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QE 203 w2 J6 1981 GEOLOGIC AND GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES RELATED TO CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRANSMOUNTAIN PIPELINE IN CLALLAM COUNTY,WASHINGTON by Douglas M. Johnson August 1981 by The preparation of this report was financially aided through a grant from the Washington State Department of Ecol- ogy with funds obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and appropriated for Section 308(b) of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413 ABSTRACT Geologic and Geophysical Studies Related to Construction of the TransMountain Pipeline in Clallam County, Washington. Douglas I.I. Johnson; Geotechnical review; August 1981; 131 pp.. This report presents the results of a review and analysis of geologic and geophysical information submitted to Clallam County by the TransMountain Pipeline Company as ,part of their proposal for construction-of a marine pipeline facility and pipeline which passes through the county. This report addresses the seismicity of the area, reviews the groundwater problem, evaluates the Low Point off-loading and tank farm sites, evaluates proposed anchor penetration stan- dards, and analyzes the slope stability and sediment liquefaction potential for the submarine crossings. The primary conclusion that may be drawn from this review is that Trans Mountain Pipeline has not provided sufficient information to adequately assess their construction propo- sal. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .............................................. I. Groundwater ..................................... 1 Introduction .................................. I Discussion .................................... 3 A. Geology ......................... 3 B. Hydrogeology ............................ 3 C. Pipeline Corridor ....................... 4 D. Information Needed ...................... 7 Hydrogeologic Effects of an Oil Spill ......... 8 Conclusions ................................... 13 Recommendations ............................... 13 Ii. Seismicity ...................................... 15 Introduction .................................. 15 Discussion .................................... 15 A. Seismicity ................... 15 B. Shallow Earthquakes .. ...... o.o.oo ...o ... 20 Data ......... o..... o.....o ....o ...o ..... 23 Method of Analysis ..... o........ o...... o.o.o.. 25 Revised Attenuation Parameter .............. o.. 25 Conclusions/Recommendations - .....o ... o..o..o 27 III, Low Point Facilities ... ......... oo ... o..o..o .... 29 Introduction ... ooo.o ..... oo ........... 29 Discussion ........ ooo ................ o.. 29 Recommendations ............................... 30 IV. Anchor Penetration .............................. 31 Introduction .................................. 31 Discussion .................................... 31 Recommendations ............................... 33 V. Submarine Crossings ............................. 34 Introduction .................................. 34 Discussion .................................... 34 Conclusions ................................... 38 Recommendations ............................... 38 APPENDICES II-1 Earthquake Data Used in Seismic Study .......... 41 III-1 Characteristics of Marine Seismic Sources ...... 87 V-1 Submarine Slumping and the Initiation of Turbidity Currents ............................. 98 SECTION I: GROUNDWATER Introduction The TransMountain Pipeline Company (TMPC) has applied for site certification to build an oil pipeline through the eastern part of Clallam County, Washington. The pipeline would begin at a dock and tank farm at Low Point, extend east along the Olympic Mountain.front, pass south of the towns of Port Angeles and Sequim, around Sequim Bay, and leave the county on the Miller Peninsula (Fig. I-1). The purposes of this study were to review TMPC's assessment of possible impacts on groundwater resources in Clallam County, and to provide the county government with an independent opinion on potential impacts, and what might be done to avoid or ameliorate them. The present work is intended to act as a review of the subject, and is not intended to serve as a complete groundwater study or environ'mental impact assessment (the former is being prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey; the latter is the responsibility of the applicant). Rather, this report con- tains a general description of the geologic and hydrogeolo- gic conditions, and provides a summary of the kinds of information that will be necessary to assess impacts and make design decisions. TMPC's certification application contains several references to geological conditions (Section 3), groundwater (Section 4), effects of oil spills (Section 4), and mitiga- tion of adverse environmental impacts (Section 7). Most of this information is very general in nature, and inadequate for local design or decision-making. The only published report dealing with groundwater in the county is Noble's (1960) report on the Sequim-Dungeness area. Unfortunately, the pipeline corridor passes south of his study'area. The major data source for our study was a print-out of water well data (depth, depth to static water level, loca- tion, etc.), compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey (Johnson & Rasmussen, 1980). These data were used to estimate depth to the water table at wells within about a mile of the pipe- line corridor. The logs for most of these wells are on file with the Water Resources Division of the U.S.G.S. (Tacoma), VANCOUVER fto ISLAND eke 6.00 1.0 low pt. port an geles yn .J WASHINGTON Figure I-1. Proposed pipeline route through Clallam County. -3- and with the Washington Department of Ecology (Redmond?). The logs were not consulted in this study. Information on oil spills, oil migration, and groundwa- ter contamination can be found in Freeze and Cherry's (1978) text, and in an article by Dietz (1971) on water pollution by oil. Other references are contained in these works. Discussion Hydrogeology of Eastern Clallam County A. Geology The area of interest extends from the front of the Olympic Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and from Low Point to the Miller Peninsula (Fig. I-1). The northern edge of the Olympics are made of volcanic and sedimentary rocks (-25 to 65 million years old). Bedrock crops out in the hills, in river bottoms, and along parts of the coast. Most of the layers dip northward in the vicinity of the pipeline corridor [though a syncline (concave-upward fold) underlies unconsolidated sediments near the Strait; see the map of Tabor and Cady, 19781 . Overlying the bedrock in most of the study area is a layer of unconsolidated material, variable in thickness, lithology, and texture. These deposits include soils, gla- cial till, glacial outwash (loose sand and gravel deposited by meltwaters), lake sediments, bog deposits, and old weath- ered alluvium and slopewash materials. Young, loose allu- vium is deposited on the bottoms of larger stream valleys. Because of the irregular nature of the bedrock surface and the processes that formed them, the unconsolidated deposits range in thickness from a thin mantle over bedrock hills to thick fills in the SeqWm area. B. Hydrogeology Most of the groundwater tapped by wells in Clallam County is derived from the unconsolidated materials, espe- cially gravel and sand units. These loose, permeable materials are irregular in shape and size (small lenses to larger layers). They are interbedded and interfingered with less permeable materials, which may partially perch or con- fine the aquifers. The hydraulic conductivities of the'se materials probably vary over ten orders of magnitude (i.e., -4- 10-11 to 10-.1 ft/sec), so flow rates are equally variable. Because of this irregularityr it is impossible to completely define the flow system, especially given the small number of wells in and near the pipeline corridor. However, it is possible to draw some inferences about the flow patterns in larger scale. we may consider the groundwater system to be limited to the unconsolidated depo- sits, since groundwater in the bedrock is limited in volume, slow in movement, and (so far) insignificant in exploita- tion. Bedrock serves as the deepest surface over which most of the descending groundwater probably accumulates. The flow system is also controlled by surface topogra- phy. Highlands, especially the Olympics, are recharge areas where water percolates predominantly downward. Lowlands, such as river valleys and the coast, are discharge areas, where water flows upward and out toward the surface. The water table is usually a subdued image of the ground sur- face: higher (but deeper) under hills, lower (but shallow) under the valleys (Fig. 1-2). Depending on the details of local topography and stratigraphy, there may be small local flow systems, as well as a regional system (see Freeze and Cherry, 1978, Chap. 6). In northern Clallam County, the dip of the bedrock and the general northward slope of the land combine to cause northward flow in the regional system, and a general north- ward decline in water table elevations (Noble, 1.960). How- ever, local flow may be in any direction if it is controlled by a stream valley or a hill. In general, shallow (saturated) flow follows the surface topography, and deeper flow is predominantly northward. C. The Pipeline Corridor The TMPC corridor is shown on Figure I-1, and on the topographic maps accompanying this report (see the Appen- dix). Along most of its length, the pipeline would be very near the contact between bedrock and unconsolidated deposits (as mapped by Tabor and Cady, 1978). The covering of soil, till, etc., is extremely variable in the hills, so the depth to groundwater also varies significantly. Data from the U.S.G.S. print-out were 'used to plot depths to static water levels (SWL) for wells near the cor- ridor. The SWL is not necessarily the water table--in wells that are closed except near the bottomy the SWL may only STRAIT OF OL MPICS JUAN DE FUCA LOCAL FLOW SYSTEMS -F-ft A - P P Figure 1-2 Schematic diagram of local and regional flow systems in northeastern Clallam County. The water table (dotted line) is a subdued image of the surface. Hypothetical flow lines are shown by arrows. -6- reflect the pressure in the aquifer being tapped (the piezo- metric head), and have nothing to do with the water levels nearer the surface. Therefore, water levels that are prob- ably indicative of water table depth (in shallow or open wells) are plotted on the topographic maps in blue, others (which may or may not indicate water table depths) are plot- ted in red. There are not enough points to define a water table surface, but some general comments can be made based upon these data. From Low Point, the pipeline corridor trends southeast to State Highway 112, and then parallels the highway on the south. For the first 4 miles it crosses flat to gently- rolling topography. There are no wells in this stretch. However, bedrock is exposed in the valleys of Field Creek and Whiskey Creek, suggesting that the deposits are 50 to 150 feet thick. Water levels are probably less than 50 feet deep. in the 2 miles between Joyce and Ramapo, the corridor crosses slightly steeper terrain (about 10% slope gradient), underlain by sandstone and siltstone. Groundwater is prob- ably present at shallow depths (10 to 20 feet ??), but there are no wells in this area. From Ramapo to the Elwha River (5'miles), the pipeline would cross flat unconsolidated deposits between bedrock hills, then over a bedrock saddle and into the Elwha Valley. Again, groundwater depths should be shallow on and near bedrock. West of the Elwha, SWL's in wells near the corri- dor are mostly 25 to 45 feet, though two wells have SWL's of 4 and 5 feet. From the Elwha, the corridor crosses U.S. 101, then hugs the mountain front for 2 miles, all on colluvium, allu- vium, and glacial deposits. Slope gradients are commonly up to 20%. The water level is very shallow (1 to 5 feet) in some wells, deeper (10 to 60 feet) in others. The corridor then leaves the hills, and crosses rolling plains through the southern outskirts of Port Angeles. Here the deposits are up to about 300 feet thick, and SWL's are 30 to 120 feet deep. The pipeline would have to cross five perennial streams in the vicinity of Port'Angeles, and would therefore be buried at or below the water table in those valleys. From the east end of town, the corridor crosses a thick fill of unconsolidated material for about 8 miles. The ter- rain is gently rolling, and incised by several streams which have cut channels 100 to 120 feet deep, creating local flow -7- systems near themselves. There are some springs, shallow marshes, and ponds, suggesting that groundwater is reaching the surface on the plains as well as in the valleys. SWL's that represent the water table are 13 to 33 feet deep; piezometric levels are somewhat deeper, 28 to 70 feet. On the north edge of Lost Mountain, the corridor nears the mountain front, then crosses alluvial fill of the Dunge- ness valley. Water levels are fairly shallow in the low hills (mostly 6 to 30 feet), but deeper on the edge of the Dungeness Valley (60 to 80 feet), presumably because the water table is depressed along the incised valley. From the Dungeness River, the pipeline corridor stays in the foothills around Burnt Hill (made of batalt, as are Lost Mountain and Bell Hill), south of Sequim Bay and, east- ward to the Jefferson County line. The mountain front depo- sits (colluvium and till?) are moderately steep (5 to 50% slopes) and crossed by many forest streams. The stratigra- phy of these materials is extremely variable,,so the water levels are as well (2 to 400 feet deep). D. Information Needed The generality of the above discussion suggests that further study and information are necessary. Specifically, examination of the logs of wells along the corridor would provide a more detailed picture of the stratigraphy of depo- sits in the area. Soils data (Clallam County soil survey?) might provide the infiltration capacities of surface materi- als. With these data and with reasonable estimates of the hydraulic conductivities of subsurface materials, it should be possible to do a better analysis of flow paths and water table configuration, at least in the areas with wells. At greater expense, it might be necessary to dig new wells in some areas to get the required information. Tracer studies, computer models, or other techniques might also be employed. A hydrogeologic consulting firm with experience in these areas would be required in order to plan these stu- dies. -8- Hydrogeologic Effects of an Oil Spill If a pipeline leak should occur, the amount of oil that would get into the ground would depend upon the rate of leakage, the viscosity of the oilr and the permeability of the trench fill and the ground around the trench. If it entered the soil, the oil would percolate vertically through the unsaturated zone, leaving a cylinder of residual oil held in the soil pores by capillary tension, and adsorbed onto the grains (Dietz, 1971). The oil would spread out laterally on reaching layers of lower permeability. This downward percolation process may totally exhaust the oil before it reaches the water table, depending on the depth of the latter. If the oil reaches the water table, it will spread out in the capillary zoney since the oil is lighter than and immiscible with water (Fig. 1-3). This oil will "pancake" until enough of the oil is adsorbed or held by tension to make the oil immobile. Van Dam (1967) provided a simple method of calculating the depth of oil penetration, and the size of the pancake that will form if it reaches the water table. The method is based upon the volume of oil spilled, the area over which it spreads, and the physical characteristics of the oil and the soil. In order to apply this model, specific data for dif- ferent sites and estimates of leakage rates are necessary. A general conclusion that can be drawn from this model is that a given volume of oil will spread through 10 to 20 times that volume of.soil. The environmental impact assessment should include rea- sonable estimates of depth of penetration for conditions along the corridor, based upon Van Dam's method or some other model. In addition, rates of percolation should be estimated for local conditions. These kinds of information will be necessary to determine whether a given water table depth is really safe from quick contamination. Even though a slug of leaked oil becomes immobile, the effects of the spill may extend much further. Rainwater percolating through the residual oil will take into solution the lighter fractions of the oil, and carry them into the groundwater system (Fig. 1-4). Eventually the lighter com- ponents will all be washed out, leaving an immobile glob of inoffensive paraffinic oil. However, because the solubility of the lighter components (20 to 80 mg/1) is so much greater wetting zone seepage free groundwater percolation zone spreoding spreading (tinal stage oil core oll fringe Figure 1-3 Stages of migration of oil seeping from a sur- face source (Freeze and Cherry, 1978). ,,Pr e r @W, spr @Q d i @nq Oil gas zone (evapora tio n envelope zone of dissolved hydrocarbons Figure 1-4 Migration of dissolved and gaseous hydrocarbons from a zone of oil above the water table (Freeze and Cherry, 1978) than the amount necessary to affect the quality of water (0.005 mg/l gasoline in water can be tasted)*, the contamina- tion can spread over a large volume of groundwater, and last for a long time. Processes of dilution, dispersion, adsorp- tion, oxidation, and anaerobic reactions will lower the con- centration of contaminants in time, but the "time" may be measured in years (Dietzr 1971). Once in the groundwater flow system, the oil components will move in the same direction as the water (Fig. 1-5). If it is in a local flow system, it may move at shallow depth toward a small stream or spring, and emerge at the surface. If it gets into the regional flow system, it may move through deep aquifers to a large river or emerge at the coast. Like the groundwater movement itself, the migration