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Ots Explorming Li i x x, , 1. t 4 @:.P :T; OW 22-0- -AIL -AVPk V @,'j HT393 Maldong Decisions About the Uc--7%e .m3 E9 Development of Maine's Islands 1994 C.1 Cover Photo: Christopher Ayres Design: Nancy Griffin Maps: Richard Kelly RA elissa IAI-& erm ar, %A1UjJ111 0 IWIVII 0 VVOL Printing: Letter Systems Photo credits: Christopher Ayres: pp. vi, 1,- 3, 24, 32, 39, 52, 58, 59, 60 Island Institute: pp. iv, 4, 7, 21, 29, 43, 45, 46, 47, 64, 71 Ross Edwards: p. 5 Peter Ralston: pp. 8, 51 Katrina Van Dusen: p.'14 The Nature Conservancy: p. 34 National Park Service: p. 35 Exploring Limits': Making Decisions About the Use & Development of Maine Islands was produced by the Maine State Planning Office with funding provided by the,U.S. Department of Commerce, Off ice of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended. Printed under appropriation number NA27 OZO31 0-01. EXPLORING. LIMITS: Making De'c'isio*ns About the, Use & Development of Maine Islands 57 lslesb 0 April 1994. % Little g% Cranberry 'Q@ rest Cranberry 1D Nbr Haven pwans 06 Long 1. Vin I on Visle au Haut A114 PlVlatinicou.s 1. dr- Monhegan I G Ch NA liff 1. L Peak I -r 0 U G Maine State Planning Off ice Island Institute 184 State St. 60 Ocean St. ockland, ME 04841 KOAA Coastal Services Center Library VZ*"rtY of CSC. Library 2234 South Hobson Avenue Charleston, SC 29405-2413 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Holly Dominie of H. Dominie, Inc. of Manchester, Maine, researched and wrote the text of this publication. Robert Gerber, Lissa Robinson, an Robert G. Gerber, Inc. Katrina Van Dusen of the Maine State Planning Office Ron Gordon, Friday Harbor, Washington conceived of this project, directed its progress, and edited the Jim Hatch, affordable housing consultant text. Annette Naegel of the Island Institute provided consid- Rick Knowland, City of Portland erable data and resources. Cynthia Bourgeault edited some Raymond Leonard, Sterling College, Vt. of the text. Anne Hayden gave continuing support. Carol Burnham Martin, National Park Service Shaw's earlier work on island carrying capacity provided Jean Martin and Robert Peterson, Maine Dept. of Human direction for this project. Services Mike Parker, Steven Pinette, Main Dept. of Environmen- Many other people, hopefully none forgotten here, tal Protection contributed rules of thumb or information. They include: William Perkins, Applied Wastewater Technology, Inc. John Alb Iright and Fran Rudoff , Maine Dept. of Eco- Ron Poitras, Hancock County Planning Commission Rick Rogers, Town of Islesboro nomic and Community Development, Matt Scolnikoff, Town of Isle au Haut Brad Allen and Gary Donovan, Maine Dept. Inland John Spear, Town of Vinalhaven Fisheries and Wildlife Steve Spencer, Maine Dept. of Conservation, Bureau of Raquel and Peter Boehmer and Bill Payne, Monhegan Public Lands Jerry Bley, Creative Conservation Barry Timson, Timson and Peters, Sarah Brusila, Land Use Regulation Commission Rachel Therrien, Maine Waste Management Agency Laura Cabot-Carrigan, Bill Ferdinand, and Richard Sherwood, Maine State Planning Office Everyone's help is gratefully appreciated. Steve Davis and Dave Getchell, Maine Island Trail Asso- ciation Orlando Delogu, University of Maine School of Law Judy Dunah and Helga Hournere, Monhegan Associates Rob Elder, Maine Dept. of Transportation TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements page ii Letter to the Reader page v Chapter 1: Islands Accentuate Limits page 1 Chapter 2: Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors page 9 Groundwater page 9 Solid Waste page 25 Social Experience page 33 Soil & Vegetation Resiliency page 41 Wildlife page 47 Scenic Quality & Character page 53 Chapter 3: Using Limits to Decide an Island's Future page 61 Appendix 1: Islesboro Sanitary Survey Form and Lincolnville Plumbing Inspection Policy page 73 Appendix 2: Quantifying Resident & Visitor Populations page 75 Appendix 3: Methodology for Buildout Study page 78 Appendix 4: Island Data: Populati-n, Hol icing & Ferry Ridership Data page 79 Appendix 5: Selected Contacts and References page 82 ......... ..... '0. 'W Dear Reader, Maine's coastal islands are special places to many of us-whether you live on one, are a regular or occasional visitor, or enjoy them from afar. These islands constitute a unique natural and cultural resource of state and national significance. However, people are concerned that the variety and intensity of human activities on and around the islands are begin- ning to threaten fragile island ecosystems and the unique quality of island life. Exploring Limits: Making Decisions About the Use and Development of Maine Islands is intended to be both a primer on understanding the limits on use and development of islands and a how-to guide for assessing certain elements that make up an island's carrying capacity. We hope the publication will be interesting for people who haven't thought much about the limits of an island's natural resources, and useful for those who are working to assure that critical island resources ar@ adequately protected as islands are used and developed. The publication is designed for people in island towns and towns with offshore islands, the State Land Use Regulation Commission, which regulates land use on several hundred islands, and communities and individuals considering long- range plans for a single island. People living in other coastal areas, particularly those on Maine's coastal peninsulas, should also find it relevant. It can be used as a specially-tailored guide to comprehensive planning for islands. The Maine State Planning Office and the Island Institute collaborated to produce this handbook, part of a bigger island project, initiated in 1992 by the State Planning Office. The goals of the Islands Project are to provide information to island residents and visitors that will enable them to make decisions that guide future island use and development in a manner that is sensitive to an island's natural resource limitations, and to pursue changes to state laws and policies so that they better consider the unique values and constraints of islands. We are interested in feedback about how this handbook was useful to you. Sincerely, Katrina Van Dusen Annette Naegel Maine State Planning Office Island Institute April 1994 V IA J V. 6, -t 14@ ISLANDS ACCENTUATE LIMITS The Maine Islands unincorporated, falling under the jurisdiction of the State The Maine islands are a treasure of national and interna- Land Use Regulation Commission, including Monhegan and tional significance, an integral part of the beauty and rich- Matinicus. There are eight island towns including the Cran- ness of our coast. The State's Coastal Island Registry counts berries, Swans Island, Frenchboro, Isle au Haut, Islesboro, 4,617 islands, including ledges exposed at high tide. Another North Haven, Vinalhaven, and Long Island, and the islands inventory identified 1,149 islands of over 10 acres in size. that surround them. However, people use a variety of estimates to describe how many islands there are, who owns and uses them, and .. .. . who has jurisdiction over them; the lack of definitive information about numbers of islands and their owner- ship adds to their mystique. t 2k )ON Fourteen of the islands have year-round popula- tions; a few more have a family or two living on them all year; roughly 30 have summer communities; quite a few more have one to a few seasonal residences. The -4 majority of Maine's islands have no human habitation; 1, -4 0.4 0:. ma ny of these are important habitat for seabirds. It 1:4 1.4 The State owns 1300 islands, although many of 11 these are ledges. A small number, less than 50, are J.. I FAR owned by federal agencies, towns and private conser- vation organizations. The rest are privately owned. The vast majority of the islands are under the FA jurisdiction of a mainland municipality, including the More than two dozen islands along the Maine coast are linked to the mainland by year-round communities on Peaks, Cliff and a bridge, like this bridge to Deer Isle. This handbook focuses on islands that do Chebeague Islands. Three hundred and six islands are not have bridges. 1 Island Accentuate Limits Clearly there are myriad differences between the islands island. Intensive recreational use of an uninhabited island can of Maine's archipelago when it comes to size, habitation, destroy vegetation or disrupt nesting seabirds. On islands, ownership, or governance, but their similarities are equally once a limit is exceeded, the damage is often irreversible. striking-they are all rocky outcroppings in the sea. They are 'r L% -L I P% I % aft A rl o% noft a mLft o-. P,. aft covere A IVVI.41, or SO.]. urosi, -_@__ --lcs arc -UPUICUU11 L___AJJ1U01U11 %A IL11 111A11111IL1111 111 1 11 VVaL%,l 3UFF11 I I 1W 10101 1U r limited. Unique plants and wildlife are abundant. Scenic beauty abounds. Their many common geological and eco- Like most of the Maine coast, the islands have become logical features makeMaine islands similarly fragile and popular places. Ironically, while the 14 fulltime island vulnerable to harm from unlimited use, and development. communities struggle to maintain their year-rou nd popula- tions, nearly all the islands have witnessed dramatic increases Islands Accentuate Limits in seasonal visitation. Figures from nine of these islands show a combined increase of 404 vacation homes during the As all islanders know, both the. charm and the challenge 1980s, resulting from both new construction and the conver- of island living are imposed by the island's distinct geo- sion of year-round homes to seasonal use. Population on the graphical boundaries. The surrounding barrier of the sea year-round islands routinely doubles or triples in the summer, means that essential goods and services not available on the and in some cases increases even more. island must be transported by boat or plane, creating addi- But even seasonal, "second'-home" use patterns do not tional expense and delay. Groceries, building supplies, 'give the full piciture of this dramatic increase in popularity. heating oil, the mail: all these must travel onto the island, The islands are also being visited in unprecedented numbers, while many islanders head off to,the mainland for medical by daytrippers and other short-term visitors. Passenger and appointments, major shopping, entertainment, and other vehicular traffic on the Maine State Ferries (serving Swan's specialized needs. On all but the three largest of the year- Island, Frenchboro, North Haven, Vinalhaven, Islesboro, and round island communities, students must commute to the Matinicus) increased by approximately 50% between 1982 mainland for high school. and 1992, and the number of bicycles (bearing seasonal Even more significant, from a plannino, standpoint, daytrippers) nearly doubled-up 935o. Ride 'rship on Casco 0 Bay ferries also increased during the decade at an overall rate islands accentuate limits because the amount of land is,finite, of about 33%. During the peak summer months, passenger and other natural resources can be depleted. Usescan conflict totals on these lines routinely double. (For more information quickly, more so than on the mainland. Runoff from a poorly- on population, housing and ferries, see Appendix 4.) placed septic system cab pollute the clamflats on which islanders are economically dependent. A leaking landfill can contaminate the drinking water for the entire island. Skyrock- @ting real estate prices can drive working islanders off the 2 How Much is Too Much? This is the question increasingly being asked by island residents and IRMA, owners, island planning boards, and even the visitors themselves. There's a subjec- tive element, of course: if you're used to being the only one on the beach, it feels crow e w en one ot er ami y s ows up. C-x But aside from that kind of intuitive P reaction, are there actual hysical limits beyond which an island's capacity to A absorb this increase in users can no longer be stretched? From around the islands P11 A, _2 -al r. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . N, there are many signs for concern: In the last decade, biking has grown in popularity with island visitors. Between 1982 and 1993 the number of bikes carried on State ferries increased 93%. These people are waiting on the pier in Rockland to board the Vinalhaven ferry. Recreational boat traffic has also increased substantially. On Swan's Island, residents became concerned during With the growing popularity of sea kayaking and small boat the building boom of the late 1980s when many island wells cruising, some boaters have experienced increased competi- began going dry or experiencing salt water intrusion as new tion for favorite picnicking and mooring spots and greater wells were added at an average rate of 15-20 per year. A traffic along the most popular travel routes. A 10-year-old Water Committee was established by the Planning Board to Island Institute study showed recreational boat usership study the island water table and wetland "recharge areas," to remaining fairly constant between 1979 and 198 1, then determine if protective zoning measures were needed. jumping dramatically-doubling, in fact, in 1982 and 1983. - Islesboro is faced with a safety problem created by the In 1993, the Maine Island Trail Association began a three- growing number of bicyclists on its narrow, winding roads. year study monitoring recreational use of 27 islands. The There were a number of accidents during the 1992 and 1993 study's results showed a 25% increase in the number of boats seasons, in some cases necessitating emergency runs to IPin MNI 11 visiting the islands over the 10 years since the last survey. mainland hospitals. 3 Island Accentuate Limits The 1993 Maine Island Trail Association survey of recreational island use indicated that a few islands are used intensively; in the survey of 1,Q11F nf -ill thp 1-%ozite nbsenn-.rl in tht-..-,t1rv(-,y vkited 27 islands from Casco Bay to Blue Hill Bay, one Jewell Island in Casco Bay. The majority of the boats (71%) visited only four islands. Conflicts between local people and recreationists have been reported on Crow Island in Muscongus Bay. In July 199 1, police barricaded Cow Island in Casco Bay at the request of its exasperated private owner to prevent repeated "trashing" by weekend revelers. V@ Use of Maine islands by sail and motor yachts, sea kayakers and other small boats has increased steadily over the last 15 years. The Maine Island Trail Association was formed in Help in Setting Limits 1987 to develop and maintain a 325-mile-long waterway, promoting thoughtful use and volunteer stewardship of the islands on the trail by recreational boaters. The concept of a quantifiable carrying capacity may Responding to increased numbers of daily visitors, seem like a fairly new notion when applied to island growth which in peak season are estimated on some days to exceed management and planning. But it's a well-established prin- 200, Monhegan residents have begun to question how many ciple of ecology, the branch of science that deals with how off-islanders the-community can absorb each day without populations interact within their environment. And in fact, seriously stressing the water supply, natural environment, and- that is what we're really talking about when we start to raise public services-not to mention the special character of concerns about how many people'an island can accommo- island life. date. Wildlife biologists are concerned about the effect of According to this principle, populations of species in proposed residential development on the north end of Metinic any given environment are limited in size by the amount of Island in outer Penobscot Bay, an important habitat for habitat, food, water, and other survival requirements avail- eiders, arctic terns, black guillemots, herring,gulls and black- able within the confines of that environment. Ultimately, backed gulls. 4 population size is determined by the factor which is the most crucially limited-i.e., if there is no drinking water, the environment becomes uninhabitable even if there is adequate soil and vegetation. The combined impact of these factors defines the carrying capacity: a specific, quantifiable upper limit to the size of the population that environment can s p u port. Here the concept of carrying capacity is applied to human populations on small, finite habitats such as islands. The discussion of limiting factors falls into five general categories, including cultural as well as ecological consider- ations: 1. HABITAT: How many people can be accommodated without disrupting natural populations of plants and animals, especially sensitive or rare species? 2. PHYSICAL SPACE: How much traffic will the roads hold safely? How many structures can be built on the land that is appropriate f6ir development? pe, 3. ENVIRONMENTAL: How many people will the 7 available water supply accommodate? How much waste can be accommodated without contaminating the environment? 