Eupatori perfoliatum M G
False hoarhound Eupatorium rotundifolium M v
Eupatori rugosum M
Eupatorium semiserratum M
Eupatorium serotinum M C v
Euphorbia cyathophora v
Euphorbia discoidalis M
Euphorbia exserta M
Euphorbia maculata C
Euphorbia telephioides M
Euthamia graminifolia var.
hirtipes M v
Euthamia leptocephala G v
Euthamia minor M D G C V
Euthamia tenuifolia G v
Buckwheat FaRopyr esculentum M
American beech Fagus grandifolia M
Festuca arundinacea D C
Fimbristylis autumnalis C v
Fimbristylis caroliniana D G C
Fimbristylis castanea D G C V
Fimbristylis miliacea M
Fimbristylis puberula M
Fimbristylis schoenoides M
Fimbristylis spadicea v
Fimbristylis tomentosa M
Fimbristylis vahlii M

251

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Fleischmannia incarnata M
Swamp privet Forestiera acuminata M
White ash Fraxinus americana M
Carolina ash Fraxinus caroliniana M
Green ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica M
Pumpkin ash Fraxinus profunda M
Cottonweed Froelichia floridana D G C V
Umbrellagrass Fuirena breviseta M C V
Umbrellagrass Fuirena longa M
Umbrellagrass Fuirena scirpoidea M D G C V
Umbrellagrass Fuirena squarrosa V
Ramping fumitory Fumaria capreolata D
Milk-pea Galactia floridana M
Milk-pea Galactia macreei V
Galactia mollis V
Milk pea Galactia volubilis M G C V
Bedstraw, Goosegrass Galium aparine M D G
Bedstraw Galium hispidulum D G C V
Bedstraw Galium pilos var. laevicaule M V
Bedstraw Galium tinctorium M D G C V
Southern gaura Gaura angustifolia D C V
Dwarf huckleberry Gaylussacia dumosa V
Dangleberry Gaylussacia frondosa V
Gaylussacia mosieri V
Yellow jessamine Gelsemium rankinii M D
Gelsemium sempervirens M
Wiregrass gentian (E) Gentiana pennelliana M
Soapwort gentian Gentiana saponaria, M
Cranesbill Geranium carolinianum M D G V
Water locust Gleditsia aquatica M
Honey locust Gleditsia tricanthos M
Cudweed Gnaphali falcatum M D G V
Sweet everlasting Gnaphali obtusifolium M D V
Rabbit tobacco Gnaphalium pensilvanicum M D C V
Purple cudweed Gnaphalium purpureum D G V
Rabbit tobacco Gnaphalium spicatum C V
Downy rattlesnake plantain Goodyera pubescens M
Gratiola floridana M
Gratiola hispida D G C V
Gratiola pilosa M
Gratiola virginiana M
Water spider orchid (T) Habenaria repens M
Silverbells Halesia carolina M
Silverbells Halesia diptera M
Shoal grass Halodule wrightii M D C
Halophila engelmannii M C

252

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana M
Scratch daisy Haplopappus divaricatus M
Harper's beauty (E) Harperocallis flava M
Mock pennyroyal (E) Hedeoma graveolens M
Hedyotis boscii M
Hedyotis corymbosa M G
Innocence Hedyotis procumbens M G C V
Hedyotis uniflora D G C V
Bitterweed Helenium amarum. G V
Sneezeweed Helenium autumnale M
Rockrose Helianthemum arenicola D
Rockrose Helianthemum carolinianum C V
Rockrose Helianthemum corymbosum G C V
Sunflower Helianthus angustifolius M
Sunflower Helianthus debilis ssp.
tardiflorus V
Sunflower Helianthus heterophyllus M
Sunflower Helianthus strumosus M
Oxeye Heliopsis helianthoides M
Seaside heliotrope Heliotropium curassavicum M D G C V
Turnsole Heliotropium indicum M V
Hemicarpha micrantha V
Liverleaf (E) Hepatica nobili-s M
Mud plantain Heteranthera dubia M
Heteranthera reniformis V
Heterotheca subaxillaris M D G C V
Wild ginger, Heartleaf (T) Hexastylis arifolia M
Hibiscus aculeatus M
Hibiscus coccineus M
Swamp hibiscus -Hibiscus grandiflorus D C V
Halberd-leaved marshmallow 9lb-iscus militaris M
Rose mallow Hibiscus moscheutos M G C
Rose mallow Hibiscus moscheutos ssp.
incanus V
Flower-of-an-hour Hibiscus trionum G
Little barley Horde pusillum D G
Green violet Hybanthus concolor M
Smooth hydrangea, Wild hydrangea (T) Hydrangea arborescens M
Smooth hydrangea Hydrangea arborescens ssp.
discolor M
Watergrass Hydrochloa caroliniensis M V
Hydrocotyle bonariensis M D G C V
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides V
Whorled pennywort, Marsh pennywort Hydrocotyle umbellata M D G C V
Swamp pennywort Hydr6cotyle verticillata M D V

253

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Swamp pennywort Hydrocotyle verticillata var.
triradiata C V
Hydrolea quadrivalvis M
Hygrophila lacustris M
Spider-lily Hymenocallis carolinensis M C
Hymenocallis floridana M
Hyperic brachyphyllum V
St. John's-wort Hyperic cistifolium D G V
Sandweed Hyperic fasciculatum M D V
St. John's-wort Hypericum frondosum M
St. John's-wort Hyperic Ralioides M V
Pineweed Hyperic Rentianoides M D G C
St. Andrew's cross Hyperic hypericoides M V
Smooth-barked St. John's-wort (E) Hyperic lissophloeus M
St. John's-wort Hyperic 'microsepalum M V
Dwarf St. John's-wort Hyperic mutilum M
St. John's-wort Hyperic nitidum M V
St. John's-wort Hyperic reductum M D G C V
St. John's-wort Hypericum tetrapetalum D C
Cat's-ears Hypochoeris brasiliensis M
Common stargrass Hypoxis juncea G V
Swamp stargrass Hypoxis leptocarpa M
Hypoxis rigida M
Musky mint, Cluster bushmint Hyptis alata M V
Hyptis mutabilis M V
Carolina holly, Sand holly (T) Ilex ambigua V
Dahoon, Dahoon holly Ilex cassine M D C V
Large gallberry, Sweet gallberry Ilex coriacea. M C V
Possum haw (T) Ilex decidua M
Gallberry Ilex glabra M D G C V
Myrtle-leaf holly Ilex myrtifolia V
American holly Ilex opaca M V
Yaupon Ilex vomitoria M D G- C V
Purple anise, Florida anise-tree (T) Illicium floridanum, M
Jewel weed Ym-patiens capensis M V
Red morning-glory Ipomoea hederifolia M
Beach morning-glory Ipomoea imperati M D G C V
White morning-glory Ipomoea lacunosa M
Manroot, Wild potato vine Ipomoea pandurata M
Railroad vine Ipomoea pes-caprae D G C V
Cypress vine Ipomoea quamoclit C
Ipomoea sagittata M D G C V
Ipomoea trichocarpa M D G
Prairie iris Iris hexagona V
Iris tridentata M
Blue-flag Iris virainica M C V

254

Florida quillwort (T) Isoetes flaccida M
False rue-anemone Isopyr biternatum M
Virginia willow Itea virginica M
Iva annua M
Marsh elder Iva frutescens -M D G C V
Iva microcephala M
Jacquemontia tamnifolia M G
Black walnut Juglans nijzra M
Rush Juncus acuminatus M V
Toad rush Juncus bufonius M V
Rush Juncus coriaceus M C
Rush Juncus dichotomus M D G C V
Rush Juncus diffusissimus M
Soft rush Juncus effusus M V
Bog rush Juncus elliottii M V
Shore rush Juncus marginatus M D C V
Rush Juncus megacephalus M D G C V
Rush Juncus polycephalus M
Juncus repens M
Needlerush, Black rush Juncus roemerianus M D G C V
Rush Juncus scirpoides, D C
Path rush Juncus tenuis M C V
Rush Juncus trigonocarpus M
Rush Juncus scirpoides M G C V
Rush Juncus validus M
Ground juniper Juniperus communis var.
depressa D
Southern red cedar Juniperus silicicola M G C V
Red cedar 7uni2erus virginiana M
Water-willow Justicia americana M
Justicia crassifolia M
Justicia ovata M
Justicia ovata var. lanceolata M
Wicky Kalmia hirsuta M v
Mountain laurel (T) Kalmia latifolia M
Seashore mallow Kosteletzkya virginica M D G C V
Krigia cespitosa M G
Dwarf dandelion Krigia virginica, M D G C V
Common lespedeza Kummerowia striata M V
Redroot Eachnanthes caroliniana M D V
Wood-letuce, Wild letuce Lactuca canadensis M
Blue letuce Lactuca graminifolia M V
Crepe myrtle Lagerstroemia indica M
Henbit Lamium amplexicaule D
Shrub verbena, Lantana Lantana camara D C
Wood-nettle Ta-portea canadensis M.
Pinweed Lechea minor M V
Pinweed Lechea, mucronata. M G C V
Pinweed Lechea pulchella M G C V
Pinweed Lechea sessiliflora M D V

255

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Pinweed Lechea torreyi D G C V
Southern cutgrass, Clubhead cutgrass Leersia hexandra M
Catchflygrass Leersia lenticularis M
Rice cutgrass Leersia oryzoides M
Whitegrass Leersia virginica M
Florida corkwood (T) Leitneria floridana M C V
Duckweed Lemna obscura V
Duckweed Lemna valdiviana M
Lion's ear Leonotis nepetifolia M V
Peppergrass Lepidium virginicum M D V
Bearded spangletop Leptochloa fascicularis D C V
Lespedeza angustifolia M
Dusty clover Lespedeza capitata M V
Bush clover Lespedeza hirta V
Bush clover Lespedeza hirta ssp. curtissii V
Fetterbush Leucothoe racemosa M
Blazing star Liatris chapmanii M D G C V
Blazing star Liatris gracilis M
Godfrey's blazing star (E) Liatris provincialis M C
Blazing star Liatris spicata M
Blazing star fiatris tenuifolia M V
Gopher apple Licania michauxii M
Japanese privet Ligustrum japonicum M
Wax-leaf privet Ligustr lucidum M
Lilaeopsis carolinensis M
Lilaeopsis chinensis M G
Pine lily, Catesby lily (T) Lilium catesbaei M
Lilium michauxii M
Frog's-bit Limnobium spongia V
Limnodea arkansana V
Limnophila sessiliflora G V
Sea lavender Limonium carolinianum D G C V
'Blue toad-flax Linaria canadensis M D G C V
Linaria floridana D G C V
Spicebush Lindera benzoin M
.False pimpernel T71-ndernia anagallidea M G V
False pimpernel Lindernia dubia M V
Yellow flax Linum medium V
Yellow flax Linum, medium var. texanum D C V
Harper's grooved yellow flax Tinum sulcatum var. harperi M
Orange-flowered flax (T) Linum westii M V
Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua M V
Yellow poplar Liriodendron tulipifera M
Lily-turf Liriope muscari D
Pucoons Lithospe tuberosum M
Lobelia Lobelia amoena M