of oil-contaminated water depends on the details of local stratigraphy, permeability, and flow. Impermeable layers may protect underlying aquifers, or cause concentration of the polluted water near the surface, or both. According to the TMPC application, a rupture of the pipeline could cause up to 11,320 bbl (1800 m3) of oil to leak, at an initial rate of 56 ft3 /sec (Section 4.3.3). This amount could not all percolate into the ground if the rupture is in a buried section, but could spill onto the ground in an above-ground section, and then percolate through the surface. Surface oil could be contained 'and salvaged. if preservation of the soil is important, the containment area should be small, however, this will cause deeper penetration of the oil. If the water table is shallow and protection of the groundwater is important, the containment area should be large, so the depth of penetration can be minimized (Dietz, 1971). Contaminated soil, especially in the pipeline trench, can be dug out and cleaned or replaced. Shallow wells might be used to pump out part of the oil that is still mobile, but this is not a realistic solution. It may be better, especially in sensitive areas, to prevent any infiltration by lining the trench with imperme- able materials (applicant has acknowledged this idea in Sec- tion 7.1.1.1). The trench might be provided with some kind of drainage system to collect and remove oil leaked from the pipe. PIPELINE SPRING STREAM ELL COAST F L 0 W PATHS Figure 1-5 Possible flow paths of soluble oil components. Could reach springs, streams, wells, or the coast, depending upon the local flow system. W -13- If spilled oil does cause contamination of groundwater, it may be necessary to install wells downstream of the rup- tured section. One set of wells could capture contaminated water for treatment, and another set could recharge the aquifer with clean water (if economically or environmentally necessary) (Fig. 1-6) . Conclusions If the pipeline is built so that leakage of oil into the ground is possible, it may be necessary to designate areas in which more stringent (and expensive) design meas- ures should be taken to protect the groundwater resource. Such "sensitive areas" might include: 1. Areas in which a spill would reach the water table in a short time (i.e. too short to be dug out); 2. Areas in which the oil or its soluble components could return to the surface to pollute surface waters impor- tant to man, agriculture, or fisheries; 3. Areas in which the light components of spilled oil are likely to pollute aquifers important to water wells. Obviously the decisions on sensitive areas and design criteria in them must be based on information on the condi- tions of the flow system, the likelihood of pollution of aquifers, and the costs of prevention and/or amelioration of spill effects. TMPC's application gives no usable informa- tion on these factors. Recommendations The groundwater geology and hydrology of the TMPC cor- ridor in Clallam County is very poorly known despite the importance of the resource in the eastern part of the county. Much more information is needed to adequately evaluate the potential impacts of pipeline construction or an oil leak on the groundwater system. If TMPC reactivates its application, it should be required to provide specific data on flow paths, water table depths, and flow rates of leaked oil. POLLUTANT PIPELINE CAPTURE WELL RECHARGE PRODUCTION WELL WE LLS ;1100 POLLUTE WATER Figure I-6 Possible arrangement of wells to capture oil- polluted groundwater, and recharge the system with clean water. -15- SECTION II: SEISMICITY Introduction This section provides epicentral maps for Western Wash- ington and for the Puget-Vancouver tectonic province. Two sets of maps are provided, the first of which displays all known historic events through 1980 for these two regions (Figures II-1 and 11-2), and the second of which shows all events recorded during 1980 (Figures 11-3 and 11-4). The data plotted include events from magnitude 0 to 7, and represent the most complete available compilation of earth- quake data for Western Washington. A detail map showing the epicenters of the February 14, 1981 Elk Lake swarm is also provided. The applicant's seismic design analysis is dis- cussed in light of the seismicity maps. Discussion A. Seismicity Figure II-1, the historic epicentral map for Western Washington, shows a high degree of seismicity from throughout the Puget Sound Trough and north through Van- ,couver Island. The distribution of these earthquakes, in a spatial and temporal sense, appears to be random in the Puget-Vancouver Island region. The spatial density of earthquakes does decrease in a westward direction along the Washington-Juan de Fuca coastline from just west of Port Angeles to Pillar Point, where seismicity again increases. The significance of this "quiet zone" is only marginal, since there is moderate seismicity to the north and south of the coastline just 20 km-away on either side. The proposed TransMountain Pipeline route passes along this zone and then into a zone of high seismicity east of Port Angeles. Figure 11-2 provides an expanded view of the seismicity in the Puget-Vancouver region, using the same data base (included as Appendix II-1) as is mapped in Figure II-1. This figure demonstrates that the seismicity in the region around Clallam County cannot be unequivocally segmented into zones of high and low seismic risk, since earthquakes have clearly occurred over the entire area. Arbitrary demarca- tion of two zones within Clallam County, which the applicant -125-00 -122-00 kM (U 9EF Z:@9k ED S E9 ZD ED 46.5 ED +48. ED ED ED ED (D ED ED ED e ED ED ED ED ED 47-50- q) -47. @r,,, ED Ee ED ED 4. :77 ED E? ED Qp ED ED EV EDe ED a) ED ED 45.5 50 -125-00 -124.00 -123-00 1 2 2 - 0 12 i00 0 11 1 11 1 1 1 11 1-130 SCALE (KM) Figure II-1 Historical seismicity in Western Washington. Increasing symbol size indicates greater mag- nitude. Largest event 7.2 M, smallest 1.5 M. -124-00 _123-00 -122-00 /TN ex, 49 0@ qej 11 - 49.00 @(D G3Z ED ED EB ED "ED EDe ED El ED ED OD (Dg ED ED ED ED ED ED Eb 4S OT@ ED ED ED ED e@@ EDe ED ED ED ED ED (B ED ED ED E) G ED tD E!, ED Ge 44 H ED ED e e ED e ED GiD ED ED ED e 47. On;@ 7 - 0 Oj I-M.L1 -124-00 -123-00 -122-00 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '100 SCALE (KM) Figure 11-2 Historical seismicity of the Puget sound- Vancouver Island region. 25 00 -124-00 -123-00 1 2 20 '13 12 10 10) X@ ED ED 48. 5 S. 51-1 t ED ED ED ED S ED 47. @l + ED ED 4) ED ED ED EO r) + 03 ED ED 12 50 0' 124.00 -123-00 122 . OC 211 00 01 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 '100 SCALE (KM) Figure 11-3 Seismicity of Western Washington for 1980. -124-00 -122-00 49,00 4 9 - 0 0 EE' ED 48. 00- 48-00 EDO) ED ED ED ED C) ED 47 001 47. 00 -124-00 -122-00 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 00 SCALE (KM) Figure 11-4 Seismicity of Puget Sound-Vancouver Island Region, 1980. -20- has done in its seismic risk analysis (Fugror, 1980; and reproduced as Figure 11-5 in this text), is not satisfac- tory. Comparison of the lower risk Zone A in Figure 11-5 with either Figure II-1 or Figure 11-2 illustrates this point. B. Shallow Earthquakes Depth-magnitude relationships (the correlation of hypo- central depth to the earthquake magnitude) have until recently indicated that large Puget Sound earthquakes (5.0 M and greater) occur only at depths exceeding 40 kilometers. On February 14, 1981 a shallow (4 km) earthquake occurred at Elk Lake. The main shock had a magnitude of 5.5, and was followed by over 300 smaller aftershocks. A plot of all events greater than Richter magnitude 1.0 is presented in Figure 11-6. The data used in this plot were obtained from digital recordings obtained at the Geo- physics Program of the University of Washington. The University of Washington state network includes more than 100 active stations, all of which teledeter their seismic information in real time to the central recording computer located at the Geophysics Program laboratory. The Elk Lake swarm was recorded by a majority of the network stations, providing excellent azimuthal control and good depth control. Although the depth of the initial event and the following swarm was shallow (between 4 and 10 km), the accuracy of the depth estimates is still reasonably good, and is comparable in quality to an intermediate or deep earthquake. The reason for increased potential error is that the Puget Sound Seismic Model has only a single layer for the top 5 km of the crust, and that the close-in seismic stations, which would provide the best control for depth in a shallow event, were overloaded by the large events. Estimated average depth accuracy is �0.5 km. The importance of the Elk Lake event is that it demon- strates that laige, shallow earthquakes can occur in Western Washington. This, coupled with the random spatial distribu- tion of earthquakes in the region, indicates that critical facility design in Clallam. County should consider the poten- tial for large shallow events. C. Attenuation Relationships The evaluation of the seismic quality factor Q is, an important part of an earthquake risk evaluation for a VANCOUVER I S L A N D low pt. port angeles S E I S M I CZONE "A" ZONE 8 WASHINGTON A Figure 11-5 map indicating applicant's proposed seismic zones A and B. Figure 11-6 Elk Lake Earthquake Swarm (Feb. 14F 1981). Elk Lake is 18 km North by NW of Mt. St. Helens. -122-50 46-001 -446 OMO 22 00 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 110 SCALE (KM) -23- particular region. An understanding of the degree of seismic dissipation can allow more accurate modeling of potential ground motion and thus provides greater insight into the problem of damage prediction and design criteria for critical structures. The estimation of Q for compressional waves traveling through the upper crust in the Puget Sound region represents the first concerted effort at measuring the attenuation characteristics in this area. Previous work has been only on a regional or continental scale. Solomon and Toksoz (1970) found that the northwest U.S. was located in a band characterized by higher P wave attenuation, relative to the California- coast and the Great Plains region. It should be pointed out that the resolution of their measurement is a dimension equivalent to the combined widths of Washington and Oregon and thus is somewhat irrelevant. Langston and Blum (1977), however, also found that the region was charac- terized by high attenuation (Qp = 65) using teleseismic Pp data. Langston (1981), in a short review of Langston and Blum (1977), indicated that the low Q may be due in part to scattering effects, implying that the Q value should be higher than reported. Data The data used in the calculations were from selected events of the Elk Lake swarm. Several hundred events occurred within a few days after the main shock of February 14, and out of these events were picked for quality of loca- tionr impulsive signature, high signal-to-noise ratio, and maximum range of receiving stations. A map of the stations used in the study is shown in Figure 11-7. Also included in the figure is the location of the Elk Lake swarm. The geometry of the station array is that of a line bearing north up the axis of the Puget Trough. Elk Lake is at the southern-most end of the line. This geometry also allowed for a velocity model check since it represents a single-ended refraction line. 49 emow *LYW *RPW 4 Jcw 4 mow 0 a HTW SPW 0 RMW 0 GSM 0 GHW 0 LMW & Figure 11-7 ELK STATIONS USED IN THIS STUDY. 123 122 121 120 I -25- Method Qf Analysis Three methods were considered for this study: the max- imum sustained peak methodr the Aki-Chouet scatter-coda method, and the spectral ratio technique. Initial calcu 'lations using the sustained peak method showed significant scatter and proved to be less consistent than required. The reason for this is not immediately at hand; however, the problem of multipathing, scattering, and topography may combine in the Puget Trough to cause signifi- cant amplitude fluctuations within the area. The Aki-Chouet scatter method was not attempted due to certain technical requirements of the technique which were not met by the network. Specific conditions must be met between seismometer bandwidth and source frequency. The method is important, however, since it is least sensitive to the problems of scattering, topography, geometric spreading, and the like. The spectral ratio technique, as used by Teng (1968), Solomon and Toksoz (1970), Solomon (1972). and others, has become as widely accepted a technique as the peak-sustained method. It has as an advantage that it can be used with seismic records that even have minor clipping. Revised Attenuation Parameter The spectral ratio technique was used in this study in association with a forward-modeling program using seismic ray tracing. Although the structure of the Puget Trough is acknowledged to be heterogeneous, the velocity models avail- able for use are all flat-layered ones. This is because only limited refraction data are available in the region and an adequate two-dimensional model does not exist at this time. Ray tracing was conducted using a velocity model refined from the standard Puget Sound seismic model. The results of this study are summed up in Figure 11-8. This figure provides the actual ray trace sequence for the refined model, the velocity model for the Puget Sound region, and final computed multilayer Q model for the region. PUGEI bUUNU MUUt--L IL f 5.26 km 100 qp sec 1,1" 250 z 6.61 .9 300 6.70 350 - Ml- 6.91 @ V0. ' @ N-3 400 7.11 -4L eA L 80 d i s t a n c e kM. 2M 00' Figure 11-8 Combined ray trace, P-wave velocity model, and Q model for the Puget Sound lowlands, using the Elk Lake events as the seismic source. -27- The Q model reveals a Q of 100 for the first two kilom- eters of the crust, followed by a continually increasing Q with increased depth. The average Q value for mid-crust (-15 km) is 300 �50; this corresponds to an attenuation coefficient of 7.87 x 10-3 for this depth. One conclusion of this study is that the Puget- Sound region is not an area of high seismic attenuation. Q values of 65, as reported by Langston (1981), may be appropriate for near the surface, but do not correspond to the transmis- sion characteristics at depth. This Q model and its corresponding attenuation coeffi- cient has been measured in the Puget-Vancouver region, and as such represents an appropriate attenuation relationship for use in a seismic design analysis. The applicant (Fugror 1980) does not use in its design analysis a local or regional attenuation relationship, but rather it uses one developed for Southern California earthquakes. The appli- cant does not demonstrate that the earthquakes and structure of the Puget-Vancouver region are similar to the earthquakes and structure of Southern California, a discussion which might have laid an argumentative foundation for using the California attenuation relationship. Concluai2n.a/Recommendations Seismicity in the Puget Sound-Vancouver Island region is high. The northern portion of the Olympic Peninsula has a high-to-moderate seismicity with no obvious changes in earthquake distribution which might be used to identify .zones of lower seismic risk. Although the large historic earthquakes have been deep-focus events, the Elk Lake event demonstrates that large shallow earthquakes will occur in the region. Seismic risk calculations must therefore con- sider the Clallam. County area as one homogeneous seismic zone, and must take into account the potential for shallow events. The applicant uses a two-zone calculation, which is not acceptable. The basis for this rejection is not one of competence, but is primarily due to the use by the applicant of an incomplete seismic data base. The applicant's analysis may be acceptable if Zone B, the higher risk area, is extended westward beyond Low Point, and an improved attenuation relationship is used. Utilization of an attenuation kormula appropriate for the Puget Sound region may not alter the results of the analysis, but usage of -28- relationships developed for Southern California is not . appropriate unless substantiated. I -29- SECTION III: LOW POINT FACILITIES Introduction This section reviews the applicant's submitted materi- als which consider the geotechnical details of the proposed Low Point moorage and tank farm facility. The reports used in this section include Harding-Lawson, 1980 (#HLA 9053,012.01), Harding-Lawson, 1980 (#HLA 9053fOl3.04), and Fugro, 1980 (Appendix 1). The Harding-Lawson reports emphasize the preliminary nature of their studies, and the present analysis takes this into account. Discussion The Low Point area is proposed for use as the location for tanker off-loading and for an oil tank farm facility. Required geologic/geotechnical information includes depth to bedrock, type of sediment cover, liquefaction potentialr near-surface structure, and potential for mass-wasting (slumping, sliding, etc.). Engineering properties of soil and bedrock will not be discussed. High frequency seismic profiles were made by the appli- cant just offshore from Low Point (#HLA 9053,012.01). The applicant has submitted only interpreted line drawings of these data. A general explanation of the high frequency reflection technique and the types of equipment used, and a discussion of measurement error is provided in Appendix III-I of this report. For the most part, the area is characterized by mild topography and long slopes. Minor structural outcrops occur. Sea bottom consists of consolidated sedimentary rock at the surface, or is overlain by 1 to 3 feet of sediments. No deeper structure (except at Whiskey Creek) was inter- preted from the data. The Whiskey Creek structure is a small sediment-filled basin. Liquefaction damage in the offshore area will be minimal because of the very shallow depths of sediment. Structures located offshore would have a foundation in con- solidated rock, and if liquefaction did occur only the first -30- few feet of material could slough away. Assuming that this potential is considered in the foundation design, liquefac- tion will not pose a significant problem. Offshore slumping in this area