4. AESTHETIC/EXPERIENTIAL: How many AMICK people can occupy a remote island at one time without destroying the sense of solitude for all? How many tourists can an island community absorb without feeling invaded? How much visible shoreline development can an island absorb without losing its "remote and unaltered" visual appeal or historical character? Technological fixes, like this sewage treatment system being 5. FISCAL/TECHNOLOGICAL: How much money installed on Squirrel Island, can mitigate existing environmental or technology is available or desirable to make it easier to problems, and in some cases expand an island's carrying capacity accommodate greater numbers? (The more there is available, by providing infrastructure to accommodate more homes or the more likely that carrying capacity will be a fluid number.) businesses. 5 Island Accentuatelimits For town planners and concerned citizens, the carrying Although specifics vary from island to island, concern capacity approach offers three powerful advantages: about any of the following factors can move islanders, to undertake a thoughtful examination of carrying capacity: 1. IT IS EMPIRICAL. It begins by gathering data-six' mecific cateaories are explained in detail in the next section a Amount of developable -land avaliabie (i.e., piaces@ without steep slopes, wetlands, or fragile habitats of this handbook-rather than from subjective opinions and * Amount and quality of freshwater supply, foregone conclusions. 0 Sewage treatment capacity 2. IT IS OBJECTIVE. Opinions can be reality-tested - Transportation facilities for carrying/landing freight against solid -data, not mere; rumor or opinion. and passengers Island road systems 1 IT SERVES AS A BASIS FOR INFORMED, OPEN Sensitivity of ecosystem, natural communities, or DECISION-MAKING. species Island character The approach suggested in this handbook is quantitative, Availability of public facilities (parking, recreational to the extent that '11 rules of thumb" are available to help facilities, harbor facilities, public toilets) establish limits for growth. It should be emphasized, of Amount of open space Availability of housing, especially at a Iffordable course, that these are not ironclad figures, but rather, suggest a range which in turn depends on the initial assumptions prices made. Islanders, island owners, and policy makers for the Management alternatives for solid waste offshore islands need to understand the implications of policy Usin'g Carrying Capacity as a choices they make and decide on a case-by-case situation how much change is ultimately acceptable. Planning Tool Empowerment of islanders, island owners, and others with jurisdiction over islands comes from having the courage The carrying capacity approach to planning is not new, to suggest that anisland has quantifiable limits to growth, but it is only beginning to be applied extensively in Maine. and the'patience'to engage in the process of determining what Until recently land and islands were relatively inexpensive these limits may be. The consequences of failing to recognize and uncrowded. But now mounting pressure on the resources these limits will irrevocably and unnecessarily change the is testing limits and calling for a more thoughtful and objec- islands as we now know them. tive accounting of the limits to development and use of Carrying capacity analysis is a powerful too] that can Maine's offshore islands. help-if islanders have the political- will to use it. 6 All C, IOv F7 4 *Awl I kk An assessment ot an island's carrying capacity can be used by a community in making decisions about appropriate limits on growth. AlK, m4r At Ilk, OF For 74i, AW Groundwater LOOKING CLOSELY AT SIX LIMITING FACTORS This chapter provides guidance for assessing the sand and gravel aquifer large enough to supply a community carrying capacity of several discrete island attributes or system. Public systems on Vinalhaven and North Haven resources and "rules of thumb" for living within the limits of depend upon freshwater ponds. those resources to accommodate change. The "rules of thumb" included are a best assessment for the moment, but Monhegan aquifer reaching capacity they could be constantly revised in response to experience, About 10 miles offshore of Port Clyde in Knox County, experimentation and research. These include groundwater, Monhegan Island is home to 450 residents (about 80 stay social experience, vegetation and soil resiliency, nesting year-round) and up to 200 or more daytrippers who visit habitat, and scenic quality. Quantitative limits are probably each day during the summer. The island, under a square most readily available for these because they tend to draw the mile in size, is noted for its outstanding scenery, artists' most concern. Some islands may have different or additional studios, grand old hotel, and traditional architecture. resources whose carrying capacity should be considered in From May to November, the community relies almost designing a strategy for managing the impacts of use and solely on a chlorinated water supply from a sand and development. This chapter also exan-dnes the issue of solid gravel aquifer beneath "The Meadow," a bog wetland lying within the heart of the village. The rest of the year, waste because of its priority among state concerns. residents make do with drilled wells, dug wells, and Groundwater cisterns. Businesses use saltwater and stream flow to supplement their water supplies. Limits and Threats A 1989 study by Timson, Schepps & Peters, Inc. Freshwater supply is a critical factor limiting the devel- found that the aquifer can theoretically support another opment of offshore islands. Most islands depend upon local 200 individuals under average recharge conditions. This groundwater to meet their needs, relying primarily upon assumes that each resident consumes 40 gallons per day over the 3-month summer season. However, there have bedrock aquifers. Where soils are deeper, many islanders use been water shortages in recent years because the present dug wells, but the trend is toward drilled wells. water delivery and storage system is incapable of meeting A few island communities have water-supplies from water demand in a dry summer. The question remains, sources other than bedrock aquifers. For instance, Peaks, could the aquifer provide for the additional demand under Great and Little Diamond, and Cushing Island in Casco Bay drought conditions, if the delivery system were upgraded, tap into the Portland Water District system. Monhegan has a without inducinIg saltwater intrusion? 9 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors If it wasn't for the fact that fresh- water is lighter than saltwater and floats upon it, drinking water would be Aischarge discharge scarce on islands. Fortunately, between Sea Level 5 and 10% of the annual rainfall seeps 0" into the cracks in the bedrock or into see below- the thicker, more permeable soils to recharge replenish the store of groundwater AV found in the bedrock below. More recharge occurs in the interior parts of an island than at the perimeter. Freshwater Cross Section The precipitation that g'ets into the ground recharges a lens-shaped body of of an Saltwater freshwater that sits under the su'rface of Island Aquifer most islands. This "lens" is usually deepest under the center of an island water table well being pumped and tapers to meet the sea below the high tide line. The freshwater saturat- cone of depression ing the bedrock literally floats upon the saltwater underlying and. surrounding it. The groundwater entering the ocean bedrock moves through fractures in the rock. It travels down into the lens in the interior as "recharge" and up Freshwater ap Saltwater toward the surface at the edges of the 0 island where it is "discharged" into the displacement of interface caused by pumping of well ocean. saltwater Intrusion Groundwater supply can be meager on coastal islands, depending of an upon the permeability of the local Island Aquifer Source: W. B. Caswell, 1979. 10 Groundwater bedrock and depth of soil cover. When a favorable system of reasonable alternative source to replace the water supplied by 'fractures is lacking, bedrock cannot store much water. Fur- the aquifer, if it were to be contaminated. The petitions for thermore, the thin soil cover of islands limits the amount of sole source status include estimates of the enormous cost to precipitation that can seep into the ground. Thin soils be- pipe water to each of the islands from the mainland. To date, come quickly saturated so that most rain and melted snow the program is in force on Monhegan, Vinalhaven, and North tends to stay on the surface, running directly into streams and Haven. It is pending on Islesboro, Matinicus, and Swan's the ocean. Island. Frenchboro declined to participate. Groundwater quality on coastal islands is particularly The federal program, however, really accomplishes little susceptible to contamination for two reasons: inadequate soil beyond the important step of recognizing the fragility of sole cover and saltwater intrusion. Thin soils are not effective in source aquifers. Basically, it allows the EPA to review filtering out harmful bacteria and metals in subsurface sew- federally funded projects to see that they don't harm these age system effluent, household wastes, and stormwater runoff aquifers, and to raise public awareness about the need for because they have limited soil particle surface area on to protecting them. which these contaminants can adhere. Groundwater can also be contaminated by encroachment from the sea through More assertive steps need to be taken to make real gains saltwater intrusion. Areas where development is already in assuring the protection of groundwater quantity and qual- concentrated, such as village areas without public water ity on islands. The following sections describe some useful supply or sewage systems, are especially vulnerable. carrying capacity rules of thumb primarily developed by Robert G. Gerber, Inc. The reliance upon Gerber's findings Groundwater supplies deserve respect since, once in this handbook reflects the great number of studies the firm contaminated, they are highly expensive and difficult to of consulting geologists has conducted over the years for clean; and on islands, they are usually the only potable water Maine islands. supply available. Unfortunately, contaminants usually take several years to reach -a well. By the time a pollution source is detected and stopped, a substantial amount of groundwater Groundwater quantity contamination may have taken place. Only so much water can be taken out of an island's The State has petitioned the U.S. Environmental Protec- bedrock "aquifer" without exceeding the amount of water tion Agency to designate the groundwater on several islands from precipitation that replenishes it. The amount of precipi- as "sole source aquifers." Under the federal law, these tation that finds its way into the bedrock depends upon the communities have an aquifer "needed to supply 50 percent or island's size, bedrock characteristics, and soil cover. While more of the drinking water" for the island and there is no sand and gravel allows 40-50% of the annual precipitation to Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors infiltrate the ground, on islands hydrogeologists estimate that hold or business, the fewer number of households that only about 5-10% of precipitation reaches the groundwater can be accommodated. supply. Groundwater quality I linnik- The movt important sten in safeauardin2 groundwater supply is to ensure that enough terrain is Saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion occurs when left in its natural state to allow rainfall to infiltrate the too many wells are located or drilled too deep in a shoreland ground. By limiting the amount of impervious sur- area - the area where the freshwater lens thins out. When face (e.g. roads, parking lots, and buildings) to 25% water is withdrawn from them faster than they are replen- of an island's land area there should be no reduction in the groundwater recharge rate. ished or if the wells are drilled deeper than the freshwater lens, saltwater is drawn into the wells. Saltwater intrusion On islands more than 100 acres in size, which are more likely to have thicker and more permeable soils, may also occur in some wells located a considerable distance at least incertain locations, a maximum density of from the shore because of interconnected fracture patterns in one acre per unit is recommended to maintain ad- the bedrock. equate groundwater quantity, providing that 75% of Saltwater is unhealthy to drink and corrodes plumbing the. island's terrain is left undisturbed. On narrow fixtures. Wells contaminated by saltwater need "rest" in peninsulas, smaller islands, or where water supply is order to'rejuvenate, i.e. pumping or drought conditions need known to be limited, such as on parts of Swan's to stop so that fresh groundwater can be replenished. The Island, an overall residential density, island-wide or in time for recovery depends upon the porosity and recharge a particularly sensitive area, of no greater than 2.5 rate of the aquifer and the amount of rainfall. acres pet unit should ensure that all available runoff is captured to recharge the water supply. To more People like to be near the shore. Because most develop- specifically address carrying capacity, communities ment occurs around the perimeter of an island, the likelihood may want to vary the lot size based upon specific of saltwater intrusion increases with the density of develop- geologic settings of different parts of their island. The table on page 18 provides Iguidance for site specific ment and amount of water usage. This is particularly a threat planning. when islands convert from low water use systems such as hand pumps to pressurized water systems that make it pos- Limits on water consumption are advised where sible for households to pump much higher amounts. supply is limited and pressurized water pumps are used. As a general rule, especially in shoreland areas, the greater amount of water pumped by each house- 12 Groundwater In the Town of Harpswell, a complex of narrow islands and peninsulas, for ex- Town of BRUNSWIC ample, many wells located in intensively WEST HARPSWELL H developed shorefront areas have been contaminated with salt water. The accompa- Maine nying map shows the locations where this -'0 has occurred. "4 Assessing which areas are vulnerable to saltwater intrusion is complicated by N rising sea level. Scientists estimate that sea level in Maine may rise as much as three Irk- feet during the next 100 years because of A, climatic change. This means that the jf r '@(P jf, r brackish boundary between saltwater and Cl) the freshwater underlying the shoreland area will migrate landward, especially in flatter N "un areas, as the sea rises. @@P pmr) /'w OUJ, cc@ X M 0 0 A 00 7( xV 0 0 @H 4 ,A Of'- 4Y /A SCALE 0 1 2 3 El Wells reflecting saltwater intrusion miles 13 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Limits: If wells are located away from the zone of influence of saltwater at densities less than one unit per acre, and the amount of water withdrawn from them does not exceed the amount recharged even in r1rniiaht xipnrc ,n1txx7nti-r intnminn shmild nnt he a problem. This is not to say that development in the interior of islands is immune from saltwater intrusion. In places where more than 250 gallons a day per acre are withdrawn, saltwater intrusion could occur con- siderably toward the interior, especially during dry periods and where fracture zones are most favorable. To avoid the interface between the freshwater lens %NNW% and the sea, and to anticipate sea level rise, new wells should be located at least 200 feet above the high water mark in undeveloped areas and set back 400 feet in places where development is already concen I., A: trated. These setbacks can be used as minimum guidelines island-wide, but anon-site investigation for each new well is needed because of the high Wells drilled close to the ocean shore are vulnerable to saltwater variability of hydrogeologic conditi ons. intrusion. Finding potable water without risk of saltwater intrusion can be difficult on smaller islands. The rule risk to the quality of ground and surface waters. An island's of thumb for islands smaller than 5 acres is that they carrying capacity can be increased and threats to water usually cannot support a reliable year-round water quality decreased by upgrading inadequate systems. supply. Fifty years ago, a household used about 5 gallons of Contamination from subsurface wastewater dis- water a day. Outhouses were the norm and people generated posal. New subsurface wastewater disposal systems are not very little "gray water", i.e. the effluent from sinks, bathtubs, usually a threat to the environment, providing they are in- washing machines, and dishwashers. Pressurized pumps and stalled properly using the latest technology. -However, many drilled wells now make 250 gallons a day of water use older sewage disposal systems in use on the islands pose a possible. Cesspools and septic systems may not have been 14 Groundwater upgraded over the years to handle the increasing volume of wastewater. Until 20 years ago or more, septic systems could Non-conforming lots are getting more be installed within the seasonal high water table. Effluent attention: from undersized systems and systems installed within the The "Colony" near Dark Harbor on Islesboro is a water table or on thin soils is likely to break out at the surface good example of the difficulty of managing septic over time, posing a risk to human health and water quality. wastes on non-conforming island lots. Subdivided into postage stamp-sized lots around the turn of the Homeowners are not usually required to upgrade old century, as were many shoreland