256

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Lobelia Lobelia brevifolia V
Cardinal flower (T) Lobelia cardinalis M
Lobelia Lobelia glandulosa M
Lobelia Lobelia paludosa M
English ryegrass Lolium perenne D G
Japanese honeysuckle E-onicera japonica M
Coral honeysuckle, Trumpet To--nicera sempervirens M
honeysuckle
Wedding ring lichen Lopadi leucoxanthum C
Goldcrest Lophiola americana M V
Ludwigia alata M D G C V
Seedbox Ludwigia alternifolia M V
Primrose willow Ludwigia decurrens M
Ludwigia erecta M
Cylindric-fruited ludwigia Ludwigi glandulosa M
Ludwigia leptocarpa M C V
Ludwigia linearis M
Ludwigi linifolia M G V
Ludwigia maritima M D G C V
Ludwigia microcarpa C
Ludwigia octovalvis M. D G
Marsh purslane Ludwigia palustris M C V
Primrose willow Ludwigia peruviana M
Ludwigia pilosa M
Water primrose Ludwigia repens D C V
Ludwigia virgata M
Sky-blue lupine Lupinus diffusus V
Sanddune lupine, Gulfcoast lupine (T) Lupinus westianus V
Knot-leaved rush Luzula acuminata M
Woodrush Luzula echinata M
Christmas-berry Lyci carolinianum G V
Tomato Lytopersicon esculentum V
Southern clubmoss (T) Lycopodium appressum D G
Bugleweed Lycopus angustifolius M
Water hoarhound Lycopus rubellus M
Water hoarhound Lycopus virginicus M
Climbing fern Lygodium japonicum M D
Staggerbush, Rusty lyonia Lyonia ferruginea C V
Staggerbush Lyonia fruticosa D V
Maleberry Lyonia ligustrina C
Fetterbush Lyonia lucida M D G C V
Staggerbush Lyonia mariana C
Fringed loosestrife Lysimachia ciliata M
Loosestrife Lythrum curtissii M
Loosestrife Lythrum lineare D G C
,White birds-in-a-nest (E) Macbridea-alba M

257

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Ashe's magnolia (E) Magnolia ashei M
Southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora M D G@ C V
Pyramid magnolia (E) Magnolia pyramidata M
Sweetbay Magnolia virginiana M D G C V
Green adder's-mouth (T) Malaxis unifolia M
Crab apple (T) Malus angustifolia M,
Wrinkled jointtail Manisuris rugosa M
Lattice jointtail Manisuris tesselata M
Florida jointtail Manisuris tuberculosa M
Barbara's-button Marshallia tenuifolia M
Alabama spiny-pod (E) Matelea alabamensis M
Matelea baldwiniana M
Matelea flavidula M
Florida milkweed (E) Matelea floridana M
Angle-pod Matelea gonocarpa M V
Mecardonia acuminata M
Indian cucumber-root (T) Medeola virginiana M
Black medic Medicago lupulina D G V
Bur clover Medicago polymorpha G
Melanthera nivea M
Chinaberry Melia azedarach M
Twoflower melic Melica mutica M
White sweet-clover Melilotus alba G
Sour clover Melilotus indica M G
Chocolate-weed 'chia corchorifolia M G
Creeping cucumber Melothria pendula M V
Micranthemum umbrosum M V
Microstegi vimineum. M
Climbing hempweed Mikania scandens M D G C V
Monkey flower Mimulus alatus M
Twin berry, Partridge berry Mitchella repens M V
Mitreola angustifolia M
Miterwort Mitr petiolata M D V
Miterwort Mit@'e_ola sessilifolia M
Modiola caroliniana M G V
Carpetweed, Indian chickweed Mollugo verticillata M G V
Keygrass, Shoregrass Monanthochloe littoralis V
Horsemint, Spotted beebalm Monarda punctata M C V
White mulberry Morus alba M
Red mulberry Morus rubra M C V
Hairgrass, Hairawn muhly Muhlenbergia capillaris D G C V
Nimblewill Muhlenbergi schreberi M
Murdannia nudiflora M
Wax myrtle, Southern bayberry Myrica cerifera M D G C V
Bayberry Myrica heterophylla M
Parrot-feathdr Myriophyllum aquaticum M

258

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Myriophyllum laxum M@
Water milfoil Myriophyllum spicatum M
Naias flexilis V
Southern naiad NIjas Ruadalupensis V
Nandina domestica M
Duck acorn Nelumbo lutea M
Nemophila aphylla M
Neptunia pubescens M V
Oleander Nerium oleander C
Florida beargrass (E) Nolina atopocarpa M G V
Spatterdock Nuphar luteum M V
Fragrant water-lily Nymphaea odorata M D G C V
Yellow water-lily Nymphae mexicana V
Floating hearts Nymphoides aquatica M
Water tupelo Nyjja aquatica M V
Blackgum, Swamp tupelo Nyssa biflora M
Ogeechee-lime Nyssa olzeche M V
Sour gum Nyssa sylvatica M
Weedy evening-primrose Oenothera biennis M V
Seaside evening-primrose Oenothera humifusa D G C V
Cut-leaved evening-primrose Oenothera laciniata D
Sensitive fern (T) Onoclea sensibilis M
False gromwell Onosmodium virginianum V
Stalked adder's-tongue (T) Ophioalossum petiolatum M
Wood grass Oplismenus setarius M G C V
Prickly pear 00untia humifusa D
Prickly pear Opuntia humifusa var.
ammophila V
Prickly pear Opuntia pusilla M D C V
Prickly pear (T) Opuntia stricta V
Prickly pear Opunti stricta var. dillenii V
Golden club Orontium aquaticum M V
Rice Oryza sativa V
Wild olive Osmanthus americanus M G C V
Cinnamon fern Osmunda cinnamomea M D V
Royal fern i5smunda regalis . M G C V
Royal fern Osmunda regalis var.
spectabilis M D
Hop-hornbeam Ostrya virginiana M
Lady's wood-sorrel Oxalis corniculata M D G V
Oxalis priceae ssp. colorea D
Common water-dropwort Oxypolis filiformis M V
Giant water-dropwort (E) Oxypolis greenmanii M
Beachgrass, Bitter panicum Panicum amarum G C V
Beachgrass, Bitter panicum Panicum amarum var. amarulum M D G C V
Beaked pa.nicum Panicum anceps M C V

259

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Fall panicum Panicum dichotomiflorum M G
Savannah panicum Panicum gymnocarpon M C
Maidencane Panicum hemitomon M
Gaping panicum Panicum hians M V
Panicum longifolium D V
Hog millet Panicum miliaceum D
Torpedo grass Panicum rIepens M D G C V
Redtop panicum Panicum rigidulum M D C V
Bluejoint panicum Panicum tenerum M
Texas panicum Panicum texanum G
Warty panicum Panicum verrucosum M G V
Switchgrass Panicum virgatum D G C V
Pellitory Parietaria praetermissa V
Grass-of-Parnassus Parnassia caroliniana M
Undine (E) Tarnassia grandifolia M
Whitlow-wort Paronychia baldwinii M D C V
Paronychia erecta D G C V
Whitlow-wort Paronychia patula M
Sand-squares Paronychia rugelii V
Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinguefolia M G C V
Bull paspalum Paspalum boscianum G C V
Knotgrass @aspal distichum. M D G C V
Florida paspalum Paspal floridanum M D C V
Field paspalum Paspal laeve C
Bahiagrass Paspalum notatum M D G C
Brownseed paspalum Paspal plicatulum M
Early paspalum Paspal praecox V
Thin paspalum Paspalum setaceum M D G C V
Vaseygrass Paspal urvillei M D G C V
Yellow passionflower Passiflora lutea M
Green arum Peltandra virginica M V
Ditch stonecrop Penthorum sedoides M
Beefsteak-plant Perilla frutescens M
Redbay Persea borbonia M C V
Swamp bay Persea palustris M D C V
Petunia parviflora M
Mock-orange Philadelphus inodorus M
Golden polypody (T) Phlebodium aureum V
Thick-leaf phlox Phlox carolina M
Phoebanthus tenuifolia M
Mistletoe Phoradendron serotinum M
Common reed Phragmites australis M D G C V
Cape-weed @hyla nodiflora D G C V
Phyllanthus caroliniensis M
Phyllanthus urinaria M
Physalis angulata M V

260

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Ground-cherry Physalis angustifolia M D G C V
Ground-cherry Physalis pubescens M C V
Ground-cherry Physalis viscosa var.
elliottii V
Obedient plant Physostegia godfreyi M
Obedient plant Physostegia leptophylla M
Obedient plant Physostegia purpurea M
Pokeweed, Pokeberry Phytolacca americana M D G C V
Pieris phillyreifolia M V
Clearweed Pilea pumila M
Fever tree (T) Fi-nckneya bracteata M
Pinguicula ionantha M
Yellow butterw'ort Pinguicula lutea M
Pinguicula planifolia M
Small butterwort Pinguicula pumila M V
Sand pine Pinus clausa M D G V
Shortleaf pine Pinus echinata M
Slash pine Pinus elliottii M D 'G C V
Spruce pine Pinus glabra M
Longleaf pine Fin-us palustris M D
Loblolly pine T3.-nu-s taeda M
Panhandle golden aster (E) Pityopsis flexuosa M
Pityopsis graminifolia var.
latifolia M
Golden aster Pityopsis graminifolia var.
microcephala D
Golden aster Pityopsis graminifolia var.
tenuifolia V
Golden aster Pityopsis oligantha M
Planer tree, Water elm Planera aquatica M
English plantain Plantago lanceolata D
Plantain Plantago maior M
Hoary plantain Plantago virginica M D G C V
White fringed orchid (T) Platanthera blephariglottis M
Crested fringed orchid (T) Platanthera cristata M
Southern rein-orchid (T) Platanthera flava M
Orange rein-orchid (T) Platanthera integra M
Snowy orchid (T) Platanthera nivea D
Sycamore Platanus occidentalis M
Marsh fleabane Pluchea camphorata M V
Marsh fleabane Pluchea foetida M V
Salt marsh fleabane Pluchea odorata M D C V
Marsh fleabane Pluchea rosea M D G C V
Annual bluegrass Poa annua D G
Rose pogonia (T) PoRonia ophioglossoides V
White bachelor's button Polygala balduinii D G V

261

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicol a Basin (cont.)

