Assessment of the geologic information of New York state's coastal zone and Continental Shelf and its significance to petroleum exploration and development

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

ASSESSMENT OF THE GEOLOGIC INFORMATION
OF NY STATE'S COASTAL ZONE AND
CONTINENTAL SHELF AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
TO PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

rA. '4.

QE
350.2
G53
1977

COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER

VOLUME I

ASSESSMENT OF THE GEOLOGIC INFORMATION OF NEW YORK
STATE'S COASTAL ZONE AND CONTINENTAL SHELF
AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Prepared for the
New York State Science Service - Geological Survey
New York State Education Department, Albany, New York 12234

by
J. Douglas Glaeser l
and 2
Philip C. Smith

1. Consultant Geologist, 36 Riverside Drive, New York, New York
10023
2 Temporary Geologist, New York State Science Service
Present address: U.S. Geological Survey, Conservation
Division, Metairie, Louisiana 70011

The preparation of this report was financially aided through
a Federal Grant from the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amened. This report
was prepared for the New York State Department of State, August
1977, through the Outer Continental Shelf Study Program which
was managed and directed by the Department of Environmental
Conservation. Grant-In-Aid No. 04-5-158-50002.

ERRATA

p. 17 Tenth entry last line: Woollard, G.P.

p. 62 Ninth line: restate their ...

p. 132 Second paragraph, second line: Gulf of Maine

p. 134 First paragraph, fourth line: Figure 25

p. 136 Third line: of foreset ...

p. 156 Last paragraph, fourth line: half-graben

p. 164 First paragraph, second line: Figure 34

p. 219 Last entry: Rhythmic...

p. 242 First paragraph, fifth line: "the abnormal ...
p. 243 Eighth line: Bradley (1975) ...

p. 244 Last line: Hanshaw and Bredehoeft, 1968

p. 246 Second line: Bradley (1975) ...

p. 250 Last line: Bradley, 1975

p. 253 First paragraph, last line: Bradley 1975

p. 259 References on overpressure are not included in the
bi-bliography (Volume II), hence complete citations
are given here.

PREFACE

The rapidly increasing needs for domestic petroleum
resources by the United States have placed heavy pressures
to explore the continental margin of eastern North America's
offshore region. Economic successes in other similar regions
of the submerged portions of continental margins have spurred
very intensive geologic study and economic analysis of the
Atlantic coastal margin of the United States by the major
energy companies and by the U.S. Department of the Interior.
To date, several billions of dollars have been invested there
in what can be termed only preliminary assessment of its
economic potential for the simple reason that no petroleum
reserves have been actually identified there. However, the
intensity of the geologic examination of the region in terms
of cost and time to industry and to the Federal government
is indicative of the positive evidence gathered thus far that
makes the continental margin of eastern United States a highly
favorable target for extensive petroleum investigation.

During the decade in which the Atlantic continental
margin of the United States has been under intensive
investigation as a prospective petroleum producing region,
two diametrically opposed situations have developed in the
United States. The first is the political and economic
causes of shifts in the availability of inexpensive petroleum
causing a reducing domestic reserve and an increased reliance
on petroleum imports. The second is the increasing ability of
both private organizations and governmental agencies to slow
or prevent the economic development of any region because of
real or potential hazards which might be inflicted on the
surrounding environment as a result of the exploitation of
the petroleum resources.

An example of the strengths of these two forces has
been seen durin late 1976 and early 1977. Major oil
companies paid 11.1 billion dollars to the Department of
the Interior in August 1976 for the rights to lease certain
designated tracts of offshore area on the continental shelf
east of New Jersey. In February 1977 a Federal judge in New
York voided this $1.1 billion sale basing his decision upon
evidence that the leasing had occurred without full compliance
to the Natio-nal Environmental Policy Act.

Thus, all sides of the exploration venture come into
play-economict, national needs, technological and environ-
mental safety along with projected estimates of the positive
and negative influences such ventures might produce for the
coastal states and communities bordering the Atlantic
continental margin. This means that each state having a
coastal zone is an active participant in weighing the divergent

and often conflicting factors in condoning or objecting to
the rights of the Federal government to lease offshore areas
for petroleum exploration purposes. It is therefore encumbent
upon all parties involved in this complex decision-making
process to have available the full range of fundamental infor-
mation which needs to be incorporated into a rational choice
of the best long-term use of the ocean resources with maximum
environmental safeguards.

This report includes a comprehensive coverage of the
available information, research and practical experience
which exists for the New York State continental margin.
That region extends seaward from the beaches, tidal wetlands
and river mouths to the relatively deep marine seabed where
it is presently feasible to apply the technology of offshore
drilling in search of petroleum reservoirs. Two principal
topics are encompassed in this report. First, the geology
of the continental margin which extends from the unconsolidated
surficial sediments on the seafloor downward through the sedi-
mentary layers which have formed since the earliest stages of
development of the eastern North American continental margin.
Second, the circulation of waters which cover the continental
margin. This latter topic therefore includes surface and deep
water currents as well as tides and waves. These two topics
must be coupled because materials of the seafloor along the
continental margin are influenced by the dynamics of water
movements. Any influences upon these bottom sediments by
manis activities on the seafloor or any introduction of
polluting substances into the water column itself results in
transfers and redistributions of inert or harmful material by
the dynamic circulation patterns of the continental margin's
marine waters.

Thus, a major task by governmental agencies in judging
suitability of areas for offshore petroleum exploration must
be based upon both a knowledge of the seabed geology and the
overlying circulation dynamics. Both influence the safety of
any exploration site and cause possible widespread redistribution
of pollutants added to the water column from the exploration site.
In spite of the fact that this report includes titles of published
and unpublished studies relevant to New York's continental shelf
and adjoining areas, this listing is not complete and the data
on this region is only beginning to become available. During
the coming few years, new information and dramatically different
interpretations concerning this vast unexplored region will
emerge at such an explosive rate that this report will very
quickly be dated in perspective to the exponential growth in
the fundamental knowledge which inevitably is to occur.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ....................................................

ILLUSTRATIONS .............................................. V

INTRODUCTION ........... I
Organization and 1
Participants in Report and AcknowTedgements ............... 2
Summary of Report Contents with Assessments in Evaluations
of Existing and Needed Geologic Information .............. 2
Problems Concerning Shelf Surface Features ................ 3

I. CONTINENTAL MARGIN .................................... 10
A. Physiographic Provinces ............................. 10
B. Boundaries of Study Area ............................ 22
C. Origins and General Geologic History of Atlantic
Physiographic Provinces ............................. 26

II. MAJOR SURFACE FEATURES OF CONTINENTAL MARGIN .......... 36
A. Shelf Valleys ....................................... 40
1. Buried Shelf Valleys ............................... 45
B. Heads of Canyons .................................... 49
C. Ridge and Swale Topography .......................... 52
D. Remnants of Lower Sea-Level Stands .................. 61

III. PROCESSES INFLUENCING SURFACE OF THE CONTINENTAL
SHELF ........................ 65
A. Inner Shelf and Coastal
1. Beach Development and Erosion ...................... 74
2. Dynamfcs of Tidal Inlets and Estuaries ............. 87
3. Barrier Islands and Their Possible Origins ......... 98
B. Currents and Circulation Dynamics of the Outer
Continental Shelf .................................. 105
1. Indicators of Shelf Circulation ................... 114
a. Dynamics of Ridge and Swale Topography .......... 116
b. Across-Shelf Transfers of Suspended Material .... 119
C. Shelf-Break Water-Mass Exchanges with Continental
Slope Waters ....................................... 125

IV. GEOLOGIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW YORK CONTINENTAL
SHELF ................
A. Geophysical Discussion ............................. 132
B. Basement Ridge Models .............................. 134
C. Structural Geology ....................... .......... 143
1. Faults ............................................ 146
a. Shallow Faults .................................. 146
b. Deep Faults ..................................... 148
2. Intrusions ......................................... 149

D. Stratigraphy ....................................... 156
1. Triassic .......................................... 156
2. Jurassic .......................................... 158
3. Cretaceous ........................................ 160
a. Lower Cretaceous ................................. 160
b. Upper Cretaceous ................................. 164
4. Cenozoic (pre-Pleistocene) ......................... 167
5. Pleistocene-Holocene ............................... 175

V. SEISMICITY OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF .................. 187

VI. REASONS FOR ASSUMING NEW YORK SHELF TO BE OF MAJOR
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE ....................... 190
A. Major Considerations Used in Assessing
Potential ...................... 190
B. Oil and Gas Potential, North
Bank Basin ............................ i.: ......... 195
C. Oil and Gas Potential, Mid-Atlantic Ba timore
Canyon Trough .............................. :******202
D. Assessment of Petroleum Potential by Comparison
with Ancient Continental Margins .................. 209
E. Other Economic Resources of New York Shelf ........ 212
1. Sands and Gravels ................................. 215
2. Heavy Metals ..................................... 224
8. Uranium .......................................... 227
4. Fresh Artesian Water ............................. 231

VII. GEOLOGIC HAZARDS ..................................... 235
A. Slumping ..... 235
B. Seismic Risk
C. Shallow Hazards ................................... 238
7. Shallow Faults ................................... 238
2. Shallow Gas ................... 239
D. Overpressure (Formation Fluid
than Hydrostatic) ................................. 240
1. Major Cause of Overpressure ...................... 242
a. Undercompaction .................................. 242
b. Temperature Rise ............................ ... 243
2. Minor Causes of Overpressure ................. : ... 244
a. Dewatering Clays ................................ 244
b. Tectonics ....................................... 245
C. Structural Barriers ............................. 246
d. Thermal Degradation of Petroleum ................ 247
e. Carbonization ................................... 248
f. Biogenic Gas Production ......................... 249
9. Osmosis ......................................... 250
h. Mineralization .................................. 251
i. Gypsum-to-anydrate .............................. 252
j. Permafrost Development .......................... 253
E. Pollutant Distribution in Terms of Circulation
Dynamics, Shelf Topography and Sediment
Properties ....................................... 254

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Idealized Continental Margin ..................... 11
2. Block Diagram of the Continental Margin,
Eastern U.S ...................................... 12
3. Study Area ....................................... 23
4. Rifting of the Continental Crust ................. 27
5. Sedimentary Wedge Along Continental Margin ....... 27
6. Stages of Rifting and Spreading, Eastern U.S.....28
7. Formation of Rift Basins, Eastern, U..S ........... 29
8. Block Diagram of Continental Margin, South of
Long Island ...................................... 37
9. Morphology of Middle Atlantic Bight .............. 41
10. Pattern of Linear Lows on Long Island Shelf ...... 43
11. Pattern of Linear Lows on New Jersey Shelf ....... 44
12. Topography of Northern Part of Middle Atlantic
Bight ....................................................... 53
13. Fire Island Shoreface Ridge System........................... 54
14. Bathymetry of New Jersey Shelf ................... 56
15. Coastal Compartments and Shoreface-Ridge Systems,
Middle Atlantic Bight ............................ 57
16. Idealized Wave Components and Motion ............. 66
17. Shallow Water Wave Motion ........................ 68
18. Littoral Currents and Resulting Sediment
Movement ........................ 75
19. Effects of Wave Attack and Littoral Drift on
Coastlines ................................................ 76
20. Idealized Barrier Island System.............................. 77
21. Estuarine Circulation ............ 89
22. Surface Winds and Water Currents of the Oceans............. 106
23. Surface and Bottom Circulation on the Middle
Atlantic Shelf .................................. 109
24. Causes of Shelf-Break Bottom Currents ........... 126
25. Basement Ridge Models ..... 135
26. Major Structural Features Offshore, Eastern
U.S ........................... l44
27. Isopach of Sediment Thickness in Baltimore
Canyon Trough ......................... 145
28. Selected Structural Features of the
Northeastern U.S ................................ 147
29. Stratigraphic Units off Baltimore Canyon Trough.157
30. Cross-section of Continental Shelf, Baltimore
Canyon to Scotian Shelf ......................... 159
31. Stratigraphic Correlation from USGS Island
Beach 1 to COST B-2 Well ........................ 161
32. Cross-section Based on Seismic Profile 2,
USGS Island Beach 1 to Edge of Continental
Shelf ... 162
33. Stratigraphic Correlation Between COST B-2 and
Shell N-30 Well ................................. 163
34. Log of Fire Island Well ......................... 164
35. Cretaceous Correlation Chart .................... 165

Figure Page

36. Thickness of Quaternary Sediments on the
Atlantic Continental Shelf .......................... 176
37. Vertical Section of Atlantic Shelf Sediments ........ 181
38. Sea-Levels on U.S. Atlantic Continental Margin ...... 183
39. Recorded Earthquake Epicenters on the Atlantic
Shelf ...... 188
40. Sediment Thickness versus area, Baltimore Canyon
Trough .............................................. 205
41. Generalized Section of the U.S. Atlantic Shelf
and Rise ............................................ 207

INTRODUCTION

Organization and User's Guide

This report contains a summary of the geologic properties
and economic potential of the continental shelf bordering New
York State. Included are discussions of origins of the
continental margin, the specific surface features which are
characteristic of that portion of continental shelf bordering
New York and the ways in which the natural geologic setting
and its on-going processes can influence offshore exploration.
This portion of the report stresses the fact that any predictions
of the outcomes of man-made influences upon the continental shelf
can be understood and controlled only by means of a thorough
knowledge of the shelf and its associated processes as they
occur in their natural geologic setting.

Included is an assessment of adequacy of the present
geologic knowledge about the continental shelf. Based on this
assessment, a number of gaps in data fundamental to under-
standing shelf processes and to predicting the outcomes of
man's influence on that environment are identified. All of
these areas of needed information become priority items which
can lead toward an intelligent management of the potentially
large economic resources which lie along New York's outer
continental shelf.

This report includes a bibliography of papers pertinent
to an understanding of the continental shelf of the middle
and north Atlantic region of eastern United States. These
references occur in two forms. Volume II of this report
contains an alphabetized listing of about 850 published and
unpublished papers pertinent to the area of study. Secondly,
bibliographic data has been included at the end of each topic
section of the geologic information portion of this report.
Following each subject listed there is given the title and
author of all pertinent papers and reports. These are not
set up in the usual format of bibliographic citations for
reasons of usefulness and limitations of duplication. The
article title is cited along with author and date of publication.
This permits a rapid scanning of all subjects related to each
section of the report to determine which papers are needed for
immediate use. Once the pertinent titles are selected, the
listed author(s) and date give immediate access to the
alphabetized bibliography in Volume II where full source
information is given for each reference.

In the Appendix of this report is a listing of all public
and private organizations engaged in research or in funding
research on the continental margin of eastern United States.
Included are lists of individuals and their institutional
affiliation and their funding and/or equipment support. This

summary is probably the most complete listing of available
expertise, and agencies supporting that expertise in studies
of the continental margin of eastern United States. This
portion of the report is especially useful because more
unpublished quantitative research may be underway at the
present time concerning the continental shelf, its geology,
and the dynamics influencing that region than all of the
useful, quantitative studies listed in the bibliography
(Volume II).

Participants in Report Preparation and Acknowledgements,

J. Douglas Glaeser was responsible for the organization
of the report, format, the bulk of the bibliography and
those other chapters covering the Identification and Assessment
of Geologic Information of New York State's coastal zone and
continental shelf, as well as the section on funding agencies
and organizations participating in research in the study area.
The original illustrations included in Glaeser's chapters are
by Daniel D. Hart. Philip C. Smith was responsible for the
sections on Geologic Development of New York Continental Shelf
(IV), Seismicity of the Continental Margin (V) and portions of
those sections concerning petroleum and geological hazards of
shelf exploration.

John Myers contributed materially to this report in his
thorough organization of unpublished information concerning
the study area. He also carried out many of the tasks of
gathering scattered information and doing calculations which
act as supporting data.

The study was accomplished under the direction of William
B. Rogers, New York State Geological Survey, who somehow found
the patience to be both administrative overseer and constructive
critic throughout the development, preparation and completion
of this report. He carried out this dual function with a wealth
of understanding and humor which kept all the participants
reasonably sane for the duration. Federal funding was made
possible for this study as an integral contribution to the
State's Outer Continental Shelf Study Program managed by the
New York State Department of Environmental Resources through
the New York State Department of State's Coastal Zone Management
Program.

Summary of Report Contents with Assessments and Evaluations
of Existing and Needed Geologic Information

Because there is a vast amount of new quantitative data
being developed by both Federal and private research agencies,
it is thought that most major gaps of information concerning

the New York continental shelf have been specifically
identified within the body of this report. The emphasis
has focused on the question of adequacy of knowledge con-
cerning process-response systems of the continental shelf.
It has been a theme of this report to underscore the process-
response systems for one very important reason: that is,
when any change is made in the shelf environment, whether
it be construction of a drilling platform or an oil spill,
the response which will follow these man-made changes can
only be understood in the light of the natural processes
already acting there or which have been active within the
continental margin in the geologic past. Each of the sections
of this report dealing with specific geologic aspects of the
continental margin or the physical processes influencing that
region (such as shelf water circulation, slumping, beach
development and erosion, etc.) has indicated what needs to
be known about that particular topic prior to shelf explora-
tion. A review of these has been extracted from each section
and summarized below.

Problems Concerning Shelf Surface Features

An understanding of the depositional processes and
mechanisms that built and continue to modify the physiographic
@urface features of the outer continental shelf are of major
importance to management of man's activities in the coastal
zone and on the continental shelf. Although the distribution
of major shelf features is known from detailed bathymetric
maps already available, the origins of some of these features
are not well understood. Features that need further research
for adequate management are briefly discussed below.

Shelf valleys that cross the continental shelf, buried
shelf valleys and the nearly ubiquitous ridge and swale
topography are features created and modified perhaps by both
present and past depositional processes. Sorting out the
degree to which present shelf circulation and sediment move-
ment affects these features is important to the overall
understanding of the shelf system.

Early studies of ridge and swale topography attributed
its origin to fluvial or glacio-fluvial processes. Newer
interpretations hold that ridge and swale topography is not
a relict feature on the shelf surface but rather a product
of the dynamic changes in the shoreface - inner shelf region
occurring in response to present-day hydraulic conditions.

Shelf valleys have been discussed in some papers primarily
concerned with shelf sediment characteristics, where "drainage
networks" on the shelf have been related to shelf valleys.

Another more recent interpretation of these "drainage
networks" is that they are merely the low areas of the
ridge and swale topography and unrelated to shelf valleys.

Buried shelf valleys are another feature of the shelf
surface that need to be known in considerable detail prior
to construction of drilling platforms. Buried shelf valleys
are former fluvial channels that were eroded into the shelf
surface when it was exposed during lower stands of sea level
and later filled with material that is unconsolidated and,
in places, slumped toward and/or down the fluvial channel
axis. These areas of slumped unconsolidated sediment
represent significant engineering hazards. Identification
of potential slump zones is essential prior to selection of
drill sites. Neither the slumping nor the trace of the
buried shelf valleys is discernible from bathymetric maps.
Shallow seismic profiling reveals their presence beneath
the infilled sediment surface. Buri6d shelf valleys are
depositional areas on the shelf surface, hence they could
be good sites for burial of pipelines because here pipelines
should not be affected by scour.

The problem of sediment mobility, in general, is not
well Understood in terms of shelf sediment dynamics. The
linear shoals making up the ridges of the ubiquitous ridge
and swale topography have not been monitored in terms of the
currents which influence them. Thus, we have no quantitative
link between sediments and the forces which move them. The
dynamics of linear shoals are just beginning to be understood.
The principle research on this topic is underway at the Atlantic
Oceanographic and Meteorologic Laboratory of NOAA in Miami.
Any site to be used for petroleum exploration on the shelf
surface must be accurately located with respect to these
linear shoals. This can be done on the detailed bathymetry
shown on Stearns' (1967) charts of the New York bight region.
Because of the scale of these ridges (a few kilometers in
length, heights up to 10 m), a single map cannot be incorporated
in this report showing the areal distribution of these features.

Part of the resolution of problems involving linear features
on the shelf surface relates to distinction between remnant
structures formed during lower sea-level thought to be strand
line features and those which are responding to the dynamic
conditions of the shelf surface today. Duane and others (1972)
emphasize the fact that linear shoals represent neither subaerial
superstructures nor submarine foundations of barrier islands.
Instead, they interpret these linear features as "daughter"
forms adjusting to the prevailing hydraulic processes on the
shelf today.

Another problem involving surficial sediments of the shelf
is the need for detailed maps showing sediment types and textures

-
in terms of their areal distribution. The presently
-available ms (Williams and Duane, 1974; Charnell and
others, 1975 lack a direct link to shel-f surface topography,
which is necessary to judge the suitability of drilling sites.
The result of on-going research at Virginia Institute of
Marine Sciences funded by the Bureau of Land Management
indicates direct links among shelf surface morphology, wave
refraction, sediment types and mobility as well as variations
in the inhabiting organisms.

Related to these studies of surface sediment mobility
and distribution is a re-evaluation of the uppermost zone
of unconsolidated sediment comprising the Pleistocene-Holocene
stratigraphic section. Three types of data are being gathered
and/or in the process of evaluation. The first comes from
continuous seismic reflection profiles. The second, from the
1976 Atlantic Margin Coring Project. The third, from studies
of the New York b1ght by the National Oceanographic and
Meteorologic Administration and by the Coastal Engineering
Research Center of the Corps of Engineers.

The physical character of submarine canyon heads which
incise the outer shelf margin requires further study. Studies
of canyon heads are very few and limited in scope. Those
examined reveal a "badlands" topography in which two types
of slumps occur. The first type are those where slump crests
are parallel to the slope and occur in relatively undissected
intercanyon areas. They may form small wave-like slump trains.-
The second type of slumps are those formed at right angles to
the first. Slump features of both types imply an active sub-
strate in the heads of submarine canyons. Evolution of this
type of relief involves sideward movement into the canyon axis
where the slumped sediment is being actively dissected to form
younger gullies. Older erosional canyon heads may have been
partially buried, although such deposition may be only temporary.
A number of lease tracts of the north and mid-Atlantic areas
are located at heads of submarine canyons, thus, the processes
operating these are of immediate interest.

The increase in slope which occurs beyond the shelf break
gives evidence of active sediment mass movement in places.
The irregular distribution of erosional and depositional areas
within canyon heads all signal caution in terms of exploration
in these sites. Slump block detachment represents one of the
most serious engineering problems in the areas of canyon heads
as well as on the continental slope in general.

The beaches and barrier islands marking the landward edge
of the shelf have an intimate association with continental
shelf materials and processes. There are no regional studies
of the beaches (barrier islands) bordering the New York bight.
Sand types, sources, transport rates, downdrift compositional

changes, etc., all are responses to the wave and current
regimes. Understanding material transfers and rates of
change in the barrier island systems within specific
coastal compartments would provide the major key to under-
standing the extent and intensity of influence which
pollutants such as sewage or oil spills would have on the
beaches of the region. In addition, knowl,edge of rates of
change in barrier island migration would permit intelligent
long-term planning of the important recreational facilities.

Because of the known correlation between some components
of beach materials and sediment types on the shelf (Pilkey
and Field, 1972), the first step in evaluating any possible
unconsolidated sediment resource such as offshore heavy
metal placer deposits is an analysis of the beaches themselves.

One important area of sand accumulation within the barrier
island system is the tidal delta. Tidal deltas formed just
landward or seaward of inlets between barrier islands are
important sites of sand storage and represent one dynamic
part of the continuous development and regeneration of barrier
islands. The removal of such sand bodies for navigation
purposes modifies the sand balance which helps maintain and
regenerate portions of barrier islands. Tidal deltas can
represent the only remaining sand sources in areas where
major storms have removed both beach and dune sand to the
offshore.

A second dynamic environment situated on the landward
edge of the continental shelf is the estuary, an area of
sediment accumulation from both rivers and across-shelf
transfers. The physical processes and geologic materials
of the Hudson River estuary are very poorly known, In terms
of the dynamics of estuarine circulation, it is one of the
least well understood estuaries in the United States. Because
estuaries are sediment and pollutant traps for materials carried
landward from the shelf and from river drainage, both modeling
and process-response studies of the system as a whole are
obviously essential.

Crucial Problems Involving Circulation of Shelf Waters

Because the pathways and fates of any pollutants which
might be introduced into the water column on the continental
shelf are governed by the circulation dynamics of the region,
prediction of pollutant distribution will be based largely
on knowledge of the complex shelf circulation systems. There
are three major areas of study which need further work before
pathways and fates of pollutants, including oil spills, can
be understood. First, surface circulation of shelf water
varies both seasonally and with the passage of meteorologic
highs and lows across the shelf. There is limited evidence
that the middle Atlantic bight may respond as a unit to major
storms passing seaward. The National Oceanographic and

Meteorologic Administration is presently preparing an historical
summary funded by the Bureau of Land Management which is to
summarize and interpret the available historical information
on the physical oceanography and meteorologic data for the
middle Atlantic region. A summary of the goals of this contract
is given in the text of this report.

Part of this area requiring further study is the use of
computer modeling to predict spill trajectories. Present
results of use of computer models to predict pollutant dis-
tributions has not matched the actual movement themselves.

A second area requiring further extensive investigation
involves the seasonal variation in water mixing related to
differences in the position of the thermocline. Existing
evidence suggests that under certain seasonal conditions polluted
river water mixes well with shelf waters, while in other seasons
polluted river water floats as a surface plume over the shelf
water. Related to these mixing variations are the different
effects pollutants may have on organisms and the different ways
pollutants are transferred to the shelf sediment. The rates
of supply and concentrations of pollutants result in a number
of changes in the geological, biological and chemical properties
of the shelf environment.

A third area where much information needs to be assimilated
and synthesized involves water mass exchanges between the
shelf and continental slope. Both down slope and across-shelf
movements of suspended material are known to occur. There is
some evidence that suspended particles near the base of the
shelf water column have a net movement landward, particularly
into estuary mouths. Thus, pollutants introduced near the
shelf break do not necessarily move seaward.

An understanding of physical oceanography is necessary
to the understanding of movement patterns of all shelf materials,
whether suspended debris or bed-load deposits. Both the New
York Department of Environmental Conservation and the New York
State Geological Survey should make a concerted effort to jointly
hire as a consultant a physical oceanographer who has a feeling
for the geologic, biologic and physical implications of shelf
circulation and wave dynamics. The immediately apparent impacts
of offshore exploration invariably are related to fouling of
recreational and fishing areas. A physical oceanographer
monitoring activities of immediate concern to the State would
be able to explain the facts as a problem develops, or, ideally
identify a potential problem before it occurs.

One important question which needs to be answered concerns
the distances from the shoreline where pollutants might be
introduced which would result in inevitable delivery of pollutants
0 to the coast. Pollutant distribution clearly is linked to

-c-irculation dynamics, shelf topography and shelf sediment
properties. Understanding fates of oiT spills is in part
linked to decay rates produced by bacteria, effects of
drainage di-stribution, shelf surface topography, and
sediments which may have an ability to trap pollutants.

A final problem involving the shelf and its geology is
seismic (earthquake) risk. Few epicenters are known in the
mid or north Atlantic shelf. This is partly the result of
difficuTties that onshore seismographs have in focusing on
offshore earthquakes unless they are large or near shore.
The present evidence for the outer continental shelf of
New York suggests that the region is one of moderate seismic
risk.

It is also appropriate to list some major undertakings
which clearly are needed as the pressures continue to stimulate
the economic development of the continental margin of eastern
United States. All of these relate to improving the utilization
of resources which New York State already has and to which the
State has direct access in contrast to offshore drilling which
combines Federal and petroleum company controls.

A strong effort should be made to integrate the coastal
plain stratigraphy and its ground-water characteristics to
the related rocks of the continental shelf. Fresh waters
known to exist beneath the shelf may represent better sources
of water for the New York City-Long Island region than the
presently proposed use of Hudson River water as a supply to
supplement present sources during projected shortfalls of the
coming decade.

A second major economic resource of the continental shelf
adjacent to New York's coastal zone is sand and gravel. For
appraisal of these resources, detailed surface sediment dis-
tribution maps are needed which should include thickness of
unconsolidated sediments, grain-size distributions, sorting,
roundness and sediment composition.

Heavy metals may also be present in economic concentrations
on the continental shelf. Data on their distribution can be
derived directly from sediment-type distribution maps.

As part of the integration of coastal plain and offshore
stratigraphy, there should be attention given to the possible
stratigraphic associations with which sedimentary uranium can
be associated. The three principal types of sedimentary
associations do occur beneath the shelf surface, i.e., fluvial,
near shore marine and black shales containing sedimentary
derivatives from weathered volcanic debris. This potential
uranium resource is not likely to be of immediate economic
interest, but its possible presence should be kept in mind.

One final recommendation concludes this summary of
assessments and recommendations section. There is, at
present, no association of middle Atlantic states to act
as a coordinator for information and research in the New
York bight. Because the shelf circulation patterns of
the middle Atlantic region affect these states in a common
way, a strong interstate agency staffed by competent scientists
seems highly advisable. Such associations already exist for
the southeastern states of Virginia to Florida (Coastal Plains
Center for Marine Development Services) and for the New England
states (New England Marine Advisory Service). Even if funding
is not sufficient to support research, this proposed Middle
Atlantic States Association should be staffed adequately to
compile and keep abreast of research on the continental shelf
of the middle Atlantic Region. It is within groups such as
these that planning for pipeline corridors to the on-shore
region, for example, can be developed and executed.

10.

I. THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN

I.A. Physiographic Provinces

The margin of the continent which lies adjacent to
and seaward of New York State beneath the waters of the western
north and middle Atlantic ocean represents a set of major
physical features of extraordinary economic and environmental
importance. There are three principal physiographic provinces
which constitute the continental margin -- continental shelf,
continental slope and continental rise. The coastal plain,
although a minor to absent feature of New York State's coast
line, can be considered as that portion of the continental
shelf which is presently above sea level.

Figure 1 illustrates the cross sectional aspect of
the continental margin. Although the surface gradient and
width varies from place to place, the average values shown
in Figure 1 are reasonable for New York's continental margin.

Physiographic Province Av. Width (km) Av. Gradient.

continental shelf 75 1.7m/km

continental slope 20-100 70m/km

continental rise 0-600 1-10m/km

The term, continental terrace, shown in Figure 1,
is not currently used to designate the combined physiographic
provinces of coastal plain, continental shelf and continental
slope.

A more "realistic" aerial view of the continental
margin adjoining New York is shown in Figure 2. Because of
the compressed nature of the block diagram in terms of horizontal
versus vertical scale, the gradients of all the physiographic
provinces of the continental margin are exaggerated, especially
that of the continental slope. It is important to compare
Figure 2 to Figure 1 to recognize that the "precipitous"
appearance of the continental slope in Figure 2 is a graphic
exaggeration of the average gradient of only about 70m/km
(about 40) shown in Figure 1.

Each of the three portions of New York's continental
margin is designated a physiographic province on the Earth's
surface -- that is, the geologic structure of each province is
distinctive. Thus, the rocks beneath its surface have charac-
teristics which distinguish them from adjoining provinces. The

12f-T@ CONTINENTAL SHELF CCNT. CONTINENTAL RISE ABYSSAL
PLAIN

AV. WIDTH 75 krn WIDTH WIDTH 0 -7 600 k m
120.100 k
AV. SLOPE AV. S LD SLOPE 1-10m1kin ISLOPIE (Itn/krw
I ?OmAm PE
VEW YORK I I
LEVEL@_
'Awlaga 130in

Range 1. 5 3.5 knv@-

-CONTINENTAL TERRACE-
Avoicas 4 krn:!@-
Ve,6401 ExaWafm 2Ox

Idealized diagram of the principal elements of a continental margin.'

(F=-Drake, C. L., and BUrk, C. A., 1974, Geological
Significance of Continental Margins, fig. 9, p. 8)

FIGURE 1
77@@@@@@@@

Physiographic diagram of the continental margin, eastern
United States. Vertical dimension greatly exaggerated.

Key to Canyon Names, South to North
N = Norfolkj W = Washington; B = Baltimore,- W Wilmington;
Hudson,- B = Block; A= Atlantis; V = Veach,- H Hydrographer;
W =Welker,- 0 Oceanographer,- L Lydonia,- C Corsair

FIGMM 2

13,

surface of each physiographic province thus responds to
surface processes in ways which distinctively "shape" the
surface giving it a definable topographic form which can
be recognized from topographic maps or bathymetric charts.

74,

I. The Continental Margin

Shallow structure of the continental margin, Curray, J.R.,
1969b.

Atlantic margin of North America (abstr.), Drake, C.L., 1963.

Continental margins, Drake, C.L., 1969.

Geology of the continental margin off eastern United States,
Emery, K.O., 1965.

East coast offshore symposium, Baffin Bay to the Bahamas,
Emmerich, H.H., ed., 1974.

Eastern continental margin of the United States, Part 2,
Hales, A.L., 1970.

The face of the deep, Heezen, B.C. and C. Hollister,
1971.

Continental margins of eastern Canada and Baffin Bay,
Keen, C.E. and Keen, M.J., 1974.

The continental margin of eastern Canada, Keen, M.J. and
J.E. Blanchard, 1966.

Continental margin of eastern Canada, Keen, M.J., B.D.
Loncarevic and G.N. Ewing, 1970.

Preliminary geologic report on the U.S. northern Atlantic
continental margin (abstr.), Minard, J.P. and others, 1973.

Preliminary report on geology along Atlantic continental
margin of northeastern United States, Minard, J.P., W.J.
Perry, E.G.A. Weed, E.C. Rhodehamel, E.I. Robbins and
R.B. Mixon, 1974.

Geology of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal province of
North America, Murray, G.E., 1961.

The continental margin of the northwest Atlantic Ocean,
a geophysical study, Rabinowitz, P.D., 1973.

Oceanographic atlas of the North Atlantic Ocean, Sec. V,
Marine Geology, U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1965.

A keyword-indexed bibliography of the marine environment
in the New York bight and adjacent estuaries, Ali, J.A.,
1973.

I.A. Physiographi'c Provi'ndes

Atlantic-type continental margins, Heezen, B.C., 1974.

The North Atlantic text to accompany the physiographic
diagram of'the North Atlantic, Part I of the floors of
the oceans, Heezen, B.C., Tharp, M. and Ewing, W.M.,
1959.

Seismic reflection observations on the Atlantic
continental shelf, slope and rise southeast of New
England, Hoskins, H., 1967.

Submarine physiography of the U,S. Continental margins,
Jordan, G.F., 1962b.

Topography of the Gulf of Maine, field season of 1940,
Murray, H.W., 1947.

The characteristics of the Atlantic sea bottom off the
coast of the United States, Pourtales, L.F., 1872.

Glaciation on the continental margin off New England,
Pratt, R.M., and Schlee, J., 1969.

Eastern Atlantic continental margins-various structural
and morphologic types, Renard, V., and Mascle, J., 1974.

Canyons off the New England coast, Shepard, F.P., 1934.

Submarine Geology, Shepard, F.P., 1973.

Submarine topography of Eastern Channel, Gulf of Maine,
Torphy, S.R., and J.M. Zeigler, 1957,

Maps showing relation of land and submarine topography,
Nova Scotia to Florida, Uchupi, E., 1965a.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States -- Physiography, Uchupi, E., 1968,

Map showing relation of land and submarine topography
Nova Scotia to Florida, Uchupi, E., 1965.

Bathymetric chart, Bay of Fundy to Gulf of S-aint Lawrence,
'Uchupi, E., 1969b,

Bathymetric chart, Newfoundland shelf, Uchupi, E., 1970b.

Aeromagnetic map Atlantic continental marg in, U.S.G.S.,
1976.'

1'6

I.A. (continued)

The fishing banks between Cape Cod and Newfoundland,
Upham, W., 1894.

Topographic influences on the path of the Gulf Stream,
Warren, B.A., 1963.

17.

I.A.
0 1. Continental Shelf 2. Continental Slope
Seismic-refraction profiles in the submerged Atlantic
Coastal Plain near Ambrose Lightship (N.Y.), Carlson,
R.O. and M.V. Brown, 1955.

The stratigraphy of the continental shelf east of New
Jersey (abstr.), Chelminski, P. and Fray, C.I., 1966.

History of continental shelves. In The New Concepts
of Continental Margin Sedimentation, Curray, J.R., 1969.

Basement beneath the emerged Atlantic coastal plain
between New York and Georgia, Dietrich, R.V., 1960.

Geophysical investigations of the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 9, Gulf of Maine, Drake,
C.L., Worzel, J.L., and Beckman, W.C., 1954.

Characteristics of continental shelves and slopes,
Emery, K.O., 1965.

Joint program of U.S.G.S. and W.H.O.I. for continental
shelf and slope. In Summary of investigations conducted
in 1964, Emery, K.U_., 1965.

The Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope, a program for
study, Emery, K.O. and Schlee, J.S., 1963.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 4, Ewing, M., 1940.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 3, Barnegat Bay, N.J.
Section, Ewing, M., Woolard, G.P. and Vine, A.C., 1939.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part IV, Cape May, N.J. Section,
Ewing, M., Woollard, G.P. and Vine, A.C., 1940.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 5, Woods Hole, New York,
and Cape May sections, Ewing, M., Wongel, J.L., Steenland,
N.C. and Press, F., 1950.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 1, Methods and results,
Ewing, M., Crary, A.P. and Rutherford, H.M., 1973.

18.

I.A. 1. and 2. (continu.ed)

Cretaceous-Cenozoic development of the continental shelf
south of New England, Garrison, L.E., 1967.

Developments of continental shelf south of New England,
Garrison, L.E., 1970.

The submerged coastal plain and old land of New England,
Johnson, D.W. and Stolfus, M.A., 1924.

Evidence of Pleistocene events in the structure of the
continental shelf off the northeastern United States,
Knott, S.T. and Hoskins, H., 1968.

Summary of geology of Atlantic Coastal Plain, LeGrand,
H.E., 1961.

Geology of the sea-bottom in the approaches to New York
Bay, Linderkohl, A., 1885.

Physiographic features on the outer shelf and upper slope,
Atlantic continental margin, southeastern U.S., MacIntyre,
I.G. and J.D. Milliman, 1970.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain and continental shelf, Maher, J.C., 1971.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain and continental shelf, Maher, J.C. and E.R.
Applin, 1971.

A preliminary report on U.S. Geological Survey geophysical
studies of the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (abstr.),
Mattick, R.E. and others, 1973.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submer�ed
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 2, Miller, B.J., 1937.

Study of outer continental shelf lands of the U.S., V. IV
(appendices), Nossaman, Waters, Scott, Krueger and
Riordan, Consultants, 1969.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 7, continental shelf, continental
slope and continental rise south of Nova Scotia, Officer, C.A.,
and M. Ewing, 1954.

The glaciated shelf off northeastern United States, Oldale,
R.N. and Uchupi, E., 1970.

T9.

I A. 1. and 2. (continued)

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic coastal plain, Part VI, The Long Island Area,
Oliver, J.E. and Drake, C.L., 1951.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United States
physiography and sediments of the deep-sea basin, Pratt,
R.M., 1968.

Relief and bottom deposits at Georges Bank and Banquereau,
Rvachev, V.D., 1964.

Topographic relief and bottom sediments of the Georges
and Banquereau Banks, Rvachev, V.D., 1965.

Atlantic continental shelf and slopes of the United
States--Nineteenth Century Exploration, Schoff, T.J.M.,
1968.

The Long Island Sound sub-bottom topography in the area
between 730001 W and 73030' W, Smith, M.C., 1963.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic contin-
ental shelf of the United States, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle Atlantic
conti,nental shelf, Stearns, F.,'1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns, F., and
L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Submergence of the New Jersey coast, Stuiver, M., and
Daddario, J.J., 1963.

Topography and structure of the shelf and slope, Uchupi,
E.,'1965c.

Library research project, mid-Atlantic outer continental
shelf, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1972.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic continental shelf and
slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey and U.S, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
1967.

Shelfbreak physiography between Wilmington and Norfolk
canyons, Wear, C.M., and others, 1974,

Geomorphology and sediments of the inner New Yo.rk Bight
continental shelf, Williams, S.J. and Duane, D.B.., 1974.

20.

I.A. 1. and 2. (continued)

Sub-bottom study of Long Island South (abstr.), Drake,
C.L. and Smith, M.C., 1964.

Study of continental shelf and slope on the coasts of
Long Island, N.Y. and N.J., Friedman, G.M., 1966.

Microtopography of five small areas of the continental
shelf by side-scanning sonar, Sanders, J.E. and others,
1969.

21.

I.A. 3. Ri'se

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part X, continental slope and
continental rise south of Grand Banks, Bentley, C.R., and
J.L. Worzel, 1956.

Lateral echo sounding of the ocean bottom on the contin-
enta-1 rise, Clay, C.S. and others, 1964,

The continental rise off eastern North America, Emery,
K.O., and others, 1969.

Continental rise off eastern North America, Emery, K.O.,
and others, 1970.

Shaping of the continental rise by deep geostrophic con-
tour currents, Heezen, B.C., and others, 1966,

The shaping and sediment stratification of the continental
rise (abstr.), Heezen, B.C. and E.D. Schneider, 1968.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 7, continental shelf,
continental slope, and continental rise south of Nova
Scotia, Officer, C.B., Jr. and Ewing, M., 1954.

Linear "lower continental rise hills" off Cape Hatteras,
Rona, P.A., T969b.

Bathymetry of the continental rise off Cape Hatteras,
Rona, P.A., and others, 1967.

Lower continental rise east of Middle Atlantic States,
Stanley, D.J., H. Sheng, and C.P. Pedraza, 1971.

2.2,

I.B. Boundaries of Study Area

In the remainder of this text, the discussion of the
continental margin cannot be confined to seaward projections
of New York State's legal boundaries. Instead, the discussion
will be more encompassing of the natural geologic features
and physiographic provinces which comprise that region adjacent
to New York State which lie below sea level. This region
encompasses that portion of the continental margin, the southern
boundary of which is the southeastern projection of a line
extending seaward of the Delaware River estuary and the northern
boundary of which is a line projected seaward along the southern
coastline of Massachusetts through the "elbow" of Cape Cod.
This area is shown in Figure 3 and heavy dashed lines define
the southern and northern limits of the study area. Note that
the northern limit is defined by Northeast Channel extending
toward the continental shelf edge from the Gulf of Maine. The
southern limit is roughly coincident with the Baltimore Canyon
which incises the continental slope southeast of the Delaware
River estuary.

The seaward limit of the study area lies at the boundary
between the continental rise and the generally flat surface
of the abyssal plain (Figures 1 and 2). This boundary is
roughly coincident with the outer limit of the margin of
continental crust. A relatively thin sedimentary sequence
of the abyssal plain lies upon oceanic crust. Landward, the
limit of the study area is defined by several features. The
extensive chain of beaches which extend along the coast of
southern Long,Island and of New Jersey represent barrier
islands which form one landward boundary to the area under
study. However, tidal inlets between these barrier islands
and the marine and brackish water lagoons behind the barrier
islands are part of the marine system of coastal zone. A
third feature along the coast also represents a landward
boundary of marine conditions of New York's continental margin.
This third feature is represented by the rivers including the
Hudson whose lower reaches are influenced by tidal fluctuations
and thus salt water conditions. Thus, in any discussion which
follows concerning the coastal zone, these three boundary areas
are included:

1. Barrier islands

2. Tidal inlets and back barrier lagoons

3. Estuaries - river mouths subjected to tidal
fluctuations and salt water conditions.

23.
74 72 70

500

42'
C104,

Georges Bank

015

N.J.
GO

o X ,
PO
11-10

0
Ozt

-34
Boundaries of the study area with important
@submarine canyons identified.

FIGLM 3
(N -,J.

24.

I.B. Boundaries of S'tudy Area

Penetration of salt water and its effect on tidal areas
of the United States of America, Baehr, J.C., 1953.

Annotated bibliography on the geologic, hydraulic and
engineering aspects of tidal inlets, Barwis, John H.,
1976.

Distinction of shoreline environments on New Jersey,
Biederman, E.W., 1962.

Coastal geomorphology of Connecticut, Bloom, A.L., 1967.

Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion, Bruun, P.,
1962.

Coastal processes and beach erosion, Caldwell, J.M., 1966.

Physical processes in coastal waters, Carter, H.H,, 1969.

These fragile outposts -- a geological look at Cape Cod,
Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket, Chamberlain,
B., 1964.

Summary of marine activities of the coastal plains region
Coastal Plains Center for Marine Development Services,
1976.

National shoreline study, regional inventory report,
North Atlantic region, Corps of Engineers, 1971.

Color aerial stereograms of selected coastal areas of
the United States, Crarat, H.R., and Glaser, R., 1971.

Classification of coastal environments of the world,
Part I, Dolan, R,, and others, 1972.

Estuaries and lagoons in relationship to continental
shelves, Emery, K.O., 1967.

A computer simulation model of sedimentation in a salt
wedge estuary, Farmer, D.G., 1971.

Origin of barrier island chain shorelines, middle Atlantic
states, Fisher, J.J., 1968a,

Barrier island formation, Fisher, J.J., 1968b.

Coastal plain geology of southern Maryland, Glaeser, J.D.,
1968.

25.

I.B. (continued)

Global distribution of barrier islands in terms of
tectonic setting, Glaeser, J.D. (in press).

Geomorphology and sedimentation of some New England
estuaries, Hayes, M.O., 1971.

Barrier island formation, Hoyt, J.H., 1967.

Barrier island formation, Hoyt, J.H., 1968.

On the tectonic and morphologic classification of
coasts, Inman, D.L. and C.E. Nordstrom, 1971.

Environmental framework of coastal plain estuaries,
Nelson, B.W., 1972.

The estuarine environment, Estuaries and estuarine
sedimentation, Schubel, J.R. and others, 1971.

Barrier Islands, Schwartz, M.L., 1973.

Barrier Island genesis, Evidence from the Middle
Atlantic shelf of North America, Swift, D.J.P., 1975a.

History of New Jersey coastline, Wicker, C.F., 1951.

Sub-bottom study of Long Island Sound (abstr.), Drake,
C.L. and Smith, M.C., 1964.

26,

I.C. Origins and General Geologic History of Atlantic
PhysiographiE -Provinces

The Atlantic continental margin represents a major
structural boundary in the crust and upper mantle. The
transition from oceanic crust to continental crust occurs
within this zone. Modern tectonic interpretations of base-
ment structure of the Atlantic continental margin describe
a rifted and block-faulted zone where great thicknesses of
shallow water sediments accumulated in gradually subsiding
basins (Sheridan, 1974). Figures 4, 5, and 6 illustrate
this rifting and sediment-infilling process.

The shelf prograded during the Tertiary in a complex
pattern of deltaic sedimentation in the Baltimore Canyon
Trough area and as a marine sequence in the Georges Bank
area (Garrison, 1970). A depositional regression during
the Oligocene and a glacio-eustatic sea level lowering
during the Pleistocene exposed the shelf, permitting its
erosion. Detrius moved across the shelf in rivers, then
down submarine canyons to be deposited at the base of the
slope to form the continental rise.

Various attempts have been made to explain the origin
and structure of the margin (Sheridan, 1974; Mayhew, 1974;
Mattick et al, 1974; Ballard and Uchupi, 1975; Schlee, et al,
1976). T_Fe'@_e people generally agree that the basement Fo-n,:-
figuration of the continental margin is a result of the
separation of the North American and Africa-Europe plates,
according to the model of plate tectonics (see discussion on
plate tectonic theory). Suggested dates for this plate
separation have ranged from Permian (Emery, et al, 1970)
to Jurassic, or later (Hallam, 1971). It is thought (Olson,
1974; Talwani et al, 1965) that the injection of low density
mantle materiaT-i-Firtiated the rifting and uplift of the
continental crust (Figures 6A and B). As the Atlantic opened
it resembled the present-day Red Sea in structure (Figures 6C
and 7A)during Jurassic time.

With continued separation, eroded material from both
parting continental masses was carried to the newly developing
and widening marine area. Thick wedges of sediment build out
along the continental margins forming the two principal sedi-
mentary accumulations of the continental shelf and continental
rise. The base of the continental slope, itself, is generally
thought to be the boundary between low density continental
crust and higher density oceanic crust. However, it too has
been influenced-by the sediment build out from the shoreline
and the juncture between continental and ocean crust is deeply
buried beneath the base of the present continental slope
(Emery and Uchupi, 1972, p. 53). As new crust accreted at
the mid-ocean edge, the continental margins moved away from
the spreading center and gradually subsided (Figures 6C and 5).

MSL MSL
'IV rA
R0,
WE
:fm"a 1-, 1,
bg
RD, -,bt-,
3 L,
mm:

CRUST

TRANSITIONAL CRUST 17%
owtrw "7
CONTINENTAL CRUST

FIGm 4. idealized cross section of rifted continental crust that
has separated into two continental blocks. New oceanic crust fo=s
along the rifting and spreading zone and sedment drapes onto the
continental imrgins.

+.+
t
6k@ r
+
+ L tt t
t. - . - -. OMANIC22EM
6N ITICNAL CRUST.
\IQ 1+ T+ T- + 'r + Tt 'r-+
A,
+ + +
f +
v f 4
+ +
+
+
CONTINENTAL RISE TURSIDITES

CONTINENTALLY DERIVED SEDIMENTS
WITH ASSOCIATED REEFS & EVAPORITES

TRANSGRESSIVE - REGRESSIVE
SEDIMENTARY SEQUENCES

5- Idealized cross section of a transgressive-reg_,essive
sediMentary wedge outbuilding on a continental margin.

28.-
F-ARLY TRA551C RIFTING
U. S. MAIN AFRICA
RIFT

+
+ C T

+
--MOHO

LATE TRIA551C
+ + + 4 + +
+ + +
+

@416-

LATE JURA5SIC

4
+ +

0 FIGUE 6. Idealized sequential cross section of uplift,
rifting and spreading of cont=jg--mtal crust and developnent
of new oceanic crust, eastern united states.

L. JURA551C

N.A.

@NORMAL
1361/
FAULTS

AFRICA

f3, EARLY CRET.
f? I FT
-ZONE

WRENCH
FAULT

BASINS

FIGME 7. Basin fc=ution as a result of faluting,
rifting and seafloor spreading, eastern United States.

30.

During the early stages of continental margin development,
fracturing.of crustal material resulted in a complex sequence
of basins in the low areas between zones and fracture. Con-
sequently, numerous filled basins (Figure 7B) lie beneath the
more simple seaward-extending lenses and wedges of younger
sediment which subsequently have built out over them. Thus
the upper few kilometers of sedimentary material of the
continental margin is far less complex geologically than the
dee,per, older sedimentary materials deposited during the early
stages of continent margin formation (Heezen, 1974, p. 23).

During the Cretaceous, sediments spilled over the "base-
ment ridge" that formed a sediment barrier at the shelf edge.
Through the remainder of the Cretaceous and Tertiary the shelf
developed, building up during transgressions and building out
during regressions of the sea. Schlee and others (1976) give
a detailed description of the development of the continental
margin of northeastern United States.

Below are the references from the bibliography (Volume
II) which described the continental margin, its physiography,
boundary areas as well as its origin and general geologic
background. General references are listed first, and specific
references to the major subdivisions of New York's'continental
margin are subdivided as continental shelf, continental slope
and continental rise.

31.

I.C. Origins and General Geologic History of Atlantic
Physiographic Provinces

Regional geology of eastern Canada offshore, Austin,
G.H., 1973.

Structure of the Lower Continental Rise Hills of the
western North Atlantic, Ballard, J.A., 1966.

The nature of Triassic continental rift structures in
the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D., 1974.

Carboniferous and Triassic rifting, a preliminary
outline of the tectonic history of the Gulf of Maine,
Ballard, R.D. and E. Uchupi, 1972.

Geology -- the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D. and Uchupi,
E., 1974.

Triassic rift structure in Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D.,
and Uchupi, E., 1975.

Mesozoic and Cenozoic history of the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland, Bartlett, G.A. and L. Smith, 1971.

Seismic evidence for a thick section of sedimentary
rock on the Atl'antic outer continental shelf and slope
of the United States (abstr.), Behrendt, J.C. and others,
1974.

Geophysical observations on sediments and basement
structure underlying Sable Island, Nova Scotia,
Berger, J. and others, 1965.

Geophysical observations on the sediments and basement
structure underlying Sable Island, Blanchard and others,
1965.

Evolution of young continental margins and formation of
shelf basins, Bott, M.H.P., 1971.

Buried ridges within continental margins, Burk, C.A.,
1968.

Geology of continental margins, Burk, C.A. and Drake,
C.L., 1974.

Plate tectonics and hydrocarbon accumulation, Dickinson,
W.R. and Yarborough, H., 1976.

Basement beneath the emerged Atlantic coastal plain
between New York and Georgia, Dietrich,.R.V., 1960.

32.,

I.C. (continued)

Origin of continental slopes, Dietz, R.S., 1964.

Origin of abrupt change in slope at the continental
shelf margin, Dietz,'R.S. and Menard, H.W., Jr., 1951.

Continental ma'rgins and geosynclines, The east coast
of North America north of Cape Hatteras, Drake, C.L.,
and others, 1959.

The continental margin of the eastern United States,
Drake, C.L., and others, 1968.

Geology of the continental margin off eastern United
States, Emery, K.O., 1965.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States,,geologic background, Emery, K.O., 1966.

Continental margins of the world., Emery, K.O., 1970.

Continental rise off eastern North America, Emery, K.O.,
and others, 1970.

Ag es of horizon A and the Oldest Atlantic sediments,
Ewing, J. and others, 1966.

Cretaceous-Cenozoic development of the continental shelf
south of New England, Garrison, L.E., 1967,

Developments of continental shelf south of New England,
Garrison, L.E., 1970.

Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic effects of the Atlantic
Coastal margin, Gibson, T.G., 1970.

Atlantic sediments, erosion rates, and the evolution of
the continental shelf, Gilluly, J., 1964.

Mesozoic geology and the opening of the North Atlantic,
Hallam, A., 1971.

Atlantic-type continental margins, Heezen, B.C., 1974.

Continental margins of eastern Canada and Baffin Bay,
Keen, C.E. and Keen, M.J., 1974,

The continental margin of eastern Canada, Keen, M.J.
and J.E. Blanchard, 1966.

