    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                                                                        Task 91     FINAL PRODUCT DEQ - Water
                                                                        FY 1"3       Protecting VA's Nontidal Wetlands

                         Critical Elements in the Application of
                         Water Quality Standards to Wetlands:

                       Classification System, Beneficial Use Designation
                         and the Identification of Exceptional Wetlands

                                                      46'*

                                                   Submitted to the
                                    Virginia Department of Environmental Quality

                                                          By
                                                   Pamela A. Mason
                                                    Carl Hershner

                                 The Department of Resource Management and Policy
                                                  Wetlands Program
                                          Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                             College of William and Mary

                                                       May 1995

                       Critical Elements in the Application of
                      Water Quality Standards to Wetlands:

                     Classification System, Beneficial Use Designation
                       and the Identi cation of Exceptional Wetlands
                                         ff

                                               Submitted to the
                                 Virginia Department of Environmental Quality

                                                     By
                                               Pamela A. Mason
                                                Carl Hershner

                              The Department of Resource Management and Policy
                                              Wetlands Program
                                      Virginia Institute of Marine Science
                                         College of William and Mary

                                                  May 1995

                  @p

                                 This report was funded, in part, by the Virginia Institute of Marine
                                 Science and the Department of Environmental Quality's Coastal
                                 Resources Management Program through Grant #NA37OZO360-01
                                 of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of
                                 Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, under the Coastal Zone
                                 Management Act, as amended.

                       Table of Contents

                       Introduction     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3

                       Wetlands Classification System          ...................................                                    4

                            Options for Classification System Design           ...........................                            5

                            State Waters Classification       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6

                            Objectives for Proposed Classifiaction System           . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7

                            Proposed Classification System          . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7

                            Classification System Rationale       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

                            Classification System       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10

                       Designation of Beneficial Uses         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11

                       Criteria for Exceptional Wetlands Designation            . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17

                       Citations    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19

                       Appendix I       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21

                    Introduction

                        The development and implementation of water quality standards for wetlands is
                    essential to ensure the protection and enhancement of the State's wetland resources. Water
                    quality standards provide a link to other water quality management activities including the.
                    following provisions of the federal Clean Water Act: permitting under section 402 and 404,
                    control of nonpoint source pollution under section 319 and water quality certification under
                    section 401.

                        Section 401 requires the issuance of a certificate prior to any activity which may result in
                    a discharge to state waters. States administer the �401 certification program and make
                    certification decisions by ensuring that the proposed activity will comply with state water
                    quality standards. In 1989, Virginia adopted legislation establishing the Virginia Water
                    Protection Permit. The Water Protection Permit was designated to constitute the water
                    quality certification necessary under the existing Virginia �401 certification program.

                        There are five basic steps required in the process of applying state water quality
                    standards regulations to wetlands. They are:

                             Include wetlands in the definition of "State waters."
                             Designate uses for wetlands.
                             Adopt aesthetic criteria ("free froms") and appropriate numeric criteria for wetlands.
                             Adopt narrative biological criteria for wetlands.
                             Apply the State's antidegradation policy and implementation methods to wetlands.
                             (EPA, 1990).

                        There are, of course, many ways to approach the development and implementation of a
                    program to apply water quality standards to wetlands. The current effort in Virginia is a
                    comprehensive approach incorporating many components including: wetlands
                    classification, the development of functional assessment techniques, a functional analysis
                    and ve-etative characterization of Virginia's nontidal wetlands of the coastal zone, a review
                    of current Virginia legislation, regulations and policy on wetlands and water quality
                    standards and a review of the application of water quality standards to wetlands in other
                    states.

                        Under a contractual agreement, the Department of Resource Management and Policy of
                    the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, is to assist the Department of Environmental
                    Quality, Water Division in the development of water quality standards to wetlands. As a
                    result of on-going research efforts, and previous contractual agreements, the Department of
                    Resource Management and Policy has been involved in the production of many components
                    necessary for a comprehensive approach to water quality standards for wetlands. RMAP
                    has produced, and previously submitted to DEQ, a draft wetlands classification scheme, a
                    functional assessment technique and a review of the approaches taken by other states in the
                    application of water quality standards to wetlands.

                                                                                                                    3

                        Under the current contract, RMAP is directed to report on several of the remaining
                    components and make recommendations to assist DEQ in the application of water quality
                    standards to wetlands. Specifically, RMAP is to provide the following:

                           a report on the functional assessment of Virginia's coastal zone nontidal wetlands,
                           a report on wetlands classification,
                           a report on the designation of beneficial uses to wetlands, and
                           a report on the identification of exceptional wetlands.

                        RNIAP staff visited 300 wetland sites in order to characterize the vegetative communities
                    and assess Virginia's nontidal wetlands using the VIMS Functional Assessment Technique.
                    The preliminary results of the functional assessment analysis and vegetative
                    characterization can be found in Appendix 1. The remaining components are reported
                    within the main text of fl-ds document.

                    Wetlands Classification System

                        There are at least two possible approaches to the implementation of a wetlands
                    classification scheme and the designation of beneficial uses within the framework of the
                    existing Virginia regulatory program. Virginia may choose to use existing general and
                                0       0
                    water-specific classification systems, or they may develop and implement a system just for
                    wetlands.

                        Wetlands are defined as waters of the state (VR680-14-03, VR680-15-02). As such, it may
                    be inferred that the seven classes of state waters include wetlands where they occur within
                    the area designated by that class. In other words, wetlands located in areas designated as
                    Class H Estuarine are indeed Estuarine waters with all the corresponding numeric criteria
                    and special standards. Under this scheme, wetlands are designated for the same uses as the
                    adjacent waters. Following this process, the designation of beneficial uses of wetlands
                    would result in the same beneficial use designation for all waters within any given class. As
                    such, a wetlands classification within this scheme would need to fit into the current water
                    classes.

                        The current classes lack designated uses and are basically geographic assignments. The
                    lack of existing designated uses for water classes would make the option of incorporating
                    wetlands uses into the existing classes impractical as it would require the development and
                    adoption of uses for all classes of Virginia waters. The incorporation of wetlands into
                    existing classes is further complicated by the fact that wetlands often violate the existing
                    standards for water quality. While the long term goal may be the incorporation of wetlands
                    into each water class, with associated standards, the development of a wetlands
                    classification scheme built on the existing water classes would result in an ineffective
                    construct at present.

                        The second possible approach is to create an additional class, or amend and replace an
                    existing class of State waters. Once again, for ease of implementation, the best choice is to

                    4

                    incorporate the proposed class into the existing class structure in such a way as to require
                    minimal change to the remaining classes. Of the current classes, the only class vaguely
                    representing wetlands is Class VII Swamp Waters.

                         Current regulations assign dissolved oxygen, pH or minimum temperature standards to
                    each class of waters. In addition to the dissolved oxygen, pH, and temperature standards,
                    Virginia has adopted numeric criteria for chemical constituents. For purposes of application
                    to the water classes, the numeric standards are separated into saltwater and freshwater
                    standards (See box on next page). Class VII is not included in the class groupings used to
                    apply the saltwater or freshwater standards (VR680-21-01.14), nor is Class VII assigned
                    standards for dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature (VR680-21-01.5).

                         All state waters are designated by class under VR680-21-08.1. However, no waters have
                    been designated with the classification of Swamp waters under this provision. The Swamp
                    waters classification has only been used in the permitting process for waters which fail to
                    meet the standards of the appropriate class under VR680-21-08.1. This probably explains
                    the lack of standards and the exclusion from the numerical standards groups. The fact that
                    the class is not currently used and has no specific standards creates an opportunity for the
                    replacement of Class VII with a new class of waters with associated standards and
                    designated uses. (See box on next page.)

                         Options for Classification System Design

                         As noted above, extant classification systems cover the spectrum from those based
                    entirely on structure to those relying on functional distinctions. Both approaches have
                    advantages and disadvantages, and appropriateness is dependent on the reason or need for
                    classification. With no notable exceptions, regulatory programs are driven by concern for
                    the functions of wetlands. As a result, the classification systems with greatest direct utility
                    to regulatory programs are those based on function. Unfortunately, for purposes of
                    developing an advanced inventory of wetland resources, functional classifications are
                    difficult to implement.

                         The most widely utilized classification system at the present time is the hierarchical
                    system of Cowardin et al (1979). This system is the one employed by the U.S. Fish and
                    Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory Program. Several states use, or have
                    investigated the use of the Cowardin classification. As such it is well known and has been
                    applied in many areas, including all of Virginia. The system is structurally based with floral
                    composition and hydrologic conditions as the primary determinant characteristics.
                    However, the scheme was developed to be applicable to the entire United States and does
                    not provide regional detail. The system does not address functions of wetlands.
    df
                         Another classification system available is a hydrogeomorphic classification system
                    under development by Brinson and others for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. This
                    system is essentially a structurally based approach, with hydrologic conditions and
                    landscape setting as principal determinants (Brinson 1993). The related functional
    do              assessment system is currently under development.