areas in Maine, the septic systems when expanding or converting homes to year- settlement provided housing for people who worked round use, although the changes increase the likelihood that for the "summer people." Wastewater disposal on the system will malfunction. lots as small as 99 x 130 sq. ft. was not a problem when outhouses and hand pumps were used. Systems can be difficult and expensive to replace, Greatly increased water use, however, has resulted especially on older subdivided lots which offer little or no in some contaminated wells alternative space for a retrofit. Because of the high cost of The town is now conducting a survey of the hauling fill from the mainland to upgrade a leach field, many condition of septic systems in the area in anticipation islanders look the other way when their system fails. of applying to the Department of Environmental Protection for a Small Community grant to build clustered treatment systems. Even such group systems managed by landowner associations are not free from possible failure, however. Their successful maintenance and repair requires cooperation among landowners, as well as the introduction of low-flow plumbing fixtures and other water conservation measures. See Appendix' 1 for a copy of the sanitary survey Islesboro has asked all home and business owners to complete. source: Rick Rogers, Islesboro Code Enforcement Officer 15 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Sewage treatment alternatives breath new life into existing development: An innovative sewage treatment system has anowed urcas isiand, one of .V. Vashir-iy1ur-i,s San juan -1 he put-fip -5 1 Iiiie U-1 io each tank i-nove the effiluen't Islands, to clean up a nagging contamination prob- through the system at a regular rate and amount of lem t 'hat stifled the vitality of the commercial area flow, with periods of inactivity in-between. This - near the ferry landing. Thetightly knit area of resi- means that the common sand filter can "have some dences and businesses has a year-round population time off' between doses to rejuvenate its air and of about 100. Daytrippers increase the number of bacterial content for greater efficiency. The indi- people"'downtown" two to three times in the summer. vidual pumps also beat the problem of gravity by avoiding the need for large pumps that move flows The new system replaced cesspools, direct up-gradient in conventional systems. discharges, holding tanks and other non-conforming subsurface waste disposal systems that were con- Diamond Lake, Washington, also used individual taminating Puget Sound and threatening public pumps to overcome gravity Its "step-collection health. Each "user"now has a 1000-gallon concrete system" starts with individual screened vaults that septic system, fitted with a screen and pump. The feed into mains that are relatively small in diameter screened effluent, about 90% of the original input, is (1.5-4") and sized larger as the effluent gets closer to pumped from the,individual tanks into a common the communal treatment facility The collection sand filter. The sand filter removes over 95% of the system feeds into an aerated lagoon system that biological oxygen demand and total suspended discharges eventually into the lake. solids. What comes out at the other end is chlori- nated, then discharged @into the Sound. The cost of a step and sand filter in Elkten, Oregon, was $7,000 per household compared with 'The screen is an innovation that leaves 90% of about $28,000 per household, the cost of a conven- the solids and little liquid in the holding tank, rather tional system in a community of similar size. than a large amount of "blackwater." This means Source: William Perkins, Applied Wastewater that the tanks need only be pumped every 10 to 15 Technology, Boxford, IVIA. years, compared to the conventional unscreened system primarily used in Maine which needs to be pumped every two to four years. 16 Groundwater Many islanders rely on overboard discharge systems, bacteria. Minimizing the risk of contamination from house- which treat sewage effluent by passing it through a sand filter hold chemicals is best accomplished by their proper disposal, system, chlorinating it, and discharging it into the ocean. which means not pouring them down the drain. These systems were originally permitted to allow develop- ment on marginal soils, where installation of a septic system The Plumbing Code is believed by many professionals and leach field was problematic. to be unreliable in protecting against nitrate-nitrogen con- tamination, especially where development is concentrated on However, overboard discharge systems can introduce ' small lots (< one acre) with thin soils, i.e. less than three feet toxic chlorine into the marine environment or cause bacterial to bedrock. Drinking water standards deem a safe concentra- contamination of shellfish. These systems may not be an tion of nitrate-nitrogen to be not more than ten milligrams per environmental threat when they work, but the Department of liter. In excessive amounts, which fortunately are not com- Environmental Protection estimates that as many as 50% do mon, the contaminant is dangerous to young children. It can not function properly. The state has established a program to cause a deadly condition known as methemoglobinemia, or remove overboard discharges where feasible, usually by "blue-baby syndrome". It may also be linked to the occur- converting to in-ground disposal systems. In recent years, rence of stomach cancer in the general population. technological advancements have made the construction of Limits: To account for the inability of thin and subsurface disposal systems possible in places that had marine clay soils to adequately dilute nitrate-nitrogen, previously been unsuitable, however the risk of contaminat- ing groundwater is still a concern. a maximum density island-wide of 1.5-3 acres per unit can be used as a rule of thumb for islands that On some islands, where an alternative sewage treatment rely upon on-site wells and septic systems. Relatively method would be prohibitively expensive and technologically flat islands that contain relatively good soils (deep challenging and no commercially valuable shellfishing areas sandy or silty till, or sand and gravel) can use the 1.5 will be affected, such as Monhegan, the state allows the acre per unit factor in calculating an estimate of continued use of overboard discharge systems. carrying capacity; those where the soils are predomi- nantly shallow or clay should use a factor of three Monitoring and improving sewage treatment can mini- acres per unit or greater. mize the risk of groundwater contamination from sewage This "rule of thumb" can be used to estimate the total effluent. However, there may still be concern that nitrate- number of residential units that can be built on an nitrogen, pathogenic bacteria, and household chemicals in island without exceeding nitrate-nitrogen limits. On effluent could contaminate wells. It is generally believed that Vinalhaven, where Robert G. Gerber, Inc. completed subsurface disposal systems that meet-Maine's current an in-depth evaluation of existing data, the firm Plumbing Code provide adequate treatment of pathogenic 17 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Good site planning is essential in Maine's complex glaciated terrain: The rules of thumb recommended for groundwater in Thick Silty Till (>3') this handbook are intended to provide guidance in planning Well to Iproperty line: 1 e overall development densities for an island or portions of an 00 fe't minimum island. Because hydrologic and geologic factors can vary System to property line: 350 feet minimum Individual lot size: 2.5 acres greatly within short distances due to glacial effects and fracture patterns in the bedrock, there should be more Cluster density: 0.4 units/acre detailed study of each particular site to establishing lot sizei Marine Clay[Thin, Silty Till and septic system setbacks from wells and property lines. Designing a site to fit its natural capacity will help ensure an Well to property line: 100 feet minimum adequate amount of groundwater recharge and avoid septic System to property line: 400 feet based on dilution contamination of wells. Individual lot size: 5 acres Cluster density: 0.2 units/acre The following table can help homeowners and land planners determine the appropriate lot size for any given site Sand and Gravel based upon its soil characteristics. Where the direction of Well to property line: 100 feet minimum groundwater flow is relatively obvious (sloping sites) and System to property line: 200 feet minimum, assuming drought conditions, separations and approximate 250 feet where sizes should be Ias follows: systems in the same development are down gradient 'Individual lot size: .5 acres, depending on slope Thin Sandy Till (<3') Cluster density: 1.2 units/acre Well to property line: 100 feet minimum For areas with slopes of 5% or less, the direction of System to property line: 250 feet minimum groundwater flow-is difficult to determine, and well-septic separa- Individual lot size: 1.7 acres tion should be calculated conservatively as if the well is downhill Cluster density: 0.6 units/acre from the system. Cluster densities are approximate and require site-specific evaluation for verification of the protection of ground- water quality and public health. Source: Robert G. Gerber, Inc. 18 Groundwater recommended a 2-acre maximum density in most 3. The location, type, depth, yield, water levels, parts of the island. and quality of existing wells on the island; Alternatively, the carrying capacity for nitrate-nitr6gen 4. The relationship of the fresh groundwater can be increased by using peat-lined leachfields, which halve supply to its interface with saltwater; the amount of nitrate-nitrogen entering the groundwater. 5. The geology, safe yield, and water quality of any groundwater aquifers suitable for existing Other contaminants. Petroleum, salt, and other chemi- or potential community water supply; cal products are also threats to Maine's groundwater. Most 6. Any existing or potential land use patterns, contamination problems, such as household chemicals poured practices, or contamination sites that threaten down a toilet, could be avoided through better education and the quality and quantity of the island's ground- heightened sense of personal andcorporate responsibility for water supply, and in particular, the number of the environment. Some of these contaminants pose signifi- households/businesses and amount of water cant health risks and their discharge into the environment is use that can be supported on the island with- illegal. out degrading water quality or exceeding groundwater recharge; and Inventorying Groundwater 7. Recommendations for protecting the quality and quantity of the resource. To assure the availability of adequate, high quality A less extensive and expensive assessment of ground- drinking water supplies over the long term, islanders need a water resources can be compiled from a review of existing clear understanding of their island's groundwater resource. data such as published maps, well drilling logs, water quality Such a study should address the following: test data, and borings from development permit applications I . The characteristics of bedrock geology, espe- or public works projects. Such a "first-cut" in-office ground- cially the locations of fractures and topo- water analysis can generally be contracted for less than graphic lineaments that indicate recharge areas $10,000, depending upon the size, location, and complexity and migration patterns of groundwater re- of the setting and issues to be studied. Those communities sources; preferring a citizens' approach, should consult "The Planning Process for Local Groundwater Protection" available from 2. The physical and hydraulic characteristics of the Department of Environmental Protection. surficial geologic deposits and the thickness of the soil on the island, particularly those areas most important for ensuring recharge; 19 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors. Developing a Local Strategyto Manage such as recreation may be all that is advisable. Groundwater To guard against nitrate-nitrogen contamination, densi- ties should be even lower than calculated on the basis of Considerable information is available from state and water quantity alone. On islands with extensive flat areas federal- agencies on how to manage groundwater. i he followin discussion highlights some suggestions that are with thick soils, densities should be no greater than I..*) acres 9 per unit.' On all others, they should be no greater than three especially pertinent to islands: acres per unit. Establish an island-wide maximum density for These generalized numbers are useful for assessing an development. Many communities make the mistake of island's carrying capacity, but they do not substitute for site- believing that full development will never occur, so they specific hydrologic studies,- which can be required as part of don't plan for it. But it canand may, so islanders should be local review of certain development proposals. sure that the development pattern allowed by local regula- tions is the one they want to end up with. (See the "buildout" Many communities rely upon the Plumbing Code as a de discussions on page 65 and in Appendix 3.) facto means of managing growth. The code may not be effective in establishing development densities that ensure Islanders need to assess whether full development of clean surface and ground waters. It addresses only contami- their island or a portion of it will exceed its overall carrying nation from septic systems and does not ensure adequate capacity. In the case of groundwater, how much of the groundwater quantity or protect against contamination from island's water supply and contaminant absorption capacity stormwater runoff and saltwater intrusion. can each individual lot or development use up as its fair share? The,development density a community or landowner Code changes proposed in 1994, may make considerable group uses as a guide for groundwater carrying capacity amounts of land developable that had not previously met the standards of the code. In the absence of strict local zonin * needs to be based upon several factors. 91 the new regulations coulcl result in development patterns that The bottom line is that overall maximum densities change an island's special character. Recognizing theparrow should not be greater than one acre per unit-at a minimum focus of the Plumbing Code, it is all the more important to - to maintain quantity and avoid saltwater intrusion on. address the multiple facets of carrying capacity locally. islands over 100 acres in size without narrow peninsulas. On peninsulas, islands between five and 100 acres, or where Site wells and wastewater treatment systems in the water supply is limited, overall densities should not be most advantageous parts of an island. Because the reli- greater than 2.5 acres per unit. On islands less than five ability 'of both wells and septic systems is so tenuous on acres in size the chance of finding potable water is low and coastal i'slands, it best to site them in the most favorable the likelihood of salt.water intrusion is great; low impact uses locations. 20 Groundwater Ideally, individual wells or a community well should be sited in the interior portions of an'island to avoid salt- Innovative designs and conservative water intrusion. However, new water quality monitoring standards can help: requirements for community water supplies could put the Islesboro Affordable Properties has sited 8 lots on less cost of regulatory compliance out of reach for homeowner than half of a 14-acre property. Even though the soils are associations interested in sharing common wells. Commu- good, project planners used design criteria more stringent nity water supplies are defined by Maine's Drinking Water than the Plumbing Code, such as increased separation Program as those serving 25 persons and/or more than 15 distance between the bottom of the disposal field and the service connections. seasonal high water table, to increase their confidence that the septic systems will not fail over the long term. The lots average around 20,000 sq. ft., considerably less Alternatively an innovative or conventional communal than the town's minimum size of 1.5 acres for conven- wastewater treatment facility could be installed to concen- tional lots. This leaves more than 50% of the land in trate wastewater treatment in the location where it will do common open space. the least harm. Another approach would be for a community or landowners association to create a "sanitary district," as Consider using alternative sewage treatment tech- Eagle Lake, Maine, has, with the authority to own and nology or innovative regulatory schemes. New technol- maintain holding tanks that are required for all develop- ogy such as sand filter systems, peat bogs, and wetland ment instead of leach fields. The quasi-municipal district systems are being used with success around the United would be responsible for periodically having the holding tanks pumped and maintained. While this approach States. Because of limiting soil and bedrock conditions, the applied to an island requires a car ferry to transport the Chewonki Foundation in Wiscasset recently installed man- septage collection trucks, it offers the advantage of made cattail marshes to treat its sewage instead of a tradi- minimizing the risk of contaminating an island's only tional leach field. Usually, alternative treatment systems source of water supply and making the transport of minimize the reliance on soils to perform the treatment septage more cost effective. function. Innovative technology such as "advanced biological systems" and administrative arrangements such as Eagle Lake's sanitary districts can also enable communities to site new development in areas of existing settlements. Villages are often the most sensible locations for develop- ment for social, fiscal, aesthetic, and environmental reasons, if the sewage treatment and water supply challenges can be successfully resolved. 