Continental margin of eastern Canada, Keen, M.J. and
others, 1970.

3 3

I.C. (continued)

The-significance of a group of aeromagnetic profiles
off the eastern coast'of North America, King, E.R. and
others, 1961.

Evidence of Pleistocene events in the structure of the
continental shelf off the northeastern United States,
Knott, S.T., and Hoskins, H., 1968.
Seismic profile showing Cenozoic development of the
New England continental margin, Krause, D.C. and
other s, 1966.

S'ummary of geology of Atlantic Coastal Plain, LeGrand,
H.E., 1961.

Sea-floor spreading and structural evolution of south
Red Sea, Lowell, j.D., and Genick, G.J., 1972.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the Atlantic
Coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher, J.C., 1971.

Pattern of Triassic-Jurassic diabase dikes around the
North Atlantic in the context of predrift position of
the continents, May, P.R., 1973.

"Basement" to east coast continental margin of North
America, Mayhew, M.A., 1974a.

Geophysics of Atlantic North American, Mayhew, M.A.,
1974b.

Preliminary geologic report on the U.S. northern
Atlantic continental margin (abstr.), Minard, J.P. and
others, 1973.

Preliminary report on geology along Atlantic continental
margin of northeastern United States, Minard, J.P. and
others, 1974.

Geology of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal province of
North America, Murray, G.E., 1961.

Post Triassic tectonic movements in the central and
southern Appalachians as recorded by sediments of
the Atlantic coastal plain, Owens, J.P., 1970.

Continuous deep sea salt layer along North Atlantic
related to early phase of rifting, Pautot, G.J.M. and
others, 1970.

34.

I.C. (continued)

Relations between rates of sediment accumulation on
continental shelves, sea floor spreading, and eustacy
inferred from the central North Atlantic, Rona, P.A.,
1973.

Regfonal geologic framework off northeastern United
States, Schlee, J., and others, 1976.

The evolution of the continental margins and possible
long term economic resources, Schneider, E.D., 1969.

Significance of submerged deltas in the interpretation
of the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P., 1928.

Sedimentary basins of the Atlantic margin of North
America, Sheridan, R.E., 1976.

Geologic history of basement fault motions in the
Baltimore Canyon trough correlated with North Atlantic
sea-floor spreading (abstr.), Sheridan, R.E. and Brown.
P.M., 1975.

Upper Cretaceous marine transgression in northern
Delaware, Spoliaric, N., 1972.

Lower continental rise east of Middle Atlantic States,
Stanley, D.J. and others, 1971.

Holocene evolution of the shelf surface, central and
southern Atlantic shelf of North America, Swift,
D.J.P., and others, 1972,

Distribution and geologic structure of Triassic rocks
in the Bay of Fundy and the northeastern part of the
Gulf of Maine, Tagg, A.R. and E. Uchupi, 1966.

Crustal structure of the mid-ocean ridges, two computed
models from gravity and seismic refraction data,
Talwani, M. and LePichon, X. and Ewing, M., 1965.

Geologic implications of aeromagnetic data for the
eastern continental margin of the United States,
Taylor, P.T.I. and others, 1968.

Basins of the Gulf of Maine, Uchupi, E., 1965.

Topography and structure of the shelf and slope,
Uch,upi, E., 1965c.

Structural framework of the Gulf of Maine, Uchupi, E.,
1968.

35,

I.C. (contin.ued)

Topography and structure of Cashes Ledge, Gulf of
Maine, Uchupi, E., 1966.

Structure of tKe continentaT margin off the Atlantic
coast,of the United States, Uchupi, E. and Emery,
K.O., 1967.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene.geologic map of the
northern United States Atlantic continental margin,
Weed, E.G.A. and others, 1974.

The ancient continental margin of eastern North America,
Williams, H. and Stevens, R.K., 1974.

Appalachian curvature, wrench-faulting, and offshore
structures, Woodward, H.P. and Drake, C.L., 1963.

A magnetic map of the Long Island Sound and the
southward continuation of.geologic units in Connecticut,
Zurflueh, E.G., 1962.

361

II. 'MAJOR SURFACE FEATURES OF THE CONTINENTAL S'HELF

The first chapter described the continental margin and
specifically the origin of the continental shelf in terms of
the broad, regional characteristics of that physiographic
province. Figure 8 (Rogers, et al, 1973) shows these
characteristics. In the present chapter, a number of dis-
tinctive surface features are described which together are
unique to continental shelves of the type bordering the eastern
United States. These features are important not only because
they reveal some of the geologic history of the past described
in Chapter I and the processes of that region described in
Chapter III, but also they represent distinctive differences
in the overall "terrain" of the shelf which bear directly upon
questions of suitability for use of specific sites for economic
exploration.

The information presented below is largely descriptive.
Chapter III deals with processes influencing the continental
shelf and must be linked to this descriptive section. As will
be evident when both sections are examined there is an intimate
association between the processes and the features themselves.
The processes are influenced by the surface features and, in
some cases, the features are undergoing modification by the
processes.

Listed below are those references which deal with the
major surface features of the continental shelf on a regional
basis.

N
R

1 X\
\@V 0,

-20,000W
w

-30,000

F 7,
(A)

FIGURE 8

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Diagram loration SOUTH OF LONG ISLAND

38.

Maj'or *S*uefac'e Features* of the Contine.ntal Shelf

A keyword-indexed bibliography of the marine environment
in the New York Bight and adjacent estuaries, All, J.A.,
1973.

Characteristics of continental shelves and slopes,
Emery, K.O., 1965.

Joint program of the U.S.G.S. and W,H.O.I. for continental
shelf and slope, in Summary of investigations conducted
in 1964, Emery, K.O., 1965.

The Atlant1c continental margin of the U.S. during the
past 70 million years, Emery, K.O., 1967.

Geology of Long Island, N.Y., Fuller, M.L., 1914.

The floors of the Oceans, 1., Heezen, B.C., M. Tharp,
and M. Ewing, 1959.

Submarine physiography of the U.S. continental margins,
Jordan, G.F., 1962b.

Interpretation of high-resolution echo-sounding techniques
and their use in bathymetry, marine geophysics, and
biology, Knott, S.T,, and Hersey, J.B., 1956.

Sediments and geomorphology of the continental shelf off
southern New England, Garrison, L.E., and McMaster, R.I.,
1966.

Fathometer survey and foundation investigation Ambrose
Light Station, New York Harbor entrance; and Fathometer
survey and foundation investigation Scotland Light
Station, New Yo.rk Harbor entrance, McCleland engineers,
1963.

Probable Holocene transgressive effects on geomorphic
features of the continental shelf off New jersey, United
States, McClennen, C.E. and R. L. McMaster, 1971.

Quantitative method for describing the regional topography
of the ocean floor, McDonald, M.G.- and E.S. Katz, 1969.

Study of outer continental shelf lands of the U.S., V.
IV. (appendices), Nossaman, Waters, Scott, Krueger and
Riordan, consultants, 1969.

Sediments and morphology of the continental shelf off
southeast Virginia, Payne, L.H., 1970.

(continued)

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States physiography and sediments of the deep-sea
basin, Pratt, R.M., 1968.

Eastern Atlantic continental margins - various
structural and morphologic types, Renard, V. and
Mascle, J., 1974.

Topographic relief and bottom sediments of the Georges
and Banquereau Banks, Rvachev, V.D., 1965.

Atlantic continental shelf and slopes of the United
States - Nineteenth Century Exploration, Schoff, T.J.M.,
1968.

Submarine Geology, Shepard, F.F., 1973.

The Long Island Sound sub-bottom topography in the area
between 73000' W and 73030' W, Smith, M.C., 1963.

Subsurface morphology of Long Island Sound, Block Island
Sound, Rhode Island Sound, and Buzzards Bay, Tagg, A.R.
and Uchupi, E., 1967.

Maps showing relation to land and submarine topography,
Nova Scotia to Florida, Uchupi, E., 1965a.

Topography and structure of the shelf and slope, Uchupi,
E., 1965c.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United States
Physiography, Uchupi, E., 1968.

40.

II.A. Shelf Valleys

Examination of the bathymetric charts of the New York
bight (Stearns, 1967) shows four distinctive valleys which
cross the continental shelf (Figure 9). The most obvious of
the four is the Hudson shelf valley, a broad seaward-widening
notch which can be traced from the mouth of the Hudson River
to the head of the Hudson Canyon at the continental shelf-slope
boundary. The second most prominent shelf valley is the
Delaware, a seaward continuation from the coastal plain of the
Delaware River valley. Two other shelf valleys are somewhat
less prominent. The Block Island shelf valley which extends
southward between Block Island and Montauk Point at the
eastern tip of Long Island is a more broadly defined feature
than the Hudson shelf valley. In addition, it cannot be traced
directly into the coastline although its contours can be traced
to within the 10 fathom isobath. The fourth shelf valley is
the Great Egg Harbor off the sourtheastern New Jersey coastline.
It is thought to represent an earlier drainage path of the
Schuylkill River which formerly flowed across this portion of
New Jersey prior to following its present path into the Delaware
River at Philadelphia. Near Great Egg Harbor Inlet this shelf
valley is not evident. In fact, the isobaths near shore are
convex seaward suggesting a sediment build-up in that area.
This convex feature is probably a shoal-retreat massif which
developed during sea-level rise as the ancestral mouth of the
former Schuylkill River along the New Jersey coastline was
drowned. Development of'these sediment build-ups (shoal-
retreat massifs) are described later in this section.

Shelf valleys of the New York bight portion of the
continental shelf are the largest single set of features
which are evident on the detailed bathymetric charts of
Stearns (1967). The following tables give some indication
of the size and scale of shelf valleys in terms of the width
and gradient characteristics of the Hudson shelf valley:

Width

Apex 54 km

Mid-area 24 km

Near canyon head 371-2 km

Gradient of Shelf Va 11 U Walls

Apex .4 to 7mlkm

Mid-area 3m/km

Near canyon head lm/km

A-

%
%

loll log

No
INN

3so 74* 72. 36* lie

Major morphological elements of the middle Atlantic bight. Dashed lines are shelf valleys. Hachured lines are
areas are highs of probable constructional origin, including shoal-retreat massifs and stillstand deltas. Diagonall
a.reas of probable erosional orgin, including cuestas.
(From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport: Process and Pattern, f

--42..

These values show the lack of precipitous slopes within
the Hudson shelf valley which is the most sharply defined of
the four principal shelf valleys described above. Although
values have not been determined from Stearns' (1967) charts,
the other three principal shelf valleys are more gently inclined
features.

There are three other shelf valleys which are discernible
in the contour features of Stearns' (1967) bathymetric charts.
These shelf valleys can be traced from the canyon heads landward
to within the 35 fathom isobath. These shelf valleys link with
the canyon heads of the Veatch, Hydrographer and Atlantis Canyons.
These three shelf valleys lie east-northeast of Block canyon and
thus cross the Georges Bank region of the study area.

The bathymetric charts of Stearns (1967) and other similar
charts listed among the references below represent the best
overall view of shelf valleys. There are no detailed studies
of one entire shelf valley. References listed below, therefore,
represent specific data pertinent to certain aspects or portions
fo the shelf valleys. These references (II.A.) plus those in
the preceding section (II), which include descriptions of shelf
valleys, give a basic coverage of available information. Some
review of these ancient drainage patterns across the continental
shelf are also to be found in papers dealing mainly with shelf
sediment distribution and properties. One example is McKinney
and Friedman (1970). Figures 10 and 11 show linear lows
defining swales mapped on the Long Island and New Jersey shelf.

IN- IN

Pattern of linear lows on the Long Island shelf. Based on Stearns (1967).

From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport: Process
and Pattern, fig.194, p. 506)

FIGUM 10

44.

'ro.

rl -,z
7@-

Pattern of linear lows on the New Jersey shelf. Based on Steams (1967).

From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport: Process
and Pattern, fig. 195, p. 507)

FIGM 11

45..

II.A. (continued)

1. Buried Shelf Valleys

An inventory of buried and partially buried shelf
valleys in the middle Atlantic bight is shown in Figure 9.
In simplest terms, buried shelf valleys are sediment-filled
or partially filled shelf valleys. They represent significant
features of the shelf surface for two reasons.

First, the material filling former fluvial channels
incising the shelf surface is unconsolidated and, in places,
slumped toward and/or down the channel axis. Thus, although
lacking topographic expression on the present-day shelf surface,
these infilled valleys can represent engin,eering hazards if a
drilling rig were placed on or near the buried valley margins.

Second, because they are infilled with sediment, they
are depositional, not erosional sites. Thus, buried shelf
valleys might be feasible sites where pipe lines might be laid
in such a way that the pipe lines would neither cause nor be
affected by bottom-current scour.

Within the study area, there are a number of buried
shelf valleys. The evidence for connection between the Delaware
River and the Wilmington submarine canyon is presented in Knebel
and others (1976) and in Twichell, Knebel and Folger (1977).
The ancestral shelf valley is 3 km to 8 km wide with relief of
10 m to 30 m. None of this ancestral relief is reflected in the
the present shelf surface materials. Seismic profiles also
identify the buried shelf valley of the Great Egg Channel which
intersects the ancestral Delaware River Valley at water depths of
about 50 m. At the confluence, the Great Egg Channel is 30 m to
50 m shallower than the ancestral Delaware River valley. It is
thought that the Great Egg Channel was the former lower course
of the Schuylkill River which ran at some earlier time south-
eastward across New Jersey. Later events caused it to join the
Delaware at Philadelphia. Knebel and others (1976) present
eleven seismic profiles normal to the ancestral Delaware shelf
valley which reveal considerable valley-margin slumping. Most
importantly, neither the slumping nor the trace of the buried
shelf valley is discernible in present-day bathymetry of the
shelf surface. To use a simple analogy, the valleys have been
"drifted" over by sediment as snow might fill and conceal stream
channels on land producing a uniform topograhic surface.

The Hudson shelf valley is the best defined of all the
incised features of the middle Atlantic bight. Portions of it
are partially infilled with alluvial or reworked sediments
deposited during the post-Holocene transgression. A less prominent,
partially buried shelf valley, the Highland channel appears to
connect with the Hudson shelf valley at depths of 90 feet. It

46.

is thought to be an extension of the Raritan River which flowed
across at least part of the shelf during Late Pleistocene prior
to the northward growth by littoral processes of Sandy Hook.
Extensive seismic profile data are given in Charnell and others
(1975, P. 22-32) which pertain to specific areas with the
inner apex of the New York bight. Bathymetry of that area in
1945 is given on pages 33 and 34 of that report along with
topographic modifications resulting from use of dump sites
there.

A less prominent and less extensive group of drowned
and buried shelf valleys are reported in McMaster and Ashraf
(1973a and 1973b). They identify seven post-Jurassic drainage
systems on the southern New England shelf which flowed south.
Their data are based on four seismic reflection profiles made
off eastern Connecticut, Long Island, Rhode Island and southern
Massachusetts. They also indicate in these profiles the broad
Block channel which crosses the shelf and terminates on the
outer shelf by the Block delta. They suggest the Block channel
acted as a major trunk channel to the subsidiary valleys.
McKinney and Friedman (1970) have described and analyzed
similar types of drainage patterns on the Long Island shelf.

The subleties in the topographic patterns on which
the drainage network interpretation are based differ significantly
from the major buried shelf valleys described above. Some re-
appraisal of these features in Duane and others (1972, p. 491)
suggests that some of these "ancestral valleys" may be topographic
forms responding to the prevailing hydraulic regime (i.e., ridge
and swale topography, linear shoals, etc.).

4 7'.

II.A. Shel'f 'Val'1*6ys

Bottom currents in the Hudson Canyon, Kelling, G.H.,
D. Lambert, G. Rower, and N. Staresinic, 1973.

Mineralogic composition of sand-sized sediment on the
outer margin off the Mid-Atlantic States: assessment
of the influence of the ancestral Hudson and other
fluvial systems, Kelling, G., Sheng, H,, and Stanley,
D.J., 1975.

Drowned and buried valleys on the southern New England
continental shelf, McMaster, R.C. and Ashraf, A.,
1973.

Subbottom basement drainage system of inner continental
shelf off southern New England, McMaster, R.L. and
Ashraf, A. , 1973.

Bottom environmental oceanographic data report, Hudson
Canyon area, 1967, Oser, R.K., 1969.

Significance of submerged deltas in the interpretation
of the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P., 1928.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns,
F. and L.E. Garrison , 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale 1:125,000,
Stearns, F., 1967.
Bathymetric maps and.geomorphology of the middle Atlantic
continental shelf, Sterne, F., 1969.

Delaware shelf valley, estuary retreat path, not drowned
river valley, Swift, D.J.P., 1973.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf and
Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S. Coast &
Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
1967.

Delaware River, Evidence for its former extension to
Wilmington submarine canyon, Twichell, D.C., Knebel,
H.J. and Folger, D.W., 1977.

48.

II.A.1. (continued)

Final report on data reduction for CERC New
Jersey offshore sand inventory program, Alpine
Geophysical Assoc. Inc. 1969.

Western North Atlantic ocean, topography, rocks,
structure, water, life and sediments, Emery, K.O.
and Uchupi, E., 1972.

Baltimore canyon trough area hazards, Knebel, H.J.
and others, 1976.

Drowned and buried valleys on the southern New
England continental shelf, McMaster, R.L. and
Ashraf, A., 1973.

Geomorphology and sediments of the inner New York
Bight continental shelf, Williams, S.J. and Duane,
D.B., 1974.

so-.

axis and the slumped sediment is now being actively dissected
forming younger gullies. Those authors suggest that older
erosional canyon heads have been partially buried although
this deposition may be temporary.

A number of lease sites in both the Baltimore Canyon
trough and Georges Bank basin are beyond the shelf-break and
lie on both intercanyon and canyon-heads sites. The increase
in slope beyond the shelf-break, the gradients of the canyon
heads listed above, the evidence of active sediment mass movement
and the irregular distribution of erosional and depositional
areas within the canyon heads all signal caution in preparing
for any type of exploration in these locations. Slump-block
detachment represents the most serious engineering problem
requiring solution through detailed geophysical site exploration
along with substrate drill tests. The second area of concern is
the inferences made in Section III concerning water-mass exchanges
between the shelf and slope. Both down-slope and landward across-
shelf movements of suspended material are known to occur. Thus,
any pollutant introduced to waters near canyon heads or anywhere
along the shelf-break do not necessarily move seaward.

II.B. Reads of Canyons

The shape of submarine canyon heads revealed by
Asdic, Belderson, R.H. and A.H. Stride, 1969.

Origin of continental slopes, Dietz, R.S., 1964

Canyons off the New England coast, Shepard, F.P., 1934.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:125,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns,
F...and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
and Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries, 1967.

Atlantic submarine valleys of the United States,
Veatch, A.C. and Smith, P.A., 1939.

52.

II.C.Ridge and Swale Topography

The general term, ridge and swale topography, is used
throughout this report for a family of topographic features
common to the shelf surface. All of the features are made
of unconsolidated sediments on the shelf surface and influenced
by currents, storm generated waves and tidal flow. The ridge
and swale topography is readily seen in bathymetric charts of
Stearns (1967) and Uchupi (1968) and examples are reproduced,
in Figures 12 and 13. These and earlier maps show the ridges
and swales in shallow water merging at an angle with the shore-
line. As described later in section IV.B.3, this hummocky
surficial topography is generated by the action of shoreline
retreat with resulting sediment transfer and accumulation on
the inner shelf. These large shelf surface "bedforms" are
responding to present-day hydraulic conditions.

Previous investigators, namely Veatch and Smith (1939),
Shepard (1963), Emery (1966), and Garrison and McMaster (1966),
have interpreted these topographic features as former positions
of shoreline, perhaps representing successive sequences of
submerged barrier islands. Present interpretations by Swift
(1975), Field and Duane (1976), and Swift, Kofoed, Saulsbury
and Sears (1972) relate these forms to an "equilibrium" profile
developed by shoreface retreat and transfer of material eroded
from the shoreface to the inner shelf. Some terms which appear
in the literature which refer to ridge and swale topography are
linear shoals, sand ridges, sand waves and shoal-retreat massifs.

Switt (1976 -255) divides the inner shelf seaward
of the breakpoint @apr (which is defined by the breaker line)
into two morphologic zones. The first is the shoreface, a
relatively steep zone extending to a depth of 12 m to 20 m.
The upper slope of the shoreface may be as steep as 1:10 and
seaward it may be as gentle as 1:200. Beyond the shoreface is
the floor of the inner shelf. The upper shoreface corresponds
to the hydraulic zone of shoaling waves to an average depth of
10 m. The lower shoreface and inner shelf receive some effects
from shoaling waves but their slopes, sediment textures and
bedforms are essentially a response to unidirectional shelf
currents.

Duane and others (1972) have identified two broad
categories of shoals, linear and arcuate. The arcuate forms
are associated with either estuary inlets or capes. Some linear
shoals are connected at one end to the shoreface (Figure 13).
Others form fields of shoals on the shelf surface. Duane and
others (ibid., p. 455) define linear shoals as positive features
having at least 3 m of relief between the crest and surrounding
shelf surface. Those which are shoreface-connected are outlined
by, and landward of the base of the shoreface (roughly the 10 m
isobath). These linear shoals are known on other shelves, but

53.

Ida

Topography of the northern portion of the middle Atlantic Bight showing northeast trending bathymet-
ric fabric off New Jersey and the southeast trending fabric south of Long Island. Contour interval
is 4 m. From Uchupi (1968).

From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport: Process
and Pattern, fig. 171, p. 450)

FT-GLM 1-2

5-4'.

-7-''-' -77-

GREA r
SOUTH SAY

...........

-7,5

44-

Fire Island shoreface ridge system, south shore of Long Island, New York.

From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport:
Process and Pattern, fig. 191, p. 492)

are particularly common to the Atlantic shelf of eastern United
States south of Long Island.

The following description of the general characteristics
of linear shoals from Duane and others (1972, p. 455-460) is
based on observations of those shoals having lengths of at least
100 m and 10 m of relief. All such linear shoals from northern
New Jersey southward form a small acute angle with the coastline
and nearl-y all shoals open northward (Figure 14). Seismic
reflections show them to be plano-convex features resting upon
a nearly horizontal stratum. Sediment of the shoal itself is
dominantly silicate sand in contrast to the underlying sonic
reflector which shows areal differences in lithology.

Distribution of shoals in terms of water depth shows two
distinctive groups; one at 20 to 30 ft. depths; the other at 40
to 55 ft. depths. A third group may be present in water depths
of about 80 ft. The bulk of the geologic data available on
these shoals comes from the middle Atlantic bight (Cape Hatteras
to Cape Cod). The area can be zoned into four coastal compartments
(Figure 15). There is an eroding headland at the northeast end
of each compartment. Because of the prevailing northeastern wave
approach, recurved and cuspate barrier spits have formed north of
the headlands and seaward. Convex barrier arcs (a spit and
succession of barrier islands) have formed to the southwest and
south. The Long Island and New Jersey coastal compartments
terminate with arcuate shoals which are convex seaward and are
associated with estuarine inlets lying to the north sides of the
inlet mouths. In Delaware Bay, this area is called Overfall
Shoal. The inlet-associated shoal off the western end of Long
Island shows tidal built ridges that curve northeastward and
merge with the inner shelf ridge and swale topography (Figure 12).

The northern portion of New Jersey's inner-shelf and
shoreface is steep, regular and relatively narrow (2100 ft.
average width). The linear shoal fields lie about 2.5 nautical
miles off the coastline with the exception of the one off
Shrewsbury Rock which extends from the shoreface to 6.5 nautical
miles seaward where it terminates at the Hudson shelf valley.
Shoal relief is 3 to 11 m and they occur in waters depths of 10
to 20 m. All are oriented northeast making a 30-degree angle
with the coast in the Barnegat area and 30-85-degrees in the
Ashbury Park-Long Branch sector of the coast. Shoals are nearly
symmetrical, but where asymmetry is observed, the steep sides
are on the southern flanks except where shoreface connected shoals
occur. In,those, the northern inshore flanks are steeper.

Samples from these shoals show a dominance of medium
grained, polished, well-sorted quartzose sand, in places covered
by a thin veneer of coarse, poorly-sorted iron-stained and pitted
quartz and glauconite overlying a substrate of fine-grained.sands,

56.

NE SHOAL

b
GREAT EGG
8
1HBR INLET

Nci

.4@

39*00'

Tk
PIP

0j
C7 4@1

A17

30' 15, 74000'

Bathymetry of a portion of the New Jersey shelf. Contour interyal 2 fathoms. From Stearns (1967).
See source map, USCGS bathymetric map 0807N-55 for 1-fathom resolution. Numbered circles
are submersible stations.

From Swift, D., et al, 1972, Shelf Sediment Transport: Process
and Pattern, fig. 221, p. 546)

FI= 14

57..

LONG ISLAND E W _J_ ER'_ S E Y DELMARVA VA. N.C.
Fr CONTOUR) (48 FT CONTOUR)- (36 FT' CONTOIJR) (36 F.f .CONTOUR)
CAPE
HENLOPEN CAPE HENRY
SANDY
@IOOK
MONTAUK
POINT N

LITTLE CHINCOTEAGUE
EGG SHOALS
INLET

FIRE I.
INLET

CAPE HATTERAS
APE MAY C PE CHARLES
ROCKAWAY
BEACH
? 30 60

NAUTICAL MILES

Coastal compartments and shoreface-ridge systems of the Middle Atlantic Bight, as defined by
the 60 ft contour off Long Island, the 48 ft contour off New Jersey, and 36 ft contour off the
Delaware-Maryland- Virginia compartment and the Virginia-North Carolina compartment. Arrows
indicate major littoral drift directions.

(Frc[n Swift, D., et al 1972,.'-Shelf Sedin-ent Transport: P=ess
and Pattern, fig. 177,_ p. 461)

FIGLM 15

58.

4p silts and clays. This textured boundary coincides roughly with
the uppermost sonic reflector.

From Barnegat to Cape May the linear shoals are longer
and more abundant and they form a 20- to 60-degree angle with
the shore. Maintaining a northeast and east-northeast orientation
regardless of change in shoreline orientation. Shoal crests,
flanks and troughs are all mainly well-sorted, polished, medium-
grained quartz sand. Beneath the upper sonic reflector, core
samples are very coarse gravelly sand containing broken shell
fragments. Duane and others (1972, p. 465) suggest that this
material is lag deposit resulting from marine reworking.
Barnegat represents a nodal point for littoral drift directions;
to the north and to the south from Barnegat.

The consistency between orientations of both shoreface-
connected and isolated shoals of the inner shelf and their common
orientation to shoreline regardless of shoreline orientation
changes suggests, that during sea-level rise, the shoreline has
maintained the same orientation it has today. Some previous
studies have related ridge and swale topography to fluvial or
glacial and fluvial processes (Garrison and McMaster, 1966;
Knott and Hoskins, 1962; McKinney and Friedman, 1970). The
pertinent studies cited in section IV.B.3 describing the controls
on these features suggests that further attention needs to be
focused in the direction taken by Duane and others (1972) and
Swift, Kofoed, Saulsbury and Sears (1972); namely, that ridge
and swale topography is not a relict shelf feature but rather
a product of the dynamic changes in the shoreface-inner shelf
region produced by a transgressing sea. Thus these dominant
morphologic features of the middle Atlantic bight are forming in
response to present-day hydraulic conditions.

5914

II.C. Ridges and Swale Topography

Linear shoals on the AtTantic inner continental shelf,
Florida to Long Island, Duane, D.B., Field, M.E.,
Meishruger, E.S., Swift, D.J.R., and Williams, S.J.,
1972.

Observations on the hydraulic regime of the ridge and
swale topography of the inner Virginia shelf, Holliday,
B.W.9 1971.

Origin of cap@ and ghoals along the southedstern coast
of the United States, Hoyt, J.H., and Henry, V.J., 1971.

Depositional ridges in the North Atlantic, Johnson, G.L.,
and E.D. Schneider, 1969.

Large submarine and waves, Jordan, G.F., 1962a.

Rhythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents,
Off, T., 1963.

Holocene shoestring sand on inner continental shelf
off Long Island, New York, Sanders, J.E. and Kumar, N.,
1975.
Anatomy of a shoreface connected ridge' system on the
New Jersey shelf, Stahl, L., J. Koczan and D. Swift,
1974.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:125,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns, F.
and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Underwater sand ridges on Georges Shoal, in R.L.
Miller, ed., Stewart, H.B., Jr. and G.F. Jordan, 1964.

Ridge development as revealed by sub-bottom profiles
on the central New Jersey shelf, Stubblefield, W.L.
and D.J.P. Swift, 1976.

Ridge and swale topography of the middle Atlantic
Bight, North America, Swi'ft, D.J.P. and others,
1973.

60,

II.C. (continued)

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
and Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries, 1967.

Anatomy of a shoreface ridge system, False Cape,
Virginia, Swift, D.J.P., B.W. Holliday, N.F. Avignone,
and G.. Shideler, 1972a.

II.D. Remnants of Lower Sea-Level Stands

In the references listed at the end of this section are
physiographic features associated with the continental shelf,
such as strand plains, beach ridges and escarpments. The
discussion which follows does not treat these specific features
because as suggested above, the present trend of research in
shelf surface dynamics implies that these features may be products
of existing shelf processes. Even into the early 1970's a number
of topographic features and the sediments comprising them were
thought to be relicts of former strand line positions. Research
is now in a state of flux toward interpreting these shelf features
as responses to dynamic shelf processes.

One of the clearest descriptions of the process of shore-
face retreat is given in Charnell and others (1975). The sea
advanced to its present position as the glacial ice sheets melted.
Low-lying coasts, such as that of the New York bight where sand
and clay were the predominant sediment, tend to take on a
characteristic submarine profile, concave upward, consisting of
a relatively steep shoreface (gradient changing from 1:10 to
1:200) descending to depths of 12 m to 20 m at 2 km to 5 km
offshore. Here, the shoreface merges with the inner shelf floor
with seaward gradients of less than 1:200. This submarine profile
of shoreface and inner shelf is maintained by wave and wind driven
currents. During post-glacial sea-level rise, the profile re-
treated landward by wave erosion of the shoreface. Sediments
eroded from the retreating shoreface were deposited seaward on
the shelf as a relatively clean sand blanket. The rate of sea-
level rise slowed appreciably between 7,000 and 4,000 years B.P.
and with this decrease, the New York bight has assumed its present
configuration. Sandy Hook has grown northward into the harbor
mouth and Rockaway spit has extended westward.

It is possible to appreciate the rapidity of the present
transition in thinking by recalling that in 1968, Emery published
a classic paper on relict sediments on continental shelves of the
world. Relict sediments are defined as those deposits not in
equilibrium with the prevailing hydraulic processes. For example,
glacial' tills found in several meters of sea water are obviously
not the product of the prevailing fluid processes. These products
of an earlier environment have characteristic petrography, textures,
fauna and, in some cases, topographic form. However, Swift,
Stanley and Curray (1971) called attention to the fact that these
materials,.although products of former environments, are respond-
ing to present hydraulic conditions and are in the process of
attaining an equilibrium with them. Thus, these sediments are
in a process of transition to a new equilibrium. The term
"palimsest" sediment, was suggested for these materials. Palimsest
sediments exhibit physical and, perhaps biological, attributes-

-62'.

of an earlier depositional environment, in addition to the
attributes of the later prevailing environment. Once all of
the evidence of the previous conditions have been erased, the
shelf materials can be considered to be modern autochthonous
sediments.

In summarizing the present changes in thinking concerning
topographic features, particularly linear shoals which were
thought to be static relicts, Duane and others (1972, p. 494)
restate they hypothesis that linear shoals represent Holocene
barrier retreat across the shelf. However, they emphasize the
dynamic rather than static aspects of this process. They
suggest that the shoal's represent neither the subaerial super-
structure nor the submarine foundations of barriers. Instead,
they interpret the shoals as independent and distinct daughter
forms adjusting to the prevailing hydraulic processes. Their
evidence that the persistent orientation of the shoals mimics
present day shoreline substantiates the case the the Holocene
coastal retreat has maintained essentially the same orientation
it has today.

63.

II.D. Remnants of Lower Sea-Level Stand

1. Beach Ridges

A submerged Holocene shoreline near Block Island,
Rhode Island, McMaster, R.L., 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:250,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns, F.,
and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
and Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries , 1967.

2. Escarpments

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:250,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns, F.
and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
and Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries, 1967.

3. Shoal-retreat massifs

Constructional shelf topography, Diamond Shoals,
North Carolina, Hunt, R.E., Swift, D.J.P. and
Palmer, H., 1977.

Large-scale current lineations on the central New
Jersey shelf, McKinney, T.F., W.L. Stubblefield
and D.J.P. Swift, 1974.

64.
COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER
II.D. (continued)

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:250,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

Delaware shelf valley, estuary retreat path, not
drowned river valley, Swift, D.J.P., 1973.

Tidal sand ridges and shoal retreat massifs, Swift,
D.J.P., 1975.

Bathymetric maps of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
and Slope from Delaware to outer Cape Cod, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey and U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries, 1967.

4. Relict Sediments

Relict sediments on continental shelves of the world,
Emery, K.O., 1968.

Hydraulic fractionation of heavy mineral suites on
an unconsolidated retreating coast, Swift, D.J.P.,
Dill, C.E., Jr., McHome, J., 1971.

Textural differentiation in the shoreface during
erosional retreat of an unconsolidated coast, Cape
Henry to Cape Hatteras, western north Atlantic shelf,
Swift, D.J.P., and others, 1971.

Relict sediments on continental shelves, a reconsideration,
Swift, D.J.P., Stanley, D.J. and Curray, J.R., 1971.

Shelf edge carbonates, anomalies to conventional ideas
relating Quaternary climates and sea levels, Sanders,
J.E. and others, 1970.

65.

III. PROCESSES INFLUENCING SURFACE OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF

III.A. Inner Shelf and Coastal Zone (Shoreface)

The principle process affecting the inner shelf
and coastal zone is the movement of waves. Waves are mainly a
product of movement of surface water by the frictional drag of
wind. The frictional transfer of the wind energy to the water
surface produces shear stress. In addition to winds, there are
three other causes of waves of far less significance than the
wind which affect the inner shelf coastal zone. These are:
waves caused by tides; waves caused density variations in water
masses; and waves caused by the Earth's rotation.

Waves are the dominant feature of the surface of
the ocean. Most of the energy involved in wave movement ultimately
reaches the coastal zone where it is expended by breaking waves
in the surf zone. The amount of energy dissipated by waves
breaking on the shoreline is enormous. The amount of energy
along 400 km of a beach would be equivalent to that produced
from an average-size nuclear power plant. More specifically,
I m in height in the surf zone dissipates energy approximately
equivalent to 3 kw per meter of shoreline. This energy is being
expended constantly as waves of various heights, sizes, various
energy levels are continually reaching the shoreline. Thus, the
coastline is constantly being modified by wave energy.

In order to unders tand the basic effects of waves
as they approach the inner shelf and the coastal zone, and the
way in which they influence the shoreface, one needs to know
something about the geometry of an ideal wave as shown in Figure
16A. The ideal wave can be described by its length and its
height, and by the direction of propagation. The latter corresponds
to the direction of the wind that generated the wave. In addition
to the length and height, and the direction of propagation, there
are two other important aspects of waves which can be used to
characterize them as they approach the shore. First, the wave
period, which is the time (measured in seconds) for two successive
wave crests to pass a fixed point, and the second is wave velocity
(or celerity). The velocity of the wave is equal to wave length
over wave period. By measuring the period and the length of the
wave, one can determine celerity or velocity.

Figure 16B shows some aspects of ideal wave motion.
In deep water, a wave moves in the direction of propagation but
the water itself remains in the same location. Only the wave
form travels; the water does not. It simply moves up and down.
For example, in deep water, a boat or a bobbing cork, simply
rides the wave form as it passes, moving upwards as the crest
expands and downward as the trough approaches, and up with the
next crest, etc. The water surface itself is doing this as well.

14 W ave length (L)

Crest

Still water level eight (H)

Trough

FIGURE 16A. IDEAL WAVE. Component.parts are crest, trough,
wave length (L), wave height (H).

Propagation direction and speed shown by -C.
Velocity M or Celerity (C)= L/T
Wave base = 1/2 L
Wave steepness H/L

Direction of waves

FIGLUM 16B Sea surface

Direction of waves

FIGURE 16C

Sea surface
-,A

--4w

The motion of water particles as a wave passes are circular in
deep water (B); and flattened ellipses in shallow water (C).
ZjH=eight (H:)::@

The depth of wave disturbance is approximately 1/2 L.

(From Anikouchine, W. A., and Sternberg, R. W., 1973,
The World Ocean, fig. 8-1, p. 119 and fig. 8-7, p. 125.)

67.

The wave form is the only thing that is passing some fixed point.
In Figure 16B it is evident that any water particle at the sea
surface is describing a circular orbit. The diameter of that
circular orbit is the wave height. The passage of the wave form
causes the water particles to move in these orbits, but the
effects of the movement diminish downward exponentially from the
water surface (Figure 16B). The fact that the water motion
diminishes downward exponentially means that there is a lower
limit at which the water itself actually has any orbital movement
at all. As indicated in Figure 16C, this depth is about one-
half of the wave length. That is, wave motion does not affect
the sea bottom at depths greater than one-half the. length of the
wave. In water depths greater than one-half wave length, a passing
wave does not affect bottom sediment or bottom material and
conversely, the bottom is not producing frictional drag as the
wave passes overhead. Therefore, in the open ocean, surface
waves do not "feel" the bottom. As the waves move towards the
shore, wave motion very significantly affects the continental
shelf, especially the inner shelf and coastal zone. Thus, by
knowing the wave length, it is possible to predict at what depths
waves will begin to affect bottom material and conversely at what
depths the bottom will have a frictional drag on the wave itself
as it passes overhead. This depth where waves "feel" bottom is
called wave base.

Surface water waves in water depths which are less
than one-half wave length produce a frictional drag on the bottom
and move sediments. Sediment that is being moved by wave motion
is carried in the direction of wave propagation. Because the
shelf surface becomes shallower towards the shore, there must be
a depth, even when there are very small waves, where water depths
are less than one-half wave length in which the wave begins to
affect or "feel" the bottom and begin to move sediments. Thus,
under any wave conditions, one can determine at what depth the
wave is "feeling" bottom.

Figure 17 shows a second modification as they reach
shallow water. Where water depth is less than one-half wave
length, the wave begins to slow down. As this occurs, the wave
length decreases. The wave height, however, remains essentially
the same. As the wave length decreases with respect to wave
height, there is a relative increase in steepness of the wave.
Wave steepness is defined as the ratio of wave height to wave
length. Thus, waves steepen as they approach the shoreline.
They become unstable and break. The point at which wave steepness
creates instability in the wave form occurs approximately when the
ratio of wave height to wave length becomes greater than one-
seventh. When H/L becomes greater than one-seventh, the wave
curls because it is unstable and breaks down over its own crest
in a shoreward direction. Thus, from the breaker line- through
the surf and swash zone the wave form degenerates and dissipates
its energy along the shore.

-.68.

In sha How water the cha r-acte ris tics of a wave change with
respect to the nater depth.

Shallow
water wave Transitional wave Deep water wave
D<1 L L<D< L D> L
M T
CO
Beach 1
i-O L

-7,
-7
D L

Wave Steepness H/L
Waves become unstable and break when the steepness exceeds 1/7

(From Anikouchine, W. A., and Sternberg, R. W., 1973, fig. 8-3,
p. 120-)

FIGURE 17

69.

PROCESSES INFLUENCING SURFACE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF

Sediment transport by waves and currents,
Abou-Seida, M.M., 1964.

Water movement within the apex of the New York
Bight during summer and fall of 1973, Charnell, R.L.
and Mayer, D.A. (in press, 1974).

Continental shelf sedimentation, Swift, D.J.P., 1974.

Holocene evolution of the shelf surface, central and
southern Atlantic shelf of North America, Swift, D.J.P.
and others, 1972.

Shelf sediment transport, a probability model, Swift,
D.J.P. and others, 1972.

Shelf sediment transport, process and pattern, Swift,
D.J.P. and others, 1972.

A socio-economic and environmental inventory of the
North Atlantic region, Sandy Hook to Bay of Fundy,
Trigom, 1974.

Library research project, mid-Atlantic outer continental
shelf (reconnaissance), U.S. Bureau of Land Management,
1972.

A keyword-indexed bibliography of the marine environment
in the New York Bight and adjacent estuaries, Ali, J.A.,
1973.

Chemical changes in interstitial waters from continental
shelf sediments, Friedman, G.M., et al, 1968.

Paraecology of benthonic foraminifera and associated
micro-organisms of the continental shelf off Lonq Island,
New York, Gevirtz, J.L. and others, 1971.

70.

III.A. Inner Shelf and Coastal Zone (Shoreface)

Distinction of shoreline environments%on New Jersey,
Biederman, E.W., 1962.

Coastal geomorphology of Connecticut, Bloom, A.L.,
1967.

Bedform development and distribution pattern,
Parker and Essex Estuaries, Mass., Boothroyd, J.D.,
and Hubbard, D.K., 1972.

Physical processes in coastal waters, Carter, H.H.,
1969.

Bay, inlet and nearshore marine sedimentation, Beach
Haven-Little Egg Inlet region, N.J., Charlesworth,
L.J. , Jr., 1968.

Summary and analysis of physical oceanography data
from the New York Bight apex collected during 1969-70,
Charnell, R.L. and Hansen, D.V., 1974.

Utility of ERTA - 1 for coastal ocean observation,
Charnell, R.L., Jr. and others, 1974.

Summary of marine activities-of the coastal plains
region, Coastal Plains Center for Marine Development
Services, 1976.

Source of the sands on the south shore of Long Island
and the coast of N.J., Colony, R.J., 1932.

Classification of coastal environments of the world,
Part I, Dolan, R. and others, 1972.

A study of New Jersey and northern New England coastal
waters, Duane, D.B., 1969.

Marine sedimentary environments in the vicinity of
the Norwalk Islands, Connecticut (abstr.) Ellis, C.W. ,
1960.

Estuaries and lagoons in relationship to continental
shelves, Emery, K.O., 1967.

Wave estimates for coastal regions, Harris, D.L., 1972.

Relationship between co-astal climate and bottom sediment
type on the inner continental shelf, Hayes, M.O., 1967.

III.A. (continued)

Geomorphology and sedimentation of some New England
estuaries, Hayes, MiO., 1971.

Storms as modifying agents in the coastal environment,
Hayes, M.O. and Boothroyd, J.C., 1969.

The physical oceanography of Narragansett Bay, Hicks,
S.D., 1959.

Hurricane modification of the offshore bar of Long
Island, N.Y., Howard, A.D., 1939.

Origin of capes and shoals along the southeastern
coast of the U.S., Hoyt, J.H. and Henry, V.J., 1971.

Constructional shelf topography, Diamond Shoals,
N.C., Hunt, R.E. and others, 1977.

On the tectonic and morphologic classification of
coasts, Inman, D.L. and C.E. Nordstrom, 1971.

Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics, N.Y., Johnson, J.W.
and P.S. Engleson, 1966, in A.J, Ippen, ed.

A guide to the geology of Delaware's coastal environments,
Kraft, J.C., 1971b.

Transportation of sand grains along the Atlantic shore
of Long Island, N.Y., Krinsley, D. and others, 1964.

Coastal sands of the eastern U.S., McCarthy, G.R., 1931.

Petrography and genesis of recent sediments in
Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound, Rhode Island,
McMaster, R.L., 1962.
1
Coastal morphology and processes in relation to the
development of submarine sand ridges off Bethany Beach,
Delaware, Moody, D.W., 1964.

Principles of physical oceanography, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., Neumann, G. and W.J. Pierson, Jr., 1966.

Characteristics of sedimentary environments in Moriches
Bay, Nichols,.M.M., 1964.

Correlation of shoreline type with offshore bottom
conditions, Price, W.A., 1955.

72.

III. A. (continued)

Coastal zone geology and its relationship to water
pollution problems, Sanders, J.E., 1970.

Anatomy of a shoreface connected ridge system on
the New Jersey shelf, Stahl, L.J. and others, 1974.

The new concepts of continental margin sedimentation,
Stanley, D.J., ed., 1969.

Marine sediment transport and environmental management,
Stanley, D.J. and Swift, D.J.P., 1976.

Marine erosion of glacial deposits in Massachusetts
Bay, Stetson, H.C., 1935.

Hydraulic fractionation of heavy mineral suites on*
an unconsolidated retreating coast, Swift, D.J.P.
and others, 1971.

Shelf sediment transport, process and pattern, Swift,
D.J.P. and others, 1972.

Estuarine and littoral depositional patterns in the
surficial sand sheet, central and southern Atlantic
shelf of North America, Swift, D.J.P. and Sears, P.,
1974.

History of New Jersey coastline, Wicker, C.F., 1951.

Memorandum on dredging work in Ambrose Channel,
Wigmore, H.L., 1909.

Erosion of the cliffs of outer Cape Cod, tables and
graphs, Zeigler, J.M. and others, 1964.

Marine sedimentary environments in the vicinity of
the Norwalk Islands, Connecticut, Ellis, C.W., 1962.

Chemical changes in interstitial waters from sediments
of lagoonal, deltaic, river estuary and saltwater marsh
and cove environments, Friedman, G.M. and Gavish, E.,
1970.

Chemical changes in interstitial waters from lagoonal,
estuarine, tidal marsh and deltaic environments,
Friedman, G.M. and Gavish, E., 1970.

Chemical and oxidation reduction potential studies of
the Long Island Sound sediments, Kaplin, Stephen, Jr.,
1961.

73.

III..A. (continued)
0 Resume' of invest'igations of the marine geology in the
environs of Long Island, New York, Rogers, W.B., 1970.

74.,

III.A.I. Beach Development and Erosion

An understanding of the beach development and erosion
requires a knowledge of wave movement in shallow water. There are
several factors that need to be known in order to predict what
will occur on beaches by wave action in shallow water. Knowing
the propagation direction of the wave and the slope of the inner
shelf surface permit prediction of what happens to waves as they
approach the shore. Figure 18 shows the movement of waves toward
a shoreline and indicates the changes that occur as the waves
approach the shore. Waves usually approach at some angle to
the shore; that is, the direction of propagation is not usually
perpendicular to the shoreline. As indicated in Figure 18, the
leading end of the wave, which first reaches water less than one-
half wave length in depth begins to slow down (Figure 17). As
this portion of the wave is slowing down the remainder of the
wave, which is still in deeper water, is not slowing, but is
continuing at its original velocity. This produces a bending
or refraction of the, wave which tends to align the wave crest
toward the shoreline, but waves still rarely strike the beach
head on (Figure 18). Once the wave reaches water depths of less
than one-half wave length, movement of bottom sediment can occur.
This movement is in the direction of wave propagation. Particles
carried up the beach fall by the swash of a breaking wave move in
the direction of wave propagation. The backwash of water on the
beach surface moves directly down the beach slope, and may carry
sediment with it back into the surf zone (Figure 18). Here the
sediment is moved again by the next incoming refracted wave onto
the beach face. The net result of this movement by waves
approaching the shoreline at an angle is the transport of sediment
along the shoreline, a process called longshore drift (Figure 18).
The current set up by the angular approach of waves to the shore
is called the longshore or littoral current.

From these relationships of wave angle approach toward
the shoreline and the resulting movement of sediment along the
beach, it is possible to predict for any coastline made up of
sand-sized material, the nature of the beach development in terms
of its growth and erosion. Figure 19 presents three diagrams
showing the changes in any coastline which can be predicted given
the wave propagation direction, depth at which the waves begin
to feel bottom, and the refraction angle produced as the wave
slows down. Figure 19A shows an irregular coastline. It also
shows wave orthogonals which are lines drawn at right angles to
the wave crests, i.e., in the direction of wave propagation.
The amount of energy in a wave between two orthogonals is constant.
Thus, as orthogonals converge or diverge with change in direction
of wave propagation, the wave energy is concentrated or dispersed.
It is principally the result of wave energy convergence on head-
lands of irregular shorelines that causes maximum erosion to take
place there. In the intervening areas where the orthogonals
diverge, the energy of the wave is less concentrated and less
erosion occurs. Also, it is in this area of wave-energy divergence
that the sediment accumulates which has been eroded from the head-
lands. Ultimately, any coastline which is irregular in shape
will tend to become straight as the rocky or semi-consolidated

Direction of littoral currents. resulting from waves breaking at an
angle to the shore.

4-,

Littoral
current

Littoral er

ift

Shoreline

Net direction "Backwash" "Swash" portion of
of beach drift direction beach drift

Sediment movement along the beach occurs in the surf zone as littoral
drift and on the beach face as beach drift.

(From Anikouchine W. A., and Sternberg, R. W., 1973, fig. 10-4,
p. 162 and fig. 10-10, p. 168)

FIGURE 18

76.
Bey-head beach

(2)

10%

%
R)-

wave front in deep water
FIGURE 19A. Zones of equal wave energy in deep water are
concentrated by wave refraction so that headlands are attacked.
E = energy. Amount of wave energy between orthogonals remains
constant.

N
N,
%N
N
NBC)44"outh beach
1(3,
'111M1 M
+
I@"6@on

FIGURE 19B. Eventually headlands are cut back and furnish
enough sand to build a straight continuous beach.

(Figures 19A and B from Bascom, W., 1964, Waves and Beaches,
fig. 6, p. 17)

Bay
Original "oreli' e":"%

Zone
of erosion

teroins

Littoral Drift Je"Y
op

FIGURE 19C. Groins and jetties trap sand on their updrift
sides, cause erosion on their downdrift sides. The Local
beach is stablized, but the downdrift beach erodes because
its supply of sand is diminished.

FIGURE 19. Effects of wave attack and littoral drift on
- - - - . I - - - -

MAINLAND

LAGOON

W/N/

TIDAL INLET

------ goo..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
911'
. . . . . . . . . . . .

ACCRETING SWASH BAR ARCUATE SAND SHOALS

RECURVED SPITS DISCONTINUOUS LINES OF DUNES

FLOOD TIDAL DELTA TRACES OF FORMER BEACH CRESTS
..........................
...........
EBB TIDAL DELTA --------- STORM GENERATED WASHOVER FANS
..............
- WAVE CRESTS

-4
:0

FIGURE 20 Idealized barrier island system.

78.

headland areas become eroded back and the intervening areas
between the headlands fill with sediment. Figure 15B shows
a more or less straight shoreline and position of bays along
that shoreline. This diagram shows what happens to the material
carried in the longshore current. As the longshore current
approaches the bay, sand extends out from the edge of the beach
into the bay to form a spit. Commonly, the tidal exchange in
and-out of the bay or inlet will prevent the spit from spanning
the bay mouth entirely. These tidal currents will cause the
spit to curve, usually in a landward direction towards the
tidal inlet forming a recurved spit. In some of the older
literature this recurved spit is called a hook or a sandy hook.

In situations where the tidal exchange in and out of
the bay or tidal inlet is not great, it is possible for sand
to extend completely across the bay sealing it off, although
this is not typical. Figure 19C shows a straight sandy shoreline,
and added to it are some of man's engineering features, including
jetties, groins and sea-walls. The development of jetties and
groins interfers with the longshore current and thus creates
starvation of sand in the downdrift direction along the beach.
Small accumulations of sand do develop on the updrift side of
each jetty or groin as shown in Figure 19C. However, the sand
is trapped there and cannot move in the longshore current and,
therefore, cannot continue to add to the downdrift end of the
beach. The result of these kinds of engineering structures
invariably results in starvation of the beach down current from
them. With joints or jetties, the overall pattern of movement
of the entire beach in the direction of the longshore current
is interrupted and the ultimate result is erosion of the beach.

Because most of the beaches bordering the Atlantic
continental shelf of the eastern United States are on barrier
islands, the dynamics of beach development and the balance
which exists between sand supply and wave action can be extrapolated
to apply to barrier islands. There are some added characteristics
for barrier islands, however, that need to be examined. Figure 20
shows an idealized example of a barrier island system. There
are four important features to note in that diagram. First, the
orientation of the barrier islands with respect to average approach
direction; second, the presence of a tidal inlet between the
barrier islands; third, the development of sand accumulations at
the downdrift end of each of the barrier islands; and, fourth,
the presence of one or more tidal deltas. Tidal de1tas may occur
either just behind the barrier island inside the tidal inlet or
seaward of the tidal inlet in front of the barrier island. Those
that occur behind the barrier island landward of the inlet are
called flood-tidal deltas. If the dominant velocity during tidal
exchange is in the flood-tide direction, there is a tendency for
sand to accumulate inside the tidal inlet creating a flood-tidal

79,

delta. Where the dominant tidal energy is out of the tidal
inlet, an ebb-tidal delta may form seaward of the inlet mouth.
The bulk of the sand which supplies the tidal deltas is a
result of sediment being transported in the longshore current.
Sand in the flood-tidal delta has moved along the beach in a
longshore current direction, moved around the recurved spit
and has been carried by the flood-tidal current into the
lagoonal area behind the barrier island itself. These tidal
deltas become, therefore, important sites of sand storage and
represent part of the dynamic system which permits continued
development and regeneration of barrier islands. Unfortunately,
build-ups of sand in tidal deltas creates a problem for
commercial shipping and pleasure boating because of infilling of
the inlet channel. It has been a practice of the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers to remove this sand forming at least part of
the tidal delta. Removal of the sand invariably upsets the sand
balance which maintains the barrier island system. Present
practice in dredging tidal inlets where tidal deltas have
developed is to remove the sand and place it back into the
littoral drift system on the updrift side of the next barrier
island. Thus, there is a replenishment of sand from one barrier
island to the next.

80.

Beach Development and Erosion

Final report on data reduction for CERC New
Jersey offshore sand inventory program, Alpine
Geophysical Assoc. Inc., 1969.

Report on beach erosion at Manasquan Inlet, N.J.
and adjacent beaches, Anonymous, 1938.

Observations to determine the cause of the increase
of Sandy Hook, for the commissioner on harbor
encroachment of New York, Bache, A.D., 1856.

Report on jetties, Blackman, B., 1938.

Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion, Bruun,
P., 1962.

Coastal processes and beach erosion, Caldwell, J.M.,
1966.

Atlantic coast of Long Island, N.Y., Fire Island
Inlet and westerly to Jones Inlet, Corps of
Engineers, 1963.

Atlantic coast of Long Island, Fire Island Inlet
and shore westerly to Jones Inlet, Corps of
Engineers, 1970.

National shoreline study, regional inventory report,
North Atlantic region, Corps of Engineers, 1971.

Coastal process and near-shore sand bars, Davis, R.A.
and W.T. Fox, 1972.

Comparison of ridge and tunnel systems in tidal and
non-tidal environments, Davis, R.A. and others, 1972.

Layout of outer protective works, maintenance of
depth in harbors, on sandy shores and before mouths
of estuaries, Dent, E.J., 1935.

Wave-base marine profile of equilibrium, and wave-
built terraces -- A critical appraisal, Dietz, R.S.,
1936b.

Causes of recent increased erosion along U.S. shore-
lines, El-Ashry, M.T., 1971.

Beach profile changes on western Long Island,
Everts, C.H., 1973.

8 T

(continued)

Beach erosion studies of southern New Jersey,
Gessler, E.E., 1952.

Comparison of ecological and geomorphic interactions
between altered and unaltered barrier island systems
in North Carolina, Godfrey, P.L.J. and Godfrey, M.M.,
1973.

Test of nourishment of the shore by offshore
deposition of sand, Long Branch, N.J., Hall, J.V.
and Herron, W.J., 1950.

Restudy of test-shore nourishment by offshore
deposition of sand, Long Branch, N.J., Harris, R.L.,
1954.

Littoral movements of the New Jersey coast, with
remarks on beach protection and jetty reaction,
Haupt, L.M., 1890.

Hurricanes as geological agents, Hayes, M.O., 1967.

Offset coastal inlets, Hayes, M.O. and others, 1970.

Sand deposition in the Chatham Harbor estuary and
on the neighboring beaches, Cape Cod, Mass., Hine,
A.C., 1972.

The New England-Acadian shoreline, Johnson, D.W.,
1925.

Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics, N.Y., Johnson,
J.W. and P.S. Engleson, 1966, in A.J. Ippen, ed.

Offset tidal inlets, Long Island, N.Y., Kaczorowski,
R.T., 1972.

Probable causes of shoreline recession and advance
on the south shore of eastern Long Island, McCormick,
C.L., 1973.

Recent geomorphic history of Plum Island, Mass. and
adjacent coasts, McIntire, W.G. and Morgan, J.P.,
1963.

Petrography and genesis of New Jersey beach sands,
McMaster, R.L., 1954.

(continued)

Problems involved in coast erosion, Patton, R.S.,
1924.

Moriches Inlet, a problem in beach evolution,
Patton, R.S., 1931.

Tidal inlets and washover fans, Pierce, J.W.'
1970.

Development of the New Jersey shore, Rankin, J.K.,
1952.

Washover erosion-important process in creating bays
of digitate spit, Democrat Point, Fire Island, L.I.,
New York (abstr.), Sanders, J.E. and Kumar, N., 1971.

Sand transfer, beach control and inlet improvements,
Fire Island Inlet to Jones Beach, N.Y., Saville, T.,
1960.

Sand transport along a model sandy beach by wave
action, Schinohara, K. and others, 1958.

Coastal erosion and transgressi ve stratigraphy,
Swift, D.J.P. , 1968.

Geomorphology of the south shore of Long Island,
N.Y., Taney, N.B., 1961.

Littoral materials of the south shore of Long Island,
N.Y., Taney, N.M., 1961.

Long Island hurricane rehabilitation, Shymecock
Inlet created by 1938 storm, left open and stabilized
for Nassau County use, Tuthill, H.T., 1944.

Shore protection manual, U.S. Army, 1973.

Beach erosion at Jocob Riis Park, L.I., N.Y.,
U.S. Army Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers,
1936.

Beach erosion at Manasquan Inlet, N.J. and adjacent
beaches, U.S. Army Beach Erosion Board, Corps of
Engineers, 1936.

South shore, state of*Rhode Island beach erosion
control study, U.S. Army Beach Erosion Board,
Corps of Engineers,-1949.

83.-

III A. 1 (continued)

Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, 1885-1930.

Fire Island inlet and shore westerly to Jones
Inlet, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1955.

Study on use of hopper dredge for beach nourishment,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1967.

National shoreline study report, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, 1971.

Preliminary examination of Chatham New Harbor,
Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District, Boston,
Corps of Engineers, 1894.

Westport River, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Boston, Corps of Engineers, 1938.

Scituate Harbor, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Boston, Corps of Engineers, 1938.

Newbury Port Harbor, Massachusetts, U.S. Army
Engineer District, Boston, Corps of Engineers,
1940.

East Point Judith, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Newport, Corps of Engineers, 1889.

Survey of inner harbor at Point Judith Pond, Rhode
Island, U.S. Army Engineer District, Newport, Corps
of Engineers, 1897.

Point Judith Harbor of Refuge, Rhode Island, U.S.
Army Engineer District, Newport, Corps of Engineers,
1908.

Point Judith Pond, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Newport, Corps of Engineers, 1916.

Point Judith Harbor of Refuge, Rhode Island, U.S.
Army Engineer District, Newport, Corps of Engineers,
1917.

Harbors of Refuge at Point Judith, Block Island
and Great Salt Pond, and adjacent waters, etc.,
U.S. Army Engineer District, New York, Corps of
Engineers, 1903.

84.

(continued)

East Rockaway (Debs) Inlet, New York, U.S.
Army Engineer District, New York, Corps of
Engineers, 1929.

Shark River, New Jersey, U.S. Army Engineer
District, New York, Corps of Engineers, 1939.

Jones Inlet, New York, U.S. Army Engineer
District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Fire Island Inlet, N.Y., U.S. Army Engineer
District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1948.

Shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Barnegat
Inlet, beach erosion control study, U.S. Army
Engineer District, New York, Corps of Engineers,
1955.

Fire Island Inlet to Jones Inlet, L.I., N.Y.,
cooperative beach erosion control study, U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1956.

Atlantic coast of Long Island, N.Y., Fire Island
Inlet to Montauk Point, Cooperative bea 'ch erosion
control and interim hurricane study (survey), U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1958.

Moriches and Shinnecock Inlets, L.I., N.Y.9 U.S.
Army Engineer, District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1959.

Raritan Bay and Sandy Hook Bay, New Jersey, coopera-
tive beach erosion control and study (survey), U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1960.

South Shore of Long Island from Fire Island Inlet
to Montauk Point, N.Y., beach erosion control study
and hurricane survey, U,.S. Army Engineer District,
N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1960.

Atlantic coast of Long Island, Fire Island Inlet
and shore westerly to Jones Inlet, N.Y., U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1965.

85,

(continued)

Jones Inlet to Montauk Point, N.Y. (remaining
areas), U.S. Army Engineer District, N.Y.,
Corps of Engineers, 1967.

Shark River, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1890.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1936.

Manasquan River, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1945.

Absecon Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1946.

Atlantic City, N.J., beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer District, Phila., Corps of
Engineers , 1950.

Cold Spring Inlet (Cape May Harbor), N.J., U.S.
Army Engineer District, Phila., Corps of Engineers,
1953.

Ocean City, N.J., beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer District, Phila., Corps of
Engineers , 1953 .

New Jersey Coastal inlets and beaches - Great Egg
Harbor Inlet to Stone Harbor, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Phila., Corps of Engineers, 1969.

Chatham (Stage) Harbor, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer
District, Providence, Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Harbor of Refuge at Point Judith and Point Judith
Pond, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer Division,
New England, Corps of Engineers, 1947.

Plum Island, Mass., beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England, Corps
of Engineers, 1953.

Point Judith, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer,
Division, New England, Corps of Engineers, 1962.

8@6,

(continued)

Edgartown Harbor, Martha's Vineyard, Mass., U.S.
Army Engineer Division, New England, Corps of
Engineers, 1970.

Model study of plans for elimination of shoaling
in Absecon Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, 1943.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Shore Protection
Board, Corps of Engineers, 1933.

Behavior of beach fill and borrow area at Sherwood
Island State Park, Westport, Conn., Vesper, W.H.,
1967.

Report of changes in the shoreline and beaches at
Martha's Vineyard, as derived from comparisons of
recent with former surveys, Whiting, H.L., 1886.

Growth and migration of digitate spits (April -
September, 1971), at Democrat Point, Fire Island,
New York - An example of a naturally occurring
modifying landfill system, Wolff, M.P., 1972.

Geometry and development of spit-bar shorelines
at Horseshoe Cove, Sandy Hook, N.J., Yasso, W.E.,
1964.

Use of fluorescent tracers to determine foreshore
sediment transport, Sandy Hook, N.J., Yasso, W.E.,
1964.

The age and development of the Provincelands Hook
Outer Cape Cod, Mass., Zeigler, J.M. and others,
1964.

The sediments of the south shore of Long Island
Sound, Lloyde Point to Crane Neck Point, Krebs,
O.A., 1962.

87.

III..A.2.-Dynami'ds of Tidal Inlets and Estuaries

Tidal inlets are channels between barrier islands
where there is tidal exchange between the open ocean and
the lagoon behind the barrier. Estuaries, on the other hand,
are in a very general way, defined as drowned river mouths.
The Hudson River is the most important estuary in the study
area. Because estuaries are drowned river mouths, it means
that there is a mixture of sea water and fresh so that.the
upstream limits of the estuary and the dynamics within the
estuary itself are largely controlled by the ways in which
the salt and fresh water are distributed. The dynamics of
estuaries depend on the difference in density of river and
ocean water, tidal movement in the river mouth, as well as
the flow of the river itself. Thus, a very complex dynamic
system is developed. Probabl the best summary of estuarine
dynamics is given in Schubel T1971) in the American Geologic
Institute Short Course on Estuarine Environments. The paper
in that volume by Pritchard is outstanding in its definition
of the characteristics of estuaries in terms of the dynamics
resulting from the salt-fresh water mixtures. In that same
volume, there is also a paper by Hayes (1971) in which he
discusses the geomorphology of tidal inlets and the dynamics
of tidal inlets. Most of the literature cited at the end of
this section on tidal inlets relates to the work which the
Corps of Engineers has undertaken over the past many decades.
It is one of the principal missions of the Corps of Engineers
to provide access to harbors and to maintain tidal inlet
channels. Therefore, one of their principal functions has been
to remove sediments which have accumulated at the downdrift
ends of beaches, particularly barrier islands, and in the tidal
inlets. The bulk of their operations has been essentially to
remove or to modify tidal deltas, especially flood tidal deltas
which, if allowed to develop naturally, can fill the tidal inlet
and choke off any avenue to harbors in the mainland area. The
nature of sand deposition within the tidal inlet, or within
estuaries themselves, is well described in two papers by Hine
(1972 and 1973). Those papers are perhaps the clearest
descriptions of the dynamics of sand infilling and the development
of tidal deltas associated with an inlet mouth. A number of
other papers on this subject were written and developed under
the direction of Hayes, at the University of Massachusetts, and
now at the Universtty of South Carolina. Hayes' Coastal Research
Group has done extensive studies on the dynamics, the bedform
characteristics, and the migration patterns which occur in tidal
deltas, and probably represents the best sources of information
on this subject. Barwis (1976) has compiled a complete annotated
bibliography of all tidal inlets in the United States so that all
the literature which relates to any specific tidal inlet can be
found in that report.

88.

The available literature on estuaries and tidal
inlets is very complex. The bulk of the information relating
to the dynamics of estuaries is described in mathematical terms,
and it is very difficult to give a simplistic picture of how an
estuary works. A diagram is included in the text (Figure 21)
which shows, in a simple way, the types of movement of sea and
fresh water within the estuary itself. In addition to the paper
cited above, Schubel (1971), a second volume gives a more general
view of estuaries .Ily those of the coastal plain of the
St,tespecia
eastern United es (Nelson, 1972). The present state of the
@art in estuary dynamics would suggest that the dynamic models
which now exist to describe estuarine systems, are based mainly
on a very small number of well-studied estuaries. We may be at
a stage now that an understanding of estuary dynamics is biased
by this small number of samples. Interestingly, there have been
very few studies, and none of them on a large scale, on the
Hudson River estuary. It is probably one of the most poorly
understood estuarine systems in the United States. This is
rather surprising in view of the fact that it is adjacent to
the nations largest cities. The dynamics of this estuary needs
to be thoroughly understood because of the enormous amount of
waste material which is being delivered to that estuary every day.

ESTUARINE CIRCULATION

SALT
FRESH
'WATER
WATER

R @71,4;@;@@-`.'

Fresh water tends to flow over and float on the denser salt-
water. Mixing occurs in the boundary zone between the two
waters. Seaward flow of the fresh river water shapes the,
saltwater wedge.

FIGURE 21
-/ETR.

90.

III.A.2. Dynamics of tidal inlets and estuaries

Shark River Inlet sand bypassing project,
Angas, W.M., 1960.-

Report on beach erosion at Manasquan Inlet, N.J.
and adjacent beaches, Anonymous, 1938.

Tidal inlet problems along the New England coast,
Arpin, O.E.,, 1970.

Penetration of salt water and its effect on tidal
areas of the U.S. of America, Baehr, J.C., 1953.

Annotated bibliography on the geologic, hydraulic
and engineering aspects of tidal inlets, Barwis,
J.H., 1976.

Channel improvement, Fire Island Inlet, N.Y.,
Bobb, W.H. and Boland, R.A., 1969.

Response characteristics of tidal inlet, A case
study, Byrne , R. J . and others , in press .

Sedimentological study of an active part of a
modern tidal delta, Moriches Inlet, L.I., N.Y.,
Caldwell, D.M., 1972a.

Sedimentation in Harbors, Caldwell, J.M., 1950.

Bay, inlet and nearshore marine sedimentation.
Charlesworth, L.J., Jr., 1968.

Sedimentation at Beach Haven - Little Egg Inlet,
N.J., Charlesworth, L.J. and Briggs, L.I., 1968.

Atlantic coast of Long Island, Fire Island Inlet
and shore westerly to Jones Inlet, Corps of Engineers,
1970.

Holocene sediments of the Parker River estuary,
Daboll, J.M., 1969.

Layout of outer protective works,.maintenance of
depth in harbors, on sandy shores and before mouths
of estuaries, Dent, E.J., 1935.

The improvement of the channel at the entrance to
the harbor of N.Y., Edwards, J., 1891.

A computer simulation model of sedimentation in a
salt wedge estuary, Farmer, D.G., 1971.

.9.11

III.A.2. (continued)

Texture and organic carbon content of bottom sediments
in some estuaries of the U.S., Folger, D.W., 1972.

Characteristics of estuarine sediments of the U.S.,
Folger, D.W., 1972.

Case history of Fire Island Inlet, N.Y., Gofsergeff,
S., 1952.

The influence of waves on the origin and development
of the offset coastal inlets of the southern Delmarva
Peninsula, Virginia, Goldsmith, U. and others, in
press.

Fire Island Inlet, Haupt, L.M., 1889.

Harbor bar improvements, Haupt, L.M., 1889.

Geomorphology and sedimentation of some New England
estuaries, Hayes, M.O., 1971.

Sedimentation in estuaries with reference to the
Merrimack and Parker Rivers, Mass., Hayes, M.O. and
McCormick, C.L., 1967.

Offset coastal inlets, Hayes, M.O. and others, 1970.

Sand deposition in the Chatham Harbor estuary and
on the neighboring beaches, Cape Cod, Mass., Hine, A.C.,
1972.

Bedform distribution and migrationpatterns on tidal
deltas in the Chatham Harbor estuary, Cape Cod, Mass.,
Hine, A.C., 1973.

Movement of deep-water estuarine bedforms in the
lower Parker River estuary, Plum Island, Mass.,
Hubbard, D.K., 1971.

The morphology and hydrodynamics of the Merrimack
ebb-tidal delta, Hubbard, D.K., 1973.

Hydrography tides and tidal flushing of Great South
Bay - South Oyster Bay, L.I., Ichiye, T., 1968.

Tidal prison - inlet area relationships, Jarrett, J.T.,
1976.

Environmental characteristics of Raritan Bay, a
polluted estuary, Jeffries, H.P., 1962.

92,

III-A-2. (continued)

Barnegat Inlet, a problem and a solution, Johnson,
J.A., 1969.

Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics, N.Y., Johnson,
J.W. and P.S. Engleson, 1966, in A.J. Ippen, ed.

Offset tidal inlets, L.I., N.Y., Kaczorowski, R.T.,
1972.

A study of the current structure in the Sandy Hook
Rockaway Point transect, Kao, A., 1975.

A formula for the calculation of tidal discharge
through an inlet, Keulegan, G.H. and Hall, J.V.,
Jr., 1950.

Sand body created by migration of Fire Island Inlet,
N.Y., (abstr.), Kumar, N., 1972.

A study of Barnegat Inlet, Lucke, J.B., 1934,

Sand waves and tidal channels in the entrance to
Chesapeake Bay, Ludwick, J.C., 1970.

The Hudson River estuary, McCrone, A.W., 1966.

Landward transport of bottom sediments in estuaries
of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Meade, R.H., 1969.

Transport and deposition of sediments in estuaries,
Meade, R.H. , 1972.

Natural flushing ability in tidal inlets, Mota-
Oliveira, I.B., 1970.

Source of detrital minerals in estuaries of the
Atlantic coastal plain, Neiheisel, J., 1973.

Notes on tidal inlets on sandy shores, Obrien, M.P.,
1976.

Lower Hudson River siltation, Pannzio, F.L., 1965.

Tidal sonomena in the harbor of N.Y., Parsons, H.
de B., 1913.

Moriches Inlet, a problem in beach evolution,
Patton, R.S., 1937.

93.

III.A.2. (continued)

Tidal inlets and washover fans, Pierce, J.W., 1970.

Sediment transport and sedimentation in the marine
environment, Postman, H., 1967.

The analysis of tidal phenomena in narrow embayments,
Redfield, A.C., 1950.

Report on tidal entrances, Reynolds, K.C., 1951.

Navigation channel improvements, Barnegat Inlet,
N.J., Sager, R.A. and Hollyfield, N.W., 1974.

Sand transfer, beach control and inlet improvements,
Fire Island Inlet to Jones Beach, N.Y., Saville, T.,
1960.

The estuarine environment, estuaries and estuarine
sedimentation, Schubel, J.R. and others, 1971.

The geological history of harbors, Shaler, N.S.,
1893.

Spread of buoyant jets at the free surface, Sharp,
J.J.' 1969.

Hydraulic model studies of tidal waterways problems,
Simmons, H.B. and Lindner, C.P., 1965.

Estuarine and littoral depositional patterns in the
surficial sand sheet, central and southern Atlantic
shelf of North America, Swift, D.J.P. and Sears, P.,
1974.

Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, 1885-1930.

Fire Island Inlet and shore westerly to Jones Inlet,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1955.

Study on use of hopper dredge for beach nourishment,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1967.

National shoreline study report, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, 1971.

Preliminary examination.of Chatham New Harbor,
Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District, Boston, Corps
of Engineers, 1894.

94.

III.A.2. (continued)

Westport River, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Boston, Corps of Engineers, 1938.

Scituate Harbor, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Boston, Corps of Engineers, 1938.

Newbury Port Harbor, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer
District, Boston, Corps of Engineers, 1940.

East Point Judith, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Newport, Corps of Engineers, 7889.

Survey of inner harbor at Point Judith Pond, Rhode
Island, U.S. Army Engineer District, Newport Corps
of Engineers, 1897.

Point Judith Harbor of Refuge, Rhode Island, U.S.
Army Engineer District, Newport, Corps of Engineers,
1908.

Point Judith Pond, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Newport, Corps of Engineers, 1916.

Point Judith Harbor of Refuge, Rhode Island, U.S.
Army Engineer District, Newport, Corps of Engineers,
1917.

Harbors of Refuge at Point Judith, Block Island and
Great Salt Pond, and adjacent waters, etc., U.S.'
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1903.

East Rockaway (Debs) Inlet, N.Y., U.S. Army Engineer
District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1929.

Shark River, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District, N.Y.,
Corps of Engineers, 1939.

Jones Inlet, N.Y., U.S. Army Engineer District, N.Y.,
Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Fire Island Inlet, N.Y., U.S. Army Engineer District,
N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1948.

Shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Barnegat Inlet,
beach erosion control study, U.S.* Army Engineer District,
N.Y.., Corps of Engineers, 1955.

95.

III.A.2. (continued)

Fire Island Inlet to Jones Inlet, L.I., N.Y.
cooperative beach erosion study, U.S. Army Engineer
District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1956.

Atlantic coast of L.I., N.Y., Fire Island Inlet to
Montauk Point, cooperative beach erosion control
and interim hurricane study (survey), U.S. Army
Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1958.

Moriches and Shinnecock Inlets, L.I., N.Y., U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1959.

Raritan Bay and Sandy Hook Bay, N.J., cooperative
beach erosion control and interim hurrican study
(survey), U.S. Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps
of Engineers, 1960.

South Shore of Long Island from Fire Island Inlet
to Montauk Point, N.Y., beach erosion control study
and hurricane survey, U.S. Army Engineer District,
N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1960.

Atlantic coast of L.I., Fire Island Inlet and shore
westerly to Jones Inlet, N.Y., U.S. Army Engineer
District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers, 1965.

Atlantic Coast of New York City from East Rockaway
Inlet to Rockaway Inlet and Jamaica Bay, N.Y., U.S.
Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1965.

Jones Inlet to Montauk Point, N.Y. (remaining areas),
U.S. Army Engineer District, N.Y., Corps of Engineers,
1967.

Shark River, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers.' 1890.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers, 1936.

Manasquan River, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer Distict,
Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers, 1945.

Absecon Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer District,
Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers, 1946.

9 6'.

III.A.2. (continued)

Atlantic City, N.J., Beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia, Corps
of Engineers, 1950.
Cold Spring Inlet (Cape May Harbor), New Jersey,
U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia, Corps
of Engineers, 1953,

Ocean City, N.J., beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia, Corps
of Engineers,. 1953.

New Jersey coastal inlets and beaches - Great Egg
Harbor Inlet to Stone Harbor, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers, 1969.

Chatham (Stage) Harbor, Mass., U.S. Army Engineer
District, Providence, Corps of Engineers, 1941.

Harbor of Refuge at Point Judith and Point Judith
Pond, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer Division,
New England, Corps of Engineers, 1947.

Plum Island, Mass., beach erosion control study,
U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England, Corps
of Engineers, 1953.

Point Judith, Rhode Island, U.S. Army Engineer
Division, New England, Corps of Engineers, 1962.

Edgartown Harbor, Martha's Vineyard, Mass.. U.S.
Army Engineer Division, New England, Corps of
Engineers, 1970.

Model study of plans for elimination of shoaling
in Absecon Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, 1943.

Barnegat Inlet, N.J., U.S. Army Shore Protection
Board, Corps of Engineers, 1933.

A model for the evolution of linear tidal built
sand ridges in Delaware Bay, U.S.A., Weil, C.B.,
R.D. Moose and R.E. Sheridan., 1974.

Development of alternative dredging program related
to the navigation project at Fire Island Inlet, N.Y.
and Feeder Beach project for the shore westerly to
Jones Inlet, N.Y., Wells, J.E. and Turner, T.M., 1972.

97,

III.A.2. (continued)

Recent changes in the south inlet into Edgartown
Harbor, Martha's Vineyard, Whiting, H.L., 1889.

The sediments of the south shore of Long Island
Sound, Lloyde Point to Crane Neck Point, Krebs,
O.A., 1962.

Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954, 11,
physical oceanography, Riley, G.A., 1956.

Sediments of the Smithtown Bay area Long Island,
New York (title not accurate), Schafer, C., 1963?

98.

III.A.3. Barrier Islands and Their Possible Origins

The dynamics of beaches and barrier islands discussed
in the previous section on beach development and erosion did
not touch upon the fact that there is a controversy concerning
barrier island origin. The best accumulation of information
relating to this controversy of origin can be found in Schwartz
(1973). This volume is a collection of papers from the mid-1800's
to about 1970 which have discussed the possible origins of
barrier islands.

Before getting into the controversy of barrier island
origin, it would be best, first, to define just what barrier
islands are. Barrier islands are elongated sand bodies of beach
and dune material which lie parallel to the mainland shore
separated from the,mainland by a bay or a lagoon, or in some
cases, by salt marsh. Barrier islands commonly are one to two
miles wide and often up to ten miles in length. There are
some barrier islands which are as long as 105 miles in length
along the coast of the eastern United States. The individual
islands themselves are separated by tidal inlets. A group of
barrier islands along the coast is usually referred to as a
barrier island system and it is this system of barrier islands
which protects the low lying coastal plains of the mainland
from wave attack. Virtually all of the beaches on the south
shore of Long Island, along the New Jersey coast, Delaware,
Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina are barrier islands.
In some places, such as at the east end of Long Island, one end
of the barrier system is attached to the mainland or headland
and the barrier island itself appears to be a very extensive
spit extending from the point of attachment. As these barriers
elongate or extend themselves in the direction of longshore
current movement, storm waves may wash across any part of the
island which is low lying, such as in an area where dunes are
very low and where the barrier island is very narrow. It is
possible, particularly during hurricanes, for storm waves to
wash completely across the barrier island. In many cases
when this happens, the area of the island which has been breached
by storm waves becomes a channel where the accumulated high tidal
waters behind the island will rush seaward forming a new inlet.
There are many examples along coasts of the world where new
inlets have formed virtually overn-ight as a result of first
storm wash-over and then a return of the high tide waters
during ebb through this new channel. Frequently the flood and
ebb tide movement through._this newly created channel will be of
sufficiently high energy thatthe inlet will remain open.. Once
this new inlet has formed -_ it means that the part of the island
which is in the downdrift direction from it is truly a totally
isolated body of sand, not attached to a headland nor to any
otfier part of the mainland. This process of barrier island

9 9

growth is elongation and breaching. These new inlets are
subject to the same kinds of processes to which all other
tidal inlets are subject; that is, tidal deltas will form
seaward or landward of the tidal inlet, and, depending upon
the dynamics of the current system, the tidal inlet may or
may not be kept open for very many years after its formation.,
Typically, once a tidal inlet exists, man attempts to keep it
open. Usually the Corps of Engineers will dredge the sand,
and keep the inlet open for the residents on the adjacent
mainland. These new inlets often form much shorter routes
to the sea, particularly for fishing fleets. Thus, it may
be economically wise, or at least expedient, to maintain
these new tidal inlets.

The origin of barrier islands, which is a debated
issue in the current geologic literature, takes two basic
forms. The earliest view held in the middle 1800's concerning
barrier island origin stated that waves approaching the shore
built bars offshore above wave base. They continued to build,
emerging above the water surface and beach and dune ridge
systems formed. This is essentially the theory of offshore
bar development. The second principal theory of barrier
island origin was first discussed by G.K. Gilbert and later
examined by D.W. Johnson in the middle 1920's. Gilbert's
theory stated that barrier island.s form by spit extension
on the downdrift end of beaches and later, during storms, over-
was-h and spit breaching isolate that portion of the spit down-
drift.

It was not until 1967 that there was any serious
re-examination of the basic theories of barrier island origin.
During the first half of the 20th century the concept of spit
extension dominated and, once that view was. championed by
D.W. Johnson in the T920's, it remained the standard theory
of explanation of barrier islands. However, in 1967, J.H.
Hoyt questioned this theory on the basis of information taken
from core examination of sediments near tidal inlets at the
ends of barrier islands. In the very simplest terms, Hoyt's
idea of barrier island formation is: 7) beaches and dune
ridges formed along the mainland itself and are topo raphically
higher than the low lying coastal plain behind it; 2? when sea
level rose, the marine waters flooded the low areas behind the
beach and dune system, forming a lagoon, and leaving the ridge
as a barrier island. He based his hypothesis of barrier island
formation, which he called submergence hypothesis, on four sets
of observations. First, he found that there was an absence of
open marine beach or shallow neritic sediments and fauna landward
of present-day barriers which negates the bar-emergence theory.
Secondly, he observed the ability of barrier island systems to
reform after they have been terminated by an emergence. Thirdly,
he noted the absence of a worldwide higher-than-present sea level
during the Holocene. Fourth, he based his hypothesis on the
development and maintenance of barrier island systems during the
rise in sea level during the last 18,000 years. J.J. Fisher
(1968) wrote a discussion of Hoyt's (1967) paper in which he
disagreed with the basic idea. Fisher cited extensive evidence

100.-

of spit extension and the development of barrier islands by
simple inlet formation by spit breaching during storms.
Essentiall h was returning to the concept of D.W. Johnson.
,@, e
Hoyt (196 replied to this discussion. This was followed by
another paper by Fisher (1968) also cited below in the list
of references. This controversy between Hoyt and Fisher
essentially brought together some of the basic ideas of barrier
islands and their formation and probably generated the stimulus
for the compilation of the 40 papers that appeared in Schwartz
(1973), the. best available review of the literature on barrier
islands. This is a collection of reprints of the important
papers spanning the period from 1848 to 1972 with explanator .y
remarks by Schwartz including the controversy generated by
Hoyt and Fisher. Another aspect of this book by Schwartz is
its inclusion of a number of papers in English by Russian
authors.

In the middle 1970's, the discussion of barrier
islands took a somwhat different turn. Not in the form of
controversy, but in the form of much more extensive observation
by the groups at NOAA and at CERC. They began to realize that
the sediments which form barrier, islands were generated by
erosion of the shoreface; that is, the sediments which make up
the beaches and dunes of the barrier islands of eastern United
States are not sand which comes from river mouths, but instead
comes from the sandy part of the inner shelf and shoreface
itself.

Swift (1975) showed that the nature of barrier island
development was in large part related to the slope of the inner
shel-f and that the coastal regions of the world which were very
low lying were areas where submergence of beach and dune ridges
could easily occur. In contrast, he showed that in areas of
rather steep shoreface slopes that the only probable mechanism
for barrier island development was extension of spits from the
mainland.. A second paper by Swift (1976) followed that by
Field and Duane (1976) in which they examined the Holocene
evolution of the inner shelf of the middle Atlantic of the
eastern United States. Both the paper by Swift and the paper
by Field and Duane are of major importance at a time when the
thinking is changing in terms of how barrier islands actually
form.

Field and Duane (1976) describe a viable model of
barrier island development. Their model as viewed in the light
of the inner shelf sedimentary record is as foll*ows:

The barrier island coast is one which alternately
erodes and progrades, but ultimately retreats in concert with
a fluctuating, but steadily rising, Holocene sea level. Thus,
the present barrier islands seen along the eastern coast of the

. 10 1

U.S. have been derived from landward-retreating Holocene
barrier islands originating on the shelf far out from the
present position from which they occur. This interpretation
is based on the following information:

a. The shape and the nature of the surface
and subsurface deposits on the inner shelf.

b. The orientation of shelf features.

c. The association of continental, shelf shoals
with capes, inlets and barrier spits.

d. The relationship of the occurrences, the
shape and the lithology of shelf sedimentary
bodies is strongly related to the adjacent
coastal morphology suggesting complex derivation
a landward retreat coupled with coastwise migration
during marine transgression.

The process can explain the generation of a vertical
sedimentary sequence of modern, reworked shelf sands overlying
a planed-off Holocene back-barrier and lagoon deposits which
in turn overlie Pleistocene fluvial and/or coastal deposits.
Surficial shelf sands are separated from the underlying strata
by an erosional unconformity. This unconformity is continually
being formed as back-barrier sediments are planed off in the
shallow marine environment prior to temporary preservation by
burial under a migrating sand shoal.

Thus, there is compelling evidence that large barrier
island systems evolved during Holocene and the systems were
driven upward and landward by the transgressing sea. The
evolution of a barrier island system is explained by Fisher's
(1967) spit elongation and segmentation. With the initiation
of a sea-level rise, the-exhumed sea-floor surface, with its
varieties of land forms, begins to be modified by the marine
processes creating sediment, producing transported sediment and
resulting in spit and barrier growth, inlet filling, estuary
entrance constriction, dune build-up and overwash. With sea
level rise, the coastline is translated shoreward. This
process does not imply that one continuous barrier island
system has been retreating through time or even that most
of the barriers were formed at the same time or the same location
on the outer continental shelf surface. The individual barrier
segmentis simpTy formed and reformed by the processes described
above.

During the period that these two landmark papers were
published, Glaeser (in press) examined the distribution of
barrier islands on a global scale. The intent of that work
was to see what relation might exist among coastlines of various

102.

tectonic types. This examination was based on the paper by
Inman and Nordstrom (1971) in which they defined essentially
two major types of coastal regions; those related to passive
tectonic margins; that is, those which face spreading centers;
and those which are reTated to collision margins. It was
immediately obvious that passive margin coastlines contain
more barrier islands than collision coastlines. although, up
to that point, there had been no measurement on a global scale
of their actual distribution with respect to tectonic character
of the coast. Glaeser (in press) demonstrated a clear relation-
ship between passive margins and the abundance of barrier islands.
The preponderance of barrier islands occur along tectonically
passive coasts which have broad coastal plains. The following
review of the article by Glaeser is taken from the abstract
of the article, "Global- Distribution of Barrier Islands in
Terms of Tectonic Setting."

Measurements of the global abundance of barrier
islands indicate that 49% occur along coastlines of trailing
continental margins; 24% along collision plate margins, and
27% along coastlines of marginal seas. Based on 2,619 shelf
width measurements, evidence is presented to show that for only
trailing margins is shelf gradient related to barrier island
abundance.- Of those barrier islands situated along trailing
margin coasts 75% occur along Amero-trailing margins (average
?
radient 0.57 meters per km); 19%, along Afro-trailing margins
average gradient 2.4 meters per km); and, 6% along Neo-trailing
margins (average gradient 5.9 meters per km). Because sediments
supplying barrier islands today are generated mainly on the
inner shelf and shoreface in response to both nearshore processes
and to rising sea level, barrier islands occur in greatest
abundance where broad, low-lying coastal plains lie adjacent
to the inner shelf and where both contain abundant unconsolidated
detritus. Elsewhere, barrier island occurrence is sparse to
absent along very low gradient shelves where the coastal plain-
continental shelf sedimentary prism is absent. The tectonic
setting of the continental margin is fundamental in controlling
factors governing barrier island abundance.

103.

III.A.3. Barrier Islands and Their Possible Origins

Observations to determine the cause of the-increase
of Sandy Hook, Bache, A.D., 1856.

Submergence effects on a Rhode Island barri.er and
lagoon and inferences on migration of barriers,
Dillon, W.P.-, 1'970.

Post.-Pleis.tocene history of the U.S. inner continental
shelf, significance to origin of barrier islands,
Field, M.E. and Duane, D.B., 1976.

Origin of barrier island chain shorelines, middle
Atlantic states, Fisher, J.J., 1968a.

Barrier island formation, Fisher, J.J., 1968b.

Barrier island and migration, new evidence from
N.J., Frank, W.M. and Friedman, G.M., 1971.

Global distribution of barrier islands in terms
of tectonic setting, Glaeser, J.D. (in press),
Journal of Geology.

Comparison of ecological and geomorphic interactions
between altered and unaltered barrier island systems
in North Carolina, Godfrey, P.J. and Godfrey, M.M.,
1973.

The influence of waves on the origin and development
of the offset coastal inlets of the southern Delmarva
Peninsula, Virginia, Goldsmith, U., and others, in
press.

Barrier island formation, Hoyt, J.H., 1967.

Barrier island formatfon, Hoyt, J.H., 1968.

Development and migration of barrier islands,
northern Gulf of Mexico, Hoyt, J.H., 1970.

Influence of island migration on barrier island
sedimentation, Hoyt, J.H. and V.J. Henry, 1967.

Modern and ancient barrier sediments, new interpretations
based on stratal sequence in inlet-filling sands and
on recognition of nearshore storm deposits, Kumer, N.,
1972.

Effects of erosion on barrier-island morphology
Fire Island, N.Y., Ruzyla, K., 1973.

104.

III-A-3. (continued)

Barrier islands, Schwartz, M.L., 1973.

Barrier island genesis, Swift, D.J.P., 1975a.

Geomorpho7ogy of the south shore of Long Island,
N.Y., Taney, N.B., 1961.
Growth and migration of digitate spits (ApriT-
September 1-971) at Democrat Point, Fire Island,
N.Y., Wolff, M.P., 1972.

Post-Pleistocene history of the U.S. inner
continental shelf, significance to origin of
barrier islands, discussion and reply, Otvos, E.G.,
Jr., 1977.

T05.

III.B. Currents and Circulatfon Dynamics of the Outer
Continental Shelf

Discussion of circulation dynamics of the outer
continental shelf is probably one of the most difficult
sections of this report to put together in a quantitative
way. The reason for the difficulty is simple. The
description of'circulation dynamics is based on physical
oceanography which is fundamentally a mathematical appTicati*on
to an area of fluid dynamics which most geologists are unable
to deal with except in qualitative terms. There is no attempt
in the following chapter to give a comprehensive view in
quantitative terms of the physical oceanography of the Atlantic
continental shelf. We can look at this in a qualitative way,
however, to gain some feeling for the problems involved in
understanding circulation dynamics of the continental shelf.
A qualitative understanding is crucial because most environ-
mental problems which will be faced by states bordering the
coastline when there is exploration offshore are related to
the circulation system which prevails on the shelf. It is
this system which brings pollutants such as oil spills to the
shore. This may affect the organisms in the sea, and may
transfer pollutants to the sediments and have very long-term
effe@ts on geological, chemical and biological factors of the
marine environment.

There are two kinds of circulation in the ocean.
First is surface water circulation which is a response to
atmospheric circulation. The second is geostrophic circulation.
Geostrophic circulation is the three dimensional movement of
water masses in response to their differences in density.
Density differences are controlled by temperature and by salinity
variation. Either of these two factors can control movement
of geostrophic currents, and in many cases, both control move-
ments of water masses.

The following discussion of surface circulation, which
effects the outer continental shelf waters of the mid-Atlantic,
begins with a general point. Atmospheric circulation patterns
on a global scale cause movements on the ocean surface. Any
general text book in atmospheric sciences shows maps indicating
that air rising from warm equatorial zones tends to move toward
the poles (Figure 22A). As this movement occurs, air masses
are deflected by the Coriolis force. The deflection is to the
right northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The winds transfer energy of motion to the
water surface by frictional drag. Generally, the speed of the
water surface is about 2% of the wind speed. There is a major
flow of air, the trade winds, on either side of the equator which
move from the eastern side of the Atlantic to the western side of

I G6.
FIGURE 22A - Surface winds over the World Ocean (average fo r- July
(After U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office Publication No. 9, 1958.)

(From Anikouchine, W. A., and Sternberg, R. W., 1973,@-_-
The-World Ocean, Fig. 7-10, p. 105)

vlilc@

Equator

Sub-arctic
surface water
22 .1 __101

Suo-arctic 23
surface water

21
'e'oo
-"-1 .4- 3 Central water

Central water
2 2 '27

17
14.
Sub antarctic Sub-antarctic
surface
surfac water
..'ere 12 12-
Circum- Circurn-
polar polar
____wow __.I.
water ------- 41. water
-.4

I North Equatorial C. 5 North Atlantic C. 9 Laborador C. 13 Peru C. 17 Mozambique C. 21 California C.
2 South Equatorial C. 6 Norwegian C. 10 Canary C. 14 Brazil C. 18 West Australian C. 22 Aleutian C.
3 Equatorial Counter C. 7 East Greenland C. I I East Australian C. 15 Benguela C. 19 Kuroshio C. 23 Ovashio C.
4 Gulf Stream C. 8 West Greenland C. 12 Antarctic Circumpolar C. (West Wind Drift) 16 Somali C. 20 North Pacific C. 24 Aguihas C.
FIGURE 22B
Surface currents and surface water of the world ocean. Also included (From Anikouchine, W. A. , - -
are the major convergences. -w- = sub-tropical convergence (place of and Sternberg, R. W., 1973,
origin of Central Water). = arctic, antarctic convergence (place The World Ocean, Fig. 7-1, P. 97)
of origin of Intermediate Water). surface current.

FIGURE 22. Surface winds and wat--Pr mi-r-rmn*c nf +-h= wnT-1A

107.

the Atlantic parallel to zones of latitude just north and
South of the Equator (Figure 22B). As the water currents
move in response to the air currents parallel to latitude
li'nes, the waters acquire the temperature of the air along
that latitude. However, the presence of continents in the
world ocean interrupts this east to west movement of both
air and water masses, especially because the continents are
elongated in a north-south direction. Thus, the continents
cause a deflection of ocean currents in a north or south
direction. These deflected currents near the continental
margins are called boundary currents. On the western side
of ocean basins, and in particular, along the edge of the
North American continental margin, the boundary current is
very sharply defined. Along the east coast of the United
States the boundary current is the Gulf Stream, which carries
warm waters in a north and northeasterly direction along the
continental margin. South of Cape Hatteras the Gulf Stream
is very close to the shelf edge. Off Cape Hatteras, the
Gulf Stream is deflected seaward from the shelf break. The
Gulf Stream is, in places, on the order of 100 km wide and
the depth of transport of the water mass reaches at least
2 km. The speed of movement this boundary current is on the
order of 10's of km per da The significance of this kind
of boundary current is: 1@lit produces a sharp boundary
between shelf and coastal waters and the open ocean waters
because it is a discrete water mass itself. This means that
nutrients or pollutants or any material in suspension in
coastal waters do not mingle easily with open ocean waters.
It is for this reason, in part, that the open ocean waters
beyond the Gulf Stream are relatively low in nutrients and
rather unproductive. Thus, in the middle Atlantic region
of the eastern United States, there is a very distinct
difference between shelf waters and open ocean waters so that
they may be considered separately in discussions of surface
circulation patterns.

It is important to discuss geostrophic currents. These
currents are a product of density differences of water masses.
The surface circulation of water just discussed produces areas
of differing temperatures and of different salinities. This
occurs by differential evaporation, precipitation, or freezing
and melting depending upon location within the ocean environment.
The water masses of the ocean are thus stratified by density
differences caused by these temperature and salinity variations.
This stratification, in a very general way, defines three zones
of ocean water -- the surface waters, which are those waters
mixed and stirred by atmospheric circulation; an intermediate
zone of rather pronounced increases in density downward; and
below this, a zone of deep ocean water where there is a relative
uniformity of temperature, salinity and, therefore density.
In this discussion we do not need to be concerned with deep ocean

1091.

water because typically the zone of density change (the inter-
mediate zone) which is called the pycnocline extends to depths
of about 2 km which are well below depths of the continental
shelf.

The only two water masses that need to be considered
on the continental shelf are suface waters and the waters of
the pycnocline zone. Each of these water masses has character-
istics which can be reviewed in a qualitative way. Surface
waters undergo significant seasonal changes in evaporation and
precipitation which cause changes in salinity. They also show
significant seasonal change in temperature. Surface waters
undergo a great deal of vertical mixing by strong winds and
waves.

In contrast to the usually well-mixed surface waters,
the pycnocline water density increases significantly with
depth. In tropical regions the water temperature curve
coincides, more or less, with the pycnocline. However, in
mid-latitudes, such as the New York bight and off of the edge
of the continental shelf of New York, there are large seasonal
variations in precipitation and evaporation, and it is the
salinity values which change with depth. Thus, in mid-latitude
zones, salinity values are the major control of the pycnocline
whereas in tropical zones, temperature is the principle control.
Deep ocean waters which usually occur below depths of 2 km
represent at least 80% of the water of the world's ocean basins.

The following discussion is one example of the importance
of seasonal variations of the waters of the New York bight.
During periods when temperatures of air and water of the New
York bight are lowest, the waters are well mixed over the
continental shelf because of winter storms. There is no
stratification and essentially the waters over the continental
shelf, at least in the inner shelf, are nearly homogeneous
because of vertical mixing. In the spring, at the time of peak
discharge from the rivers, there is a decrease in salinity, and
an increase in temperature. Both changes produce less dense
water and cause a stratification of the surface waters of the
continental shelf. This surface-water mass of the New York bight
is on the order of 10 to 20 meters deep, riding over a more dense,
deeper, saltier, cooler underlying water mass. This is partic-
ularly significant because a great deal of the waste that is
dumped into the Hudson estuary floats as a plume of effluent
out over the shelf during these periods of maximum stratification;
that is, in the spring and summer seasons. This plume of effluent
floats towards the southeast just a few miles off the New Jersey
coast. As the fall season approaches, cooling occurs and there
is a decrease in the amount of fresh water coming into the New
York bight from the adjacent rivers. When this occurs, the

Contours - 1, 10, 20, 30,40,
100 fa-lh;,@
50% recovery from that t 0 V
portion of the shelf en-
t Itl
closed by the contours

it IN

Speed in nautical
miles per day

FIGURE 23A 35* 400
1.6 Inferred surface drift, April, 1960-1970.

750

700

t
14 A* Ir

'1Z

FIGURE 23B 350 400-
1.18 Inferred bottom drift, April, 1961-1970. Contours define on shore
recovery rates of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60%.
Inferred surface and bottom drift during April on the
Mid-Atlantic Shelf.
(From Bumpus, D. F., 1973, A Description of the circula-E-16n on
the continental shelf of the east coast ot the United States)

FIGURE 23

110.

water masses are no longer stratified and the effluent becomes
thoroughly mi'xed in the shelf waters. Thus,. during seasons
of non-stratification of shelf waters of the New York bight,
there is a greater assimiTation of waste products when the
waters are well mixed. Thus, if it were possible to govern
the amount of material discharged into river systems, one
would have some control over the mixing and the assimilation
that can occur in a seaward direction by taking advantage of
these seasonal variations.

Recent data from current meters near the shelf break
gives some evidence that bottom currents move from the shelf
edge toward the Hudson estuary. In addition, it has already
been shown that wave action, when it affects bottom material,
moves the material landward.

Maps of both surface and bottom circulation of shelf
waters are shown on Figure 23A and B. These maps show averages
of net drift for the month of April during 1960-1970. They
cannot be used to predict a specific event at a given site
during certain atmospheric conditions in that month, but rather
show the general behavior of the water during that time of year.

7 77

III.B. Currents and Circulation Dynamics of Outer Continental
Shelf

Some mechanisms of oceanic mixing revealed in aerial
photographs, Assaf, G. and others, 1971.

Circulation on the New England Continental Shelf,
BeardsTley, R.C. and Butman, B., 1974.

Sur face drift on the Atlantic continental shelf of
the U.S., 1960-1967, Bumpus, D.F., 1969.

A description of circulation on the continental shelf
of the east coast of the U.S., Bumpus, D.F., 1973.

Surface circulation on the continental shelf of eastern
North America between Newfoundland and Florida, Bumpus,
-D.F. and Lauzier, L.M., 1964.

The effects of waste disposal in the New York Bight,
Charnell, R.L., and others, 1972.

Utility of ERTA - I for coastal ocean observation,
Charnell, R.L., Jr. and others, 1974.

Water movement within the apex of the NY Bight during
summer and fall of 1973, Charnell, R.L. and Mayer, D.A.,
in press, 1974.

Some specific problems in understanding bottom sediment
distribution and dispersal on the continental shelf,
Creager, J.S. and Sternberg, R.W., 1972.

Wave Induced bottom currents on the outer shelf,
Ewing, J.A., 1973.

Wind drift surface currents and spread contaminants
in shelf waters, Gordon, A.L. and Gerard, R.D., in press.

Circulation of shelf waters off the Chesapeake Bight,
Harrison, W. and others, 1967.

New York bight project, water column sampling,
Hazelworth, J.B. and others, 1974.

A study of the circulation of the western North Atlantic,
Iselin,. C.O.D., 1936.

The oceanography of the New York Bight, Ketchum, B.H.
and others, 7951.

TT2.

(continued)

The accumulation of water over t he continental shelf
between, Cape Cod and Chesapeake Bay, Ketchum, B.H.
and Keen, D.J., 1955,

Surface motion of water induced by the wind,
Langmuir, 1., 1925.

Mass transport in water waves, Longuet-Higgins, M.S.,
1953-

Bottom currents near the coast during Hurricane
Camille, Murray, S.P., 1970.

Principles of physical oceanography, Neumann, G. and
W.J. Pierson, Jr., 1966.

Inferred surface and bottom drift, June 1963 through
October 1964, Norcross, J.J. and Stanley, E.M., 1967.

Bottom environmental oceanographic data report,
Hudson Canyon area, 7967, Oser, R.K., 1969.

The influence of the continental shelf on the tides
of the Atlantic coast of the United States, Redfield,
A.C., 1956.

Bottom-water temperatures on the continental shelf
off New England, Schopf, T.J.M., 1967.

North Atlantic temperatures at depth of 200 meters,
Schroeder, E.H., 1963.

Average su rface temperatures of the western North
Atlantic, Schroeder, E.H., 1966.

The new concepts of continental margin sedimentation,
Stanley, D.J., ed., 1969.

Marine sediment transport and environmental management,
Stanley, D.J. and Swift, D.J.P., 1976.

The Gulf stream -- a physical and dynamical description,
2nd ed., Stommel, H.., 1965.

An observation of a deep countercurrent in the western
North Atlantic, Swallow, J.C. and L.V. Worthington, 1961.

Shelf sediment transport, process and pattern, Swift,
D.J.P. and others, 1972.

713,

(continued)

oceanographic atlas of the North Atlantic Ocean,
Sec. V., Marine Geology, U.S. Naval Oceanographic
Office, 1965.

Deep current observations in the western North
Atlantic, Volkmann, G., 1962.

Topographic influences on the path of the Gulf Stream,
Warren, B.A., 1963.

1 T44@

III.B.T. Indicators of Shelf Circulation

The general discussion above has touched upon some
of the indicators of shelf circulation and the example of mixing
and assimilation of pollutants is one indicator of shelf circu-
lation dynamics. However, the problem is a much more complex
one than the simple movement of pollutants. There are two major
sources of information in print which deal with transport of
material in shelf waters. The first is a book by Swift, Duane
and Pilkey (1-972), entitled "Shelf Sediment Transport-Process
and Pattern." In that text three major areas of concern are
discussed by a number of specialists in the field of shelf
sedimentation and shelf circulation dynamics. The first of the
three sections in that book deals with water motion and the
process of sediment entrainment. The second section deals with
patterns of fine sediment dispersal; that is, the movement of
sediment in suspension. The third section deals with patterns
of coarse sediment dispersal, which is based largely on- under-
standing textural analyses across the shelf sediment.

There is a second major source of information relating
to shelf circulation dynamics -- Swift and Stanley (1976),"Marine
Sediment and Environmental Management." This text is divided into
four parts. The first concerns continental margin circulation;
that is, the entire problem of the physical oceanography of the
continental shelf and the continental margin. Part two is a
discussion of sediment entrainment and transport. The information
in this section is significantly more advanced than that found
in Swift, Duane and Pilkey (1972). This gives some idea of the
rate of growth in the knowledge of shelf sediment processes. The
third part of the text by Swift and Stanley discusses the patterns
of sedimentation in space and time across the entire shelf region.
It considers, for example, intra-coastal sedimentation, nearshore
currents, and sediment transport and the resulting beach sediments.
It then goes on to consider coastal sedimentation, continental
shelf sedimentation, and the sedimentation processes that are going
on at the shelf break in canyons, on continental slopes, and at
the base of the continental slopes. A fourth section of this text
book deals with sedimentation and environmental management. This
latter section is an attempt to begin to understand the relationship
between man's activities on the shelf and possible consequences to
both the environment of the shelf and coastal waters and to the
bottom sediments on the shelf surface.

T 15.

III.B.T. Indicators of Shelf Circulation

Residual shift along the bottom on the continental
-_shelf in the Mi.ddTe Atlantic Bight area, Bumpus, D.F.
7965.

Preliminary results of cofncident current meter and
sediment transport observations for wintertime
conditions on the Long Island inner shelf, Lavelle,
J.W. and others, 1976.

Onshore transportation of continental shelf sediment,
Pilkey, O.H. and M.E. Field, 1972.

Summary of sedimentary conditions on the continental
shelf off the east coast of U.S., Stetson, H.C., 1939.

Sediment response to hydraulic regime on the central
New Je,rsey shelf, Stubblefield, W.L. and others, 1975.

Implications of sediment dispersed from bottom current
measurements, some specific problems in understanding
bottom sediment distribution and dispersal on the
continental shelf - a discussion of two papers,
Swift, D.J.P., 1972.

Relict sediments on continental shelves, Swift,-D.-J-.,P.
and others, 1971.

Substrate response to hydraulic process, grain-size
frequency distributions and bed forms, Swift, D.J.P.
and Ludwick, J.C., 1976.

III.B.7.a. Dynamics of Ridge and Swale Topography

The ridge and swaTe topography discussed in II of
this report represents one of the major shelf features in the
middle Atlantic bight. The first detailed regional description
given of these linear shoals is found in Duane and others, 1972.
They indicate that the inner shelf of the Atlantic@continental
shelf from Long Island southward is characterized by fieTds of
linear shoals which have a northeast orientation. Some of these
shoals reach 30 feet in height, have side slopes of I to 2 degrees,
and are as long as 10 miles. These shoals have been studied from
the shoreface area to depths of at least 120 feet by seismic
profiling, precision depth profiling, grab sampling, and coring.

Despite the extensive amount of sampling and examination
of linear shoals, there has been very little monitoring of the
currents influencing ridge and swale topography. In order to find
the relationship between the prevailing water currents and the
movement of the sediment on them. However, the morphologic data
on these linear shoals, as well as the hydraulic data that does
exist, suggest that the shoals which are not attached to the
shoreface are presently responding to the hydraulic regime of the
inner shelf. During periods of storms, the crests of the shoals
aggrade and, during fair weather, wave surge seems to degrade
them. Swift and others (1972) considered the origin of the ridge
and swale topography along with other irregularities on the shelf
surface. Their hypothesis states that as sea level rises over an
unconsolidated coastal region there is sediment erosion from the
shoreface and a transfer seaward. The result is a discontinuous
sheet of unconsolidated sediment which is a product of Holocene
transgression. The surface of this sand sheet has been molded
into at least three major kinds of morphologic units on the
shelf surface. In places where the sheet has been generated
directly by the erosion of a retreating shoreface as sea level
rises ridge and swale topography has formed just off shore. In
areas of cuspate forelands, such as Cape Hatteras and other cape
regions along the eastern coast of the United States where there
is a convergence of longshore drift, there has resulted a series
of convex seaward shoals which have formed around these capes,
A third type of sediment body which forms off of estuary mouths
is the result of the intersection of littoral drift with the
reversing motion of estuary tides. This has created shoals
associated with the estuary itself.