                                                                                                                     5

                           State Waters Classification

                           Current Virginia Water Quality Regulations define seven classes of state waters.
                      Class designations are used to apply water quality standards and criteria. The classes
                      are:

                              1.       Open Ocean
                              U.       Estuarine Waters (Tidal Water- Coastal Zone to Fall Line)
                              III.     Non-tidal Waters (Coastal and Piedmont Zones)
                              IV.      Mountainous Zones Waters

                              V.       Put and Take Trout Waters

                              VI.      Natural Trout Waters
                              VU.      Swamp Water (VR680-21-01.5).

                           Classes I through VI have minimum standards for dissolved oxygen, pH and
                      maximum temperature. However, Class VII, Swamp Water, has no set standards for
                      dissolved oxygen, Ph or maximum temperature. The regulations recognize the natural
                      variable quality of swamp waters and the need for a case-by-case determination of
                      water quality.

                           For the purposes of applying freshwater and saltwater numerical standards
                      (excluding dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and chlorine), the classes of waters are
                                                  0
                      grouped into 3 groups. Swamp water, Class VII, is not included in any of the numerical
                      standards groups (VR680-21-01.14(C)).

                              Class of Waters                               Numerical Standard

                           I, and 11 (Estuarine Waters)                 Saltwater standards apply
                           U (Transition Zone)                          More stringent of either the freshwater or
                                                                        saltwater standards apply
                           II (Tidal Freshwater), III,                  Freshwater standards apply
                           IV, V and VI

                           *NOTE: Class VII is not included in the groupings of water classes.

                        Functionally based and mixed systems are used by some states as part of their
                    management programs. Generally, these systems place wetlands in three or more categories
                    reflecting relative value. Assignment to a category can depend on either a particular service
                    (habitat for a rare or threatened species is a common high value service) or a structural
                    characteristic (connection to a public water supply or location in a flood plain are examples).
                    Almost all of these systems are designed primarily as regulatory guidance systems, and
                    have not yet found routine application in inventory programs.

                    6

                       Objectives for Proposed Classification System

                       Three basic objectives have been adopted in the design of a classification system for
                   Virginia's wetlands management program:

                        � the system should meld with and support the existing management efforts;
                        � the system should support informed decision making in the regulated community;
                           and
                        �  the system should accommodate future developments of both technical
                           understanding and regulatory effort.

                       The existing management programs include a tidal wetlands management program
                   (under the Virginia Wetlands Act with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission as lead
                   agency), and a water quality permitting effort (under the Virginia Water Protection Permit
                   program with the Department of Environmental Quality as lead agency). In addition the
                   Commonwealth has an ongoing tidal wetlands inventory program (conducted by the
                   Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences) and a cooperative wetlands mapping program with
                   the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) program. Melding with and supporting these
                   various efforts can be accomplished by designing a classification system which covers both
                   tidal and nontidal wetlands and which can be related to both the Virginia tidal wetlands
                   classification system developed in the early 1970's and the Cowardin or NWI system.

                       Supporting the regulated community requires development of a system which embodies
                   general mana ement interests and which can be implemented in conjunction with a
                                9
                   continuing inventory program. According to Mitsch and Gosselink (1986), a classification
                   system is necessary to provide consistency for inventories, mapping, concepts and
                   terminology. An ongoing inventory is necessary to track changes in wetland resources
                   throu-h chan-e detection analysis. The coordination of an inventory program and a
                   wetlands classification system allows for change detection to be done by wetland type.
                   Paired with a functional analysis of wetlands types, the long-term goal is the ability to
                   determine changes in wetland functions. This implies a simple, easily interpreted system,
                   and one which can be applied using remotely sensed information.

                       Accommodating future developments simply means the system must be structured to
                   allow future modification and/or refinement. Ideally it should be possible to extend the
                   system to new levels of discrimination by simply adding information, without necessitating
                   a complete restructuring.

                       Proposed Classification System

                       All wetlands can be classified as either riparian or isolated. Riparian wetlands are all
                   those wetlands adjacent to surface waterbodies or water courses, whether permanent or
                   intermittent. Isolated wetlands are all other wetlands. They are not connected to defined
    J              watercourses, either permanent or intermittent.

                                                                                                             7

                      Riparian wetlands may be subdivid    ed into tidal and nontidal wetlands based on
                  hydrologic conditions.

                         Tidal wetlands may be subdivided according to general ecological value (refer
                         to existing tidal wetlands management program). Assignment to value classes
                         is made on the basis of dominant vegetative community.

                         Nontidal riparian wetlands can be further classified by the associated stream
                         order designation. Until such time as additional information becomes available
                         to guide valuation, we recommend that general value be assumed to increase as
                         stream order decreases.

                      Isolated wetlands may be subdivided by general geographic province into coastal plain,
                  piedmont, and ridge/valley wetlands. From the perspective of water quality
                  considerations, isolated wetlands in the piedmont and ridge/valley provinces may be of
                  greater importance due to the increased opportunity to play a role in recharging
                  groundwater aquifers. No other generalization regarding value of isolated wetlands is
                  recommended at this time due to insufficient technical information.

                      Within this generalized classification system, modifiers should be added to include use
                  or quality designations of adjacent waters. For example, the classification of surface waters
                  currently used by the Department of Environmental Quality should be considered as a
                  modifier for riparian wetlands. Wetlands adjacent to high quality waters should be
                  assumed to have importance for their role in maintaining that water quality. Exceptional
                  wetlands, as a special class, are typically specific wetlands or wetland types particularly
                  valued for exceptional quality. A complete discussion of the Exceptional wetlands class
                  follows this section.

                       Classification System Rationale

                      The proposed classification system is designed to: (1) be very simple; (2) depend
                  basically on information available through remote sensing; (3) accommodate existing
                  classification or management efforts in Virginia; and (4) offer opportunities for expansion/
                  refinement as appropriate information becomes available. The system provides some
                  guidance to regulatory efforts by incorporating both existing policy/management strategy
                  (tidal wetlands management program and Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act) and a
                  conservative synthesis of current technical information.

                     The distinction between riparian and isolated wetlands is based on two considerations.
                  First, a review of the commonly identified potential roles of wetlands indicates that
                  compared to isolated wetlands, riparian wetlands have a greater opportunity/ probability of
                  attaining a broad based importance (evaluated as potential number of simultaneous roles
                  and level of performance). Is 'olated wetlands lack flowing water and are generally small in
                  water volume. Lack of connectivity means isolated wetlands are unlikely to provide finfish
                  habitat, particularly for anadromous fish, or support navigation. This does not mean that
                  specific isolated wetlands may not have very high value and therefore warrant special
                  management attention. What it does imply is that as a class, riparian wetlands warrant a

                  8

                     high level of consideration for their ability to perform functions valued in management
                     programs.

                         The second consideration in separating riparian and isolated wetlands is the existing
                     focus on riparian wetlands established under the Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act (CBPA)
                     management program. The CBPA seeks to preserve and protect existing riparian tidal and
                     nontidal wetlands by moving land disturbing activities back from their landward
                     boundaries. This is in recognition of the importance riparian wetlands can have for
                     maintenance of surface water quality. This rationale was sound at the time the CBPA was
                     passed and remains so today. Therefore the proposed classification system reflects and
                     accommodates the existing program.

                         The proposed classification system is designed to be a "nested" system. The riparian/
                     isolated classification is very broad and very straightforward. It crosses all types of
                     wetlands. Within this broad classification, subclassifications can be, and have been,
                     developed and may be utilized as either current or future need dictates. For example, the
                     tidal wetlands management program subdivides vegetated tidal wetlands into twelve
                     different types (based on dorninant plant community) and nonvegetated wetlands into five
                     different types. Both vegetated and nonvegetated wetland types are grouped into five
                     classes based on assumed general ecological value (VMRC 1993). Since tidal wetlands are
                     all riparian wetlands, the existing class'ification becomes a refinement of the overarching
                     system for the subset of riparian wetlands which are tidal.

                         It is proposed that nontidal riparian wetlands be further classified according to their
                     landscape position, using stream order as a designation. Within this subclassification, it is
    .00              proposed that position along low order streams be viewed as an indication of potential
                     importance. Again, this does not imply that position along higher order channels precludes
                     high value. Rather it is a reflection of current thinking which holds that wetlands closest to
                     headwaters have the greatest opportunity to produce beneficial hydrologic and water
                     quality modifications. Wetlands along low order channels have the opportunity to reduce
                     flows and pollutant loadings before water reaches the main channels of the watershed.
                     While these wetlands may be no more efficient at such activities than those elsewhere in the
                     watershed, the fact that they act early in the movement of water through the system implies
                     that their actions can have impact through a much larger portion of the system.

                         It is noteworthy that this recommendation, if followed, would counter current federal
                     management practices for nontidal wetlands which tend to place lower value/concern on
                     headwater wetlands.

                         Finally, there is a great deal of research underway seeking to extend current knowledge
                     of wetland functions and the relationships between structure and function. As results of
                     this Work become available, refinement of the proposed classification system may be
                     appropriate. In particular, work is underway in Virginia evaluating the relationships
                     between nontidal wetland structure (including landscape position) and function. This work
                     may permit increased discrimination of potential value in both riparian and isolated
                     nontidal wetlands. If a relationship between functions and easily observed structural
                     characteristics can be developed, then the information can be incorporated into the
                     proposed classification system. At present, determination of relative value within the broad
                     classes proposed is best left to site specific functional assessment methods.