Milkwort Polygala brevifolia V
Drumheads Polygala cruciata M V
Milkwort Polygala cymosa M
Milkwort Polygala hookeri M
Procession flower Polygala incarnata D G C V
Bog bachelor's button Polygala lutea M G V
Wiid bachelor's button Polygala nana D G C V
Milkwort Polygala ramosa M
Milkwort Polygala setacea M
Sandhill wireweed Polygonella fimbriata var.
robusta D
Wireweed Polygonella gracilis V
Large-leaved jointweed (T) Polygonella macrophylla M
October-flower Polygonella polygama M D G C V
Polygonella polygama var.
brachystachya V
Smartweed Polygon caespitosum var.
longisetum M
Smartweed Polygon densiflorum M
Wild water-pepper Polygonum hydropiperoides M D C
Pale smartweed Polygon lapathifolium M V
Pinkweed Polygonum pensylvanicum M
Smartweed Polygon persicaria M
Dotted smartweed Polygon punctatum M D G C V
Tearthumb Polygon sagittatum V
False buckwheat Polygonum scandens M
Smartweed Polygon setaceum C
Jumpseed Polygonum, virginianum M
Bear's foot, Yellow leafcup Polymnia uvedalia M V
Resurrection fern Polypodi polypodioides M G C V
Polypremum procumbens M D G C V
Christmas fern Polystichum acrostichoides M
Pickerelweed Pontederia cordata M
Pickerelweed Pontederia cordata var.
lancifolia C V
Pickerelweed Pontederia lanceolata C
Cottonwood Populus deltoides M
Swamp cottonwood Populus heterophylla M
Portulaca amilis G
Portulaca oleracea M
Portulaca oleracea ssp.
nicaraguensis G
Pink purslane Portulaca pilosa D V
Illinois pondweed Potamogeton illinoensis M V
Sago pondweed Potamogeton pectinatus D V
Pondweed Potamogeton perfoliatus V

262

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Pondweed Potamoxeton pusillus V
Mermaid-weed ProserpinaSa palustris M D G C V
Wild Proserpinaca pectinata M G C V
Wild plum Prunus americana M
Laurel cherry Prunus caroliniana M
Black cherry Prunus serotina M
Hog plum Prunus umbellata M
Baldrush Psilocarya nitens D G C V
Wafer ash Ptelea trifoliata M
Bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum M G C V
Pteridium aquilinum var.
pseudocaudatum D
Blackroot Pterocaulon pycnostachyum M D G C V
Mock bishop's-weed Ptilimnium capillaceum M D G C V
Mountain-mint Pycnanthemum flexuosum. M
False dandelion Pyrrhopappus carolinianus M
White oak Quercus alba M
Chapman oak Quercus chapmanii M G C V
Southern red oak Quercus falcata M V
Cherry bark oak Quercus falcata var.
pagodifolia M
Sand-live oak Quercus geminata M D G C V
Laurel oak Quercus hemisphaerica M G V
Blue-jack oak Quercus incana M
Turkey oak Quercus laevis M
Diamond-leaf oak, Laurel.oak Quercus laurifolia M V
Overcup oak Quercus lyrata M V
Sand-post oak Quercus margaretta M G V
Blackjack oak Quercus marilandica M
Swamp chestnut oak Quercus michauxii M
Dwarf-live oak Quercus minima D V
Chinquapin oak Quercus muhlenbergii M
Myrtle oak Quercus myrtifolia M D G C V
Water oak Quercus niara M D V
Runner oak Quercus pumila M D
Shumard oak Quercus shumardii M
Post oak Quercus stellata M G V
Black oak Quercus velutina M
Live oak Quercus virginiana M G C V
Wild radish Raphanus raphanistrum G
Ratibida pinnata M
Buckthorn Rhamnus caroliniana V
Needle palm Rhapidophyll. hystrix M
Meadow beauty Rhexia alifanus M
Meadow beauty Rhexia cubensis D G C V
Meadow beauty (T) Rhexia lutea M

263

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Pale meadow beauty Rhexia mariana M
Meadow beauty Rhexia nashii M G v
Small-flowered meadow beauty (E) Rhexia parviflora M
Meadow beauty Rhexia petiolata M v
Panhandle meadow beauty Rhexia salicifolia M
Meadow beauty Rhexia virginica M
Florida flame azalea (E) Rhododendron austrinum M
Sweet pinxter azalea, Wild azalea Rhododendron canescens M
Swamp honeysuckle (T) Rhododendron serrulatum M
Winged sumac, Shining sumac Rhus copallina M D G C V
Smooth sumac Rhus glabra M
Rhynchosia minima v
Beakrush Rhynchospora caduca M v
Beakrush Rhynchospora cephalantha M v
Hornedrush Rhynchospora corniculata M v
Beakrush Rhynchospora curtissii M
Beakrush Rhynchospora divergens D G
Beakrush Rhynchospora fascicularis D G v
.Beakrush Rhynchospora fernaldii v
Beakrush Rhynchospora gracilenta M
Beakrush Rhynchospora megalocakpa D G C V
Beakrush Rhynchospora microcarpa D G C V
Beakrush Rhynchospora miliacea M
Beakrush Rhynchospora mixta M
Beakrush Rhynchospora odorata G v
Beakrush Rhynchospora plumosa M v
Beakrush Rhynchospora tracyi D G v
Richardia scabra M D
Yellow cress Rorippa sessiliflora M
Swamp rose. Rosa palustris M
Toothcups Rotala -ramosior M
Highbush blackberry Rubus arltutus M C v
Sand blackberry Rubus cuneifolius M D C
Dewberry Rubus trivialis M D G C V
Coneflower Rudbeckia graminifolia M
Rudb;=kia mohrii M
Wild petunia Ruellia caroliniensis M
Night-flowering ruellia (T) Ruellia noctiflora M
Dock Rumex chrysocarpus C v
Curled dock Rume2E crispus M G C
Sourdock Rumex hastatulus M D G v
Dock Rumex paraguayensis G C V
Swamp dock Rumex verticillatus M D G C V
Widgeon-grass Ruppia maritima D C v
Bluestem, Dwarf palmetto (T) Sabal minor M D
Cabbage palm Sabal palmetto M D G C V

264

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin-(cont.)

Marsh pink Sabatia bartramii M
Marsh pink Sabatia brevifolia M
Marsh pink Sabatia calycina M
Marsh pink Sabatia campanulata C
Marsh pink Sabatia dodecandra V
Marsh pink Sabatia grandiflora D G C
9-abatia stellaris D G -C V
India cupscale Sacciolepis indica M
American cupscale Sacciolepis striata M D G C V
Buckthorn Sageretia minutiflora G C V
Pearlwort Sagina decumbens M D
Arrowhead Sagittaria graminea M V
Arrowhead Sagittaria graminea var.
chapmanii M
Arrowhead Sagittaria lancifolia M D G C V
Duck potato SaRittaria latifolia M V
Duck.potato SaRittaria latifolia var.
pubescens M V
Sagotia triflora M
Perennial glasswort Salicornia virginica M D G C V
Coastal plain willow Salix caroliniana M D G C V
Black willow Salix nigra M G C
Russian thistle Salsola kali D G C V
Lyre-leaved sage Salvia lyrata M V
Elderberry Fa-mbucus canadensis M D V
Water pimpernel Samolus ebracteatus G C
Pineland pimpernel Samolus parviflorus M D G V
Black snakeroot Ta-nicula canadensis M V
Soapberry Sapindus marginatus M V
Trumpets Sarracenia flava M
White-top pitcher-plant (E) Sarracenia leucophylla M
Parrot pitcher-plant (T) Sarracenia psittacina M
Sassafras Sassafras albidum M
Lizard's tail Saururus cernuus M D C V
Bay star vine Schisandra coccinea M
Schizachyrium maritimum D G C V
Little bluestem Schizachyrium scoparium M
Bulrush Scirpus americanus D C V
Bulrush Scirpus californicus M V
Wool-grass Scirpus cyperinus M
Bulrush Scirpus divaricatus M
Three-square Scirpus pungens G C V
Saltmarsh bulrush Scirpus robustus D G C V
Great bulrush Scirpus validus M D V
Nutrush Scleria ciliata D C
Nutrush Scleria ciliata var. glabra G V

265

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Nutrush Scleria georgiana M D
Nutrush Scleria hirtella M
Nutrush Scleria pauciflora M V_
Nutrush Scleria reticularis G v
Nutrush Scleria reticularis var.
pubescens
Nutrush Scleria triglomerata M C v
Nutrush Scleria verticillata D C v
Sweet broom Scoparia dulcis M D C v
Scoparia montevidensis D
Figwort Scrophularia marilandica M
Skullcap Scutellaria floridana M
Skullcap Scutellaria integrifolia C v
Skullcap Scutellaria lateriflora M
Sebastian bush Sebastiana fruticosa M
Meadow spikemoss (T) Selaginella apoda M
Sand spikemoss (T) Selaginella arenicola M
Golden ragwort Senecio aureus M
Butterweed, Golden ragwort Tenecio glabellus M
Saw-palmetto Serenoa repens M D G C V
Sesbania macrocarpa M G C V
Purple sesban Sesbania punicea M v
.Bladderpod Sesbania vesicaria M C v
Sea purslane Sesuvium maritimum D v
Sea purslane Sesuvium portulacastrum M D G C V
Knotroot foxtail Setaria geniculata D G C V
Coral foxtail Setaria macrosperma, v
Giant bristlegrass Setaria magna D v
.Green foxtail Setaria viridis v
Senna symeria, Black senna Seymeria cassioides M D G C
Bur cucumber Sicyos angulatus M
Broomweed Sida acuta M
Indian hemp Fida rhombifolia M D G C V
Prickly mallow Sida spinosa M
Sleepy catchfly Silene antirrhina M D G v
SbilLene polypetala M
Silphi compositum var.
ovatifolium M
Blue-eyed grass Sis@rinchium a'tlanticum D G C V
Sisyrinchium nashii G
Annual blue-eyed grass Sisyrinchium rosulatum M
Scrub blue-eyed-grass Sisyrinchium xerophyllum D
False solomon's-seal Smilacina racemosa M
Greenbrier Smilax auriculata M D G C V
Catbrier Smilax bona-nox M C v
Wild sarsaparilla Smilax glauca M