Seaward of each of these three shoal types are
earlier generations of the same shoal types; linear, cuspate
or those associated with estuaries. It is this evidence of
seaward similarities in the kinds of shoals which has led Field
and Duane (1976) to suggest that the present day'coastline of
the middle Atlantic bight probably is parallel to the one which
existed throughout the Holocene since the beginning of sea level

177.,

rise approximately 78,000 years ago. Field and Duane (1976)
show a series of shoals seaward from each of the major features
just described which mimic the shoals which can be seen today
in the nearshore area.

The dynamics which control the linear shoals in the
ridge and shoal topography is only now being understood. Most
research in progress is by the group at NOAA at the Atlantic
Oceanographic Marine Laboratory in Miami.

Probably the most important aspect of these features
to this report is the need to see the actual physical distribution
of the ridge and swale topography prior to any evaluation of
lease or exploration sites. It is worth reiterating that the
best source of this hydrographic information is Stearns (1967).
This publication is a series of 15 bathymetric charts of the
continental shelf in the New York bight region. Using these
charts along with other publications such as Duane and others
1978, Lavelle and others (1976), and Stubblefield and Swift
H976 , linear shoals, cape associated shoals, and shoals
associated with estu-ary mouths can be described in considerable
detail. The several diagrams in those papers are probably the
best source of information showing the distribution of these
ubiquitous topographic features of the middle Atlantic shelf.

Because of the scale and near ubiquity of these
features, it is not practical to produce a single small scale
map of the areas with ridge and swale topography. A useful
tool to determine the topographic type in specific, lease
tracts is a transparent overlay with a grid representing tract
boundaries at the scale of the Stearns' (1967) charts. This
overlay can be keyed to each of the charts by the appropriate
latitude and longitude coordinates, and thus one can determine
detailed bottom topography in any tract.

III.B.l.a. Dynamics of Ridge and Swale Topography

Migrating sand waves and sand humus, with special
reference to investigations carried on in the Danish
North Sea Coast, Brunn, P., 1954.,

Observations on the hydraulic regime of the ridge
and swale topography of the inner Virginia shelf,
Holliday, B.W., 1971.

Depositional ridges in the North Atlantic,
Johnson, G.L. and E.D. Schneider, 1969.

Stratigraphy of the sedimentary rocks of Delaware,
Jordan, R.R., 1962.

Coastal morphology and processes in relation to
the development of submarine sand ridges off Bethany
Beach, Delaware, Moody, D.W., 1964.

Geomorphology of sand ridge, Smith, J.D., 1969.

Anatomy of a shoreface connected ridge system on
the New Jersey shelf, Stahl, L. and others, 1974.

Underwater sand ridges on Georges Shoal, Stewart,
H.B., Jr. and G.F. Jordan, 1964.

Ridge development as revealed by sub-bottom profiles
on the central New Jersey shelf, Stubblefield, W.L.
and D.J.P. Swift, 1976.

Tfdal sand ridges and shoal retreat massifs,
Swift, D.J.P., 1975.

Shelf sediment transport, process and pattern,
Swift, D.J.P.,and others, 1972.

Anatomy of a shoreface ridge system, Swift, D.J.P.
and others, 1972a.

Ridge and swale topography of the middle Atlantic
Bight, North America, Swift, D.J.P. and others, 1973.

.719.

III.B.I.b. Across-Shelf Transfers of Suspended Material

The problem of movement of material across the shelf
is only now beginning to be understood. There are three areas
of studies which have given indication of across-shelf transfers.
The first is the work by Bumpus, 1973, which shows the seasonal
circulation patterns of surface shelf waters. His maps show
surface and bottom circulation and suggest a net movement towards
the shoreline across the shelf for each month. There is no clear
information as to how this surface movement towards the shore
affects the water masses at depth or how it actually moves sediment,
if it moves sediment at all.

There is a second area of study which would suggest
that circulation on the shelf does produce a net transfer of
material to the shore. The definitive study on this process of
shoreward transport of suspended sediment is by Meade (1969).
There are two other relevant papers, Meade (1972) and Meade and
others (T975). These show that fine suspended sediment is carried
into the estuaries from a seaward direction and is trapped there,
making a net landward transfer of suspended material. Meade (1969)
points out that estuaries are sediment sinks. They trap not only
sediments coming across shelf but they also trap a great amount
of fine sediment which is coming from the continent by way of the
rivers into the estuary. Meade (1969) pointed out that probably
as much as 90% of the suspended material carried by rivers remains
in the estuaries themselves, very little escaping the estuary to
the shelf waters. Thus, there is a two-way delivery system; the
river systems carrying the fine sediment to the estuary and the
net transfer of fine suspended material toward and into the estuaries.

Some across-shelf transfer may be influenced by the
net landward movement of bottom currents. Figure 23 shows average
bottom current vectors for the New York shelf region during April.
On-going work at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Geological
Observatory is substantiating this net landward movement of
suspended sediment.

There is a third subject which needs to be considered
in terms of across-shelf transfers of materials, this is computer
modeling. There are a number of computer models which have been
devised to predict the movement direction of oil spill's or other
pollutants in shelf waters. The Marine Science Laboratory, Stony
Brook, an@d M.I.T. have such computer models. Physical oceanographers
at a number of other universities have been trying to analyze the
direction in which pollutants would move in the water system along
continental* margins. Smith, Slack and Davis (T976) present an
oil spill' risk analysis for the mid-Atlantic outer continental
shelf lease area. They include data on both oil spill frequencies
and spill trajectories for various sites and seasons within the
lease area. Travers and Luney (1976) indicate that drilling on
the outer continental shelf of eastern United States is preferrable
to hazards created by unchecked oil spills from tankers.

720.,

Apparently none of these computer models is completely
us@eful in terms of prediction because they have been designed in
terms of statistically dominant wind and wave direction, water
temperature and so forth. In specific instances, when the models
have been applied to the drift direction of a specific spill, the
computer model generally has not matched the actual drift direction
of the poll*utant,

There are two pollution cases which have occurre d in
the last year which point out the inadequacy of computer models
at the present time, The first -was floating debris including
sewage which. affected the beaches of southern Long Island during
the late spring- of 1976. The debate is still going on as to the
source of the pollutant and how it was delivered to the beaches
of Long Island, The second relates to the break-up of the tanker,
Argo Merchant, during the winter of 1976-1977 in the Nantucket
Shoals. From hour to hour and day to day, those who were following
the actual movement direction of.the oil slick from the Argo
Merchant were not able to predict whether the slick would come
ashore or whether It would actually wash out to sea. It would
appear from both of these examples where computer models have
been used to predict the movement direction of pollutants that
there is sti-11 a great deal to be understood about shelf circu-
lation, especially in terms of surface water movement.

The list of references given beTow concerning across-
slielf transfers of suspended material is rather lengthy, but
there are no papers which actually treat the entire mid-Atlantic
bight as a single circulation system which apparently it is.
There is evidence in some of the work being done at NOAA at the
Atlantic Oceanographic Marine Laboratory that the middle Atlantic
bight responds as a unit to major storms passing along the middle
Atlantic states and out to sea. With the passage of storms and
changes of wind direction and resulting changes in circulation
patterns, there are significant differences in the nature of
surface water movements on the sheTf.

The above statement is not based on a complete
analysis of information. There is an inter-agency agreement
between the Bureau of Land Management and NOAA to produce a
summarization and interpretation of historical-physical oceanographic
and meteorological information for the middle Atlantic region.
This agreement is contract #AA550-IA6-12. The summary of that
agreement is given below.

727

SUMMARY OF BLM CONTRACT #AA550-IA6-12 to NOAA

Physical- oceanography and meteorology: complete summary of all
available data, Mid-Atlantic area: as far back in time as available.
Area: coast to 2000 m isobath and 41ON 71OW south to 380N.
Analyses of data
in terms of subareas
defined as maximum size of 10 square over study area.
To obtain all available data from all possible sources and to
analyze data on these parameters:
1. water column density
2. lower visibility
3. wind-velocities and directions
Drift data
surface, subsurface and bottom
Surface temperatures
Salinity
Oxygen
Nutrients
Time-series extrapolations within areas to be presented as
seasonal (and perhaps monthly) charts, plots, etc.
Most useful oil-spill trajectory and hazards analysis
Accompanying discussion and conclusions

Study to include short and long-term variations in physical ocean-
ography and meterology
Circulation patterns
Spatial magnitude
Surface and subsurface circulation variations
Time and space series analysis of meteorological data to determine
Temperature magnitudes
Durations, and scale of variations
Extremes in winds and waves
Recurrence intervals including force effects of gales, hurricanes
on normal circulation
Stability analysis of water column including depth of seasonal
wave agitation penetration
Effects of pycnocline in protecting water from deep penetration
and effects of internal wave phenomenon data interpretation
Identify and characterize water masses on TS or TO
Correlations and effects on seasonal circulation

Superstructure isopotential as related to meteorological factors

Recommend designs for physical oceanography and meteorological
field studtes -- for
1. Im rovement of areas of no data
2. SoTutions to special problems
3. Contaminant dispersion and dispersal
0

122.

The details of the inter-agency agreement between
the Bureau of Land Management and NOAA which is summarized
above is presented in the Appendix of this report from a copy
of the contract of the inter-agency agreement between the two
-Federal agencies.

In summary of this discussion of currents and
circulation dynamics, it is important to point out that the
present state of the art of studying shelf circulation and shelf
dynamics is at a very early stage in terms of understanding just
what processes control the movement of suspended and bottom
material. At a meeting in Vail, Colorado, in November, 1976, a
number of researchers involved in studies of shelf dynamics
presented the kinds of problems that need to be solved over the
coming years. It was very evident at that meeting that it is
premature to synthesize the great amount of isolated data that
does exist. It is important to realize that the biggest contri-
bution to understanding the shelf circulation problems will come
from the agreement between BLM and NOAA. Until that information
is available publicly, there is very little synthesizing of the
dynamics of the shelf circulation within the middle Atlantic
bight.

T Z3.

III.B.I.b. Across-Shelf Transfers of Suspended Material
Sediment unmixing in the New York Bight area, Cok,
A. and others, 1973.

FluviaT sediment discharge to the oceans-from the
counterminous United States, Curtis, W.F. and
others, 1973.

Suspended particulate matter in the New York Bight
apex, Drake, D.E., 1974.

Comments.on the dispersal of suspended sediment
across the continental shelves, Drake, D.E. and
others, 1972.

Suspended matter along the continental margin of
the North Atlantic basin, Eittram, S. and others,
1969.

Suspended sediment and transport at the shelfbreak
and on the slope, Lyall, A.K., 1971.

Suspended matter in surface waters of the Atlantic
continental margin from Cape Cod to the Florida
Keys, Manheim, F.T. and others, 1970.

Transport and escape of fine-grained sediment from
shelf areas, McCave, I.N., 1972.

Landward transport of bottom sediments in estuaries
of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Meade, R.H., 1969.

Sources and sinks of suspended matter on continental
shelves, Meade, R.H., 1972.

Suspended matter between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras,
Meade, R.H. and others, 1970.

Sources of suspended matter in waters of the middle
Atlantic bight, Meade, R.H. and others, 1975.

Rythmic linear sand bodies caused by tida.1 currents
Off, T., 1963.

Comments on the dispersal of suspended sediment
across the continental shelves, Schubel, J.R. and
Akira, 0., 1972.

Shelf sediment transport, process and pattern,
Swift, D.J.P. and others, 1972.

1214.

III.B.I.b. (continued)

An oil spill risk analysis for the mid-Atlantic
outer continental shelf, Smith, R.A., Slack, J.R.
and Davis, R.K., 1976.

Drilling, tankers, and oil spills on the AtTantic
outer continental shelf, Travers, W.B. and Luney,
P.R., 1976.

The distribution and abundance of foraminifera,
in Long Island Sound, Buzas, M.A., 1965.

125.

III.C. Shelf-Break Water-Mass Exchanges with Continental
Slope Waters

The physical processes which occur at the shelf-break
are much less well understood than currents and circulation
dynamics of the continental shelf itself. It is an area where
there have been very limited observations made and most of
these have been confined to the upper portions of a very few
submarine canyons, such as the Hudson submarine canyon. There
have been some observations of some physical processes in the
Wilmington Canyon, particularly as a result of studies by
Stanley and his colleagues. There are a number of references
in the listing below to Stanl'ey's work in the Wilmington Canyon.
These are pertinent to understanding shelf-break, water-mass
exchanges with continental slope waters.

The best summary which exists at the present time is
by Southard and Stanley (1976). Their paper addresses itself
to shelf-break processes and sedimentation. They focus particu7
larly upon the kind of bottom currents that seem to be distinctive
to the shelf edge. They point out that the prevailing view is
that the shel!f edge is the area in which there is strong turbulence
or strong currents which keep fine sediment in suspension, or
resuspend fine sediment on a frequent basis. Thus, the fine
material which is being supplied from the near-shore area toward
the shelf-break is retransported to the continental slope and
beyond leaving no permanent depositional record of this material
near the shelf-break itself.

Figure 24 is a synthesis of information from Southard
and Stanley (1976) showing the distinctive bottom currents which
are known to occur, at least from local observations, at the
shelf-break. These bottom currents in the v icinity of the break,
seem to have a variety of causes and durations. In Figure 24
there is a listing of proces*ses and the duration in which these
processes are thought to occur. Southard and Stanley (1976)
list a number of processes. These include:

1. passage of surface waves which produce oscillatory
motions at the shortest time scale (measured in
seconds);

2. barotropic tidal motions which produce currents
that vary from semi-diurnal or diurnal periods;

3. wind-driven currents produced by either storms or
steadier seasonal wind systems;

4. currents generated by differences in atmospheric
pressure caused by passage of storms;

CAUSES OF SHELF-BREAK BOTTOM CURRENTS

PROCESS DURATION

SURFACE WAVES SHORT-TERM OSCILLATORY
MOTIONS (SECONDS)

BAROTROPIC TIDAL MOTIONS DIURNAL OR SEMIDIURNAL

WIND-DRIvEN CURRENTS SEASONAL OR STORM-RELATED

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE PASSAGE OF STORMS
FLUCTUATIONS

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION SEASONAL 0 CLIMATIC

INTERNAL WAVES WIDE RANGE OF PERIODS_-

(After Southard and Stanley, 1976, Shelf break processes
and sedimentation, p. 365)

FIGURE 24

727,

5. various types ofthermo-haline circulations,
either specific to the shelf or aerially more
extensive, but impinging on the shelf as well.

Effects of various kinds of internal waves which can
be present, provided that the shelf water is not so well mixed
as to destroy the thermocline, may also be important. In
other words, some of the current activity at the shelf-break
can be a result of differences in density, either thermal
differences or salinity differences or a combination of the
two.

The summary by Southard and Stanley (1976) seems to
confirm the concept that has intuitively been understood by
geologists for some time; that is, that the shelf-break zone
serves only as a temporary depository for sediments moving
from terrigenous sources to ultimate depositional sites in deep
marine environments beyond the continental.slope. The distri-
bution, the composition, and texture, as well as bedform geometry
of surfici-al sediments near the shelf edge indicate that this is
a zone where sediment is frequently set in motion. They point
out that one of the most characteristic aspects of the shelf
edge, as far as is presently known, is that some of the bottom
sediment is continually entrained and shifted on the outermost
shelf, ultimately transferred across the shelf edge and on to
the upper slope, or into the deep ocean. They suggest that
one important mode of such sediment spill-over from the shelf-
break is entrainment of bedload moving in a sand stream which
may be intercepted by submarine canyons headed in the shelf
itself. Generally, a shelf sand stream moves normal to or in
an oblique direction off the shelf edge, but there is no need
at the present time to consider that movement of sand and mud
is restricted to submarine canyons.

There are, of course, a number of observations of spill-
overs of sand and gravel into canyon heads, but the distribution
of sediment patterns near the shelf-break and on the upper slope seems
to suggest that the process of spill-over occurs along vast areas
of the shelf-break between canyon heads. In addition to S@111_
overs which have been observed, Southard and Stanley (1976 point,
out that there is no reason to rule out the possibilities that
bedload movement of sand and the suspension transport of fine
sediment in a landward direction from the shelf-break can also
occur. The fact that there is current flow both seaward and
landward from the shelf-break is a relatively new concept and
there are no specific papers dealing with this kind of bi-
directional transport except very limited studies at the heads
of one or two submarine canyons. Information now becoming
available on this two-directional aspect of sediment transfer
away from the shelf-break, landward and seaward, suggests at
least one important approach in terms of environmental management.
It-is no longer valid to assume that materials carried to the

shelf-break, particularly to the heads of canyons, will
automatically be transferred down-slope to the deep-ocean
waters. This evidence suggests that there are currents
flowing in both directions. The location and the dynamics
of these currents are not well understood and there are very
few studies being funded which directly address this problem.
The most important point to be made is that across-shelf
transfers are not one way.

A review of the papers in Stanley and Swift (1976)
points out that, because of the enormous numbers of new
observations being made, that there are now a large number
of discrepancies between the simplistic models of shelf
circulation and the observations themselves and suggests
that it will be several years before there is a close
correlation between theoretical and computer models of
shelf circulation and actual observations of movement
processes of shelf waters.

129.

III.C. Shelf-Break Water-Mass Exchanges

Bottom currents in Wilmington submarine canyon,
Fenner, P. and others, 1971.

Knoll and sediment drift near Hudson Canyon,
Lowri, A., Jr. and B.C. Heezen, 1967.

Suspended sediment and transport at the shelf-
break and on the slope, Lyall, A.K. and others,
1971.

Composition of deeper subsurface waters along
the Atlantic continental margin, Manheim, F.T.
and M. K. Horn , 1968.

Principles of physical oceanography, Neumann,
G. and W.J. Pierson, Jr., 1966.

The new concepts of continental margin sedimentation,
Stanley, D.J., ed., 1969.

Currents and sediment transport at the Wilmington
Canyon shelf-break, as observed by underwater
television, Stanley, D.J. and others, 1972.

Marine sediment transport and environmental manage-
ment, Stanley, D.J. and Swift, D.J.P., 1976.

Current measurements in the Georges Bank canyons,
Stetson, H.C., 1937.

Measurements of vertical motion and partition of
energy in the New England slope water, Voorhis, A.D.,
1968.

How seafloor slides affect offshore, Bea, R.G., 1971.

Turbidity currents and sediments in North Atlantic,
Ericson, D.B. and others, 1952.

The role of subaquenous debris flow in generating
turbidity currents, Hampton, M.A., 1972.

Turbidity currents and submarine slumps and the 1929
Grand Banks earthquake, Heez,,e.n, B.C. and M. Ewing,
1952.

Further evidence for turbidity current following the
1929 Grand Banks earthquake, Heezen, B.C. and others,
0 1954.

730.

III.C. (continued)

Grand Banks slump. Heezen, B.C. and C.L. Drake, 1964.

Gravity tectonics, turbidity currents and geosynclina7
accumulations in the continental margin of eastern
North America, Heezen, B.C. and C.L. Drake, 1964b.

Bottom currents in the Hudson Canyon, Keller, G.H.
and others, 1973.

Possible quick-clay motion in turbidity currents,
Kerr, P.F., 1962.
Slumping on a continental slope at 10-4 0, Lewis, K.B.,
1971b.

Sediment gravity flows, Middleton, G.V. and M.A.
Hampton, 1973.

Submarine slumps, Moore, D.G., 1961.

Submarine slumping and the initiation of turbidity
currents, Morgenstern, N.R., 1967.

Comparing patterns of sedimentation in some modern
and ancient submarine canyons, Stanley, D.J., 1967.

Sedimentation in slope and base-of-slope environments
(lecture 8), Stanley, D.J., 1969.

Pebbly mud transport in the head of Wilmington Canyon,
Stanley, D.J., 1974.

An underwater television survey of the outer continental
shelf near Wilmington Canyon, Stanley, D.J. and Fenner, P.,
1973.

.Photographic investigation of sediment texture, bottom
current activity and benthonic organisms in the
Wilmington Submarine Canyon, Stanley, D.J. and Kelling,
G., 1968,

Sedimentation patterns in the Wilmington Submarine
Canyon area, Stanley D.J. and Kelling, G., 1968.

Recent slumping on the continental slope off Sable
Island Bank, southeast Canada, Stanley-, D.J. and
N. Silverberg, 7968.

T37'.

III.C. (continued)

Recent slumping on the continental slope off
Sable Island bank, southeast Canada, Stanley, D.J.
and N. Silverberg, 1969.

Photographic investigation of sediment texture,
bottom current activity, and benthonic, organisms
in the Wilmington Submarine Canyon, Stanley, D.J.
and G. Kelling, 1969.

Interpretation of a levee-like ridge and associated
features, Wilmington Submarine Canyon, eastern United
States, Stanley, D.J. and G. Kelling, 1970.

Late Quaternary progradation and sand spillover on the
outer continental margin off Nova Scotia, Southeast
Canada, Stanley, D.J. and others, 1972b.

Current controlled topography on the continental
margin off the eastern United States, Flood, R.D.
and Hollister, C.D., 1974.

Shaping of the continental rise by deep geostrophic
contour currents, Heezen, B.C. and others, 1966.

The shaping and sediment stratification of the
continental rise, Heezen, B.C. and E.D. Schneider,
1968.

Further evidence of contour currerrts in the Western
North Atlantic, Schneider, E.D. and others, 1967.

132.

IV. GEOLOGIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW YORK CONTINENTAL SHELF

A.- Geophysical Discussion

The results of the first offshore seismic refraction
work, consisting of lines off Virginia and Massachusetts were
published in 1937 (Ewing et al, 1937). Miller (1937) published
a companion paper "concerned-with the geological interpretation"
of this data. This work began the geophysical investigation of
the Atlantic continental margin.

A long series of refraction studies of the margin
between Cape Hatteras and the Gulf of Main followed, and
were ultimately synthesized and interpreted by Drake et al
(1959). The studies delineated a series of sedimenta-FY 'basins
bounded by a broad basement arch beneath the outer shelf.

Recent magnetic studies support this interpretation;
Sheridan (p. 392, 1974) summarizes: %

"Drake et al (1963) reported a prominent positive
magnetiT-aF-omaly, coincident with the edge of the
shelf from Canada to the Florida-Bahamas area.
Burk (1968) showed that buried basement ridges
were common in continental mar?ins throughout
the world. Taylor et al (196 , using newer data
mapped in detail thT-'-east-coast' magnetic anomaly,
which parallels the slope from Canada to Cape
Hatteras, south of which it bifurcates with a
prominent anomaly swin?ing into land in southern
Georgia. Emery et al 1970) show that this anomaly
is localized above i buried basement ridge at depths
of 6-7 km, with the magnetic properties of oceanic
basalts which might well define the structural
edge of the eastern North American Continent."

The most recent gravity measurements of the Atlantic
margin (Rabinowitz, 1973; Grow et al, 1977) show two parallel
belts of positive anomalies, on@_iF_the Appalachians, the other
at the edge of the continental' shelf, commonly called the "shelf
edge gravity high." The magnetic slope anomaly lies to the west
of the shelf edge gravity high (in general the magnetic slope
anomaly does not overlie the continental slope; off the Scotian
Shelf it lies far out over the continental rise; off New Jersey
it comes well in onto the shelf). Crustal models constructed
to fit the gravity data attribute the shelf edge gravity high
to a fairly abrupt change in crustal thickness (from thick
continental crust to thinner oceanic crust) under the continental
slope and upper rise (Mayhew, 1974).

The most recent'seismic reflection data has been
interpreted (Schlee et al, 1976) as showing a massive reef-like

T33,

structure built adjacent to deeply buried fault zones.
They infer the presence of a volcanic ridge capped by
carbonate deposits. The age of t-he possible reef deposits
appear to be Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.

134.

IV.B. Basement Ridge Models

While the various interpretations of the geophysical
data agree with a period of uplift, block faulting and subsidence,
there are significant differences among the models specifically
relating to the nature of the "basement ridge" (Figure 24). The
differences among the three principle models are based upon
compositional differences of the ridge. They are considered in
no particular order of preference.

1. Oceanic Crust Model

This model (Figure 25A is based on interpretation
of the east coast slope anomaly, the positive magnetic anomaly
that parallels the continental slope from Canada to Cape Hatteras.
Sheridan (p. 404, 1974) states: "The transition from continent
to ocean occurs under the continental slope and is marked, in
places by a ridge of oceanic basement, which produces the east
coast magnetic anomaly." The seismic refraction data of Drake
et al (1959) tend to support this hypothesis, showing high
V-el-6-city "basement material" forming a ridge under the shelf
edge. Emery et al (1970) explain the source of the magnetic
anomaly as a ridge of oceanic crust that formed the initial
scar of plate separation and remained attached to the edge of
the continental crust as the plates spread apart.

2. Continental Crust Model

Mattick et al (1974) have constructed a model (Figure
25b) based on the-maTnetic slope anomaly and the shelf edge
gravity high. Their model calls for a horst block of continental
crust to form the basement ridge.

They believe that the Baltimore Canyon Trough subsided
as a block-faulted basin in continental rocks. The rifting of
the continents provided the initial tensional forces necessary
for the formation of the "graben-like" structures of the east
coast. The uplift to the west (Palisades disturbance) provided
the sediment to fill the basin and enhance basin subsidence,
thus keeping the faults active. The shelf edge ridge formed a
sediment barrier during the Jurassic. It is possible that reefs
grew on this ridge or that it was exposed to erosion before the
sediments overran the barrier. This model has appeal in that
they attempt to explain the shoreward displacement of the magnetic
slope anomaly from the shelf edge gravity high by normal faulting
on the shoreward side of the ridge (Mattick et al, 1974).

3. Sedimentary Deposits Model

This model (Figure 25C) interprets seismic reflection
0 profiles to show a ridge of sedimentary deposits rather than

735.
BA511MENT RIDGE MODEL5

0
5 +

FIGURE 25A
/0
CONTINENTAL

OCEANIC BASEMENT RIDGE

+ + +

FIGURE 25B
/0

CONTINENTAL C RUST RIDGE

+ REEF

Jo
FIGURE 25C
+
15-
OKA
20
CARBONATE- TRANSITIONAL C RU5T

FIGURE 25

136@

crystaTline rocks beneath the shelf edge. Schlee et al (1976)
believe this ridge is largely carbonate rock. They see evidence
of forset beds in "basement ridge" (Figure 13 of Schlee et al,
7976) and no indication of faulting along which the. horsT- -
(Mattick et al, 1974; Foote et al, 1974) was uplifted. They
believe t@-at-a deeply buried-ca-F-bonate platform and reef deposits,
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in age exist atop the block faulted
basement and form the "basement ridge." The magnetic slope
anomaly may be primarily due to edge effects between continental
and ocean crust as suggested by Keen and Keen (1974). If the
thick sedimentary section actually forms a ridge, the shelf.
edge gravity high may be due to a lateral seaward increase in
sediment density near the outer shelf.

37_.@

H. GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEW YORK CONTINENTAL SHELF

A. Geophysical Discussion, B. Basement Ridges

Regional geology of eastern Canada offshore, Austin,
G.H., 1973.

The nature of Triassic continental rift structures in
the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D., 1974.

Preglacial structure of Georges-Bank and Northeast
Channel, Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D. and Sorensen,
F.H., 1968,

High sensitivity aeromagnetic survey of the Atlantic
margin of the United States (abstr.), Behrendt, J.C.,
1975.

Seismic evidence for a thick section of sedimentary rock
on the Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States (abstr.), Behrendt, J.C. and others, 1974.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part X, Continental slope and
continental rise south of Grand Banks, Bentley, C.R. and
J.L. Worzel, 1956.

Geophysical observations on sediments and basement
structure underlying Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Berger, J.
and others, 1965.

Seismic refraction investigations in selected areas of
Narragansett Bay, Rtiode Island,. Birch, W.B. and Dietz., F.T.,
1962.

Some seismic profiles onshore and offshore Long Island,
N.Y.,. Black, M. and others, 1959.

Geophysical observations on the sediments and basement
structure underlying Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Blanchard,
J.E. and others, 1965.

Evolution of young continental margins and formation of
shelf basins, Bott, M.H.P., 1971.

Seismic refraction profiles on the continental shelf
south of Bellport, L.I., N.Y., Brown, M.V. and others,
1961.

138-.

IV. (continued)

Structural and stratigraphic framework, and spatial
distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal
Plain, North Carolina to New York, Brown, P.M. and
others, 1972.

Buried ridges within continental margins, Burk, C.A.,
1968.

Basement beneath the emerged Atlantic coastal plain
between New York and Georgfa, Dietrich, R.V., 1960.

Some geophysical anomalies in the eastern United States,
Diment, W.H. and others, 1972.

Geophysical investigations of the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal plain, Drake and others, 1954.

Magnetic anomalies off eastern North America, Drake,
C.L. and others, 1963.

.Appalachian curvature, wrench faulting, and offshore
structures, Drake, C.L. and Woodward, H.P., 1963.

Shallow structure of continental shelves and slopes,
Emery, K.O., 1968b.

Continental margins of the world, Emery, K.O., 1970.

Geological background Baltimore Canyon Trough, Emery,
K.O., 1974.

Structures of Georges Bank, Emery, K.O. and E. Uchupi,
1965.

Western North Atlantic ocean, topography, rocks, structure,
water, life and sediments, Emery, K.O. and Uchupi, E.,
1972.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 4, Ewing, M., 1940.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 3, Barnegat Bay, N.J. Section,
Ewing, M. and others, 1939.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part IV, Cape May, N.J. Section,
Ewing, M. and others, 1940.

139.

IV. (continued)

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 5, Woods Hole, N.Y. and
Cape May sections, Ewing, M. and others, 1950.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 1, Methods and results,
Ewing, M. and others, 1973.

Developments of continental shelf south of New England,
Garrison, L.E., 1970.

Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic effects of the Atlantic
Coastal margin, Gibson, T.G., 1970.

Petrology and origin of Potomac and magothy (Cretaceous)
sediments, Middle Atlantic coastal plain, Glaeser, J.D.,
T969.

Seismotectonic map of the eastern United States, Hadley,
J.R. and Devine, J.F., 1974.

Eastern continental margin of the United States, Part 2,
Hales, A.L., 1970.

Mesozoic geology and the opening of the North Atlantic,
Hallam, A., 1971.

Gravity measurements in the vicinity of Georges Bank,
Hendricks, J.D., and Robb, J.M., 1973.

Ocean drilling on the continental margin, Joint Oceanographic
Institutions' Deep Earth Sampling Program, 1965.

The significance of a group of aeromagnetic profiles off
the eastern coast of North America, King, E.R., and others,
1961.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the Atlantic
Coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher, J.C., 1971.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the Atlantic
Coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher, J.C. and E.R.
Applin, 1971.

A preliminary report on U.S. Geological Survey geophysical
studies of the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (abstr.),
Mattick, R.E. and others, 1973.

T 4 0,,,.

IV. (continued)

Structural framework of United States Atlantic outer
continental shelf north of Cape Hatteras, Mattick, R.E.
and others, 1974.

Pattern of Triassic-Jurassic diabase dikes around the
North Atlantic in the context of predrift position of
the continents, May, P.R., 1973.

"Basement" to east coast continental margin of North
America, Mayhew, M.A., 1974a.

Geophysics of Atlantic North America, Mayhew, M.A.,
1974b.

Seismic profiles along the U.S. northeast coast continental
margin (abstr.), McGregor, B.A. and others, 1975.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic coastal plain, Part 2, Miller, B.J., 1937.

Preliminary geologic report on the U.S. northern Atlantic
continental margin (abstr.), Minard, J.P. and others, 1973.

Preliminary report on geology along Atlantic continental
margin of northeastern U.S., Minard, J.P. and others, 1974.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part 7, Continental shelf,
continental slope, and continental rise south of Nova
Scotia, Officer, C.A. and M. Ewing, 1954.

Geophysical observations on northern part of Georges
Bank and adjacent basins of Gulf of Maine,Oldale, R.N.
and others, 1974.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic coastal plain, Part VI, the Long Island Area,
Oliver, J.E. and Drake, C.L., 1951.

Structural history and oil potential of offshore area
from Cape Hatteras to Bahamas, Olson, W.S., 7974.

Geophysical investigations in the emerged and submerged
Atlantic coastal plain, Part 8, Grand Banks and adjacent
shelves, Press, F. and Beckman, W.C., 1954.

The continental margin of the northwest Atlantic Ocean,
Rabinowitz, P.D., 1973.

T4%

IV. (continued)

Eastern Atlantic continental margins -- various structural
and morphologic.types, Renard, V. and Mascle, J., 1974.

Generalized structure contour maps of the New Jersey
coastal plain, Richards, H.G. and others, 1962.

Stratigraphy and structure along a continuous seismic
reflection profile from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina
to the Bermuda Rise, Rona, P.A. and C.S. Clay, 1967.

Sediments structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the United States North Atlantic outer continental
shelf, Schlee, J. and others, 1975.

Geology of Georges Bank basin, Schultz, L.K. and R.L.
Grover, 1974.

Conceptual model for the block-fault origin of the
North American Atlantic Continental Margin Geosyncline,
Sheridan, R.E., 1974.

Atlantic continental margin of North America, Sheridan,
R.-E., 1974.

Sedimentary basins of the Atlantic margin of North
America, Sheridan, R.E., 1976.

Geology and Paleontology of Georges Bank Canyons, Part 1,
Geology, Stetson, H.C., 1936.

Distribution and geologic structure of Triassic rocks
in the Bay of Fundy and the northeastern part of the
Gulf of Maine, Tagg, A.R. and Uchupi, E., 1966.

Geologic implications of aeromagnetic data for the eastern
continental margin of the U.S., Taylor, P.T.I. and others,
1968.

.Topography and structure of the shelf and slope, Uchupi, E..
1965c.

Structural framework of the Gulf of Maine, Uchupi, E., 1966.

Structure of the continental margin off the Atlantic Coast
of the U.S., Uchupi, E. and Emery, K.O., 1967.

Regional geologic framework off northeastern Unite.d States,
Sch7ee, J. and others, 7976.

742.

IV. (continued)

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1975.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. North Atlantic OCS, U.S.G.S., 1975.

Aeromagnetic map Atlantic continental margin, U.S.G.S.,
1976.

Seismic studies in the region adjacent to the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland, Watson, J.A. and Johnson, G.L.,
1970.

143,

IV.C.. Structural Geology

The pre-Mesozoic basement surface as determined from
coastal plain drill holes and offshore geophysics is warped
and faulted as a result of large.scale tectonic activity. The
warping and faulting of the basement is reflected in a series
of transverse arches, highs and platforms that have a thin
sedimentary cover and basins and embayments that have thick
sedimentary sections (Figures 26 and 27).

At the northern end of the study area the Yarmouth
Arch bounds Georges Bank Basin on the northeast. This broad
basement ridge plunges southward and extends to the edge of
the continental shelf (Schultz and Grover, 1974).

To the southwest of Yarmouth Arch Georges Bank
Basin contains up to 8,500 meters of sedim;nts (Mattick
et aT, 1974). Seismic studies show high-angle faults in the
F-as-ir"F, most of which affect-only the basal 1500 meters of
sediments. The Long Island Platform, a structural high to the
south of Rhode Island se arates the Baltimore Canyon Trough
from Georges Bank Basin Pigure 26).

The Baltimore Canyon Trough is a synclinorium in
the crystalline basement. The trough is bordered on the east
by a postulated basement ridge whose axis is nearly parallel
with the shelf edge. The basin is terminated by the Long
Island Platform on the north and the Cape Fear arch to the
south. To the west, the trough merges with the Salisbury
Embayment, the basement low between Washington, D.C. and
Ocean City, Maryland (Figure 26).

The trough is over 600 kilometers long near the
shelf edge and is almost 200 kilometers wide off New Jersey
(USGS, 1975). The basin may contain up to 15 kilometers of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments.

Sheridan (1974, 1976) provides a good review of
the tectonic framework of the continental margin. Drake
(1969) discusses the basement structure as does Burk (1968).
Ballard and Uchupi (1972, 1975) discuss the tectonic history
of the Gulf of Maine. Keen and Keen (1973) describe the
structural history of the Canadian continental margin.

Mattick et al (1974) review the structural framework
of the continentaT-m-argin north of Cape Hatteras and Mayhew
(1974) summarizes the geophysics of the continental margin.
More recently, Schlee et al (1976) present the results of the
USGS seismic reflection survey of the Atlantic outer continental
shelf.

The USGS (1976a, b) has reviewed the Baltimore Canyon
Trough and Georges Bank Basin and gives a good summary of the
structure and geology of both areas.

T44.
No 7+ 7Z 70 48

44
CO

Om 4r
1-6 LAP,) D
PLATF@P-"

r I:SAw P-v;)r-I"

-33

Major structural highs and lows offshore
of the northeastern United States.

FIGURE 26

76
vo

145

Lov%cj

NA.

FIGURE 27

ISOPACH MAP OF TOTAL
SEDIMENT THICKNESS IN THE
BALTIMORE CANYON TROUGH.
THICKNESS IN KILOMETERS.

146.

IV.C.1 . Faults

a. Shallow Faults

Detailed geophysical work by the USGS in the
Baltimore Canyon Trough area discovered shallow faults near
Hudson Canyon and in the sediments near the edge of the
continental shelf (Sheridan and Knebel, 1976) as a part of
their investigation for potential geologic hazards. They
estimate 1.5 meters of throw on the faults which are offset
upwards to the southeast. The faults are about 5 kilometers
long but one reaches 15 kilometers. Sediments to within 7
meters of the seafloor are offset by the faults, which are
I to 2 kilometers apart and strike approximately N70E.

Multichannel seismic reflection data indicate
that these shallow faults might be a near-surface expression
of a deeper fault of Early Cretaceous age which shows a
displacement of 96 meters at depth. Because the upper 7
meters of sediment appear to be of recent age, Sheridan and
Knebel postulate a Pleistocene or younger age for the faults.
McMaster (1971) reports a north-south trending
fault that dips to the east on the continental shelf off
Rhode Island, near Block Island. The fault, which is transverse
to other structural trends for more than 60 km, appears to be
Middle to Later Tertiary in age.

Other shallow faults on the continental shelf
are associated with slumping at the shelf edge. Uchupi (1970)
shows seismic profiles near Block Canyon with massive slump
structures (Figure 28). He believes that the slumping occurred
when sea level was near that surface, and is associated with
the increased sedimentation during the lower sea level.

747'.
7(* 74. 72 70

Selected structural features
offshore of the northeastern
United States.

FAuL-T:S SLU mrim(f
0

INTRUSIOKS*
U5CS SEtwic LINE 2

@7i

A
1/4.
6 ?1.

FIGURE 28

7.' 70

748..

IV.C.I.b. Deep Faults

Large scale faulting has been proposed for many
areas of the Atlantic coastal margin. Perhaps the largest
zone is the Cornwall-Kelvin Fault System (Drake and Woodward,
1965; Sheridan, 1974) which ties the Kelvin Seamount Chain,
the re-entrant on the continental shelf southeast of Long
Island, and the Cornwall fault zone into a major tectonic
feature associated with the opening of the proto-Atlantic
Ocean (Figure 28).

A similar zone to the south, the Norfolk fault
zone, is also a feature of the rifting of the continents.
These faults are not believed to have been active since
Mesozoic time (Milliman, 1973).

Large faults are usually ascribed to the borders
,of the depositional centers under the Atlantic continental
margin (Sheridan, 1974). If these faults actually exist
there is no reason to believe that they have been active
since the Mesozoic (Milliman, 1973).

14.9-.-

IV.C.2. Intrusions

The USGS has mapped several intrusive features on
the Atlantic coastal plain (USGS, 7974). The largest of these
features appears on USGS seismic line 2 (Figure 28). This
intrusion is near the center of Baltimore Canyon Trough. A
500 gamma magnetic high is associated with the intrusive
feature (Taylor et al, 1968). Mattick et al (T974) believe
that the magnetiZ-h-igh indicates an ign-eou-sintrusion that
may be located in a zone of weakness near the intersection of
two faults or fault systems, one parallel to the continental
shelf and another oblique to it. The USGS (1975) interprets
the feature from the seismic line as follows: Jurassic and
Lower Cretaceous beds appear to have been arched several
thousand meters over the feature. A prominent unconformity
near the Upper-Lower Cretaceous boundary appears to truncate
uplifted pre-Upper Cretaceous beds. At least 450 meters of
these sediments were removed by erosion. There does not
appear to be any significant thinning of Upper Cretaceous
and Lower Tertiary beds that would indicated continued move-
ment during this time. On the other hand, the presence of
minor faults in the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary could
indicate recurrent upward movement during this time.

Closer to shore on the same seismic line is another
intrusive feature. On the magnetic map of Taylor, et al (1968)
there' is no anomaly associated with this feature. T-he-USGS
interprets it as a probable salt diapir. Other evidence for
salt domes on the east coast is from the Orpheus Basin near
Newfoundland where McIver (1972) reported an 800 m (2600 ft.)
bed of reTatively pure halite. Emery et al (1970) have suggested
salt doming under the continental slopi--a-F-d rise off Nova Scotia.
Sheridan (1975) reports a small domal structu.re near
the shelf edge just north of Wilmington Canyon. Extrapolation
of seismic data to nearby DSDP and Caldrill holes indicates
that rocks of Miocene age are involved in the doming. A magnetic
anomaly is associated with the dome which is centered over the
East coast slope anomaly. This suggests a structural control
of the dome and Sheridan believes, that a Tertiary igneous
intrusion is the most likely explanation. If the dome does
persist at depth, it would be an interesting petrolem prospect.
There has been no positive identification of these intrusive
features. The interpretations are based entirely on geophysical
evidence.

A combination of seismic and magnetic data provide
the basis for interpreting an igneous origin for the large
feature seen on the USGS seismic line 2. The large magnetic
anomaly associated with the incoherent reflectors on the seismic
profile lends support to the igneous hypothesis.

ISO.

The lack of magnetic anomaly associated with the
smaller feature to the northwest leads to the interpretation
of a possible salt dome. The character of the seismic
reflectors is usually cited in ruling out a pinnacle reef
or sedimentary diapir origin.

15T.

IV.C. Structural Geology

Regional geology of eastern Canada offshore,
Austin, G.H., 1973.

Carboniferous and Triassic rifting, a preliminary
outline of the tectonic history of the Gulf of
Maine, Ballard, R.D. and E... Uchupi, 1972.

Geology -- the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D. and
Uchupi, E., 1974.

Triassic rift structure in Gulf of Maine, Ballard,
R.D. and Uchupi, E., 1975.

Appalachian curvature, wrench faulting, and offshore
structures, Drake, C.L. and Woodward, H.P., 1963.

Structure of Georges Bank, Emery, K.O. and E. Uchupi,
1965.

Possible late Pleistocene uplift, Chesapeake Bay
entrance, Harrison, W.B. and others, 1965.

Seismic reflection observations on the Atlantic
continental shelf, slope and rise southeast of New
England, Hoskins, H., 1967.

Geophysical investigation of Cape Cod Bay, Mass.,
using the continuous seismic profiler, Hoskins, H.
and others, 1961.

Record of wells in Suffolk County, L.I., N.Y.,
Johnson, A.H. and others, 1952.

Gravity and magnetic evidence of lithology and
structure in the Gulf of Maine region, Kane, M.F.
and others, 1972.

Gravity and magnetic evidence of litho7ogy and structure
in the Gulf of Maine region, Kane, M.F. and others, 1972.

Possible edge effect to explain magnetic anomalies off
eastern seaboard of the U.S., Keen, M.J., 1969.

Subsidence and fracturing on the continental margin
of eastern Canada, Keen, M.J. and Keen, C.E., 1973.

The significance of a group of aeromagnetic profiles
off the eastern coast of North America, King, E.R.
and others, 1961.

152,

IV.C. (continued)

Interpretation of high resolution echo-sounding techniques
and their use in bathymetry marine geophysics and biology,
Knott, S.T. and Hersey, J.B., 1956.

Evidence of Pleistocene events in the structure of the
continental shelf off the northeastern U.S., Knott, S.T.
and Hoskins, H., 1968.

A preliminary report on U.S. Geological Survey geophysical
studies of the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (abstr.),
Mattick, R.E. and others, 1973.

Seismic reflection studies in Block Island and Rhode
Island Sounds, McMaster, R.L., and others, 1968.

Domes in the Atlantic Coastal Plain east of Trenton,
N.J., Minard, J.P. and J.P. Owens, 1966.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island E-48, Morrow, D.L. and others,
1972.

The Georges Bank Petroleum Study, Offshore Oil Task
Group, 1973.

Seismic investigations on Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard
and Nantucket and a topographic map of the basement
surface from Cape Cod Bay to the Islands, Oldale, R.N.,
1969.

Seismic investigations on Cape Cod, Mass., OTdale, R.N.
and Tuttle, C.R., 1964.

Geophysical observations on northern part of Georges
Bank and adjacent basins of Gulf of Maine, Oldale, R-.N.
and others, 1974.

Preliminary report on a geophysical study of a dome
structure on the Atlantic outer continental shelf east
of Delaware, Sheridan, R.E., 1974.

Dome structure, Atlantic OCS east of Delaware, preliminary
geophysical report, Sheridan, R.E., 1975.

What is the geology of West Sable structure?, Smith, H.A.,
1975.

Distribution and geologic structure of Triassic rocks
in the Bay of Fundy and the northeastern part of the
Gulf of Maine, Tagg, A.R. and Uchupi, E., 1966.

153.

IV-C. (continued)

Structural framework of the Gulf of Maine, Uchupi, E.,
1966.

Topography and structure of Cashes Ledge, Gulf of
Maine, Uchupi, E., 1966.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the U.S.,
Uchupi, E., 1970.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene geologic map of the
northern U.S. Atlantic continental margin, Weed, E.G.A.
and others, 1974.

Sediments and shallow structures of the inner continental
shelf off Sandy Hook, N.J., Williams, S.J. and Field, M.E.,
1971.

154.

IV.C.l. Faults

Shallow structure of the continental margin, Curray,
J.R., 1969b.

Transcurrent faulting along the continental margin
of eastern North America (abstr.), Drake, C.L. and
others, 1962.

A transverse fault on the continental shelf off
Rhode Island, McMaster, R.L., 1971.

Evidence of post-Pleistocene faults on N.J. Atlantic
outer continental shelf, Sheridan, R.E. and Knebel,
H.J., 1976.

A micro-environmental study of the hydrocarbons of
the Long Island Sound sediments, Danker, J.A., 1963.

Correlation of end moraines in southern Rhode Island,
Schafer, J.P., 1961.

IV.C.2. Intrusions

Atlantic salt deposits formed by evaporation of
water split from the Pacific, Tethys and Southern
Oceans (abstr.), Burke, K., 1975.

Pattern of Triassic-Jurassic diabase dikes around
the North Atlantic in the context of predrift
position of the continents, May, P.R., 1973.

156.

IV.D. Stratigraphy

1. Triassic

A series of basins filled with Triassic rocks
underlies parts of the coastal plain. Figure 29 gives a
composite section of the Baltimore Canyon Trough area.with
the Triassic at the base. Most of the basins are bordered
by normal faults along one side, usually the west. In out-
crop, the Triassic rocks are continental in character, mostly
stream, lake and swamp deposits of red arkosic sandstone and
shale. Both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks (tuffs,
basalt flows and diabase dikes) are common (Mahar, 1971).
The sedimentary sequence includes typical "red bed" mudstone,
shale, siltstone, sandstone, and fanglomerate. Although
mostly reddish brown, some beds are gray, yellowish gray,
and grayish purple. Sandstones are generally arkosic and
somewhat calcareous. Typically, the rocks undergo a facies
change across the basin, grading from fanglomerates near the
border fault to finer grained floodplain deposits in the center
of the basins. The age of these rocks, the Upper Triassic
Newark Group, has been determined paleontologically.

Triassic rocks have been reported in deep wells
near the seaward edge of the coastal plain and may be present
under the continental shelf (Minard et al, 1974). Triassic
-rocks lying unconformably below CretTc-e-6-us have been reported
in coastal wells. Brown et al (1972) listed red and brown
shales and arkosic sandst6_ne@_from the E.G. Taylor well in
Virginia as Triassic on the basis of lithic correlation with
the Newark Group. The USGS (1975) disputes this interpretation,
citing a lack of evidence for the necessary 50 million year
unconformity to represent Jurassic (i.e., relative consolidation)
and palynological data suggests an Early Cretaceous age for the
red beds in question.

If these red beds and arkosic sands represent a
seaward thickening blanket deposit immediately above the
basement and not isolated basin deposits, then the resolution
of the age of this stratigraphic interval is important in the
understanding of the initial depositional history of the Baltimore
Canyon Trough.

Triassic sedimentary rocks were described by Uchupi
(1966) and Ballard and Uchupi (1972) in the Gulf of Maine.
Ballard and Uchupi (1975) believe that the Triassic section
beneath the Gulf of Maine is structurally (half-gravens) and
lithically (red bed sequence) similar to the Newark Group rocks
on land.

QUATERNARY NON MARINE AND COASTAL UNITS
- GRAY AND GRAY GREEN CLAYS INTEBEDDED WITH VARIABLE SIZE SANDS (COASTAL
ENVIRONMENTS) - TOWARD: EAST AND SOUTH
- COARSE SANDS AND GRAVELS (FLUVIATILE NON-MARINE) - TOWARD NORTH AND
WEST 157.

MIOCENE MARINE UNITS

HIGHLY VARIABLE GLAUCONITIC YORKTOWN - YELLOW WHITE SAND AND SILT
SANDS AND CLAYS, UNDIFFER-
ENTIATED RANCOCAS TOWARD ST. MARY'S - INTERBEDDED-BLUISH GRAY CLAY, AND GRAY
THE NORTH. ARGILLACEOUS FIND SANDS
CHOPTANK - INTERBEDDED WELL DEFINDED SANDY YELLOW-
BRWON MOLLUSCAN SHELL BEDS. DENSE GRAY CLAY,
& YELLOW-BROWN SAND

CALVERT - PLUM POINT MARL - SANDY MOLLUSCAN SHELL
BEDS AND MARINE SILTY CLAYS

FAIRHAVEN - DIATOMACEOUS EARTH
- POORLY SORTED, ARGILLACEOUS,
FINE-COARSE SAND

PALEOCENE-EDCENE MARINE UNITS
PINEY POINT: FINE-MEDIUM-COARSE CLAUCOMITIC SANDS,
LIGHT GRAY-YELLOWISH GREEN
---RANOCAS EQUIV.--- MAULIEMDY: ARGILLACEOUS SILT AND SAND, DARK GREENISH
GRAY
MARLBORO: GRAY-PALE RED CLAY WITH THIN SILT LENSES
AQUIA: FINE-MEDIUM SILTY SAND, DARK GREENISH-GRAY
GLAUCOMITIC
BRIGHTSEAT: ARGILLACEOUS, PHOSPHATIC, MICACEOUS FINE
SAND, GRAY BROWN

UPPER CRETACEOUS MARINE UNITS
MONMOUTH: FINE MICACEOUS GLAUCOMITIC QUARTZ SANDS AND CLAUCOMITES
MATAWAN: GLAUCOMITIC QUARTZ SANDS AND DARK, MICACEOUS, GLAUCOMITIC
SANDY CLAY SILTS
MAGOTHY: ANGULAR WHITE QUARTZ SAND, THINLY INTERBEDDED WITH
GRAY-BLACK LIGHITIC SILT AND CLAY. ABUNDANT CARBONACEOUS
DEBRIS THROUGHOUT

POTOMAC GROUP

(RAPID LATERAL AND VERTICAL GACIES CHANGE)
UK RARITAN: GRAY AND BROWN CLAYS MARINE
PATAPSCO: VARIEGATED(GREEN,YELLOW,GRAY,RED,BROWN
& PURPLE)CLAYS(MASSIVE)AND WHITE,YELLOW,
& OLIVE GREEN SANDS(FINER&MORE ARGIL-
LACEOUS THAN PATUXENT)WHITE&DK. GRAY
LIGNITIC CLAYS,FRESH WATER PELECYPODS &
ANGIOSPERMS
ARUNDEL: GRAY SILTS & CLAYS, AND LIGNITIC WHITE TO
OLIVE GREEN PEBBLY SANDS, DINOSAURS,
MINOR TURTLES, CROCODILES, GARS, RARE
PELECYPODS
LOWER K NON-MARINE
PATUXTENT: ORTHOQUARTZITIC AND ARKOSIC MEDIUM-COARSE
SANDS AND GRAVELS, POORLY SORTED, ANGU-
LAR & PALE GRAY-TAN INTERBEDDED VARIEGATED
CLAYS, ABUNDANT LARGE SCALE CROSS BEDDING,
CUT AND FILL, AND CLAY PEBBLE CONGLOMERATES

UPPER JURASSIC?
TOP - SANDY LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES
- QUARTZ SANDS AND GRAY-GREEN SHALES

BASE - ARKOSE
- VARICOLORED RED AND GREEN SHALES

TRIASSIC-NEWARK SERIES?
- REDDISH BROWN-GREEN SHALES
- ARKOSIC, CONGLOMERATIC SANDSTONES

BASEMENT COMPLEX
- SCHIST AND MICA GNEISS
- EPIDOTE AMPHIDOLITE
- GABBRO
- GRANODIOMITE

Composite stratigraphic section found in
outcrop and by drill on south and west flanks of Balti-
more Canyon trough(modified from Jordan, 1962;
Glaser, 1968; Anderson,1948; Hansen,1969; and
others.)

(From Kraft, J.C., et al, 1971, AAPG Bull.,
v. 55/5,fig.4,p.663)

FIGURE 29

158.