                                                                                                                      9

                                          N                                                                                  0

                     Classification System

                     Class VII as it is currently defined and applied does not specifically address the diverse
                 and complex nature of wetlands. A wetlands classification scheme must be incorporated
                 into Class VU in order to allow for the recognition of the various beneficial uses of different
                 wetland classes. We propose the following classification system be incorporated into
                 Virginia Code under VR680-21-01.5. The current Class VU Swamp waters would be
                 substituted with:                                                                                           IN

                     Class V11 Wetlands

                        A. Exceptional Wetlands
                                1. Specific geographically identified sites
                                2. Specific and general criteria for designation under this provision

                        B. Riparian Wetlands
                                1. Tidal wetlands
                                       a. Group I
                                       b. Group Il
                                       c. Group III
                                       d. Group IV
                                       e. Group V
                                2. Nontidal wetlands
                                       a. First order stream channels

                                       b. Second order stream channels
                                       c. Third order stream channels

                        C. Isolated Wetlands
                                1. Nontidal wetlands
                                       a. Coastal plain wetlands
                                       b. Piedmont wetlands
                                       c. Ridge/Valley wetlands

                 10

                        Figure 1.                          Class V11 Wetlands

                       Subclass           Exceptional             Riparian                          Isolated
                                           Wetlands              Wetlands                          Wetlands
                                        r     I     I          I    I                                 I
                         Group      Specifically General    Croup I     1st Order Stream Channels Coastal Plain
                                     Identified  Criteria   Group 11    2nd Order Stream Channels  Piedmont
                                                            Group III   3rd Order and Above       Ridge/Valley
                                                            Group IV
                                                            Group V

                    Designation Of Beneficial Uses

                       States should designate uses based on the functions and values of their wetlands. At a
                    minimum these uses must meet the goals of Section 101(a)(2) of the CWA by providing for
                    the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and wildlife and for recreation in and on the
                    water. This baseline is commonly referred to as the "fishable/ swimmable" designation and
                    is applicable to all waters. As wetlands are included in the definition of waters of the State,
                    the fishable/ swimmable designation applies to wetlands. The propagation of fish and
                    wildlife is an attainable use in virtually all waters, including wetlands. Similarly, all waters
                    provide recreational opportunities, although certain recreational uses may be limited in
                    wetlands based on the presence of sufficient water. States may designate other uses based
                    on wetland functions and values.

                         There are enumerable ecological functions performed by wetlands. Depending on
                     how functions are defined, a list of wetland functions may include 27 or more different
                     functions (Adamus 1992). More commonly, the scientific literature cites the following
                     functions attributable to wetlands:

                         � ground-water recharge                        aquatic and wildlife
                         �  ground-water discharge                      diversity/ abundance
                         �  floodwater alteration                      )o- storm buffering
                         �  sediment stabilization                      recreation
                         �  sediment/ toxicant retention               >- uniqueness /hertitage (Adamus et al.
                         �  nutrient removal/ transformation            1991).
                            production export

                         For additional discourse on wetland functions, the reader is referred to:
                         Our national wetland heritage (Kusler 1983),
                         Wetland functions and values: the state of our understanding (Greeson et al. 1979),
                         Tidal wetland values (Wohlgemuth 1990), and
                         Nontidal wetland functions and values (Wohlgemuth 1991).

                                                                                                                                       0

                      Beneficial uses of wetlands, as a reflection of wetland functions and values, are generally
                  designated according to wetland types, ie. classes. After all, different wetland types provide
                  different functions. For instance, wetlands without permanent water are unlikely to provide                          41
                  finfish habitat, isolated wetlands are unlikely to provide erosion protection, and so forth.
                  Similarly, the identification of high value wetlands may recognize the high value of a
                  particular wetland type, or name specific wetland areas. So, prior to the designation of
                  beneficial uses or the identification of exceptional wetlands, a classification scheme is
                  required.
                                                                                                                                       41
                      All Virginia state waters are designated for recreational use and for the propagation and
                  growth of a balanced, indigenous population of fish, shellfish, and wildlife (VR680-21-01.1).
                  The "fishable / swimmable" uses are the only use designations defined as such in Virginia's
                  water quality standards regulations. However, there are several categories of waters with
                  special designations. Special designation waters are: Scenic Rivers, Trout Streams, and
                  Waters containing Endangered or Threatened Species (VR680-21-07.2 A-C) and Public
                  Water Supplies (VR 680-21-08.3(D)(1)). Additionally, under VR680-21-07, special standards
                  and designations are set for various waters including shellfish waters. The identification of
                  waters with special designations and/or standards is found along with the assignment of
                  water classes in VR680-21-08.1.

                      Existing and Potential Uses of Wetlands

                                                                        Wetland Type (Cowardin)
                     Beneficial Use                       Marine Estuarine Riverine Lacustrine Palustrine
                     Municipal and Domestic Supply                                    X           X            X
                     Agricultural Supply                                  X           X           X            X
                     Industrial Process Supply                            X           0           0
                     Groundwater Recharge                     X           X           X           X            X
                     Freshwater Replenishment                                         X           X            X
                     Navigation                               X           X           X           X            X
                     Water Contact Recreation                 X           X           X           X            X
                     Ocean Commercial and Sport Fishing       X           X
                     Warm Fresh Water Habitat                                         X           X            X
                     Cold Fresh Water Habitat                                         X           X            X
                     Preservation of Areas of Special
                         Biological Significance
                     Wildlife Habitat                         X           X           X           X            X
                     Preservation of Rare and Endangered      X           X           X           X            X
                         Species
                     Marine Habitat                           X           X
                     Fish Migration                           X           X           X           X
                     Shellfish Harvesting                     X           X           X
                     Estuarine Habitat                                    X

                     X = existing beneficial use
                     o = potential beneficial use

                  12

                       EPA guidance (1990) suggests a tabular presentation of existing and potential uses and
                    the designation of such as beneficial uses by wetlands class (The Cowardin classification is
                    used here-See box on previous page). The first step in the development of such a table is
                    the identification of which beneficial uses are to be designated. After all, there are many
                    wetland functions and values which may be designated as beneficial uses. However, in
                    order to meld the beneficial use designations with existing management programs, the
                    logical place to look for acknowledgement of beneficial uses is within the enabling
                    legislation and implementing regulations of Virginia's wetland management programs.

                       A review of Virginia laws identified several specific cites of beneficial use(s) of waters.
                    The Virginia Water Control Law states that beneficial use means both instream and
                    offstream uses (� 62.1-10 Va Code Ann.). Instream beneficial uses include, but are not
                    limited to, protection of fish and wildlife habitat, maintenance of waste assimilation,
                    recreation, navigation, and cultural and aesthetic values. Offstream beneficial uses include
                    but are not limited to domestic (including public water supply), agricultural, electric power
                    generation, commercial and industrial uses (� 62.1-10 and � 62.1-242 Va Code Ann.). The
                    Virginia Water Protection Permit designates the preservation of instream. flows for the
                    purposes of the protection of navigation, maintenance of waste assimilation capacity, the
                    protection of fish and wildlife resources and habitat, recreation, cultural and aesthetic values
                    as a beneficial use (� 62.1-44.15:5 Va Code Ann.).

                       Additionally, wetlands are attributed several values under the Virginia Wetlands Act
                    (�28.2-1301 Va Code Ann.). The values listed in the Act are ideologically consistent with
                    those parameters currently termed as beneficial uses and are paralleled by many of the
                    beneficial uses listed in the Virginia Water Protection Permit language. The values cited are:
                    production of marine and inland wildlife, waterfowl, finfish, shellfish and flora; protective
                    barrier against floods, tidal storms and the erosion of the Commonwealth's shores and soil;
                    the absorption of silt and pollutants; the recreation and aesthetic enjoyment of the people;
                    and the promotion of tourism, navigation and commerce.

                       Using the proposed wetland classification system for Virginia and the beneficial uses
                    already acknowledged within the Code of Virginia, it is possible to develop a matrix of
                    beneficial use designation which is compatible with existing wetlands management
                    programs. Table 1 is a simple yes/no table of those beneficial uses which may be assigned to
                    the proposed wetlands classification at the group level. The short-comings of this type of
                    table is that aside from counting check-marks the table does not allow for the determination
                    of relative importance among wetland groups. As such, the table falls short of the goal of
                    providing regulatory guidance for informed wetlands management decision-making.

                       The assignment of numerical values to the beneficial uses does allow for a numerical
                    ranking of wetlands. The term value "...connotes something worthy, desirable or useful to
                    humans. The reasons that wetlands are legally protected have to do with their value to
                    society, not with abstruse ecological processes that proceed therein... Perceived values arise
                    out of functional ecological processes.., but are determined also by the location of a
                    particular wetland, the human population pressures on it, and the extent of the resource."
                    (Nfitsch and Gosselink 1986, p393). Since many beneficial uses are societal values, and
                    societal values vary with time and place, certain uses are valued more highly than others by
    10              different segments of society. The assignment of value is further complicated by those
                    beneficial uses which elude accurate economic description. In other words, uses such as

                                                                                                               13

                     Table 1. Beneficial Use According to the Proposed Wetlands Classification.