also plays a minimal role. Although slopes in local areas exceed 5*, generally the topography is flat with a thin sandy cover. Slumping will be minimal in this area. Exploration efforts at the onshore portion of the Low Point facility was restricted to a revetsed seismic refrac- tion line and two soil borings. The borings reveal silty clay soils overlaying siltstone bedrock. Excavation to con- solidated bedrock is planned in the tank farm design, hence liquefaction will not be a problem at the tank facility. The refraction lines show 10 to 20 feet of low velocity material (the silty clay) over bedrock, dipping north down to the beach area. During periods of high rainfall this top layer will become partially saturated and groundwater will follow along the bedrock contact. Slumping of the bluffs along the beach at Low Point may be enhanced by this flowage. Recommendations Liquefaction damage potential for the Low Point area is small if structure foundations are located on bedrock. Two soil borings represent reconnaissance and not exploration, and several borings must be made to adequately characterize the tank farm facility. Submarine slumping does not pose a great problem at the site. Slumping rates of the bluffs onshore may be changed with major construction at the tank farm site, since mois- ture control will be required for engineering purposes (#HLA 9053,013.04). Flow of petroleum products or contaminated water? if injected into the soil layer, will flow along the bedrock contact and drain down the bluffs. Although 'this represents significant contamination to the local groundwa- ter and bluffs, it is fortuitous that the runoff will not flow into a major aquifer. Structurally, the Low Point site does not have any sig- nificant problems. More detailed work is needed, however, in the form of soil borings as mentioned above. -31- SECTION IV: ANCHOR PENETRATION Introduction A significant problem in the deployment scheme of a pipeline is to provide adequate protection from anchor pene- tration. Penetration may occur from a direct vertical drop of the anchor from a ship, or from the intersection of the pipeline with an anchor which is being dragged along by a ship. Anchor drag distance may extend several thousands of feet, depending upon anchor style and weight, ship size and inertia, and sea conditions. Penetration depth into the sediments along the submarine crossings also will vary con- siderably as a result of the above conditions, as well as with sediment type, sediment strength, seabottom topography, and shallow structure below the mudline. The anchor penetration problem has been discussed by the applicant in Section 3.3 of Harding-Lawson report #HLA 9053,017 .04. Discussion The evaluation of anchor penetration depth can be per- formed in several ways. Calculations using measured strength data from the soil types under question should be made, regardless of the final method used for depth and local estimation, since local sediment type and depositional characteristics will have an effect on bulk strength. The applicant's discussion of anchor penetration consists of a presentation of a table of anchor penetration depths for several-anchor sizes, for two anchor styles, and two sedi- ment types. The table is reproduced here as Table IV-1. The applicant does not discuss local sediment variations nor the possibility of strength variations within a single sedi- ment type. The applicant also does not provide laboratory strength data to compare with the applicant's standard table. Their table provides penetration depths for two sed- iment types, using the terms "mud" and "sand". Mud may be defined as a mixture of water with clay and/or silt, plus minor miscellaneous materials such as organic debris, erratic material, etc. Sand may be defined as detrital material of size range 2 to 0.06 mm in diameter. The -32- TABLE IV-1 ANCHOR BURIAL DEPTHS (FROM VALENT AND BRACKETT, 1976) Fluke Tip Burial Below Bottom Anchor Weight Standard Stockless Danforth or LWT Sand Mud Sand Mud lb ft ft ft ft 3,000 3 7 8 23 10,000 5 11 9 28 20,000 6 12 10 a 30,000 7 17 a a aNo data -33- applicant suggests mapping the submarine crossing into areas of mud and sand, and using the table to estimate depths. However, the materials typical of the crossings will always have some percentage of both mud and sand. The applicant does not suggest a provision in its procedure for this una- voidable condition. It is conceivable that significant underestimation of penetration depths could be made if a sandy mud or a silty mud is classified as "sand". The table also does not list penetration depths for 30 ton anchors, which would be carried by 300,000 dwt tankers. The appli- cant does not discuss the problem of anchor drag and subse- quent variations in drag depth. gecommend!@tions The concept of using a standard table for determining anchor penetration depths is satisfactory if provisions are made for the variability in sediment composition which exists along the submarine crossings. Acceptance of design penetration depths should be made only after adequate map- ping and strength tests have been performed. Penetration depths for 30 ton anchors should be included in the analysis. Maximum depth of penetration for anchors dragging through the sediments must also be submitted. A reference depth should be used in the design; for example, set the pipeline burial depth to be four feet below the computed penetration depth for the largest anchor to be frequently used by ships crossing the route. This provides a maximum continuous protection for the pipeline and provides a built-in safety margin. The applicant's discussion of anchor penetration is minimal and does not set forth the true design depths, which could approach depths of 20 feet or greater. The applicant's table of depths must be accom- panied by a map detailing the location of regions which are made up of "mud" and "sand" and of mud-sand mix. -34- SECTION V: SUBMARINE CROSSINGS Introduct-ion This section reviews and critiques the materials sub- mitted by the applicant which consider the submarine portion of the proposed pipeline. The primary documents reviewed are HLA 9053,012.01, HLA 9053,002.01, and Fugro, 1980. Sub- marine slumping, structure and sediment liquefaction poten- tial is evaluated. Anchor penetration has been discussed in Section IV. Discussion The purpose of the reports referenced above was to obtain geologic, geophysical, and geotechnical information about the bottom and sub-bottom sea floor along the Oak Bay, Admiralty Inlet, and Sara *toga Passage pipeline route corri- dor. The data gathered consists of a small sequence of Vibracore samples and Vibracore jet tests, elementary physi- cal property tests on the Vibracore samples, and continuous bathymetric, high frequency seismic and side-scan sonar pro- files. The seismic.source used was an electro-mechanical type of transducer which generated frequencies in the 0.5 to 2.0 kHz band. This frequency range is adequate for shallow penetration of the bottom sediments and has the potential for good resolution (see Appendix III-I for an explanation of different seismic sources, their typical depth of seismic penetration, and typical resolution). The high resolution of the seismic source, coupled with the high resolving pro- perties of the side-scan sonar, should have provided high quality profiles of the sub-bottom; however, the interpreted line drawings submitted by the applicant show a fairly low resolution. The form of data presentation (short segments of profiles on single pages) is also poor, and is not condu- cive to integrated interpretation. The profile interpreta- tions do not discuss faulting or possible faulting, nor is there a discussion of why some of the seismic reflectors mapped in the interpreted profiles suddenly are truncated (Plate 13B, reference HLA 9053,012.01). Abrupt truncation of a series of reflectors is often indicative of faulting or -35- mass wasting. No references to regional faults and the pos- sibility of active sub-bottom faulting are made in the applicant's discussion of the submarine crossings. Slope stability along the submarine crossings has not been adequately addressed by the applicant. Slumping along slopes of less than 10 degrees have been caused by earth- quakes equal to or lesser than the design earthquake of 7.5 (see Table 1 in Appendix V-1). The potential sediment volume in large slumps can be great (Table 2, Appendix V-1), and potential damage is greater if slump-initiated turbidity currents are generated. The geophysical profiles submitted by the applicant show that along the Oak Bay crossing slopes exceed 30% on the west side and 20% on the east side. Sam- ples from the Vibracore station in Oak Bay indicate silty mud of low strength. Slumping potential is very high, as is sediment liquefaction (discussed below). Slumping along the Admiralty Inlet crossing may occur also, with western slopes of 8-10% and of greater than 10% on the east side. Recent, loose sediments are perched on these flanks of the inlet and could very well prove to be unstable, given the design earthquake. The slumping potential along the Saratoga Pas- sage Corridor is greater than in Admiralty Inlet. Slopes to the west exceed 35 to 40%, and eastern slopes exceed 30%. Thin sediment layers are perched on these slopes, and will not be stable under the design earthquake conditions. Liquefaction potential for all crossings has been analyzed. The data used in this analysis include the Vibracore sample analyses and sample tests. The ground motion accelerations were that of Johnson and Rasmussen (1980). Relative densities of 60% were assumed for Vibracore T values of less than 10 sec/ft. Liquefaction is the temporary loss of cohesion of a soil, caused by oscilla- tory motion. This phenomenon occurs in the following manner. When a saturated, low-to-medium dense sand is sub- jected -to ground shaking, the material tends to compact and decrease in volume. This change in volume will in turn cause an increase in pore pressure, since fluid drainage is slow relative to the rapid loading of the volume. If this volume decrease causes a pore pressure that is equal to or greater than the overburden pressure (i.e., the intergranu- lar stress becomes zero), then the soil has no strength and will physically become a flowing mud. The potential for liquefaction is a function of the initial relative density of the soil, the degree of severity of shaking, and its duration. , In generalf the probability of liquefaction increases as the relative density decreases, the shaking increases in severity, and the number of cycles (duration) -36- increases. Grain size distribution also plays an important role, with soils having a mean grain-size diameter of 0.1 mm (very fine sand) considered most susceptible to liquefac- tion. The procedure used to evaluate liquefaction potential was that of Seed and Idriss (1970), which is generally accepted as the most reliable of liquefaction computations. Th.e potential for liquefaction for a given soil type can be defined as the ratio of the earthquake-induced stress in the soil,.r er to the stress c required to initiate liquefaction. A 're/wc ratio greater than one indicates potential liquefaction of the soil. Calculation of the earthquake-induced stress can be made by the following relationship: lee = 0.65 ro amax rd 9 where ro is the overburden pressure.at the specified depth, amax is the maximum ground surface acceleration, g is the acceleration due to gravityr and rd is the soil deformation coefficient, determined experimentally. Calculation of the earthquake-induced stress can be made by the following relationship: (=) Dr @rc "*@ 16e o C r2 da 50 where 16eo is.the effective overburden pressure at the speci- fied depth, Cr is a correction factor for laboratory data, Dr is the relative density, and is a stress ratio 26a determined from dynamic triaxial soil tests. The relationship defining the variables in these two equations are evaluated by Seed and Idriss (1970) from numerous previous studies, and are presented in Figures V- la, b, and c. figure 3r-la,,b,,c. liquefaction curves of Seed- ldress (1970) 1.0 2 .4 .6 -8 LO .8 20 a v era go. VO lug 5 40 _.JO 4 60- J/00, range.of So- 0 20 40 60 80 100 loor rd .3 10 cycles to liquefy .2 40 30 cycles CY to IiQuefy 01 03 .01 0.3 1.0 mean grain size 050 mm -38- The results of the analysis show that the potential for sediment liquefaction for Oak Bay and for portions of Sara- toga Passage and Admiralty Inlet are very high when consid- ering the maximum 7.5 M earthquake. Liquefaction potential under the 6.5 M. probable event is significant, although the stiffer sandy silts will most likely not liquefy. The greatest potential for mass wasting is along the steep fl-anks of each of the crossings. Conclusions Mass wasting along the submarine corridor is a distinct probability, given the design 7.5 and 6.5 earthquakes. Slumping and sediment liquefaction will most likely occur along the steep slopes on the east and west sides of each of the crossings. Details of sub-bottom structure- are not available. Recommendations More detailed seismic profiles are needed to adequately evaluate the sub-basement structure. Additional sediment sampling and sediment tests are needed to detail liquefac- tion problem. Contingency plans or alternate routes should be submitted in order to mitigate the slope slumping prob- lem. -39- BIBLIOGRAPHY Brune, J.N., 1970, Tectonic Stress and the Spectra of Seismic Shear Waves from Earthquakes, J. Geophys. Res., 75, pp. 4997-5009. Dietz, D. N., 1971, Pollution of Permeable Strata by Oil Components, in P. Hepple, ed., Water Pollution by Oil London: Institute of Petroleum, pp. 127-139. Freeze, R. A. and J. A. Cherry, 1978, Groundwater, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 604 pp. Fugro, Inc., 1980, Preliminary Seismic Design Criteri for the TransMountain Law Point Project. Hanks, T. and M. Wyss, 1972, The Use of Body-Wave Spectra in the Determination of Seismic-Source Parameters, Bull. Seis. Soc. Am., 62, pp. 561-589. Harding-Lawson Associates, 1980, Geotechnical Investigation, Proposed Marine Pipeline Crossings, Oak Bay, Admiralty Inlet, Saratoga Passage, Near Seattle, WA, HLA Job NO. 9053, 017.04. Harding-Lawson Associates, 1980, Geophysical Survey, Marine and River Crossings TransMountain Pipeline, Admiralty Inlet and Vicinity, State of Washington, HLA Job No. 9053,012.01. Harding-Lawson Associates, 1980, Preliminary Geotechnical Investigation, Tank Farm Sites for TransMountain Pipe- line Company, Ltd., Low Point, WA, HLA Job No. 9053,013.04. Harding-Lawson Associates, 1975, Marine Geophysical Survey? Submarine Pipeline Crossing Feasibility Admirality Inlet, Puget Sound, WA, HLA Job. No. 9053,002.0l. Johnson, D. M. and N. Rasmussen, 1980, Geologic and Seismic Studies Related to Construction of the Northern Tier Pipeline in Clal la Count , WA, Clallum County Planning Department. Langston, C. A., 1981, A Study of Puget Sound Strong Motion, Bull. Seis. Soc. AM., 67, pp. 693-711. -40- Noble, J. B., 1960, A Preliminary Report on the Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Sequim-Dungeness Area, Clallam County, WA, Wash. State Division of Water Resources, Water Supply Bulletin, ]a, 43 pp. Schwille, 1967, Petroleum Contamination of the Subsoil, in Joint Problems af th-e -Qil And Water Industries, pp. 25-53. Seed, H. Bolton and Idriss, I. M., 1970, A Simplified Pro- cedure for Evaluating Soil Liquefaction Potential? Report a. M-9-, Earthquake Engineering Center, Univer- sity of California, Berkeley, 23 pp. Solomon, S. C., 1972, Seismic-Wave Attenuation and Partial Melting in the Upper Mantle of North America, 1. Geo- 9by-a. Res., 77, pp. 1483-1502. Solomon, S. C. and M. N. Toksoz, 1970, Lateral Variation of Attenuation of P and S Waves Beneath the United States, Bull. Seis. Z". Am, U, pp. 819-838. Tabor, R. W. and W. M. Cady, 1978, Geologic MA9 pf the Olym- 9-i-c Peninsula, WA, U.S. Geological Survey, Misc. Invest. Map 1-99, 1:125,000 scale. Teng, Ta-Liang, 1968, Attenuation of Body Wave s and the Q- Structure of the Mantle, Geophys. Res., 21, pp- 2195-2208. TransMountain Pipeline Company, Application for 3_j@& Certif- ication, No. 21-1, Washington Energy Facility Site Evaluation Council. Van Dam, 1967, The Migration of Hydrocarbons in a Water- Bearing Stratum, in Joint Problems j2j the Q_U and Water Industries. -41- 1 APPENDIX II-1 EARTHQUAKE DATA USED IN SEISMIC STUDY -42- A 5612260811 60.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 A 5709000810 48.00 48N4800 122W4200 00.00 A 5904021030 00.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 4.3 A 6005070811 60.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 A 6310090813 28.08 48N2502 123W2202 00.00 A 6410290814 00.00 48N3000 123W3000 00.00 A 6508260500 00.00 48N3000 123W3000 00.00 5.0 A 6806200809 12.00 48NO000 122WI800 00.00 A 6902180811 01.20 48NO702 122W4530 00.00 A 7001110813 28.08 48N2502 123W2202 00.00 A 7003161003 00.00 48N2502 123W2202 00.00 A 7101210340 00.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 A 7106200809 19.20 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 7202160335 00.00 48N2502 123W2202 00.00 A 7310192200 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.7 A 7312170811 33.60 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 3.7 A 7803181430 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 3.0 A 8012080154 00.00 47N3000 122W3000 00.00 A 8012101300 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.7 A 8012130440 00.00 47N3000 122W3000 00.00 5.7 A 8012150200 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.0 A 8012210716 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.7 A 8012300725 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.0 A 8101060656 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 A 8101070020 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 A 8101070615 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 A 8101170700 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.0 A 8101310545 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.0 A 8103150630 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 3.0 A 8306000809 43.92 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 3.0 A 8409220600 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 3.0 A 8505040730 00.