IV -D-. 2J'urass i c

Jurassic rocks are not exposed on the Atlantic
coastal plain (Maher, 1971). Red beds and arkosic sands
dated as Jurassic on the basis of spores and pollen have
been re orted from the subsurface of New Jersey by Brown
et al, M72). Similar rocks are present in the Salisbury
Y-mbi-yment where Swain and Brown (1972) reported Late Jurassic
Ostracoda from deep wells.

McIver (1972) describes. a thick section of Lower
Jurassic rocks on the Scotian Shelf. A thick section of salt
is overlain by other evaporite and dolomite beds more than
300 meters thick. Over these rocks lie sandstone, limestone
and marine shales. More than 1500 meters of limestone and
sandy shale make up the Upper Jurassic. Schultz and Grover
(1974) believe that this section is continuous along strike
and project it south to Georges Bank Basin (Figure 30).

To the south, Jurassic rocks have been tentatively
identified in the Baltimore Canyon Trough (Figure 30). Pollen
and spore analysis from the COST B-2 well done by International
Biostratigraphers indicate that the well bottomed in Lower
Cretaceous. American/Canadian Stratigraphic Service's
examination of the pollen and spores point to an Upper Jurassic
age for the lower 400 meters of the well.

Differences aside, no one at this time doubts the
presence of at least 3000 meters of pre-Cretaceous Mesozoic
sediments in the Baltimore Canyon Trough, based on seismic
reflection studies (Schlee, et al, 1976, for example).
Without deeper drilling ther@_i`sno way to tell the Triassic
from the Jurassic or to determine the thickness of the Jurassic
sediments in the trough.

On the Scotian Shelf, Williams et al (1974) show
more than 400 meters of Middle and Late Jurassic from the
Shell Naskapi N-30 (Figures 30 and 34). The rocks consist
of coarse-grained alluvial plain sands, delta plain shales
and thick sections of deeper water carbonate.

DIAGRAMMATIC SECITON ACROSS
CONTINIENTAL SHELF FROM
BALTIMORE CANYON THROUGH
TO SCOTIAN SHELF
CENOZOIC
UPPER CRETACEOUS
LOWER CRETACEOUS
LONG ISLAND PLATFORM
JURASSIC
YARMOUTH
SCOTIAN
SHELF
JURASSIC
GEORGES BANK BASIN
JURASSIC
BALTIMORE CANYON THROUGH
MILES
V.E=118X
0
3000
6000
9000
12000
15000
18000
21000
24000
27000
30000
fEET
FIGURE
159

160.

IV.D.3. Cretaceous

a. Lower'Cretaceous

Perhaps the thickest section of Lower Cretaceous
is present in the Baltimore Canyon Trough. The COST B-2 well
penetrated more than 2000 meters of Lower Cretaceous sediments
(Figure 31). The rocks in the lower part are mostly non-marine
or nearshore sandstones and shales with interbedded coal.
Higher up in the section calcareous sands and dolomite appear,
along with silty shale and lignite.

USGS seismic line 2 (Figure 32) shows the section
thinning shoreward from the COST B-2 to about 300 meters of
Lower Cretaceous present in the USGS Island Beach I well
(Figure.31): These interbedded sands and shales are predominantly
non-marine in origin. The lower part of the section is missing
at the Island Beach #1, but thickens southward in the Salisbury
Embayment. To the north the Lower Cretaceous wedges out and is
not present beneath Long Island.

Schultz and Grover (1974) have extrapolated well
data from the Scotian Shelf to Georges Bank Basin, and hypothesize
a sequence of marine and marginal marine shale, siltstone, and
calcareous sandstone. Seismic data show a thick section, in
excess of 2000 meters generally at a depth of between 1 and 4
kilometers.

On the Scotian Shelf itself, Williams et al (1974)
_T -'r'
show a Lower Cretaceous section about 500 meters thick in the
Shell Naskapi N-30. The basal Mississauga Formation (Figure 33)
consists of coarse-grained sands with some coal seams. These
beds were deposited in terrestial and nearshore environments.
The Naskapi Shale which overlies the Mississauga is predominantly
marine and contains some interbedded dolomite. According to
McIver (1972) the section is much the same but thicker in the
deeper part of the basin to the northeast.

STRATIGRAPHIC COREELATION FROM USGS ISLAND BEACH 1 TO COST B2 WELL

USGS
ISLAND BEACH
COST B-2
UPPER CRETACEOUS
LOWER CRETACEOUS
ISLAND BEACH
LEGEND
SANDSTONE
LIMESTONE
BASEMENT

VE-55
JURASSIC?
FIGURE 31

0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000

CROSS-SECTION BASED ON SEISMIC PROFILE 2
FROM USGS ISLAND BEACH1 THRU COST B-2
TO EDGE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF

USGS ISLAND BEACH 1
COST B-2 WELL
TERTIARY
TOP OF UPPER CRETACEOUS
TOP OF LOWER CRETAEOUS
MILES
BASEMENT
TOP OF JURASSIC
BASEMENT

162

Stratigraphic correlation between COST B-2 and Shell N-30.
IsLA#4p P@EACA -xau. NA*xpi
COST N-7. 75AVuEs FIRE: 1-5LM.I> <:- +7SAY" ES :SCOTIM 5,Kaf
ilmbu-m
-rmTIAxy MATAvip-m -fro.nARY
..............
fAhTRWAN
MA(-,O-MY
'RARMAN
N WYANpo'r
<) RARITAN P. Z014
-ff RTI ARY PAWSoN Wwoui
Q CANY014 .1,
L.04AW
CA14YON
TP. 38ql
CAMPIAN NAIWA?t
$ANTOmIAN
Ili AIs*I-UAU(rA
Nue hLAL
tu AesNAKI JUKAOiC
UROWIM
j
L
TV. 74351
ALzim

AFTIM

VegrlcAi,
'e. z

zovr
Host oU
NOT 'rO

... ........
KORQRS EANk.
A W:
Y04
ROU
(-A
Aes@L

rp. goW

164.

IV.D.3.b. Upper Cretaceous

Under Long Island the Upper Cretaceous is about
600 meters thick (Figure 32) (see Brown et al, 1972. for
complete stratigraphy of the Fire Island-WeTT). The section
there is complete except for unconformities between the
Magothy and Raritan Formations and the Raritan and Basement
(Figure 35). The youngest unit beneath the Pleistocene
glacial deposits is the Upper Cretaceous Monmouth Group, the
Tertiary being absent.

FIGURE 34
LOG OF FIRE ISLAND WELL

Depth below surface
(to base of unit)

-45 m Pleistocene glacial deposits

-100 m Monmouth Group marine sediments

-250 m Matawan Group sands, containing
lignite, marine only
at top (gla'uconite
and fossils)

-550 m Magothy Fm. Predominantly sands
subaqueous river delta
deposits; lignite

-612 m Raritan Fm. interbedded sand, silt
and clay with massive
basal sand member, non-
marine

-674 m Basement mica schist and gneiss

The Magothy and overlying Upper Cretaceous formations
thin southward from Long Island along coastal New Jersey, but
the Raritan does not. The Raritan appears to be chiefly marine
in origin in the Island Beach well because the sediments are
finer-grained and more calcareous than those in the subsurface
of Long Island. The same is true for the Matawan Group which
in New Jersey, is mostly marine silt and clay (Figure 35).

In general, the Upper Cretaceous sediments of the
Salisbury Embayment suggest a cyclical sequence of estuarine
coastal marsh, and fluvial floodplain sediments constituting
several transgressive-regressive phases (Perry et Al, 1975).

GU0 INFORMAL
COAST 1UROOEAN STAGESI-2 POLLE N MARYLAND DELAWARE' NEW JERSEY 4.4 LONG WANDI
UNITS ZONAT=j SOUTH NORTH SOUTHWEST NootmeAty

MAESTRICHTIAN
t4o"i ink Formation M&WAV4 Creep -
Haverro Group
Monmouth Group
U010 CAMPANIAN (untlivided) Mount Le" %aml
We"afth Formolia"
Marshalltown Formation Mos"n 0,000*0
ervolightown Formation (OnATI&II)
Taylor Mort V) LOWER ? Woodbury Cloy
U) 0 CAMPANIAN Morcho"Iville Formation
Ifill .....................
cc U ZONE VII
W A
and
I.- Movon boat
UJI Majothy Formation
tANTONIAN re Cloy

Austin Chalk ul ....... . 7.........
CONIACIAN

11..4 AwA-.y 0 Ir* Cloy Mwk*
Eagle Ford Shale WRONIAN ZONE V
-'11111-=1 -7.7 . .. . . ...................
19MMM W**Arlh. Cloy Me"er 0 tivit
Woodbine Formation ZONE IV
CENOMANiAN

ZONE oil
Washita Group .................

W
FC oradeficksburi PoTOMAC 011100
W Group ZONE It
U)
W
Formation
A
z
0
To"Ity Group uj ZONE I ?Arundol
Formation$
0

UJI
U FIGURE 35
ik Formation
UJI
3: APtIAN
0 --Cofrelalio@ chart of outcropping And shallow subsurface Cretaceous stratigraphic units
Nue,o Lam Group 7- in Maryland. Delaware. New Jersey. and Long Island. New York, adapted (tom (1) Cobban and
.j 14 tir (1%3). Doyle (1%9bi witted
1010MAC 01
:M-
G

01.11

W Ikeeside (19521, (2) Sohl and Mello (1970, Filt. 24): (3) Brenn
commun., 1973). and Sirkin (1974); (4) Owens et al (1970) and Glaser (1%8)*. (3) MinArd el al
A W
Oto burongo Group NFOCOMIAN (1%9); and (6) Perlmutter and Todd (1%3) and Sirkin (1974).
From Per'ry, 14. J., et al, 1975, AAPG Bull., V. 59/9, 0 91
- Irlo

166.

This is reflected in the COST B-2 well in the Baltimore
Canyon Trough, directly offshore of the Salisbury Embayment.
The Upper Cretaceous in the COST B-2 well is more than 1000
meters of marine (outer shelf) limestones, calcareous shales
and sands interbedded with non-marine sands, shales and
lignite. Scholle (1977) describes in detail the fluctuating
nature of the depositional environments of these beds.

To the north on the Scotian Shelf the Upper
Cretaceous is much thicker than the Lower Cretaceous in that
area and almost entirely marine.in origin. The sediments
consist of interbedded sands and shales with the shales
containing a high percentage of carbonate (Williams et al,
1974).

167.

IV.D.4. Cenozoic (pre-Pleistocene)

This section ranges in thickness from a feather edge
south of Long Island to 1500 meters.of unconsolidated sands,
gravels and clays with some limestones on the continental
shelf at the COST B-2 well. The pre-Pleistocene section
appears just to the south of Long Island and is present in a
south and eastward thickening wedge (up to 600 meters in New
Jersey). In the other direction this section thins over
Georges Bank, where it was removed by the Pleistocene glaciations.
It thickens northward again to more than 300 meters of unconsoli-
dated sand and mud on the Scotian Shelf.

Brown et al (1972) is a good compilation and
correlation of TT-1-the important wells from Cape Hatteras
to Long Island. Maher (1972) has a detailed discussion of
the stratigraphy of the coastal plain and shelf from Florida
to Nova Scotia, relating it to petroleum potential of the
area. McIver (1972) and Amoco Canada's (1974 discussion of
the exploration results from the Scotian Shelf form the basis
of Schultz' and Grover's (1974) inferences about Georges Bank
Basin stratigraphy. Both USGS (1975a, b) provide a review
of the stratigraphy in Georges Bank Basin and Baltimore Canyon
Trough. USGS's (1976) open file on the COST B-2 well gives
a detailed stratigraphic section of the top 5000 meters of
the BCT and Scholle (1977) provides a more complete analysis
of the well data. To the north, Williams et al (1974) gives
the stratigraphy of the Shell Maskapi N-30. Perry et al (1975)
gives a brief survey of the Atlantic coastal margin, and Weed
et al (1974) is an up-to-date geologic map of the coastal
plain and shelf.

168.

IV.D. Stratigraphy

Biostratigraphic framework of the Grand Banks,
Armstrong, W.E., 1973.

Mesozoic and Cenozoic history of the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland, Bartlett, G.A. and L. Smith, 1971.

Seismic evidence for a thick section of sedimentary
rock on the Atlantic outer continental shelf and slope
of the U.S. (abstr.), Behrendt, J.C. and others, 1974.

Structural and stratigraphic framework, and spatial
distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal
Plain, North Carolina to New York, Brown, P.M. and
others, 1972.

Atlantic salt deposits formed by evaporation of water
split from the Pacific, Tethys and Southern Oceans
(abstr.), Burke, K., 1975.

The stratigraphy of the continental shelf east of
New Jersey (abstr.), Chelminski, P. and Fray, C.I.,
1966.

Lost-miocene stratigraphy and morphology, inner
coastal plain, southeastern Virginia, Coch, N.K., 1963.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island 0-47: well history report,
Dawson, W.E., 1972.

Mobil Tetco Thebaud P-84: well history report, de Jonge,
B. and others, 1973.

Ages of horizon A and the oldest Atlantic sediments,
Ewing, J. and others, 1966.

Regional aspects of deep-sea drilling in the western
North Atlantic, Ewing, J.I. and Hollister, C.H., 1972.

Geology of Long Island, N.Y., Fuller, M.L., 1914.

Fossiliferous rocks from submarine canyons off the
northeastern U.S., in Geological Survey research 1968,
Gibson, T.G. and others, 1968.

Evaluation of geologic and hydrobiologic data from the
test-drilling program at Island Beach State Park, New
Jersey, Gill, H.E. and others, 1963.

Coastal plain geology of southern Maryland, Glaeser, J.D.,
0 1968.

169.

IV.D. (continued)

Site 108, continental slope, Hollister, C.D. and
others, 1972.

Sites 105, 106, 107, 108, Hollister, C.D. and others,
1972.

Seismic reflection observations on the Atlantic
continental shelf, slope and rise southeast of
New England, Hoskins, H., 1967.

Sedimentary velocities of the western North Atlantic
margin, Houtz, R.E., 1964.

Detailed sedimentary velocities from seismic refraction
profiles in the western North Atlantic, Houtz, R.E. and
Ewing, J., 1963.

Record of wells in Suffolk County, L.I., N.Y., Johnson,
A.H. and others, 1952.

Stratigraphy of coastal plain of N.J., Johnson, M.E.
and Richards, H.G., 1952.

Ocean drilling on the continental margin, Joint
Oceanographic Institutions' Deep Earth Sampling
Program, 1965.

Gravity and magnetic evidence of lithology and structure
in the Gulf of Maine region, Kane, M.F. and others, 1972.

Geologic and hydrologic data from a test well drilled
near Chestertown, Md., Kantrowitz, I.H. and Webb, W.E.,
1971.

A geologic cross-section of Delaware showing stratigraphic
correlations, distribution and geologic setting with the
Atlantic coastal plain - continental shelf geosyncline,
Kraft, J.C. and Maisang, M.D., 1968.

Time-stratigraphic units and petroleum entrapment
models in Baltimore Canyon Basin of Atlantic Continental
Margin geosynclines, Kraft, J.D. and others, 1971.

Lithology of sediments from the western North Atlantic
Leg II Deep Sea Drilling Project, Lancelot, Y. and others,
1972.

Summary of geology of Atlantic Coastal Plain, LeGrand,
H.E., 1961.

Correlations of subsurface Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks
along the Atlantic coast, Maher, J.C., 1965.

T70.

IV.D. (continued)

Cenozoic and Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Nova
Scotia shelf, McIver, N.L., 1972.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island E-48, Morrow, D.L. and
others, 1972.

The Georges Bank Petroleum Study, Offshore Oil Task
Group., 1973.

Deep test in Accomack County, Virginia, Onuschak, E.,

Maryland Esso No. I well, Standard Oil Co. of N.J.,
Ocean City, Maryland, description of ditch samples,
Overbeck, R.M., 1948.

Continuous deep sea salt layer along North Atlantic.
margins related to early phase of rifting, Pautot,
G.J.M. and others, 1970.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the U.S. north of Cape Hatteras, a brief survey,
Perry, W.J. and others, 1974.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the U.S. north of Cape Hatteras - brief survey,
Perry, W.J. and others, 1975.

Subsurface. stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain
between New Jersey and Georgia, Richards, H.G., 1945.

Studies of the subsurface geology and paleontology
of the Atlantic coastal plain, Richards, H.G., 1948.

Stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain between Long
Island and Georgia - Review, Richards, H.G., 1967.

Invertebrate fossils from cores from the continental
shelf off New Jersey, Richards, H.G. and Eberhard, W.,
1964.

Stratigraphic section at Island Beach State Park, N.J.,
Seaber, P.R. and Vecchioli, J., 1963.

Results of subsurface exploration in the mid-island
area of western Suffolk County, L.I., N.Y., Soren, J.,
1971.

Geology of Atlantic coastal plain in New Jersey, Delaware,
Maryland and Virginia, Spangler, W.B. and Peterson, J.J.,
1950.

777,

(continued)

Geology and paleontology of Georges Bank Canyons,
Stetson, H.C., 1936.

The sediments and stratigraphy of the east coast
continental margin, Georges Bank to Norfolk Canyon,
Stetson, H.C., 1949.

Mapping of geologic formations and aquifers of Long
Island, N.Y., Suter, R. and others, 1949.

Lower Cretaceous' Jurassic and Triassic ostracoda
from the Atlantic coastal regions, Swain, F.M. and
Brown, P.M., 1972.

A seismic record of Mesozoic rocks on Block Island,
Rhode Island, Tuttle, C.R. and others, 1961.

Occurrence of fossiliferous Tertiary rocks on the
Grand Banks and Georges Bank, Verrill, A.E., 1878.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene geologic map of the
northern United States Atlantic continental margin,
Weed, E.G.A. and others, 1974.

7Z,

IV.D. Stratigraphy

1. Triassic, 2. Jurassic, 3. Cretaceous

Cretaceous and Tertiary subsurface geology, Anderson,
J.L., 1948.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyons,
Part 3, Cretaceous bryozoan from Georges Bank,
Bassler, R.S., 1936.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyons,
Part 4, Cretaceous and late Tertiary foraminifera,
Cushman, J.A., 1936.

Critical analysis of Cretaceous stratigraphy and
paleobotany of the Atlantic coastal plain, Dorf, E.,
1952.

Cretaceous-Cenozoic development of the continental
shelf south of New England, Garrison, L.E., 1967.

Cretaceous deltas in the New Jersey coastal plain
(abstr.), Gill, H.E. and others, 1969.

Petrology and origin of Potomac and Magothy (Cretaceous)
sediments, middle Atlantic coastal plain, Glaeser, J.D.,
1969.

Plant microfossils and age of nonmarine Cretaceous
sediments of Maryland and Delaware, Groot, J.J. and
Penny, J.S., 1960.

Depositional environments of subsurface Potomac group
in southern Maryland, Hansen, H.J., 1969.

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in New Jersey, Delaware
and eastern Maryland, Minard, J.P. and others, 1969.

Cretaceous deltas in the Northern New Jersey coastal
plain, Owens, J.P. and others, 1968.

Shelf and deltaic paleoenvironments in the Cretaceous-
Tertiary formations of the New Jersey Coastal Plain,
Field trip no. 2 in Geology of selected areas in N.J.
and eastern Penna. and guidebook of excursions, Geol.
Soc. Amer. Mtg. Atlantic City, N.J., 1969, Owens, J.P.
and N.F. Sohl, 1969.

Stratigraphy of the outcropping post-Magothy Upper
Cretaceous formations in Southern New Jersey and
Northern Delmarva Peninsula, Delaware and Maryland,
Owens, J.P. and others, 1970.

173.

IV.D. (continued)

Correlation and foraminifera of the Monmouth Group
(Upper Cretaceous), L.I., N.Y.., Perlmutter, N.M.
and Todd, R., 1965.

Upper Cretaceous subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic
coastal plain of N.J., Petters, S.W., 1976.

Palynology and stratigraphy of Cretaceous strata in
L.I.., N.Y. and Block Island, R.I, Sirkin, L.A., 1974.

Biostratigraphic analysis, Sohl, N.F. and Mello, J.F.,
1970.

Upper Cretaceous marine transgression in northern
Delaware, Spoliaric, N., 1972.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyon,
Part 11, Upper Cretaceous fossils from Georges Bank
(including species from Banquereau, Nova Scotia),
Stephenson, L.W., 1936.

Distribution and geologic structure of Triassic rocks
in the Bay of Fundy and the northeastern part of the
Gulf of Maine, Tagg, A.R. and Uchupi, E., 1966.

Stratigraphic interpretations of some Cretaceous
microfossil floras of the middle Atlantic states,
Wolfe, J.A. and Pakiser, H.M., 1971.

174.

IV.D. Stratigraphy
4. Cenozoic (pre-Pleistocene)
Cretaceous and Tertiary subsurface geology (md.),
Anderson, J.L., 1948.

Eocene foraminifera from submarine cores off the eastern
coast of North America, Cushman, J.A., 1939.

Tertiary fossil dredged off the northeastern coast of
North America, Dall, W.H., 1925.

Cretaceous-Cenozoic development of the continental
shelf south of New England, Garrison, L.E., 1967.

Eocene and Miocene rocks off the Northeastern Coast
of the United States, Gibson, T.G., 1965.

Seismic profile showing Cenozoic development of the
New England continental margin, Krause, D.C. and
others, 1966.

Pliocene-Miocene strata in a submarine canyon off Nova
Scotia (abstr.), Marlowe, J.I. and Bartlett, G.A., 1967.

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in N.J., Delaware, and
eastern Maryland, Minard, J.P. and others, 1969.

An outcrop of Eocene sediments on the continental
slope, Northrop, J.M. and B.C. Heezen, 1951.

Post-Miocene stratigraphy and morphology, outer
coastal plain, southeastern Virginia, Oaks, R.Q., Jr.,
1964.

Shelf and deltaic paleoenvironments in the Cretaceous-
Tertiary formations of the New Jersey Coastal Plain,
Field Trip no. 2, Owens, J.P. and N.F. Sohl, 1969.

Rocks of Eocene age of Fippennies Ledge, Gulf of
Maine, Schlee, J. and Chaetham, A.H., 1967.

Seismic reconnaissance of post-Miocene deposits,
Middle Atlantic continental shelf - Cape Henry,
Virginia to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Shidler,
G.L. and D.J.P. Swift, 1972.

Discovery of Eocene sediments in subsurface of Cape
Cod, Ziegler, J.M. and others, 1960.

175.-

IV.D.5. Pleistocene-Holocene

Pleistocene and Holocene sediments form a relatively
thin mantle of loose detrital materials across most of the mid
and north Atlantic portions of the continental shelf. Sediment
thicknesses, texture and compositions are highly variable
because of the diverse nature of their source, the mode of
deposition on the shelf and the processes which have influenced
them after they were first deposited on the shelf. The geologic
time scaTe into which the Pleistocene-Holocene deposits are set
is far from standardized for reasons which will be discussed.

Below is a generally accepted framework of the time-
stratigraphic relation of the youngest deposits on the shelf.

MILLION YEARS
ERA PERIOD EPOCH BEFORE PRESENT

Quaternary [RoTocene (recently)
/Fleistocene (glaciaT)-
2-3

Cenozoic Pliocene 12
Miocene 25
Oligocene 40
Tertiary
Eocene 60
Paleocene 70

Mesozoic Cretaceous 135

Emery and Uchupi (1972, Fig. 319, p. 414) show a modified
map of the thickness distribution of Pleistocene-Holocene sediments
which mantle the Atlantic continental shelf of the United States.
Their map is reproduced in Figure 36. In the middle Atlantic bight,
between Cape Hatteras and the northeast channel along the northern
margin of Georges Bank, there is a general pattern of thickening
from the coastal zone toward the shelf break. Thicknesses are
less than 60 m near the coastal plain whereas they are somewhat
greater than 100 m near the shelf break. The glacial deposits
underlying Long Island and the Cape Cod region also exceed 100 m
in thickness. This isopach map probably can be revised in the
near future because of the extensive program of "shallow" coring
carried out by the Marine Geology Branch, United States Geological
Survey at Woods Hole. A number of holes in the middle Atlantic
portion of this drilling program penetrated the lower boundary
of Pleistocene deposits.

Placement of the Pleistocene-Holocene deposits within
a time-stratigraphic framework has a number of specific problems.
The geologic time scale for the Phanerozoic has been defined by
interregional boundaries, usually unconformities, with distinctive
faunal and/or floral fossil assemblages characterizing the sedi-
mentary sequences between these boundaries. These boundaries
usually represent major tectonic events, sea-level and/or climatic

17.
PLJ

4000

@-Thickne'ss of Quaternary sediments on Atlantic
continental shelf determined from continuous seismic-reflection
-profiles and drillhole and dredge samples. Contours are in
meters, and deposits more than 40m thick are cross-hatched.
'Modified from Emery and Milliman (1970, Fig. 8).
;(From Emery, K. 0. and Uchupi, E., 1972, AAPG Mem. 17,
fig. 319, p. 414.)

177.

changes and resulting modifications in processes and their
intensities.. The history of late Cenozoic (Miocene through
Holocene) is one basically influenced by climatic fluctuations.
The lower and the upper boundaries of the Pleistocene remain
unresolved geologic problems at the present time.

The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary is not resolved
for two reasons:

1. The strata of the two epochs are transitional.

2. Two methods are used to define the epoch
boundaries:

a. evolutionary differences in fossil organisms
(in this case, differences in planktonic
microfossils);

b. evidence expressing climatic cooling (i.e.,
glaciation).

From the earliest days (1846) of recognition that
glaciation had occurred on the continents of the northern
hemisphere to the late 1960's, the epoch, Pleistocene, was
equated with the term, glacial epoch. However, in the late
1960's, two important findings in high latitude regions made
the equation of Pleistocene=glacial invalid. First, there is
evidence of migration of cold water marine fauna and terrestrial
flora in lower latitudes. Second, the finding of-glacial deposits
which have been dated radiometrically at 10 million years (my)
before present. For both reasons, glacial climates and glacial
deposits in the late Cenozoic cannot be used as a basis for
differentiating a Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary.

There is also no agreement upon the Pleistocene-Holocene
boundary which initially was conceived as the glacial-post glacial
stratigraphic subdivision. One defining criterion for the boundary
has been the initiation of autochthonous continental sediments
following glaciation. Because of the on-going process of glacier
ice retreat, such a boundary is time transgressive. Another
criterion which has been utilized is the time fixed by changes
in physical features dated around 10,000 years B.P. These
indicate the beginning of the Flandrian sea-level rise (recognizable
only in borings at the lowest sea-level stands), paleobotanical
evidence of temperature increase, the marked on set of aridity
and possibly the time extinctions of the big mammals.

Any distinction between Pleistocene and Holocene if
linked to glacial-post glacial events is:

1'. time transgressive

2. applicable only region by region

3. not applicable in continental regions having no
connections with glaciated regions.

178.

Further confounding of the issue are two other
important facts. First,- the problem is not that the
stratigraphic evidence is sparse or obscure, but rather
that it is so abundant and reported in such detail. Second,
the bulk of the stratigraphic work has been carried out by
land-based geologists observing portions of very incomplete
and obscure evidence of the entire late Cenozoic patterns
of changes. Results of stratigraphic subdivisions, well-
entrenched in the literature reportedly by land-based geologists,
are not readily comparable to dating of cores taken in the
marine environment beginning in the 1960's. No attempt will
be made here to examine or unscramble the difficulties in
resolving the marine core dates in terms of the generally
accepted time-stratigraphic framework presented earlier in
this section.

The remainder of this section will deal with what
is presently known about the Pleistocene-Holocene continental
shelf deposits of the middle Atlantic portion of eastern
United States. An understanding of them is crucial from four
different points of view:

1. They represent the uppermost, unconsolidated
sediments into which any engineering structures,
such as drill rigs, must be securely placed.

2. These sediments are responsive to the circu-
lation regimes on'the shelf.

3. Pleistocene and Holocene deposits represent
the substrate for benthonic marine organisms
and represent the feeding, breeding and growth-
stage ground for innumerable groups of marine
organisms.

4. The deposits are of significant economic
importance (see Section VI.E.).

New evaluations of the Pleistocene-Holocene stratigraphic
boundary are now underway. Three major sources of data are
being gathered, some of which are now available at least in
preliminary form.

The first source of data is continuous seismic
reflection profiles taken on the continental shelf. As
indicated in Emery and Uchupi (1972, p. 4T5), these profiles
commonly show the presence of four or five nearly horizontal,
discontinuous acoustic reflectors thought to be sand units
deposited subaerially during glacial stages. Beneath them is

179,

an unconformity truncating seaward-dipping pre-Pleistocene
Cenozoic strata. The total thickness of these sand units
above the unconformity is indicated in the isopach map
(Figure 36). Knebel and others (.1976) presented the shallow
subbottom stratigraphy and structure of the Baltimore Canyon
Trough portion of the continental shelf. Using vibracore
data in conjunction with detailed seismic reflection surveys,
they present detailed isopach maps of subareas on the shelf
showing distribution of surficial sand sheets of thicknesses
grouped 0-2 m, 2-10 m and 10-20 m. Vibracores of the outer
continental shelf indicates that this surficial sand is shelly,
poorly sorted and medium to coarse grained. The sand sheet
is underlain by muddy, texturally variable materials. This
"stratigraphic" boundary coincides with subbottom reflectors
which can be traced laterally within the study areas. Where
the sand sheet varies in thickness from I m to 20 m, thickness
correlates closely with bottom morphology (i.e., sand waves
and/or ridge and swale topography). In one area, sand waves
were observed on top of the sand sheet. It is the type of
evidence which further supports the ideas of Swift, Stanley
and Curray (1971) and those interpretations in a number of
papers in Swift, Duane and Pilkey (1972) that the shelf
surface sediments are responding to the prevailing hydraulic
regimes. The second major source of data which will lead,
in the near future, to a realistic picture of the Pleistocene-
Holocene stratigraphic arrangement on the continental shelf
of the middle Atlantic bight, comes from the 1976 Atlantic
Margin Coring Project of the U.S. Geological Survey/open-
file report 76-844. There are fifteen core sites in the middle
Atlantic bight hole sites 6007 through 6021. Of these, fourteen
cores did not penetrate below the Pleistocene lower boundary.
Early to mid-Cenozoic units were recovered in the remaining
holes. Correlations among the holes and with other detailed
stratigraphic or seismic information have not been presented.

A third major source of data is available through
extensive studies of the New York bight region by the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research
Center (CERC). There are five important published reports
from which the remainder of this review of shallow stratigraphy
is synthesized. The work of NOAA at the Atlantic Oceanographic
and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) emphasizes sediment
distribution and sediment mobility. Among those NOAA geologists
most immediately involved in analysis of the data are D.J.P.
Swift and George Freeland.

180.

Those reports most useful in the synthesis which
follow are:

Duane and others, 1972
Swift, Kofoed, Saulsbury and Sears, 1972
Williams and Duane, 1974
Charnell and others, 1975
Field and Duane, 1976

A general'ized vertical Pleistocene-Holocene
stratigraphic section of the inner shelf is presented in
Field and Duane (Figure 37) showing representative sediment
types in vertical sequences determined from hundreds of
vibracores. The base is defined by an erosional unconformity.
separating older strata from surficial sands. Sands and
gravels, in places found with an interbedded, dewatered clay
are identified as Pleistocene and older fluvial and coastal
deposits. This unit is overlain by Holocene clayey sandy
silt ranging in thickness from 1 to 5 m which is interpreted
as lagoon-estuarine sediment. Above this, a thin (usually
less than 1 m) organic-rich silt formed in a marsh deposit.
Very fine to fine sands, I m to 1.5 m thick, overlie the
marsh material. These are thought to be of back barrier
origin. The top most inner shelf unit is fine to coarse
modern sands 1 m to 5 m thick responding to on-going
hydraulic processes of the present day shelf. This generalized
model is a logical result of the transgression process continuing
since the shelf was previously subject to subaerial erosion
during falling sea-level and still-stand. With rising sea-
level all portions of the shelf have been subject to processes
of shoreface modification and retreat.

Based on the detailed analysis of the surface
morphology of the Atlantic inner continental shelf,
particularly of the linear shoals (ridge and swale topography),
Duane and Field (1976), Duane and others (1972), and Swift,
Kofoed, Saulsbury and Sears (1972), the following conceptual
model seems to satisfactorily account for the characteristics
of the shelf surface. The dominant pattern of linear shoals
is thought to be a constructional topography formed at the
foot of the sh-oreface. This constructional topography then
undergoes modification in response to the present-day hydraulic
regime. This pattern follows the Bruun (1962) model of coastal
retreat during rising sea level. The resulting "equilibrium"
profile is a product of rising sea-level over unconsolidated
material resulting in shoreface erosion equivalent to parallel
slope retreat, and a resulting aggradation of the sea floor.
The result is the Holocene transgressive sand sheet, a dis-
continuous mantle of material which is only partly autochthonous
because some of its source is Holocene fluvial material. The
surface of this sand sheet is molded into three dominant
morphologic units:

SEAFLOOR 181.
AGE OOMINANT ENVIRONMENT
LITHOLOGY

... . ..... .
t
.... .. F1"W to Coarse
Modern Inner Shelf
Sand

V
ery
Fine to Fine
Sand Back - Barrier
Holocene z ZZ --Organic -rich- Silt
Lagoon
.8 Clayey, Sandy Silt
Estuarine

Coarse Sand a Gravel Coastal
Pleistocene
...... Fluvial
5 older

Generalized vertical section of the shelf in the mid-Atlantic
province off barrier island-spit complexes. Units A and B are always pres-
ent; E, usually present; D, commonly present; and C, rarely present. Thick-
ness of the units is variable, but some approximations can be made for the
range of thicknesses within the Holocene section: Unit B, 1 to 5 m; Unit C,
<1 m; Unit D, 1 to 1.5 m; Unit E, <1 to 5 m.

From Field, M. E. and Duane, David, 1976, GSA Bull., v. 87,
f ig. 8, p. 698)

FIGURE 37
C

182.

1. ridge and swale topography - where the sand
sheet has been generated directly from the
retreating shoreface,

2. cape-associated shoals - generated off cuspate
forelands as a result of littoral drift
convergence 5

3. inlet-associated shoals - formed off estuary
mouths via the intersection of littoral drift
and the reversing estuary tide.

Seaward of portions of the inner shelf where these
three morphologic units are being formed, are earlier features
of the same types. Such evidence clearly substantiates the
point emphasized by Field and Duane (1976) that there was a
similarity in alignment of shorelines during the passage of
Holocene sea-level encroachment across the shelf surface to
its present-day position.

One of the results of surficial sediment studies is
the development of a detailed lithofacies map of the shelf
surface. Two such available maps are given in Williams and
Duane (1974, Fig. 14, p. 42), and in Charnell and others
(197.5, Fig. 2-5, p. 22).

However, these lack the detailed link to topography
which is essential in evaluating potential drill sites. Some
more e'xtensive, regional information relating surface morphology,
sediment types and organisms are reported in the quarterly reviews
of BLM-VIMS studies (D. Boesch, M. Champ, H. Kator, V. Goldsmith,
all presented reviews January 15, 1977 and summarized in a report
to W.B. Rogers as a Summary of the Fifth Quaterly Meeting).
The most detailed sediment distribution maps are being compiled
by George Freeland (AOML of NOAA at Miami) and have not yet
(May, 1977) appeared in print.

. There are other models indicating the predictable
vertical sequence resulting from a transgressing marine environ-
ment. The most detailed are those based on coastal-zone facies
arrangements presented by Kraft (1971a), Kraft, Biggs and
Halsey (1973), and Kraft and others (1974). More general
conceptual models are presented by Fischer (1961) and Swift
(1968). Any model of Pleistocene-Holocene stratigraphic
arrangements on the Atlantic continental shelf needs to be
viewed within the sea-level time curves of Milliman and
Emery (1968) (Figure 38).

THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO
METTRS BELOW SEALEVEL
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
N.E. MASSACHUSSETTS
CONNETICUT
MEW JERSEY
CAPE COD
THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
50
100
150
METERS BELOW SEALEVEL
Sea levels on the U.S. Atlantic continental margin during
the past 35,000 years. The figure on the rigtht shows sea level from
5,000 to 35,000 years ago; the dashed lines show the range of valves
(after Milliman and Emery, 1968). The middle figure shows the relative
rise in Holocene sea level in various areas along the Middle Atlantic

Bight (after Newman and Munsart (1968). The figure on the left shows
fluctuations in sea level along the Middle Atlantic coast as portrayed
in tike gauge records for the past 40 years (after Meade and Emery, 1972
(From Milliman, J.D. 1973 Coastal and Offshore Environmental Inventory:
Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals, Fig. 10.42, p. 10.70

183

to
THOUSANDS OF Years AGO
1 2 3 4 5

Sea levels on the U.S. Atlantic continental
the past 35,000 years. The figure on the right shows sea
59000 to 35,000 years ago; the dashed lines show the range
(after Milliman and Emery, 1968). The middle figure shows
rise In Holocene sea level In various areas along the Midd
Bight (after Newman and Munsart (1968). The figure on the
fluctuations In sea level along the Middle Atlantic coast
In tide gauge records for the past 40 years (after Meade a

From Milliman, J. D., 1973, Coastal and Offshore Enviroment
Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals, fig. 10.42, p. 10.70)

IV.D.5@ Pl'ei'stocene-Holocene

Late Pleistocene and Holocene sedimentation in
the Laurentian Channel, Connolly, J.R.., Needham-,
H.D. and Heezen, B.C., 1967.

Late Quaternary history continental shelves of
the U.S., Curray, J.R., Jr., 1965.

Shallow structure of the continental margin,
Curray, J.R., 1969b.

Long Island Sound in the Quaternary Era, with
observations on the submarine Hudson River Channel,
Dana, J.D., 1972.

Relict sediments on continental shelves of the
world, Emery, K.O., 1968.

Postglacial subsidence of the New York area,
Fairbridge, R.W. and Newman, W.S., 1968.

Post-Pleistocene history of the U.S. inner continental
shelf, Field, M.E. and Duane, D.B., 1976.

Stratigraphic record of transgressing seas in light
of sedimentation on the Atlantic Coast of N.J.,
Fisher, A.G., 1961.

Geology of Long Island, N.Y., Fuller, M.L., 1914.

The pollen fl*ora of Quaternary sediments beneath
Nantucket Shoals, Groot, C.R. and J.J. Groot, 1964.

Possible late Pleistocene uplift, Chesapeake Bay
entrance, Harrison, W.B. and others, 1965.

Preliminary summary of the 1976 Atlantic margin
coring project of the USGS, Hathaway, J.C. and
others, 1967.

Dispersal patterns of Pleistocene sands on the
North Atlantic deep-sea floor, Hubert, J.F., 1962.

The submerged coastal plain and old land of New
England, Johnson, D.W., and Stolfus, M.A., 1924.

Stratigraphy of coastal plain of N.Y., Johnson,
M.E. and Richards, H.G., 1952.

L I
185.

IV.D.5. (continued)

Late Quaternary sea-level change and crustal rise
at Boston, Mass., with notes on the autocompaction
of peat, Kaye, C.A. and Barghoorn, E.S., 1964.

Evidence of Pleistocene events in the structure of
the continental shelf off the northeastern U.S.,
Knott, S.T. and Hoskins, H., 1968.

Sedimentary facies patterns and geologic history
of a Holocene transgression, Kraft, J.C., 1971a.

Morphology and vertical sedimentary sequence
models in Holocene transgressive barrier systems,
Kraft, J.C. and,others, 1973.

Middle-Late Holocene evolution of the morphology
of a drowned estuary system -- the Delaware Bay,
Kraft, J.C. and others, 1974.

Correlation of late Pleistocene marine and glacial
deposits of New Jersey and New York, MacClintock,
P., and Richards, H.G., 1936.

Pleistocene geology of western Cape Cod, Mass.,
Mather, K.F. and others, 1942.

Probable Holocene transgressive effects on geomorphic
features of the continental shelf off New Jersey,
U.S., McClennen, C.E. and R.L. McMaster, 1971.

A submerged Holocene shoreline near Block Island, McMaster,
R.L. and Garrison, L.E., 1967.

Quaternary geology of N.Y., Muller, E.H., 1965.

Late Quaternary geology of the Hudson River estuary,
Newman, W.S. and others, 1969.

The glaciated shelf off northeastern U.S., Oldale,
R.N. and Uchupi, E., 1970.

Glaciation on the continental margin off New England,
Pratt, R.M. and Schlee, J., 1970.

The Quaternary of New England, Schafer, J.P. and
Hartshorn, J.H., 1965.

Reconstruction of late glacial and post-glacial
events in Long Island Sound, Schaffel, S., 1971.

186.

IV-D-5- (continued)

Glacial history of the Gulf of Maine (abstr.),
Schlee, J.S. and Pratt, R.M., 1966.

Holocene sedimentary environment of the Atlantic
inner shelf off Delaware, Sheridan, R.E. and others,
1974.

Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the inner Virginia
continental shelf, Shidler, G.L. and others, 1972.

Marine erosion of glacial deposits in Massachusetts
Bay, Stetson, H.C., 1935.

Submergence of the N.J. coast, Stuiver, M. and
Daddario, J.J., 1963.

Coastal erosion and transgressive stratigraphy,
Swift, D.J.P., 1968.

Quaternary sedimentation on the inner Atlantic
Shelf between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras, a
preliminary report, Swift, D.J.P. and others,
1970.

Late Pleistocene stratigraphy and paleoecology
of the Lower Hudson River Estuary, Weiss, D., 1974.

Foraminifera and origin of the Gardiners clay
(Pleistocene), Eastern Long Island, N.Y., Weiss,
L., 1954.

Sediments and shallow structures of the inner
continental shelf off Sandy Hook, N.J., Williams,
S.J. and Field, M.E., 1971.

Post-Pleistocene history of the U.S. inner
continental shelf, significance to origin of
barrier islands, discussion and reply, Otvos,
E.G., Jr., 1977.

187.

V. SEISMICITY OF THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN

The USGS (1975a) has stated (p. 112) that the "sei'smic
risk is moderate on the Atlantic OCS in comparison to the
other areas of the United States." An examination of earth-
quake epicenters (Figure 39) shows very few epicenters in
the north and mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf.

Hadl2y and Devine (1974) state that "no earthquake
in the /north Atlantic coastaT/ area has had a maximum
epicentral intensity greater than Modified Mercalli (MM)
IV." This is considered to be below the threshold of damage
to structures (USGS, 1975a).

According to Howell (1973) the Continental Shelf has
a hazard index of 6.94 + 1.18 where a @azard index of 7.55
(Mercalli 7) represents-substantial damage to s,tructures
while an index of 5.4 (Mercalli 5) indicates the threshold
of damage.

The Wilmington, Delaware area has had five earthquakes
of Mercalli intensity 5 or more and "fault and surface
trends lineations suggest that these may be part of an
overall tectonic pattern." (USGS, 1975a). The New York
City and New Jersey areas have experienced at least four
earthquakes of Mercalli intensity 5 or more without
significant damage. At least four epicenters have been
located on the Continental Slope east of Baltimore Canyon
Trough. Few earthquake epicenters have been located offshore
due to the difficulty of onshore seismographs in focusing
on offshore earthquakes unless they are large or near shore.

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j2. -

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34:-

FIGURE 39

7/6 71t lz 70

189.

V. SEISMICITY OF THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN

Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the U.S. (exclusive
of Alaska and Hawaii), American Geophysical Union
and U.S. Geological Survey, 1964.

Some geophysical anomalies in the eastern U.S.,
Diment, W.H. and others, 1972.

Introduction to geophysical prospecting 3rd ed.,
Dobrin, M.B., 1976.

Seismotectonic map of the eastern United States,
Hadley, J.R. and Devine, J.F., 1974.

Earthquake hazard in the eastern U.S., Howell, B.F.,
Jr., 1973.

Post-glacial faulting and seismicity in New York and
Quebec, Oliver, J.E. and others, 1970.

Seismicity at continental margins, Oliver, J.E. and
others, 1974.

Contemporary compressive stress and seismicity in eastern
North America, Sbar, M.L. and Sykes, L.R., 1973.

Evidence of post-Pleistocene faults on New Jersey
Atlantic outer continental shelf, Sheridan, R.E. and
Knebel , H.J. , 1976.

Earthquakes of eastern Canada and adjacent areas, 1534-
1927, Smith, W.E.T., 1962.

Earthquakes of eastern Canada and adjacent areas,
1928-1959, Smith, W.E.T., 1966.

Engineering geology of the northeast corridor, Washington,
D.C. to Boston, Massachusetts, earthquake epicenters,
geothermal gradients, and excavations and borings, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1967.

Correlation of tectonically deformed shorelines on the
southern Atlantic coastal plain, Winker, C.D. and Howard,
J.D., 1977.

190.

VI. REASONS FOR ASSUMING NEW YORK SHELF TO BE OF MAJOR
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The offshore portion of the Atlantic contfnental margin
of the United States has not been explored to date and thus
no firm knowledge exists that oil and gas reserves are even
present. The fact that in the July 1976 lease sale #40 of
tracts on the continental shelf surface overlying the Baltimore
Canyon Trough yielded $1.1 billion of private investment to
have drilling rights there, requires a review of the indicators
used to assess the petroleum potential of such a region. There
are three major considerations used in assessing the petroleum
potential which can be reviewed here. A detailed consideration
of the petroleum resources potential of continental margins is
given in Weeks (1974) which contains an annotated bibliography
of recent assessments of the possible extent of petroleum
development in continental margins.

Three major considerations used in assessing the petroleum
potential of New York State's continental margin are:

1. Direct geophysical and geological evidence from
seismic studies and drilling on the continental
margin.

2. Comparisons of the eastern Atlantic continental
margin with geologically similar regions where
petroleum production is underway.

3. Comparisons of the geologic and geophysical data
from New York's continental margins with ancient
continental margins having similar tectonic and
sedimentary histories. An obvious example of
this type of comparison lies in the numerous
similarities between some geologic portions of
the Appalachian basin which are prolific petroleum
producers and major geologic units present beneath
the surface of New York's continental margin.

The first two considerations above were described in two
open-file reports of the United States Geological Survey, reports
75-61 on the mid-Atlantic and 75-353 on the North Atlantic areas.

191:.

VI. REASONS FOR ASSUMING NEW YORK SHELF TO BE OF MAJOR
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

A. Major considerations used in assessing petroleum
potential.

Regional geology of eastern Canada offshore, Austin, G.H.,
1973.

Oceans, New frontiers in exploration, Beck, R.H. and
Lehner, P., 1974.

Review of the subsurface geology and resource potential
of southern Delaware, Benson, R.N., 1976.

Evolution of young continental margins and formation of
shelf basins, Bott, M.H.P., 1971.

Buried ridges within continental margins, Burk, C.A.,
1969.

Geology of continental margins, Burk, C.A. and Drake,
C.L., 1974.

OCS oil and gas - an environmental assessment, Council
on Environmental Quality, 1974.

Future petroleum provinces of the United States -- their
geology and potential, Cram, I.H., ed., 1971.

Canadian offshore mineral resources management, Crosby,
D.G., 1974.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island 0-47, Dawson, W.E., 1972.

Mobil Tetco Thebaud P-84, de Jonge, B., Prior, D.G.
and Harris, R.L., 1973.

Plate tectonics and hydrocarbon accumulation, Dickinson,
W.R. and Yarborough, H., 1976.

Joint program of USGS and WHOI for continental shelf
and slope. In, Summary of Investigations conducted in
1964, Emery, K.O., 1965.

Continental rises and oil potential, Emery, K.O., 1969.

The Atlantic Continental Shelf and Slope, a program for
study, Emery, K.O. and Schlee, J.S., 1963.

192,

VI.A. (continued)

Structure of Georges Bank, Emery, K.O. and E. Uchupi,
1965.

East coast offshore symposium, Baffin Bay to the Bahamas,
Emmerich, H.H., ed., 1974.

Regional aspects of deep-sea drilling in the western
North Atlantic, Ewing, J.I. and Hollister, C.H., 1972.

Atlantic OCS resource and leasing potential, Foote,
R.Q., Mattick, R.E. and Behrendt, J.C., 1974.

Habitat of oil, a symposium containing 56 papers on
oil occurrence worldwide, Weeks, L.G., 1958.

Preliminary summary of the 1976 Atlantic margin coring
project of the USGS, Hathaway, J.C. and others, 1976.

Site 108, continental slope, Hollister, C.D. and
others, 1972.

Sites 105, 106, 107, 108, Hollister, C.D. and others,
1972.

The petrol,eum potential of the emerged and submerged
Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States, Johnston,
J.E., J. Trumbull and G.P. Eaton, 1959.

Lithology of sediments from the western North Atlantic
Leg II Deep Sea Drilling Project, Lancelot, Y.,
Hathaway, J.C. and Hollister, C.D., 1972.

Correlations of subsurface Mesozoic and Cenozoic
rocks along the Atlantic coast, Maher, J.C., 1965.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher,
J.C., 1971.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher,
J.C. and E.R. Applin, 1971.

Mineral resources off the Northeastern coast of the
United States, Manheim, F.T., 1972.

A preliminary report on U.S. Geological Survey geophysical
studies of the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf,
Mattick, R.E. and others, 1973.

193.

VI.A. (continued)

Structural framework of United States Atlantic outer
continental shelf north of Cape Hatteras, Mattick, R.E.,
Foote, R.Q., Weaver, N.L., Crim, M.S., 1974.

Significant possibilities line Atlantic shelf, McCaslin,
J.C., 1976.

Oil and gas possibilities on the Atlantic outer
continental shelf, McKelvey, V.E., 1969.

World subsea mineral resources, McKelvey, V.E. and
Wang, F.F.H., T969.

Geological estimates of undiscovered recoverable oil
and gas resources in the United States, Miller, B.M.
and others, 1975.

Preliminary geologic report on the U.S. northern
Atlantic continental margin, Minard, J.P. and others,
1973.

Preliminary report on geology along Atlantic continental
margin of northeastern United States, Minard, J.P.,
---W-.J----P-e-rry-,- -Weed-, --E-G .-A..-,- Rhod-eh-a-mel --E-.-C. Robbin-s, --E. 1-2--
and R.B. Mixon, 1974.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island E-48, Morrow, D.L., Harris,
R.L. and Warden, A.S., 1972.

National Petroleum Council, Committee on U.S. Energy
Outlook, 1971.

Study of outer continental shelf lands of the United
States, Vol. IV (appendices), Nossaman, Waters, Scott,
Krueger and Riordan, Consultants, 1969.

Structural history and oil potential of offshore area
from Cape Hatteras to Bahamas, Olson, W.S., 1974.

Maryland Esso No. I well, Standard Oil Company of New
Jersey, Ocean City, Maryland, description of ditch
samples, Overbeck, R.M., 1948.

Continuous deep sea salt layer along North Atlantic
margins related to early phase of rifting, Pautot,
G.J.M. Auzende, and X. Le Pichon, 1970.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of the
United States north of Cape Hatteras, a brief survey,
Perry, W.J., Minard, J.P., Weed, E.G.A., Robbins, E.I.,
and Rhodehamel, E.C., 1974.

794.

VI.A. (continued)

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of the
United States north of Cape Hatteras - brief survey,
Perry, W.J. and others, 1975.

Petroleum exploration offshore from New York, Rogers,
W.B., Fakundiny, R.H. and Kreidler, W.L., 1973.

Possible future petroleum potent.ial of Atlantic Coastal
Plain, Peninsular Florida, and adjacent Continental
Shelves - Region II, Rouse, J.T., 1977.

The evolution of the continental margins and possible
long term economic resources, Schneider, E.D., 1969.

Atlantic margin looks favorable, Scott, K.R. and Cole,
J.M., 1975.

Sedimentary basins of the Atlantic margin of North
America, Sheridan, R.E., 1976.

Future hydrocarbon potential of Atlantic coastal
province, Spivak, J. and Sheburne, O.B., 1971.

Summary petroleum and selected mineral statistics of

Plate tectonics in oil and gas exploration of continental
margins, Thompson, T.L., 1976.

An introduction to the geology and mineral resources of
the continental shelves of the Americas, Trumbull,
J.V.A. and others, 1958.

Library research project, mid-Atlantic outer continental
shelf (reconnaissance), U.S. Bureau of Land Management,
1972.

Geological and operational summary, COST #B-2 well,
Baltimore Canyon Trough area, mid-Atlantic OCS,
U.S.G.S., 1976.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene geologic map of the northern
United States continental margin, Weed, E.G.A. and others,
1974.

Petroleum resources potential off continental margins,
Weeks, L.G., 1974.

Geology and petroleum potential in and around Gulf of
St. Lawrence, Williams, E.P., 1974.

East coast - front or frontier, Wilson, J.R., 1974.

T9 5

VI.B. Oil and Gas Potential,_North Atlantic Georges Bank
Basin

Geologic history as related to the basin's petroleum
potential:

1. Initial rifting of Mid-Atlantic produced narrow,
relatively shallow basins in which water circu-
lation may have been restricted.

2. Data from the Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP)
indicate that the earliest sediments deposited
on oceanic basement are Jurassic shallow water,
fossil-bearing carbonates which may have interbeds
of evaporites in areas marginal to initial rift
zones.

3. As early Atlantic floor continued to sink, carbonate
deposition ceased and septic bottom conditions began
to form.

4. Thus, dominant deposition was several hundreds of
meters of Early Cretaceous black shale and carbonaceous
hemipelagic clays caused by both deep water and
resulting stagnation. This reducing environment
continued from the Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) to
-the Upper Cretaceous _(Early Cenomanian)., Black
sapropelic-cfays also were infilling low areas and
irregularities on the deep ocean floor.

5. Toward the end of this time some bottom circulation
developed and this is indicated by "normal" deep
sea brown sediments resting conformably on the
black clays. Southward, evidence of black clays
suggest the presence of stronger bottom currents.

6. The top of the sequence described above is marked
by an acoustic reflector horizon "A" (earliest
Cenomanian). The evidence indicates that increasing
bottom circulation developed with the major increase
in the areal extent of the North Atlantic Basin
beginning in the Late Cretaceous.