                                                             Wetland Classification
                    Beneficial Use                           Riparian                           Isolated
                                                      tidal                  nontidal           nontidal

                                                  1I   M     IV     v    Ist   2nd   3rd   Coast  Pied  RV

                    Public Water Supply*

                    Threat & Endangered

                    Fish & Wildlife Habitat*     Ve    I"           rl                                   W/

                    Recreation*

                    Navigation*                                          0           Of

                    Cultural/ Aesthetic*

                    AgriculturaV(Harvest)*                                                          f

                    Electric Generation*

                    Waste Assimilation*                W/

                    Commercial/ Industrial*

                    Erosion Protection'

                    Flood Buffering"

                   7 = extsung use                        AS Per @62.1-10 Virg@7 Wnte Itotecuon Fernut
                   o = potential use                      As per �28.1-1301 'ridal Wedan& Act

                  recreation, cultural/ aesthetic and threatened and endangered species habitat would be
                  assigned the lowest value if the assessment is based solely on market-based evaluation
                  techniques. Thus, the actual assignment of numerical values is a difficult, complex task
                  which requires some balance between those beneficial uses which are easily valued
                  economically and those uses which are not easily defined in economic terms.

                     Once again, it is most expeditious to look to the existing management programs for any
                  prioritization of uses. In the State Policy as to Waters (� 62.1-10 Va Code Ann.) and the
                  Surface Water Management Act (� 62.1-242 Va Code Ann.), domestic use (public water
                  supply) is the highest priority beneficial use. The regulations implementing the Surface
                  Water Management Act provide a water-use classification system (VR 680-15-03) for the
                  purposes of permitting under the Act. In this system domestic use is Class 1, fish and
                  wildlife habitat, waste assimilation, agriculture, power generation, commercial and
                  industrial uses are in Class 2, and Class 3 includes recreation, navigation, cultural and
                  aesthetic uses. This grouping provides a basis for the assignment of numerical values to
                  beneficial uses. However, the class designations in this regulation appear to be exclusively
                  an acknowledgement of economic value and do not account for uses which are difficult to
                  define economically such as environmental sensitivity. Furthermore, the regulations have
                  not yet been applied, so there are no Surface Water Management Areas in Virginia.
                  @
                      bhc Water

                       at& Enda
                    ,P:7
                     ,sh& WjldW

                  14

                                  Table 2. Beneficial Use Ranking by Group.

                                                                                                WETLAND CLASSIFICATION
                                BENEFICIAL                 Rank                                 Riparian                                     Isolated
                                USE                                                 tidal                       nontidal                     nontidal
                                                                          ITII III              IV    V                nd    3rd Coast Pied                    RV

                               Public Water Supply              3         0      0      0       0     0       3        3        3          0          0        0

                               Treat & Endangered               3         3      3      3       3     3       3        3        3          3          3        3

                               Fish & Wildlife Habitat          2         2      2      2       2     2       2        2        2          2          2        2

                               Recreation                       2         2      2      2       2     2       2        2  1     2          2          2        2   1
                               Erosion Protection               2         2      2      1       1     1  1    2        2        2          0          0        0

                               Cultural/ Aesthetic              2         2      2      2       2     2       2        2        2          2          2        2

                               Flood Buffering                  2         2      2      2       2     2       2        2        2          2          2        2
                               Waste Assimilation               2         2      2  1   2       2     2       2        2        2          2          2        2
                               Navigation                       I         I      I      I       I     I       I        I        1          0          0        0

                               Commercial/ Industrial           I         I      1      1       0     0       -        I        1          0          0        0

                               Agricultural/Harvest             I         I      1      0       0     0       1        1        1          1          1        1
                               Electric Generation                   1    0      0      0       0     0  1    0        0        1          0          0
                              TOTAL                      1           1    18    18  1   16      15    15 1    20       21       22         14         14       14

                                  A numerical designation should reflect both societal value (often economic) and the
                            environmental sensitivity of the function to impacts or loss due to human activities. In other
                            words, the ranking should consider which functions are either very valuable economically,
                            and/or very important ecologically. The numerical rankings in Table 2 acknowledge
                            societal values while attempting to account for ecological sensitivity. These rankings are
                            also consistent with the use ranking or prioritization of other state programs. In the table,
                            the numbers correspond directly with the use priority, with 3 being the highest and 1 being
                            the lowest. Depending upon the level of detail necessary for the rankings, more general
                            tables amy be created using the same ranking designations (Table 3).
                                                                                                0

                                  Wetlands functions are not uniformly susceptible to change as a result of human
                            activity. Small anthropogenic changes in water quality may greatly affect certain wetland
                            functions while other functions are affected either moderately or not at all. Of the most
                            sensitive functions, those which also have high societal value are public water supply and
                            threatened and endangered species habitat. A third function, similarly sensitive and
                            valuable, is water quality maintenance necessary for the provision of native trout habitat.

                                  Public water supply, per se, is not typically associated with wetland use. Wetlands do
                            co-occur with surface waters that are used as public water supplies. Public water supply is,
                            however, recognized as a special class of waters by most states and afforded extra
                            protection. Some states including Connecticut, Georgia, New York, Florida, have chosen to
                            include these waters in the highest class in recognition of the societal importance and
                            ecologic sensitivity of this beneficial use. As previously stated, wetlands adjacent to waters
                            with special designations should share the designation.

                                                                                                                                                                    15

                        Table 3. Beneficial Use Ranking.

                                                                        WETLAND CLASSIFICATION
                        BENEFICIAL USE              RANK                     Riparian                     Isolated

                                                                      tidal            nontidal           nontidal

                        Public Water Supply             3               0                  3                  0

                        Threatened &                    3               3                  3                  3
                        Endangered

                        Fish & Wildlife                 2               2                  2                  2

                        Recreation                      2               2                  2                  2

                        Cultural/ Aesthetic             2               2                  2                  2

                        Waste Assimilation              2               2                  2                  2

                        Flood Buffering                 2               2                  2                  2

                        Erosion Protection              2               2                  2                  0

                        Navigation                      1               1                  1                  0

                        Agricultural                    1               1                  1                  1

                        Electric Generation             1               0                  1                  0

                        Commercial/ Industrial          1               1                  1                  0

                        TOTAL                                           is                 22                 14

                        It is a common practice in the development of regulations promulgating water quality
                    legislation to include verbatim language from the enabling legislation. The implementing
                    legislation for the Virginia Water Protection Permit legislation (� 62.1-44.15:5 Va Code Ann.)
                    includes waste assimilation as a beneficial use. The adoption of waste assimilation as a
                    designated use is however, prohibited under the federal Water Quality Standards
                    Regulation (40 CFR 131.10(a)). (Wetlands designed, built and operated as wastewater
                    treatment systems are considered by EPA as a special case.)

                        For wetlands adjacent to waters with special designations under VR 680-21-07.1 (A-C)
                    (Scenic Rivers, Trout Streams, and Waters containing Endangered or Threatened Species or
                    VR680-21-08.3 (D)(1) (Public Water Supplies), we recommend the adoption of the same as
                    designated uses. As previously stated, wetlands are included in the definition of waters of
                    the state. As a result, wetlands inundated by waters with a special designation have the
                    same designation. Wetlands occupy a transitional position in the landscape between upland
                    and water. Thus, wetlands are ecologically linked to both uplands and waters. The
                    hydrologic connection between wetlands and adjacent waters makes it impossible to
                    separate the two for purposes of defining many ecological parameters. The exclusion of
                    wetlands from the special designations of adjacent waters could result in a scenario where
                    impacts which degrade the wetland also degrade adjacent waters.

                    16

                          According to EPA guidance (1990), wetlands which may be considered as candidates
                      for designation of exceptional quality include:

                               Parks, refuges, wild and scenic rivers, estuarine sanctuaries, and wildlife
                               management areas;
                               Wetlands adjacent to other exceptional waters;
                               Priority wetlands identified under the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of
                               1986 through Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plans (SORP) and Wetland Priority
                               Conservation Plans;
                               Sites within joint venture project areas under the North American Waterfowl
                               Management Plan;
                               Sites under the RAMSAR Treaty on Wetlands of International Importance;
                               Biosphere reserve sites identified as part of the "Man and the Biosphere"
                               Program sponsored by the United Nations;
                            )o- Natural Heritage areas and other similar designations established by the State     or
                               private organizations (e.g., Nature Conservancy); and
                               Priority wetlands identified as part of comprehensive planning efforts
                               conducted at the local, State, Regional, or Federal levels of government; e.g.,
                               Advance identification (ADID) program under section 404 of the CWA and
                               Special Area Management Plans (SAMPs) under the CZNLk (EPA, 1990).

                     Criteria For Exceptional Wetlands Designation

                        The establishment of a class of Exceptional Wetlands is critical to the protection and
                     special management of wetlands. In Virginia, Exceptional Waters are afforded the highest
                     level of protection (i.e., no degradation) under the antidegradation policy (VR680-21-
                     01.3(C)). Exceptional Waters are analogous to Outstanding National Resource Waters
                     (Section 131.12(a)(3) of the Federal Water Quality Standards Regulation). The designation of
                     Exceptional Wetlands may be based on exceptional environmental settings and exceptional
                     aquatic communities or exceptional recreational opportunities. A review of other state
                     water classification systems reveals particular beneficial uses that are commonly afforded
                     special protection within management programs (EPA 1988). Two of these uses are specific
                     wetland functions. The third use covers a suite of functions. The specific functions afforded
                     special protection are; Public water supply (an economically valuable and ecologically
                     sensitive use) and habitat for threatened and endangered species (a highly sensitive use).
                     The third "use" recognizes a suite of values-particularly aesthetics-in the establishment
                     of a national or state park, refuge, wild or scenic river, etc. Some 20 different states
                     designate wetlands in these areas with the highest value category of their classification, be it
                     High Value or Outstanding Resource Waters (Jessup 1994). As wetlands already afforded
                     special protection wiffiin the park system, these wetlands potentially function at high levels
                     for many beneficial uses, ie. fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, and cultural and aesthetic
                     uses. This category also offers an opportunity to make use of protection tools already in
                     place due to the park, refuge or wild and scenic river designation.