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 A 8506271326 00.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 3.7 A 8512090640 00.00 47N3000 122W3000 00.00 4.3 A 8512090940 00.00 48NO690 123W2658 00.00 A 8604160605 00.00 47N3900 122W3150 00.00 A 8802011200 00.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 A 8903162200 00.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 A 8900000200 00.00 47N1152 122W1788 00.00 2.3 A 8910202300 00.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 A 9002020925 36.00 48NO900 122W3900 00.00 A 9003080811 33.60 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 3.0 A 9010082200 00.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 A 9103080330 00.00 48N1800 122W4800 00.00 A 9109000809 43.92 47N1416 122W2598 00.00 A 9109191709 19.20 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 4.3 A 9109221140 00.00 48NO000 123W3000 00.00 4.3 A 9111292321 00.00 48NO690 123W2658 00.00 5.7 A 9202060811 33.60 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 A 9405240630 00.00 47N1416 122W2598 00.00 2.3 A 9504160802 00.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 5.0 A 9601040615 00.00 48N3000 122W4800 00.00 5.0 A 9601090556 00.00 48N4140 122W1380 00.00 A 9709270930 00.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 -43- A 9802020230 00.00 47N4092 122W5412 00.00 A 9808120809 19.20 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 9808130809 19.20 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 0303140215 00.00 47N4200 122W1200 00.00 4.3 A 0309112353,48.00 47N3000 122W2700 00.00 3.7 A 0403170420 00.00 48N3000 123W1800 00.00 4.3 A 0606011255 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 4.3 A 0707281020 00.00 48N2700 123W2100 00.00 4.3 A 1109290239 00.00 48N4800 122W4200 00.00 5.0 A 1206060810 26.40 47N1926 122W3660 00.00 A 1211250320 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 1211250430 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 1211250505 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 1312251045 00.00 47N4200 122W3000 00.00 4.3 A 1312251440 00.00 47N4200 122W3000 00.00 4.3 A 1504221834 00.00 47N1200 122W2400 00.00 A 1601020052 00.00 47N1800 122W1800 00.00 4.3 A 1602221145 00.00 48N4800 122W3600 00.00 4.3 A 1604240443 00.00 47NO960 122W1200 00.00 2.3 A 1806080724 19.20 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 1906060630 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 2303121815 00.00 48N3012 122W3660 00.00 3.7 A 2402101405 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 2404250803 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 2508012005 00.00 48NO690 123W2658 00.00 3.7 A 2508150008 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 2511262140 00.00 48N3000 123W1500 00.00 3.0 A 2612041355 00.00 48N3000 122W4800 00.00 4.3 A 3104180355 00.00 48N4200 122W1200 00.00 5.0 A 3112311525 00.00 47N3000 123WO000 00.00 5.0 A 3201311525 00.00 47N4800 122W1800 00.00 3.0 A 3202291745 00.00 48N1320 122W1860 00.00 A 3204231320 00.00 48N3000 122W1410 00.00 3.0 A 3208062216 00.00 47N4200 122W1800 00.00 5.0 A 3208251120 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 3210051900 00.00 48N3012 122W3660 00.00 3.7 A 3210051920 00.00 48N3012 122W3660 00.00 3.7 A 3210060045 00.00 48N5112 122W3588 00.00 3.0 A 3301030120 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 3301030600 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.7 A 3301290945 00.00 48NO702 122W4530 00.00 3.0 A 3308221135 00.00 47N5880 122WI200 00.00 3.7 A 3308221230 00.00 47N4572 122W1218 00.00 3.7 A 3308221235 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.7 A 3401010000 00.00 48N4278 122W1218 00.00 3.0 A 3402061320 00.00 47N3600 122W2400 00.00 3.7 A 3404280808 48.00 47N5880 122W1200 00.00 3.7 A 3400000000 00.00 47N5880 122WI200 00.00 A 3405050406 00.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 4.3 A 3405100000 00.00 48N4950 122W1302 00.00 3.0 A 3411031450 00.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 3.7 A 3502061320 00.00 47N1998 122W4998 00.00 3.7 A 3502170607 00.00 48N1518 123WO618 00.00 3.0 A 3507241514 00.00 47N1218 123WO618 00.00 -44- A 3606201057 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 3606201150 00.00 47N4572 122WI218 00.00 A 3607240000 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 A 3607250845 00.00 47N4200 122W1800 00.00 3.7 A 3607260800 00.00 UN3600 122W1980 00.00 A 3711011315 00.00 47NO270 122W4020 00.00 3.7 A 3711111630 00.00 47NO270 122W4020 00.00 3.0 A 3712290201 00.00 47N5460 122W2352 00 00 A 3801061311 00.00 47N4800 122W2400 00:00 4.3 A 3804300535 00.00 48N1152 122WO750 00.00 A 3901282040 00.00 47N4938 122W5262 00.00 A 3907221600 00.00 47N5862 122W3210 00.00 A 3911130744 50.00 47N1200 123WO000 00.00 5.7 A 4003230310 00.00 47N1800 122W3600 00.00 3.0 A 4003232330 00.00 47N1152 122W1788 00.00 A 4004251811 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 4004251902 00.00 47N3582 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 4010272230 00.00 48NO600 122W4800 00.00 4.3 A 4011190700 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 A 4011251100 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 A 4011251247 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 A 4011251900 00.00 47N1422 122W2598 00.00 A 4201310654 00.00 48N3600 122W4800 00.00 A 4205111050 00.00 48N5652 122W2718 00.00 A 4205112000 00.00 48N5502 122W1902 00.00 A 4212150245 00.00 48N2802 122W1398 00.00 A 4311290043 00.00 48N2400 122W5400 00.00 5.0 A 4403030000 00.00 47N1800 122W3600 00.00 3.0 A 4403310330 00.00 48N2802 122W1398 00.00 A 4409180814 00.00 47NO600 122W4200 00.00 3.7 A 4409180852 37.00 47NO600 122W4200 00.00 3.7 A 4501280506 08.10 48N1452 122W2262 00.00 5.0 A 4506152225 02.00 48NO000 123WO000 00.00 4.3 A 4511120405 00.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 5.0 A 4602061011 00.00 48N3000 122W1410 00.00 3.7 A 4602150317 47.00 47N1800 122W5400 25.00 5.8 A 4602230854 53.00 47NO270 122W5340 00.00 5.0 A 4612271643 00.00 47N2400 122W3000 00.00 3.7 A 4701050809 19.20 47N3600 122W1980 00.00 3.0 A 4704020058 00.00 47N2400 122W5400 00.00 4.3 A 4709201030 00.00 47N1200 122W2400 00.00 4.3 A 4809242235 00.00 47N5130 122W3522 00.00 5.0 A 4904131955 43.00 47N1500 122W3000 00.00 7.0 A 4911291303 00.00 47N3600 122W3000 00.00 3.7 A 5004141103 48.00 48NO000 122W3000 00.00 5.0 A 5012030157 00.00 47N5682 122W1800 00.00 4.3 A 5107200745 00.00 48NO312 122W1050 00.00 3.0 A 5108181837 10.00 48N3720 122W5700 00.00 2.0 A 5108200953 56.00 48NO300 123W4200 00.00 2.0 A 5108221022 52.00 48N4200 123W4020 00.00 2.0 A 5109060428 37.00 4BN4080 123W2280 00.00 3.0 A 5110071159 31.00 47N4020 123W3000 00.00 3.0 A 5110092259 27.70 48N1080 122W4620 00.00 3.7 A 5111290024 35.00 48N5520 122W2820 00.00 2.0 -45- A 5112072020 19.00 48N3720 123W1620 00.00 2.0 A 5112120306 25.00 48N3600 123W4620 00.00 1.5 A 5201040214 10.00 48N3900 123W4380 00.00 2.0 A 5201251550 54.00 48N2820 122W5400 00.00 1.5 A 5201312243 12.00 48N5400 122W3600 00.00 2.0 A 5202062025 39.00 48N2580 123W3780 00.00 2.0 A 5202201907 07.00 48N4200 123W1200 00.00 3.7 A 5202,210000 00.00 4BN3102 122WI050 00.00 3.0 A 5202220939 31.20 48N3600 123WO600 00.00 4.3 A 5203141459 36.40 48N3600 123WO600 00.00 3.7 A 5203160550 21.00 48N3180 123W4080 00.00 2.0 A 5203202136 18.00 48NO480 123W3720 00.00 2.0 A 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A 8008111840 0. 48N3202 122W4156 49.72 0 A 8008150336 0. 47N4218 122W3954 19.03 1:2 A 8008151209 0. 47N3834 122WO448 12.34 0.7 A 8008152110 0. 47N4547 122W2176 9.61 1.1 A 8008161646 0. 47N1973 123WI385 43.38 1.6 A 8008200228 0. 47N3506 122WO166 9.54 2.0 A 8008221601 0. 47N2223 122W4227 23.12 1.2 A 8008221859 0. 47N5397 122W3720 20.21 1.5 A 8008231402 0. 48N4516 122W5231 16.01 1.7 A 8008241632 0. 47N4579 122W2363 9.29 0 A 8008290034 0. 47N2525 122W4206 23.06 0:9 A 8008312110 0. 47N4397 122W2367 23.84 1.3 A 8009020154 37.40 48N1181 122W2438 29.76 2.1 A 8009041535 66.52 47N4306 122W5847 45.16 1.2 A 8009061118 32.97 47N3172 123W2152 45.61 2.8 A 8009070252 22.56 47N4643 122W4322 15.90 0.8 A 8009110454 34.73 47N3987 122W1352 24.12 1.1 A 8009120352 2.96 48N1381 123W 440 25.28 0.4 A 8009121215 17.97 47N2020 123W1399 42.08 1.0 AP8009220128 16.34 47N1165 123WI4.18 6.12 1.2 A 8009221718 0. 48NI556 122WI459 5.08 1.7 A 8009271222 14.23 47N3059 122W 105 0.10* 0.0 A 8009300437 69.15 48N2431 122W1912 18.51 2.7 A 8009300437109.01 48N2389 122W1862 16.83 2.3 A 8000300539 39.77 48N2227 122WI559 7.39 1.4 A 8009301631 73.84 47N4509 122W 349 13.89 2.8 A 8010011247 47.09 47N4494 122W 406 7.00 1.3 A 8010032209 28.97 47N4679 122W2504 21.72 1.1 A 8010040236 35.38 48N2445 122W1892 15.75 2.7 A 8010040500 34.66 48N2426 122W1888 18.61 1.1 A 8010042113 60.20 47N3136 122W 369 19.21 0.8 AP8010042351 30.99 47N4602 122W 620 0.95 0.8 A 8010070022 52.29 47N5436 122W3680 7.01 1.1 A 8010070815 22.54 4BN4271 122W 717 1.11 1.4 A 8010071515 8.47 47N2616 122W3178 49.31 1.8 -86- A 8010081055 50.36 48N2633 123W 354 21.64 2.9 A 8010090950 0. 47N4981 122WO329 20.08 0.1 A 8010091952 22.99 47N3106 121W5987 9.37 0.7 A 8010130117-13.80 40N4434 123W5287 19.92 1.9 AP8010131845 31.51 47N5095 122W 470 3.36 -1.7 A 8010142048 .3.20 47N2302 122W4297 23.67 1.0 A 8010150045 22.44 47N2261 122W4180 23.25 1.2 A 8010150048 40.17 47N3065 122W 283 7.00 0.9 A 8010151148 26.40 47N1961 122W1898 16.61 1.7 A 8010151705 33.86 47N2673 122W 522 26.34 0.6 A 8010171606 27.31 47N4236 122W 244 9.37 0.7 A 8010171929 0. 47N4234 122WO796 10.00 0.8 A 8010182144 0. 48N2496 123WO349 19.63 1.2 A 8010191731 0. 48NO020 122W1443 22.20 1.2 A 8010200223 0. 47N2182 122W4093 10.00 1.3 A 8010200514 36.37 47N2328 122W4197 24.90 1.4 A 8010201419 24.72 47N2079 122W2159 23.65 1.3 A 8010202330 0. 47N2169 122W2165 10.00 1.3 A 8010221714 0. 48N4836 122WI023 3.33 0 A 8010222204 0. 48N1517 122W1360 10.00 1:0 A 8010230449 0. 48N4875 122W1057 2.77 2.0 A 8010240635 16.39 48N1473 122W5083 21.01 1.1 A 8010291005 0. 48NI889 122WO419 10.00 0.3 A 8010300645 22.00 47N3918 122W1776 27.36 1.0 A 8010310254 38.29 47N3635 122W4746 18.29 1 0 A 8010311100 59.72 47N1856 122W2349 15.32 1:8 A 8010312313 46.14 47N1854 122W2285 15.46 .1.3 A 8011021824 7.42 47N2473 122W2225 22.00 0.7 A 8011070959 29.10 48N1322 122W4297 28.60 0.2 A 8011071445 5.22 47N1391 122W5126 22..00 0.7 A 8011081140 39.47 47N4881 122W2230 20.89 1.3 AP8011130121 45.18 47N3085 122W 445 7.04 1.0 A 8011181944 20.69 47N4004 122W 286 8.43 0.8 A 8011191644 54.62 47N4329 122W3695 15.90 0.5 AP8011200033 60.95 47N4508 122WO421 0.10* 0.2 A 8011201719 57.60 48N3297 121W5970 0.10* 0.9 A 8011210801 12.67 47N3595 123W1681 41.85 1.0 A 8011242001 54.34 47N4869 122W3628 22.00 0.6 A 8011300107 9.57 47N1920 123W1498 44.96 2.6 A 8011301440 31.19 47N5184 122W 724 27.80 1.1 A 8011301856 39.82 47N3929 122W3429 26.66 0.6 A 8012022228 38.62 47N2434 123W3625 0.10* 1.0 -87- i APPENDIX III-1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE SEISMIC SOURCES by D. M. Johnson -88- Characteristics of Marine Seismic Sources Introduction "High resolution continuous seismic reflection" (or continuous seismic sounding) is the widest-used and most economical method for studying the first hundred metres of soil beneath the sea floor. The method enables the geometry, structure and con- figuration of the geolocial strata to be determined. However, in the prevailing state of techniques, seismics alone does not make it possible to make any affirmation: as to the nature of the soils, and yet less, as to their physical and mechanical properties. While certain interpretations sometimes justify a presumption as to the state of consolidation of the soils (owing to the degree of penetration, for instance of signals with a given frequency and energy), these assumptions must necessarily be verified by core samples or in situ geotechnical measurements. Preliminary recording of seismic profiles on a marine site makes it possible: - to fix the *locations of the geological and geo- technical soundings (drilling/core drillings and in situ measurements) as a function of the variations in the configuration of the subsoil, - to reduce the number of these soundings, - to extrapolate where necessary the results of core drillings and in situ measurements. All seismic techniques currently applied for the reconnaissance of marine soils use the continuous reflection method. The refraction method is applied only when seismic reflection proves to be inoperative or the results obtained do not yield the expected accuracy. Several types of devices are used in "high resolution seismics." The main of them are: - sediment sounders (or echo sounders) - boomers -89- - sparkers - side scan sonar These devices are characterized by their transmission frequency and consequently the penetration of the signal and its resolving power (or definition): - the penetration is inversely proportional to the transmission frequency, - the resolving power (and relective quality) decreases with the penetration and increases with frequency. Since "Boomer", Echo Sounders, and Side Scan Sonar was used in the Shannon-Wilson reports, a discussion of their characteristics has been included in this Appendix. -90- BOOMERS (AND THE UNIBOOM) The boomer or thumper is an electromechanical source invented by EEG. Principle and characteristics of the boomer Principle of the boomer The boomer consists of: - an induction coil against which an aluminium Plate is applied by a system of springs, - a bank of capacitors (connected to a sparking circuit) producing electrical discharges through the coil at regular intervals. With each discharge, the eddy currents induced in the conductive plate cause it to move violently away from the coil. The initial movement of the plate triggers the acoustic pulse. Characteristics of the boomer and Uniboom The acoustic signature of a 1,000 J boomer has a signal duration of about 5 ms. The spectrum for this boomer ranges from 200 to 2,000 Hz. From the standpoint of enery distribution, the figure reveals: - a very high amplitude of the initial pulse peak (a), - a peak of negative amplitude (b) extending the signal. This secondary peak is caused by the cavitation which arises behind the plate in the depressurized zone. In the Uniboom system, the secondary pulse is eliminated by providing an elastic diaphragm on the inner face of the plate from the depressurized side. This diaphragm then absorbs part of the enrgy and thus limits the cavitation. The duration of the Uniboom signal is limited to about 0.2 ms. -91- The frequency spectrum ranges from 500 to 10,000 Hz on the average (the frequency decreases slightly as the energy output increases). The resolving power: - of the boomer proper is not less than 2 m, owing to the considerable length of the signal, - with the Uniboom, it can theoretically get down to 30-40 cm (comparable to the best sediment sounders). -92- Principle and equipment of the echo sounder Principle of the echo sounder The echo sounder puts out a brief ultrasonic pulse which is reflected from the sea bottom. The return echo is amplified and then continuously recorded. Let V be the speed of sound in water and t the time interval between the emitted and return echo, the depth H is given by: H Vt 2 Equipment of the echo sounder Transmission and reception are ensured by a common electro-acoustic transformer or transducer which converts the mechanical vibrations into electrical vibrations of the same frequency. Coupled to an electric pulse generator, the transducer converts the electrical energy into acoustic energy on transmission, and conversely the reflected acoustic signal is converted into an electrical signal. The most widely used transducers are based on the piezoelectric properties of certain ceramics (barium titanate, zirconate). They vibrate at a certain resonance frequency. These vibrations, transmitted to the water, act as sound pulses. The optimum frequency range, which depends on the depths of water and nature of the bottom, extends from about 15 to 200 kHz, depending on the type of device. The higher the frequency, the more efficient the absorption. At the recording end, the propagation times measured are converted into depth, depending on the speed of sound in water (from 1,460 to 1,560 m/s in sea water). For a given speed, the rate of the stylus, which inscribes along a strip of paper, determines the scale of the soundings, namely the number of metres of water represented on the width of the recording paper. -93- Characteristics of transducers Transducers are characterized by their nominal frequency, directivity and level of energy. The nominal frequency of-a transducer designates its transmission frequency under permanent excitation (i.e., resonance). For precision echo sounders, used for bathymetry, the sound beam is relatively narrow. The following are typical orders of magnitude: - for common echo sounders: 0 10-20 at 50-30 kHz - for large diameter echo sounders with very narrow beams, used at great water depths: 3-60 at 30-15 kHz The transmission level of a transducer is a measure of the energy transmitted along the axis of the transducer, measured one metre away. A high transmission for the same electric power is the sign of better efficiency. Resolving power of an echo sounder Resolving power of an echo sounder essentially depends on the duration of the pulse, the angle of the ultrasonic beam, the depth of the water and topography of the bottom. A resolving power is limited by the fact that it is impossible to transmit an extremely brief signal. If At is the shortest discernible time interval between two echoes, then the depth resolutions is: AH Y . At 2 where: V is the speed of sound in water. -94- Principle of the side-scan sonar. Formation of the echoes The side-scan sonar transducer acts both as transmitter and receiver of the ultrasonic signals. The system generally consists of: - a round-nosed cylindrical body towed from the vessel (known as the "fish"), containing one or two (1) transducers (together with the associated electronic circuits), - a towing cable ensuring the elctrical and mechanical links to the towing vessel, - a one or two rack recorder using either electro- sensitive paper or a magnetic tape. The side-scan sonar transducer: - transmits short