The above history of the Western Atlantic can be documented
by existing information -- but geologic data on the shelf area
encompassing Georges Bank are generally sparse to absent.. However,
the foll'owing presentation of an interpretation of the geology of
this area is taken from Schlee and others (1975), U.S.G.S. Open
File Report 75-353. Present interpretation from that source is
given below.

196.

Triassic opening of the Western North Atlantic initiated
block faulting in Georges Bank basin area. These blocks are
up to 20 km across with uplift of as much as 2 km vertically.
In the down dropped blocks there may be up to 2 km of continentally-
derived sediments. This area was also subjected to above normal
geothermal temperatures. The first marine deposits may have
been Jurassic evaporites and these probably occur in local down-
faulted areas. Initial water depths in these basins were shallow,
marine waters probably were restricted behind a tectonic dam at
the shelf edge, and by the Yarmouth arch to the northeast and
the Long Island platform to the southwest. Such restrictions
result in the production of evaporite conditions. Seismic
evidence shows that younger deposits through late Jurassic
draped over continuing block faulted basin margins. Later in
Jurassic (Tithonian) and Early Cretaceous (Neocomian), Atlantic
deepening occurred and less areal restriction permitted limestones
and dolomites to develop over much of the central and the seaward
parts of the Georges Bank basin. Shoreward, nearshore marine
shales and sandstones prob.ably were deposited. By Neocomian
a reduction in the amount and the size of the drape structures
indicates that much of the basin-forming activity had ceased
by this time and that the basin floor irregularities had filled
with sediments.

On some elevated zones near the shelf edge, reefs may
have developed. Continuing tilting and foundering of the
continental margin would have caused extensive transgressions
landward shifting the shoreline westward and reducing terrigenous
input into the basin. Seismic data show that carbonate sediments
blanketed the regions in earliest Cretaceous but later, in Lower
Cretaceous, carbonates were restricted to the southeastern part
of the basin along the shelf edge. Along the northwest edge,
sand and mud are interlayered. Marine clastics in basin-center
possibly interfinger with shelf edge carbonates.

The eastern boundary of the Georges Bank basin, that is,
the supposed reef tract, was no longer a sediment barrier in
the Cretaceous and perhaps turbidites flowed over the shelf
.edge and onto the continental rise forming a thick wedge above
black clays and carbonate sediments.

The Upper Cretaceous rocks are relatively thin so that
Georges Bank basin is filled predominantly with Jurassic and
older Cretaceous deposits. In latest Cretaceous and Early
Tertiary cyclic deposits of marine sands and shales developed.
Normal oceanic circulation was established on the shelf and
the slope with oxygenated waters reaching abyssal regions
oxydizing organic components, except where rapid burial may
have occurred.

A regional erosional unconformity is present across the
shelf above Eocene and through Oligocene. Upper Tertiary deposits,

197.

less than 1 km thick, are mainly unconsolidated silts, sands,
clays and gravel. Thus, the potential source rocks in the
Georges Bank basin are:

1. Carbonaceous Jurassic limestones

2. Organic-rich Lower Cretaceous shale

The potential reservoir rocks in the Georges Bank basin are:

1. Fractured limestone and dolomites -- Jurassic

2. Cretaceous sandstones

3. Shelf edge reefs -- Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous

4. Large structural highs should prevail up into the
Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous that have little
relief in the Upper Cretaceous.

The Scotian Shelf to the northeast of Georges Bank has
been explored by drilling. The two areas have similar tectonic
settings. Physical properties of the rocks in the Scotian
Shelf area are similar to those in the Georges Bank area as
indicated by similar seismic properties of the rocks in the
subsurface. This probably indicates that the lithology and
the stratigraphy are similar in the Scotian Shelf and in the
Georges Bank basin. Of the 45 wells drilled since 1967 in
the Scotian Shelf, 6 are small petroleum discoveries. If the
analogy of the Georges Bank basin area to the Scotian Shelf is
reasonable, both the source and the reservoir beds known to
exist on the Scotian Shelf probably exist on the Georges Bank
b a s i n .

Potential source and reservoir rocks are as follows:

1. If pre-Triassic rocks which are not metamorphosed
exist beneath the Georges Bank basin, depths of
those rocks are greater than 13 km.

2. Jurassic rocks occur at depths between 3 and 6 km,
with a probable thickness of 2 km, and represent
about 1/3 of the total section in the Georges Bank
basin. Rock types are limestones and dolomites.
The reservoir rocks may be in the northwestern part
of the basin where the Jurassic rocks have low
velocities and are relatively shallow (less than
3 km). Seismic velocities indicate sandstones
and shales. No direct evidence is available for
any potential source rocks.

198.

3. Lower Cretaceous rocks are thought to have best
petroleum potential. Thicknesses exceed 2 km
and depths of these rocks are 1 to 4 km. Potential
petroleum resources in reservoir rocks probably
are present in the various rock types - marine
sandstone, shale and limestone. Downdip, limestone
reservoirs may exist. These potential reservoir
beds coalesce updip where they are truncated by the
regional unconformity along the northern margin of
the basin. No evidence exists, at present, of fault
traps, but there may be shelf edge reservoirs.
The question remains whether any of these shelf edge
reservoir rocks connect downslope to the 200 to 300
meter thick organic-rich clay unit which was encountered
in DSDP #101 and #105. These holes are 4,000 km
apart, which indicates a broad Lower Cretaceous
blanket of organic rich clays (sapropel) at the foot
of the continental margin of the western North
Atlantic.

4. Most Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary (?) rocks
probably accumulated in oxidizing conditions,
although the rocks present may be g-ood potential
reservoirs. Comparison must be made to the Scotian
Shelf where 247 m of pay sands are present in the
Upper Cretaceous in the Mobil -- Tetco Sable Island
E-48 Well. Some Upper Cretacous rocks are exposed
downdip on the continental slope Georges Bank.

5. The Upper Tertiary section probably has little
potential. It is less than I km thick and it is
made of unconsolidated silts, sands, clays and
gravels.

Potential traps that occur in the Georges Bank basin
(based on seismic data) are:

1. Drape structures

2. Fault traps

3. Stratigraphic traps in carbonate sediments

4. Stratigraphic traps associated with facies changes

5. Updip wedgeouts

6. Fracture zones in Triassic basins

7. Unconformities

199.

Estimates of economically recoverable resources in
frontier areas are tenuous at best. Different approaches
to the problem give results that may differ several fold
for a given area. The numbers used in the Draft Environmental
Impact Statement for Sale 42 in the Georges Bank area were
0.18 to 0.65 billion barrels of oil and 1.2 to 4.3 trillion
cubic feet of gas.

Details of methods of estimating quantities of undiscovered
resources are discussed in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 725,
"Geological Estimates of Undiscovered Recoverable Oil and Gas
Resources in the United States."

200.

VI.B. Oil and Gas Potential, North Atlantic Georges Bank
B a s i n

Oil and the outer continental shelf - The Georges
Bank Case, Ahern, W.R., Jr., 1973.

Regional geology of Grand Banks, Amoco Canada
Petroleum Co. Ltd., and Imperial Oil Ltd., Offshore
Exploration Staffs, 1974.

Preglacial structure of Georges Bank and Northeast
Channel, Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D. and Sorensen,
F.H., 1968.

The native of Triassic continental rift structures
in the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D., 1974.

Geology of the Gulf of Maine, Ballard, R.D. and
Uchupi, E., 1974.

Triassic rift structure in Gulf of Main, Ballard, R.D.
and Uchupi , E. , 1975.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyons,
Part 3, Cretaceous bryozoan from Georges Bank,
Bassler, R.S., 1936.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyons,
Cushman, J.A., 1936.

Mobil Tetco Thebaud P-84, de Jonge, B., Prior, D.G.,
and Harris, R.L., 1973.

Continental margin of eastern Canada, Georges Bank to
Kane basin, Keen, M.J., B.D. Loncarevic and G.N. Ewing,
1970.

Preliminary report on geology along Atlantic continental
margin of northeastern United States, Minard, J.P.,
W.J. Perry, E.G.A. Weed, E.C. Rhodehamel, E.I. Robbins,
and R.B. Mixon, 1974.

The Georges Bank Petroleum Study, Offshore Oil Task
Group, 1973.

Geophysical observations on northern part of Georges
Bank and adjacent basins of Gulf of Maine, Oldale,
R.N. and others, 1974.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the United States North Atlantic outer continental
shelf, Schlee, J. and others, 1975.

201

VI.B. (continued)

Geology of Georges Bank basin, Schultz, L.K. and R.L.
Grover, 1974.

Geology and paleontology of the Georges Bank Canyon,
Part 11, Upper Cretaceous fossils from Georges Bank
(including species from Banquereau, Nova Scotia),
Stephenson, L.W., 1936.

Geology and paleontology of Georges Bank Canyons,
Part 1, Geology, Stetson, H.C., 1936.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. North Atlantic OCS, U.S.G.S., 1975.

Geological and operational summary, COST #B-2 well,
Baltimore Canyon Trough area, Mid-Atlantic OCS,
U.S.G.S., 1976.

Geological estimates of undiscovered recoverable
oil and gas resources in the United States, U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 725, Miller, B.M., et al,
1975.

202.

VI.C. Oil and Gas Potential, Mid-Atlantic Baltimore Canyon
Trough

In the U.S. Geological Surv ey (1975) open-file report
75-61, the oil and gas potential of the Mid-Atlantic Baltimore
Canyon Trough is assessed. A review of that assessment is
given below.

The reasons for optimism concerning the economic
potential of the Baltimore Canyon Trough were summarized
by Mattick, Weaver, Foote and Grim (1974).

1. The sedimentary thickness is comparable to those
thicknesses found in the Gulf and California
coasts. The differences lie, however, in the
fact that the rocks in the Baltimore Canyon Trough
are older. Also, they have higher seismic velocities
and, therefore, may have less porosity and thus, less
potential as reservoir beds.

2. The structural settings within the Baltimore Canyon
Trough appear to be favorable.

According to Weed and others (1974), the mineral resources
of the continental shelf and the continental slope north of Cape
Hatteras may be enormous. Sediment volumes in that region are
about 580,000 cubic km (140,000 cubic mi.). Using the sedimentary-
volume method of resource estimation, petroleum resource potential
in the Baltimore Canyon Trough could be 15 billion barrels of
oil and 70 trillion cubic ft. of gas. Exploration is required
to give a more realistic evaluation of the true potential.

DSDP penetrated dark green to black Mesozoic clays south-
east of New York which were rich in organic matter and may be
a potential source and reservoir bed. These clays have not been
identified beneath the continental shelf but the petroleum may
have migrated to the shelf area from beds beneath the continental
rise via the continental slope where these organic rich clays were
found.

The top of the Jurassic section is about 7,000 meters
beneath the axis of the Baltimore Canyon Trough. This depth is
below the present economic basement, but in the future the
Jurassic may become a prospect.

The Lower Cretaceous section beneath the coastal plain
is up to 1,600 meters thick and seaward becomes more marine
(i.e., del-taic sequences of sands and shales occur shelfward).
Rapid sedimentation in nearshore environments favorable to
petroleum development is represented in the Early Cretaceous
(Cenomanian) transgressive phases which are extensive in the
upper and the eastern portions of the Potomac Group in the
Salisbury Embayment. Thus, most promise appears to be east
of the onshore wells where the Potomac Group thickens and
increases in its marine components providing that there are
suitable traps.

203.

The Upper Cretaceous section is dominantly marine
sands and shales and presumably has fewer reservoir rocks
than exist in the materials beneath, although it is considered
a prospective horizon. The entire Cretaceous is up to 5,250
meters thick in the center of the Baltimore Canyon Trough.

The Tertiary section reaches a maximum of 2,100 meters
thick. It has few structural anomalies and is too shallow
and too thin to be highly prospective.

Cretaceous and younger materials are predominately
clastic sediments as indicated by the seismic velocity analysis.
The onshore well data indicate that this is a thick, deltaic
sequence which extends offshore. Potential source and potential
reservoir beds probably exist beneath the Mid-Atlantic area.
Cretaceous rocks seem to be the most promising as oil and gas
prospects, particularly the Lower Cretaceous rocks.

Traps that may be present are of several types:

1. Structural relief over piercement structures,
fault blocks and reefs which may be present.

2. Possible reefs.

3. Stratigraphic traps.

Details on the dbove (1, 2 and-3) can be found on
pages 106 and 107 of the U.S. Geological Open-File Report
75-61.

The following estimation of potential petroleum
resources is based on the U.S.G.S. Open File Report 75-61,
pages 108 and 109. Among the methods of estimating petroleum
potential the following have been used commonly.

1. The behavioristic models by M.K. Hub,bert and
by Charles Moore.
2. Volumetric (and areal) - geologic models by
T.A. Hendricks, L.G. Weeks and by Spivak and
Shelburne.

3. Combinations of number 1 and number 2 used by
the National Petroleum Council and by some oil
companies.

In the Middle Atlantic area outlined in the Bureau
of Land Management Memorandum number 3301.3 (722) for possible
lease sale in reference to the Middle Atlantic area, the
following data relating area and sediment thickness have
6een compiled. First, the total area of the Baltimore Canyon

204.

Trough is 17,373 square miles and, in terms of sediment
thickness vs. the areal extent of that sediment thickness,
the following data have been given and is presented as a
histogram in Figure 40.

1. Where sediment thickness is between 0 and 2 km,
this covers an area of 1,149 sq. miles.

2. Where sediment thickness is between 2 and 4 km,
that extends over an area of 1,490 sq. miles.

3. In areas where the sediment thickness is between
4 and 6 km, the areal distribution is 3,247 sq.
miles.

4. In areas where the sediment thickness is between
6 to 10 km, the areal distribution of that material
is 7,312 sq. miles.

5. In areas where sediment thickness exceeds 10 km,
the areal distribution of that material is 4,175
sq. miles.

Using the information from Hendricks (1965), the
petroleum potential in the Baltimore Canyon Trough is as
follows:

1. Three to five billion barrels of oil, and,

2. Fifteen to twenty-five trillion cu. ft. of
gas may'be present.

Alternate methods yield different results. For example
later U.S.G.S. estimates for the Baltimore Canyon Trough gave
the low to high range of 0.40 to 1.40 billion barrels of oil
and 2.6 to 9.4 trillion cu. ft. of gas. See Miller, B.M.,
et al (1975) for a discussion of methods of resource estimates.

There have been only three deep holes drilled thus far
on the outer continental shelf off New York. The Cost B-2
well was drilled during 1976 about 146 miles east of Atlantic
City, New Jersey, in the Baltimore Canyon Trough. A second
well is the G-1, 116 miles east of Nantucket on Georges Bank.
Both are deep stratigraphic test wells to help oil companies
and the Federal government evaluate areas of potential leasing
for petroleum exploration. Thus, the wells are drilled for
the purpose of determining the stratigraphic succession, ages
and characteristics or rocks present beneath the surface of
the Atlantic continental shelf, the acquired data, derived
from pooled private financing of the drilling program is, in
large measure, available for examination by other governmental
agencies and states in order to assess the geology of regions
proposed for later intensive exploration for potential petroleum.
A third well, the G-3, is now (May, 1977) being drilled.

SEDIMENT THICKNESS VERSUS AREA -2H.-
8ALTIMORE- CANYON TROUGH,*

10+- 4,175

6-10 7,312

4-6 3247

4 1,490

Ct)

0-2 1,149

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

AREA -1000 SQ. MI.
*DATA FROM ELLM. MEMORANDUM 3301.Z(722)

FIGURE 40

206.

The following section summarizes the results of the
COST B-2 well, drilled in the Baltimore Canyon Trough. A
more complete discussion of the results can be found in Scholle
(1977) and the Open File report on the well (76-774). Figure 41
shows the COST B-2 well, the thickness of section penetrated
compared to total thickness and DSDP hole 108.

The well penetrated almost 5,000 meters of Cenozoic
and Mesozoic sediments. Rocks of high organic content are
present from 1,000 meters (Miocene) to 2,000 meters (Upper
Cretaceous) and 3,000 meters (Lower Cretaceous) to 5,000
meters (Lower Cretaceous) and some of these rocks are capable
of generating considerable amounts of hydrocarbons. The
temperature may have been too low in much of the section to
generate oil, but it should have been high enough for gas forma-
tion. Reservoir rocks are abundant, but the reservoir quality
of most of the sandstones degrades rapidly at depths greater
than 3,500 to 4,000 meters. Seals in the form of shales are
present in much of the section.

Scholle (1977) concludes that a higher potential for
natural gas is present than for oil because of the lower
temperature generated in the sediments. Seaward of the COST
B-2 well the sediments probably are more marine in character
which would improve the potential for oil generation. Marine
sediments with a lower feldspar content than occur in the B-2
section would result in less cementation, hence higher porosity
than was found. A section with more shale units at depth
than the B-2 section would have a higher petroleum potential
as well.

GENERALIZED SECTION OF THE U5 ATLANTIC 5HELF, SLOPE
AND RISE

COST DSDP 101a
5L
lplw

OCEANIC
CONT

15 TRANS.
0 100 200 300 40c)

X IL 0 ME TER S

208.

VI.C. Oil and Gas Potential, Middle Atlantic Baltimore
Canyon Trough

The stratigraphy of the continental shelf east of
New Jersey (abstr.), Chelminski, P. and Fray, C.I.,
1966.

Geological background Baltimore Canyon trough, Emery,
K.O., 1974.

Marine and environmental implications of oil and gas
development in the Baltimore Canyon region of the Mid-
Atlantic coast, Estuarine Research Federation - OCS
Conference and Workshop, 1974.

Baltimore Canyon trough area hazards, Knebel, H.J.,
et al, 1976.

The responsibilities and environmental programs of
the U.S. Geological Survey in the Baltimore Canyon
trough area, Knebel, H.J. and Hardin, N.S., 1974.

Time-stratigraphic units and petroleum entrapment
models in Baltimore Canyon basin of Atlantic
continental margin geosynclines, Kraft, J.C.,
Sheridan, R.E. and Maisano, M., 1971.

Geological estimates of undiscovered recoverable
oil and gas resources in the United States, Miller,
et al, 1975.

Geologic history of basement fault motions in the
Baltimore Canyon trough correlated with North Atlantic
sea-floor spreading (abstr.), Sheridan, R.E. and Brown,
P.M., 1975.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1975.

209.

VI.D. Assessment of Petroleum Potentialby Comparison
with Ancient Continental Margins

The third major means of assessing petroleum potential
of the Atlantic continental margin off eastern United States
lies in the comparison with ancient continental margins where
petroleum production has been a proven resource. There are
several geologic facts previously given in this report which
are pertinent in this assessment.

First, the continental margin of eastern United States
in tectonic terms is a trailing type margin, the type example
of the Amero-trailing margin described by Inman and Nordstrom
(1971).

Second, the geologic development of a trailing margin
included:

a. initial rifting and fragmentation of continental
crust,

b. filling of rifted areas with river-derived sediments
from the land and on its seaward side the possibilities
of both reef development and precipitation of salts
resulting from evaporation of marine water influxes,

c. as marine areas between the rifted portions of the
spreading continents enlarges, the seaward portion
of the trailing continental margin is dominated by
marine conditions of sedimentation while the land-
ward part is dominated by continued influx of river-
borne detritus from the continent.

The continued development of the trailing margin of
the continent is governed by both the rate of influx of landward-
derived sediment and the magnitude of sea-level changes along
the continent margin. The magnitudes and numbers of shifts in
shore-line positions during this build-up of sediment on the
continental margin is a chief factor in determining the possible
presence and number of both petroleum source beds and petroleum
reservoir beds -- where the overall history of sediment accumulation
is one in which the land-derived sediments continue building seaward
through time. Such sediment sequence is termed a "regressive"
sequence. This regression process of seaward building of land-
derived sediments established optimal conditions for petroleum
source and reservoir beds to occur. Similar regressive sedimentary
sequences which developed in the geologic past are important
petroleum producers today. The Middle and Upper Devonian deposits
of the Central Appalachian basin including New York State yielded
the first production of petroleum in the 19th century and continue
producing today. Formed under a different tectonic setting, these
Devonian rocks represent one important regressive sedimentary
sequence and have many important sedimentary counterparts in the
deposits of New York State's present-day continental margin. A

210.

review of the ancient continental margin of eastern North
America is given in Williams and Stevens (1974). The
geologic development of the present continental margin is
given in Schlee and others (1976), Mayhew (1974), Ballard
and Uchupi (1975), Schultz and Grover (1974), Minard and
others (1974) and Mattick and others (1974).

211

VI.D. Assessment of Petroleum Potential by Comparison with
Tn-cient Continental Margins

Triassic rift structure in Gulf of Maine, Ballard,
R.D. and Uchupi, E., 1975.

Plate tectonics and hydrocarbon accumulation,
Dickinson, W.R. and Yarborough, H., 1976.

Petroleum and global tectonics, Fischer, A.G. and
Judson, S., 1975.

Structural framework of United States outer continental
shelf north of Cape Hatteras, Mattick, R.E., et al, 1974.

"Basement" to east coast continental margin of North
America, Mayhew, M.A., 1974.

Preliminary report on the geology along Atlantic
continental margin of northeastern United States,
Minard, J.P., et al, 1974.

Regional geologic framework off northeastern United
States, Schlee, J., et al, 1976.

Geology of Georges Bank basin, Schultz, L.K. and Grover,
R.L., 1974.

Petroleum resources potential off continental margins,
Weeks, L.G., 1974.

The ancient continental margin of eastern North America,
Williams, H. and Stevens, R.K., 1974.

212.

VI.E. Other Economic Resources of New York Shelf

Although this report was prepared to organize the
geologic information pertinent principally to the potential
petroleum exploration of New York's outer continental shelf,
other important economic resources exist there as well. A
brief assessment of them is given below. It is not idle
speculation to point out that some of these economic resources
of New York's continental shelf may ultimately be of greater
importance to the urban and suburban centers of New York's
Coastal region than a petroleum industry. Most particularly,
this refers first to the vast resources of sands and gravels
necessary for the construction industry which lie just a few
miles from New York's shoreline; second, to the potential of
fresh artesian waters in the permeable sands which dip from
the coastal plain beneath the continental shelf surface.
These strata conceivably could be a major water source for
the enormous population of southeastern New York State.

The general references pertinent to assessing other
economic resources of the New York Shelf are listed below.

213.

VI.E. Other Economic Resources of New York Shelf

Canadian offshore mineral resources management,
Crosby, D.G., 1974.

Mineral resources potential of continental margins,
Cruickshank, M.J., 1974.

Some potential mineral resources of the Atlantic
continental margin, Emery, K.O., 1965.

Manganese iron accumulation in the shallow marine
environment, Rhode Island University, Manheim, F.T.,
1965.

Mineral resources off the Northeastern coast of the
United States, Manheim, F.T., 1972.

Subsea mineral resources and problems related to
their development, McKelvey, V.E. and others, 1969.

Potential mineral resources of the U.S. outer
continental shelf, Appendix S-A, McKelvey, V.E.
and others, 1969.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States -- physiography and sediments of the deep-sea
basin, Pratt, R.M., 1968.

The evolution of the continental margins and possible
long-term economic resources, Schneider, E.D., 1969.

Summary petroleum and selected mineral statistics for
120 countries, including offshore areas, U.S. Geological
Survey, Prof. Paper 817, 1973.

An introduction to the geology and mineral resources
of the continental shelves of the Americas, Trumbull,
J.V.A..and others, 1958.

Continental shelf sediments off northeastern United
States (abstr.), Trumbull, J.V.A. and others, 1966.

Sediments on the continental margin off eastern United
States, Uchupi, E., 1963.

Library research*project, mid-Atlantic outer continental
shelf (reconnaissance), U.S. Bureau of Land Management,
1972.

Regulations pertaining to mineral leasing, operations,
and pipeline on the outer continental shelf as contained
in Title 30 and Title 43 of the code of Federal Regulations
and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, U.S. Dept. of
Interior, 1971.

214.

VI.E. (continued)

Oceanographic atlas of the North Atlantic Ocean, U.S.
Naval Oceanoqraphic Office, 1965.

Marine mineral identification survey of coastal
Connecticut, Donahue, J.J. and Tucker, F.B., 1970.

215.

VI.E.l. Sands and Gravels

The principal reason for introducing the topic of sand
and gravel resources of New York's continental shelf relates
to both urban maintenance and suburban sprawl. A principal
result of population expansion around urban regions is the
rapid shift in availability of raw materials for the construction
industry due almost entirely to community zoning regulations.
With outward expansion of the metropolitan region comes ever-
increasing zoning restrictions on open-pit mining or quarrying
for the raw materials of construction -- sand, gravel and limestone,
all components of paving, concrete and construction stone. As
a result, the present need to transport this raw material from
great distances to the metropolitan regions has escalated building
costs significantly. To date, there has been no serious effort
to acquire the readily available sands and gravels from offshore
but the probability is one which needs to be anticipated by state
agencies. They clearly can assist the construction industry in
outlining feasible target areas and, at the same time, be in a
position to demonstrate the types of environmental changes to
designated parts of the shelf where sea-bed materials and current
patterns might permit the feasibility of surface "strip mining"
on the continental shelf surface.

Such a program of outlining "safe" areas for sand
and gravel removal is a task for the future. What this
report provides is some initial references to reports which
give such a study a solid foundation. The geologic information
in this report in preceding sections is pertinent:

II. MAJOR SURFACE FEATURES OF CONTINENTAL SHELF

A. Shelf Valley
1. Buried 5 elf Valleys
C. Ridq@ and Swale Topography
D. Remnants of Lower Sea-Level Stands
1. Beach Ridges
2. Shoal-retreat Massifs

III. PROCESS INFLUENCING SURFACE OF THE CONTINENTAL
SHELF
B. Currents and Circulation Dynamics of the
Outer Continental Shelf
1. Indicators of Shelf Circulation
a. Dynamics of Ridge and Swale Topography
b. Across-Shelf Transfers of Suspended
Material

IV. GEOLOGIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW YORK CONTINENTAL
SHELF
D.5. Pleistocene-Holocene

216.

The principal requirement to successfully initiate a study
of sand and gravel resources of New York's continental shelf
is the preparation of detailed surface sediment distribution
maps. Those maps would show sediment properties such as
grain size distribution, sorting, roundness and composition.
Thickness of surface layers of uniform grain character would
be important along with its topographic setting within the
shelf surface (for example, within zones of ridge and swale
topography or within shelf valleys).

Because of the nature of the link between nearshore
sands and compositional properties of inner shelf surficial
deposits, it is possible to make a rapid assessment of shelf
sediment composition by examining the beach sands along the
coast. Pilkey and Field (1972) have shown the validity of
this approach whereby beach sand composition can give a "quick
and dirty" qualitative assessment of the surficial sand-sized
sediments on the shelf.

Below is a list of references which as a group could
be used to begin the preparation of such sediment distribution
maps useful in locating target sites for sand and gravel
I'quarrying" offshore.

217.

VI.E.l. Sand and Gravels

A petrographic and petrologic study of some continental
shelf sediments, Alexander, A.E., 1934.

Migrating sand waves and sand humps, with special
reference to investigations carried on in the Danish
North Sea coast, Bruun, P., 1954.

Some specific problems in understanding bottom
sediment distribution and dispersal on the continental
shelf, Creager, J.S. and Sternberg, R.W., 1972.

Late Quaternary history continental shelves of the
United States, Curray, Jr., 1965.

Sediment size distribution profile on the continental
shelf off New Jersey, Donohue, J.G. and others, 1966.

Comments on the dispersal of suspended sediment across
the continental shelves, Drake, D.E. and others, 1972.

Sand deposits on the continental shelf, a presently
exploitable resource, Duane, D.B., 1968.

Upper stratification of Hudson Apron region, Ewing,
J.I. and others, 1963.

Sediments and topography of the Gulf of Mexico,
Ewing, M. and others, 1958.

Sediment distribution in the oceans, Ewing, M.,
Carpenter, G. Windisch, C. and Ewing, S., 1973.

Post-Pleistocene history of the United States inner
continental shelf, Field, M.E. and Duane, D.B., 1976.

Bottom sediments on the continental shelf of the
northeastern United States, Folger, D.W. and others,
in press.

Continental shelf sediments off New Jersey, Frank,
W.M., 1976.

Continental shelf sediments off New Jersey, Frank,
W.M. and Friedman, G.M., 1973.

Sediments and geomorphology of the continental shelf
off southern New England, Garrison, L.E. and R.I.
McMaster, 1966.

Atlantic sediments, erosion rates, and the evolution
of the continental shelf, Gilluly, J., 1964.

218.

VI.E.l. (continued)

Data file, Continental Margin Program, Atlantic
.coast of the United States, Hathaway, J.C., ed.,
1966.

Data file, Continental Margin Program, Atlantic
coast of the United States, Hathaway, J.C., ed.,
1967.

Data file, Continental Margin Program, Atlantic
coast of the U.S., v. 2, Hathaway, J.C., 1971.

Preliminary summary of the 1976 Atlantic margin
coring project of the U.S.G.S., Hathaway, J.C.
and others, 1976.

Relationship between coastal climate and bottom
sediment type on the inner continental shelf,
Hayes, M.O., 1967.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States - Texture of surface sediments from New Jersey
to southern Florida, Hollister, C.D., 1973.

Dispersal patterns of Pleistocene sands on the
North Atlantic deep-sea-floor, Hubert, J.F.; 1962.

The continental margin off the Atlantic coast of
the United States, Hulsemen, J., 1967.

Relationship between bottom topography and marine
sediment properties in an area of submarine gullies,
Inderbitzen, A.L. and F. Simpson, 1971.

Mineralogic composition of sand-sized sediment on
the outer margin off the Mid-Atlantic States,
Kelling, G. and others, 1975.

Sedimentary facies patterns and geologic history
of a Holocene transgression, Kraft, J.C., 1971a.

Transportation of sand grains along the Atlantic
shore of Long Island, New York, Krinsley, D.,
Takahashi, T., Silberman, M.L. and Newman, W.S., 1964.

Coastal sands of the eastern United States, McCarthy,
G.R., 1931.

Transport and escape of fine-grained sediment from
shelf areas, McCave, I.N., 1972.

219.

VI.E.l. (continued)

Probable Holocene transgressive effects on geomorphic
features of the continental shelf off New Jersey,
McClennen, C.E. and R.L. McMaster, 1971.

Quantitative method for describing the regional
topography of the ocean floor, McDonald, M.G.
and E.S. Katz, 1969.

Continental shelf sediments of Long Island, N.Y.,
McKinney, T.F. and Friedman, G.M., 1970.

Petrography and genesis of N.J. beach sands,
McMaster, R.L., 1954.

Sediments of Narragansett Bay system and Rhode
Island Sound, McMaster, R.L., 1960.

Petrography and genesis of recent sediments in
Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound, McMaster,
R.L., 1962.

Mineralogy and origin of southern New England shelf
sediments, McMaster, R.L. and Garrison, L.E., 1966.

Sub-bottom basement drainage system of inner
continental shelf off southern New England, McMaster,
R.L. and Ashraf, A., 1973.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United
States -- Petrology of the sand fraction of sediments,
northern New Jersey to southern Florida, Milliman,
J.D., 1972.

Sediments of the continental margin off the eastern
United States, Milliman, J.D. and others, 1972.

Coastal morphology and processes in relation to the
development of submarine sand ridges off Bethany
Beach, Delaware, Moody, D.W., 1964.

Sedimentary framework of continental terrace off
Norfolk, Virginia and Newport, Rhode Island,
Moore, D.G. and J.R. Curray, 1963.

Bottom sediment studies, Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts,
Moore, J.R., 111, 1963.

Rythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents,
Off, T., 1963.

220.

VI.E.l. (continued)

The glaciated shelf off northeastern United States,
Oldale, R.N. and Uchupi, E., 1970.

Sedimentary framework of the western Gulf of Maine
and the southeastern Massachusetts offshore area,
Oldale, R.N., E. Uchupi and K.E. Prada, 1973.

Sediments and morphology of the continental shelf
off southeast Virginia, Payne, L.H., 1970.

Onshore transportation of continental shelf sediment,
Pilkey, O.H. and M.E. Field, 1972.

Glaciation on the continental margin off New England,
Pratt, R.M. and Schlee, J., 1969.

The sand and gravel industry of the United States of
America with special reference to exploiting the
deposits offshore the eastern seaboards, Rexworthy,
S.R., 1968.

Source and dispersion of surface sediments in the
Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank area, Ross, D.A., 1970.

Relief and bottom--di?posits -at Georges-Ba:-nk-and---
Banquereau. In, Materialy rybokhozyaystvennykh
issledevanii severngo basseyna (polarnyi mauchnoissled-
vatelskiy i proyektnyi), Rvachev, V.D., 1964.

Topographic relief and bottom sediments of the Georges
and Banquereau Banks, Rvachev, V.D., 1965.

Holocene shoestring sand on inner continental shelf
off Long Island, Sanders, J.E. and Kumar, N., 1975.

New Jersey offshore gravel deposit, Schlee, J., 1964.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United States --
sediment texture of the northeastern part, Schlee, J., 1973.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the U.S. --
Gravels of the northeastern part, Schlee, J. and
Pratt, R., 1970.

Bottom sediments on the continental shelf of northeastern
United States; Cape Cod to Cape Ann, Mass., Schlee, J.,
Folger, D.W. and O'Hara, C.J., 1973.

Significance of submerged deltas in the interpretation
of the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P., 1928.

221.

VI.E.l. (continued)

Sediments on the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P.,
1932.

Continental shelf sediments off the mid-Atlantic
states, Shepherd, F.P. and Cohee, G.V., 1936.

Holocene sedimentary environment of the Atlantic
inner shelf off Delaware, Sheridan, R.E., C.E. Dill,
Jr. and J.C. Kraft, 1974.

Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the inner Virginia
continental shelf, Shideler, G.L. and others, 1972.

Geomorphology of a sand ridge, Smith, J.D., 1969.

Anatomy of a shoreface-connected ridge system on
the New Jersey shelf, Stahl, L., J. Koczan and
D. Swift, 1974.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the U.S.
color of marine sediments, Stanley, D.J., 1969.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns,
F. and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Scale
1:125,000, Stearns, F., 1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

The origin and limits of a zone of rounded quartz
sand off the southern New England coast, Stetson,
H.C., 1934.

The sediments of the continental shelf off the
eastern coast of the United States, Stetson, H.C.,
1938.

Summary of sedimentary conditions on the continental
shelf off the east coast of United States, Stetson,
H.C., 1939.

The sediments and stratigraphy of the east coast
continental margin, Georges Bank to Norfolk Canyon,
Stetson, H.C., 1949.

Underwater sand ridges on Georges Shoal, Stewart,
H.B., Jr. and G.F. Jordan, 1964.

222.

VI.E.l. (continued)

Sediment response to the hydraulic regime on the
central New Jersey shelf, Stubblefied, W.L., J.W.
Lavelle, T.F. McKinney, and D.J.P. Swift, 1975.

Ridge development as revealed by sub-bottom
profiles on the central New Jersey shelf, Stubblefield,
W.L. and D.J.P. Swift, 1976.

Submergence of the New Jersey coast, Stuiver, M. and
Daddario, J.J., 1963.

Implications of sediment dispersed from bottom
current measurement, some specific problems in
understanding bottom sediment distribution and
dispersal on the continental shelf -- a discussion
of two papers, Swift, D.J.P., 1972.

Continental shelf sedimentation, Swift, D.J.P., 1974.

Barrier island genesis, Swift, D.J.P., 1975a.

Tidal sand ridges and shoal retreat massifs,
Swift, D.J.P., 1975.

Quaternary sedimentation on the -inner Atlantic
shelf between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras, Swift,
D.J.P., G.L. Shideler, N.F. Avignone, B.W. Holliday
and C.E. Dill, Jr., 1970.

Textural differentiation in the shoreface during
erosional retreat of an unconsolidated coast, Cape
Henry to Cape Hatteras, western north Atlantic
shelf, Swift, D.J.P. and others, 1971.

Relict sediments on continental shelves, a reconsideration,
Swift, D.J.P., Stanley, D.J. and Curray, J.R., 1971.

Holocene evolution of the shelf surface, central and
southern Atlantic shelf of North America, Swift, D.J.P.,
Kofoed, J.W., Saulsburg, F.P. and Sears, P., 1972.

Anatomy of a shoreface ridge system, False Cape,
Virginia, Swift, D.J.P., B.W. Holliday, N.R. Avignone
and G. Shideler, 1972a.

Substrate response to hydraulic process, Swift, D.J.P.
and Ludwick, J.C., 1976.
0 Littoral materials of the south shore of L.I., New
York, Taney, N.M., 1961.

223.

VI.E.l. (continued)

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the U.S. --
sand-sized fraction of bottom sediments, N.J. to
Nova Scotia, Trumbull, J.V.A., 1972.

Bottom sediments of Georges Bank, Wigley, R.L.,
1961.

Sediments and shallow structures of the inner
continental shelf off Sandy Hook, N.J., Williams,
S.J. and Field, N.E., 1971.

Sand and gravel on the continental shelf off the
northeastern U.S., Schlee, J., 1968.

224.

VI.E.2 Heavy Metals

A direct result of preparing sediment distribution
maps for sand and gravel exploration as mentioned above is
a map showing the composition of the finer grained, more
dense, metallic minerals which inevitably are associated with
sand and gravel deposits. Such heavy metal accumulation are
called placer deposits and can include a wide variety of
economically important heavy metals such as gold, silver,
cassiterite, garnet, ilmenite, magnetite and even platinum.
Such heavy metals are carried in minute quantities by streams
and rivers which have been flowing toward the Atlantic con-
tinental margins since its origin in the late Mesozoic. The
processes of winnowing by stream flow, currents, tidal and
wave action commonly cause local concentrations of the more
dense, finer metallic minerals. This concentration process
has been particularly active during the shifting sea-level
stands across the shelf surface during Pleistocene and post-
Pleistocene epochs and is an on-going process on the shelf
surface today.

Channel deposits of streams crossing the continentaT
shelf during the Pleistocene lowered sea-level would be
immediate targets for potential heavy metal exploration.
Buried shelf valleys, ridge and swale topography, ridges and
shoals - retreat massifs should undoubtedly contain some
quantities of placer deposits of heavy metals. Recognizing
such potential sites of this resource could only be a product
of second generation detailed maps of shelf surface sediment
distribution. Thus, in addition to the references listed
above under "Sands and Gravels," the following are papers
describing specific heavy mineral types and their distribution
on the continental shelf of New York.

225.

VI.E.2. Heavy Metals

Economic placer deposits of the continental shelf,
Emery, K.O. and Noakes, L.C., 1968.

Sediment distribution in the oceans, Ewing, M.,
Carpenter, G. Windisch, C. and Ewing, S., 1973.

Atlantic sediments, erosion rates, and the evolution
of the continental shelf, Gilluly, J., 1964.

Data file, continental margin program, Atlantic
coast of the United States, Vol. 1, Sample
collection data, Hathaway, J.C., ed., 1966.

Data file, continental margin program, Atlantic
coast of the United States, Vol. 1, sample
collection data, Supplement 1, Hathaway, J.C.,
ed.,1967.

Data file, continental margin program, Atlantic
coast of the U.S., Hathaway, J.C., 1971.

Sub-bottom basement drainage system of inner
continental shelf off southern New England, McMaster,
R.L. and Ashraf, A., 1973.

Heavy mineral petrology of Wisconsinan and post-
glacial deep-sea sands and silts, western North
Atlantic, Neal, W.J., 1964.

Heavy mineral assemblages in the nearshore surface
sediments of the Gulf of Maine in Geological Survey
Research 1967, Ross, D.A., 1967.

Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the U.S. --
heavy minerals of the continental margin from southern
Nova Scotia to northern New Jersey., Ross, D.A., 1970.

Significance of submerged deltas in the interpretation
of the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P., 1928.

Bathymetric charts Cape Cod to Maryland, Stearns,
F. and L.E. Garrison, 1967.

Bathymetric maps of the New York Bight, Atlantic
continental shelf of the United States, Stearns, F.,
1967.

Bathymetric maps and geomorphology of the Middle
Atlantic continental shelf, Stearns, F., 1969.

226.

VI-E.2. (continued)

Sediment response to the hydraulic regime on the
central New Jersey shelf, Stubblefield, W.L.,
J.W. Lavelle, T.F. McKinney, and D.J.P. Swift,
1975.

Hydraulic fractionation of heavy mineral suites
on an unconsolidated retreating coast, Swift, D.J.P.,
Dill, C.E., Jr., McHome, J., 1971.

227.

VI.E.3. Uranium

Recovery of sedimentary uranium is not an imminent
event although its presence in economic quantities 'in the
sedimentary sequence -- Mesozoic and younger rocks -- beneath
the shelf surface is entirely plausible. No direct evidence
has yet been sought to substantiate this idea. Three types
of sedimentary associations may contain sedimentary uranium
ore and numerous economic deposits of these three types have
been exploited on land.

a. Uranium accumulation in fluvial deposits of
closely associated oxidized and reduced sediments.

b. Uranium accumulations in nearshore deposits
where beach sand and lagoonal muds interfinger.

c. Black shales with sedimentary derivatives from
weathered volcanic debris.

All three of the above associations occur within
the stratigraphic units of Mesozoic and younger deposits
within New York's continental margin. Any of the sedimentary
associations alone would not "guarantee" the presence of
uranium, but would act only as a potential accumulation site
where uranium may be carried by groundwater in solution. The
boundary between oxidizing and reducing conditions results in
precipitation of uraniferous material which might be transported
in the groundwater system.

References to sedimentary uranium have not been
included in this report. The senior author (Glaeser) has
published two abstracts on the subject (not listed in the
bibliography) and has exploration experience in this field.

Potential recovery of sedimentary uranium from the
continental shelf is not presently feasible economically.
However, as future needs for nuclear fuels increase, the
shelf may be an important target region for sedimentary
uranium exploration. Some general references regarding
stratigraphy beneath the shelf surface are essential in an
initial phase of determining uranium potential. These are
given below.

228.

VI-E.3. Uranium

Deep wells of Maryland, Edwards, J.J., Jr., 1970.

Depositional environments of subsurface Potomac
group in southern Maryland, Hansen, H.J., 1969.

Record of wells in Suffolk County, Long Island,
New York, Johnson, A.H. and others, 1952.

Stratigraphy of coastal plain of New Jersey,
Johnson, M.E. and Richards, H.G., 1952.

A geologic cross-section of Delaware showing
stratigraphic correlations, distribution and
geologic setting with the Atlantic coastal plain --
continental shelf geosyncline, Kraft, J.C. and
Maisang, M.D., 1968.

Summary of geology of Atlantic Coastal Plain,
LeGrand, H.E., 1961.

Correlations of subsurface Mesozoic and Cenozoic
rocks along the Atlantic coast, Maher, J.C., 1965.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf,
Maher, J.C., 1971.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf,
Maher, J.C. and E.R. Applin, 1971.

Deep test in Accomack County, Virginia, Onuschak,
E., Jr., 1972.

Maryland Esso No. 1 well, Standard Oil Company of
New Jersey, Ocean City, Maryland, description of
ditch samples, Overbeck, R.M., 1948.

Coastal plain rocks of Harford County, Owens, J.P.,
1969.

Post-Triassic tectonic movements in the central and
southern Appalachians as recorded by sediments of the
Atlantic coastal plain, Owens, J.P., 1970.

Cretaceous deltas in the northern New Jersey coastal
plain, Owens, J.P., Minard, J.P., and Sohl, N.F.,
1968.

229.

VI.E.3. (continued)

Shelf and deltaic paleoenvironments in the Cretaceous-
Tertiary formations of the New Jersey Coastal Plain,
Field trip no. 2. In, Geology of selected areas in
New Jersey and easti-rn Pennsylvania and guidebook of
excursions, Owens, J.P. and N.F. Sohl, 1969.

Stratigraphy of the outcropping post-Magothy Upper
Cretaceous formations in southern New and
northern Delmarva Peninsula, Delaware and Maryland,
Owens, J.P. and others, 1970.

Correlation and foraminifera of the Monmouth Group
(Upper Cretaceous), Long Island, N.Y., Perlmutter,
N.M. and Todd, R., 1965.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the United States north of Cape Hatteras, a brief
survey, Perry, W.J., Minard, J.P., Weed, E.G.A.,
Robbins, E.I. and Rhodehamel, E.C., 1974.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the United States north of Cape Hatteras - brief
survey, Perry, W.J. and others, 1975.

Upper Cretaceous subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic
coastal plain of New Jersey, Petters, S.W., 1976.

Subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain
between New Jersey and Georgia, Richards, H.G., 1945.

Studies of the subsurface geology and paleontology
of the Atlantic coastal plain, Richards, H.G., 1948.

Stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain between Long
Island and Georgia - Review, Richards, H.G., 1967.

Significance of submerged deltas in the interpretation
of the continental shelves, Shepard, F.P., 1928.

Stratigraphic section at Island Beach State Park,
New Jersey, Seaber, P.R. and Vecchioli, J., 1963.

Seismic reconnaissance of post-Miocene deposits,
Middle Atlantic continental shelf - Cape Henry,
Virginia to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,
Shideler, G.L. and D.J.P. Swift, 1972.

Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the inner Virginia
continental shelf, Shideler, G.L., D.J.P. Swift,
G.H. Johnson and B.W. Holliday, 1972.

230.

VI.E.3. (continued)

Biostratigraphic analysis, Sohl, N.F. and Mello,
J.F., 1970.

Geology of Atlantic coastal plain in New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, Spangler, W.B.
and Peterson, J.J., 1950.

Upper Cretaceous marine transgression in northern
Delaware, Spoljaric, N., 1972.

Lower Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic ostracoda
from the Atlantic coastal regions, Swain, F.M. and
Brown, P.M., 1972.

Records of wells in Bronx, New York, Richmond,
Kings, Queens, Nassau and Suffolk counties (a
series of occasional reports giving factual
geological and engineering data compiled about
wells and borings on Long Island), U.S. Geological
Survey, 1937-59.

Geological and operational summary, COST #B-2 well,
Baltimore Canyon trough area, Mid-Atlantic OCS,
U.S. Geological Survey, 1976.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene geologic map of the
northern United States Atlantic continental margin,
Weed, E.G.A. and others, 1974.

Stratigraphic interpretations of some Cretaceous
microfossil floras of the middle Atlantic states,
Wolfe, J.A. and Pakiser, H.M., 1971.

Discovery of Eocene sediments in subsurface of
Cape Cod, Ziegler, J.M. and others, 1960.

231

VI.E.4. Fresh Artesian Water

A number of reports have been made of fresh water
springs and large subsurface zones of fresh water encountered
in U.S. Geological Survey drilling programs on the eastern
United States continental margins. Such reports are not
published but are aside comments on other aspects of the drilling
program.

The potential of fresh artesian water in sedimentary
units of the continental shelf represents an important potential
resource for both coastal cities and sea-based operational plat-
forms. No assessment exists of the extent or importance of
fresh water in rocks of the outer continental shelf.

Its presence is logical and predictable. The stratigraphy
of the outer continental shelf is in part the down-dip equivalent
of Cretaceous and younger strata exposed on the coastal plain.
Thus, the coastal plain is the surface recharge zone for a number
of permeable (probably sandstone) strata which extend seaward
from the coastal zone dipping gently toward the continental
margin. Depending upon the thickness, continuity and permeability
of such strata known on the coastal plain, vast amounts of fresh
water may be stored down-dip within the strata of the outer con-
tinental shelf. A greater number of fresh water springs probably
exist there which have never been detected or reported. Knowledge
of such springs and aquifers could be very important clues to
strata continuity and permeability relating not only to direct
assessment of fresh water potential but also to fluid transport
and hydrocarbon storage capacity of certain strata lying beneath
the outer continental shelf surface.

The references to stratigraphic studies which might
aid in understanding the distribution of fresh water aquifers
are listed below.

232.

VI.E.4. Fresh Artesian Water

Structural and stratigraphic framework and spatial
distribution of permeability of the Atlantic Coastal
Plain, North Carolina to New York, Brown, P.M., Miller,
J.A. and Swain, F.M., 1972.

Deep wells of Maryland, Edwards, J.J., Jr., 1970.

Evaluation of geologic and hydrologic data from
the test-drilling program at Island Beach State
Park, New Jersey, Gill, H.E., Seaber, P.R.,
Vecchioli, J., and Anderson, H.R., 1963.

Depositional environments of subsurface Potomac
group in southern Maryland, Hansen, H.J., 1969.

Record of wells in Suffolk County, Long Island,
New York, Johnson, A.H. and others, 1952.

Geologic and hydrologic data from a test well drilled
near Chestertown, Md., Kantrowitz, I.H. and Webb, W.E.,
1971.

A geologic cross-section of Delaware showing strati-
graphic correlations, distribution and geologic setting
with the Atlantic coastal plain - continental shelf
geosyncline, Kraft, J.C. and Maisang, M.D., 1968.

Summary of geology of Atlantic Coastal Plain,
LeGrand, H.E., 1961.

Correlations of subsurface Mesozic and Cenozoic
rocks along the Atlantic coast, Maher, J.C., 1965.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf,
Maher, J.C., 1971.

Geologic framework and petroleum potential of the
Atlantic coastal plain and continental shelf, Maher,
J.C. and E.R. Applin, 1971.

Deep test in Accomack County, Virginia, Onuschak, E.,
Jr., 1972.

Maryland Esso No. 1 well, Standard Oil Company of
New Jersey, Ocean City, Maryland, description of
ditch samples, Overbeck, R.M., 1948.

Coastal plain'rocks of Harford County, Owens, J.P.,
1969.

233.

VI.E.4. (continued)

Post-Triassic tectonic movements in the central
and southern Appalachians as recorded by sediments
of the Atlantic coastal plain, Owens, J.P., 1970.

Cretaceous deltas in the Northern New Jersey coastal
plain, Owens, J.P., Minard, J.P. and Sohl, N.F.,
1968.

Shelf and deltaic paleoenvironments in the Cretaceous-
Tertiary formations of the New Jersey Coastal Plain,
Field trip no. 2. In, Geology of selected areas in
New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania and guidebook of
excursions, Owens, J.P. and N.F. Sohl, 1969.

Stratigraphy of the outcropping post-Magothy Upper
Cretaceous formations in Southern New and Northern
Delmarva Peninsula, Delaware and Maryland,' Owens,
J.P. and others, 1970.

Correlation and foraminifera of the Monmouth Group
(Upper Cretaceous), Long Island, N.Y., Perlmutter,
N.M. and Todd, R., 1965.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the United States north of Cape Hatteras, a brief
survey, Perry,-W.J., Minard, J.P.j Weed, E.G.A.,
Robbins, E.I., and Rhodehamel, E.C., 1974.

Stratigraphy of the Atlantic continental margin of
the United States north of Cape Hatteras - brief
survey, Perry, W.J. and others, 1975.

Upper Cretaceous subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic
coastal plain of New Jersey, Patters, S.W., 1976.

Subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain
between New Jersey and Georgia, Richards, H.G.,
1945.

Studies of the subsurface geology and paleontology
of the Atlantic coastal plain, Richards, H.G., 1948.

Stratigraphy of Atlantic coastal plain between Long
Island and Georgia - Review, Richards, H.G., 1967.

Stratigraphic section at Island Beach State Park,
New Jersey, Seaber, P.R. and Vecchioli, J., 1963.

Seismic reconnaissance of post-Miocene deposits,
Middle Atlantic continental shelf-Cape Henry,
Virginia to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Shideler,
G.L. and D.J.P. Swift, 1972.

234.

VI.E.4. (continued)

Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the inner Virginia
continental shelf, Shideler, G.L., D.J.P. Swift,
G.H. Johnson, and B.W. Holliday, 1972.

Biostratigraphic analysis, Sohl, N.F. and Mello, J.F.
1970.

Results of subsurface exploration in the mid-island
area of western Suffolk County, Long Island, New York,
Soren, J. , 1971.

Geology of Atlantic coastal plain in New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, Spangler, W.B. and
Peterson, J.J., 1950.

Upper Cretaceous marine transgression in northern
Delaware, Spoljaric, N., 1972.

Mapping of geologic formations and aquifers of Long
Island, New York, Sutter, R., deLaguna, W. and
Perlmutter, N.M., 1949.

Lower Cretaceous Jurassic and Triassic ostracoda from
the Atlantic coastal regions, Swain, F.M. and Brown,
P.M., 1972.

Geological and operational summary, COST #B-2 well,
Baltimore Canyon trough area, Mid-Atlantic OCS,
U.S. Geological Survey, 1976.

Generalized pre-Pleistocene geologic map of the
northern United States Atlantic continental margin,
Weed, E.G.A. and others, 1974.

Geomorphology and sediments of the inner New York
Bight continental shelf, Williams, S.J. and Duane,
D.B., 1974.

Stratigraphic interpretations of some Cretaceous
microfossil floras of the middle Atlantic states,
Wolfe, J.A. and Pakiser, H.M., 1971.

Discovery of Eocene sediments in subsurface of Cape
Cod, Ziegler, J.M. and others, 1960.

Hydrography of Long Island and Block Island Sounds,
Riley, G.A., 1952.

235.

VII. GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

According to the USGS (1975a), potential geologic hazards
and environmental hazards that may be encountered on the
Atlantic outer continental shelf include the following:

1. Slumping (mass movement of sediment);

2. Seismic risk (earthquakes);
3. Shallow hazards (shallow gas, H2S, surface
faults);

4. Overpressures;

5. Movement of oil spills (pollutant dispersal);

6. Erosional-depositional processes;

7. Geochemical balance;

8. Dredging and;

9. Man-made hazards.

Of these, only slumping, earthquakes, shallow hazards, geo-
pressures, movement of oil spills, and erosional-depositional
processes will be discussed.

236.

VII.A. Slumping

Slumping (mass movement) is known to have occurred
on the continental slope (Ballard, 1966; Uchupi, 1967, 1970;
Stanley and Silverberg, 1969). Uchupi (1970) discusses slump
features seen on seismic profiles. He believes that the re-
entrant between Block and Atlantis Canyons is the result of
massive slumping (Figure 28). Strata within the upper con-
tinental slope show evidence of folding due to sliding in a
seaward direction. The age of the slumping and sliding is
probably Pleistocene. During the Pleistocene the shoreline
was near the present shelf-break and deposition was directly
on the slope. Uchupi (1970) believes that such a drastic
increase in deposition triggered the downslope movements.