                                                                                                                      17

                       In addition to the Exceptional designation, state regulations and federal guidance
                   provide for the maintenance and protection of High Quality Waters. The protection of High
                   Quality Waters is provided for under VR680-21-01.3(B). High quality waters are waters
                   which meet all of the water quality standards. The designation of wetlands as high quality
                   may be problematic as wetlands often fail to meet existing water quality standards.
                   However, it is likely that wetlands adjacent to high quality waters would meet the standards
                   and should be designated as high quality wetlands. Advances in wetlands science should
                   allow for the subsequent development of water quality standards specific to wetlands
                   making the designation of high quality wetlands more feasible.

                      We propose the creation of a subclass of Exceptional wetlands and the protection of
                   these wetlands under VR680-21-01.3 (C) of Virginia's Antidegradation Policy. The
                   antidegradation policy should provide for the protection of existing uses in wetlands and
                   the level of water quality necessary to protect those uses. Concerns arise over the
                   application of Section C at the anti-degradation policy. A strict application of the
                   antidegradation policy would result in preventing the issuance of any discharge permits
                   including wetland fill permits under �404 of the CWA. This would preclude, for instance,
                   the development of a state park with waters and wetlands designated as Exceptional
                   Wetlands. However, EPA allows a slightly different interpretation of existing uses under
                   the antidegradation policy in the case of wetland fills. The EPA guidance, found in
                   Questions and Answers on: Antidegradation, is stated below:

                         Since a literal interpretation of the antidegradation policy could result in
                         preventing the issuance of any wetlandfill permit under �404 of the Clean
                         Water Act, and it is logical to assume that Congress intended some such
                         permits to be granted within theframework of the Act, EPA interprets 40CFR
                         131.12(a)(1) of the antidegradation policy to be satisfied with regards tofills in
                         wetlands if the discharge did not result in significant degradation to the aquatic
                         ecosystem as defined under �230.10(c) of the �404(b)(1) guidelines.

                      Under the proposed classification system, wetlands may be specifically identified or
                   generally identified through the application of criteria. The first category requires, by
                   definition, a case-by-case review of the wetlands to be included. For instance, New York
                   state specifically identifies two kettle-hole bog wetlands in the state as worthy of highest
                   protection due to unique natural heritage. Minnesota and Ohio have also designated
                   specific wetlands for the highest order of protection (EPA 1989). Similarly Virginia may
                   have rare, unique or otherwise highly valuable wetlands that may be listed as high quality
                   wetlands. The second category allows for the inclusion of a wetland, or wetlands, based
                   upon a designated beneficial use. This category of general criteria may include, for
                   example, wetlands adjacent to waters which are public water supplies or native trout waters
                   (class i or ii after Department of Game and Inland Fisheries classification). The most logical
                   choice is the use of the Exceptional designation as acknowledgement of the beneficial uses
                   of greatest value and sensitivity,. public water supply and threatened and endangered
                   species habitat.

                    Citations

                    Adamus, P.R. 1992. A process for regional assessment of wetland risk. Appendix A: Results
                        of application of the risk assessment process. EPA/600/R-92/249. U.S. Envir. Prot.
                        Agency, Envir. Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.

                    Adamus, P.R., L.T. Stockwell, E.J. Clairain, Jr., M.E. Morrow, L.P. Rozas, and R.D. Smith.
                        1991. Wetlands evaluation technique (WET); Vol. 1: Literature review and evaluation
                        rationale. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station. Tech. Rep.
                        WRP-DE-2.

                    Brinson, M.M. 1993. A hydrogeomorphic classification for wetlands. U.S. Army Corps of
                        Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Wetlands Research Program Technical
                        Report WRP-DE-4.

                    Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and
                        deepwater habitats of the United States. FWS/OBS-79/31. Office of Biological Services,
                        Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.

                    Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. State water quality standards summaries. EPA
                        440/5-88-031. Office of Water Quality Regulation and Standards. Washington, D.C.

                    -. 1989. Wetlands and 401 Certification: Opportunities and guidelines for states and
                        eligible indian tribes. Office of Wetlands Protection A-104F. Washington, D.C.

                           1990. Water quality standards for wetlands: National guidance. EPA 440/5-90-011.
                        Office of Water Regulations and Standards. Washington, D.C.
                                                                            0

                    Greeson, P.B., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds). 1979. Wetland functions and values: The state
                        of our understanding. Proc. of the National Symposium on Wetlands. November 7-10,
                        1978. Amer. Water Resources Assn., Minneapolis, MN.

                    Jessup, D.H. 1994. Guide to state environmental programs. The Bureau of National Affairs,
                        Inc. Washington, D.C.

                    Kusler, J.A. 1983. Our national wetland heritage. Environmental Law Institute. Washington,
                        D.C.

                    Mitsch, W.J. and J-G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, New
                        York.

                    Virginia Marine Resources Commission. 1993. Wetlands Guidelines. Habitat Management
                        Division. Newport News, VA.

                    Wohlgemuth, M. 1990. Tidal wetland values. Technical Report no. 90-5. Wetlands Program.
                        Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA.

                                                                                                                 19

                            1991. Nontidal wetland functions and values. Technical Report no. 91-A.
                     Wetlands Program. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary,
                     Gloucester Point, VA.

                  20

    a

    0

    0

                      Appendix 1.

                                           21

                                        Preliminary Characterization of
                           Nontidal Wetlands in Virginia's Coastal Plain

                              Gene Silberhom, Pam Mason, Julie Herman, and Carl Hershner

                    Introduction

                        Nontidal wetlands in coastal Virginia are valued for their ecological functions that
                    benefit man. These functions include flood storage, protecting surface and ground-water
                    through filtration, wildlife habitat, erosion buffer especially along streams, primary
                    production, and resources for recreational, educational, and research activities.

                        There are approximately 750,000 acres (303,643 hectares) of nontidal wetlands in
                    Virginia (Tiner, 1987; Odum, 1988). Approximately 64% or 480,000 acres of nontidal
                    wetlands are in Virginia's coastal zone (Tiner, 1987). Most of these wetlands are forested
                    palustrine wetlands. Over 90% of the nontidal wetlands in Virginia are forested or
                    scrub/shrub, the former representing 83% of the woody wetlands in the state or 625,804
                    acres (253,362 hectares) (Odum, 1988).

                        Effective nontidal wetland management can be enhanced or facilitated by a body of
                    knowledge and information of existing resources, their ecological function, and vegetative
                    composition. There is very little published material of use to wetland managers regarding
                    nontidal wetlands in Virginia's coastal plain. In order to increase our knowledge of nontidal
                    wetlands, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) has undertaken a two-phased
                    study in coastal Virginia. The two components of the study are integrally linked: wetland
                    functional assessment and vegetative community characterization. The functional
                                                 0
                    assessment analysis is grouped by wetlands type, and uses the vegetative community
                                                                                      0
                    descriptions to demonstrate linkages between any one of a suite of wetlands functions and
                    vegetative community type(s).

                        Nontidal Wetland Communities

                        Forested Wetlands

                        Blackwater wetlands Blackwater streams are typical of the southeastern Atlantic coast
                    of the United States. They are narrower and shorter than larger alluvial southern rivers that
                    originate in the Appalachians or deep within the Piedmont Plateau. Blackwater rivers
                    originate within the coastal plain or nearby piedmont fringes (Wharton, et al, 1982). They

                   are less turbid and are relatively clear or colored (coffee-colored) because of organics and
                   tannins (Wharton, et al, 1982; Smock and Gilinsky, 1992).

                      Blackwater bottomland hardwood forests in Virginia are similar to BLH forests farther
                   south although not as extensive. The forested wetlands along three blackwater waterways
                   (Blackwater, Nottoway, and Meherrin Rivers), and the Chickahominy River and Dragon
                   Run north of the James River represent the northem-most extent of typical southeastern
                   bottomland hardwood forests (BLH) (Wharton, et al., 1982, Smock and Gilinsky, 1992).
                   These forests have developed on narrow flood plains of smaller, shallower streams which
                   usually do not become flooded except during local storm events (Penfound, 1952; Virginia
                   Water Control Board, 1985 and Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Dominant canopy species are
                   bald cypress (PF02E) and bald cypress/tupelo (PF01/2E) in large segments of the state's
                   blackwater streams (Cowardin et al., 1979). In some areas along the Nottoway and
                   Blackwater and their tributaries nearly monospecific stands of tupelo predominate (PF01E).

                      As the flood plain narrows farther upstream from the mouths of these waterways, bald
                   cy
                   , press often codominates with Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora, green ash (Fraxinus
                   pennsylvanica) and red maple. Near the headwaters or along smaller tributaries broad
                   leaved species dominate such as red maple associated with ash, river birch (Be tu la nigra),
                   sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), American elm (Ulm us americana) and black gum (Nyssa
                   sylvatica var. sylvatica). These wooded wetlands are typically classified as palustrine
                   forested, broad-leaved deciduous and seasonally flooded (PF01C).