21 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Open Space Public Trail. Easement Islesboro, Affordable Property Site Plan SCALE 0 500 feet .22 Groundwater Other suggestions. Several other techniques for protecting groundwater mentioned in the discussion of limits Monitor water quality and water levels. Water are listed below: levels can be obtained from drilling records Limit impervious surface to no more than 25% from local well drillers or the Maine Geologi- of an island; cal Survey and recorded in a methodical way in the Town Office. Communities may want Require a setback of at least 200 feet between to require well drillers to file this information septic systems and down-gradient property locally. lines to avoid the risk of contaminating wells; Conduct a sanitary survey of septic systems in villages or other densely settled or problem Lincoinville puts the lid on areas and develop a management strategy to non-conforming septic systems: upgrade non-conforming and/or . malfunctioning septic systems or provide an The Lincolnville Board of Selectmen has adopted alternative approach to treating wastewater; an administrative policy requiring that no plumbing (See Appendix 1) fixture be added to a structure built earlier than 1980 Install water saving devices and other conser- without documentation that the septic system is vation measures; designed to accommodate the change. If the owner cannot document the design of the system, the Adopt local standards more stringent than plumbing inspector will conduct a dye test to verify its Maine's Plumbing Code, requiring landowners capacity. Rick Rogers, Code Enforcement Officer/ to certify, if possible, or to upgrade if neces- Plumbing Inspector for Islesboro and Lincoinville, sary, their non-conforming septic systems to recommends that every town enact requirements meet current standards before permits are more stringent than the State Plumbing Code to granted for expansions or conversions; (See protect against system failures. For more information Appendix 1) on the Lincoinville policy, see Appendix 1. Use composting toilets, destroilets, privies, or alternatives to conventional toilets as another way to conserve water; Require setbacks from the shore for wells and limit the amount of withdrawal on a per acre basis to 250 gallons per day; and 23 4 IN4WI,' 24 SOLID WASTE Limits and Threats In contrast to the'concept of carrying capacity as the Unless an island has its own landfill - and the days upper limit of growth, solid waste requires a minimum of such landfills are numbered - it will pay more per ton for population base on an island for effective management on a waste management than mainland communities. An Island community basis. Institute study in 1991 reported the 1990 municipal cost per A minimum trash generation rate is necessary to offset ton for managing waste on eight islands with municipal the high costs of managing solid waste. The less a commu- programs ranged from $19 to $424. In comparison, most nity produces, the more difficult it is to establish cost-effec- mainland communities without landfills spend between $75 tive recycling and transportation to one of the state's regional and $250 a ton for disposal, and $50 to $120 a ton for recy- transfer or disposal facilities. Ironically, the lower the popu- cling, according to the Maine Waste Management Agency. lation and the less trash generated, the higher the per unit costs are to manage the trash that is generated. Island Solid Waste Management Costs (per ton): Average Waste Generation Rates (tons Isle au Haut 0 Chebeague $66 per person per year): Matinicus 0 Frenchboro $83 Population Non-Bulky Bulky Total Vinalhaven $19 Islesboro $108 Swan's Island $34 Cranberries $358 < 1,000 0.35 0.11 0.46 North Haven $65 Monhegan $424 1,000 to 2,000 0.49 0.15 0.64 source: Island Institute, 1991 2,000 to 5,000 0.55 0.17 0.72 5,000 to 10,000 0.75 0.23 0.98 > 10,000 0.77 0.23 1.00 Isle au Haut and Matinicus have had no municipal source: Maine Waste Management Age .ncy. waste management program. The responsibility is left to I individuals who burn, bury, reuse, recycle, or remove the Average generation rates for Maine municipalities, in- trash from the island. The next six communities in the table cludes commercial generation, so rates will vary with types of business and levels of activity. have landfills that will be closing because of state and federal 25 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors regulations. The Cranberries and Monhegan transport mate- Municipal Solid Waste in Maine rial for recycling and disposal to the mainland.' Vinalhaven, Overall Composition, 1991 Matinicus, and Islesboro are working with Camden-Rockport (percent by weight) Transfer Station to handle portions of their waste. Solid waste management is difficult on islands for three paper 35.7% reasons. They have unique physical characteristics, small demolition debris 3.4% and fluctuating population bases, and they are isolated. With yard/wood 9.8% inadequate soil cover and vulnerable groundwater supplies, islands are especially poor places for landfills. As discussed in the groundwater section, all Maine islands are sole source aquifers from which most islanders derive their potable glass 5.3% water. Accordingly, even development of a "fail-safe" metals 9.9% other 10.5% landfill would present unique risks and high costs to island pet litter/diapers 2.6% textiles 1.7%- residents. plastics 6.5% food 14.7% Population also works against waste management on Municipal Solid Waste on Monhegan islands - on two counts. First, year-round island popula- Overall Composition, 1988 tions are relatively low, precluding cost efficiencies that (percent by weight) mainland communities of greater size can achieve. Second, island populations fluctuate dramatically by season. Island communities need a flexible contractual arrangement with a hauler and a disposal 'facility that takes into account seasonal glass 9.7% paper 33.1 % changes in the amount of waste generated. metals 5.2% The high cost of disposing of small amounts of trash -cannot be offset easily by joining with neighboring commu- nities. Water gets in the way. Transportation by boat raises plastics 8.6% the overall cost of disposal. Costs related to disposal often exceed the cost to bring an item to an island in the first place. For example, the removal cost of a dilapidated car may exceed the cost,of bringing the car on the island. food 43.4% 26 Solid Waste Inventorying the Waste Stream Monhegan's SWAT Team (Solid Waste Attack Team) set up its waste tally system on the public dock during the month Before an effective solid waste management strategy of August 1988 with the help of consultant Will Brinton. The can be developed for an island, an assessment needs to be garbage committee sent letters to all taxpayers on and off the made of how much trash is generated, and what is its compo- island well in advance of the summer season. The letters sition. To find out, a community can conduct an "audit" of explained about the audit and how to participate. Residents, its waste stream. hotels, restaurants, and other businesses were asked to sepa- rate their garbage into several categories and package each Maine law defines municipal solid waste as solid waste generated by homes and normal commercial opera- Monhegan Garbage Separation tions. Paper is the largest component (slightly greater than a Tally Sheet third) and food wastes the'second largest component (almost 0 0 15 %) of Maine's municipal waste. DATE: Island communities may vary significantly from the Material Weight (in pounds) Day's Total state-wide profile, depending upon the presence or absence of Tare restaurants, hotels, industries, and other businesses. Monhegan, for instance, found through its local trash audit Glass that almost one-half, rather than one-seventh, of the waste Plastics stream was composed of food wastes. Since food wastes were the single largest component, a home-based composting Metals program became a high priority. Restaurant waste makes up the largest share of the island's food wastes, but since much Moist Food Waste of this waste is in liquid form and harder to compost, Wet Food Waste Monhegan's program has targeted home-based generators first. Paper Waste stream analysis, in addition to enabling informed Newspaper decisions about management options, has another important Cardboard benefit. It can raise public consciousness, get people in- volved in the issue, and ensure timely and positive response *container weight which is deductedfrom total weight to local trash disposal initiatives. That was certainly Monhegan's experience. 27 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors category in a clear plastic bag. The town dock was open for Managing Solid Waste collection between 5 and 6 p.m. each evening when the trash was counted and weighed on freight scales. When the audit When Maine's landfill-related environmental problems was complete, support was high for going ahead with a became evident, the state sought a way to minimize the i-n,%Arr%nmPntn1 nnd finnnri -1 rn,,t-, of wiste disposal alterna- targeted stratCrgy IIUI- 111"llar,11-Ig 1VX -- - ---- ____ -a- - - - - - - I tives. The answer was a statewide policy making disposal The audit on Monhegan is just one example of how an the option of last resort. audit can be conducted. An audit should be as simple as possible, but should document: The top priorities of the strategy 'are reducing both the volume and toxicity of municipal solid waste and reusing 1. The types and'amounts of waste generated, products and materials. Since 1988, the state has reduced municipal solid waste generation by almost 10%. Recycling 2., How trash is normally collected and disposed is next in priority and already the state-wi& recycling effort of on the island, has doubled. To increase the amount recycled, towns are now focusing attention on composting. All of these efforts 3. How many people and local businesses gener- are aimed at reducing the amount of waste requiring dis- ate the waste, and posal, the last resort in the strategy. The Maine Waste 4. The types of management options th Ie commu- Management Agency is also now placing emphasis on ways nity may wish to consider. to manage construction and demolition debris, market recyclables, and reduce waste management costs. The way an audit is conducted can vary. Tally sheets How do islands fit into the state's strategy? Progress can be developed for different types of audits such as house- has been slow because of the special characteristics of is- holds or marine industries. Waste categories can be specific lands. Traditional means of managing solid waste on islands .or general. If,'for example, a community wishes to explore have included open burning, burial at sea, and landfilling. In crushing glass for reuse on the island rather than shipping it many cases, residents and visitors have also carried their off, it would need to know how much glass overall i's gener- w Iastes off-i'sland to mainland communities. Historicall' -, the ated in order to determine what size glass crusher to pur-, y chase. dispogal of white goods, junk cars, construction debris, and chemicals such as waste oil have been left to individual responsibility. One by one, all of these options, except removal to the mainland, are being discouraged or eliminated for environ-, 28 Solid Waste mental reasons. Faced with a tough federal requirement for groundwater monitoring and clean-up and a state law phasing out unlicensed landfills, the island communities of Frenchboro, Swans Island, Islesboro, North Haven, Vinalhaven, and Chebeague Island must look for alternative means of dealing with their formerly landfilled wastes. Most of these communities have arranged for private contractors to haul waste to the mainland on existing runs of the ferries. Isle au Haut and Matinicus must now also develop their own municipal programs. Monhegan is in compliance having conducted a waste audit and put in place its program for composting food wastes; crushing glass; collecting batteries, paint solvents, and white goods; and compacting the rest for mainland disposal. Managing solid waste at an island home: a burn barrel and grain On islands without a year-round community, waste bag of trash waiting for monthly pickup. Although it's not usually a management practices vary. Mainland communities and the formal local policy, one way islanders reduce the amount of trash Land Use Regulation Commission, depending upon which that needs to be hauled off-island is to burn what they can. entity has jurisdiction over an island, should require a solid Reuse and reduction. Since the cost of transporting waste disposal plan to be part of any island development waste to the mainland is so high, the best policy is to keep proposal they review. Currently individual applicants for solid waste levels as low as possible. This means using Land Use Regulation Commission permits make their own ad products and materials longer, reusing them for new pur- hoc arrangements with whichever community they wish. poses, and reducing the amount used in the first place. These The management strategies that hold most promise for strategies fit well with the self reliance of islanders many of Maine's islands are discussed below. Brochures can also be whose familie@'s have been practicing thenifor generations. obtained from government agencies explaifiing how to One of the ways that everyone, especially large volume develop some of these options. Since no single management food handlers such as hotels and restaurants, can contribute option will serve as a cure-all for any town's waste problems, to waste reduction on islands is to purchase items that have islanders should consider adopting a mix of options. less packaging,,condensed concentrations, or refillable 29 Looking Closely at Six Limitin� Factors containers. Some products, such as small appliances, have benefits of the program. The Cranberries also recycle these been redesigned to facilitate their recycling. materials, as well as newspapers. A possible incentive for reducing trash generation is to imp. "nnv_hv_thf-._hqor" nririnor to onver nRrt nf the rn,-;t of Composting. Composting is a form of recycling, and disposal. Under unit pricing, households and businesses are an effective way to reduce the volume of waste that.needs to charged for disposal ser-vices based upon the amount of trash be hauled off-island. Yard wastes, such as fallen leaves, they generate. For instance, Monhegan charges $2 a bag'for grass clippings, weeds, and the remains of garden plants trash disposal. If consumers know they must pay more to make excellent compost. Kitchen wastes free of meat, bones, produce more garbage,'they will take advantage of source fatty foods can also be'composted. These materials are reduction and recycling opportunities to redute their trash- placed in an outdoor container where they are turned periodi- and their trash disposal bills. Case studies show that pay-by- cally to facilitate the natural decay process brought about by the-bag programs reduce conventional waste collection most microbes, fungi, and other organisms under the right condi- effectively when used in conjunction with recycling and tions. The resulting product-compost-can be used to composting programs. enrich the soil for growing gardens, trees, and shrubs, a welcome supplement to the thin soils commonly found on Recycling. The money that can be saved on landfill and islands. Woody yard wastes can be shredded and used as a incinerator fees is an incentive for recycling. On the main- mulch for gardens and a surface for paths. It, too, will land, recycling usually costs less than disposal. While no data eventually decompose. exists for island communities'yet, the savings are probably not as great because islanders pay high transportation costs Monhegan has a backyard composting program for for both recyclables and trash. Remember the figures men- island households. The town bought composting units with a tioned earlier: mainland communities typically spend $50 to grant, as an incentive to get people involved. $120 to recycle a ton of waste, while they spend on average $75 to $250 per ton for collection and disposal. The University of Maine Cooperative Extension Service offers a good handbook and video on composting available Several island communities are already involved in for people who are interested. The Knox-Lincoln County recycling. The Camden-Rockport Transfer Station is work- Cooperative Extension at 594-2104 can provide details. ing cooperatively with Vinalhaven, North,Haven, Islesboro, Monhegan, and Matinicus to collect portions of their waste Disposal. No benefit is derived from materials that stream. Vinalhaven has initiated a voluntary recycling pro- must be disposed of, unless energy is made in the process of, incineration. Dis osal,is a financial sink hole, made even. gram. -North Haven recycles crushed glass, aluminum and p tin, and involves students.in educating townspeople about the deeper by the high transportation costs and low volume 30 Solid Waste generation of island populations. With the closing of the program to the island's needs and keep up public landfills and the ban on burning and ocean dumping, islands outreach over the long term to maintain active support are moving toward hauling material for disposal off-island to and participation. an incinerator or licensed landfill. 