sound pulses to the water, per- pendicular to the direction of travel, - receives the echoes recorded aboard the vessel (following conversion into electric pulses). The frequencies used vary from a few tens to about 100 kHz, depending on the particular unit. Formation of the images The sound pulses transmitted at regular time intervals (the repetition rate essentially depends on the lateral range selected) and the echoes resulting from the irregularities on the sea bottom are recorded as a function of time (two-way trip): clearly, the nearest echoes arrive first, followed by echoes from more distant zones at ever increasing intervals. Each group of echoes resulting from a transmission is displayed on the recorder in the form of a trace inscribed cross-wise by the stylus on the recording paper which moves longitudinally. As the vessel advances and the pulses occur one after the other, an image is formed on the recording paper by (1) The sonar is generally bilateral. -95- juxtapostion of the traces (somewhat similar to that obtained on a television screen). Geometry of the ultrasonic beam The fineness and precision of the recording are a function of the narrowness of the ultrasonic beam, and of the frequency and duration of the pulse transmitted. The shape of the transducer is selected so as to transmit a fan-shaped beam: - with an angle of a few degrees in the horizontal plane (azimuth), - with an angle of about 10 to few tens of degrees in the vertical plane (elevation). The ultrasonic beam can be broken down into the following: - a primary lobe with an angle defined conventionally as the sector in which the sound intensity is only 3 dB beneath that of the axial (maximum) intensity, - a number of secondary lobes. Even though only the primary lobe is actually used in practice, the secondary lobes present a certainlinterest. In particular, the sub-vertical lobe: - gives a section of the bottom of the sea along the path of the vessel, - enables any echo from an object situated in the water near the vertical of the vessel to be identified (for instance a shoal of fish). Formation of the echoes. Angle of incidence The features of the bottom brought to light are: - either of topographical nature (variation of the angle of incidence), - or related to the physical characteristics of the soil (variations in the coefficient of reflection or backscattering). The way in which topographic echoes are formed is shown in Fig. All the folds in the bottom cause -96- the angle of incidence of the acoustic rays to vary and hence also the amount of reflected energy. The useful part of the recording is that corresponding to angles of incidence of less than 300, where the coefficient of reflection varies sharply with the angle of incidence. The ideal conditions therefore prevail for detecting variations in the angle of incidence and hence variations in the topography. A change in the nature of the bottom modifies the intensity of the signal as much or even more than a change in the gradient (especially if the angle of incidence is between 20 and 600). The reflection coefficient varies considerably when changing from mud to pebbles or rock, while sand lies somewhere in between. Characteristics of the side-scan sonar The side-scan sonar is essentially characterized by its longitudinal and transverse resolving powers. Lateral range The maximum range of a side-scan sonar depends on many factors, the leading ones being: - the characteristics of the instrument: - the pulse duration, - the transmission power, - the signal/noise iatio, - the frequency (rF = 1,300 is an empirical formula expressing the range in kilometres for an optimum frequency in kilocycles), - the physico-chemical properties of the medium through which the sound waves are propagated, - the implementation parameters - the height of the "fish" above the bottom, - the inclination of the axis of the beam from the horizontal. -97- Distortion of side-scan sonar images There are various causes for the distortion of side- scan images, including the following: the obliqueness of the beams the slope of the bottom, the anisotropy of the medium through which the rays propagate, the navigating conditions the scales on the recordings. -98- APPENDIX V-1 SUBMARINE SLUMPING AND THE INITIATION OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS by N. R. Morgenstern -99- SUBMARINE SLUMPING AND THE INITIATION OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS ABSTRACT The conditions under which submarine slumping is known to have occurred are reviewed and the agencies causing them are discussed. Special attention is given to earthquake effects. It is pointed out that slumps can result in a wide variety of sedimentary structures and many of these structures are associated with liquafaction. The strength of sediments is considered, and the influence of underconsolidation due to high rates of sedimentation on the strength of marine sediments is treated in detail. The mechanics of slumping are analyzed from the point of view of both drained and undrained failure. It is thought that some slumps transform into high-density turbidity currents. The evidence for the exis- tence of such currents is summarized and a theory presented to show that a slump can achieve sufficiently high velocities to transform into a turbidity current if the pore pressures induced at failure are high enough. INTRODUCTION the conditions under which slumping has occurred and to observe the influence Much of the progress in under- of the movements on the structure of standing the processes involved in sub- the sediments. Observations of stable aerial landslides has been possible submarine slopes and knowledge of the only through detailed analysis of par- properties of the sediments composing ticular cases. A minimum requirement them can be used to bound the occur- for carrying out such an analysis is, rence of slumps. A review of some of knowledge of the slope profile, the the information that is available re- shape and location of the major slip garding submarine slumping suggests surface, the water pressure conditions that there are two problems associated at the time of failure, the appropriate with the phenomenon that deserve par- soil strength parameters, and the soil ticular attention. The first is whether densities. with these data it is pos- it is possible for slumps to occur on sible to perform fairly reliable calcu- gentle slopes, particularly on the open lations to account for the movements of continental shelf and slope. The sec- the soil mass. In the case of sub- ond problem is to account for the wide aqueous landslides or slumps the nec- variety of sedimentary structures that essary information is seldom available have been attributed to slumping. These and few properly documented case records range from large sheets of strata that exist. It is therefore necessary to have been transported intact to tur- extrapolate from experience gained in bidites (Dzulynski and Walton, 1965). the study of subaerial movements. It Turbidite deposits are widespread (see is also essential to study the fossil Bouma, l962) and their origin is still structures of slumps preserved in the a matter of sore debate. One mechanism geological record in order to establish that has been suggested is the trans- formation of a slump into a turbidity current and subsequent deposition of the turbidite. Most sediments involved in slumps are likely to be normally consolidated. _100- However, in regions of high rates of Sea, he observed that recent sediments sedimentation such as exist in some del- were often absent from the slope leading tas, there will be a lag between the from the upper part of the shore terrace accumulation of the material and the to the deep basin of the sea. He did, consolidation associated with it. This however, find such sediments in a state gives rise to in excess pore pressure of intense deformation and with dupli- and the sediment is accordingly weaker. cate succession on the steeper lower This underconsolidated material is evi- slopes and concluded that they had dently prone to slumping. Overconsoli- slurped from above on inclinations of dated sediments also exist in a marine 1 to 3.degrees. Slumping on inclina- environment, the overconsolidation hav- tiODS of 1 degree has been-suggested ing been induced by removal of over- by Shepard (1955) to account for the burden by erosion of sediment during delta-front valleys associated with the the development of submarine canyons Mississippi River. The existence of and channels associated with sea fans. underconsolidated material in this re- It wiil be seen that some very steep gion suggests that this explanation is slopes that have been observed must be likely. Submarine slumping of Norian composed of material that is either strata in New Zealand has been discussed overconsolidated or cemented. Never- by Grant-MacRie and Lowry (1964) who theless, the amount of exposure of over- describe an exposure of 530 ft of high- consolidated material (excepting in sub- ly disturbed sediment. This layer lies marine canyons) is probably small,and within a sequence of regular undisturbed the influence of this aspect of sediment Upper Triassic strata but displays slump behavior will not be considered in any balls, welded contacts, and other fea- detail. tures associated with submarine sluiv.@,s. In the following, data regarding By correlating sediments and fauna tLe slope angles for both stable and un- authors infer that the slope at ttiv tirf: stable profiles are presented, and the of movement may have been less than I/- agencies that can induce slumping are degree. Movement occurred during a discussed. A further section reviews period of tilting of 8 degrees by the the variou.s sedimentary structures that sea f1cor and the slope angle quoted slumping can produce and shows that sed- must be considered to be a minimum. iments after slumping can achieve a It should be noted that the pos- broad range of mobility from rigid block -'sibility of slumping on such gentle motion to turbulent flow. Shear strength slopes has been questioned by Moore properties of sediments are then dis- (1961) excepting areas of rapid accu- cussed with special reference to the mulation. In particular, Moore doubts influence of metastability and under- the existence of slumping on the deep consolidation. The mechanics of vari- sea floor and normal open continental ous modes of failure are introduced. shelf. Regarding the continental slope, Finally the acceleration of a soil mass he observes that the amount of slumping moving down a slope is analyzed, and will vary with the type of sediment, its some conditions that must be satisfied rate of accumulation and the topographic for transformation into a turbidity features in the regions in which it is current are suggested. being deposited. Detailed discussion of some of Moore's conclusions will be given in a further section. However, OCCURRENCE OF SLUMPING it is of interest here to introduce some aspects of submarine topography Slumping has been observed or has in order to distinguish between the var- been inferred to have occurred on a ious gradients associated with ocean vide range of slope inclinations. One bottom features. A detailed discussion of the first papers to draw attention of submarine topography may be found in to the possibility of slumping on Shepard (1963), Hill (1963), and Menard alopes of gentle gradient was by Heim (1964). (1908) vho described the slip that Moving seaward from a continent to flowed into Lake Zug, Switzerland, the ocean floor, it is in general pos- in IBB7. The slope had an inclination sible to distinguish between the conti- of 2.5 degrees. Unfortunately, the nental shelf, continental slope and con- reasons for the initiation of the tinental rise. Though by no means uni- movement are not clear. The observa- form,the average slope of the continen- tions of Archanguelsky (1930) are also tal shelf is only 0007' and is slightly often cited in this context. In study- steeper along the inner half. For the ing a sequence of cores from the Black continental slope, Shepard (1963) quotes an average inclination of 4'17' for the the trough. Submarine slumping on a first 6000 feet of descent. Menard smaller scale has been inferred by Van (1964) states that continental slopes Straaten (1949) from the evidence of are about 1 to 10 km high in the Pacific contorted glacial clays in Finland, and have gradients of 1 to 10 degrees. which, he suggests,may have slid off a However, the cont inental slopes are cut steep-sided esker. Finally Kuenen (1949) by submarine canyons. These are impor- has described structures attributed to tant to the proble m of slumping because slumping in the Carboniferous rocks of of the possibility of sediment accumu- southern Wales and he favors the view lating in their heads, and the channel- that these movements took place down ing effect that they provide for the slopes not exceeding a few degrees. flow of the sediment. The slopes of Subaqueous slumps on slopes inclined submarine canyons are also usually great- at steeper angles than those mentioned er than that of the continental shelf. in an earlier paragraph have been dis- The continental rise is generally a cussed by Terzaghi (1956) and Koppejan, smooth feature connecting the continen- van Wamelen, and Weinberg (1948). These tal slope to the abyssal plain. Heezen include the slope failure in clean sands and Menard (1963) quote an average gra- rind gravel in Howe Sound , British Colum- dient fur the continental rise of 300:1 bia, which probably had an inclination with some slopes as low as 700:1 and greater than 28 degrees,and the slides others as 'steep as 50:1.* Gradients of composed of fine sand that occur along abyssal plains range from 1000:1 to the coast of Zeeland. Original angles 10,000:1. Other features of interest of 15 degrees are known to exist in the are the sediment fans at the mouths of latter case. submarine canyons, which have their Dill (1964a, 1964b, 1966) has ob- origin in slump and turbidity current served in considerable detail the move- deposits , and the abyssal hills which ment of sediment in Scripps and La Jolla are small undulation in the floor of submarine canyons. Slumping in fine the abyssal regions. On the basis of micaceous sand occurred on inclinations slope alone, it is evident that the of approximately 30 degrees. Sand falls continental slope is much more favor- over steeper inclinations and gravity able for slumping than any of the other creep were also important processes main regions mentioned above. The heads aiding the transport of the material of submarine canyons provide an extreme- down the slope. ly suitable environment for slumping be- There are many mechanisms that can cause of their steeper inclination and induce slumping. The most common one their action as sediment traps. is probably over-steepening of the slope. The effects of submarine slumping This may occur due to deposition or pos- have been observed in various geological sibly crustal tilting associated with strata in many locations. Among the local tectonic movement. Erosion due many examples that could be cited are to water currents or turbidity currents the observations of Jones (1937) on may cause local over-steepening lead- Silurian rocks in North Wales and the ing to progressive failure. Slumping discussion by Beets (1946) on Miocene is particularly common at the head of slumping in northern Italy. Benz, Lake- submarine canyons and in the vicinity man, and van der Meulen (1955) provide of mouths of large rivers. These are evidence for extensive submarine sliding both environments of rapid deposition. in western Venezuela during the Paleocene Heezen (1956) has observed that sub- and Eocene. For example, the geological marine cables near the mouth of the section near the town of Carora reveals Magdalena River break most frequently slipped masses of strongly contorted in August and in the period of late Paleocene shales containing many Creta- November to early December. The breaks ceous blocks and slabs. The slump mate- are probably due to turbidity currents rial alternates with very fine-grained initiated by submarine slumps. Progres- Paleocene sandstones and shales which sive slumping or liquefaction are alter- were apparently deposited in quiet deep native mechanisms. These periods of water. The authors suggest that periods frequent slumping correspond to the of quiet sedimentation were interrupted times when the river has just deposited by tectonic events along the border of its greatest sediment load. Dill (1964a) has found that the generation of gas associated with the decomposition of plant material that accumulates in a In accord with soil mechanics practice canyon head can lead to significant a gradient quoted in this way is the ratio creep movements. Wave and storm action of a horizontal to a vertical distance. is unlikely to have any direct influence -102- on the stability of deeply submerged in Sagami Wan, Japan, and was caused by slope-;. However, slides in shallow the Kwanto earthquake of 1923. The av- water may be triggered by erosion or erage deepening over the area of the rapid drawdown, nd the displaced sedi- main slump was 100 m, and in all 7 x l0 10 ment acting as a sudden load could in- cu m of sediment were transported from .duce failure on a slope in deeper water. the bay. Menard (1964) has compiled Shepord (1951) has reported the results the approximate volumes of some major of Lathymetric traverses repeated for submarine slumps and these data are re- several years at the head of the sub- produced in Table 2, together with the marine canyon at La Jolla, California. Valdez case. There was no correlation between storms and the observed mass movements which Stable slopes of various inclina- occurred on slopes of 5 to 8 degrees. tions have also been observed. Kuenen An example of a slump which occurred in (1950) reports that irrefutable evidence calm weather at the head of the Redondo of slumping was not found in the deep Canyon has been given by Shepard and basins of the Moluccas even though the Emery ( 1941 ) . slopes are as steep as 10 degrees in Loading due to severe earthquakes places and it is an area of high seis- is