                      The narrowest flood plain forests (50 to 30 m wide), usually located in the headwaters of
                   tributary streams, are often dominated by red maple in association with sweet gum
                   (Liquidambar styraciflua), black gum, river birch, American hombeam (Carpffius
                   carolinina) or loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). Wooded wetlands that often occupy these narrow
                   ravines are typically 'winter wet woods' or PF01A's or PF01 AA's.

                      Small Stceam Bottoms Small stream wetlands occupy a significant amount of the
                   landscape in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern States (Penfound, 1952; Monk, 1963;
                   Bernard, 1966; Gemborys and Hodgkins, 1971 and Glascock and Ware, 1979). Many of these
                   streams are tributaries of estuarine waterways, large alluvial or blackwater rivers. Their
                   appellation varies from locale and region i.e., branch bottoms, shallow swamps, creeks,
                   runs, branches and drains.

                      Small stream wetlands in coastal Virginia typically are found in the inner coastal plain
                   where local relief may range from 25 to 200 feet. The narrowest streams usually have steep
                   sided banks and intermittent flow. Temporary flooding often occurs at irregular intervals
                   (Glascock and Ware, 1979) especially during local storm events. Often the hydrology of the
                   streams are impacted by road construction and beaver dams.

                      Nearly all of the small stream wetlands are dominated by trees. There is a remarkable
                   similarity in dominant canopy species distributed in these wetlands from New Jersey south
                   to Florida and Alabama. Our own findings and other works in Virginia (Glascock and
                   Ware, 1979) indicate that red maple, ashes (Fra xin u s spp., black gum (N. sy 1va tica), L.
                   styraciflua, and elms are all common components in these narrow wetlands throughout the
                   east and Gulf coasts (Bernard, 1963; Monk, 1966; Gemborys and Hodgkins, 1971; Tiner, 1985;
                   Tiner, 1988 and Kuenzler, 1989).

                   2

                        Pocosins

                        Pocosins, also known by other common names such as bays, Carolina bays, bayheads,
                    shrub bogs, southern bogs and other designations, are distributed along the Atlantic Coast
                    from Virginia to northern Florida, but are most extensive in North Carolina (Ash, et al. 1983,
                    Gresham 1989; Richardson 1991). Description varies in the literature for these wetlands but,
                    in North Carolina they occupy poorly drained, flat, shallow basins, with soils ranging from
                    sandy humus, mineral soils, organic muck and peat (Brinson 1991). Vegetation typically
                    found in North Carolina pocosins are pond pine (Pinus se ro tina) as the dominant tree, with
                    red bay (Persea borbonia), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), Atlantic white cedar
                    (Chamaecyparis thyoides) and sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana) as associated trees (Ash, et
                    al. 1983, Richardson 1991). Common shrubs found in pocosins of North Carolina are titi
                    (Cyrilla racemiflora), fetterbush (Lyonia lucidia), honeycup (Zenobia pulverulenta),
                    inkberry (Ilex glabra), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) and others (Ash, et al. 1983, Richardson
                    1991).

                        Emergent (herbaceous) Nontidal Wetlands

                        Emergent nontidal wetlands are not nearly as extensive (less than 10%) in Virginia,
                    compared to forested and scrub/shrub wetlands (Tiner 1987, Odum 1988). Herbaceous
                    dominated wetlands usually exist in isolated depressions, narrow fringes along the margins
                    of ponds, lakes and streams. In our study, many emergent wetlands were the result of
                    disturbed wooded wetlands, often because of clear-cutting for power line right-of-way or
                    timbering. Emergent wetlands are typically associated with palustrine scrub/shrub
                    wetlands. Both of these wetland types (Cowardin et al. 1979) are smaller and less frequently
                    encountered than palustrine forested wetlands in Virginia's coastal zone.

                        Maritime dune swales, found only sporadically in undisturbed coastal dune fields are
                    wetlands of seeming contradictions. Plants growing there vary from season to season,
                    hydrophytes to upland species, halophytes to freshwater species. Typically, Juncus species
                    would indicate wet conditions, however, And ropogon virginicus, a grass indicating xeric
                    conditions coexist (Jones 1992). Other species common to these sites are Centella asiatica,
                    Scirpus americana, Drosera intermedia, and Xyris spp. (Tyndall and Levy 1978, Ludwig
                    1990, Jones 1992). Many of the plants are difficult to identify because they are dwarfed
                    when compared to their more robust inland conspecifics (Jones 1992).

                        Scrub/Shrub Wetlands

                        Nontidal scrub/shrub wetlands represent only about 10% of nontidal wooded wetlands
                    in the state (Tiner 1987). Many of the wetlands designated as palustrine scrub/ shrub on
                    National Wetland Inventory maps (NWI) are cut-oYer areas that were once palustrine
                    forested wetlands. Often scrub/shrub wetlands are depicted as long narrow strips, which
                    are cut-over utility line right-of-ways. Clear cutting forested wetlands for utility
                    right-of-ways is a major type of alteration in the Northeast (Golet et al, 1993). Typically
                    these disturbed wetlands are dominated by red maple and sweet gum saplings.

                                                                                                                   3

                     Undisturbed scrub/shrub wetlands usually have a mixture of shrubs such as silky
                 dogwood (Comus ammomum), alder (Alnus semulata), button bush (Cephalanthus
                 occidentalis), swamp rose (Rosa palustris); trees such red maple, sweet gum, black willow
                 (Salix nigra) and a diverse emergent plant component.

                 Methods

                     Site Selection and Assessment

                     Potential study sites were identified and located using NWI maps, USGS topographic
                 maps and SCS soil surveys. Staff from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of
                 William and Mary visited 300 potential sites. All sites were visited in the field between
                 March and November (1991-92) with 85.0% of the sites visited between late May and
                 August. Data collection for the vegetative characterization and the field portion of the VIMS
                 Functional Assessment Technique (Bradshaw, 1991) were performed on 268 sites. The
                 remaining sites were eliminated either due to the fact that the site was misidentified on the
                 NWI map and was an upland site, or major disturbance had made characterization and
                 assessment of the wetland impossible.

                     The Cowardin classification on the NWI maps was used to categorize wetland types.
                 On those occasions when the field observations were inconsistent with the assigned NWI
                 classification, the wetland was assigned a class by the assessment team.

                     Upon returning to the lab, the vegetative data and the data from the functional
                                                     0
                 assessment field sheets were entered into a dBase database for analysis.

                     All field site wetlands were marked on the mylar National Wetlands Inventory Maps
                 (NWIS). Most of the NWIs used were the maps produced in the 1970's. Any missing maps
                 were replaced with 1990's map. The total areal extent of each wetland was not field checked.
                 In some cases the extent of the wetland was noted by the field team, and in the rest, the
                 extent of the wetland was assumed to be what was on the NWI. On the old NWIs it was
                 assumed that the classification type of some of the very large wetlands changed where
                 roads crossed them (roads would affect their drainage and therefore hydrology).

                     Watersheds were delineated usin- the NWI's and United States Geological Survey
                                                     0
                 topographic maps (topos). As required by the functional assessment technique, primary
                 and secondary (upstream) subwatersheds were delineated.

                     The area of primary watersheds is affected by the number and proximity of wetlands
                 near the wetland of interest. It appears that the primary watersheds on the newer NWIs
                 would be smaller because so many wetlands are more finely subdivided. Wetlands that
                 "straddled" stream courses had watersheds delineated that encompassed all the upstream
                 area. In some cases this produces a secondary watershed with a very large area (e.g. in the
                 Blackwater River watershed). The watersheds for wetlands that sat adjacent to stream
                 courses only included the land area on that side of the stream.

                 4

                       Wetlands and watersheds were digitized and coded. Arc/INF0 Macro Language
                    (AML) programs were used to extract the primary and secondary watersheds for each
                    wetland. Every primary and secondary watershed generated was doublechecked.

                       ERDAS imaging processing software was used to overlay 1989 National Ocean and
                    Atmospheric Administration Coastwatch landuse/land cover data on the watersheds.
                    Slope of watersheds was estimated from topo maps using change in elevation (from the
                    contour lines) over distance. Stream order was also determined from topo maps.

                       A dBase program was used to enter and calculate the landuse/landcover acreages and
                    percentages required on the furictional assessment technique office data sheet.

                       Community Characterization Sampling

                       Trees were sampled using a modified Bitterlich method. Utilizing a Cruz-Angle, this
                    technique is a standard method used by foresters and is efficient, ravid and accurate
                    sampling process to measure tree dominance (Grosenbough, 1952; Phillips, 1959;
                    Mueller-Doumbois and Ellenburg, 1974 and Bell and Dilworth, 1988). For this study, trees
                    are defined as greater than 4.0 in. (10.2 cm) in diameter at breast height (dbh) and greater
                    than 20.0 feet tall (6.0 m). Density of saplings and shrubs were counted within a 10.0 m
                    circumference. Saplings were defined as tree species that are less than 4.0 in. dbh and less
                    than 20.0 feet tall.

                       Herbaceous plants, woody seedlings and vines were estimated as percent cover using
                    1m x 1m quadrats. Percent'no cover'was also recorded. No cover was often mud, or bare
                    soil, water (void of subaquatic vegetation), or'blackened leaves'. Sites were sampled with
                    two 1m x 1m quadrats during the growing season. Plots were systematically placed to
                    measure the lower and higher elevations within the 10.0 m circle.