4. When planning a local management system, consider The only disposal options are to contract with an off- both the public and private collection approaches. island landfill or incinerator for waste disposal, perhaps by Collection programs are often the most costly compo- joining a compact of mainland communities or hiring a nent of the system and need to be designed with care. private firm to come to the island, haul the material off, and 5. Consider obtaining priority reservations for haulers' dispose of it properly. Monhegan belongs to the Camden- use of public ferry service to and from the mainland; Rockport Transfer Station which hauls disposable wastes to a 6. Maximize the load volume per trip. Consider using a regional incinerator. Vinalhaven recently contracted with a trash compactor on island to make the most of storage private hauler for the same service. capacity at the collection point (odor and leachate Vinalhaven, Monhegan, the Cranberries, and the Port- nuisance need to be prevented or kept to a minimum); land islands set aside a day or two a year for collection of 7. Use a default factor of $ 1.00/ton/rnile for transporta- white goods and harmful wastes. Junk cars are a particular tion costs on the mainland as a general rule of thumb problem. One of the most innovative ways to deal with them, in addition to the boat/ferry costs; in addition to the excise fee the state now charges, is charging 8. On privately owned islands, "carry in, carry out" is a fee for each car brought onto an island. to cover the eventual the best policy; make arrangements for mainland cost of removal. disposal; and Some suggestions from the Maine Waste Management 9. Minimize the frequency of collection-to the extent Agency for managing waste on islands include the following: that aesthetic and health factors, household/business 1. Conduct a waste stream assessment to pinpoint waste storage capacity, and seasonal, climatic, and demo- management needs; graphic variations allow. 2. Look at both the short- and long-term trends for jobs and population on the island to project waste stream growth; 3. Use a public education and involvement program to establish two-waypommunication between waste managers and the people they serve. Tailor the 31 A 14 32 SOCIAL EXPERIENCE Trying tofigure out how many tourists are seclusion and independence. Some families have been rooted enough on an island is like boiling a frog in on their island for generations. Many make a living from the cold water If you put thefrog into hot water, sea. it'll jump out immediately. If you place it in cold water and start raising the heat, thefrog For residents and short-term visitors alike, the quality of won't realize what's happening until it @ too an island experience depends in great measure upon the late. It's equally difficultfor us islanders to number of people one encounters in relation to the kind of detect how the gradual increase in the number experience one expects. Those seeking privacy don't want to of daytrippers is affecting our psyche. share island space with a lot of othe r people. Those expecting Maine island resident a quiet, close-knit community that makes its living from the Limits and Threats sea are put off by a large number of tourists and strangers wandering around. Residents who make a living from tour- Islanders and visitors value islands for many of the same ists may welcome the swelling numbers. Other residents believe too many tourists hurt their businesses, especially if reasons, but they sometimes have conflicting expectations, they cater to those looking for a quiet retreat from the faster- even among themselves, about the kind of experience they paced mainland. want to have while on an island. In recent years, at least, numbers of visitors and how or Daytrippers and other visitors go out to the islands to whether to limit or direct them has been an issue with some walk, exercise, camp, bike, boat, pursue art, observe nature, island residents and landowners. For example, the number of enjoy the scenery, or explore a village or landscape reminis- daytrippers on Mo'nhegan, bikers on Islesboro, hikers on Isle cent of an earlier time. Many seek solitude. Most usually go au Haut, and boaters visiting popular undeveloped islands with the expectation of a special experience. have been a concern. People live on an island year-round or seasonally for How can everyone's expectations be met? The simple many of the same reasons people visit. Some residents value answer is, they can't. But islanders, as landowners or com- the sense of interdependency among neighbors necessitated munities, can identify the kinds of experience they want and by island living. Others, especially those who summer on visitors to their island seek, and weave that knowledge into smaller islands, like their islands for the opposite reason- the larger discussion of an island's ecological, environmental, 33 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors physical, and fiscal limits, and economic viability. A com- munity can use its understanding of how people feel about Monhegan daytrippers see themselves the social fabric of the island in making decisions about in many ways factors that influence%the numbers of people drawn t 'o it, for Pvnmr,%1P thp timp nf "onnmir activity it nrnmotev, nr the A 1993 survey of 670 daytrippers conducted by -11-1 ..7r- Monhegan Associates found that many label them- capacity of the utilities it develops. selves as sightseers (68%). and/or hikers (57%). Some islanders wonder what kind of limits can be Twenty percent (20%) called themselves naturalists; imposed legally to limit island visitors. University of Maine 17% photographers; 14% seekers of solitude; and School of Law professor Orlando, DeLogu says that if the 10% artists. social experience of a particular island or group of islands is a special part of Maine's heritage, then social carrying capac- Almost 70% visited island shops and restaurants. ity can play an important role in establishing limits to growth. Just under half visited the community's museum. Around 40% visited art studios or the art gallery. However, case law directs communitites not to limit resid ents About one in four opted for a cold swim in the @ocean. or daytrippers based simply on the reason that they "like a small population." Such limits would have to be supported The survey enabled respondents to select more by conclusive technical data, such as information document- than one choice for how they see themselves and ing that tourists have an adverse effect on an island's tradi- what they did while they were on the island. A paid tional fishing economy, for example. surveyor interviewed willing parties of daytrippers departing on the return trips to the mainland on 17 afternoons during the summer of 1993. Monhegan residents generally agree about why they live or summer on the island Most residents say they live there because of the P general quality/way of life and natural beauty/clean environment, according to a 1989 survey conducted for the Monhegan Advisory Committee. Other reasons cited, in decreasing order of importance, include: island people, privacy, family, "other", and work opportunity. Darnariscove Island off Boothbay Harbor is a popular destination for recreational boaters. 34 Social Experience Isle au Haut, an exceptional case because much of the island is part of Acadia National Park, provides an example Limits: In a carrying capacity study for Acadia of how to manage for a- quality experience on a remote and National Park, the Appalachian Mountain Club undeveloped island. recommended that people who arrive on Isle au Haut by park boat at Duck Harbor be limited to 90 daytrippers and 30 campers a day. The total number, (120), was derived by multiplying the average party size, (3), times the number of "stopping places" in the southwest comer of the island, (40), where use is heaviest. This limit is based on the finding that visitors and residents using the park want to occupy a private place. According to the study, "When groups stop, for reasons such as picnicking, resting, sketching, or watching, they usually stop in a place where they can NMI, view the sea. Groups tend to look for a stopping N N" place where they are out of earshot of other groups and can see only one or two other groups. Because this opportunity to occupy a private place seemed an important part of the Isle au Haut experience, and k.- A because these places are limited, the number of places that are available were counted . . Visitors and islanders alike believe the park is already t at the upper end of its carrying capacity, with respect ir lot to providing a quality experience for all users. And at least until now, residents believe the park is managing that effectively minimizes the number of use in a way visitors exploring the settled parts of the island. 14@ The principle used for Isle au Haut-basing visitor Hikersenjoy views from one of Isle au Haut's spectacular "stopping limits on the number of stopping places--can be applied to places." 35 Looking Closely at Six Urniting Factors other islands,with trails and camping sites. But the analysis, f. The practicality of limiting use or discourag- as did the one for Isle au Haut, should also consider the ing visitors, managing impacts, and monitor- capacity of natural conditions to withstand use. For example, ing results. wildlife and vegetation may not be able to tolerate the ainount oicifOot traffilic thilat will' result if-10-jut thic, -a C C C p tC Annendix 2 offers a method for surveying the number of number of people using stopping Iplaces. daytrippers using an island. Such a survey.can be expanded to ask questions about social experience. As mentioned above, Monhegan polled residents through a conventional Inventory! ng. Social Experience- public opinion survey and polled daytrippers on return trips to the mainland. Both residents and transient visitors were What levels of use or development provide a satisfying surveyed on Isle au Haut. experience? How many more people can be accommodated One of the limitations of the M'onhegan survey (see next before the island feels crowded? The answers can be deter- page) in providing guidance about the acceptability of the mined by surveying residents and/or visitors on a particular island, and observing their behavior. island's social experience is that it did not find out why people want the size of year-round/seasonal/daytripper An- island community wanting to manage its experien- populations to change. Knowing people's reasons would help the community choose appropriate management measures. tial qualities needs to know the following: a. The numbers of users and their activities; For instance, if a community knows the reasons year- round islanders feel comfortable with the present number of b. How visitors access the island" daytrippers (e.g. making an income) and seasonal residents want to curb the number of dayirippers (e.g. encroachment on C. The impacts people have; their privacy), it can make some changes that will help minimize the impacts from tourism, such as using signs to d. The acceptable levels of use related to experi- direct daytrippers to the most appropriate areas. ential quality and the environment, as per- ceived by the owners, residents, or visitors themselves; e. Who standsto gain or. lose from curtailing numbers of visitors, seasonal residents or year, round residents; and 36 Social Experience 1989 survey asks Monhegan residents Managing Social Experience how many people should be on the Developing a strategy to manage the number of visitors island for social reasons is probably the most difficult of the carry- Monhegan contracted with Jim Haskell and ing capacity issues to tackle. Setting limits outright for the Associates and its subcontractor O'Brien &Associ- number of daytrippers has political, economic, and legal ates to find out, among other issues, how year-round implications. It is one thing to say that too many people will and seasonal residents feel about the number of hurt the environment; and another to say that too many people on the island. Seventy-six residents re- people will make an experience less satisfying. sponded to the 1989 survey; three out of four were seasonal. Legally, limiting visitors on social grounds may be an abridgement of constitutional rights in the absence of clear, Most respondents, year-round and seasonal specific evidence that too many people will destroy the alike, wanted the year-round population to increase. unique character or special heritage of a place. Policy mak- They favored a level of between 109 and 159 ers and the courts have recognized the need to regulate people, (up from the present population of around experiential use in highly sensitive places, e.g. whitewater 90). On the issue of summer population they dis- rafting quotas on Maine's Kennebec and Penobscot Rivers. agreed. Seasonal residents favored a slightly higher While this principle has not yet been applied to coastal level, about 436 people compared with the less than islands, it certainly could be considered. 400 people selected by the year-round residents. They -disagreed again upon the numl@er of In many cases, it will be more appropriate to use man- daytrippers. A majority of year-round residents agement techniques that lessen the impacts of daytrippers, would prefer the number to remain about the same, while two out of three seasonal residents would and make policy decisions that discourage interest in an prefer to see it decrease. island, rather than limit access to visitors outright. Some key issues were not asked in the In response to the increase in recreational boating in Monhegan survey that could help a community better recent years, and the accompanying increase in island visits, determine the implications of such findings. Ways to the Maine Island Trail Association attempts to direct small focus such a survey are discussed on the following boat owners looking for a place to picnic, explore, or camp to page. islands where they are welcomed. The Association has permission for its members to use a string of public and privately owned islands. By creating a trail network, the 37 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Exploring the reasons behind privately owned islands. By creating a trail network, the attitudes: Association hopes not only to direct boaters to islands whose owners have agreed to public access, but also to steer people A community may already have a sense of why residents away from the more vulnerable islands such as those with %AIMMt tr% inntniirnnA nr rf-,rowAnp more davtriooers or it A se-11; 11 n may wish to ask questions such as the following in a survey. The questions and possible responses should be In exchange for access to the islands, the Association tailored to island conditions by a committee broadly representing the community and appointed to help pre- promotes their wise use by its members. The Association's pare the survey. guide book not only lists the islands on the trail, but also, 1 . If you are satisfied with the, present number of promotes appropriate island behavior. The Association hopes daytrippers to the island, check one or more of the that this educational approach will be effective in limiting following reasons: environmental impacts on the islands. Personal economic gain In similar, fashion, the Cranberry Isles mail boat and Vitality of island economy They don't do any harm ferry schedule includes a map directing people to island They make life more interesting attractions. Monhegan has a brochure and map recommend- It is important to share island heritage with others ing island etiquette and listing island businesses and services. They have a right to be here no matter what I think Information about "acceptable behavior" and the location of Other? public'spaces and toilets i's invaluable. People seem willing 2. If you are dissatisfied with the present number of to do the right thing if they have the right information. daytrippers to the island, check one or more of the following reasons: Some selected techniques for managing use are listed I prefer to see fewer people walk by my home below: They are noisy They contribute little to local economy a. Regulate mooring placement and use and They litter I docking space and tie-up times at town facili- They come into my yard or onto my beach We don't have enough public toilets/water supply ties; for them I feel like I don't know anyone I see anymore b. Provide signs, maps, and other educational materials that steer visitors to appropriate The island feels crowded Their questions bother me places, highlight routes that spread people out, It's -harder to get boat tickets when I want them and minimize impacts on islanders; It's harder to find parking on the mainland at the ferry Other? C. Institute higher ferry fares for daytrippers, than 38 Social Experience d. Negotiate with commercial excursion and ferry boat owners and organized groups to develop schedules and head cou 'nts that con- tribute to quality experiences; e. Ask organizations that carry people to an island, e.g. windjammers and commercial 4Y, boats, to be aware of islanders' or landowners' management goals for an island; J 7 f. Charge a fee to daytrippers to cover the costs of public toilets, solid waste disposal, beach/ open space access, brochure printing, and OF others services needed to manage visitor use; 9. Regulate land use, e.g. limiting use of water- front property to activities related to marine trades. 