266

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Bamboo-vine Smilax laurifolia M D G C V
Wild sarsaparilla Smilax pumila M
Greenbriar Tm-ilax rotundifolia M D
Jackson-brier Smilax smallii M V
Hogbrier Smilax tamnoides M V
Coral greenbrier Smilax walteri M
Nightshade Solanum americanum G C
Horse-nettle Solanum carolinense M D
Horse-nettle Solanum carolinense var.
floridanum, M
Black nightshade Solanum nigrescens M C
Bluestem goldenrod Solidago caesia M
Goldenrod Solidago canadensis M D G
Goldenrod Solidago chapmanii V
Solidago fistulosa M D G
Sweet goldenrod Solidago odora M C V
Seaside goldenrod Solidago sempervirens D
Seaside goldenrod Solidago sem2ervirens var.
mexicana M G C V
Solidago stricta M D G C V
Spiny-leaved sow thistle Sonchus-asper D C V
Common sow thistle Sonchus oleraceus D G V
Slender indiangrass Sorghastrum elliottii V
Wood grass Sorghastrum. nutans V
Lopside indiangrass Sorghastrum secundum M V
Smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora M D G C V
Saltmarsh cordgrass Spartina alterniflora var.
Rlabra G C V
Sand cordgrass Spartina bakeri D V
Big cordgrass Spartina cynosuroides M D V
Saltmeadow cordgrass, Marshhay Spartina patens M D G C V
Gulf cordgrass Spartin spartinae D G C V
Spermacoce prostrata M
Scale-seed Spermolepis divaricata M D G C V
Scale-seed Spermolepis echinata D G V
Gooseweed Sphenoclea zeylanica M
Shiny wedgescale Sphenopholis nitida M
Prairie wedgescale Sphenopholis obtusata' D G C V
Spilanthes americana M
Nodding ladies'-tresses (T) Spiranthes cernua var.
odorata M
Slender ladies'-tresses (T) Spiranthes gracilis M
Lesser ladies'-tresses (T) Spiranthes ovalis M
Grass-leaved.ladies'-tresses (T) Spiranthes praecox M C V
Spring ladies'-tresses (T) Spiranthes vernalis M D C
Duckmeat Spirodela polyrhiza V

267

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Duckmeat Spirodela punctata D
Florida dropseed Sporobolus floridanus V
Smutgrass Sporobolus indicus M D C V
Virginia dropseed Sporobolus virginicus M D G C V
Shade betony Stachys crenata M
Bladdernut (T) Staphylea trifolia M
Common chickweed Stellaria media D G
Stellaria prostrata V
Stellaria pubera M
St. Augustine grass Stenotaphrum secundatum M D C
Silky camellia (E) Stewartia malachodendron M
Corkwood Stillingia aquatica M V
Blackseed needlegrass Stipa avenacea M
Stipulicida setacea D G C V
Sand beans Strophostyles helvola M D G C V
Sand beans Strophostyles leiosperma, M G C V
Stylisma humistrata M
Stylisma patens M
Pencil flower Stylosanthes biflora M
Storax Styrax americana M
Storax Styrax americana var.
pulverulenta M
Big-leaf snowbell Styrax grandifolia M
Southern sea blite Suaeda linearis D G C V
Horse sugar, Sweetleaf Symplocos tinctoria M
Shoe buttons Syngonanthus flavidulus D
Manatee-grass Syringodium filiforme M D C
Pondcypress Taxodium ascendens M D V
Baldcypress dium distichum M C V
Florida yew (E) Taxus floridana M
Tephrosia hispidula M
Wood sage Teucrium canadense var. nashii M G C V
Turtle-grass Thalassia testudinum M D G
Fireflag Thalia geniculata M V
Purple meadow parsnip Thaspium trifoliatum M
Downy shield fern (T) Thelypteris dentata M
Beech fern (T) Thelypteris hexagonoptera M
(T) Thelypteris interruRta D
Southern shield fern (T) Thelypteris kunthii M
Marsh fern (T) Thelypteris palustris M D G V
Thelypteris quadrangularis var.
versicolor M
Basswood Tilia heterophylla M
Wild pine, Air plant (T) Tillandsia bartramii M
Spanish moss Tillandsia usneoides M C V
Florida torreya, Stinking cedar (E) Torreya taxifolia M

268

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Poison ivy Toxicodendron radicans M D G C V
Eastern poison oak Toxicodendron toxicarium G C
Climbing dogbane Trachelospe difforme M
Wandering jew Tradescantia fluminensis M
Spiderwort Tradescantia hirsutiflora D
Common spiderwort Tradescantia ohiensis M D G
Tradescantia virginiana V
Tr4gia smallii M
Trepocarpus aethusae M
Triadenum tubulosum M
Marsh-St. John's wort Triadenum virginicum M
Marsh St. John's wort Triadenum walteri M
Blue curls, Bastard pennyroyal Trichostema dichotomum M D C V
Pine barren tridens Tridens ambiguus M
Tall redtop Tridens flavus M V
Low hop clover Trifolium campestre G
Clover Trifolium carolinianum D
Clover Trifolium dubium D
White clover Trifolium repens G
Arrowgrass Triglochin striata V
Wakerobins (E) Trillium lancifolium M
Venus' looking-glass Triodanus biflora M G
Venus' looking-glass Triodanus perfoliata M D G V
Perennial sandgrass Triplasis americana D G C V
Purple sandgrass Triplasis purpurea M D G C V
Eastern gamagrass Tripsac dactyloides M
Montbretia Tritonia crocosmaeflora D
Southern cattail Typha domingensis M D G C V
Common cattail Typha latifolia D C V
Winged elm Ulmus alata M
American elm Ulmus americana M V
Slippery elm Ulmus rubra M
Sea oats Uniola paniculata D G C V
Bladderwort Ut-ricularia biflora D G C V
Horned bladderwort Utricularia cornuta G
Bladderwort Utricularia foliosa. M V
Bladderwort Utricularia iuncea D
Bladderwort Utricularia olivacea M
Purple bladderwort Utricularia purpurea M V
Bladderwort Utricularia radiata D
Small purple-bladderwort Utricularia resupinata V
Bladderwort Utricularia subulata V
Bellwort Uvularia floridana M
Bellwort Uvularia perfoliata M
Bellwort U@ @laria sessilifolia M
Sparkleberry Vaccinium arboreum M G V

269

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum M V
Vaccinium darrowii D G C V
Shiny blueberry Vaccinium myrsinites G C V
Deerberry Vaccinium stamineum M V
Eelgrass Vallisneria americana M V
False hellebores (E) Veratrum woodii M
Wooly mullein Verbascum thapsus M
Vervain Verbena bonariensis D
Vervain Verbena brasiliensis M D
Vervain Verbena rigida M
White vervain Verbena utricifolia M C V
Verbesina alternifolia M
Chapman's crownbeard (T) Verbesina chapmanii M
Verbesina occidentalis M V
Frost weed Verbesina virginica M V
Ironweed Vernonia angustifolia var.
mohrii M
Ironweed Vernonia Rigantea M
Corn speedwell Veronica arvensis D
Neckweed Veronica peregrina M D G
Veronica peregrina var
xalapensis M
Southern arrow-wood Viburnum dentatum M
Southern arrow-wood Viburnum dentatum var.
scabrellum M
Possum haw Viburnum nudum M
Small viburnum Viburnum obovatum M
Rusty-haw Viburnum rufidulum M
Sand vetch Vicia acutifolia M D G C V
Common vetch Vicia sativa D G
Lentil-tare Vicia tetrasperma G
luteola M G G V
Viola affinis M
Halberd-leaved yellow violet (E) Viola hastata M
Bog-white violet Viola lanceolata M V
Primrose-leaved violet Viola primulifolia M
Viola septemloba M
Chaste tree Vitex agnus-castus M D
Summer grape Vitis aestivalis M C V
Red grape Vitis palmata M
Muscadine, Scuppernong Vitis rotundifolia M D G C V
Frost grape Vitis vulpina M V
Common sixweeksgrass Vulpia octoflora D G C V
Wahlenbergia marginata M D
Warea sessilifolia M
American wisteria Wisteria frutescens C

270

Checklist of Plants of the Apalachicola Basin (cont.)

Chinese wisteria Wisteria sinensis C V
Cliff fern (T) Woodsia obtusa M
Netted chain-fern (T) Woodwardia areolata M D
Virginia chain-fern Woodwardia virainica M D G C V
Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium M G C
Yellow-root Xanthorhiza simplicissima M
Yellow-eyed grass ambigua M
Yellow-eyed grass, Xyris brevifolia D V
Yellow-eyed grass caroliniana M D G V
Yellow-eyed grass drummondii M V
Yellow-eyed grass Xyris elliottii D,
Yellow-eyed grass 2j@ flabelliformis D
Yellow-eyed grass iridifolia M V
Yellow-eyed grass isoetifolia M
Common yellow-eyed grass jupicai M D C V
Karst pond yellow-eyed grass (E) longisepala M
Hal-rer's yellow-eyed grass (T) scabrifolia M
Xyris stricta V
Spanish bayonet. Yucca aloifolia M D G C V
Weax-leaf yucca Yucca-flaccida D C
Yucca gloriosa V
Horned pondweed Zannichellia palustris V
Toothache-tree 2anthoxylum americanum M
Hercules'-club Zanthoxylum clava-herculis M C V
Zenobia Zenobia pulverulenta V
Rain-lily Zephyranthes treatiae M
Crow-poison Zigadenus densus M
Zigadenus glaberrimus M
Indian rice Zizania aquatica M V
Water millet, Southern wild rice Zizaniopsis miliacea M
Golden alexander Zizia aurea M
Salt water eel-grass Zostera marina V

Sources: McAtee, 1913; Kurz, 1938; Radford et al, 1968; Clewell, 1977;
Leitman, 1978; Eichholz et al, 1979; U.S. Dept. of Commerce and
DER, 1979; Kartesz and Kartesz, 1980; Leonard and Baker, 1982;
FDNR, 1983; Judd et al, 1983; Leitman et al, 1983; Christman, 1984;
Livingston, 1984; Anderson and Alexander, 1985; Clewell, 1985@,
Gholson, 1985; Anderson, 1986; FGFWFC, 1987.