                       Hydrologic conditions were recorded as flooded when the site was covered with surface
                    water (depth measured), partially flooded when hummocks extended above the water, and
                    not flooded when surface water was not evident. Determination of hydrologic conditions,
                    when no surface water was present, was facilitated by indicators of flooding. The following
                    indicators were recorded, if present: 1) buttressed or fluted tree trunks, 2) pneumatophores
                    (cypress knees), 3) wrack or debris accumulation, 4) water marks, 5) crayfish chimneys, 6)
                    blackened leaves, 7) oxidized rhizospheres, 8) saturated soil and 9) adventitious roots. The
                    site was considered saturated if the soil was wet within the root zone.

                       Hydric soil conditions were determined using the guidelines in the Corps of Engineers
                    Wetlands Delineation Manual (Environmental Laboratory, 1987), Munsell Soil Charts (1990),
                    and frequently local soil maps. Soil samples were taken by probe.

                       Recent plant manuals were used to assist in plant identification (Radford et. al., 1968;
                    Godfrey and Wooten, 1979, 1981). Plant indicator status was determined according to Reed
                    (1988).

                                                                                                              5

                  Results

                      Community Structure

                      There are very few expansive nontidal emergent wetlands in coastal Virginia (PEMs).
                  Our study indicates that PEMss are usually quite wet and are often dominated by
                  broad-leaved herbs including; dicotyledons such as lizard's tail (Saurlints cernulis),
                  smartweeds (Polygonum spp.),jewel-weed (Impatiens capensis) as well as monocotlydons
                  such as arrow arurn (Peltandra virginica). Species composition is often similar to tidal
                  freshwater wetlands, but quite dissimilar to salt and brackish water marshes which are
                  generally dominated by grasses with associated rushes and sedges. Field observations
                  made throughout the growing seasons of the two year study revealed that most
                  broad-leaved, emergent dominated wetland types were flooded or partially flooded most of
                  the time. Maritime dune swales, often grass and rush dominated, appeared to be the driest
                  of the emergent wetland types.

                      The PFOIAs in our study (n = 68) were saturated (63.9%) or partially flooded (19.1%)
                  during the growing season. This wetland type, often referred to as 'winter wet woods', is
                  common in poorly drained areas of tidewater Virginia, often at or near the headwaters of
                  small streams, or on the fringes of large, wetter forests. The canopy species are
                  predominately Acer rubrum in association with sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and
                  sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). Upland trees or saplings did not dominate or codominate
                  at any of the PF01A sites and accounted for less than 10% of the canopy in only a few sites.
                  FACU tree species did not dominate at any of the sites, but Ilex opaca (FACU) did dominate
                  or codominate in the sapling strata in 8 or 15-79/6 of the 68 sites. Shrub and herbaceous
                  components in PFOIA sites indicate a higher percentage of FACW species than the tree and
                  sapling strata.

                      Seasonally flooded palustrine forested wetlands (PFOlCs), are similar to PFOlAs, but
                  typically are wetter and have a higher percentage of hydrophytic species (facultative
                  wetland plants (FACW) and obligate wetland plants (OBL)), Reed (1988). PFO1Cs are
                  typically found on higher flood plain terraces along blackwater rivers, usually above
                  cy
                   , press/tupelo forests. They are also commonly found below headwater streams in areas
                  were the flood plains are broader than the narrow flood plains of PFOlAs. Nearly one half
                  of all sites (N=68) were at least partially flooded during the growing season in 1991-92
                  (Figure 2). More than one quarter of the sites were completely flooded with shallow water
                  (averaging less than 30 cm). None of the sites were dry, even during peak growing season
                  (June-fuly-August).

                      Bald cypress swamps (PF02E) were always flooded or partially flooded (50% or more of
                  site area flooded) during our sites visits during the growing season (March - September
                  1991-1992). The largest expanse of this wetland type occur along the blackwater rivers, the
                  Nottoway, Blackwater, and Chickahominy rivers and the Dragon Run. FACU plants were
                  not found in any of the fifeform, categories in the cypress swamp study sites (N=17). FAC
                  species dominated (55.5%) only in the sapling strata and were not found in the other three
                  strata. Acer rubrum was the sole species represented (Table 6). Obligate plants totally
                  dominated the canopy strata (99.9% - Taxo d iu m d is tch iu m), shrubs (99.9%) and were
                  significantly abundant as herbaceous cover (84.5%).

                  6

                        PFOI/2Es, bald cypress/hardwood mixed forests were nearly always flooded or
                    partially flooded. In wetlands where cypress codominated with red maple, most of the later
                    were smaller trees growing on deadfall or isolated hummocks of elevated substrate.
                    Cypress/maple swamps were usually partially flooded or saturated. Cypress/tupelo
                    swamps were mostly flooded and the trees had buttressed trunks and knees. In PFO1/2E
                    sampled wetlands, facultative wetland (FACW) species were found in all categories, but
                    were more prevalent as saplings 49.9% (mainly Acer rubrum), shrubs 30.8% (Clethra
                    alnifolia), herbs 31.5% and least common in the canopy strata (16.2%). Obligate species,
                    Taxodium distichum and Nyssa aquatica (Table 5) dominated the canopy (58.1%) of the
                    sites. OBL plants (Saururus cernuus and Murdannia keisak) also dominated most of the
                    herbaceous strata (69.5%).

                        Tupelo dominated swamps (PF01E) were nearly always flooded or partially flooded.
                    PF01E sampled sites did not have any dominating FACU plants in any of the four lifeform.
                    cate-ories. Facultative (FAC) species dominated/ codominated 21.6% of the canopy strata
                    and 41.6% of the sapling/ understory strata and 0.0% in the shrub and herbaceous strata.
                    Facultative wet (FACW) hydrophytes were found in all four categories: trees 41.1%, saplings
                    58.1%, shrubs 41.1% and herbs 25.0%. Obligate (OBL) wetland plants dominated/
                    codominated the tree strata at 36.6% of the study sites, 0.0% of the sapling understory, 58.3%
                    of the shrub category and 75.0% of the herbaceous cover.

                    Discussion

                        Community Structure

                        The nontidal palustrine forested wetlands of Coastal Virginia have affinities with
                    palustrine forested wetlands of both the Mid-Atlantic States and the Southeastern States.
                    Generally, PF01A and PF01C types, based on this study, are similar in dominant and
                    associated canopy species composition to those found in Maryland (Tiner, 1988). Acer
                    rub rum appears to be the dominant canopy tree in these wetland types in both Virginia and
                    Maryland. Other common dominant/ codominant trees are Nyssa sylvatica var.biflora,
                    Liqiddambar styraciflita,and Platanus occidentalis.

                        PFOIE, PF01/2E and PF02E forests in Virginia are similar to bottomland forests farther
                    south (Wharton, et al, 1982, Smock and Gilinsky, 1992) (Fig.la). PF01E forests are
                    commonly dominated by Nyssa aquatica, N. sylvatica var. biflora, Fraxinus pennsylvanica
                    and A.rubrum. PFOI/2E forests are dominated by Taxodium distichum and N. aquatica
                    and PF02E by T.distchum. The tupelo and tupelo/cypress bottornland forests reach their
                    northern distribution in coastal Virginia.

                        Functional Assessment

                        The functional assessment technique used in this study allowed us to rapidly sample a
                    large number (268) of nontidal wetlands in coastal Virginia over two growing seasons
                        0
                    (1991-1992). The method was not only designed to facilitate our needs for the study, but to

                                                                                                                  7

                                                                                                                                  0

                  be of possible use to wetland managers as an easily deployed yet scientifically sound tool to
                  be used in the field. Rapid assessment programs have been recently developed to sample
                  the environment where time is a critical factor because of human impacts (Abate, 1992). -

                     The results of the functional assessement are still being analyzed. The preliminary data
                  is presented in a series of graphs summarizing rankings of all sampled wetlands for each
                  function by wetland type and by stream order. This data is being analyzed to determine if
                  wetland type or position can be useful predictors of wetland function. Preliminary analysis
                  suggests weak relationships exist within the sample population of wetlands. This analysis
                  will continue and be extended during the summer of 1995. The graphs presented here are
                  simple data summaries and have not been used to draw any conclusions thus far.

                  Literature Cited

                  Abate, Tom. 1992. Environmental rapid-assessment programs have appeal and critics: Are
                     they the domain of the conservative? Bioscience 42: 486-489.

                  Ash, AX, C.B. McDonald, E.S. Kane, and C.A. Pories. 1983. Natural and modified
                     pocosins: literature synthesis and management options. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                     FWS/OBS-83/04. Wash, D.C. 156 pp.

                  Bell, J.F. and J.R. Dilworth. 1988. Log scaling and timber crusing. Oregon State University,
                     Corvallis, Ore. 396 pp.

                  Bernard, J.M. 1963. Lowland forests of the Cape May Formation in Southern New Jersey.
                     Bull. N.J. Academy of Science. 8:1-12.                                                                       C

                  Brinson, M.M. 1991. Landscape properties of pocosins and associated wetlands. Wetlands
                     11:441-465.

                  Corps of Engineers, 1992. Memor@ndum: clarification and interpretation of the 1987 Manual.
                     Dept. of the Army, U.S. Army C.O.E., Washington, DC. 4 pp.

                  Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and
                     deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                     FWS/OBS-79/31, Wash., D.C.

                  Environmental Laboratory. 1987. Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual, Tech.
                     Rpt. Y-87-1. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Ms.