widely accepted as an important agen- micity .Sea muds in thicknesses of cy causing slumps. Since some of these half a meter or more have been found on slumps, may have transformed into turbid- slopes of at least 15 degrees. Moore ity currents and have broken submarine (1960) has also observed recent sedi- cables on their descent, the source areas merits of at least one meter thickness have been of particular interest and on slopes up to 18 degrees. Buffington studies have been made of the topography. (1961) has found both Pleistocene sedi- From these bathymetric surveys it is ments standing vertically and medium possible to approximate the slope in- sand to be stable at 35 degrees in clinations prior to failure (Heezen and shallow water environments. During Ewing, 1952; Heezen and Ewing, 1955; bathyscaph descents to water depths of Houtz, 1962; Ryan and Heezen, 1965). about 3000 ft in the La Jolla fan Gutenberg (1939) provides evidence for a valley, nearly horizontal beds of stiff submarine slide, caused by the Chilean cohesive clays alternating with cohe- earthquake of November 11, 1922, having sionless silts were found exposed in occurred on a slope of about 6 degrees the wall of the channel, which sloped at a location 100 miles from the epi- at 40 to 45 degrees (Moore, 1965). center. A case of submarine slumping Lesser slopes in silty clay were also due to an earthquake has also been found . It is suggested that these presented by Ambraseys (1960). The steep slopes are the result of lateral Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964 erosion by turbidity currents. Slide caused many submarine slumps. The action from the wall of the channel is largest reported to date occurred at also a contributing factor and explains Valdez and contained an estimated volume the existence of down-slope grooves of 75,000,000 cu m (Coulter and Migli- along the wall. There is no doubt that accio, 1966). An inclination of 6 de- these sediments are overconsolidated. grees was typical of large areas of the However, the ease with which the silts slump, which was composed mainly of loose are disturbed suggests that diagenetic to medium-dense gravelly sand containing bonding may not in this case be a thin lenses of silt. It is of consider- contributing factor to the strength of able interest to note that no slump toe the sediments. The studies made by was discovered by the post-earthquake Emery and Terry (1956) of a submarine survey, and it therefore appears that a slope off southern California are also turbidity current was formed and the of interest here. Their echo-sounder sediment moved out a considerable dis- profiles revealed that the shelf had an tance from shore . There is also a his- inclination of 1 degree,and the gradi- tory in the Valdez area of numerous cable ents of the upper portion of the slope breaks occurring during or immediately were generally between 9 and 18 degrees. after earthquakes. The lower slope was more regular and Slope inclinations in the cases had an average inclination of 12 de- mentioned above are presented in Table grees. This average value,is the same 1, and where the submarine slope fail- as that for the gullies found incising ure lay within the epicentral region, the upper slope. These gullies may be a comment is made accordingly. The due to slumping. The slope is under- magnitude and focal depths of the shocks lain by thick sediments, and coring are also given. with penetrations of 10 to 18 ft re- The largest recorded slump occurred covered samples of green mud. The -103- TABLE 1 SOME SLUMPS CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKES Within Fo6ftl Tp] cvntral Location and Date Slope Magnitude Depth Region Reference degrees M km Gr,@,nJ banks, 1929 3.5 7.2 Shallow Yes Heezen and Ewing (1952) Orleansville, 1954 4-20 6.7 7 No Heezen and Ewing (1955) Strait of Messina, 1908 4 7. 5 6 Yes Ryan and Heezen (IY65) Suva, 1953 3 6.75 60 Yes Houtz (1962) Chile, 1922 6 8.3 Shallow No Gutenberg (1939) Valdez, 1964 6 8.5 Shallow Yes Coulter and Migliaccio (1966) Aegean Archipelago, 10 7.5 15 No Ambraseys (1960) July 9, 1956 and Admiralty Chart No. 1866 (1951), Royal Hellenic Navy TABLE 2. VOLUMES OF SUBMARINE SLUMPS Location Volume M3 Magdalena River Delta 3x 108 Mississippi River Delta 4x107 Suva, riji 1.5 x 108 Valdez, Alaska 7.5 x 107 rolla rjord 3x105. Orkdals Fjord 107 Sagami Wan 7 x10 10 -104- grain size of the specimens seaward of the features in flysch described by the self break decreases with depth in Dzulynski and Slaczka (1958) where the an orderly way which suggests continuous section contains many slump balls. The deposition. The authors provide some origin of pebbly mudstones (Crowell, cross sections with soil mechanics 19'57) is also probably due to incoher- classification data. Of considerable enz slumping. The third division in importance are the quantitative data increasing mobility results in fluxotur- that a marine sediment 5 ft below the bidites. Here the mixing of the sedi- mud-line having a liquid limit of 55 ment and its velocity are not sufficient percent, a plastic limit of 30 percent, to develop the features characteristic and a natural moisture content of 70 of turbidites, which are the structures percent is presently stable on a slope resulting from the final division, that of approxima-tely 15 degrees in an area is,turbidity currents. Graded bedding of considerable seismic activity. is dn important criterion for distin- guishing turbidites. It is possible that some turbidite structures can be explained by the pulsating bottom cur- SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH rents observed by Dill (1966). SLUMPING Liquefaction plays an important role in causing many minor features It is beyond the scope of this observed in slumps, as well as decreas- study to discuss in detail the many ing the overall shearing resistance of sedimentary structures whose origin the sediment and hence increasing its has been associated with submarine mobility. Liquefaction occurs most slumps and the mass movements that commonly in saturated loose sands and ensue from them. However, it is of silts which, when loaded, collapse and interest to review briefly the wide transfer the load to the pore water. variety of slump structures that have Pore pressure gradients can be set up been nbserved, because of the informa- which eliminate the shearing resistance tion this provides for assessing the of the sediment, and if the seepage piol,ler, of the mobility of sediments velocity due to the hydraulic gradient uJicr movement has begun. More ccm- is high enough, solid particles can be prehensive studies have been provi@'_ed car-ied with the flow. Liquefaction is by Bout:)a (1962), Dott (1963), and the cause of the sandstone dikes men- Dzulynski and Walton (1965). tioned in the previous paragraph and it is possible to distinguish four the extensive sand volcanoes described malor divisions of increasing mobility by Gill and Kuenen (1957). In the lat- of moving sediment. This is not to ter case, the field evidence has prompt- imply that any slump must pass through ed the authors to note that the extru- each division, but it is simply a clas- sion of the sediment required a consid- sification to illustrate the decreasing erable period of time, starting in some disorder of initial sedimentary struc- cases before movement had ceased and in ture. The first stage is a coherent others after planing off of the slumped slump where little mixing of sediment masses. has occurred and the beds have retained Terzaghi (1956) argued against the their identity to a large degree. rea- existence of slump-initiated turbidity tures associated with this type of slump currents on the basis of the short du- are pull-apart structures with intrusion ration of liquefaction. He felt that of sandstone dikes as described by Kuenen the pore pressures would dissipate (1953) and intraformational folding as quickly and that the slump material described by rairbridge (1946). The would come to rest within a relatively distinguishing feature of this division short distance from its original loca- is that either the beds have not moved tion. However, after the Alaska Good very far or the composition of the sedi- Friday earthquake, sandspouting occurred ment above the slip surface gave it suf- for a duration of 5 to 10 minutes and ficient shearing resistance to maintain it is likely that excess pore pressures coherence even though it was intensely existed within the sediment for longer deformed. The second stage, which than that (Reimnitz and Marshall, 1965). Dzulynski (1963) has called an incoher- It is also common experience that sed 'i- ent slump, occurs when there has been ments that have been liquefied after an extensive mixing of indurated sediment earthquake remain extremely soft for in a mass of sand, silt, or clay. Ex- some time. A more detailed discussion amples for this division are the slump of the influence of pore-pressure dis- structures mapped in Venezuela (Renz, sipation on velocity of slump movements Lakeman. and van der Meuien. 1955) and will be given in a later section. -105- Terzaghi and Peck (1948) state that Each case quoted in Table 3 in- a saturated sand must have a relative cluding the complete graded sea bed density less than 0.4 or 0.5 before it from the Hudson sea fan, satisfies the can start to flow. They also observe criterion put forward by Terzaghi and that the most unstable sediments have Peck. Although this alone by no means an effective size, D10, less than 0.1 establishes liquefaction as a mechanism, mm, and a uniformity coefficient, at least the grading of these deposits suggests that the source sediments may D 60 be prone to it. D 10 STRENGTH OF SEDIMENTS less than 5. It is of interest to In terms of effective stress, the analyze the gradings of some slump and shear resistance along a plane of fail- turbidity current deposits to see if ure in a saturated soil is given by they meet this criterion. This only provides a necessary condition that tf = c' + (a - u)tan these materials were prone to lique- faction. it is possible that part of where Tf denotes the shear stress on on the initial grading was deposited else- where and the data being compared are c' denotes the apparent in terms root representative. The effective sizes cohesion of ef - and uniformity coefficients are given 0' denotes the angle of fective in Table 3 and for comparative purposes shearing resistance stress results from sediments liquefied after 0 denotes the total the Hiigata earthquake of 1964 (Kishida, stress normal to the 1965) and from a fine sand which almost failure plane liquefied during laboratory shear tests (Bjerrum, Kzingstad, and Kummeneje, and U denotes the pore pres- 1961) are included. sure. TABLE 3. EFFECTIVE SIZES AND UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENTS Effective Uniformity Sediment Size Coefficient Reference D10 (mm) D60 D10 Core A180-1, Top .016 3.3 Heezen (1963) core A180-2, 64 cm .016 3.8 to Hudson Sea Fan 0-4 cm .022 4.4 Kuenen (1964) " 4-18 cm .035 3.7 " 18-24 cm .053 3.0 of 24-48 cm .053 3.4 48-72 cm o6o 3.3 San Pedro Basin (lover portion Of graded layer) o62 2.6 Gorsline and Emery (1959) Niigata .09 2.8 Kishida (1965) Fine Sand .07 2.5 Bjerrum, Kringstad, and Kummeneje (1961) -107- His experiments were carried out under Consider the stratum shown in rig- isotropic consolidation and this will ure 4. When fully consolidated, the in general result in a higher value of maximum effective overburden pressures, tilt p,, at some depth, z, is given by c plu Pm z ratio (Skempton and Bishop, 19514). The where I' is th-@ submerged density of ictudl difference is difficult to esti- the soil, assumed constant with depth. mate because the pore pressure para- The increase of undrained strength meter, A,, depends upon the history of with depth for a fully consolidated conGo li dation. It is likely that the material may be denoted by most dominant factor accounting for the deviation from the correlation is car- bonate bonding. Assuming the relation c of rigure 2 to hold, a predicted value -2 = N (7) of Pm cu If during consolidation excess pore pres- P sures exist as shown diagrammatically in rigure 4, the effective overburden can be obtained from the plasticity pressure, p, at any instant is index data given by Moore. rigure 3 U *1jows that the ratio of the predicted p = 11Z - u - -flz(l - 'YOZ to ni(_,asured values decreases with in- crt:asing carbonate content. Higher where u is the excess pore pressure at values of that instant. At any instant the ex- c cess pore pressure isochrome may be approximated by a linear variation with p depth, than might be expected have also been u = nz found in short cores of shallow water sediments from Lower Chesapeake bay and equation (8) becomes Ofurs,iL;on, Lynch, and Altschaeffl, 1964) and in short cores of deep-sea sedi- P z (1c) ments (Richards, 1962). risk and Mc- Clelland (1959), however, report that However, fully consolidated sediments from the Mis5issippi delta agree with the cor- u relation. Although it is premature to generalize with regard to the undrained strength of recent marine sediments, it whe-e @ is the average degree of con- is unlikely that a fully consolidated solidation. Therefore the undrained stable material will have an undrained strength available in an underconsoli- strength below the relation shown in dated clay should be proportional to Figure 2. the average degree of consolidation, Terzaghi (1956) drew attention to that is, the influence of high rates of sedi- C U mentation on the development of strength p m)0 = Nu (12) in a consolidating sediment. Excess pore pressures can develop in a stratum Estimates of the degree of con- that is undergoing an increase in height solidation in a layer subject to sedi- due to deposition. These excess pore mentation at a constant rate can be pressures will,depend upon the rate of obtained from the solution presented by sedimentation, the height of the stratum, Gibson (1958) for the problem of the and the coefficient of consolidation of progress of consolidation in a clay the material. The excess pore pressure layer which increases in thickness with at any level in the stratum will reduce time. Considering a layer growing on the effective stress under which the an impermeable base at a constant rate, material has been consolidated and, as it is of interest to calculate the de- .is evident from equation (3), the un- gree of consolidation for a range of drained strength at that level will be rates of sedimentation and coefficients reduced accordingly. of consolidation when the layer has -106- For normally consolidated clays and clays (Bishop and Eldin, 1950). for a granular soils, the apparent cohesion normally consolidated clay or a sand is zero and equation (1) becomes in the ground, the undrained shear strength, cul is related to the stresses I f u)tan 01 under whichthe soil has been consoli- dated, the effective angle of shearing It is possible to distinguish be- resistance, and the pore pressures at tween structurally stable and struc- failure by: turally metastable soils. Metastable soils show a very large rate of volume p sin 41 1K + (l - Y)A f] dectease durinE; drained shear and may Cu= - - (3) even display an initial yield pcint at I + (2Af 1)sin a stress less that, th eir maximum strength. S3me stress-strain relations for stable and metastable soils are where pdenotes the vertical effective shown diagra7;matiCdlly in rigure 1. pressure, Quick clays and very loose sands K denotes the ratio between the are examples of structurally metastable horizontal and vertical effec- soils which may be defined as soils tive pressures, that, when brought to failure under and Af is the appropriate pore pres- drained conditions, deform further sure parameter at failure under undrained conditions. (Skempton, 1954). ror staLle clays 0' varies between For stress crnditions associated with 20 and 35 deprees. A correlation no lateral yielding, as might be as- between 4' and plasticity index has sumed to exist during deposition either been given by Bjerrum and Simons (lS61). horizontally or on a gentle inclination, Stuble loose bilts and sands typically K may be expressed empirically by have values of 0' between 28 and 34 (Bishop, 1958): degrees. Large deformations in soils con- K = 1 - sin 01 (4) taining a clay content greater than appr-oximately 35 per cent induce pre- Equation (3) then becomes leizeJ oriLntaticr. of the clay particles in the shear zone and cause a reduction sin 1 sin 01 + A sin of 0' (Skempton, 1964). Angles of cu f shearing resistance as low as 10 degrees are not Ljicorrmon in clays that have been p 1 (2A f - J)sin subject to large strains. few data giving strength parameters in terms of For any particular fully consoli- effective stress are available for pre- dated soil, the ratio sent day marine sediments. The results of Moore (1961, 1962) are ambiguous c because the conditions of drainage in _R his tests are not adequately defined. p This is not the case for the strength data for sediments from the experimental is a constant and indicates that the Mohole (Moore, 1964). The average of undrained strength increases with six results on the calcareous silty depth. It is know that this ratio clay from one borehole gives a @' of correlates closely with the plasticity 28 degrees and a c' of about 8 psi. index of many marine clays (Skempton, There is as yet no'evidence to suggest 1957), and the correlation is given in that the effective stress strength Figure 2. Owing to sample disturbance paramenters of stable deep-sea deposits and improvements in testing technique will be any lower than the range com- since the data were gathered, this re- monly encountered on land. Indeed, the latio nmay be considered to be a lower presence of diagenetic bonding agents boundary to the true relation. in some marine enviroments can make the However, there is no reason to expect sediment stronger than the usual range. that more refined data will produce When-a fully saturated soil is major changes in the relation. sheared under undrained conditions and Moore.