411 Residents and daytrippers waiting for the ferry to Chebeague Island. 39 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors San Juan, Islands set goals to manage tourism: The San Juan Islands, an archipelago of 172 3. The county, the nonprofit sector, and/or the ;^1-4^ ;@ 1A1-k;-f^n IQfqfn'O DIRrint Q^imrl raninn nrivnfin cortnr Izhrm dri qttpmnt M i-rh jrqfp Al IOIC;tido 11 1 V V"@I III I@J-I I -- @ I @Zj- -1 - . r...-_ -_ - are a major tourist destination. Marine tourism in the tourists about the importance of caring for the region has grown steadily due to increasing promo- island ecology and instill in them a respect for the tion and exposure in national and international islands and their residents. media, coupled with rapid growth of nearby mainland 4., Public policy should recognize that residents population centers in Washington and British Colum- have a right to live in a stable, constructive bia. community in which tourists are invited to partic- In response, San Juan County, the political pate. in ways that do not damage the community jurisdiction that encompasses the islands, is devel- 5. Amenities provided by San Juan County should oping a "Tourism Plan" to manage increasing use not act to attract more tourists to the area or conflicts and minimize environmental and socio- attract the type of tourist who expects amenities economic impacts. The County's -Tourism Planning as part of their travel experience. Advisory Committee is spearheading the develop- 6. San Juan County should develop only a) those ment of the plan and engaging the public in the public facilities which residents want for their own process, with the help of The Madrona Group as - use and enjoyment, for which use by tourists consultants. would be incidental, and b) those public facilities While the plan is in its early.stages of develop- which reduce to Iurist impacts. ment, some of the policies the committee is consid- 7. In order to preserve the quality of life of county ering recommending include: residents, the natural environment of the islands, and the prime resource for the tourism industry, 1 . Tourists should pay, through taxes, fees, and protection of the islands natural beauty, wildlife, I other revenues principally targeted at tourists, for historic and cultural features, and the rural, small all of the direct and indirect costs of the public town atmosphere should be'a high priority. services or facilities attributable to tourism. 8. The county economy should be diversified by 2. Carrying capacity of public facilities should be creating more year-round employment or sea- defined and calculated and used as criteria in sonal industries that peak outside of the tourist tourism planning. season. 40 SOIL AND VEGETATION RESILIENCY "Islands, like mountains, have shallow, fragile This discussion focuses on managing recreational use to soils which are subject to erosionfrom. com- minimize impacts on island soils and vegetation, however, paction due to overuse. Also like alpine areas, these are not the only impacts of recreational use. Promoting their vegetation is under a variety ofphysi- proper disposal of human waste and trash, discouraging the ological stresses. In the case of islands, the destruction of trees for use as fire wood, and minimizing the stresses resultfirom the effects of wind and opportunities for uncontrolled fires are some of the chal- salt, which combine to prune vegetation on the lenges of managing use on the heavily visited islands. windward side of islands. Frequent storms and high winds cause significant blowdown, The quantitative "rules of thumb" contained in this and, in some cases, airborn particles of salt section were gleaned from Dr. Raymond Leonard, former are carried into island interiors where signifi- Director of the U.S. Forest Service's Backcountry Research cant mortality to the vegetation can occur Project. These suggested limits can be a very powerful tool for island managers - if applied at a point when island use is By virtue of their isolation, islands are also still low. Once heavy use occurs, impacts are more intense refugesfor rare species of plants and ani- and longer-lived and people's behavior is harder to change. mals. " (Conkling and Leonard, 1984) When badly abused, vegetation may take years to reestablish Limits and Threats itself, or decades if the soil base is destroyed. Limits. The amount of picnicking, camping, and Heavy human use can impact an island's soil and veg- hiking soil and vegetation can withstand depends etation beyond the point from which it can recover from year upon a site's physical characteristics. A bog or steep to year. Some of the state's most popular islands for recre- slope can bear very little use. A flat grassy area ational use, such as Jewell Island in Casco Bay and Hell's tolerates much more abuse than a pine-needled forest Half Acre off Stonington, show signs of stress from extensive floor. Most island sites can be used for backcountry use by people. The natural systems of other islands are likely recreation without showing visible effects if no more to be degraded unless their limits are understood and use of than 100 person visits per year occur. One expects the islands is carefully planned and monitored. persistent decline, however, if a site receives 500 person visits or more a year. When use reaches 1000 person visits a year, a site has to be actively managed to offset threats to soil and vegetation. 41 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors These 'rules of thumb must be tempered with knowl- Inventorying Vegetation and Soil edge of how many people use a site at any one time, how long they stay, what parts of the -site they use, Impacts and the particular characteristics of the island. In A c;fi@ mrAr thrpi--rinxi ni-rind To determine whether physical impacts to soil and will probably not impact vegetation and soil in a vegetation are occurring, island managers may want to persistent manner, especially if they limit use to the establish baseline and monitoring data. Studies of this type most resilient parts of the site. One hundred people measure the amount of soil cover and types of species within using the same site for three days are likely to leave study plots called transects. Soil loss and changes in species visible effects, as would ten people per day using the are measured over time to determine rates of change. Rates same site over a ten-day period. Most sites can of use can be determined with counters installed at key points tolerate parties of two visiting 25 times a year for along a trail or, less comprehensively, by people tallying two-day visits. More resilient ones can tolerate 50- users. 100 visits under the same conditions. The Maine Island Trail Association recommends keeping group Island managers may want 'to consult the following size small, six people or fewer on smaller or more studies for a description of methods to use. The U.S. Forest popular islands, and keeping visits short, three days or Service's Backcountry Research Project has recorded the less. results of its research on Big Garden Island and Hurricane Island in People and Islands: Resource Managementfor Based upon erosion and vegetation loss studies, the Islands in the Gulf of Maine (1984). The Appalachian Moun Appalachian Mountain Club found that trails on Isle au Haut tain Club described the approach used in its study of carrying could tolerate no more than 50 people a day without exces- capacity on Isle au Haut in Interim Reports 2 & 3: Visitor sive wear. The Club also advised Monhegan Associates, Use and Impact Patterns on the Isle au Haut Acadia National stewards of 17 miles of island trails, that its trail system can Park (1989). The Island Institute in collaboration with the withstand more use than it presently attracts, depending upon Maine Island Trail Association will be developing a long- the specific condition of different trails. Based upon the term system for examining recreational impacts of selected results of a survey and an assumption that between 60 and islands. 200 daytrippers visit the island on a summer day, between 34 and 114 hikers can be expected out on the trails. Most of the hikers visit the same places: Lobster Cove, White Head, and Burnt Head. Even the heavily used trails to these spots have greater capacity, with management, according to the Appala- chian Mountain Club representative.. 42 Soil & Vegetation Resiliency Managing Soil and Vegetation Resiliency Intensive management to prevent soil and vegetation loss is not yet a necessity on most Maine islands, and it won't have to be, at least in the next five years or so, if the islands are managed well as an overall system. This is the kind of lt*w cooperative venture that the Maine Island Trail Association is WE REQUEST ;HAT ALL trying to achieve in encouraging its 2000 members to be PERSONS USE THE PORTION OF THE BEAC H BEYOND THIS good stewards of the more than 70 public, semi-public, and POLE MARKER. OWNERS AND STAFF WILL HAVE TO ASK private islands available for use by its members. THAT YOU MOVE THERE. PLEASE DO NOT ADVANCE INLAND. For the more heavily-used islands, active management Help us protect the sand dunes and keep the environment clean. will be a necessity despite the best educational efforts. For We are committed to a significant program for protection of wildlife instance, Monhegan Associates has learned techniques from and conservation of flora and historical sites. Many areas of ff the Appalachian Mountain Club that will help keep trail this island are ecologically and VIN4 . 1z archeologically sensitive. it is widths ftom being excessively widened. And the private unlawful to enter these premises without written, dated permission owners of Butter Island in Penobscot Bay, a popular wind- of the landowner. R.4. ftWW Gd- H.-Iod cq-.u_ jammer and cruising destination, are now using signs, bro chures, and a caretaker to direct people to certain stopping places, camp sites, and trails. 114 Such management techniques are discussed below: Encourage use where you want it and can manage it. It is important to establish acceptable patterns of use and behavior before many people discover an island so that as use f increases, people will be in the habit of doing "the right V thing". Once people get in the habit of using a particular site Sign directs visitors to Roque Island to a certain, limited part of or using it in a particular manner, it can be very difficult and the island. costly to get them to change. 43 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Over the long term, the limits of resiliency are bound to Use a caretaker,when signs of damage start @o show. be reached-on many islands, especially on the more popular When vegetation and soil no longer rebound quickly from ones, as the number of small boat owners and windjammer use, it is probably time to establish a caretaker on the island nn thp Mninp rnno orrow Fnr this, reason. it is wise to ensure people use designated areas. Experience has shown to use brochures, signs, and educational materials to direct that when such high levels of use are reached, there are people to the islands that are deemed most appropriate for usually enough users to pay for the cost of the caretaker recreational use., Only the more resilient islands should be through a fee system, according to Ray Leonard. targeted for use. Those with fragile ecosystems, sensitive plant and animal species and communities, landowners that do not welcome public use, and wildlife sanctuaries should not be publicized. Plan to actively manage sites as use grows and direct people to use the parts of each island that are most resil- ient. When island use exceeds 100 person visits a year, specific sites for camping and other activities should be designated. Tent platforms, for instance, go a long way toward avoiding detrimental soil and vegetation loss. Signs directing people to the most resilient camp sites and trails on an island can be helpful in establishing healthy Use patterns. On privately-owned islands that are open to public use, signs can. direct visitors away from the parts of the island a land- owner would like to keep private. Brochures and publica- tions such as the Maine Island Trail Association member handbook can inform people about camping, waste disposal, and other techniques that conserve island integrity and landowners' good will. Harpswell has published a brochure that describes the special features of local islands and pro- motes their wise use. 44- Soil & Vegetation Resiliency MAW - 14@ "C N, s@z Driftwood camp on an island in the Muscle Ridge. 45 4qrol: "7 Al, Ap@ 0@ .4, W- Nz- 46 WILDLIFE Limits and Threats Coastal Maine is a highly productive biological environ- wading birds, waterfowl, and raptors. Some species are ment, providing food and shelter for 150 species of marine- considered rare or endangered; others are found in spectacu- related birds and 26 species of marine mammals. This lar abundance; overall it is a resource considered to be of diverse assembla ge includes seabirds, shorebirds, seals, international, state, and regional significance. Coastal wildlife is integral to Maine's character and heritage _71@@ li@ and it has contributed to making the coast a major tourist destina- @C tion. Ironically, this outstanding resource is jeopardized by the use Ilk and development it has spawned. ',J N t .1. --,", , A* The Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife has torying coastal wildlife resources primary responsibility for inven and promoting appropriate man- agement measures for adoption by state and local government and private land owners. In 1994 the Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife was in the midst of 0'' mapping coastal wildlife habitat for regulation under Maine's Natural Resources Protection Act. Gull's nest on Little Brimstone Island. Since standards relating to the carrying capacity of individual 47 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors species are subject to change, this handbook emphasizes Colonial Waterbirds on Coastal Islands colonial nesting waterbird habitat by way of example. 1977 1991 Colonial waterbirds nest in groups called colonies. Four Species No. of Nesting No. of Nesting Colonies Pairs Colonies Pairs me.rie.-, of colonial seabirds and seven SDecies of wadinL- birds nest on Maine's islands. Common Eider 241 22,390 325 30,1.76 Double-crested The table to the right shows the estimated number of Cormorant 103 15,333 132 28,044 colonies and nesting pairs for these species. Four hundred Herring Gull 223 26,037,- 258 23,176 fifty-two, or about 10%, of Maine's coastal islands and Great Black- ledges have recent records of one or, more nesting waterbirds. backed Gull 220 9,847 255 13,642 A partial list of these islands can be found in the Department Arctic Tern 9 1,640 10 2,094 of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife's Coast of Maine Wildlife Common Tern 24 2,095 24 3,914 Management Area Plan, (199 1). Roseate Tern 3 80 6 127 Laughing Gull 6 231 9 716 Atlantic Puffin 1 125 3 144 Seabirds prefer undeveloped, unforested islands. Most Black-headed islands used by nesting waterbirds are relatively small. The Gull 0 0 1 1 outer coastal islands are superior for nesting because of their Leach's Storm- relative isolation from predators such as foxes, mink, and petrel 17 19,131 18 19,411 raccoons, but as use by recreational boaters and vacation Black Guillemot 115 2,668 132 2,776 home-owners has increased, conflicts between nesting birds Razorbill 2 25 3 75 and people are more frequent, even on the outer islands. Great Cormorant 0 0 4 29 Great Blue Heron 18 903 30 1,281 Development, human activity, and the pets, sheep and Black-crowned other predators introduced by people can destroy nesting Night Heron 8 117 9 96 habitat, expose eggs, adults and young to predation, and Glossy Ibis 3 75 2 134 crush burrows and eggs. For this reason, many seabird island Little Blue Heron 2 4 2 4 Snowy Egret 4 90 3 252 owners do not use them during the breeding season orc'hoose Tricolored Heron 1 1 1 1 not to develop their properties at all. Cattle Egret 0. 