                  Gemborys, S.R. and E.J. Hodgkins 1971. Forests of small stream bottoms in the Coastal Plain
                     of Southwestern Alabama. Ecology 52:70-84.

                  8

                    Glascock, S. and S. Ware. 1979. Forests of small stream bottoms in the Peninsula of Virginia.
                        Va. J. Sci. 30: 17-21.

                    Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic and wetland plants of Southeastern United
                        States. Monocotyledons. vol. 1, University of Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 712 pp.

                    Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of Southeastern United
                        States. Dicotyledons. v. 2, University of Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 933 pp.

                    Golet, F.C., A.J.K. Calhoun, W.R. DeRagon, D. J. Lowry, and A.J. Gold. 1993. Ecology of red
                        maple swamps in the Glaciated Northeast: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                        Service. Biol. Rep. 12. 151 pp.

                    Gresham, C.A. 1989. A literature review of effects of developing pocosins. In D.D. Hook and
                        R. Lea (eds.) Proceedings of the symposium: The forested wetlands of the Southern
                        United States; 1988 July 12-14, Orlando, FL Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-50. Ashville, NC. U.S.
                        Dept. Agri., For. Ser., Southeastern For. Exp. Sta. 168pp.

                    Grosenbough, L.R. 1952. Plotless timber estimates - new, fast, easy. Jour. Forestry. 50: 32-37

                    Jones, H.E. 1992. A vegetational analysis of interdunal swale communities of False Cape
                        State Park, Currituck Spit, Virginia. MA thesis, College of William and Mary,
                        Williamsburg, Va. 68 pp.

                    Kuenzler, E.J. 1989. Value of forested wetlands as filters for sediments and nutrients. In D.D.
                        Hook and R. Lea, (eds.) Proceedings of the symposium: The forested wetlands of the
                        Southern United States; 1988 July 12-14, Orlando, FL. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-50. Ashville,
                        NC. U.S. Dept. Agri., For.Ser., Southeastern For. Exp. Sta. 168 pp.

                    Monk, D.D. 1966. An ecological study of hardwood swamps in North Central Florida. Ecol.
                        47:649-654.

                    Mueller-Dombois, D. and E. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John
                        Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 547 pp.

                    Miunsell Soil Color Charts. 1990. Munsell color, Kollmorgen Instruments Corp. Baltimore,
                        Md.

                    Odum, W.E. 1988. Nontidal freshwater wetlands in Virginia. Va. J. Nat. Res. Law. 7:421-434.

                    Penfound, W.T. 1952. Southern swamps and marshes. Bot. Rev. 18:413-446.

                    Phillips, E.A. 1959. Methods of vegetation study. Holt, Rhinehart, & Winston, New York,
                                                     Z7
                        NY. 107 pp.

                    Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles and C.H. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.
                        University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. 1183 pp.

                                                                                                               9

                 Reed, P.R. 1988. National list of plant species that occur in wetlands: 1988, Virginia. National
                     Wetlands Inventory. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, St. Petersburg, Fl.

                 Richardson, C.J. 1991. Pocosins: An ecological perspective. Wetlands 11: 335-352.

                 Smock, L.A. and E. Glinsky. 1992. Blackwater streams. In C.T. Hackney, S.M. Adams and
                     W.H. Martin, (eds.) Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States: aquatic communities.
                     John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY. 779 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1985. Wetlands of New Jersey. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National
                     Wetlands Inventory. Newton Comer, MA 117 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1987. Mid-Atlantic Wetlands: A disappearing national treasure. U.S. Fish and
                     Wildlife Service and U.S. EPA. 28 pp.

                 Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1988. Field guide to nontidal wetland identification. Maryland Dept. of Nat.
                     Res., Annapolis, MD and U.S. Fish Wild. Ser., Newton Comer, MA. Cooperative Pub.
                     283 pp.

                 Virginia Water Control Board, 1992. Chowan Basin nutrient control: update for Virginia
                     (1982-1989). Va. Water Cont. Brd., Inf. Bull. #591, Richmond, Va.

                 Wharton, C.H., W.M. Kitchens and T.N. Sipe. 1982. The ecology of bottomland hardwood
                     swamps of the Southeast: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                     FWS/OBS-81/37.

                 10

                          Floodflow vs. Stream Order

                50 -

                                                                   H
                                                                   M
              w 40 -
              0                                                    L
              CC
              0 30 -
              cf:

              (n
              -&- 20 -
               0

               010 -

                 0 -

                       0     1     2     3    4     5     6
                                   STRORDER
                                                  t
                                                     a
                                                    @ MRIS

                     Nutrient Retention vs. Stre a*m Order

                60 -

                                                                  M
             CC 50 -                                              L
             w
             0
             0@ 40 -
             0
             G@
                30 -

               0
                20 -

               :3
             0 )10 -

                 0

                             1    2     3    4
                                   STRORDER

                    Sediment Trapping vs. Stream Order

                60 -

                50 -                    INN,
              w
              0
              M 40 -
              0
              rr
                30 -
              C/)

              4-
               0
                20 -

              0 lo -
                 0    t
                       0     1     2    3     4     5    6
                                   STRORDER

                     Toxicity Trapping vs. Stream Order

                60 -

                50 -
             w

                40 -
             0
             rr
             1-- 30 -

              0
                20 -

             0  10 -

                0

                       0    1     2    3    4     5    6
                                  STRORDER
                    L

                                                                  oil    4p

                     Sediment Stability vs. Stream Order

                50 -

                                                                  M
                40 -                                              H
                                                                  L
              0 30 -
              Cf)
              ,#.- 20 -
               0

               010 -

                 0 -

                       0     1    2     3    4     5    6
                                  STRORDER

                          Wildlife vs. Stream Order

                40 -

                30 -

                20 -

                10 -

                 0 -

                       0     1    2     3    4     5     6
                                   STRORDER
                                            i I

                      Aquatic Habitat vs. Stream Order

                40 -

             w  30 -

             0
             0@
                20 -
             CD

             %4-
               0

                10 -
               0

                 0 -

                       0     1     2    3     4          6
                                   STRORDER

                              Public Use vs. Stream Order

                   40 -
                                                                                 H
                                                                                 M
                0  30 -                                                          L
                rr
                0
                CE
                1-- 20
                C/)

                 0

                   10
                 0

                    0

                            0      1      2      3      4      5      6
                                          STRORDER
                                    Ma

                                                 ti

                                 @ 1     1, 1     %6,1     1 1     1 1      4 P

                               Floodflow vs. Wetland Type

                  150 -                                                             H
                                                                                    M
                                                                                    L

                  100 -

               0

               *-P
               C-  50 -
               D
               0

                    0
        0 = nonwetland
                               0            1            2           3
        1 = palustrine emergent            WTLDTYPE
        2 = palustrine forested
        3

                          Nutrient Retention vs. Wetland Type

                   200 -

                                                                                       M
                w                                                                      L
                                                                                       H

                   100

                 0

                 0
                0
                     0 -                    M
        0 = nonwetland                        I
        1 = palustrine emergent 0              1           2            3
        2 = palustrine forested              WTLDTYPE
        3 = palustrine scrub/shrub

                i 1      4,1      (1       tl

                                                                                                          1, 1                   %,1                    1 0                     1 '1                    4 P

                                                             Sediment Trapping vs. Wetland Type

                                            200 -

                                                                                                                                                                                                                   El M
                                    w
                                    CL                                                                                                                                                                            EM L
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  IM H

                                            100 -

                                     0

                                    4-a

                                     0

                                                  0
                  0 = nonwetland
                  1 = palustrine emergent                                      0                                  1                                2                                  3
                  2 = palustrine forested                                                                       WTLDTYPE
                  3 = palustrine scrub/shrub

                       Toxicity Trapping vs. Wetland Type

                 200 -

                                                                           M
              w                                                            L

              F- 100 -

              0

              +-a
              C-
              =3
              0
              C)

                   0 -
        0 = nonwetland
        1 = palustrine emergent0        1          2          3
        2 = palustrine forested        WTLDTYPE
        3 = palustrine scrub/shrub

                          Sediment Stability vs. Wetland Type

                   150 -                                                             M
                w                                                                    H
                IL
                                                                                     L
                9  100 -

                 0
                    50 -

                 0

                     0
         0 = nonwetland
         1 = Palustrine emergent0            1
         2 = palustrine forested            WTLDTYPE
         3 = palustrine scrub/shrub

                                 Wildlife vs. Wetland Type

                   150 -                                                         M
                                                                                 EM H
               w                                                                 ED M

                   100 -

                0
                    50 -

                0
                     0                         MEN
         0 = nonwetland
         1 = palustrine emergent0            1
         2 = palustrine forested            WTLDTYPE
         3 = palustrine scrub/shrub

                                          ti

                          Aquatic Habitat vs. Wetland Type

                 100 -                                                        L
              w                                                               H
              IL
              >-                                                          EM M
              F-

              F-
                  50 -

                0

                0

                   0 -
        0 = nonwetland
                             0           1           2          3
        1 = palustrine emergent          WTLDTYPE
        2 = palustrine forested
        3 = Palustrine scrub/shrub

                             Public Use vs. Wetland Type

                  100 -                                                     M
                                                                            EM H
               w                                                            EM M
               CL
                                                                                L

                   50 -

                0

                =3

                    0
        0 = nonwetland
        1 = palustrine emergent0          1           2           3
        2 = palustrine forested           WTLDTYPE
        3 = palustrine scrub/shrub      MEE

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