(1964) has shown that the 'the results are interpreted in terms of strength data from the Mohole sediments total stresses, the material behaves as lie appreciably above the correlation. though it is purely cohesive. This As he has observed, there are at least holds for saturated sands as well as for two factors which may account for this. -108- grown to a height that might be typical to compute the coefficient of consoli- of a significant submarine slump. A dation for the material from the theo- height of 15 m has been assumed, and co- retical relation obtained by Gibson efficients of consolidation from 1 x (1958). A value of 2.7 X 10-4 cm2 per 10-S cm2/sec for a clay .to I x 10-2 sec is found, which is quite reason- cn12/sec for. a coarse silt have been able, considering the Atterberg limits adopted. The degrees of consolidation of the material. Now, using this value, of the layer for a range of rates of it is possible to compute the average deposition from abyssal conditions to degree of consolidation for the two extreme deltaic conditions have been other locations if the rates of sedi- computed and are given in Figure 5, mentation can be fixed. For the Grand plotted against the rate of sedimenta- Isle location, a rate of sedimentation tion for the range of consolidation of 3.5 cm per year has been used, based parameters chosen. The results reveal upon the accumulation of 170 ft in 1500 that for a layer of this thickness, years. In the case of the South Pass underconsolidation is only significant location the base of the layer is in- for silty clays and clays deposited at distinct, but bounds for its thickness deltaic rates. Since the heads of some have been given. Calculations have been submarine canyons act as sediment traps, carried out for both bounds with a tire the rate of accumulation may be suffi- for deposition of 450 years. The com- ciently high to suggest that undercon- puted degrees of consolidation are given so@idation is a factor associated with in Table 5, together with the raiio of sluil,ping in them. It is also possille the observed to speculate that slumping occurred C more frequently in the Pleistocene, -2 during the recessicrt of the glaciers, p because of 1.igher rates of sedimentation. Thi%, together with turbidity current value to the maximum. The relation be- erc,slon and a lowered sea level during tween degree of consolidation and avail- the Pleistocene, may be the dominant able strength for this sediment is plot- mechanism accounting for the origin of ted in Figure 6, and it is seen thai the many submarine canyons (Kuenen, 1950; linear relationship of equation (12) Shepard, 19C3). fits the data extremely well. Subject to some assumptions, the Metastable sands and silts which rel@jzion between underconsolid3tion and are prone to liquefaction are difficilt strength presented in equation (12) is to obtain in an undisturbed state. They corroborated by the observations of Fisk are also difficult to reproduce in the and McClelland (1959) on the deltaic laboratory, and therefore reliable data deposits on the continental shelf off concerning their behavior are accord- Louisiana. The authors provide data ingly rare. Bjerrum, Kringstad, and for three locations of similar composi- Kummeneje (1961), however, have suc- tion, but of different degrees of con- ceeded in carrying out both drai.ned and solidation and hence of different undrained triaxial compression tests on strengths. The relevant information is a very loose fine sand. Their observations assembled in Table 4. of the low strength mobilized are of Evidence of full consolidation for particular interest. Under fully drained the Eugene Island stratum is provided ccnditi,ons, values of 01 as low as 19 de- by the fit of the grees were found. Under undrained condi- tions, the very loose sand showed values cu of 0' as low as 11 degrees and a ratio of P undrained strength to effective consoli- dation pressure as low as 0.11. The and plasticity index values with the pore pressures set up during undrain,@d correlation in Figure 2. For purposes failure were very high. Values of A of of comparisrn the three cases are plot- 2.7 were observed at failure and the ted on Figure 2. Assuming that the 96 results of one typical test showed that ft of the Eugene Island sediment were A continued to increase after failure to deposited in 10,000 years gives a rate approximately 9. It is evident that of sedimentation of 0.29 cm per year. both the drained and undrained strengths Theoretically. infinite time is required of very loose sands are much lower than for full consolidation. However, if it those of corresponding stable materials. is assumed that consolidation is'essen- The undrained strengths are comparable tially complete when the degree of con- to the lowest values observed in nor- solidation is 95 percent, it is possible mally consolidated marine clays. Further- -109- TABLE 4. DELTAIC DEPOSITS OFF LOUISIANA (FISK AND McCLELLAND, 1959) Plasticity Location State Liquid Plastic Index CU Depth Age Limit % Limit % % - ft Years (average) p Eugene Island Fully consoli- 80-90 25-30 53 0.31 96 not less Block 188 dated than 10,000 Grand Isle Underconsoli- 80-90 25-30 53 0.15 170 not more Block 23 dated than 1500 South Pass Very undercon- 60-100 20-30 55 0.028 255-320 450 Block 20 solidated (average) TABLE 5. UNDERCONSOLIDATION OF DELTAIC DEPOSITS OFF LOUISIANA Average Degree of Cu (observed) Location Rate of Sedimentation Consolidation _ cm/year Cu (maximum) p Eugene Island 0.29 1.00 1.00 Block 188 Grand Isle 3.5 0.48 0.48 Block 23 South Pass 17 .11 0.09 Block 20 21.6 0.08 more, the exceedingly high pore pres- c Sures set up during undrained failure _ are probably an important factor aiding P the post-failure mobility of such meta- values less than 0.1 for loose cohe- stable materials. sionless soils subject to pulsating Seed and Lee (1964) have studied load. Observations on the strength of the influence on the strength of a fine sensitive clays, such as the quick clays silty sand of pulsating loads such as of Scandinavia, may also have a bearing might occur during an earthquake, and on the possible in-place strength of they demonstrated that in a given mate- cohesive submarine sediments, if, due rial consolidated to a particular void to the formation of weak bonds, they ratio. the deviator stress required to develop a loose structure. Bjerrum cause failure decreases with the number (1961) has discussed in detail the of pulses to failure. This also depends strength of materials with loose struc- upon the principal stress ratio during ture, and he cites tests on quick clay consolidation and the manner in which which gave drained angles of shearing the pulsating load test is carried out. resistance between 9 and 13 degrees. Seed and Lee have found Of particular importance here is the -110- observation that in undrained tests on tions would involve the bulk density of such material, failure may occur before the material in the resulting form of the frictional resistance is fully equation (13). Therefore a given amount mobilized. of cohesion is more effective in main- taining stability under submarine con- ditions, all other conditions being MECHANICS OF SLUMPING the same. When the sediment is a normally consolidated clay or an un- As Moore (1961) has indicated, con- cemented sand or silt, the following sideration of the equilibrium of an in- well-known relation holds at failure: finite slope with failure occurring on a plane or planes parallel to the slope tan a = tan l' (14) provides an adequate framework within which to discuss the mechanics of slump- Drained slumping is most commonly ing. It is possible to consider more caused by depositional oversteepening. complicated configurations (for example, Since the 1' for stable material is Morgenstern and Price, 1965); however, generally greater than 20 degrees, and the available data regarding slope pro- few features in deep water have incli- files, sediment strength, and initiating nations as steep as this, it appears mechanism are insufficient to warrant that drained slumping of stable sedi- this. The strength of any sediment de- ments is not a dominant mechanism. It pends , among other things , upon the can, however, occur on the steep slopes conditions of drainage operating during of erosion channels. Steep slopes such shear. It is therefore essential to as those observed by Moore (1965) re- distinguish between drained and undrained quire the existence of some cohesion slumping. It will be seen that the slope whose origin is either in overconsoli- inclination at which slumping occurs is dation or cementing to account for strongly dependent upon whether the ini- their stability. Terzaghi (1956) tiating process induces a drained or an stated that steep slopes of coarse- undrained slump. A third type of slump- grained sediments are most commonly ing, termed collapse slumping, may also encountered in deltas deposited by be denoted. This type of slumping is mountain streams and cited the sand and associated with metastable sediments, gravel delta of Howe Sound, British and although it has only been studied in Columbia. as an example. Here slope a subderial environment the possibility angles of 27 to 28 degrees are stable. of formation of metastable sediments in The slump which occurred here must have a marine environment suggests that col- originally had a slope steeper than lapse slumping may be an important mech- this, and Terzaghi suggested that anism there. It will be defined and residual pore pressures after drawtown discussed in more detail in a later reduced the shearing resistance suffi- paragraph. ciently to cause failure. This is not No excess pore pressures exist at a drained slump like those considered failure in a drained slump. By consid- above. The influence of drawdown pore ering the horizontal and vertical equi- pressures may be estimated by methods librium of a slice shown in Figure 7, commonly used in the design of earth the relation between the slope angle at dams (Bishop, 1957; Bishop and Morgen- failure and the properties of the sedi- stern, 1960) and will not be considered ment may be readily shown to be further here. Under fully drained con- ditions the mobility of the sediment tan a = tan x seC2 a (13) will be small and it will come to rest Y'h when the slope angle is slightly less than the angle of shearing resistance. where a denotes the inclination of the Mobility under undrained conditions slope to the horizontal will be considered in the section re- 1' denotes the angle of in terms lating to the initiation of turbidity shearing resistance of ef- currents. c' denotes the apparent fective Undrained slumps may be caused by cohesion stress stresses set up during rapid deposition y' denotes submerged density of or erosion. Dynamic loading due to the sediment earthquakes will also produce undrained and h denotes the height of sediment failure. Slumping in underconsolidated participating in the slump. sediment is also best considered in It is of interest to note that a com- terms of the undrained strength of the parable analysis for subaerial condi- material. The influence of an earthquake in of N values for most normally consoli- the analysis of undrained slumping may dated sediments (figure 2) is taken be incorporated by introducing a hori- to aPPlY (N<0.4), few slopes subject zontal body force. k, as some percentage to undrained loading can stand at of gravity and considering the equiliL- inclinations greater than 25 degrees. rium of a slice fit the infinite slop(!. Overconsolidated sediments and sedi- Earthquakes will in general also pro- ments with strong diagenetic bonds can, duce a vertical acceleration. but this of course, stand more steeply. Slumping is usually less than the horizontal On very gentle gradients of , say , less acceleration, and for simplicity will than 2 degrees, without the aid of be neglected here. earthquakes, can only occur in very Considering the equilibrium of underconsolidated material. Terzaghi the slice shown in figure 8, and re- (1956) and Moore (1961) have already solving forces parallel to the slope drawn attention to the evidence that one obtains the low strengths of the very undercon- solidated Mississippi delta sediments Cu - 1 = W1 - sin a + k - W I Cos a are consistent with slumping on slope (15) angles barely in excess of 1 degree.' If very loose, cohesionless sediments where Cu denotes the undrained strength have an N value of about 0.11 as found mobilized at failure by Bjerrum, Kringstad, and Kummeneje W' denotes the submerged density (1961) it is -seen that failure takes ul the slice and is given by place on slopes of about 6 degrees, y' - b - h and it is of interest to note -that W denotes the bulk density of this is a fairly typical inclination the slice and is given by for the continental shelf. Figure 9 shows that even small I is the length along the base earthquake-induced accelerations are of the slice very detrimental to the stability of and k is some percentage of gravity. a submarine slope. However, in a de- After simplification, equation (15) tailed study of mass transport of reduces, to sediment in the heads of Scripps Sub- marine Canyon, California, Chamlberlain Cu I s COS2 CL (1964) concluded that there is insuffi- i n 2 a + k - --I- - (16) cient reason to believe that a relation- ship exists between the occurrence of Equation (16) relates, for undrained submarine canyon deepenings and earth- slumping, the slope angle at which quake disturbances. Based on direct failure takes place to the undrained observations. Dill (1964) states that strength and density of the sediment, earthquakes have little effect on the the height of the slope, and the hori- failures that cause the removal of zontal earthquake acceleration, if any. sediment from the head of Scripps ror slopes of gentle inclination Canyon. The slope failures caused by earthquakes listed in Table I provide C'u - Cu evidence that there is at least a P N (17) correlation between submarine 'slumping and near earthquakes of large magnitude. and for many sediments it seems significant that all the shocks cited in this table had a magni- y 3y' (18) tude greater than 6.5. Taking 6 degrees as a typical angle representing some Equation (16) now becomes of the cases listed in Table 1, and assuming the sediment to have undrained sin 2a + 3k COS2 a (19) strengths in terms of N between .25 and 2 .40, it is seen from figure 9 that the slope must have responded with an accel- Values of N required to equili- eration between 5 and 10 percent Of brate a range of slopes inclined from gravity. 0 to 20 degrees. and subject to hori- The observations of Emery and zontal accelerations up to 15 percent of Terry (1956). described in an earlier gravity, have been computed and are section, provide an interesting case of plotted in Figure 9. Considering first a relatively steep stable slope in a the stability of slopes free of earth- seismically active area. Since the quake loading. if the observed range sediment has a plasticity index of about 25 percent, the value of N might, from type of mechanism has only received Figure 2, be at least 0.22 and the detailed attention in the study of one equilibriun slope for undrained failure lanJslide whi,ch occurred in a thin without earthquake loading is 13 degrees- layer of quick clay (Hutchinson, 1961). This fits well within the range of the It is probably a feat@re peculiar to observed slope angles and is clost, to structurally metastable sediments. The the average of 12 degrees. However, analysis of this slide, using pore steeper slopes were observed, and the pressures based upon ground water level index data quoted above refer to a slope observations, indicated that failure of approximately 15 degrees. A slope occurred with a drained angle Of sLearing of 15 degrees requireL an N value of resistance of only T ! 1.5 degrees. 0.25 for stal@ility- Th is i S W it h i T1 This value was substantiated by bct@, the scatter to be expected from correla- in-place and laboratory shear box tests. tion with Figure 2, but it leaves no Conventional isotropically consolidated margin for iijcorporating the iiifluence undrained triaxial tests gave values of of earthqua@e loading. To obviate this f' of 25 degrees, and Bjerrum (1961) has difficulty, it is worthwhile noting suggested that the lower initial yield that although bedrock accelerations is destroyed by sample disturbance and during an earthquake may he high, the reconsolidation. Further information response of the overlying sediment on thi.s phenomenon is given by B4errum depends upon its modulus of rigidity, and Landva (1966). Hutchinson (19LI) anJ if this is very low, ti,e shear also observed pore pressures in excess stresses induced in the sediMCTit may be of !,ydrostatic pressure within the clay low, altl,ough the displacements will be layer and remarked that the sliding large.* In a normally consolidated caused breakdown of the clay structure, seJ!mf-n-t the modulus of rii@idity will and hence part of the overburden 1c,aj v,,Yy with dtpth, arl@l it could Lc- that was transferred to the pore water. for typical ground motionL associated Therefore, although the initial failure with near earthquakes of magnitude less occurred under drained conditions, than b, the dynamic stresses in the further movement occurred under un- sedin,!nt are not very significant. if drained conditions. This can only data on the variation of rigidity with happen when the undrained resistaLce de7th in a slope could be obtained, the is less than the drained resistance at solution given by Ambraseys (1959) to failure, as it was in the case discusLed the problem of the response to an here. arL,!tr.