0 1 2 Just over half of the islands used by nesting waterbirds Source: Island Nesting Colonial Waterbird Assessment, are owned by the state and at least 32 more are owned by Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, 1992 other private or public conservation organizations. However, '48 Wildlife many important islands remain in private ownership. A Inventorying Waterbird change in use of these private islands could jeopardize the health of the birds and their habitat. Birds on publicly-owned Populations islands are also at risk when they are disturbed during the nesting season by campers, picnickers, and other boaters. Island landowners and communities should not conduct their own inventories of the numbers of colonial waterbirds Indeed, one need only to look to the 19th century, when nesting on their islands. Attempts at inventorying by an even gulls were in short supply in Maine, to see the impact untrained person pose undue risks to the birds. The Depart- that human exploitation and disturbance can have on these ment of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife has conducted baseline birds. The seabirds were displaced by human activity, im- population studies that can be relied upon. pacted by sheep, and taken for meat, feathers, eggs, and even Managing Waterbirds and Other fish bait. Seabird populations dramatically declined in the 1800's when human populations on Maine islands peaked. Wildlife Populations The status of several species of seabirds is currently The State of Maine's approach to managing wildlife is precarious. Endangered species such as the Roseate Tern aimed at maintaining abundance and diversity. Endangered war-rant special attention. The Arctic Tern, Leach's Storm species such as the Roseate Tern are not the only concern. Petrel, and Atlantic Puffin are being watched for signs of Habitat for all wildlife is important. In addition to protecting decline. Eiders, Herring and Blackbacked Gulls, and existing waterbird nesting islands, it is important to protect Doublecrested Cormorants seem to be doing well. complexes of islands from development so the waterbirds and other wildlife will be free to move if necessary from one Limits. Wildlife biologists recommend a "rule of island to another as conditions change. thumb" of no use by people or sheep during the The State's Natural Resources Protection Act provides nesting season because colonial nesting waterbirds protection for certain wildlife habitat identified in the law as can tolerate very little disturbance. In terms of carry- @6 significant." Among the protected resources are: endan- ing capacity, an island used by nesting waterbirds can gered and threatened species; certain waterfowl and wading accommodate little, if any, use and 'development bird habitats; shorebird habitat; and seabird nesting islands. during the nesting season. Keeping sheep on nesting In 1994, the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and islands poses a risk to waterbirds because the sheep Wildlife was preparing assessments and management plans can trample burrows, crush eggs, and destroy the for protecting these wildlife habitats of state importance, higher grass and shrubs required by some species to including guidelines for implementing the wildlife protection conceal nests from predators. provisions of the Natural Resources Protection Act. The Department has identified 295 islands as significant seabird 49 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors nesting habitats. The Land Use Regulation Commission has Basically, management of colonial waterbird popula- special standards for seabird nesting islands. The Natural tions has four major objectives: Resources Protection Act standards will be designed to Protecting colonial waterbirds; complement the Land Use Regulation Commission's wildlife Minimizing loss of nesting habitat; 1-h4af pro f-+;- Limiting opportunities tor disturbance during the nesting season; and State and federal regulations also protect the birds Avoiding the introduction of predators. themselves. The regulatory arena is complex due to the overlapping jurisdictions of several levels of government. Protecting colonial waterbirds. Protecting the birds The Migratory Bird Tre 'aty Act specifies the birds that can be themselves using all of the regulatory and nonregulatory hunted, (e.g. Eiders), and protects all but nuisance,birds, such tools available should be a -top priority. As discussed above, as starlings, from harm and harassment. It also requires a 'the regulatory arena is complex due to overlapping state and permit for activities, such as research, that may disrupt the federal regulations. Local governments can protect habitat birds. State regulations govern seasons and other matters with restrictive zoning. Landowners can take nonregulatory pertaining to hunting Eiders, formulated within the guidelines steps such as posting their islands to warn visitors away from provided by the federal government. nesting areas. The federal and state Endangered Species Acts protect Minimizing permanent ha bitat loss. Development or endangered and threatened species such as the Roseate Tern building is not appropriate on waterbird nesting islands, and B'ald Eagle. Guidelines for protection of these species except in very rare cases where the nesting colony is located can be found in the Department of Inland Fisheries & in a relatively small'area of a very large island, and adequate Wildlife's Atlas of Essential Wildlife Habitats for Maine's visual buffers can be maintained to prevent disturbance. To Endangered and Threatened Species, and Bald Eagle Man- find out whether an island's seabird population can tolerate agement System and Data Base. The guidelines for Bald any use or development, contact the Department of Inland Eagles limit incompatible uses within 660'of a nest occupied Fisheries and Wildlife's Regional Wildlife Biologist assigned in at least one of the last three years. Lesser restrictions to your region. prevail in the zones from 660'- 1320' and 1320'-2640' from the Sheep are another consideration in limiting habitat loss, nest. although their influence is more temporal than houses, docks, and roads. Free-ranging sheep turn Common Eider and Laugh- In addition to the protections provided by the regulatory. ing Gull nesting cover into short grass that offers no protection, process, many island owners and communities may want to driving the birds into marginal habitat or off the island. take their own steps to protect the birds and their habitat. 50 Wildlife Limiting disturbance during the breeding ----- -- . . . .......... season. TiminR is everything with breeding waterbirds. Because the birds are so sensitive, even "low impact uses" such as bird watching and picnicking can flush them off their nests. Nesting begins around April 1. Many of the birds are done by July 15, but a few re quire more time. The amount and timing of seclusion depend on the island and species. Some waterbirds are still rearing their chicks into August. A prohibition against disturbance is equally important from the water where people should conduct their activities at least 1/4 mile off shore. Construction isn't advisable from -Vat March 1 through August 15. Eagles, by comparison, require a longer time period, from February I to August 31. F Avoiding the introduction of predators. Mink, raccoons, foxes, and other predators should not be introduced onto a colonial waterbird nesting island. Some people have done so inadvertently, thinking to rid their island of a pesty raccoon by. transferring it to another island. The consequences are devastating to nesting birds. Cats and dogs should not be allowed to roam freely. Many islanders have had their flower and vegetable gardens eaten by deer. Whether there are too many deer and how to limit their numbers is frequently a topic of animated conversation among islanders. 51 OWN= 71 41 IRA K:-@O 41A 52 SCENIC QUALITY AND CHARACTER Limits and Threats The scenic beauty of the Maine coast is a national asset With respect to islands, each one of us probably can and islands provide much of the visual richness. Harvard think of a view that we hope will be there, unblem- researcher Carl Steinitz summed up the most important ished, in perpetuity. We can probably also think of a influences on people's visual preferences for the Mount spot where some development activity has marred a Desert area. While the study was conducted for Acadia scenic place or view, such as a house on a prominent National Park, the results are instructive for rest of the coast. bluff, many houses strung along the shore, or a tall He found that Acadia visitors: communication tower. I . Do not like to see a "culturally modified", i.e. State mandated shoreland zoning now provides some developed landscape, (with the exception protection of the shoreline by requiring that most listed in #3); buildings are set back 75 feet from the high tide line 2. Seek a sense of mystery; they wish to be and by limiting the amount of tree clearing that can drawn further into the scene; go on in the 250-foot strip along the shore. However, a town, a community or an individual island land 3. Like coastal development that is generic to owner can take additional measures to ensure that the Maine landscape; development is sited in a way that protects the natural 4. Like to see water; appearance of islands, the shorelands, and the distinct boundaries of island settlements. Measures can also 5. Do not like to see tourist-oriented develop- be taken to encourage development that reinforces ment; island architecture and community values. 6. Like distant views; Limits. The Steinitz study mentioned earlier did not quantitatively explore how much of Maine's coastal 7. Like to see a "folded" landscape (one with a landscape can be developed without detrimental lot of edges and layers), typically mountains effects. However, a study Greg Buhyoff and Doug and islands; and Wellman published in the Journal of Leisure Re- 8. Like to see diverse and well-maintained search documents that "landscapes become 'aestheti- vegetation distributed in the foreground and cally damaged' rather quickly, with the greatest middle ground of a view. impact expected within the first 10% of the area 53 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors changed." Their study shows that sometimes a little development from view. Areas with gentler bit of development can have a rather strong and slopes and high, dense tree cover can screen immediate effect on overall visual quality. Applying development from view better than steeply this rule of thumb to the Maine coast, if the g*oal for sloping terrain with immature tree growth or an idnntj nr Pnrnnh-v nf ichnile ic rptni 1- -A its remote, ric, ti-CC, COvCin 111%, r,1kCtL%,1 L11%, OlvF- ullu natural character, at least 90% should remain undevel- shorter the trees, the more likely a structure oped, and highly intrusive new development should will be visible. The greater proportion of be avoided altogether. softwood in the tree cover, the more likely people won't be able to see the development Erv Zube's work, undertaken in the 1970s when he even during the winter; was affiliated with the University of Massachusetts, also provides guidance for islands where unspoiled, 2 Vegetation renewal potential. Some islands natural character is not the goal. His New England will not support tree cover because of natural research showed that when more than 50% of a conditions such as Wind, salt spray, and lack landscape appears developed with low density resi- of adequate soil cover. While these islands are dential development, it no longer appears "rural" in usually so small that development is pre- character. A Yugoslavian study drew the same con- cluded, development of the larger unvegetated clusion, and that much more surrounding open space islands wou IId be highly conspicuous. In is needed (70% or more) when development is more contrast, areas that are open because people or dense. sheep have managed the vegetation can be allowed to revert back to trees to minimize the Inventorying Visual Carrying visibility of.development. However, because Capacity people like the look of fields, as well as Islanders and island stewards who are interested in Woods, sometimes it is desirable to maintain a inventorying their island's visual resources should consult the diverse landscape. Department of Economic and Community Development's 3. Visual exposure of the site to key viewing publication titled, How to Conduct An Inventory of Scenic areas (i.e. whether it can be seen from the. Areas. water or public ways, trails and facilities). In inventorying an island's visual carrying capacity, one The community needs to decide which scenic should especially consider the following: areas are important. If the community wants to maintain a natural appearance from the 1 . Existing screening capacity, i.e. the likeli- water, then it should identify places on the hood that tree cover and/or terrain will screen island that can be seen from the water. For 54 Scenic Quality & Character gently sloping islands, this is usually just the Managing Visual Resources shoreland. A community should also consider whether to include in the inventory other Can the visual quality and unique character of the landforms visible from the water. Acommu- islands be protected without stopping development alto- nity concerned about an island's character gether? Three strategies offer ways to meet this challenge from the vantage point of those who drive or successfully: walk interior roads can map these "viewsheds" as well; and Concentrate development where possible. Conven- tional development patterns tend to sprawl in grid fashion 4. Visual quality, i.e. the degree to which an throughout a landscape. It's difficult to anticipate the ulti- area is considered visually pleasing. Open mate effect on visual character because most development fields, pronounced landforms, groups of occurs incrementally, house-by-house. People get used to islands, views of the water from island roads, such change, a little bit at a time. But at some point, a place and traditional architecture are just some of begins to take on a new character. An island that once felt the more important features that can contrib- unspoiled or remote, now begins to look just like any other ute to an island's visual quality. developed landscape. All @IA @fM, qAAAA1A IN h A Concentrate development within or near existing villages, avoiding development that sprawls throughout the landscape. 55 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Wherever possible, the most effective policy is to site For some islands, dispersing development on large lots development in pockets or within or near existing villages may be the best way to conserve other important values and and settled areas of an island, to retain as much open space as sensitive resources. In any case, the development pattern possible. Many local ordinances include "growth areas" or needs to respond to an island's particular characteristics. rhicti-rincy nrnvicinnc tn 5ir-Pnrnnfleh th;c nhiprt;vp Trlpnllxr ,decisions about which islands or parts of islands should be Develop areas with high potential for screening developed would be made as part of a regional process to development from view and protecting scenic quality. identify growth areas for an entire bay or watershed. To Those who are planning the future of an island should look retain a lafidscape with a remote undeveloped character, only forIthe places that are most capable of hiding development a very small percentage'Of the total visible area should be from view, unless of course, the area to be developed is a developed, whereas a rural, developed character could sustain village area or other place where the community wants a little more development. In making policy decisions about development to be conspicuous. Villages and harbor water- visual character,consideration needs to be given towho the fronts are usually highly visible but positive components of viewing audience is: boaters on the water, people exploring Maine's scenic beauty. Local land use ordinances can en- the land base of an island itself, island residents? courage development to locate in villages or areas where development will be the most inconspicuous. Avoid building in places with high Visibility from the water, instead build in areas with a high potential for screening new development from view. 56 Scenic Quality & Character Screen development from view where a naturally screen new development from view (currently, appearing landscape is important. Even if development is this is only a consideration in the 250-ft. located in a place with good screening it doesn't mean that shoreland area); and the project will not be seen once it is built. A project can be designed sensitively to take advantage of the screening power 3. Rooftops and other evidence of development of a site. For instance, building a road directly up a rise, to be sited below ridgelines and tree cover. might allow people to see it from the water, whereas, having the road traverse the slope along its topographic contours can People who own an entire island or large property on an hide it from view. Standards can be incorporated into local island don't have to wait for local or state government to ordinances and Land Use Regulation Commission regula- protect the visual interests of their property. Private land- tions that require: owners can accomplish the same objectives through thought- ful subdivision plans, deed restrictions, and conservation I . Sensitive road and utility siting on slopes, easements. 2. The retention of existing vegetation or plant- ing of new vegetation in critical places to J Design development to take advantage of the screening power of a site, so that it will not be seen once it is built. 