271

272

APAIACHICOLA BAY AREA PROTECTION ACT

ENROLLED

1985 Legislature CS/KB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

An act relating to environmental protection;

creating the "Apalachicola Bay Area Protection

Act"; providing legislative intent; designating

Franklin County, excluding certain lands, as an

area of critical state concern to be known as

the Apalachicola aay Area; providing for

removal of such designation; providing for the

application of certain land and water

management laws; providing for the appointment

of a'resource planning and management

committee; providing duties; providing

principles for guiding development in the area;

providing for comprehensive plan elements and
lan@ development regulations; providing for

modifications; providing for local government

requirements; providing a penalty; providing

procedures for applications for certaingrints;

providing appropriations; providing an

effective date.

WHEREAS, the Apalachicola River has the greatest volume

of flow of any river in Florida, and its estuary, Apalachicola

Bay, has been designated a National Estuarine Sanctuary, a

Florida Aquatic Preserve, an Outstanding Florida Water, a

Florida Class 11 Shellfish Harvesting Area, and an

International Blosphere Reserve, and

WHEREAS, the Apalachicola River is at the southernmost

portion of a multi-river system that spans three states, and

is used for drinking, irrigation, hydropower, industrial and

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198S Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

navigational uses, waste disposal, fishing and other

recreational activities, and

WHEREAS, Apalachicola Bay provides a substantial

harvest of shrimp and blue crabs, and produces 90 percent of

the state's corinercial oyster harvest, for a total dockside

value of more than $12 million annually, and provides a large

economic contribution to local governments along its banks,

and

WHEREAS, the commercial and recreational fisheries

activities in the Apalachicola River and Bay contribute an

estimated $30 million per year to local economies, which

sustains the largely traditional lifestyles of the residents

in the area, and

WHEREAS, there is currently an inadequate sewage

collection and treatment system in the Apalachicola Bay Area,

resulting in frequent closings of the bay to shellfish

harvesting, and

WHEREAS, existing and future sources of pollution must

be controlled to protect the natural resources of the

Apalachicola Bay Area, and

WHEREAS, the Legislature of the State of Florida

declares that Apalachicola Bay is a vital state resource that

needs to be protected for the benefit of all the citizens of

the state, and

WHEREAS, the Legislature of the State of Florida

acknowledges that the residents of Franklin County are unable

to provide sufficient funding for adequate sewage treatment

and proper implementation of comprehensive plans and land

development regulations, and

WHEREAS, the Legislature of the State of Florida will,

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

renovate and rehabilitate the sewer systems in Franklin County

in order to protect Apalachicola Bay, and

WHEREAS, the Legislature of the State of Florida

desires to protect the Apalachicola Bay Area by ensuring the

proper implementation and enforcement of adequate

comprehensive plans and land development regulations, and

WHEREAS, the Legislature of the State of Florida

desires to assist Franklin County and its municipalities in

modifying their comprehensive plans and developing additional

land development regulations and implementing their plans and
regulations in order to protect the Apalachicola Bey Area,

NOW, THEREFORE,

Be It Enacted by the Legislature of the State of Florida:

Section 1. This act shall be known, and cited as the

"Apalachicola Bay Area Protection Act."

Section 2. Legislative intent--It is hereby declared

that the intent of the Legislature is:

(1) To protect the water quality of the Apalachicola

Bay Area to ensure a healthy environment and a thriving

economy for the residents of the area and the state.

(2) To financially assist Franklin County and ills

municipalities in upgrading and expanding their sewerage

systems.

(3) To protect the Apalachicola Bay Area's natural and

economic resources by implementing and enforcing comprehensive

plans and land development regulations.

(4) To assist Franklin County and its municipalities

with technical and advisory assistance in formulating

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198S Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

additional land development regulations and modifications to

comprehensive plans.

(5) To monitor activities within the Apalachicola Bay

Area to ensure the long-term protection of all the area's

resources.

(6) To promote a broad base of economic growth which

is compatible with the protection and conservation of the

natural resources of the Apalachicola Bay Area.

(7) To educate the residents of the Apalachicola Bay

Area in order to protect and preserve its natural resources.

Section 3. (1) 1)-ESIGNATION.--Franklin County, as

described in s. 7.19, Florida Statutes, less all federally

owned lands, and less all lands lying east of the line formed

by the eastern boundary of State Road 319 running from the

Ochlockonee River to the intersection of State Road 319 and

State Road 9a and thence due south to the Gulf of Mexico, is

hereby designated an area of critical state concern on the

effective date of this act. State road, for the purpose of

this section, shall be defined as in s. 334.03, Florida

Statutes. For the purposes of this act, this area shall.be

known as the Apalachicola Bay Area.

(2) REMOVAL OF DESIGNATION.--The state land planning

agency, 3 years following the effective date of this act,

shall recommend to the Administration Commission the removal

of the designation specified in subsection (1), if it

determines that all local land development regulations, local

comprehensive plans, and the administration of such

regulations and plans are'adequate to protect the Apalachicola,
Bay Area, continue to carry out the legislative intent set

forth in section 2, and are in compliance with the principles

276

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19e5 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Administration Commission concurs with the recorm-nendations of

the state land planning agency to remove the designation, it

shall, within 45 days of receipt of the recommendation,

initiate rulemaking to remove the designation. The state land

planning agency-shall thereafter make the above determination

annually, until such time as the designation is removed.

Section 4. (1) Section 380.05 (l)-(6), (e)-(12),

(1S), (17), and (21), Florida Statutes, shall not apply to the

area designated by this act for so long as the designation

remains in effect. Except as otherwise provided in this act,

a. 380.045, Florida St atutes, shall not apply to the area

designated by this act. All other provisions of chapter 380,

Florida Statutes, shall apply, including as. 3eO.O7 and
360.11, Florida Statutes, except that the "local development

.regulations" in a. 380.OS(13), Florida Statutes, shall

include the regulations set forth in.section 7 of this act for

purposes of a. 3SO.05 (13), Florida Statutes, and the plan or
plahs submitted pursuant to a. 380.05(14), Florida Statutes,
shall be submitted no later than February 1, 1�86. All or

part of the area designated by this act may be redesignated

pursuant to a. 380.OS, Florida Statutes, as if it had been

initially designated pursuant to that section.

(2) If a developer has by his actions in reliance on

prior'regulations obtained vested or other legal rights

including rights obtained by approval of a development of

regional impact or a substantial deviation thereof pursuant to
a. 380.06, Florida Statutes, that would have prevented a local

government from changing those regulations in a way adverse to

his interests, nothing in this act authorizes any governmental

agency to abridge those rights.
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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Section S. Retource planning and management

committee.--The Governor, acting as the chief planning officer

of the state, shall appoint a resource planning and management

committee for the Apalachicola Bay Area, with the membership

as specified in s. 380.045(2), Florida Statutes. Members of

the.committee shall be appointed for 2-year terms and may be

reappointed. Meetings will be called as needed by the

chairman or on the demand of three or more members of the

committee. The committee shall continue in existence until 12

months after the Administration Commission removes the

designation as an area of critical state concern. The

committee shall:

(1) Develop, with officials of Franklin County and

officials of the other units of government in the Apalachicola

Bay Area, recommendations to the state land planning agency as

to the sufficiency of the Apalachicola Bay Area's

comprehensive plans and land development regulations.

(2) Recommend to the state land planning agency

changes to state and regional plans and regulatory programs

affecting the Apalachicola Bay Area.
(3) Recommend io the state land planning agency, not

less than 33 months after the effective date of this act,

whether the designation in section 3 should continue.

(4) Assist units of local government within the

Apalachicola Bay Area in carrying out the planning functions

and other responsibilities required by thi3 act.

(S) Study the economic and environmental advisability

of providing sewerage facilities to the residents of St.

George Island and make a recommendation to the state land

planning agency.
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198S Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

(6) Review, at a minimum, all reports and other

materials provided to it by the state land planning agency or

the Department of Environmental Regulation.

(7) Review the study done pursuant to (3)(a) of

section 9 of this act, and make recommendations for

implementation and funding.

Section 6. Principles for guiding development.--State,

regional and local agencies and units of government in the

Apalachicola Bay Area shall coordinate their plans and conduct

their programs and regulatory activities consistent with the

following principles for guiding the development of the area:

(1) Land development shall be guided so that the basic

functions and productivity of the Apalachicola Bay Area's

natural land and water systems will be conserved to reduce or

avoid health, safety, and economic problems-for present and

future residents of the Apalachicola Bay Area.

(2) Land development shall be consistent with a safe

environment, adequate community facilities, a superior guality

of life and desire to minimize environmental hazards.
(3) :rowthIand diversification of the local economy

shall be fostered only if it is co nsistent with protecting the

natural resources of the Apalachicola Bay Area through

appropriate management of the land and water systems.

(4) Aquatic habitats and wildlife resources of the

Apalachicola Bay Area shall be conserved and protected.

(5) Water quantity shall be managed to conserve and

-protect the natural resources and the scenic beauty of the

Apalachicola Bay Area.

(6) The quality of water shall be protected,

maintained and 4-m-oroved for nublic water sur-alles, the

279

ENROLLED

1985 Legislature CS,,73 1202, 3rd Engrossed

propagation of aquatic life, and recreational and other uses

which are consistent with these uses.

(7) No wastes shall be discharged into any waters of

the Apalachicola Bay Area without first being given the degree

of treatment necessary to protect the water uses as set forth

in subsection (6).

(8) Stormwater discharges shall be managed in order to

minimize their impacts on the bay system and prote.ct the uses

as set forth in subsection (6).

(9) Coastal dune systems, specifically the area

extending landward from the extreme high tide line to the

beginning of the pinelands of the Apalachicola Bay Area, shall

be protected.

(10) Public lands shall be managed, enhanced, and

protected so that the public may continue to enjoy the

traditional use of such lands.

Section 7.' Comprehensive plan elements and land

development reclulations.--The following comprehensive plan

elements and land development regulations shall be

administered by local governments within their jurisdiction in

the Apalachicola Bay Area, as part of their local
comprehensive plan and land development regulations. If a

local government within the Apalachicola Bay Area has a

provision in its local comprehensive plan or its land
-development regulations which conflicts with a provision of

this section or has no comparable provision, the provision of

this section shall control.

(1) COMPREHENSIVE PLAN.-- Chapter 1 of Volume 1, and

chapters 4, 5, 7, and 9 of Volume II of the Franklin County

Comprehensive Land Use Plan adopted by Ordinance No. 61-4 on

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on June

30, 1981, are incorporated by reference and adopted herein.