-jry ground motion of an elastic Although these quick clays do not ove)t,urden with varying rigidity could commonly exist in a submarine envircr,- be used to investigate this point. ment because they have been made meta- A collapse slump is defined as one stable by the leaching of salt water, that fails initially under drained con- some submarine sediments may achieve ditions, but the deformations associated metastability and high sensitivity in with failure bring about a large in- other ways and could be subject to crease in pore pressures. These pore collapse slumping. Therefore the pressures reduce the shearing resistance, Possibility of initial slumping under and the soil mass accelerates. This drained conditions with acceleration under undrained conditions on slopes *The dynamic shear stress in the sedi- Of 5 to 10 degrees cannot be excluded ment is given by: without further study. Moore (1961) concluded that in VS (20) general most sediments are theoreti- d 9 cally stable to great thicknesses on where Yd denotes the dynamic shear stress very steep slopes. This conclusion Vs denotes the shear wave velocity was based upon the use of strength parameters typical for drained com- denotes the particle velocity pression of stable sediments, and the analysis presented here, for this case, and denotes the mass density. is in agreement. Undrained failure of stable, fully consolidated sediments If the computed response of the sediment can lead to slumping on slopes of more to earthquake loading shows low strain gentle inclination, particularly if rates and hence low particle velocities, the sediment responds to earthquake and if Vs is small due to the low loading with a significant acceleration. rigidity, the dynamic stress. Td, will Therefore considerable slumping may also be small. occur on the normal open shelf where -113- collapse slumping may also be impor- and distribution of abyssal plains, tant. In agreement with Moore, the channels, and fans (Menard, 1964). deep sea is probably almost free of The timing of submarine cable breaks, slumping. This is because the gradi- after slumping was caused by an earth- *tits of most physical features there quake, demonstrates the mobility of are very low; sediment are likelyto the sediment. The first confirmation be fully consolidated and possibly that a slump can transform into a stronger due to diagenetic bonding, turbidity current was given by Heezen, anti the slopes are situated out of Ericson, and Ewing (1954), who dis- range of several of the agencies which covered a graded bed of silt south of can produce undrained failure. Slump- the Grand Banks. This bed had its ing is undoubtedly frequent in areas origin in a turbidity current caused of rapid deposition, and there may by the slump which occurred during the occur on very gentle gradients. earthquake of 1929. Heezen and Drake (1964) have suggested that there was deep-seated coherent slumping as well INITIATION OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS in this case. Slumping has also been cited by Holtedahl (1965) as the When a slump takes place in a initiating agency to account for the stable cohesive sediment of low sensi- abundant recent turbidities found in tivity, experience of subaerial land- the Hardangerfjord, Norway. slides suggests that shearing will Not all turbidity currents have take place on a plane or set of plane-, their origin in slumps. In the case while the mass of the sediment remains of the Congo Submarine Canyons (Heezen relatively intact. The mass of sedi- and others, 1964) cable breaks occurred ment should come to rest at a new equi- most frequently at the times of greatest librium position consistent with the bed load discharge, and since a delta strength Obtaining after failure, and is not being formed at the river mouth, although it may exhibit features it is possible that large sediment din- associated with a coherent slump, such charges continue directly as turbidity flows. as intraformational folding, it is Only low density turbidity currents difficult to imagine that the stresses have been directly observed. These acting on the slump mass during motion often occur due to the discharge of can disrupt its structure sufficiently sediment by a river into a lake or .to allow dispersion of the sediment reservoir. In the case of the lake and mixing with water. However, cohe- Mead turbidity current, it is known sive sediments of high sensitivity and that the excess density is only about cohesionless soils, particularly I percent and the velocity less than metastable ones, can achieve a greater 2 ft per sec on a gradient of approxi- mobility, and in the limit a slump may mately 2000:1 (Gould, 1951). Kuenen be transformed into a turbidity current. (1950) postulated the existence of There is considerable evidence turbidity currents with densities com- that some sediments in the deep sea parable to the bulk density of typical have had their origin in shallow water. sediments and was able to produce them In a study of deep-sea sands, Kuenen in the laboratory. The density of (1964) stated that practically all turbidity currents in the sea remains deep-sea sands were emplaced by debatable. The high-density current turbidity currents. Heezen and Hollis- explains sea-floor phenomena more ter (1964) suggested that although easily, but is yet to be observed. if deep-sea currents are capable of trans- the low-density current begins as a porting coarse material, they cannot slump, it is not clear how the extreme account for the graded bedding which dispersion of the sediment occurs. The is a common feature of deep-sea sands. twisting and abrasion of cables broken However, in the light of Dill's obser- by the Suva turbidity current described vations (1964a, 1966) of bottom current by Houtz and Wellman (1962) favors the pulsations and creep and slump effects, high density interpretation. Alterna- these conclusions are possibly prema- tive mechanisms for a sequence of cable ture, and the presence of deep-sea sands breaks, such as a wave of liquefaction cannot be taken as wholly unambiguous or progressive slumping, appear less evidence for the existence of turbidity satisfactory. currents. Other evidence for turbidity Data on times of breakage of sub- current deposition includes the dis- marine cables provide evidence that placement of shallow-water benthonic turbidity currents can maintain veloci- fauna to deep water, and the relief ties of about 15 to 30 ft per sec on -114- the very gentle gradients of the abyssal obtaining in the slope is less than plains. Although it is generally that shown in Figure 11, motion will accepted that higher velocities are not occur. If, however, it is greater, developed on the steeper continental though not necessarily liquefied, the slope, few conclusive data are available sediment will not be in equilibrium and the exact values are still debated. and it will accelerate due to the force Menard (1964) suggests that the Grand unbalance acting upon the mass. (The Banks turbidity current reached a viscous stress acting on the upper velocity of 63 ft per sec before it surface may be neglected.) Assuming began to decelerate, and even higher that the mass is initially at rest, values have been quoted. the equation of motion gives While there has been considerable study of the mechanics of turbidity V (Y'sin -(Y1cosc-n)tan 0'3t (23) flow (see Johnson, 1962, 1964, for a r Y review) little attention has been paid where Vr denotes velocity for this to the problem of how a current is rigid block model initiated. Moreover, small-scale ex- t denotes time periments carried out on a naturally and 9 denotes the acceleration sloping sea floor 40 ft below sea level due to gravity. were not successful in producing a It is seen that for this model the velocity high-density, high-velocity current increases linearly with time, and de- (Buffington, 196l). In the following, pends upon the slope angle, the excess the acceleration of a slump after, pore pressure gradient, and the density failure is considered in an attempt to and strength of the sediment. A dia- delineate some of the conditions neces- grammatic velocity profile is shown in sary for a slump to attain sufficient Figure 10. Velocity that it may transform into a A more realistic model may be turbidity current. These considerations developed by incorporating a viscous may explain the failure of the experi- resistance due to the strain rate in ments mentioned previously. the sediment. This would give rise to The problem is best treated in a velocity profile of the type shown terms of effective stress. it is for this mode of flow in Figure 10. assumed that some unspecified mechanism Since the slope is infinite there is has brought the cohesionless sediment no variation of any stress or strain- on an infinite slope into a state of rate in the x direction. The equation limiting equilibrium by inducing an of motion for an infinitesimal element undrained failure, and that the excess accelerating in the x direction becomes pore pressure in the sediment at this a txz 3V instant is given by Y'sin a - - = i V 24 3z g at u = nz (21) where Vv denotes the velocity in the x direction. where u denotes the excess pore There is no acceleration in the z di- pressure rection. Incorporating a viscous n is some number resistance into the failure criterion and z is measured perpendicular to for the sediment gives the slope. increasing downwards T av from the surface of the slope. xz = Wcos a-z - nz) tan 0' - n azV If the slice shown in Figure 10 is to (25) be in a state of limiting equilibrium, where n denotes the viscosity of the it is readily shown that sediment. n, . cos * 'tan 41 - sin a The viscous term is negative here tan (22) because, owing to the choice of axes, the velocity gradient is negative. n Substituting equation (25) into (24) rrom equation (22) the values of gives have been computed for a range of slope angles and for values of 0' of 10, 20, 32V and 30 degrees. These values are v avv plotted in Figure 11. If for a given 2 a t b (26) value of and 0' the magnitude of az n where a (27) Y andb y'sina - (y'cosu - n)tanO' and comparing equation (32) with equa- n tion (23) one finds (28) Vv= V r (33) Equation ( 26 ) is to be solved subj ect t o the boundary conditions In the early stages of motion the maxi- t = 0, V 0; mum velocity developed in the friction- v al-viscous flow will be the same as t 0 Z = 01 3V V (29) that in the purely frictional flow. Z 0; The average velocity will be slightl7 az less. For larger times the viscosity zI = h, VV = 0. will now be more significant. Viscosity data for sediments of high concentra- where h is the depth of the slump. tion are scarce. However, on the basis This problem has been considered by of experiments reported by Yano and Carslaw and Jaeger (1959) in the con- Daido (l965) values of between 0.4 and text of heat conduction and the solu- 0.5 lb (force) sec per sq ft may be tion is: used in calculations for the concentra- tion of sediments likely to exist in bh' Z2 an accelerating slump. V 2 The process of transformation into v h2 3 (2n + 1)3 a turbidity current involves the onset n=0 of turbulence and the likelihood of some mixing with overlying water due to -a(2n + 1)2n2t instability and wave formation at the 2n + 1) tz. e 4h2 interface. This is a difficult problem (30) and is by no means fully resolved at present. Among the factors that would Equation (30) may be expressed in terms deter a slump from transforming into a of a dimensionless depth factor turbidity current are rapid decrease of slope inclination and the dissipation of pore pressure. It is of interest, then, to adopt a relationship that has been applied to the steady state flow time factor of a turbidity current in. order to find a velocity at which it may be assured that transformation is complete, and then, for an assumed slump, compute the time required to achieve this velocity. and velocity factor The degree of dissipation at this time 2V can also be estimated. v A slump 30 ft thick is assumed to b12 have occurred on a slope of 5 degrees and following Kuenen (1152) it is and plotted graphically as in rigure assumed that the Chezy equation is valid 12 to reveal the development of the when the turbidity current is created. velocity profile with increasing time. It is also assumed that the bulk density The maximum velocity occurs at the of the sediment is three times the sub- surface of the flow, and plotting the merged density. From the Chezy equation velocity factor against time factor for a velocity of 58.5 ft per sec is sub- z = o, it is seen from Figure 13 that tained. If it be further assumed that for a small time a linear relationship the angle of shearing resistance is 20 exists. More particularly degrees and n 2Vv 2 at Y - = - (31) bh,2 h,2 is O.8. this velocity is attained in only 340 seconds. It is evident that Therefore, for small time the degree of dissipation of pore pressure for a slump of this size after Vv a 24qL sinct cosaL n)tan 0't 340 seconds is negligible for all but Y the coarsest sediment. it seems prob- (32) able that in the experiments carried -116- out by Buffington (1961) the amount of REFERENCES sediment was so small that, aggravated by spreading, the drainage path was Ambraseys, N. N. (1959). A note on the sufficienty small to allow almost response of an elastic overburden instantaneous dissipation of the excess of varying rigidity to an arbitrary pore pressure. ground notion, Bulletin of the For a slump to turn into a turbidity Scismological Society of America, current, the analysis presented here vol. 49, pp. 211-220. shows that it is necessary that at failure the strength be reduced suffi- (1960). The seismic sea ciently to permit the acceleration of wave of July 9, 1956, in the Greek the mass, and that deeper slumps will Archipelago, Journal of Geophysical transform more readily because, other Research, vol. 65, pp. 1257-1265. things being equal, the dissipation of pore pressure will be less. Archanguelsky, A. D. (1930). Slides of sediments on the Black Sea bottom and the importance of this phenomenon for geology, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscow CONCLUDING REMARKS (Sci. Geol.), vol. 38, pp. 38-80 Much of this study is necessarily Beets, C. (1946). 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(1941). from experimental Mohole (Guadalupe Submarine Topography off the site) Journal of Geophysical Research, California Coast. Geological Society Vol. 69, pp. 4271-4291. of America Special Paper No. 31. (1965). Erosional Skempton, A. W., (1954). The pore channel wall in La Jolla sea-fan pressure coefficients A and B, valley seen from bathyscaph Trieste Geotechnique, Vol. 4, pp. 143-147. 11, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. 76, pp. 385-392. (1957). Discussion on the planning and design of the new Morgenstern, N. R., and Price, V. E. Hong Yong Airport, Proceedings of (1965). The analysis or the stability the Institution of Civil Engineers, of general slip surfaces, Geotechnique, Vol. 7. pp. 305-307. Vol. 15. pp. 79-93. -120- Skempton, A. W. (1964). The long-term of the Eighth Texas Conference on stability of slopes, Geotechnique, Soil Mechanics and Foundation vol. 14, PP. 77-101. Engineering. Harvard Soil Mechanics Series No. 52 (41 pp. reprint). Skempton, A. W., and Bishop, A. W. (1954 ) .Soils, Ch. 10, Building Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B. (1948). Materials, Reiner, M. , ed. Amsterdam, Soil Mechanics in Engineering North-Holland Publishing Company. Practice. New York, John Wiley & "oils. van Straaten, L. M. J., (1949). Occurrence in Finland of structures Yano, K., and Daido, A. (1965). due to sub-aqueous sliding of Fundamental study on mud-flov, sediments, Bulletin of the Geological Bulletin of the Disaster Prevention Commission of Finland , No. 144. Research Institute, Kyoto University, vol. 14, pp. 69-83. Terzaghi, K. (1956). Varieties of Submarine Slope Failures. Proceedings STABLE STABLE METASTABLE METASTABLE Ph STRAIN INCREASE STABLE z STABLE D 0 > METASTABLE DECREASE FIGURE 1. DIAGRAMMATIC STRESS - STRAIN RELATIONS FOR STABLE AND METASTABLE SEDIMENTS. 0-b 0.5 0-4 'EU G I N 0-3 ISLAND BLOCK 160 0 0-2 GRAND ISLAND BLOCK 23 0.1 Z-100 SOUTH PASS BLOCK 20 0 1 1 - - I L- 0 10 10 30 40 50 60 70 eo qo ll@ 120 PLASTICITY INDEX FIGURE 2. RELATION BETWEEN UNDRAINED STRENGTH AND PLASTICITY INDEX FOR NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT. -123- 100 150 z z 0 60 000, z 0 40 @00 20 0 ro Oll 0.6 0 4 0.2 0 Cu P (PRE D iC T ED) C u (OBSER VE.D) P FIGURE 3. INFLUENCE Of CARBONATE CONTENT ON UNDRAINED STRENGTH OF SEDIMENTS FROM EXPERIMENTAL MOHOLE. WATER LEVEL MUD-LINE LIKELY EXCESS PORE VPRESSURE DISTRIBUTION z ASSUMED EXCESS PORE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION f% It bASE FIGURE 4. AN UNDERCONSOLIDATED STRATUM. @\L I K ISLSYU @PRE E' I? E 06 SS Cv 100 ---------- --------- (cm2lsec) -2 1110 go r 0 so 1 167, s 70 C'41 0 60 0 so 0 F-j Lu 40 30 us 20 LLJ 10 0 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000 5000 10000 (ABYSSAL) eATE OF SEDIMENTATION cm./ 1000 YEARS (DELTAIC) FIGURE 5. RELATION BETWEEN RATE OF SEDIMENTATION AND DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION FOR 15 m LAYER. F -125- 100 60 z 0 60 0 in z 0 40 0 "i ui 20 0 0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0.8 1.0 cu (ACTUAL) p cu (M A X p FIGURE 6. INFLUENCE OF UNDERCONSOLIDATION ON UNDRAINED STRENGTH OF MISSISSIPPI DELTA SEDIMENTS. -126- b 17 w'sin d wo W,cos S CL \N wf= @Ah-sin d =c'b.sec d+ X'bh.cos d-tan4)'. tand= ton (V* -@:. sec CL rh FIGURE 7. EQUILIBRIUM OF INFINITE SLOPE UNDER DRAINED CONDITIONS. b kw WIF S-CUA. CL FIGURE B. EQUILIBRIUM OF INFINITE SLOPE UNDER UNDRAINED, CONDITIONS. 2 0* -d 0 z 0 %ir 0 -j 0 01 0 0.1 0-2 O@3 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-7 0.6 cu N= p FIGURE 9. RELATION BETWEEN SLOPE ANGLE AND UNDRAINED STRENGTH FOR AN INFINITE SLOPE AT LIMITING EQUILIBRIUM AND SUBJECT TO AN EARTHQUAKE ACCELERATION k PERCENT OF GRAVITY. IN %lr 0 -128- RIGID BLOCK MODEL b Vr w I U =nz CL VELOCITY S PROFILE \N Vr z FOR EOUILIBRIUM Shb-sind= (6'hb-coscl. nhb) tono' VI SCO- FRICTIONAL MODEL x T Vr xz ct a T x I -d dz VELOCITY z PROFILE FIGURE 10. ACCELERATION OF AN INFINITE SLOPE. -129- 1.0 Ole 0. 0,4 N" 46 kl-l 0 2 0- 09 so loo is* 20* 2 50 30* SLOPE ANGLE d FIGURE 11. RELATION BETWEEN EXCESS POPE PRESSURE AND INCLINATION FOR AN INFINITE SLOPE AT LIMITING EQUILIBRIUM. 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0-2 - O@ Nix 0-4 x 0-6 0 1.0 0 0.2 04 06 0.8 1.0 VELOCITY FACTOR 2 Y, bh2 FIGURE 12. VELOCITY PROFILES FOR INCREASING VALUES OF TIME FACTOR h2* 0. -130- 0.6 0.5 0.4 0 0.3 0.2 0 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.2 0.25 0-30 TIME FACTOR ot h2 FIGURE 13. RELATION BETWEEN VELOCITY FACTOR AND TIME FACTOR AT Z 0. -F DATE DUE GAYLORD No. 2333 PRINTED IN USA 36668 14107 1111011101110 3 6668 14103 8739