Stanley and Silverberg (1969) report on recent
slumping off Sable Island Bank. Their seismic studies show
slump structures disturbing recent sediments on the continental
slope.

In the Gulf Coast, Bea (1971) describes the effect
of a hurricane induced submarine slide of deltaic muds in
more than 300 feet of water. One platform was knocked over
and another moved three or four feet at the mudline. This
was a special case, not strictly applicable to the Atlantic
continental shelf but it illustrates the effects of mass
movement-on -man-made structures.
A number of papers have been written on the mechanical
properties of sediments and slope stability. McClelland (1974)
gives an up-to-date overview in "Geologic Engineering Properties
Related to Construction of Offshore Facilities on the Mid-Atlantic
Continental Shelf." Smith (1977) discusses how proper design
of offshore platforms can help prevent catastrophies. Finn
et al (1971) discuss engineering properties of sediments and
their geophysical identification from their experience in
Alaska. Fisk and McClelland (1959) describe the nearshore
sediments of Louisiana and their effect on foundation design.

237.

VII.B. Seismic Risk (Earthquakes)

At least four earthquake epicenters have been located
on the continental slope to the east of Baltimore Canyon
Trough in historic times (USGS, 1975). Since the early 1960's
a number of minor earthquakes have been located across New
Jersey and the continental shelf. The epicenters of these
earthquakes parallel the Cornwall-Kelvin fault zone, but is
about 100 kilometers to the south (Milliman, 1973). Any
relation between the two is speculative at this time.

In the Georges Bank area, Sbar and Sykes (1973)
have projected the Boston-Ottawa seismic trend southeast
through the western part of the basin to connect it with the
Kelvin Seamount Chain.

The USGS (1976) rates the Georges Bank Basin and
Baltimore Canyon Trough as having a moderate seismic hazard
in comparison to the rest of the United States.

Few earthquake epicenters have been located offshore
because of the difficulty of onshore seismographs in focusing
on offshore earthquakes unless they are large or near shore.

The USGS (1974) has published a seismotectonic map
of the eastern United States and the Department of Commerce
(1973) has compiled the earthquake history of the country.
Howell (1973) has--rat6id the earthquake hazard in the eastern
United States. In addition, the BLM Environmental Impact
Statements give a somewhat cursory examination of the seismic
r i s k s .

238,

VII.C. Shallow Hazards

1. Shallow Faults

Sheridan and Knebel (1976) and Knebel et al (1976)
consider the hazards of the shallow faults they mapped. The
evidence of post-Pleistocene activity suggests that the faults
have a high potential for future movement. These faults probably
present a minor seismic risk that must be considered during
operations on this part of the shelf.

McMaster (1971) reported on a shallow transverse
fault but it does not appear to be active. The USGS (1975)
did not discover any faults in the Georges Bank area, based on
2,200 kilometers of shallow seismic profiles.

239.

VII.C.2. Shallow Gas

Gas at shallow depths can pose a hazard to drilling
operations. High resolution seismic surveys and proper
drilling procedure are necessary to overcome this problem.
In addition hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a hazard in the Gulf
Coast. No problem with shallow gas of H2S has been reported
from drilling on the Scotian Shelf, or from the COST B-2.

240.

VII.D. Overpressure (Formation Fluid Pressure Greater than
Hydrostatic).

Lithostatic pressure has two components: one that
results from the weight of the interstitial fluids and the
other from the weight of the sedimentary particles. The
fluid pressure within the pore spaces of a formation normally
is hydrostatic, i.e., it is a function of the density of the
fluids filling the pore spaces and depth of the formation
below the surface. This implies that pore spaces within the
rock column are interconnected and that the pore fluids are
free to migrate. As sediments are buried, the increased over-
burden causes compaction, which reduces pore space and squeezes
pore fluids out. Where this fluid flows freely, normal hydro-
static pressure is maintained. Abnormal formation pressure,
which may be higher or lower than normal hydrostatic, cannot
exist without some restriction to flow to prevent equilization
of pressures (Bradley, 1975). Abnormally high formation
pressure, called overpressure, can be hazardous to drilling
operations if it is not anticipated and allowed for in the
design of the drilling program. Penetrating an overpressured
formation unexpectedly can cause a blowout that may be difficult
to control.

The following characteristics have been associated
with overpressured sediments (Hedberg, 1974):

1. Fluid pressures higher than normal calculate-d
hydrostatic pressure.

2. Porosity higher than normal porosity-overburden
relations.

3. Density lower than normal density-overburden
relation negative gravity anomalies with lower
density.

4. Velocity of seismic waves lower than normally
expected.

5. Occasionally strong seismic reflection from
transition zone, but lack of continuous
reflections from within low density layers.

6. Rate of drilling penetration above normal.

7. Increase of temperature above normal.

8. Abnormally low electrical resistivity and
high sonic transit time with increased water
content as shown on well logs.

9. Lower than normal formation-water salinity.

241

10. "Trip" gas (gas coming up hole as drill
string is removed) and small gas pockets
frequently encountered during drilling.

Thus, careful observations in an area generally can
detect the existence of overpressure in advance of drilling.

242.

VII.D.l. Major Causes of Overpressure

a. Undercompaction

In many places there is an abrupt change from
normal pressure to high pressure, indicating that these zones
are isolated from their surroundings by some relatively
impermeable zone. Dickey et al (1972) wrote that in
Louisiana "the normal pressures are found only in sands
completely enclosed in shale, with no permeable connection
to the outcrop. "

Hedberg (1974) writes of undercompacted shales,
in which the shale acts as both the seal and the pressurized
zone. He states that the most common cause of the under-
compacted shale is simply a rate of sedimentation so high
and a permeability so low that expulsion of water is not
able to keep up with increasing overburden pressure. Under
such conditions, the interstitial water carries a part of
the weight of the sediment overburden in addition to the
normal hydrostatic pressure. Undercompacted sections may
persist for a considerable period of geologic time if the
sealing beds develop adequate impermeability. This mechanism
appears to be most likely to develop in sections containing
abundant montmorillonite clays. Some believe it is the most
preval ent cause of overpress ure.

243.

VII.D.I.b. Temperature Rise

Heating of the lower part of a sediment pile
as it becomes deeply buried may cause overpressure because
water has a higher coefficient of expansion than do the
mineral grains that form the sediment. As the temperature
increases, pore water expands more rapidly than the pore
space does, and fluid pressure will increase if the fluid
cannot migrate freely. Barker (1972) called this process
aquathermal pressuring. Bradley (1972) suggests this may
be the most important mechanism that causes overpressure.

244.

VII.D.2. Minor Causes of Overpressure

a. Dewatering of Clays

Interlayer water which is bound to clay has a
higher density than the normal fluid because of its closer
packing in the bound state. If dehydration occurs, the
interlayer water reverts to water of normal density with a
concomitant increase in volume. This also may be a cause
of low salinity in formation water because clay-bound water
is fresh (Powers, 1967; Bradshaw and Bredehoeft, 1968).

245.

VII.D.2.b. Tectonics

A rapid decrease of the overburden by uplift
and erosion over a lens of normally pressured but sealed
rock will reduce the lithostatic and hydrostatic pressure
in the rock surrounding the sealed lens. Fluids within
the lens would then be overpressured, if the seal is
adequate.

246,

VII.D.2.c. Structural Barriers

Structural barriers to fluid expulsion can
develop by tectonic movement. Bradley (1974) states that
vertical seals can be formed by fault displacement of less
than a foot and that gouge and tear zones can act as
barriers.

247.

0 VII.D.2.d. Thermal Degradation of Petroleum
If oil is heated sufficiently, gas is generated
which increases pressure.

248.

9 VII.D.2.e. Carbonization
Thermal alteration of organic matter (production
of petroleum) may increase or decrease pressure, depending
on the volume change.

249.

0 VII.D.2.f. Biogenic Gas Production
Hedberg (1974) emphasized the role of bacterial
methane generation in subsurface sedimentary deposits.

250.

VII.D.2.g. Osmosis

The mass transfer of water (solvent) through
a semipermeable membrane from fresher water to saltier
water can cause abnormal pressure. A shale layer can serve
as a membrane for the process. Osmotic pressure equals the
back pressure required to stop the osmotic flow. If pore
water within a sealed formation is saltier than the pore
water in the surrounding rock, osmosis may cause abnormally
high pressure and vice versa, if it is fresher. Osmosis is
not thought to be a major factor in subsurface pressure
systems (Bradley, 1974).

251.

0 VII.D.2.h. Mineralization
Growth of salt crystals may reduce pore volume
thus increase pressure (Levorsen, 1954).

252.

VII.D.2.i. Gypsum-to-anhydrate

Under proper pressure-temperature conditions,
the volume of water released in the change from gypsum to
anhydrate exceeds the volume decrease in the mineral trans-
formation and produces an excess fluid pressure (Heard
and Rubey, 1966).

253.

VII.D.2.j. Permafrost Development - forms an impermeable
surface layer trapping any shallow gas.

The primary requirement for abnormal formation
pressure, as stated earlier, is a seal. Horizontal seals
may be shale or evaporite, while vertical seals may be fault
zones or facies changes. Seals may be assumed to be thin
with respect to the size of the pressurized zone and pressure
changes may be abrupt (Bradley, 1974).

On the other hand, a large transition zone
(several thousand feet) may exist around the overpressured
zone (Hedberg, 1974). Overpressures that have been recorded
are usually between normal hydrostatic pressure (-,- 0.465 psi/ft
for saline waters) and approximate rock overburden pressure
(,-- 1.0 psi/ft). Hedberg (1974) has reported cases of "super-
pressures," (up to 1.5 psi/ft) where the overpressure is
greater than geostatic pressure. No satisfactory explanation
for this phenomenon exists at this time.

254,

VII.E. Pollutant Distribution in Terms of Circulation
Dynamics, Shelf Topography and -f-e-di-ment Properties

This aspect of geologic hazards is one of the most.
obvious areas of concern to all groups concerned with or
opposed to continental shelf exploration for petroleum. The
number of ways to control this hazard is minimal because of
the present inability of predictive models to accurately
portray travel paths of pollutants in the shelf circulation
system. The principal research presently underway is taking
place at Virginia Institute of Marine Science where Bureau
of Land Management funding is supporting studies in two major
fields. One concerns computer modeling studies of induced
wave refraction resulting from shelf topography. A second
concerns a variety of studies of fates of hydrocarbons in the
marine environment. These include rates of hydrocarbon decay
via bacterial action, affects of grain size distribution in
terms of topography and the associated biotic community
assemblages as well as water mass movements.

Interim reports are available, based on the present
data and/or the report with draft status expected at Bureau
of Land Management (Horowitz) by summer, 1977. Regional
studies of pollutant distribution are taking place and the
discussion earlier concerning circulation dynamics of the
outer continental shelf (III.B.) suggested the present
divergence between mathematical computer simulation models
and actual drift patterns. A clear problem which demands
solution is one involving delivery of pollutants to the
coastal zone. Is there a minimal distance from shore for
which any pollutant will invariably come ashore? Until
the NOAA report on the physical oceanography of the middle
Atlantic bight is available (summarized in III. B.) reliance
will be placed on the Stony Brook and M.I.T. computer models
to predict drift directions of pollutants.

255.

VII. GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

OCS oil and gas - an environmental assessment, Council
on Environmental Quality, 1974.

Ocean drilling on the continental margin, Joint
Oceanographic Institutions' Deep Earth Sampling
Program, 1965.

Subsea mineral resources and problems related to their
development, McKelvey, V.E. and others, 1969.

Geologic hazards in the northern Gulf of Alaska (abstr.),
Molnia, B.F. and others, 1976.

Mobil Tetco Sable Island E-48, Morrow, D.L. and others,
1972.

Petroleum exploration offshore from New York, Rogers,
W.B. and others, 1973.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the United States North Atlantic outer continental
shelf, Schlee, J. and others.

A socio-economic and environmental inventory of the
North Atlantic region, Trigom, 1974.

Regulaticns pertaining to mineral leasing, operations,
and pipeline on the outer continental shelf as contained
in Title 30 and Title 43 of the Code of Federal Regulations
and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, U.S. Dept.
of Interior, 1971.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. Mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1975.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions and operational considerations
of the U.S. North Atlantic OCS, U.S. Geological Survey,
1975.

Geological and operational summary, COST #B-2 well,
Baltimore Canyon trough area, Mid-Atlantic OCS, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1976.

Baltimore Canyon trough area hazards, Knebel, H.J.
and others, 1976.

256.

VII.A. Slumping

Recommended practice for planning, designing and
constructing fixed offshore platforms, American
Petroleum Institute, 1971.

Effects of explosive loading on the strength of
seafloor sands, Dill, R.F., 1967.

Oceanographic information for engineering submarine
cable systems, Elmendorf, C.H. and Heezen, B.C., 1957.

Engineering properties of a marine sediment, Finn,
W.D.L. and others, 1971.

Geology of continental shelf off Louisiana, its
influence on offshore foundation design, Fisk, H.N.
and McClelland, C., 1959.

Grand Banks slump, Heezen, B.C. and C.L. Drake, 1964.

Geologic engineering properties related to construction
of offshore facilities on the Mid-Atlantic continental
shelf, McClelland, B., 1974.

Shear strength and stability of continental slope
deposits western Gulf of Mexico, Morelock, J., 1969.

Correlation of shoreline type with offshore bottom
conditions, Price, W.A., 1955.

Proper design helps prevent offshore platform
catastrophic hazards, Smith, R.S., 1977.

Engineering geology of the northeast corridor,
Washington, D.C. to Boston, Mass., earthquake
epicenters, geothermal gradients, and excavations
and borings, U.S. Geological Survey, 1967.

Engineering geology of the northeast corridor,
Washington, D.C., to Boston, Mass., coastal plain
and surficial deposits, U.S. Geological Survey, 1967.

The geologic framework of inner New York bight -
its influence on positioning offshore engineering
structures, Williams, S.J., 1973.

257.

0 VII.B. Seismic Risk ,
(see references in Chapter V, Seismicity of the
Continental Margin)

258.

VII.C. Shallow Hazards

(See references in Chapter V, Seismicity of the
Continental Margin)

Shallow structure of the continental margin,
Curray, J.R., 1969b.

Engineering geology of the northeast corridor,
Washington, D.C., to Boston, Mass., coastal
plain and surficial deposits, U.S. Geological
Survey, 1967.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions, and operational considera-
tions of the U.S. North Atlantic outer continental
shelf, Schlee, J. and others, 1975.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions, and operational considera-
tions of the U.S. North Atlantic OCS, U.S. Geological
Survey, 1975.

259.

VII.D. Overpressure (Formation Fluid Pressure Greater than
Hydrostatic).
Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions, and operational considerations
of the U.S. North Atlantic outer continental shelf,
Schlee, J. and others, 1975.

Sediments, structural framework, petroleum potential,
environmental conditions, and operational considerations
of the U.S. North Atlantic OCS, U.S. Geological Survey,
1975.

NOTICE: These references are not included in the bibliography,
hence, the complete citations are given here.

Barker, C., 1972. Aquathermal pressuring-role of
temperature in development of abnormal-pressure
zones, AAPG Bull.,v. 56, no. 10, p. 2068-2071.

Bradley, J.S., 1975. Abnormal formation pressure:
AAPG Bull., v. 59, p. 957-973.

Dickey, P.A., Collins, A.G., Fajardo, M., 11072.
Chemical composition of deep formation waters in
southwestern Louisiana: Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. Bull., v. 56, p. 1530-1570.

Hanshaw, B.B., and Bredehoeft, J.D., 1968. On the
maintenance of anomalous fluid pressures, II, Source
layer at depth: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v. 79,
p. 1107-1122.

Heard, H.C. and Rubey, W.W., 1966. Tectonic implications
of gypsum dehydration: G.S.A. v. 77, p. 741-760.

Hedberg, H.D., 1974. Relation of methane generation to
undercompacted shales, shale dianirs and mud
volcanos: AAPG v. 58, p. 661-673.

Levorsen, A.I., 1954. Geology of Petroleum: San Francisco,
W.H. Freeman, 703 p.

Powers, M.C., 1967. Fluid-release mechanisms in compact-
ing marine mud rocks and their importance in oil
exploration: AAPG, v. 51, no. 7, p, 1240r-54.

260.

VII.E. Pollutant Distribution in Terms of Circulation
Dynamics, Shelf Topography and Sediment Properties

Geologic prediction, developing tools and techniques
for geophysical identification and classification of
sea floor sediments, Barnes, B. et al (1972.

Ocean disposal of waste materials, Buelor, R.W., 1968.

Assessment of ERTA - 1 for coastal ocean observation,
Charnell, R.L., Jr., Apel, Manning, W., III, and
Quelset, R.H., 1974.

Assessment of offshore dumping, technical background,
Charnel 1 , R. L. , 1975.

Ocean disposal, Delwing, R.T., 1974.

Ocean dumping in the New York Bight, facts and figures,
Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.

Marine and environmental implications of oil and gas
development in the Baltimore Canyon region of the Mid-
Atlantic coast, Estuarine Research Foundation - OCS
Conference and Workshop, 1974.
Vind drift, surface currents and spread of contaminants.
in shelf waters, Gordon, A.L. and Gerard, R.D., in press.

EPA's view of projected oil drilling on the continental
shelf, Green, F., 1976.

Metropolitan region - A major sediment source, Gross,
M.G., 1970.

Preliminary analysis of urban waste, N.Y., Metropolitan
region, Gross, M.G., 1970.

Analyses of dredged wastes, fly ash and waste chemicals,
N.Y. metropolitan region, Gross, M.G., 1970.

Geologic aspects of waste solids and marine waste
deposits, N.Y. metropolitan region, Gross, M.G., 1972.

Survey of marine waste deposits, N.Y. metropolitan
region, Gross, M.G. and others, 1971.

Movement and effects of spilled oil over the outer
continental shelf - inadequacy of existant data for
the Baltimore Canyon trough area, Knebel, H.J., 1974.

Ocean dumping in the New York bight, an assessment
of environmental studies, Pararas-Carayannis, G., 1973.

261.

VII.E. (continued)

The effects of waste disposal on the N.Y. bight,
Pearce, J.B., 1969.

The effects of solid waste disposal on benthic
communities in the N.Y. bight, Pearce, J.B., 1970.

Correlation of shoreline type with offshore bottom
conditions, Price, W.A., 1955.

An oil spill risk analysis for the mid-Atlantic
outer continental shelf lease area, Smith, R.A.,
Slack, J.R., and Davis, R.K., 1976.

Drilling tankers and oil spills on the Atlantic
outer continental shelf, Travers, W.B. and Luney,
P.R., 1976.

e 1@

Volume II Appendix and Bibliography

ASSESSMENT OF THE GEOLOGIC INFORMATION OF NEW YORK STATE'S
COASTAL ZONE AND CONTINENTAL SHELF AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO
PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT

Prepared for the
New York State Science Service Geological Survey

J. Douglas Glaeser
and 2
Philip C. Smith

Consultant geologist, 36 Riverside Drive, N.Y. 10023
2
Present address: U.S. Geological Survey, Conservation
Division, Metairie, La. 70011

The preparation of this report was financially aided
through a Federal Grant from the office of Coastal
Zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration under the Coastal Zone Management Act of
1972, as amended. This report was prepared for the
New York State Department of State, August 1977, through
the Outer Continental Shelf Study Program which was
managed and directed by the Department of Environmental
Conservation. Grant-In-Aid No. 04-5-158-50002.

Appendix

INVENTORY OF INSTITUTIONSi ORGANIZATIONSi PERSONNEL AND
FUNDING AGENCIES ACTIVELY INVOLVED (OR CAPABLE OF
STUDIES) IN NEW YORK CONTINENTAL SHELF AND COASTAL ZONE

Contents of Appendix
Page

Preface ................................................. i.. iii

List of organizations by region .......... ii ...... a....... A-al
Details of personnel and equipment by institution
...... A-3

Major federal institutions ...... v, .......... 4 ......... A-3
Universities and laboratories ............... io A-7

New England ........................................ A-7
Mid Atlantic .................................. A-11

Contracts let by BIM for North and Mid Atlantic ......... of*.*. A-28
Funding Agencies
NOAA .................................................... A-30
ERDA ...................................... ............. A-33
Ns-F ....................................... .......... !.. A-38
Corps- of Engineers ............................... i ...... A-40
Sea Grant .............................................. A-41
BI,M .................................................... A-51
USGS ................................................... A-610
ONR ................. A-62
Others .............. A-66

List.of existing and proposed Agency Reports of
general scope .......................................... A-61

Preface

This section has three parts. The first lists, by
region, those organizations involved in studies or
compiling information from studies in the northern
and middle Atlantic regions of eastern United States.
All have information or are capable of gathering
information concerning New York's continental margin and
Its coastal zone.

The second portion of this section is a detailed listing
of institutions, personnel and equipment in most of the
organizations listed in the first part. This second
detailed listing gives the bulk of information needed
to specify most of the research capability available to
the eastern continental margin of the United States.
In most cases, the major source of funding support is
included.

The third portion of this section lists the principal
Federal funding agencies supporting on-going research in
the New York shelf region. A review of each agency's
function is given along with the name of the individual
in charge of continental shelf programs. Where possible,
a listing is given of individual grants pertinent to the
New York region.

New England - general
New England River Basin Commission
New England Natural Resource Center
New England Marine Advisory Service
John Hutchinson, Coordinator
The New England Center for Continuing Education
15 Garrison Avenue
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
U.S. Army District,.Boston, Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army District, Providence, Corps of Engineers
U.S. Geological Survey - at Woods Hole, Mass.

New England States
Connecticut - Univ. of Connecticut, Avery Point,
Groton, Conn..- W.F.Bohlen

Maine - Bigelow Laboratories for Ocean Science
West Boothbay Harbor, Maine

The Research Institute of Gulf of Maine (Tregom)
96 Falmouth St.
P.O. Box 2320
South Portland, Maine
(consortium of education and research institutions
in Maine)

Massachusetts - Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Woods Hole, Mass.

Mass. Institute of Technology - Cambridge
Dept. of Civil Engineering - Ole Madsen
Dept. of Earth 9 Planetary Sciences - John Southard

Univ. of Mass'. - Amherst
Coastal Research Center
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics

Boston College - Chestnut Hill, Mass.
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics
Benns Brenninkmeyer, S.J.

New Hampshire - Univ. of New Hampshire - Durham
Dept. of Earth Sciences - Franz E. Anderson

Rhode Island - Univ. of Rhode Island, School of
Oceanography, Kingston

A-1

Middle Atlantic States (NY, NJ, PA, DE, MD)

NY Dept of Environmental Conservation
NY State Geological Survey
Marine Sciences Research Center
Stony Brook (NY Sea Grant)
City Univ. Institute of Marine & Atmospheric Sciences
(CIMAS.)
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Long Island Univ., Mitchell, Greenvale, NY,
Dept. of Marine Science
NY Ocean Science Laboratory
Brookhaven Laboratory - Jon Scott
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Dames & Moore, Cranford, NJ and Washington, D.C.
NJ State Geological Survey
Penna. Marine Science Consortium
Center for Marine & Environmental Science,
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa., James Parks, Director
Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Delaware
Delaware Geological Survey
Long Island Sound Research Group
US Army District, New York, Corps of Engineers
US Army District, Philadelphia, Corps of Engineers
US Army District, Providence, Corps of Engineers

Southeastern Atlantic States (Virginia - Florida)

Coastal P1ains Center for Marine Development Services,-
Wilmington, N.C.
Virginia Institute Marine Sciences
Inst. of Oceanography, Old Dominion Univ.,Norfolk

Duke Univ. Marine Laboratory
Univ.of North Carolina, Marine Science Curriculum
North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh
Univ. of North Carolina, Wilmington

Coastal Research Group, Univ. of S. Carolina

Univ. of Georgia, Athens
Dept. of Geology (Parts formerly at Skidaway)
University of Miami, Division of Marine Geology & Geophysics

Florida State University, Dept. of Oceanography, Tallahassee

Florida Institute of Technology., Dept. of Oceanography &
Oceanographic Engineering, Melbourne, Florida

University of South Florida, Dept. of Marine Science,
St. Petersburg
University of South Florida, Dept of Geology, Tampa

A-2

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

Atlantic Oceanographic & Meteorological Labs/MIAMI

NAME Geographical Work Areas Interest Support
D.J.D.Swift Middle Atlantic Bight Fluid and sediment interaction in NOAA/ERL
the coastal & bottom boundary NOAA/MESA
layer. Influence of local shelf ERDA
morphology on fluid motion, bed
forms, shelf geomorphology.

J.W.Lavelle Middle Atlantic Bight Fluid and sediment interaction in NOAA/ERL
> coastal and bottom boundary layers. MESA
Influence of local shelf morphology ERDA
on fluid motion.

Robert A. Young Middle Atlantic Bight Fluid and sediment interaction in NOAA/ERL
coastal and bottom boundary layers. MESA
Influence of local shelf & morpho- ERDA
logy on fluid motion, suspended
matter transport, erosion & depssit
on processes of fine sediments.

G.F.Freeland New York Bight Fluid & sediment interaction in NOAA/ERL
coastal & bottom boundary layer. MESA
Influence of local shelf morpho- ERDA
logy*on fluid motions, sedimen-
tology, morphology,,-morpho'logy
ocean dumping canyon proce'sses
shelf-break processes.

G.A.Han Middle Atlantic Bight Dynamic & kinematic of large NOAA/ERL
scale shelf circulation/coastal MESA
boundary layer, transport & dif-
fusion of dissolved & suspended
sediments..

(continued from previous page)
NAME Geographical Work Areas Interest Support
Richard Bennett Middle Atlantic Bight, Mass physical properties of slope NOAA/ERL
Mississippi Delta and deltaic sediment.

Bonnie McGregor- Middle Atlantic Bight Stratigraphy & structure of the NOAA/ERL
Stubblefield shallow continental margin.

John Proni Middle Atlantic Bight, Acoustic properties of suspension. NOAA/ERL
Great Lakes Internal waves. Army Corps of Engin..

Donald Hansen Middle Atlantic Bight Circulation of shelf water NOAA/ERL
BLM

Donald Atwood Middle Atlantic Bight, Inorganic, organic, and nutrient NOAVERL
chemistry.

George Berberian Middle Atlantic Bight, Nutrient chemistry NOAA/ERL
Gulf of Mexico

Patrick Hatcher Middle Atlantic Bight Organic Chemistry NOAA/ERL

NOAA and AOML/MIAMI (continued)

Ship Support

RESEARCHER - 300 ft. - High Resolution (315 KHZ) Echo
sounder, Air Guns, La Coste Gravimeter, Proton Pre-
cession Magnetometer, Ewing Piston Corer - 14 Scientists
Miami Based.

R/V George Kelez - 180 Ft., CSTD

Rosette Water Sampler - 6 scientists New York Based.

R/V Johnson - 45 ft. day boat, New York based.

R/V Virginia Key - 65 ft. "T" Boat (6 scientist) Miami
based.

Field Equipment

3.5 KHZ shallow seismic reflection profiler

UNIBOOM

Side scan sonar system

Box corer

Camera - shipek grab sampler

Underwater cameras

2 Marsh-McBierney E-M current meters, internally
recording, tripod mounts

6 EGG-102 savonius rotor current meters, internally
recording

Pore-water pressure probes

40 Aandaraa RCM-4 current meters

witness, spar bouys & acoustic releases

5 shallow water bottom pressure gauges

1 Nephelometer - Electromagnetic CM system

Laboratory Equipment

Sedimentology Lab

Rapid Sediment analyses

A-5

U.S. Geological Survey 41
Office of Marine Geology

Atlantic-Gulf of Mexico Branch

Woods Hole,, Massachusetts

Type of Inst.: U.S. Government Laboratory
Funding: U.S. Government Funds and from Bureau of Land
Management

Personnel,

Wm. P. Dillon: Shallow seismic

John Grow: Geophysics
D. Fo4er: Environmental assessment coordinator,
continental shelves. Bottom sediment distribution,
suspended matter. Submersible observations.

H. Knobel: Shelf sediment distribution, characterisd es,
shallow coring.

M. Bothnor: Sediment geochemistry, suspended sediment
distribution, coring.

B. Butman: Sediment transport dynamics, shelf dynamics,
physical oceanography.

M. Noble: Sediment transport dynamics, shelf dynamics,
physical oceanography.

J. Schlee: Deep seismic and sedimentology.
Support Personnel: Approximately fifteen technical staff to
support shelf sediment programs additional staff as program
require.

Type of Work:

Basic and applied geophysical and geological research.
(Sediment characteristics and transport programs at present
primarily directed toward environmental assessment of off@
shore continental shelf regions for petroleum exploration
and production). Present programs in North Atlantic Region
(Georges Bank), Middle Atlantic Region, (Baltimore Canyon
Trough), South Atlantic Region (S.E. Georgia Emboyment),
Gulf of Mexico.

Laboratory Support:

Sediment Laboratory, Electronics shop, Sediment transport
equipment lab. Limited mechanical shop facilities, SEM.

A-6

Institution: University of Connecticut

Marine Sciences Institute

Avery Point, Groton, Connecticut

Type of Institution: State

Investigators: W.F. Bohlon, W.F. Fitzgerald, J. Dowling,
R.W. Garvine

Type of Investigations - Studies dealing with suspended
sediment transport, sediment geochemistry, sediment
inventory and geological structures, and physical
investigations of river frontal dynamics.

Facilities: 651 T-Boat equipped for ocean ographic studies,
shallow coring equipment, seismic profiling systems,
sediment laboratory, recirculating flume, current meter
arrays and associated data proce.ssing facilities.

Source of support: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, NOAA, IDOE, Sea Grant

Institution: Yale University

Department of Geology and Geophysics

New Haven, Connecticut

Type of Institution: Private

Investigators: R.B. Gordon, D. Rhoads, K. Turekian

Type of Investigations: Variety of studies dealing with
coastal sedimentations, Biological influences and im-
pacts, and sedimentary geochemistry.

Facilities: Analytical laboratories, current meter arrays.
Penetrometer, interface camera. Sampling and standard
hydrographic facilities, seismic profiling.

Source of Support: N.S.F., ERDA, U.S. Army Corps, Waterways
Experiment Stations.

A-7

Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst.
Woods Hole, Mass. 02543

Type of Inst. private research - (and education)

Type of Work basic research (and increasing applied res.)

Type of Funding - NSF, ONR, SEA GRANT, private funds,
USGS, NOAA

PEOPLE

Geology

David A. Ross (and 1 technician) - sed. petrography,
depositmal processes

K.O. Emery - same as above

J.D. Milliman - same as above plus suspended matter
studies (3 technicians & 2 students)

Susomu Hinjo - (and technician) - suspended matter studrieS

Physical Oceanography

Gabe Scanady (and 1 technician) - shelf circulation

Robert Beardsley (and 1 technician) - shelf circulation
and current regime

A. Voorhis - circulation of slope water and outer shelf
interactions

Engine ering Dept. - increasing interest in shelf dynamics

W. Grant - coastal engineering and processes

J. Mavor - oceanographic instrumentation

E.E. Hays - general

Marshall Orr - acoustical analysis of suspended matter

Working primarily with Civil Eng. Dept..of MIT
1. man-made hazards
2. offshore structure
3. oceanographic equipment development

Biology

Gilbert Rowe - (and 1 technician) dump spoils and transport
and biological implications

A-8

Richard Hoedvich same as above

Peter Wilke - settling of plankton and seston

Chemistry

Derick Spencer and Peter Brewer - (and 2 technicians)
trace element content in suspended matter

Facilities

Ships
R/V KNORR Mainly large open-ocean ships
ATLANTICS II

R/V Oceanos 180' ship used also on shelf

R/V Asterias 451 ship for nearshore work

R/V LULU & DSDR ALVIN - submersible plus several smaller
boats

Coring (piston, gravity), curab samplers, current meters,
suspended matter sampling, echo sounding (3.5 KHZ &
12 KHZ), shallow seismics, sediment traps

Lab Equipment - complete oceanographic labs.

Support Equipment SEM, computer center, engineering shops

Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Type of Inst.: Educational and Research
Gen. Capacity: Laboratory studies, mathematical modeling

People:
Raymond Siever, Dept. of Geological Sciences: physical
processes, geochemistry of sediments.

Engineering Dept

Equipment

A-9

Institution: Massachusetts Institute of Technology 0
Type of Inst.: Education and Research

General Capability: laboratory experiments, analytical
modeling, limited field studies (Programs with WHOI)

People:

John Southerd, Earth and Planetary Sciences; Lab experiments,
sed. transport by currents, field study of sed. processes

John Bennett, Earth 9 Planetary Sciences; numerical modeling
of shelf circulation

Ole S. Madsen, Dept. Civil Engineering: coastal engineering,
sediment transport and coastal processes, longshore
currents and sed. transport

John Edmond, Earth & Planetary Sciences; chemistry of
suspended sed. in coastal waters

Byran Pearce, Dept. Civil Engineering; numerical modeling
of storm surge physical measurements in coastal. waters

A-10

Institution: University of Massachusetts

People: Alan W. Niedoroda, Edward Perry, Dayton Carritt,
Gregory Webb

Type of Institution: University and Coastal Research
Center (Research)

General Capability: Field and analytical studies of continental
shelf, shoreface and surf zone sediment dynamics and
morphological changes and wave and current studies..
(Niedorada) Geochemical studies of fine sediments (Perry),
Remote sensing of nearshore water masses (Carritt),
Sediment distribution and shelf strategraphy (Webb)

Type of Investigation - Field study of the dynamics of
granular sediment transport in the zone from the inner
continental shelf to the surf zone. Laboratory studies
of sediment transport by waves.

Equipment - Electromagnetic current meters, wave gauges,
tripods, signal processing and recording units, twenty-
six foot Research Launch NORWOOTUC, skiffs and outboards,
sediment traps, automatic Emory tube, sedimentation
laboratory, complete machine shop, Smart Terminal with
digitizer and plotter, electronic laboratory, twelve
Teter wave tank, seven meter square wave tank, trucks and
jeeps, geochemistry laboratory, remote sensing laboratory,
computer CDC7200, salinity, temperature, conductivity
probe, depth sounders

Support personnel Full time machinist/mechanical technician

Sources of support ONR, NOAA, NSF, Water Resources

A-11

Table 1. New England estuaries studied by the
V Coastal Research Center, Univ. of
Massachusetts

Estuary Location Publication
Royal River Maine unpublished (Timson)
Cousins River Maine unpublished (Timson)
Scarboro Maine Farrell (1970, 1971a,
1971b, 1971-ms)
W,
Saco Maine Farrell (1970, 1971a,
X"
1971b, 1971-ms)
Webhannet Maine unpublished (Timson)
Hampton Harbor New Coastal Research Group
Hampshire (1969)
Greer (1971-ms)
Merrimack North- Hartwell (1970); Coastal
eastern Research Group (1969);
Mass. McCormick (1968)
Parker North- DaBoll (1969); Coastal
eastern Research Group (1969);
Mass. Hubbard (1971); Rhodes
(1971)
A> Essex North- Coa@tal Research Group
eastern (1969); Rhodes (1971)
Mass.
Barnstable Harbor South- Hobbs (1971-ms)
t eastern
Mass.
Pleasant Bay South- unpublished (Hine)
e
astern
AR,
Mass.
V,
Shinnecock, Moriches, Long Kaczorowski (1971)
Fire Island, and Jones Island, unpublished (Kaczorovski)
New York
Inlets

Simmary articles covering Hayes, et al (1971);
Hayes
several estuaries. (Y9 9; Hayes,
Boothroyd, and Hine
(1970); Boothroyd and
Hubbard (1971);
Farrell (1971)

A-12

Inst.: Boston College
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics
Chestnut Hill, Mass.

People:

Benno Brenninkmeyer and 4 support personnel

Joe Foster and 4 support personnel

David Ray and 4 support personnel

Type of: Educational

Institution: Data Reduction Lab

Type of Work: Nearshore sedimentation processes, Physic.al
oceanography - Modelling, Sed. transport dynamics

Type of Equipment: Field: 2 EM Current Meters, 1
Resistance Wave Staff, 6 Almometers

Lab: Complete sedimentation lab settling tube, Leco Carbon/
Carbonate/Flume

Support: Computor 370-60 Machine Shop, Electronics

Source of Support: ONR, Corp. of Engineers, Air Force
(Cambridge)

Institution: Williams College, Department of Geology

People: William T. Fox

Type of Institution: College

Area of Research: Field and computor model studies of
beaches and near-shore sediments.

Equipment: Contact Fox

Support: ONR

A-13

University of New Hampshire
Durham, New Hampshire

People: Fran E. Anderson
Brown
Wendal

Types of Investigations: Numerical Modeling of Coastal
Circulation

Ellikol, Dept. Civil Engineering

Measurements of Suspended Sediments

Continental shelf circulation

Bottompressure measurements

Source of Support: NSF

Institution: University of Rhode Island
Graduate School of Oceanography
Narragansett, Rhode Island

Type of Institution: State

Investigators: C. Griscom
R. McMaster

Type of Investigations: Variety of studies, geological
structure, sediment transport and coastal oceanography

Facilities: '1251 Oceanographic Vessel, completely equipped.
oceanographic facility

Sources of Support: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, NSF, ETC-

Institution: University of Rhode Island
Dept. of Geology
Kingston, Rhode Island

Type of Institution: State

Investigatore: John Boothroyd

Type of Investigations: Coastal Processes

Facilities: None

So urce of Support: Unknown

A-14

Bigelow Laboratories for Ocean Science

West Boothbay Harbor, Maine

Private marine research laboratory

Located next to State Marine Resource Laboratory in Boothbay
Harbor

Previously a part of University of Massachusetts system
located outside Gloucester, Massachusetts

People - not defined

Equipment - not defined

Source of Support - Partly by Maine Department of
Marine Resource

University of Maine at Orono

Orono, Maine

Education & Res.

People Novak - sed. dynamics

Equipment - not defined

Source of Support

Isra Dailing Center

University of Maine

Walpole, Maine

People - not defined

Equipment - not defined

Source of Support

A-15

THE RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF THE GULF OF MAINE(TRIGOM)

- ...an oceanographic consortium of educational and research institutes in
Maine dedicated to expanding marine research education and information,
- provides a variety of services to the marine science community through
publications, meetings, and seminars on subjects of common interest. 1h
addition, the Institute undertakes its own projects to help the state afid
region better plan for multiple uses of the coast and to manage its 6atdy@6
resources
TRIGOM academic membership
Bates College
Bowdoin College
Colby College
Cornell University
Maine Maritime Academy
Nasson College
Saint Francis College
Southern Maine Vocational Technical Institute
U. of Maine@ Farmington
@ Orono
@ Portland-Gorham
it does exist and acts as a focal point for such things as sympo'siu6s Vt&. -
-' t 0 rt
courses are taught there etc. lending to the fact that although it I a 6
a consortium it remains itself an entity.
Director (1970) Donald B. Horton
a person to contact would be:
Ned Shenton 207-773-2981
96 Falmouth St.
S. Portland, Maine 04103
TRIGOM done under contract w/ BLM
08550-CT3-8

A-1-6

Columbia University
Lamont - Doherty Geological Observatory

Pierce Biscay Radon tracers, geochemistry in NY
Bight and Hudson Estuary

Arnold Gordon Physical oceanography, surface drift
patters in NY Bight

James Simpson Hudson River estuary geochemistry

John Sanders Sedimentology, Coastal sedimentation

Equipment
R/V Vema, R/V Conrad
3.SKHZ, on-board AA,
current meters, sparker,
Piston Corer, S.E.M.

City University Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Science
Willard Pierson Satellite studies of wave motion

N. Coch and
Dennis Weiss Hudson River Estuary studies

Eric Posmontier Hudson River Estuary dynamic models

C.W. Post College
A. Uzzo Bottom Current studies

SUNY Stony Brook
J.Schubel Okuba

Brookhaven Laboratory
John Scott Cobalt Project shelf circulation studies

N.Y. OSL
Rudey Holman Coastal studies, hydrography

Adelphi University
Garden City, NY 1.1530
Anthony E. Cok MESA projects

Monitoring studies, shoreface, benthic ecology, channel
transport

551 svindrift - Interocean system, Hydro Winches, Diver
Capabilities, Rapid Sed. Analyzer, 5 current meters

A-17

Institution: Southampton College

People: Larry McCormick

Type of Institution: College

General Capabilities: Sedimentation on inner continental
shelf

Type of Investigation: Sedimentation patterns, morphological
changes, field studies

Equipment: Marine station, thirty five foot Research
Vessel SHAWNA, numerous smaller vessels, automated Emory
tube, sedimentation laboratory, geochemical laboratory,
continuous recording pressure wave gauge (CERC), Tide
gauge, surveying equipment, S.T.D., depth sounder, coring
and grabbing equipment

Support Personnel: Boat Captain, electronics technician

Sources of Support: C.E.R.C.

A-18

Institution: Lehigh Univ. (Center for Marine and Environ-
mental Studies - CMES), Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

People: James Parks, Bob Carson, Joseph Kelley, Adrian
Richards

Type of Research: Nearshore/inner shelf; inner shelf; back
barrier suspended and bottom sediment interaction; geo-'
technical properties of bottom sediments, Gulf of Maine
and southern New Jersey

Equipment: Sedimentology Lab., Research Station (Stone
Harbor, N.J.) various grab samplers, covers, Small (301)
boats. Generator and pump for filtering suspended
sediment, 293 mm diameter filter holder, sediment traps,
current meters, collection of local aerial imagery,
nephelometer, centrifuges, supercentrifuge, AA cent.,
mass spec. geotechnical lab (Adrian Richards)

Source of Support: Private foundations (Noyes, Victoria)
Companies - Union Oil Company,
Sea Grant

Pennsvlvania Marine Sciences Consortium

Ben Oostdam, (Millersburg State, Millersburg, Pa.)
Director, Wallops Island Lab., Va.

Types of Research: Geochemistry, Sedimentology, of
Atlantic shelf suspended sediments

Equipment: R/V Annandale

Support: N.S.F.

A-19

University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Research Topics Investigat)rs
Continental shelf, coring R. Sheridan
and seismic studies

Coastal sediments, stratigraphy, J.C. Kraft
history of sea level changes

Organic geochemistry age dating J. Wehmiller

Suspended sediments, geochemistry R. Gibbs

Geotechnical soils, foundations T. Inderbitzen

Same K. Demars

Ocean engineering, sediment R. Dean
transport

Waste disposal A. Darymple

Wave studies C.Y. Yang

Remote sensing, ocean fronts V. Klemas

Phys ical oceanography, continental C. Mooens
shelves

Equipment
R/V Cape Henolopen
Sub-bottom profiles
Settling tube, SEM, A.A., wave tanks, gas chromatographs,
Coulter Counter, transmissometers

Sources of Support: Sea Grant, NOAA, ONR, NSF.

A-20

Delaware Geological Survey
Newark, Delaware
Coastal Zone Management

Robert Jordan, State Geologist

Research Topics
Suspended sediments estuarine and coastal studies, high-
resolution seismic studies

Equipment
Access to equipment of University of Delaware

University of Maryland

Solomon's Island Laboratory

Offshore Service Vessel

The Johns Hopkins University

Baltimore, Maryland

Chesapeake Bay Institute

Grant Gross, Director

Wm. Borcourt

Estuarine studies, geochemistry

Physical oceanography, continental shelf

Equipment: R/V Ridgeley Warfield

A-21

Maryland State Geological Survey

Kenneth Weaver, State Geologist

Owen Bricker geochemistry

C.Slaughter high resolution seismic studies, shelf drilling

Equipment: Uniboom, contract seismic studies

A-22

Institute of Oceanography

1. Old Dominion Univ. - Norfolk

Educational - Research

J.C. Ludwick Director, Chesapeake Bay, tidal delta
morphology and circulation

Wave gage inform from remote tower

Peter Fleigher - slope geology

1. Physical Oceanographic

1- 2 Boats, lab equipment, sed! samplers

2. Va. Inst. of Marine Science

400 people

90 Faculty - research approximately 1/3 in physical
90 Graduate students Sciences.Division

Phys. Sci. and Coastal Erfgineering Division

a. Geological & chemical Ocean. Dept.

Maynard Nichols shelf sedimentology

Victor Goldsmith Wave Refraction Models (Montauk Pt.
to Cape Hateras)

- Shelf Bathymetry & Geomorphology

- Longshore wave energy inter-relations with
historical shoreline change

- Wave climatology

3 Chemists (Smith, McIntire, and other)

- hydrocarbons

and 5 other faculty

b. Physical Oceanography & Coastal Hydraulics Dept.

- Evon P. Ruzecki Phys. Ocean. Field Work, Modeling, etc.

- Chris Welch

- Satelite Buoy Systems

A-23

Full gamut of salinity, BOD, current meters., etc.
and 10 other faculty available and trained for shelf 41
studies

VIMS BLM Baseline studies, which include Phys. Oc., sed.
characterizations, etc. transend dept. (see Federal
Agencies listing for support level).

Equipment

3 Deep-sea ocean vessels

6 boats capable of overnight shelf work

Full sed. lab with WHOI settling tube, etc.

Full electronics, instrument, carpentry, etc. shops

Recirculating flume

50 braincon current meters

6 satellite buoys (with telemetering equipment)

Source of Support

Commonwealth of Va.

Sea Grant

BLM

WES.

Water Resources

NASA (-Satellite Buoys)

A-24

Smithsonian Institute
Washington, D.C.

Sedimentology Laboratory

Jack Pierce clay minerology, suspended sediments

D.J. Stanley sediment transport

Westinghouse Ocean Research Laboratory

Donald Wilson sediment transport, ocean engineering

Equipment
Sediment flume, subbottom profiler, settling tube,
coulter counter, transport probe, quadripod

Sources of Support
ERDA, State, Federal, Industrial

A-25

New Jersey Marine Science Consortium
Don Zalusky
Glasgow State College
Sedimentology, Paleontology

Princeton University
Geophysics
Fluid Dynamics lab.
Hydraulic modelling

Rutgers University
Littoral drift modelling
Sandy Hook studies

Fairleigh Dickinson University
Robert Dill
Maring geology, sedimentology
Marine Laboratory, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

Dames and Moore
Harold Palmer
Roger Moose
Tom McKinney
Jim Marlowe
Peter Feldhausen

Area of Studies
Shelf sediment transport, sedimentology

Equipment
Geotechnical laboratory, current meters,
sub-bottom profilers

Sources of Support
Industrial, federal and state

National Marine Fisheries Service
Sandy Hook Laboratories
Highlands, New Jersey

work has included sediment studies

A-26

LONG ISLAND RESEARCH FORUM

- there is an annual meeting concerning L.I. Sound research.- an abstract is
printed annually
- people to contact:
(1) John Sanders
prof. @ Barnard College, CCNY
adjunct prof. @ RPI
(2) Mickey Weiss
project "Oceanology" in Groton, Conn. 203-445-9007
(3) Don Squires
director, Sea Grant ................ 518-474-6240
(4) John Baiardi (Bayardi - pron.)
director, Ocean Science Labs
in Montauk, N. Y.................... 668-5800 ext. 30

A-27

COASTAL 70NE
WFORMATNI CEEXXTER

CONTRACTS
MID- and NORTH ATLANTIC

A. MID-ATLANTIC

USGS

sediment characteristics, high resolution seismic reflection data,
hydrostatically damped gravity cores, hydrocarbon.geochemistry, shelf
sediment monitoring system

these data are presented through a series of interim reports; summarizations
appear in appendices. Appendices include:

Ist report
(1) Shelf sediment monitory system
Description and specifications
(2) Evidence of Post-Pleistocene faults on the New Jersey Atlantic OCS

2nd report
(1) Large sand waves on the Outer Shelf near Wilmington Canyon

3rd-report
No Appendix

4th report (up to date)
(1) Thickness and age of the surficial sand sheet, Baltimore Canyon Trough
Area
(2) Results of sediment analyses intercalibration

(2) VIMS

physical oceanography, hydrographic data, water column/biological
oceanography, marine microbiology, chemical oceanography, geoche-mistry,
benthic community analysis, some meteorology (more complete - NOAA),
and geochemistry

these data also presented through a series of interim reports - (6)
up to date.

A-28

B. NORTH-ATLANTIC

(1) Energy Resources Company, Inc.
185 Alewife Brook Parkway
Cambridge, Mass. 02138

geochemistry, macrofauna chemistry, benthic infauna community
analysis, histopathology, microbiology, descriptive chemistry

(2) Raytheon Company
P. 0. Box 360
Portsmouth, R.I. 02871

physical oceanography

(3) EG & G
Environmental Consultants Division
151 Bear Hill Road
Waltham, Mass. 02154

physical oceanography

C. NORTH AND MID-ATLANTIC

(1) Center for Natural Areas
Box 98
South Gardiner, Maine 24359

general environmental information: Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras

A-29

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING

A. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

George Peter
ERL - NOAA
3600 Marine Street
Boulder, Colorado 80302

Geology programs:

MESA (Marine Eco Systems Analysis) includes
AOML (Atlantic Ocean Marine Laboratory)
OCSEAP ( Outer Continental Shelf Environment Analysis
Program)

Major Objectives of the MESA and OCSEAP Environmental
Geology Program

To provide a baseline characterization of the geologic
environment in order to evaluate potentially, unde-
sirable changes. Inventory and characterization of
sediment (grain size engineering properties, pollu@
tants in sediments, etc.) Additional value is tQ
biologists, as habitant information.

To identify regional geologic hazards that might
affect exploration development, and/or transportatlon
of petroleum to shore.

Fault structures, slumps, stability relationships,, .etc,

To develop an understanding of geological transport
processes as part of the overall effort to understand
the pathways, sinks, and geochemical interactions of
pollutants.

Involves interdisciplinary studies, physical ocean.-
ography, and chemical oceanography.

NY Bight since 1973
Puget Sount since 1975
OCSEAP since 1975

NOAA conducts research in all areas of marine sclence
has been a decline in geological emphasis.

NOAA has responsibility for research and monit.oring on
marine waste disposal and pollution effectsunder clean
water acts - also has responsibilities under coastal
programs.

Total F.Y. 1976 - $1.5 - 1.7 X 10 per year
New York bight funds through 1981
other areas to be examined where local -problems
prevail.

Level of Geological Effort by'GeogrAphic Area

Area Funding in 1000's

FY76 FY77

New York Bight 370 345
Puget Sound 25 75
Alaska 1624 1650,
East Coast & Gulf of Mexico* 200 200
$2219 $2270

MESA New York Bight Geologic Studies
(anticipated through 1981)

Area INSTITUTION Type of 1.3tudy FY76 FY77

New York Bight AOML Substrate
inventory 79

New York Bight (AOML-MIT) Resuspension of
cohesive sediments 12

New York Bight (AOML-U of Chicago) Suspended sediment
transport 59

New York Bight U of S Florida Sources, transport,
& reactions of sus-
pended sediments 50

New York Bight Yale Coastal sedimenta-
tion history 26 45

New York Bight AOML Sludge tracking 64

New York Bight AOML Inner shelf sediment
transport experiment
(INSTEP) 300
SUBTOTAL $370 $345

AOML Geology
(exclusive of MESA)

East Coast of
U.S. NOAA/AOML Continental margin
sedimentation 100 100

Gulf of Mexico NOAA/AOML Geotechnical proper-
ties of sediments 100 100
SUBTOTAL $200 $200

A-31

Ship Support - Geology 0

Area Program Ship Da s $Per Year in :0
FY76 PY'77,

New York Bight (49 days) MESA 49 77

East Coast & Gulf of
Mexico (95 davs) AOML 95 5-D
SUBTOTAL $144 $127

Future functions will be aimed at national trends and
demands. Heavy emphasis on New York Bight and Alaska.

lie

A-32

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

B. Energy Research and Development Administration

William Forster
ERDA - Division of Biomedical and
Environmental Programs (301) 353-5323
Washington, D.C. 20545

Based upon the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 (PL 93-438)

ERDA's purpose is to consolidate energy related
functions of the Federal Government in ERDA and NRC
in the following areas:

Develop energy sources
Meet future energy requirements
Strengthen the national economic base
Environmental quality - restore/protectilenhance
Assure public health/safety
Coordinate other Federal agencies energy roles
Establish programs to use research performed by
other Federal agencies to minimize adverse en-
vironmental effects due to energy activities
Develop cooperative programs to avoid duplications

ERDA's functions derive from the former Atomic Energy
Commission established from the Atomic Energy Act -
1954

AEC was entrusted to regulate/control all aspects of
nuclear activity

Promulgate radiation standards
Prevent pollution of the seas in amounts that would
adversely affect man and his marine resources

Main consideration was "man," the most sensitive
part of the system

Emphasis was on fundamental oceanographic studies

Effects of oceanographic processes on the re-
distribution accumulation of radioactivity in
the biotic/abiotic portions of the marine
environment

ERDA has 2% of Federal ocean program monies.
Involvement with shelf sediment dynamics wherever
energy related activities influence sedimentary
environment and vice versa.

A-33

Examples: a. Distruption of dynamic stability of
shelf environment
b. Pollutants from energy related activi-
ties on suspended sediment.

Research and Development needs:
Substrate inventories (regional and intensive
transects)
Bed load transport (physical forcing functions)
Physical, geological and bio-chemical intE!ractions

Examples: a. Hydraulic climate for substrF-Lte mobility
b. Bottom boundry conditions for physical
modeling
c. Maps of bottom sed. characteristics
d. Maps of sed. T/D vectors

Concern is with activity of Benthas in
modifying the sed./water interface,
which influences the flux of chemical
constituents to the water column.

Objectives of ERDA's Biomedical and Environmental
Research (BER) Marine Studies

In order to help ERDA attain its mission, as outlined
in the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 (PL 93-438Y-,
this marine program's goal is to Assess the Potential
Impact of ERA on the Coastal Zone.

The following four objectives are considered
essential in the assessment:

1. An understanding of the natural processes that
govern the transport and fate of natural materiala
in this coastal zone.