(2) ZONING ORDINANCES.--Ordinance No. 81-S adopted

June 22, 1981, by the Franklin County Board of County

Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on June

30, 1982, and the following amendments are incorporated by

reference and adopted herein:

(a) Ordinance 82-4, adopted June 18, 1982, and filed

with the Secretary of State on July 28, 1982.

(b) Ordinance 83-4. adopted July 19, 1983, and filed

with the Secretary of State on July 25, 1983.

with the Secretary of State on October 6, 1983.

(d) Ordinance 84-2, adopted April 24, 1984,.and filed

With the Secretary of State on Azril 27, 1984.

(3) SUBDIVISION RECULATIONS.--Ordinance No. 74-1

adopted November 15, 1974, by the Franklin County Board of

County Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on

December 4, 1974, and December 5, 1974, and the following.

amendment is incorporated by reference and adopted herein:

(a) Ordinance 79-5, filed with the Secretary of State

on May 30, 1979.

(4) FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT ORDINANCE.--Ordinance No.

83-5 adopted on July 7, 1983, by the Franklin County Board of

County Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on

July 15, 1983, is incorporated by reference and adopted

herein.

(5) SEPTIC TANK ORDINANCE.-- Ordinance 79-8 adopted on

June 22, 1979, by "he Franklin County Board of County

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on June

27, 1979, is incorporated by reference and adopted herein.

(6) CONSTRUCTICN; ELECTRICAL CONNECTION.--Ordinan--e

No. 73-SA adopted July 3, 1973, by the Franklin County Board

of County Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State

on March 6, 1981, is incorporated by reference and adopted

herein.

(7) ALLIGATOR POINT WATER RESOURCE DISTRICT ACT.--

ordinance No-. 76-7 adopted on November 16, 1976, by the

Franklin County Board of County Commissioners.and filed with

the Secretary of State on March 6, 1981, is incorporated by

reference and adopted herein,

(8) COASTAL AREA BUILDING CODES.--Ordinance No. 84-1

establishing building codes for coastal areas adopted by the

Franklin County Board of County Commissioners on February 8,

1984, and filed with the Secrdtary of State on February 2_

1984, is incorporated by reference and adopted herein.

(9) STANDARD BUILDING CODE.--Ordinance adopting the

1976 Standard Building Code, Ordinance No. 83-1, adopted

January 18, 1983, by the Franklin County Board of County

Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State January

20, 1983, is incorporated by reference and adopted herein.

(10) LOCAL PLANNING AGENCY.--Ordinance No. 77-6

adopted on June 21, 1977, by the Franklin County Board of

County Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on
June 22, 1977, is incorporated.by reference and adopted

herein.

(11) COASTAL HIGH HAZARD.ZONES.--Ordinance No. 80-5

adopted on May 29, 1980, by the Franklin County Board of

County Commissioners and filed with the Secretary of State on

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

May 30, 1980, is incorporated by reference and adopted herein.

.(12) CONFLICTING RECULATIONS.--In the event of any

inconsistency between subsection (1) and subsections (2)-(11),

subsection (1) shall control. Further, in the event of any

inconsistency between section 6 and subsections (I)-(Il) of

section 7 and a development order issued pursuant to s.

380.06, which has become final prior to the effective date of

this act, or between section 6 and subsections (l)-(Il) of

section 7 and an amendment to a final development order, which

amendment has been requested prior to April 2_1985, the
development order or amendment.thereto shall control.

However, any modification to subsections (l)-(11) enacted by a

local government and approved by the Administration Commission

pursuant to section 8, may provide whether it shall control

over an inconsistent provision of a development order or

amendment thereto.' A development order or any amendment

thereto referred to in this subsection shall not be subject to

approval by the Administration Commission pursuant to section

(13) EFFECT OF EXISTING PLANS AND REGULATIONS.---

Legally adopted comprehensive plans and land development

regulations other than those listed in this section shall

remain in full force and effect unless inconsistent with the

principles for guiding development set forth in section 6, the

elements of the comprehensive plan listed in this section, or

the land development regulations listed in this section.

(14) DEVELOPMENTS OF REGIONAL IMPACT.--A local

government shall approve a development subject to the

provisions of s. 380.06, Florida Statutes, only if it also

comolies with the.Drovisions of this section.

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Section 8. Modification to plans and regulations.--Any

land development regulation or element of a local

comprehensive plan in the Apalachicola Bay Area may be

enacted, amended, or rescinded by a local government, but the

enactment, amendment, or rescission becomes effective only

upon the approval thereof by "he Administration Commission.

Further, the state land planning agency, after consulting with

the appropriate local government, may, from time to time,

recommend the enactment, amendment, or rescission of a land

development regulation or element of a comprehensive plan.

Within 45 days following the receipt of such recommendation.by

the state land planning agency, or enactment, amendment, or

rescission by a local government, the commission shall reject

or accept the recommendation, enactment, amendment, or

rescission with or without modification and adopt, by rule,

any changes. Any such local land development regulation or

comprehensive plan or part of such regulation or plan may be

adopted by the commission if it finds that it is in compliance

with the principles for guiding de velopment.

Section 9. Requirements; local governments.--

(1) As used in'this section:

(a) "Alternative on3ite system" means any approved

onsite disposal system used in lieu of a standard subsurface

system.

(b) "Critical shoreline zone" means all land within a

distance of 150 feet landward of the mean high water line in

tidal areas, the ordinary high water line in nontidal areas,

or the inland wetland areas existing along the streams, lakes,

rivers, bays, and sounds within the Apalachicola Bay Area.

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

sensitive resources, including but not limited to, productive

shellfish beds and nursery areas, requires special regulatory

attention.

(d) "Low-income family" means a group of persons

residing together whose combined income does not exceed 200

percent of the 198S Poverty Income.Guidelines for all states

and the District of Columbia, promulgated by the United States

Department of Health and Human Services, as published in

Volume 50, No. 46 of.the Federal Register, pages 9517-18.

Income shall be as defined in said guidelines..

(2) Franklin County and the municipalities within it

shall, within 60 days after a.sewerage system is available for

use, notify all owners and users of onsite sewage disposal

systems of the availability of such a system and that

conziection isrequired-within 180 days of the notice. Failure

to connect to an available system within the time.prescribed

shall-be a misdemeanor of the second degree, punishable as

provided for in ss. 775.082 and 775.083, Florida Statutes.

Further,.Franklin County and the municipalities within it

shall have the right to make the connection if it is not made

within the prescribed time and to assess the owner of the real

property on which the connection is made for the cost of such

connection. Such assessments shall be levied according to law

and shall become a lien against the real property, enforced

according to law. Franklin County and the municipalities

within it shall develop a program and implement ordinan6es to

make available to low income families the sewer services

available upon completion of the proposed sewer projects being

funded by this act.

(3)(a) The Department of Health and Rehabilitative

Services shall survey all septic tank soil-absorption systems

285

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1985 Legi.slature CS/HB, 1202, 3rd Engrossed

in the Apalachicola Bay Area to determine their suitability as

onsite sewage treatment systems. Within 6 months from the

effective date of this act, Franklin County and the

municipalities within it, after consultation with the

Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services and the

Department of Environmental Regulation, shall develop a

program designed to correct any onsite sewage treatment

systems that might endanger the water quality of the bay.

(b) Franklin County and the municipalities within it

shall, within 9 months from the effective date of this act,

enact by ordinance procedures implementing this program.

These procedures shall include notification to owners of

unacceptable septic tanks and procedures for correcting

unacceptable septic tanks. These ordinances shall not be

effective until approved by the Department of Health and

Rehabilitative Services and the Department of Environmental

Regulation.

Franklin County and the municipalities within it

shall, within 12 months from the effective date of this act,

establish by ordinance a map of "pollution-sensitive segments

of the critical shoreline" within the Apalachicola Bay Area,

which ordinance shall not be effective until approved by the

Department of Health andRehabilitative Services and the

Department of Environmental Regulation. Franklin County and

the municipalities within it, after the effective date of

these ordinances, shall no longer grant permits for onsite

wastewater disposal systems in pollution-sensitive segments of

the critical shoreline, except for those onsite wastewater

systems that will not degrade water quality in the river or

bay. These ordinances shall not become effective until

approved by the resource planning and managenent coT=ittee.

286

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1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

Until such ordinances become effective, the Franklin County

Health Department shall not give a favorable recommendation to

the granting of a septic tank variance pursuant to section (1)

of Ordinance 79-8, adopted on June 22, 1979, by the Franklin

County Board of County Commissioners and filed with the

Secretary of State on June 27, 1979, or issue a permit for a

septic tank or alternative waste disposal system pursuant to

Ordinance 81-5, adopted on June 22, 1981, by the Franklin

County Board of County Commissioners and filed with the

Secretary of State on June 30, 1981, as amended as set forth

in section 7(2), unless the Franklin County Health Department

certifies, in writing, that the use of such system will be

consistent with section 6(6) and (7).

(5) Franklin County and the municipalities ;@ithin it

shall, within 9 months from the effective date of this act,

enact land development regulations to protect the Apalachicola

Bay Area from stormwater pollution, including provisions for

development approval, before the issuance of building permits

pursuant to Rule 17-2S, F.A.C. Franklin County and the

municipalities within it shall, within 90 days following the

above deadline, survey existing,stormwater management systems

and discharges to determine their effect on the bay and
develop a comprehensive stormwater@ management plan to minimize

such effects. The plan will include recommendations and

financing options for the retrofitting of existing systems.

Franklin County and the municipalities within it shall, as
part of an overall ;tormwater management program, inform its

citizens about stormwater, its relationship to land use, and

its effect upon the resources of the Apalachicola Bay Area.

(6) Franklin County and the municipalities within it

!shall, within I year from the effective date of this act,

287

ENROLLED

1985 Legislature CS/HB 120@, 3rd Engrossed

prepare, with assAstance from concerned state agencies and

other interested parties, a report on options to improve the

fisheries for the Apalachicola Bay Area. Assistance should

also be requested from the appropriate federal agencies.

Within 12 months from the effective date of this act, copies

of the report shall be submitted to the Marine Fisheries

Commission.

(7) Franklin County and the municipalities within it

shall; beginning 12 months from the effective date of this

act, prepare semiannual reports on the implementation of

subsections (2)-(6) on the environmental status of the

Apalachicola Bay Area. The state land planning agency may

prescribe additional detailed information required to be

reported. Each report shall be delivered to the resource

planning and management committee and the state, land planni ng

agency for review and recommendations. The state land
planning agency shall review each .'report and consider such

reports when making recommendations to the Administration

Commission pursuant to section 8..

Section 10 The applicants for grants from the

Department of Envirorimintal*Regulation to finance s ewerage

improvements for Apalachicola, Carrabelle, and Eastpoint Water

and Sewer District, herein referred to as applicants, shall

not be required to submit planning or design documents prior

to any grant award or prior to September 30, 1965, nor shall

the applicants be required to establish a capital improvement

account. The funds from any appropriation are to be held,

together with any state or federal grant funds, to implement

sewerage projects, subject to the requirements of Chapter 17,

F.A.C. Such funds shall be deposited into a trust fund, to be

known as the Apalachicola Bay Protection Trust Fund, which is

288

ENROLLED

1985 Legislature CS/HB 1202, 3rd Engrossed

hereby created, until the Department of Environmental

Regulation determines that an applicant otherwise entitled to

the funds has met all the Department of Environmental

Regulation's requirements. Interest from moneys in the trust

fund shall be deposited into the Water Pollution Control Trust

Fund.

Section 11. (1) The sum of $101,744 and four

additional positions is hereby appropriated from the General

Revenue Fund to the Department of Community Affairs to carry

out its responsibilities under this act.

(2) The sum of $39,188 and two additional positions is

hereby appropriated from the General Revenue Fund to the

Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services to carry out

its responsibilities under this act.

(3) The sum of $29,800 and one additional position is

hereby appropriated from the General Revenue Fund to the

Department of Environmental Regulation to carry out its

rest)onsibilities under this act.

Section 12. This act shall take effect upon becoming a

law.

289

AN ORDINANCE DEFINING AND REGULATING THE
CRITICAL SHORELINE DISTRICT OF FRANKLIN
COUNTY, AND ADOPTING MAPS OF THE POLLUTION
SENSITIVE SEGMENT THEREOF

FRANKLIN COUNTY, FLORIDA

ORDINANCE No. 87-1

The Board of County Commissioners recognizes the need to

maintain the seafood industry and aquatic recreational resources

of Franklin County fmr the benefit of current and future residents

by protecting coastal and inland waters from pollution generated

by stormwater runoff, sedimentation and septic tanks. This

ordinance shall repeal Ordinance 81-5 Special District S-3,

Critical Shoreline overlay, and shall prevail when in conflict

with Ordinance 79-8, Septic Tanks.

1. Intent of the Critical Shoreline District

Good water quality is essential.in maintaining viable

seafood and aquatic recreational resources. The intent of this

ordinance is to maintain good water quality by protecting wetlands

and by guiding development and land use on adjacent uplands,

thereby creating a buffer to reduce the adverse impacts of

pollution on freshwater and marine resources.

II. Scope

This ordinance shall apply to all land and water in

unincorporated Franklin County.

III. Definitions

1. Alternative Wastewater Treatment System Any Department

of Health and Rehabilitative services (DHRS) approved

onsite individual sewage disposal system which will

consistently provide a level of sewage treatment equal to

or exceeding that of a Class I aerobic treatment unit in

compliance with National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)

Standard 40, revised May 1983. The unit must also meet

all requirements as called for in Chapter 19D-6, Florida

Administrative Code, "Standards for Onsite Sewage

Disposal Systemsil.

290

2. Clearing - The removal of live vegetation by any means

including but not limited to cutting, grading, plowing,

chemical treatment and mechanical or non-mechanical

uprooting. Does not include mowing of existing lawns or

planted grasses.

3. Critical (Habitat) Zone (CHZ) - All lands within 50 feet

landward of Wetlands of Franklin County.

4. Critical Shoreline District - All land within 150 feet

landward of Wetlands of Franklin County.

5. Development - As defined in Section 220-20 Franklin County

Zoning Ordinance.

6. Development rermit As defined in Sections 220.21 and

301 Franklin County Zoning Ordinance.

7. Habitable Structure - Any structure usable for living

purposes, which includes working, sleeping, eating,

cooking, recreation or any combination thereof.

8. Natural Vegetation - As defined in Section 220.46

Franklin County Zoning Ordinance.

9. Pollution Sensitive Segment That part of the Critical

Shoreline District requiring special regulatory attention

due to its proximity to highly sensitive resources

established on maps hereby adopted as part of this

ordinance, pursuant to chapter 380.0555(11)(d).

.10. Septic Tank - As defined in Section 220.55 Franklin

county Zoning ordinance.

11. Water Dependent Structure - A structure, excluding

habitable structures, used for water access placed

within the Critical Habitat Zone including, but

not limited to, docks, marinas, marine fueling stations

other than bulk storage facilities, seafood processing

houses and boat ramps.

12. Wetlands of Franklin Count - The landward extent of

Wetlands dominated by vegetation listed in Rule

17-4.022, Florida Administrative Code (F.A.C.), which is

contiguous to any manmade or natural waterbody containing

an area, including wetlands vegetation, greater than ten

(10) acres. waterbodies include, but are not limited to;

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sounds, bays, lagoons, lakes, streams, wet borrow pits

and their tributaries. in the absence of wetlands, the

landward extent shall be determined by approximate

ordinary high water or approximate mean high water.

13. wetlands - As defined in Section 220.67, Franklin County

Zoning Ordinance.

IV. Critical Shoreline District

The intent of the Critical Shoreline District is to assure

that all development within.this District receives special

regulatory attention so as to minimize adverse impacts on the

county's freshwater and marine natural resources. The Critical

Shoreline District includes the Pollution Sensitive Segment and

the Critical Habitat Zone.

The purpose of the Critical Habitat Zone is to retain a

natural, low maintenance, vegetated buffer between upland

development and wetlands, freshwater and marine resources thereby

minimizing shoreline erosion and stormwater runoff.

The purpose of the Pollution Sensitive Segment is to provide

a protective buffer between lands suitable for standard septic

tanks and sensitive, economically important, freshwater and

marine resources.

There is hereby established the Critical Shoreline District

which consists of all lands within a distance of 150 feet landward

of Wetlands of Franklin County. The Pollution Sensitive

Segment, also a distance of 150 feet landward of Wetlands of

Franklin County is indicated on maps maintained by the

Franklin County Planning and Building Department which are hereby

declared to be a part-of this ordinance. The maps are a guide to

the location of the segment; its actual extent with respect to a

particular parcel shall be made an a case-by-case basis by the

Franklin County Planner, or his designated representative, in

accordance with-this ordinance.

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V. Develo-pment in the Critical Shoreline Distr-17t

1. Prior to any development in the Critical Shoreline

District, the applicant must apply for and receive a

development permit pursuant to Section 301.04 of the

Franklin County Zoning ordinance. Each applicant shall

receive upon request a copy of the Critical Shoreline

District (CSD) Development Manual to assist in

understanding the development standards of the district.

2. Development within the Critical Habitat Zone will be

prohibited except as provided by the following:

(a) The construction of principal water dependent use

structures as identified in the C-1 Commercial

Fishing District as well as boat ramps, docking,

fueling and boat storage facilities in the C-3

Commercial Recreation District;

(b) The construction of pile supported pervious, non

habitable water dependent structures;

structures, erosion control@structures and habitable

structures, including attached porches, will require

a.clear demonstration of hardship. An approved

stormwater management system shall be required for the

variance approval of a habitable structure.

Construction of a structure wtihin or waterward of

the Wetlands of Franklin County shall be expressly

prohibited except for uses that are granted in this

section.

3. All development proposals within the Pollution Sensitive

Segment will be subject to the Planning Review Process as

provided by Section 301.04, Franklin County Zoning Ordinance.

4. Forestry operations on land not within the Pollution

Sensitive Segment shall be exempt from the provisions of

this ordinance p-@ovided that all forestry operations 1)

are conducted in compliance with the Silviculture Best

Management Practice Manual (1979) published by the

Division of Forestry; 2) maintain an agricultural

exemption in the Franklin County tax appraiser's office

293

for lands that would be contained in the Critical

Shoreline District. Forestry operations on land within

the Critical Habitat Zone of the Pollution Sensitive

Segment shall comply with the provisions of this ordinance.

VI. Guidelines and Minimum Standards for Development in the
-4 Critical Shoreline District

1. Impervious surfaces shall be minimized.

2. Existing natural vegetation shall be preserved to the

maximum degree possible. Alteration or clearing of

existing natural vegetation shall be allowed only when

conducted in accordance with the requirements set forth

in the Development Permits issued by the Franklin County

Planning and Building Department.

3. Within 75 feet of the Wetlands of Franklin County neither

septic tanks nor alternative wastewater treatment

systems shall be allowed.. Within 75 feet to 150 feet of

the Wetlands of Franklin County and in areas not served

by a central wastewater system, alternative wastewater

treatment systems shall be required. Standard septic

tanks and their associated absorption beds, including

subsurface or mound systems, shall be prohibited.

Approval of alternative wastewater treatment systems

shall be determined by the following:

(a) The County Health officer shall determine from the

information submitted by the applicant and all other

pertinent available information that the proposed

alternative wastewater treatment system will not

cause or contribute to violations of State Water

Quality Standards listed in Chapter 17-3, F.A.C.

(b) Prior to construction, the applicant shall apply for

and receive a wastewater system construction permit

pursuant to Sections 1OD-6.43 and 1OD-6.44, F.A.C.

designed and installed pursuant to Sections 1OD-

6.54(2) anC IOD-6.063(2)(d), F.A.C., except that all

setbacks shall be pursuant to Section 1OD-6.46,

F.A.C.

294

(d) A valid maintenance agreement pursuant to Sections

1OD-6-54(2)(f) and IOD-6.063(2)(d), F.A.C. shall be

required.

(e) No aerobic treatment unit shall be serviced or

repaired by a person or entity engaged in aerobic

treatment unit maintenance until the service entity

has obtained an annual written permit pursuant to

Section IOD-6.063(2)(e), F.A.C.

4. The contractor shall provide a solid waste dumpster and

temporary wastewater disposal system on the project site

during construction.

5. Stormwater Management:

(a) Each development in the Critical Shoreline District

shall include a stormwater management system which

assures that the post-development peak discharge

rate, volume and pollution load of stormwater is no

greater than that which existed before development.

(b) :Minimum lot clearing, swale/berm systems, small

depressional retention areas and the integration of

a stormwater system into a site's landscaping are

recommended as practical and inexpensive means of

managirg stormwater.

stormwater impacts by using site suitable best

management practices which maximize the infiltration

of stormwater and minimize the off-site discharge of

stormwater.