2. An understanding of the causes of natural
variability in this coastal zone.

3. An understanding, in the form of a predictive
scheme, of the pathways and rates of passage of
materials that cycle through coastal zone ecosystems,..

4. Assemble a team of credible oceanographers, who
are knowledgeable about objectives 1 through 3, that.
will be able to address specific situations of
environmental impacts from various ERA in. these
regions.

A-34

In-house: Geo-Physical Contractors - $1,290,000

ERDA's Biomedical and Environmental Research (BER) On-Site
Geo-Physical Contractors

National FY177 FY178
Laboratories P.I. ($K) ($K) Projects (8)

ORNL N.Case/ Radio-active isotope
N.Cutshall $ 75 $ 100 sand tracers

ORNL N.Cutshall 100 110 Nat. RA. in MAB

SRL D.Hayes 120 130 TU Deposition in
Savannah Est.

LLL R.Spies 140 140 S.Barbara Substrate
Alteration from
Oil Seeps

LLL V.Noshkin 350 375 TU Cycling in Enewetak
Atoll Sediments

PNL N.Wogman/ in Situ Detection of T.E.
D.Perkins 55 60 on Surficial Sediments

ANL D.Edgington 250 275 R.A. Deposition in
Lk. Mich.

ANL D. Edgington/ TU-Sus. Sed. Inter-
A.Preston (UK) 100 110 actions in Irish Sea

$1,240 $1,290

A-35

ERDA's (BER) Off-Site Geo-Physical Contractors

FY177 FY178
Institution P.I. ($K) ($K) Proje!ts (16)

LDOI W.Broecker $ 430 $ 430 Transport/Transf-,er
Rates in MAB

LDOI J.Simpson 75 75 TU Cycling in Hud-sqn
River Estuary

SUNY-SB Okubo 120 120 -L/E D-iffusion in Lqp-g
Island Sound

NOAA D.Swift 150 150 INSTEP

JHU G.Gross 60 60 TE Cycling in
Chesa'Deake 'I@ay

NCSU L.Pietrafesa 130 140 P.O. Studies -in 5AB

SKIO L.Atkinson/
J.Blanton 160 180 SAB Shelf Processes

UM T.Lee 180 190 Gulf Stream Intru,sli"PA5
in SAB

TAMU W.Sackett/ Dispersion of M-i.S,s,. 'RIv,
M. Scott so 75 R.A. on Shelf

SIO C.Winant 120 120 Mixing 'Proc.esses -iITII
Near Shore

OSU Pak/Zaneveld/ Particu'lat@e
Small 120 125 in CZ

OSU T.Beasely 100 100 TU Cycling'Mechani-.sms

OCE D.Jennings 45 45 FE 55 Distri ut-i@ons
. 1A - 1. 1- - -
in Col. 'River @Sed,.-

U.Wash. B.Hickey/D.Smith215 225 P.O./Sed.-TIranSDOrt
in NW-CZ

U.Wash R.Carpenter 60 65 Geochemical Cyqji@ngof
TE in NW-CZ

U.A. D.Burrell 60 65 TE/Glacial Flour
Interactions
$2,065 @2,260

A-36

Out-of-house: $2,260,000 - radioactive material avail-
ability on shelf.

Future Plans

1. Expand Basic Oceanography Program into Transport,
fate and Effects of Specific Energy-Related Pollutants
as Energy facilities go on-line for Each Region

Base programs underway in some regions should
provide knowledge on the working of the coastal
zone system.

Specific studies of ERP will be superimposed on
this base.

2. Regional Coordinators Established in the field

SAB - D. Menzel (SKIO)
GC - T. Treadwell (TAMU)
MAB - B. Manowitz (BNL)
PNL - B. Templeton (PNL)

A-37

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

C. National Science Foundation Bruce Malfait
IDOE (Internation Decade of IDOE
Ocean Exploration) National Science Foundation
1800 G Street
Washington, D.C. 2055.0

Ocean Sciences Division of NSF - $55 million
IDOE (International Decade of Ocean Exploration) -
head - Fennon Jannings

Areas -
Environmental quality (Geo. Sec.)
Environmental Forecasting - role of ocean in
modifying climate
Sea bed assessment - Bruce Malfait
Living Resources Program - productivity and
upwelling
Submarine geology and geophysics
Shelf - $700,000
Sediment transport - $250,000
Physical Oceanography Program - $3.3 million
$1 million - continental shelves
approx. $0.1 million - benthic boundary

The general organization of the N.S.F is as follows.:

The National Science Foundation supports the study,of
shelf sediment dynamics from the division of oceanography
which is located within the Directorate for Astronomical,-
Atmospheric, Earth and Ocean Sciences. By law the Founda.-
tion does no in-house research, a majority of its funds
going to the support of research at academic institutions,
Funding is justified on the basis of the need to under-staxid
the basic physical processes which transport sediment,pn
the margin. Although such an understanding in a justi 'fi-
able and in its own right, it also provides the basic
knowledge needed in more applied research on the conti@nen-
tal margins.

The Division of Oceanography is further subdivid 'ed
into three offices (1) the office of Ship and Facilit-ies.'
(2) the office for the International Decade of Ocean Ex-
ploration (IDOE) and (3) the office of ocean project su-pport,
The budget for the Division is approximately 55M dollars
which is split roughly equally between the three offices.
The office of ship and facilities supports and maintains
the platforms from which NSF sponsored research is done..
The office for the International Decade of Ocean Explora-
tion supports U.S. participation in the IDOE, a -ten year
(1970-1980) program of international research to improve (do
more utilization of the ocean and how the ocean influences
the global environment. IDOE projects are typically long-
term, multi-institutional, multi-disciplinary studies of:

A_'19

(1) the role of the oceans in global climate, (2) the
environment quality and transport of pollutants in the
ocean (3) marine processes which may be responsible for
the formation of mineral resources and (4) the processes
which control ocean productivity. IDOE projects have
been typically open ocean studies although some work on
coastal currents and continental margin structure has
been supported. No work on sediment transport is pre-
sently funded from the IDOE office.:

The project support office is the traditional source
of support for academic oceanography in the U.S. projects
supported from this office are typically short term (1 to
2 years), involve a minimum number of investigators
(typically at one institution) and under the entire range
of problems and processes in oceanography. The office is
divided into the four major disciplines of oceanography.
Support for sediment transport comes both from the physical
oceanography program and the submarine geology and
geophysics program.

Physical Oceanography Program
FY 77 FY 78
Sediment Transport $ 1005000 $ 200,000
Total Shelf Support $1,000,000 *15000,000
Total Budget $3,500,000 ($3,350,000)

Submarine Geology and Geophysics

Sediment Transport $ 2501000 $ 250,000
Shelf Sediment Studies $ 7005000 $ 700,000
Total Budget $6,8005000 $6,800,000

(above figures exclusive of ship-time)

A-39

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

D. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Barry Holliday
Office of Dredged Material Research
Waterways Experiment Station
Box 631
Vicksbury, Miss. 39180

Dredged Materials Research Program started in 1973 -
$30 million for 5 years.
Sediment transport and water motion structures end
March, 1978.

Corps of Engineers has lab
2 labs at WES do sediment work:
1. hydraulics lab
2. models - such as the physical model of NY harbor

190 Contracts - lists available of reports published on
status of funded projects.

Most sediment transport work comes under two tasks:
1. Instrumentation - 0.15M
2. Field Studies (described on cover page)
Other studies - 0.16M
Base line and monitoring in field studies -
costs shown are not necessarily 1 year

Field studies - Sediment trans ort studies - sedimentation
sites of open water dumping - M4,000.

Sample: Long Island Sound - base line study - monitor
disposal mounds - monitor dispersion.

Model of dredged material movements - dispersion
Factors effecting long-term rate
Effects of storms
Cohesive sediment transport studies - for estuaries.
Develop predictive capability

Needs - sediment characterization
Relate sediment on bottom to processes on bottom.
Fates of dumped dredged material criteria development.

Questions raised in this program will need work after 78 - Needs
1. sediment type versus process moving sed in an area
2. modelling - differsion studies
3.' engineering properties
4. bio stability & reworking of deposits
5. instrument needs - reduction of enor range - etc.
6. mixing studies

Requests are being made to continue program - may be thru
district office. Districts will document and monitor dumping
programs to.meet EPA. Contract from WES on demand.

A-40

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

E. Office of Sea Grants David B. Duane, Assoc. Director
Project Support Programs
Office of Sea Grants
3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20235

Sea Grants of NOAA - $24 million
Applied research - Education - Marine Advisory Services
Cost-sharing - for $2 million Federal funds to $1
million non-Federal agency. Matching fund ratio vs.
required.
Funding mainly through university systems
At present 27 universities
80 program topics
Three types of grants
Projects
Coherants (multidiscipline)
Institutionals ,
Local Manager Swanson - at Stony Brook.

Topics - in shelf sediment dynamics
Coastal sediment transport and beach stability
Sediment flux and sediment characterization
(many placers and sand-gravels)
Ocean motion (including mathematical models) open ocean
and estuarine circulation. Approximately 20 funded
programs
Potentials for future programs
New legislation permits support of ship -time and
authorization to do national projects (do not require
matching funds)
These will be larger in interest - regional and
multidisciplinary - long-term, 3 to 5 years @ $200 -
500,000 per year.

Listing of Sea Grant Projects relevant to New York State's
Outer Continental Shelf and Coastal Zone.

A Listing of Sea Grant Projects
As Of July 1, 1976
(by classification)

**each record in this sea g-1,11ant report has the following format

... classification title .... ... classification code
... pr6ject title ........... SG funding ..........
... institution ............ grant number-principal investigator

A-41

Effects of mixed petroleum hydrocarbons in marine fishes
$71,500
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
04-6-158-44106 J.J.Stegman, D.J.Sabo

Mineral Resources - Other

Evaluation of confining strata associated with principal
coastal Georgia aquifer $144,300
University of Georgia
04-6-158-44017 J.R.Wolsey, J.L. Harding

An evaluation of coastal sand and gravel deposits as con-
struction or specialty materials $34,000
University of Georgia
04-6-158-44017 R.G.Hicks, J.L.Harding

Manganese resources $36,678
University of Hawaii
04-6-15844026 J.E.Andrews, M.E.Morgenstein

Developing a management program for offshore sand and
gravel mining, marine district, New York
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.R.Schubel

An economic study of marine-oriented activities in the
Southern New England marine region $21,991
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 T.A.Grigalunas

Ocean Law - Coastal

Development of county and local ordinances designed to
protect the public interest in Florida's coastal beaches
State University System of Florida $32,800
04-6-158-44055 F.E.Maloney, D.C.Dambly

Site selection for port, waterway and pipeline development
in coastal Louisiana: legal, institutional & policy aspects
Louisiana State University A&M College $24,982
04-6-158-44024 M.J.Hershman, K.Midboe

Regulation of offshore technology under extended jurisdiction
$15,000
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 Prof.J.D.Nyhart

Legal aspects of coastal zone management $ 6,324
University of North Carolina 410
04-6-158-44054 T.J.Schoenbaum

A-42

Problems in coastal law $34,369
State University of New York
04-6-lS8-44040 R.Reis

Legal implications of changes in ocean'law for U.S.
coastal states $75,000
Texas A&M University
04-6-158-44066 J.Seymour

Ocean Law - International

A legal and institutional response: to oil and deep sea
mineral exploitation in the Pacific basin $38,385.
University of Hawaii
04-6-158-44026 J.P.Craven, V.C.Bloede

Alternative methods for effectuating,U. S./ocean policy
goals after the Law of the Sea Conference $13,193
Louisiana State University A&M College
04-6-158-44024 H.G.Knight

Law of the Sea Institute $15,971
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 J.K.Gamble

Recreation - Sports Fisheries

Marine policy and ocean management $10,000
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
04-6-158-44106 R.A.Frosch

Seafloor Engineering

Exploration and evaluation of engineering properties of
marine soils for foundation design of offshore structures
Massachusetts Institute of Technology $35,000
04-6-158-44081 M.M.Baligh, C.C.Ladd

Vehicles, Vessels, and Platforms

Seaward advancement of industrial societies $23,570
University of Hawaii
04-6-158-44026 J.P.Craven, J.A.Hanson

Materials and Structures

Pipeline survival under ocean wave attack $37,179
University of Hawaii
04-6-158-44026 R.A.Grace

A-43

Dynamic analysis of offshore structures
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 J.K.Vandiver

Applications of nonlinear random sea simulations for design
of offshore structures 7,804
Oregon State University
04-6-158-44094 R.T.Hudspeth

Applications of nonlinear random sea simulations for design
of offshore structures $16,396
Oregon State University
04-6-158-44094 R.T.Hudspeth

Degradation of metal-fiber reinforced concrete in a marine
environment $13,425
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44084 R.Heidersbach

Degradation of metal-fiber reinforced concrete in a marine
environment $13,425
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 R.Heidersbach
Offshore pipelines $20,000 fib
Texas A&M University
0.4-6-158-44012 V.K.Lou, J.Herbich

Corrosion of metals in marine structures $8,062
University of Wisconsin
04-6-158-44006 Y.A.Chang, P.C.Rosenthal

Coastal Eng neering

Coastal engineering assessment of Delaware's beach erosion
University of Delaware *27,800
04-6-158-44025 R.A.Dalrymple, R.G.Dean

Beach erosion control at Indian River inlet "'20,000
University of Delaware
04-6-158-44025 R.A.Dalrymple

Nearshore circulation, littoral drift, and the sand budget
of Florida 13@72,400
State University System of Florida
04-6-158-44055 M.Smutz, J.Purpura, T.Chiu, A.

Stabilization of subtidal sediments by transplantation of
submerged vegetation *'12,187
State University of New York 40
04-6-158-44040 A.Collidge Churchill, A.Cok

A-44

Ocean engineering of shore protection structures$20,100
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
04-6-158-44047 R.J.Byrne, G.Anderson

Electromagnetic measurements of harbor flushing $ 7,672
University of Wisconsin
04-6-158-44006 T.Green

Mechanisms and scales of exchanges between urban-industrial
harbor systems and coastal and offshore. $29,790
University of Wisconsin
04-6-158-44006 C.H.Mortimer, Lai, Sikdar

Dredging

Disposal of dredged spoil in central Long Island Sound:
A management plan $21,121
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.R.Schubel, P.K.Weyl

Trace element recycling from diked dredged disposal
Texas A&M University $14,900
04-6-158-44012 R.J.Scrudato, C.Michey

Predicting erosion of dredge spoil islands by wave processes
Texas AgM University $28,000
04-6-158-44012 C.C.Mathewson, D.Basco

Ocean Engineering - Other

Power from salinity gradients $10,206
University of California
04-6-158-44021 J.D.Isaacs,K.Spiegler,G.Wick

Hydrodynamic and engineering evaluation of an ocean wave
energy system *55,700
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 C.C.Me.i,A.D.Carmichael

Urban neighborhoods and recreational uses of the coastal zone
State University of New York $ 7,216
04-6-158-44040 Mitchell L. Moss

Institutional structure for coastal management $15,987
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.M.Heikoff

The management of coastal waters $16,572
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 P.D.Marr

A-45

The redevelopment of the urban coastal zone $13,855
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 M.L.Moss, S.Johnston

Public participation assistance for Pennsylvania coastal
zone management program $ 5,200
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 P.,Marr

Port development and operations as an aspect of coastal
management programs @67,000
University of Washington
04-5-158-48A M.J.Hershman

Coastal Zone Mgmnt-Natural Sciences & Engineerin-,-

Statistical prediction of extreme tides, waves and their
potential damage to the Delaware coast
University of Delaware
04-6-158-44025 M.A.Tayfun, C.Y.Yang

Visual quality of New York State's coastal zone $16,524
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 D.B.Harper

Additional funds for the New York bight environME!ntal
atlas series $47,500
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.McAlpine, J.Ginter

Coastal resources center 1", 4,837
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 W.J.Gray

Coastal resources center 4,836
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 W.J.Gray

Remote sensing photogrammetric survey for long-term
shoreline erosion inventory, R.I. 8) 9,498
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 J.J.Fisher

Technical aspects of ocean dumping of industrial wastes
Texas A&M Uni-,,rersity 1$26,100
04-6-158-44012 R.W.Hann,Jr.

A-46

Pollution Oil Spills

Mode of uptake and rate of release of petroleum hydro-
carbons by shellfish in relation to their physiological
conditions $22,010
Louisiana State University A&M College
04-6-158-44024 C.L.Ho

Hydrocarbon effects on estuarine carbon flux $23,149
Louisiana State University A&M College
04-6-158-44024 R.E.Turner

Effect of crude oil on nitrogen flux in salt marshes
Louisiana State University A&M College $ 5,847
04-6-158-44024 W.H.Patrick,Jr.

Hydrocarbon concentration in food chains $13,906
Louisiana State University A&M College
04-6-158-44024 T.Whelan III

Water and sediment chemistry $19,510
Louisiana State University A&M College
04-6-158-44024 C.L.Ho

Oil slick control in offshore environments $20,700
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081. Dr.J.H.Milgram.

Distribution of hydrocarbons in Narragansett Bay sediments
University of Rhode Island $13,486
04-6-158-44085 J.G.Quinn
I
Monitoring hydrocarbons on and in sea water $11,386
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 C.W.Brown

Monitoring hydrocarbons on and in sea water $11,387
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 C.W.Brown

Pollution - Metals

Distribution diversity and toxicological response of
resident species, as correlated with changes in the
physico-chemical environment of Newark Bay $16,400
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 J.M.McCormick, S.J.K

Distribution of heavy metals and nutrients in the Newark Bay
estuary with comparison to that of the Great Egg Harbor estuary
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium $ 9,600
04-6-158-44076 Su-Ling Cheng

A-47

Pollution - Other

Numerical simulation of the New York bight coastal waters
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium $24,800
04-6-158-44076 G.L.Mellor, W.G.Gray, George P

Distribution and diversity of plankton in relation to the
physico-chemical environment of the Great Egg Harbor
estuary and New Bay estuary 5,10c)
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 D.M.Huey

Effects of persistent pollutants on plankto n $54,400
State University of New York/Cornell University
04-6-158-44065 C.F.Wrster,H.B.C)'Connors

Sediment dispersal in New Bedford Harbor and Western
Buzzards Bay L11,51,500
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
04-6-158-44106 C.P.Summerhayes, G.Lohmann, J

Environmental Models - Physical Processes

Longshore sediment transport 3328,800
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 O.S.Madsen

The sea environment of Massachusetts Bay and adjacent
waters "?'60,500
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 J.J.Connor,B.R.Pearce

Calibration and field verification of numerical models for
circulation and dispersion in Biscayne Bay **41,200
University of Miami
04-6-158-44104 J.D.Wang
Analytical modeling of coastal zone areas *19,866
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 F.M.White, M.Spaulding

Development of an integrated three-dimensional hydrodynamic,
salinity and temperature model $'13,571
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 M.Spaulding

Analytical modeling of coastal zone areas @19,867
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 F.M.White,M.Spaulding

A-48

Stability of a small coastal inlet 5,600
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
04-6-158-44106 J.A.Moody

The geologic structure,evolution and destruction of coastal
barriers and adjacent weC!a'nds--
University of Delaware
04-6-158-44025 J.C.Kraft

Applied Chemical Oceanography

Interdisciplinary study of pollution in Newark Bay estuary:
Pollutant transport patterns in tidal marshes as delineated
by the sulfate-chlorinity $ 7,300
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 A.L.Meyerson, G.W.Luther

Applied Physical Oceanography

Physical criteria for coastal planning $88,814
University of California
04-6-158-44021 D.L.Inman,C.D.Winant

Estuarine hydrography - data compilation $14,000
University of Georgia
04-6-158-44017 J.D.Howard

Study of the rate of renewal of Newark Bay water through
tidal exchange and fresh water inflow $14,900
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 R.I.Hires, C.J.Henry

Three-dimensional study of modern estuarine deposits in the
Narragansett Bay system, Rhode Island and southern Mass.
University of Rhode Island $ 7,630
04-6-158-44085 R.L.McMaster

Three'-dimensional study of modern estuarine deposits in the
Narragansett Bay system, Rhode Island and southern Mass.
University of Rhode Island $ 7,630
04-6-158--4085 R.L.McMaster

Synthesis and application of ocean wave refraction data
Virginia Institute of' Marine Science $42,600
04-6-158-44047 V.Goldsmith,R.J.Byrne

Course Development

Coastal law traineeships $14,000
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.H.Judd, R.Reis

A-49

Sea grant traineeships - New York Sea Grant Institute
State University of New York $166,500
04-6-158-44040 J.H.Judd

Public service legislative studies by students and their
professors $ 3,200
04-6-158-44040 S.Chapman

Traineeships in engineering and marine technology
State University of New York $33,000
04-6-158-44040 J.H.Judd

Doctoral stipends for studies of marine industries
State University of New York 1,000
04-6-158-44040 J.H.Judd

Extension Agent Services

Sea grant advisory services program $47,500
University of Connecticut
04-6-158-44079 G.S.Geer,L.Stewart

Marine advisory services $1.12,600
University of Delaware
04-6-158-44025 C.Thoroughgood

Advisory services: Development, operation, and management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology @85,400
'04-6-158-44081 E.R.Pariser

Marine industry advisory service (MIDAS) $90,000
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 N.Doelling

MITSG/CES marine extension service $28,200
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-6-158-44081 E.R.Pariser, J.H.Noyes

Marine advisory service $2.29,855
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 W.J.Gray

Advisory services - extension agents and publications
Virginia Institute of Marine Science $1.29,600
04-6-158-44047 R.D.Anderson, F.Biggs

Applied engineering advisory program 9,170
Virginia Polytechnical Institute
04-6-158-44068 W.H.Mashburn, C.Shoemaker lip

A-50

Public Education Programs

Continuation of the services provided by the National Sea
Grant Depository $70,400
University of Rhode Island/Sea Grand Depository
04-6-158-44018 P.K.Weedman

New England marine advisory service $43,300
University of New Hampshire
04-6-158-44070 J.K.Hutchinson

New Jersey marine advisory service $25,500
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 Dr.N.Psuty

Program Planning

Program planning $20,000
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 L.A.Walford

Program management - New York Sea Grant program $38,.556
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 D.F.Squ ires

Program Administration

Program management $26,300
New Jersey Marine Sciences Consortium
04-6-158-44076 L.A.Walford

Program management $40,625
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 N.Rorholm, W.Gray

Sea grant program administration, planning and coordination
Virginia Institute of Marine Science $64,500
04-6-158-44047 W.J.Hargis,Jr., Roger D.A

Program management and development $94,700
Woods HolelOceanographic Institute
04-6-158-44106 D.F.Bumpus

Program Logistic Support

Communications and publications $31,965
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 J.McAlpine Hopkins

A-51

New A2plications Development

Application of conceptual study of international marine
technology sharing: alternatives e;30,000
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
04-5-158-51 J.T.Kildow

New Initiatives - New York Sea Grant Institute "?36,117
State University of New York
04-6-158-44040 D.F.Squires

Program development *46,056
University of Rhode Island
04-6-158-44085 N.Rorholm

lip

A-52

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

F. Bureau of Land Management Robert Beauchamp
(for Frank Monastero)
Bureau of Land Management
Department of Interior
18th and C Streets, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20240

Establish base line levels of environment
Division of Minerals and Environmental Assessment in
OCS - $50 million with half to Alaska program through
NOAA
Regional offices - New York, New Orleans, Los Angeles
and Alaska
Types of contracts in Atlantic retion -
l.North Atlantic - Georges Bank
A.Energy Resources Co.'- $3 million - Bio/chem
base line study - contracts with P.1.'s in
universities bacteria - mesofauna, chemical/
taxonomic, (no fish) NOAA, Georges Bank, Trace
metals/hydrocarbons.
B.U.S.G.S. $1 million - Geophysical studies
slumping, earthquake effects, recent faulting,
sediment transport (Brad Butman), suspended
sediment flux (John Milliman), stations-
submersibles (Folger).
C.Physical oceanograph EG&G ($600,000 thought
work) and Raytheon 1-.6 million - instrumentation).
Seven meter stations - three on each frontal zone
2.Mid-Atlantic Region - categories similar to those
in North Atlantic.
A.Bio/wave climate model - VIMS, $2.7 million.
B.U.S.G.S. Hydrocarbons and tract metals in
sediments $1.2 million
C.Buoys - NOAA/MESA
D.NOAA/EDS/CETDDA - P.I. is E. Rasmussen.
Historical summation and interpretation of physical
oceanography and meteorology for mid-Atlantic
region - $150,000. Details of results of this
contract given in section F-1, pages F2 thru F8.
E.Fish (historical) - NOAA/NME8

Future Programs to be Considered:
1.Potential oil and gas resources of upper slope.
2.Pipe line corridor studies from OCS to Coastal Zone.

A-53

INTERAGENCY AGREEMENT

Between

The Bureau of Land Management

U.S. Department of the Interior

And

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. Department of Commerce

For

The Summarization and Interpretation of
Historical Physical oceanographic and
Meteorological Information for the Mid-Atlantic Region

AA550-IA6-12

Background The Bureau of Land Management (BIM) under its Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS) environmental studies program requires a
summarization and interpretation of historical physical oceanographic
and meteorological information for the Mid-Atlantic region, in order
to preliminarily describe baseline environmental conditions and
effectively plan future efforts to fill data gaps.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA-EDS) acts
as a repository for marine and climatological data collected
from national and international programs.

The Center for Experimental Design and Data Analysis (NOAA-EDS/CEDDA)
possesses unique interdisciplinary capabilities in oceanography and
meteorology to effectuate such studies.

Purpose: The purpose of this Interagency Agreement is to provide the
terms and conditions under which the National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration, (Environmental Data Service) agrees to the
summarization and interpretation of historical meteorological and
physical oceanographic data necessary to describe and/or
characterize the Mid-Atlantic region between the coast and0-the 0
2,000 meter isopatg, and terminated on the northeast at 41 N - 71 W and
on the south at 38 N, for the purpose of developing offshore environmental
hazard and trajectory predictions.

A-54

The Bureau of Land Management, United States Department of the Interior
agrees to fund $82,000.00 through June 30, 1976. Additional funding
for the fifth quarter of FY 1976 - $38,000.00 and FY 1977 - $30,000.00
will be made upon the availability of funds.

Work Statement:

A. Methodology:

1. Divide the Mid-Atlantic area into sub-areas to be determined
after examination of the availability and quality of historic
data, and the spatial variation of the parameters to be
described. Sub-areas will in no case be larger than
one-degree squares.

2. Obtain data from available Federal sources such as NODC, NCC,
etc., and from other selected institutional files, including
such appropriate parameters as wind velocity and direction;
low extremes of visibility; wave height; water column density
profiles; empiric draft values (surface, subsurface, and
bottom currents); surface temperature, salinity, oxygen, and
nutrients.

3. When appropriate, obtain data from additional fixed recording
sites, both on shore and at sea, to generate time series
extrapolations within the sub-areas of interest.

4. Present the data to BLM in a format, such as monthly
or seasonal tabluation, histogram, chart, graph, contour
plot, etc., most useable for oil spill trajectory
modelling and hazard evaluation.

B. Interpretive Conclusions and Recommendations:

1. Accompany graphic and table presentations with interpretive
discussion and conclusions pertaining to the short and long
term variability of meteorologic and oceanographic parameters.
Among the material discussed will be:

a. Circulation patterns (seasonal or monthly depending on
data accuracy), including the spatial magnitude and
variability of surface and subsurface currents and
of surface winds.

b. Time/space series analysis of subsurface current
meter data to determine the temporal magnitude,
duration, and scales of the variability.

c. Extreme wind and wave recurrence intervals, including
the forcing effects of the passage of hurricanes and
gales on the regional circulation.

A-55

d. Stability analysis of the water column, including the
depth of seasonal wave agitation penetration; the
effect of the pycnoline in protecting the water column
from deep penetration; and the effect of internal wave
phenomena on data interpretation.

e. Identify and characterize water masses by T-S or T-02
correlations and effects on the seasonal circulation
pattern.

f. Meteorologic factors relating to superstructure icing
potential.

2. Recommend design of future meteorologic and future physical
oceanographic field studies for the purpose of improving:

a. Areas of sparse or non-existent data.

b. Contaminant dispression and dispersal.

c. Solutions to special problems.

C. Reports

1. Quarterly Progress Reports. The Contractor Shall require
the Principal Investigator (PI) employed hereunder to
prepare and submit three (3) copies of quarterly reports
describing all work accomplished during the preceding
quarter by that PI. One (1) copy shall be sent to the
Chief Scientist, Branch of Mineral Assessment; one (1)
copy to the COAR and one (1) copy to the New York OCS
field office. The quarterly reports will start the
first quarter after this Interagency Agreement is signed
by the last signatory. The reports shall include, but shall
not be limited to, a quantitative summary, analyses started,
analyses completed, observations made, and significance of
findings. Uniform reporting methods, developed by the
Contractor, shall be used by the PI for this report. One (1)
copy of the cover letter for each report shall be sent to
the Contracting Officer upon submission of each report.

2. Format of the Draft Final Report

The format for the report shall be developed and submitted
to the BLM for review and approval within ninety (90) days
of the contract award date and may be changed from time to
time by the mutual agreement of the parties involved.

A-56

3. Draft Final Report

The Contractor shall prepare and submit five (5) copies of
a draft final report setting forth all methodology, tech-
niques, analyses, interpretations, characterizations and
recommendations employed or generated in the fulfillment
of the contract requirements within fifteen (15) months of
the contract award date. The report shall contain the
products of Item 2, Interpretive Conclusions and Recommen-
dations. One (1) copy shall be sent to the Chief Scientist;
two (2) copies to the COAR and two (2) copies sent to the
New York OCS field office.

The Bureau of Land Management shall review the Draft Report,
notify the Contractor of the required corrections, changes,
or additions within (30) days after receipt of these draft
reports.

4. Final Report

Fifty (50) copies will be printed and delivered to BI24
within thirty (30) days after receipt of the BLM comments.

Performance and Deliveries: It is agreed that the period of performance
for this Interagency Agreement is fifteen (15) months from the date of the
last signatory. The reports and delivery dates are contained in section
C1. reports.

Special Provisions.

1. NOAA shall be responsible for all subcontractors or delegations
of work elements in the fulfillment of this Interagency Agreement.

2. Dr. Thomas S. Austin, Director, Environmental Data Service
is designated herein as the responsible individual for NOAVEDS
activities under this Interagency Agreement, and will act as the
coordinator between NOAA/EDS and the Bureau of Land Management
under this Interagency Agreement. Dr. Gene Rasmussen is designated
herein as the Principal Investigator (PI) for this Interagency
Agreement. The Enviornmental Data Service of NOAA is designated
herein as the lead organization for this Interagency Agreement.

3. All proposed changes shall be agreed upon by NOAA and BIM
prior to implementation and shall be further approved in writing by
the BLM Designated Officer.

A-57

4. It is also agreed that:

a. The BLM Designated Officer may, at any time, after
consultation with NOAA by written order designated or indicated
to be a change order, make any change in the work within the general
scope of the Interagency Agreement, including but not limited to
changes
(1) in the specifications;
(2) in the method or manner of performance of the work;
(3) in the place of inspection, delivery, or acceptance.

b. Any other written order from the Designated Officer,
which causes any such change, shall be treated as a change order under
this clause, provided that NOAA gives the Contracting Officer notice
stating the date, circumstances, and source of the order and that
NOAA regards the order as a change order.

c. Except as herein provided, no order, statement, or
conduct of the Designated Officer shall be treated as a change under
this clause or entitle NOAA to an equitable adjustment hereunder.

d. If any change under this clause causes an increase or
decrease in NOAA's cost of, or the time required for, the performance
of any part of the work under this Interagency Agreement whether or
not changed by any order, an equitable adjustment shall be made and
the Interagency Agreement modified in writing accordinl;ly.

e. NOAA will respond with an assessment of ithe impacts of
directed changes on the adequacy of the technical program within 14
days. If NOAA intends to assert a claim for an equitable adjustment
under this clause, they must within 30 days after receipt of written
change order under a. above, or the furnishing of a written notice
under b. above, submit to the Designated Officer a written statement
setting forth the general nature and monetary extent of such a claim,
unless this period is extended by the BLM. The statement of claim
hereunder may be included in the notice under b. above.

f. The BIM shall, prior to the issuance of change orders
hereunder, notify the appropriate NOAA program office of the scope
and extent of all change orders and shall discuss the impact of
such changes on the overall effort. In the event the BLM issues a
change under the provisions of this clause which cannot be accomplished
by NOAA because of manpower ceilings, funding, or other causes beyond
NOAA's control, NOAA shall inmediately notify the Designated Officer
that the change cannot be accepted and the reasons therefor.

A-58

S. Data

a. Data and information obtained under the terms of this
agreement, and copies thereof, shall be available through free access
from appropriate data centers to any interested party. Freedom of.,
information will be adhered to under the broadest interpretation.of
the principles. BLM will be provided with copies of all data requested
as soon as practicable, and will have access to original data upon
demand.

b. Publication.
(1) All analyses or interpretation of the data
pertaining to this effort made by NOAA may be published freely
upon prior written approval from the BLM.
(2) BLM reserves the right to conduct an independent
analysis of the effort performed by NOAA, and to publish this analysis.
(3) NOAA may use data resulting from this effort to
meet internal mission requirements as necessary.

6. News Releases. Each agency shall apprise the other, prior
to the issuance of releases to the news media, of findings or
conclusions accruing as a result of effort conducted hereunder.

Inspection. The BLM, through any authorized representatives,
has the right at all reasonable times, to inspect, or otherwise evaluate
the work performed or being performed hereunder and the premises in which
it is being performed. If any inspection, or evaluation is made by the BIM
on the premises of the NOAA, subcontractor, or other Federal participants,
the NOAA shall provide and shall require his subcontractors to provide all
reasonable facilities and assistance for the safety and convenience of the
BLM representatives in the performance of their duties. All inspections
and evaluations shall be performed in such a manner as will not unduly
delay the work.

Administrative.

1. The BIX shall transfer to the NOAA funds in the amount
specified herein upon receipt of a properly submitted Form 1081. Billing
should be directed to the Bureau of Land Management, Division of Finance
(520), 18th & C Streets, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20240.

2. Nothing contained in this agreement shall abrogate the
statutory responsibility or authority of either agency signatory to this
Interagency Agreement.

A-59

3. The BLM officer designated the authority and responsibility
for signing this Interagency Agreement and Changes hereto is Mr. Fred M.
Galinsky, Contracting Officer, Bureau of Land Management (551), Washington,
D.C. 20240, telephone (FTS) (202) 343-5766. Acceptance of all
supplies/services delivered or performed hereunder will be made by the
Contracting Officer.

4. Dr. Robert Beauchamp, BLX, Branch of Marine Environmental
Assessment, Code 732, Washington, D.C.,is designated as the Contracting
Officer's Authorized Representative (COAR) for purposes of inspecting
the effort accomplished under this Interagency Agreement to assure
compliance with the work statement, delivery requirements and specifications.
The COAR is authorized to clarify, review, and approve work which is
clearly within the scope of this Interagency Agreement in any way.

U.S. Department of Commerce U.S. Department of the Interior
National Oceanographic and Bureau of Land Management
Atmospheric Adminstration
Enviromental Data Service

Mr. J. W. Townsend, Jr. George L. Turcott
Associate Administrator Associate Director

Date Date

A-60

AGENCIES NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

G. U.S.G.S. Robert Roland
U.S. Geological Survey
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Mail Stop 915
Reston, Virginia 22092

Topographic Division Conservation Division
Nat. Ocean Survey maps O.C.S. tract selection and leasing
integrating coastal and Statutory Responsibility
offshore

Geologic'Division
Earthquakes research and Energy related off shore oil
predicted seismicity in and gas
OCS lease areas Marine Geology - Environmental
and Resource Problems
35 professionals in Atlantic
and Gulf regions.

Research cooperation outside U.S.G.S.
Grants and unsolicited Research Proposals
RFP contracts
Personal contracts - short term: example; invitation
Topical studies
Dynamics
Coastal
Storm effects

Future Projects
Engineering properties of marine sediments
Continental shelf coring program
Coastal Zone program
Deep-ocean mining - 1978 is $2.3 million
Upper continental slope - petroleum potential
Seeking funds from ERDA - probable high amounts of
funding after 1.980.

A-61

AGENCIES - NEW YORK SHELF FUNDING (continued)

H. Office of Naval Research, Geography Programs

Dennis M. Conlon
Geography Program
Office of Naval Research (code 462)
Arlington, Cirginia 22217

Objective

The objective of the research effort of Geography
Programs is to develop the capability to make real-time
assessments and short-term predictions of nearshore environ-
mental conditions for any given coastal area of the world.

This program definition limits the scope of our interests
in many important respects. "Short-term" is taken by us to
mean a few hours to a few days; studies of long-term (say,
years to decades) erosional behavior of coastal sites do not
therefore fall within our task area.

The use of the term "nearshore" indicates that philo-
sophically our research is centered on or near the surf zone.
In practical terms, this means that the research that we fund
should ultimately have a significant bearing on the behavior
of the surf or near-surf zone region. We specify wide
nature of the tasks of the U.S. Navy. This specification
results in two general program principles. First, we avoid
"site-specific" studies; i.e., those studies in which state-
of-the-art research is applied in an effort to understand a
particular (albeit largely unknown) coastal setting. Second,
we avoid any studies involving the effects of mart-made
coastal structures, since such studies are not optimal in
providing basic new understandings of coastal processes.

Apart from these provisos, proposals are judged on two
basic points: (1) consistency with the program, ELnd (2)
scientific merit. Both points are equal in importance, but
program consistency is a bit more equal.

Program Structure

In order to accomplish the broad research objective
stated above, we fund research in three major areas:
Coastal Dynamics, Coastal Remote Sensing, and Systematic
Geography.

Greatest emphasis of our program is placed on studies
of coastal dynamic processes in which attempts are made to
determine what environmental parameters and combinations of
parameters must be measured to describe and define a
particular coastal phenomenon and relate it to a space-time
framework.

A-62

The Systematic Geography project recognizes the need
for new data structures to assure that only significant data
are quickly and accurately entered into an appropriate in-
shore data base system. Also, we must assure that the full
information content of all recorded data formats is properly
synthesized and stored for rapid recall, and display in forms
most useful to various levels of command.

The third task, Coastal Remote Sensing, is concerned
with acquiring rapid and reliable environmental measurements
by remote sensing techniques. Adequate environmental data
are needed regularly and on short notice for updating data
bases and these data must be available for any geographic
area of the world within which Naval and Marine Corps
operations might take place.

For the purposes of this workshop, I will hereafter
limit my remarks to a description of the Coastal Dynamics
sub-program.

Coastal Dynamics Research

The objective of the coastal dynamics program is to
achieve a basic physical understanding of the coastal shallow
water environment. In particular, the goal is to understand
the processes and predict the changes in parameters that can
adversely affect operations in coastal waters.

The coastal dynamics research effort is broken down into
three principal areas of investigation:

A. Coastal Form and Interaction
B. Shelf and Nearshore Transformation
C. Coastal Class Studies

Each principal area has several important subareas of resear ch.

A. Coastal Forms and Interactions
Research Objective: To achieve the capability to
rapidly assess and accurately model physical phenomena
occurring near the shore boundary.

Research in this area is concentrated primarily on
beach and surf zone processes. Major subareas of investi-
gation include (with examples):

a. Breaking Waves
Determination of depth at which waves will break,
and mode of breaking (spilling, plunging, etc.). Prediction
of breaker characteristics along a given stretch of coast.
Modeling of mechanisms of energy dissipation at point of
breaking.
A-63

b. Longshore Currents
Determination of three-dimensional velocity fields
for various breaker conditions, including both the steady-
state and time-dependent cases.

c. Sediment Transport
Field investigations directed at quantifying the
onshore-offshore mode of sediment transport in relation to
the longshore mode.

d. Beach and Bottom Dynamics
Application of the concept of equilibrium beach
profiles to the problem of gross beach change prediction.
Studies of wave energy dissipation over bottoms of varying
geometry.

e. Nearshore Modeling
Develcpment of a state-of-the-art nearshore computer
model.

B. Shelf and Nearshore Transformations
Research Objective: To achieve an understanding of the
processes and variations of offshore energy conditions;
application of research results to the providing of critical
input conditions for nearshore environmental models.

In the area of Coastal Form and Interaction, emphasis
was placed on an understanding of coastal phenomena character-
ized by length scales of hundreds of meters in the longshore
and offshore directions. Research in Shelf and Nearshore
Interaction centers on environmental conditions offshore and
how such conditions provide the forcing functions, for near-
shore models. Major subareas of investigation include:

a. Wave Transformation
Given the deep water wave conditions, determining
how wave parameters vary under the combined effects of
shoaling, refraction, non-linear interactions, energy
dissipation, etc.

b. Wave Current Interaction
Measurement and modeling of the effects of currents
on wave spectral characteristics.

c. Tides, Tidal Currents
Modeling of shelf and nearshore currents and water
level variations, given the tide at the continental shelf
break and the wind field acting over shelf waters.

d. Mesoscale Processes
Determination of atmospheric variations in the
presence of the coastal boundary.

A-64

Research Objective and Types of Studies Funded:
To achieve the capability of making rapid assessments of
arbitrary coastal environments in terms of dominant driving
forces, major processes, and predominant forms.

This research is essential to the application of the
results of the research efforts heretofore mentioned to real
world cases. Specifically, it must be known, for any coast,
what methods must be used for environmental assessments, and
the conditions under which various predictive models can be
applied with suc,cess.

Within the past eighteen months, field efforts have
been undertaken in the following types of coastal environ-
ments:

a. Muddy Coast (Surinam)

b. Shallow Bank Shelf (Nicaragua)

c. High Energy Barred Coast (Brazil)

d. Tide Dominated Coast (England)

e. Shallow Semi-Enclosed Sea (Persian Gulf)

The coastal research effort of Geography Programs
emphasizes two main points: short-term predictions and
world wide flexibility. The interests of Geography Pro-
grams are quite broad and many scientific disciplines are
encompassed. The foregoing remarks must therefore be re-
garded only as an introduction to our effort. Finally, we
do not solicit research; rather, we welcome proposals by
which we can improve our research program.

A-65

OTHER NATIONAL FUNDING AGENCIES

RECEIVINGOR DELEGATING FUNDS

Enviromnental Protection Agency

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Marine Fisheries Service

office of Naval Research
Especially Geography Branch

U.S. Army District, New York Corps of Engineers

U.S..Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Fort Belvoir, Virginia

A-66

List of Existing and Proposed Agency Reports of General Scope

Below are listed existing reports or proposed documents
which are not a part of the commonly cited or published
information. Those now available from national asencies
(BIM, NOAA-MESA) are listed by author in the bibliographic
index.

Existing documents

Trigom 1974. A socio-economic and environmental
inventory of the North Atlantic Region (Bay of
Fundy to Sandy Hook, N.J.)

URI 1973. A coastal and environmental inventory,
Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals.

MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph Series. Plans
for 32 volumes. Ten are now ready. The rest are
in manuscript.

Proposed documents

MESA New York Bight Atlas. This is underway but
is several years from completion. It is designed
to integrate the knowledge from the various
disciplines of the monograph series to show how the
various aspects of the marine environment interact
and respond.
NERBC/RALI project. Siting of onshore facilities.
This is expected to be completed within a year.
(June 77)

BLM contract for updating the summary environmental
data from Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras. Data
from the various disciplines to be integrated.
Designed to complement the existing Trigom,
summary. To be completed 8 months after contract
award.

NOAA-BIM. Summary and interpretation of historical,
physical, oceanographic and meterologic information
for the Mid-Atlantic region. Coast to 200m. depth.
Will interpret the existing available data and
recommend future meterologic and physical
oceanograhic studies, to be completed in 1977.

A-67

MESA. New York Bight Project. Working on the degradation
of pollutants and the effects the products of the
degradation have on the system.

Hope to provide answers to physical and geological trans-
formations of pollutants and to begin to evaluate the
chemical impact especially in terms of effects on
organisms and man.

A-68

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Ballard, R.D., and Uchupi, E., 1974, Geology the Gulf of
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Ballard, R.D. and Uchupi, E., l975,T('i%ssic rift structure in
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Barnes, B., et al, 1972, Geologicprediction: Developing tools and
techniques for the geophysical identification and class-
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Bartlett, G.A., and L. Smith, 1971, Mesozoic and Cenoz,--)ic history
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B-3

Barwis, John H., 1976. Annotated bibliography on the
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Bea, R.G., 1971, How sea floo,( slides affect offshore: Oil and Gas
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Beck, R.H., and Lehner, P., 1974, Oceans, New frontiers in
exploration: AAPG, v. 58, no. 3, p. 376-395.

Behrendt, J. C., 1975, High sensitivity aeromagnetic survey
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EOS (Am. Geophysical Union Trans.), vol. 56: 356.

Behrendt, J.C. , Schlee, J. , and Foote, R.Q. 1974 , Seismic
evidence for a thick section of sedimentary rock on the
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Belderson, R.H. and A.H. Stride, 1969, The shape of submarine
canyon heads revealed by Asdic. Deep-Sea Res., 115, 103-104.

Benson, R.N., 1976, Review of the subsurface geology and
resource potential of southern Delaware: Delaware! Geol.
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B-4

Bentley, C.R., and J.L. Worzel, 1956, Geophysical investigations in
the emerged and submerged Atlantic Coastal Plain, Pt. X,
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Berger, J., Blanchard, J.E., Keen, M.J., McAllister, R.E., and
Tsong, C.F., 1965, Geophysical observations on sediments
and basement structure underlying Sable Island, Nova Scotia:
AAPG, v. 49, no. 7, p. 959-965.

Biederman, E.W., 1962, Distinction of shoreline environments on
New Jersey: Jour. Sed. Petrol., v. 32, no. 2, p. 181-200.

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tions in selected areas of Narragansett Bay, Rhose Island:
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Blackman, B., 1938, Report on jetties: Report to Shore Protection
Board, OCE, U.S. Army Corps on Engineers, Coastal Engin.
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Blaik, M.J. @Orthrop, and C.S. Clay, 1959, Some seismic prof .iles,
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Blanchard, J.E., Keen, M.J., McAllister, R.E., and Tsong, C.F.,
1965, Geophysical observations on the sediments and base-
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Bloom, A. L., 1967, Coastal geomorpholoqy of Connecticut:
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Office Navel Res. (contract nonr.-401[45], Task no.
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Bobb, W.H. and Boland, R.A., 1969, Channel improvement, Fire
Island Inlet, New York: U.S. Army Engineer, Waterways
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Boothroyd, J.C., and Hubbard, D.K., 1972, Bedform development
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Brown, M.V., J. Northrop, R. Frassetto, and L.H. Grabner, 1961,
Seismic refraction profiles on the continental shelf south of
Bellport, Long Island, New York: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
v. 72, No. 11,p.1693-1705.

Brown, P.M., Miller,J.A., and Swain, F.M. , 1972, Structural
and stratigraphic framework, and spatial distribution of
permeability of the Atlantic, Coastal Plain, North Carolina
to New York: U.S.Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 796, 79 pp.

Bruun, P. , 1954, Migrating sand waves and sand humps, with
special reference to investigations carried on in the Danish
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B-6

Bruun, P., 1962, Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion: Jour.
Waterways Harbors Div. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., v. 88, p. 117-130.

Buelor, R.W.,' 1968, Ocean disposal of waste materials, in
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engineering of the Atlantic shelf: Philadelphia, Pa.,
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shelf of the United States, 1960-1967: Woods Hole Inst.
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Bumpus, D. F., 1973, A description of circulation on the
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Burk, C.A., and Drake, C.L., 1974, Geology of continental margin'.
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B-7

Burke, Kevin, 1975, Atlantic salt deposits formed by evaporation
of water spilt from the Pacific, Tethys and Southern oceans
(abs.): EOS, no. T121, p. 457.

Buzas, M.A., 1965, The distribution and abundance of Fora-
minifera. in Long Island Sound: Smithsonian Misc. Colln,
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Caldwell, D.M., 1972a, Sedimentological study of an active
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Carmody, D.J., Pearce, J.B., and Yasso, W.E., 1973, Irrace metals
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Carter, H. H., 1969. Physical Processes in coastal waters:
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vol. V, pp. VI-16, National Academy of Engineerinq,
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Chamberlain, Barbara B., 1934, These fragile outposts -- a geological
look at Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket: Garden City,
NY, Natural History Press, 327 p.

Charlesworth, L. J., Jr., 1968, Bay, inlet and nearshore
marine sedimentation: Beach Haven-Little Egg Inlet
region, New Jersey: Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Michigan,
Ann Arbor.

Charlesworth, L.J., and Briggs, L.I., 1968, Sedimentation at
Beach Haven--Little Egg Inlet, New Jersey (abstr.): Geol.
Soc. America Special Paper 101, p. 433.

Charnell, R.L., 1975, Assessment of offshore dumping: Technical
background: Physical Oceanogr., Geo. Oceanogr., and Chemical
Oceanography: NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL MESA 1

Charnell, R.L., Hansen, D.V., Wicklund, R.I., 1972, The affects
of waste disposal in the New York Bight: NMFS, chapter 6,
final report to the U.S. Corps of Engineers, Nat. Mar.
Fisheries Service, Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highland, N.J.,
31 pp.

Charnell,R.L. and Hansen, D. V., 1974: Summary and
analysis of physica1 oceanography data from the New York
Bight apex collected during 1969-70: Mesa Report 74-3,
Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing Office,
44 pp.

Charnell, R.L. Jr., Apel, Manning, W.III and Quelset, R.H.,
1974, Utility of ERTS - 1 for coastal ocean observation:
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Charnell, R. L. and Mayer, D. A. (in press, 1974): Water
movement within the apex of the New York Bight durinq
summer and fall of 1973, Tech. memo, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Admin., Boulder, Colorado

B-9

Chelminski, P* and Fray, C.I., 1966, The stratigraphy of the
continental shelf east of-New Jersey (abstr.): Am. Geophys.
Union Trans., v. 47, no. lF p. 120.

Clay, C.S., John Ess, and Irving Weisman, 1964, Lateral echo sounding
of the ocean bottom on the continental rise:'Jour. Geophys.
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Coastal Plains Center for Marine Development Services,
1976, Summary of marine activities of the coastal
plains region. Annual report of current research and
advisory service activities and projects of the major
marine and coastal organizations in the region. *
Region includes: Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Georgia and Florida.

Coch, N.K., 1963, Post-Miocene stratigraphy and moirphology,
inner coastal plain, southeastern Virginia: U.S. Office
of Naval Research Technical Report 6, 97 pp.

Cok, A. and others, 1973, Sediment unmixing in the New York
Bight area: Abstracts with Programs, Geol. Soc. America
v. 5, no. 2, p. 150.

Colony, R.J., 1932, Source of the sands on the south shore of
Long Island and the coast of New Jersey: Jour. Sed. Petrol.,
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B-10

corps of Engineers, 1970, Atlantic coast of Long Island, Fire
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council on Environmental Quality, 1974, OCS oil and gas - an
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Cram@ ed., 1971, 'Future petroleum provinces of the United
States--their geolog y and potential: AAPG, Mem.15, v.1&2.

Crarat, H.R., and Glaser, R., 1971, Color aerial. stereograms of
selected coastal areas of the United States: Nat. Ocean
Survey, 93 pp.

Creager, J.S., and Sternberg, R.W., 1972, Some specific problems
in understanding bottom sediment distribution and dispersal
onthe continental shelf: in, Swift, D.J.P., Duane, D.B., and
Pillsey, O.H., eds., Shelf sediment transport: Process and
Patterns: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross., Stroudsburg, Pa.,
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Crosby, D.G., 1974, Canadian offshore mineral resources manage-
m.ent: AAPG, v,. no. 6, pt.II, p. 1059-1064.

Cruickshank, M..J., 1974,;Mineral resources potential of continen-
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Curray, J.R., 1969b, Shallow structure of the continental margin.
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Curray, J.R., 1969, History of continental shelves. In The New
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Curtis, W.F., Culbertson, J.K., and Chase, E.B., 197:3, Fluvial
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Cushman, J.A., 19'36, Geblogy and Paleontology of the Georges
Bank Canyons: Pt. 4, Cretaceous and late
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Cushman, J.A., 1939, Eocene Foraminifera from submarine cores off.
the eastern coast of North America: Cushman Lab. Foram.
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Daboll, J.M., 1969, Holocene sediments of the Parker River
estuary: Coastal Environments, N.E. Mass. and New Hampshire,
Field Trip Guidebook Eastern Section, Soc-'Econ. Paleont.
and Min. Mag.' 9-11, p. 337-355.

Also- Thesis Coastal Research Group, Dept. of Geol., Univ.
Mass, Amherst, 138 pp.

40
Dall, W.H., 1925, Tertiary fossil dredged off the northeastern
coast of North America: Am. Jour. Sci. 5th ser., v. 10,
p. 213-218.

B-12

Dana, J.D., 1972, Long Island Souhd in the Quaternary Era,
with observations on the submarine Hudson River Channel:
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437.

Danker, J.A.$ 1963, A micro-environmental study of the hydro-
carbons of the Long Island Sbund sediments: Unpubl.
Master's thesis, New York University.

Davis, R.A. and W.T. Fox, 1972, Coastal process and near-shore
sand bars. J. Sediment. Petrol, 42: 401-412.

Davis, R.A., W.T. Fox, M.O. Hayes, and J.C. Boothroyd, 1972,
Comparison of ridge and runnel systems in tidal and non-
tidal environments. J. Sediment. Petrol., 32; 413-421.

Dawson, W.E., 1972, Mobil Tetco SEble Island 0-47: Well History
Report., Mobil oil, 611 p.

de Jonge, B., Prior, D.G., and Harris, R.L., 1973, Mobil Tetco
Thebaud P-84t Well history report, Mobil Oil, 63 p.

,Delwing,'R.T., 1974, Ocean disposal: in, Ocean@ the
umping in
New York Bight: Environmental Pr3tecti6n Agency briefing
report, p. 19-29.

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B-82

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n A,

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B-85

U.S. Army Engineer District, New York, Corps of Engineers, 1967,
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U.S. Army Engineer District, Philadelphia, Corps of' Engineers,
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