(d) For all land uses other than single family residences,

the applicant shall provide, as part of the development

permit application, a site plan pursuant to 301.04,

Franklin County Zoning ordinance, that includes a

detailed stormwater management plan for treating the

first 1.5 inches of runoff. Whenever soil percolation

on a site will allow the infiltration of the required

stormwater treatment volume within 72 hours, the ..

stormwater system shall consist of off-line retention

practices. To the greatest extent possible, it is

295

recommende,: that retention areas be integrated into a

site's open space and landscaping areas so as to reduce

operation and maintenance needs. Prior to receiving a

development permit, the applicant shall apply for and

receive a stormwater'permit from the Department of

Environmental Regulation pursuant to Chapter 17-2S,

F.A.C., except that the first 1.5 inches of runoff

shall be the required treatment volume and that all

development projects shall obtain a stormwater permit.

VII. Inspections

1. A permit for development within the Pollution Sensitive

Segment shall not be issued without prior inspection of

the development site by a permitting official of the

planning and building department. The purpose of the

initial inspection is to verify the Critical Habitat

Zone, and the Pollution Sensitive Segment, the existence

of wetlands vegetation, and the existing soil, water

table and vegetation conditions.

2. Alternative wastewater treatment systems shall be

inspected by the County Health Officer pursuant to

Section IOD-6.43(2), F.A.C.

3. The applicant shall schedule the following inspections

with the County Planning and Building Department:

(a) Erosion and Sediment Control Inspection: as necessary

to ensure effective control of erosion and sedimenta-

tion. Control practices shall be installed and

stabilized between any waters and any areas cleared

prior to land clearing.

(b) Bury Inspection: inspection of any stormwater

management systems which include underground

components prior to covering of such components.

,associated with installation of the stormwater

management facility. A certificate of occupancy for

residential structures or final approval of any

other development will not be issued until such time

296

the stormwater management system complies with

standards as approved on the development application.

4. The permitting officer who inspects the work shall either

approve the stormwater management system or notify the

applicant and/or the contractor in writing in what

respects there has been a failure to comply with the

requirements of the approved permit. Any portion of the

work which does not comply shall be corrected prior to

occupancy or use of the development.

VIII.Maintenance

The stormwater system(s) required by this ordinance

shall be maintained by the owner and shall be subject to an
annual inspection by Franklin County. The system(s) shall

have adequate easements to permit such county inspection, and

if necessary, to take corrective action should the owner fail

to properly maintain the system(s). Should the owner fail to

properly maintain the system(s), the county shall give the

owner written notice of the nature of the corrective action

necessary. Should the owner fail, within thirty (30) days

from the date of the notice to take corrective action to the

satisfaction of the County, the County may enter upon lands,

take corrective action and place a lien on the property of the

owner for the costs thereof. All liens shall be recorded with

the Clerk of the Circuit Court and may be enforced pursuant to

Chapter 85, F.S.

IX. Enforcement

Enforcement of the regulations and standards of the Critical

Shoreline District will be pursuant to Sections 310 and 330 of the

Franklin County Zoning Ordinance.

X. Appeals

Any applicant aggrieved by the action of any official charged

with the enforcement of this ordinance of the Critical Shoreline

District requirements shall have the right of appeal pursuant to

Section 315.04 of the Franklin County Zoning Ordinance.
297

Xi. Fees

All development within the Critical Shoreline District shall

require the payment of a Critical Shoreline District permit fee as

established by Resolution of the Franklin County Board of County

Commissioners.

THIS Ordinance adopted in open special session this

29th day of January, 1987, having been considered and notice

given as a rezoning of more than 5% of the County, by publication

in the Apalachicola Times, a newspaper of general circulation

within the County. This Ordinance shall take effect upon its

approval by the Administration Commission, the Department of

Health and Rehabilitative Services, and the Department of

Environmental Regulation of the State of Florida.

THE BOARD OF COUNTY COMMISSIONERS
OF FRANKLIN COUNTY, FLORIDA

BY:
ATTEST: Its Chairman

Clerk

298

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE ST. GEORGE ISLAND SEWERAGE STUDY

On June 17, 1996, the Governor and Cabinet requested the Department of Community Affairs

to review current and planned sewage treatment facilities on St. George Island to determine

whether they are adequate to preserve the ecological integrity of Apalachicola Bay. 'If the

facilities were found to be inadequate, the Department was asked to recommend the type of

treatment that would provide sufficient protection.

This report was prepared by the Department of Community Affairs in response to the

Cabinet's request. In addition, it provides the Apalachicola Bay Area Resource Planning

and Management Committee with information they need to fulfill their responsibilities under

Chapter 380.0555. Section 380.0555(7)(e) requires the Committee to "study the economic and

environmental advisibility of providing sewerage facilities to the residents of St. George

Island and make a recommendation to the state land planning agency.'

The report is based upon an analysis of population and land use, recently completed soil and

septic tank surveys, a preliminary feasibility study of central sewage treatment for the

island, and a review of the literature linking septic tank effluent to estuarine pollution.

When completely developed, it is projected that from 14,000 to 17,000 people could be residing

on the island. If the day visitors to the park and public beach, and temporary hotel guests

are included, the number of people on the island at any one time could swell to 20,000 to

25,000 persons. That population will be housed in 4,048 dwelling units. An analysis of the

suitability of the island's soils for septic tanks indicates that 89.4% have either severe

limitations for septic tank use or are part of the coastal beach and dune system upon which the

state limits development. Even so, without a central sewage system, the Department of

Community Affairs estimates that 2,602, or 64.3%, of all future housing units will use

septic tanks, and of those, 2,298, or 88.3%, will be located in soils unsuited for

299

scptic tank use. If all septic tank users are included (businesses and the state park),

there will be 2,765 future septic tanks,, of which it is estimated that 2,418, or 87.5%,

will be located in unsuitable soils.

The major findings of this report are as follows:

1. A central sewage system for the island is the only safe option for

ensuring that the resources of Apalachicola Bay will be protected as

development occurs.

2. Although evidence to date does not clearly indicate that septic tanks on

on St. George Island are currently contaminating the Bay with disease-causing

organisms, evidence does indicate that nutrient pollution of the island's

canals and boat basin is occurring, that this is most likely being caused by

septic tank leachates and stormwater runoffi and that this could threaten the

Bay's ecological integrity.

3. Based upon population projections and septic tank densities, as well as

the similarity of the island's poor soils and high water table to other

coastal areas that have experienced septic tank pollution, the

probability that septic tank effluent will significantly contribute to

the Bay's eventual degradation Creates unacceptable risks to the

commercial and recreational industries dependent upon the Bay.

Although the problems are not severe now, the likelihood that they will become severe in

the future calls for a series of actions that provide in the short term maximum protection

against further envi;onmental degradation, but at the same time, ensure in the long term

that bay waters will remain clean. Therefore, the Department submits the following

recommendations:

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1. A planning study should begin at once to determine the economic and environmental

feasibility- of providing 9 central sewage system to St. George Island. Within six months,

a planning feasibility study should be completed and involve a determination as to the

type and location of central sewage treatment system that is most appropriate for the

island. Within six months from the completion of the planning feasibility study, funding

sources should be identified and implementation actions established to have the island

fully sewered within two years. If a central wastewater treatment system is not

operational within this three-year planning and implementation time frame, additional

septic tank permits north of Gulf Beach Drive and Leisure Lane should only be issued for

Class I Aerobic Treatment Units. The planning process should be accomplished within the

context of Chapter 380.0555, F.S., and should consider the feasibility of alternative

wastewater treatment systems and their financial, environmental, and aesthetic impacts on

the island, its residents, and Apalachicola Bay. To allow progress to be monitored, the

plan should specify interim steps that must'be accomplished and establish milestone dates

for their accomplishment. Funding for preparation of the plan will come from the Area of

Critical State Concern Trust Fund.

2. Because densities on the island are the key, not only for septic tank pollution,

but also for stormwater runoff, recreational demand, and potable water, they

should not be permitted to rise beyond current levels specified in the Franklin

County Comprehensive Plan and the Critical Area legislation, Section 380.0555 (9)(a)l,

either before or after a central sewage system is in place. The Department of Community

Affairs should investigate additional safeguards to ensure the densities are kept

constant.

301

3. Franklin County should immediately begin to require all aLw users on the island to

connect to the central potable water system. In addition, when the new sewage system is

available. Franklin County should. require all users on the island to be connected to the

central potable water system. The requirement of any additional connections to the

central potable water system should be contingent on the availability of capacity of that

system for such connections.

4. In the interim, between now and when a central sewage system is

operational, the following safeguards regarding cumulative monitoring, location,

type, and density of additonal septic tanks should be followed:

a. The issuance of all individual on-site sewage disposal permits should

be temporary, and when centralized wastewater treatment becomes available

to individual property owners, Franklin County should require all users of existing

sanitary treatment systems to connect to it within 90 days.

b. The ordinance designating the Pollution Sensitive Segment and Critical Habitat

Zone now under consideration by Franklin County should be adopted by the County in

January, 1987, and approved by the Administration Commission and implemented by the

County in March, 1987. If this is not done, the further issuance of septic tank

permits should be closely monitored by the Department of Community Affairs pursuant

to Chapter 380.05, F.S., and where necessary to protcct the Bay, the Department

should seek administrative or judicial remedies as provided by Chapter 380.11, F.S.

The effectiveness of the ordinance in protecting the Bay from septic tank pollution

will be monitored by the Department of Community Affairs through the DNR/DER water

Quality monitoring program recommended below. If it is determined that the ordinance

is not providing adequate protection, additional measures will be proposed.

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c. All wastewater disposal systems within the Critical. Habitat Zone and Pollution

Sensitive Segment of St. George Island, should be visually inspected by the

Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services on an annual basis for proper

operation. The Department of Environmental Regulation should conduct quarterly

inspections of the septic tanks and package plants it has permitted for proper

operation.

d. No individual on-site sewage disposal system should be approved within 75 feet
of the mean high water line, or where wetlands exist, within 75' of the inland

wetland boundary, as defined by the Department of Environmental Regulation at F.A.C.

17-4.022.

5. DER and DNR should establish a water quality monitoring program in the Apalachicola

Bay. If signs of degradation appear, the Resource Planning and Management Committee

should be notified and it should undertake a review of the causes of the pollution.

The Committee should submit its findings to the State Land Planning Agency, which will

make recommendations to the Administrative Commission regarding actions needed to abate

the problem.

6. Franklin County and responsible agencies should take the appropriate actions to

implement these recommendations pursuant to statutory authority as soon as possible.

The Department of Community Affairs and other responsible agencies should provide

technical assistance to property owners on the island to assist them in comp lying with

the recommendations of this report.

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