57 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors Swan's Island communication tower -a makes scenic impact A 300-foot high transmitter tower-, with FAA-mandated flashing red light, was recently installed on Swan's Island by a cellular phone company. Island residents have divergent opinions about the tower -some find it an unsightly blem- ish in their view, others are excited by the availability of improved communications technology With no island-wide zoning, the tower did not require planning board approval. Similar towers have been proposed on other islands in recent years. In response to such a proposal, Islesboro adopted This prominent house on a'North Haven bluff is a Penobscot Bay landmark, but if a new ordinance language limiting the house were built on a similarly visible point, people would probably feel as though the height of towers. value of a highly scenic place had been compromised. People can work with local government to inventory and protect such special places. 58 r 009%61W Ak In some communities there are not many scenic views of the water from public roads. Local governments or island communities may want to consider ways to protect views valued by residents. Protection techniques range from vegetation management, to conservation easements, to preserving open views (i.e., maintaining fields). 59 4T Vol' 60 USING LIMITS TO DECIDE AN ISLAND'S FUTURE This chapter attempts to describe a very difficult task- Occasionally islanders' concerns are focused on only pulling together the study of each limiting factor into an one resource or factor and the level of use that it can sustain, overall carrying capacity analysis for an island, and.turning in which case the carrying capacity analysis can be very that into a comprehensive island management strategy. focused. The Island Institute has experience in preparing Island towns preparing a comprehensive plan and these more selective plans, and they can be consulted for implementing ordinances as a part of Maine's Growth Man- help. agement Program should be able to use this handbook as a Put "n he Factors Together tool in that process. Considerable information about compre- I steps lead up to putting the factors together. hensive planning is available from the Office of Community Some o the steps ate discussed here at length, and others Development in Augusta and from regional planning agen- hardly at all. cies. (See Appendix 5.) Those materials should be referred to for guidance on how to design/a public planning process, To initiate an analysis of an island's carrying capacity, supplementing the discussion that follows. Island communi- someone-an individual or a group of people-needs to ties under the jurisdiction of the Land Use Regulation Com- make a general assessment of the recent trends in use and mission and peopie wishing to do an island plan at less than development of the island, and the impact of those activities the town level may find the comprehensive planning materi- on natural resources and quality of life. Most likely, if there is als useful as well. interest in considering limits, there is consensus in the com- Mainland towns with islands under their jurisdiction munity that there is a problem. Defining the problem will should also consider the carrying capacity of the islands direct the analysis. when making decisions affecting their future use and devel- This handbook focuses on one step of a process, analyz- opment. The vast majority of Maine islands are part of a ing levels of use and development that can be sustained by mainland town, but rarely are the islands' unique limits and the six factors discussed in Chapter 2. However, that step values given consideration during the local comprehensive must be one of several in a long-term planning exercise. planning and ordinance-writing process. Steps in that process would probably include: further assess- ment of the current situation; analyzing limiting fact6rs; ti Sev a putting the factors together; deciding on solutions; and 61 Using Limits Summary of Rules of Thumb Groundwater Quantity: 1. Limit impervious surfaces to < 25% island 2. Islands 100 acres or more: maximum density of 1 acre per unit 3. Islands less than 100 acres: maximum density of 2.5 acres per unit Groundwater Quality: Saltwater intrusion 1 . Islands 5 acres or more: maximum density of 1 acre per unit 2@ . Islands less than 5 acres: no development Septage contamination (on-site welilseptic): 1 . Relatively flat islands with good soils: maximum density of 1.5 acres per unit 2. Islands with shallow/clay soils: maximum density of 3 acres per unit Social Experience: Remote recreational experience: 1. Numbeeof "stopping places" multiplied by average party size = maximum daily use Vegetation and Soil Annual limits: Resiliency: 1 . No impact on ve'etation or soils if site visited by less, than 100 people per year 9 2. Persistent decline expected if used by over 500 people per year 3. Active management needed if used by over 1000 people per year Size of party. 1 No impact: 20 people over 3 days/ 25 visits of 2 people each using site for 2 days (sensitive sites)/50-1 00 parties of 2 people each using site for 2 days (resilient sites) 2. Visible eff ects: 100 people over 3 days/1 0 people over 10 days Seabird Nesting Islands: 1 No development; if construction is necessary, avoid April 1 -July 15 .2. No sheep/almost no use by people 4/1-8/15 Scenic Quality: 1 Remote, "unspoiled" character desired: develop no more than 10% of island or island complex/no highly intrusive development 2. Rural character desired: develop no more than 50% of island/island complex 62 implementing them. Effort should be made to involve as How much of the land is buildable and at what many affected people as possible. densities based upon water supply and subsur- In addition to the analysis of limiting factors, such as face sewage disposal? The table on page 64 those discussed in Chapter 2, it will probably be necessary to discusses the value of conducting a buildout put some effort into quantifying the numbers of residents and analysis. An explanation of how to do the visitors to an island. It is important to understand the charac- analysis can be found in Appendix 3. teristics of the people who are currently, or likely in the What other natural or cultural factors alter the future, to exceed an island's carrying capacity-year-round. appropriateness of identified areas and densi- residents, people who own or rent seasonal homes, and ties? For instance, are there important wildlife transient visitors who come for the day or lodge or camp for habitats such as eagle nesting areas that should a night or longer. In addition to the people who live on an be removed from "buildable" status? What island year-round and seasonally, planners need to know proportion of the island is developable and generically who and how many transient visitors there are, how does this amount/location stack up how they get there, why and when they come, and what they against the scenic quality rules of thumb? do while on the island. Methods for quantifying resident and If all the buildable land were eventually to be visitors are discussed in Appendix 2. developed, how would the island's social Once analyses of factors that are most likely to stress an experience change? Would resulting densities island's carrying capacity have been completed, the next step enhance or threaten its traditional character? is to determine how they relate to one another. There is not How would peak populations, including day one simple way to put the factors together because of the trippers and other short- term visitors along great variability among island circumstances. The table on with year-round and seasonal residents, make the facing page summarizes the "rules of thumb" recom- the place feel psychologically, i.e. comfort- mended for each of the issues considered. able, small and friendly, overcrowded, just Some of the key questions to ask when putting it all like any other residential area? together are: 3. If an island does not have development poten- 1 . Does the island have development potential? tial: If it is smaller than five acres or used by What uses are appropriate? seabird nesting colonies then the answer may How much recreational use can its vegetation be "no". and soil withstand? Will that amount exceed 2. If it has development potential: the social carrying capacity of the island's recreational experience? Will recreational 63 Using Limits uses threaten sensitive wildlife populations such as seabird nesting colonies? These questions are meant to help direct the analysis that needs to be done to weave limiting factors together. There are many other important questions to answer, depend- ing upon the island. For populated islands, fiscal limits will probably be an important factor to consider along with the others. Once this cross-c'utting analysis is completed, a clear T7'75,14 1.0 picture should evolve of how much use and development an island can withstand. Developing Management Goals and Strategies Some big decisions have to be made to make the leap from knowing what an island's carrying capacity is, to adopt- ing measures to assure that limits are not surpassed. Usually this step in the planning process is described as setting management goals and adopting implementation strategies. Ale 4 These goals and strategies can direct the type and intensity of use and development to insure that an island's resources are sustained. Islanders need to decide what level of impact on drinking water supplies, seabird habitat, the character of the A lot of dialogue needs to take place in a community to reach island"s landscape, and other factors they are comfortable consensus on goals and to implement strategies for balancing growth with resource protection. with. Communities also need to decide to what degree put- ting limits on use and development is acceptable. Finding consensus on goals and strategies that balance growth with resource protection is a challenge for any community. Island towns and mainland towns with islands under their jurisdiction have primary responsibility for local land For instance, the state is developing regulations to guide land use use decisions. However, the state also has planning and decisions on islands with habitats of state significance, such as regulatory responsibilities that affect island carrying capacity. colonial seabirds, under the Natural Resources 64 A build out analysis can help a community understand the long-range implications of land use planning: Development can have a cumulative impact on an development, and environmentally constrained areas. island's water resources, maintains Robert Gerber, a When they looked at what remained, they identified two hydrogeologist who has conducted groundwater studies on possible areas where they could encourage or direct several year-round and seasonally inhabited islands. This growth. The community voted in favor of one of these fact alone makes it worthwhile for an island to examine areas, based on the proximity to the existing built commu- what level of development is enough. nity and the suitability for septic disposal. This was then On Vinalhaven, Gerber thought about this limit as he approved by LURC, the agency that regulates land use on provided the town with a minimum lot size recommendation Monhegan. With the facts in hand, the community chose to to ensure safe, clean and plentiful water supplies. He favor development within an already developed area while based his figure, which assumed maximum residential protecting the rest of the island. To their advantage, 65% of development, on the ability of island soils to absorb and the island is owned and protected by the Monhegan filter septage. Another community might have other limits or Associates. In other communities without a comparable tolerances they would not want to exceed as they think amount of protected open space, there may be even more about minimum lot sizes. His recommendation for incentive to identify acceptable limits of growth based Vinalhaven turned out to be more restrictive than the environmental, as well as socioeconomic conditions. current zoning, assuming maximum development. A build out provides baseline information for a commu- Vinalhaven has the opportunity to use Gerber's build out nity to consider when asking questions such as: what are scenario in future deliberations about the island's land use our limiting factors and how do we want our community to ordinances. look down the road? The theoretical analysis of maximum On another island, concern about cumulative impacts residential development and consideration of the related cumulative impacts can motivate a community to revise led the community to identify acceptable lot sizes and growth and rural areas. Monhegan examined where current zoning regulations affecting minimum lot sizes, building could still take place by going through a build out setbacks, and resource protection zones, as well as exercise. They identified buildable areas by eliminating identified growth and rural areas. developed areas, "wildland" areas where zoning precludes For more information on conducting a build out see Appendix 3. 65 Using Limits Setting Management Goals A carrying capacity analysis conducted for Isle au Haut Impacts on the Town of Isle au Haut bv the Appalachian Mountain Club under contract to C)f 4"e Lit L L Acadia National Park offers a good example of manage- III lt;LU!Jl lit] a; ment goals. Isle au Haut is a 6,700 acre island in resource-based economy and not develop a Penobscot Bay with a year-round community of about 75 tourism-based economy, intensive visitor manage- people. The park encompasses the southern half of the ment will direct most Park visitors to the Park. island, about 3,241 -acres. A committee of island residents Social conditions and park personnel developed the following management Visitors should be few enough in number that goals, selectively included and abbreviated here for they can be spread out along the coast and simplicity: have a sense of privacy. Environmental conditions Natural appearing shoreline v'istas should be Environmental protection should be the highest maintained. priority in the park section of Isle au Haut, with Campground design should provide for a sense of visitor experience having lower priority. Manage- privacy. ment activities will be adopted with the objective of nondegradation of the environment. Isle au Haut in the context of Acadia National Park as a whole The environment should be primarily shaped by natural forces, and human activities should not be Both experiences, visiting the undeveloped 'generally apparent to the average visitor. shoreline and visiting an island are special. In this The objective of preventing degradation of envi- context, Isle au Haut should be recognize *d as a ronmental conditions does not preclude trail. remote area within, the Acadia National Park maintenance or relocation, or other construction to system. manage visitors. The national park setting on Isle au Haut is unusual to be Endangered and rare species and their habitats sure, but the kind of thinking island residents and park will be protected. officials did to set the tone of visitor use and management is helpful to all who plan the future of islands. Not only are Vegetation beside trails should generally not the process and specific management goals illustrative, so, show the effects of trampling. Trail treadways is the thinking about how one island fits into the biaaer may be defined and duff and organic soil worn picture, in the case of non-park islands, in the context of a bay or the Maine coast as a whole. away, but they should not be excessively wide ordeep. 66 Protection Act. There are also decisions that individual landowners or island owners can make about the use, development, and conservation of their properties. eft After goals have been set, management strategies should be developed and implemented to ensure the goals Stonington V1 are realized. Many techniques can be applied to managing use and development of islands, but.this handbook is not intended to explore each fully. Some are mentioned in W@) 10 Chapter 2 for each of the carrying capacity factors dis- cussed. Others can be brainstormed through local com- 0 4fd& - A mittees, island landowner associations, and organizations and agencies willing to help. MUJI/ Where development capacity of an island is con- cerned, one of the most important issues to consider is the ultimate land use pattern that is desired for an island. It is not enough to plan for an overall density. It is equally C% own Dock im ortant to decide how that development will be distrib- p uted around the island. Which pattern is chosen should depend upon the island's particular limiting factors. It -Z should also take into account the pattern and character of existing development. ZI j.T ca Several ways to distribute development within the uc a carrying capacity of an island are discussed below. How- ever, this is not an exhaustive discussion of land use 0@ planning techniques. The state's Growth Management Program should be consulted for further guidance on state land use goals and planning assistance materials. (See LEGEN ISLE AU HAU7 Appendix 5.) Numerous publications on planning tech- Acadia National Park Maine niques are available commercially. ............... .Road Scale Traditionally, settlement patterns created tight-knit Ferry route 0 1 2 3 campground _-NMENOMW villages surrounded by much more sparsely settled rural 67 Using Limits areas, even on islands. Morerecently, development has been spread throughout rural areas. Some people believe such dis- persal will limit environment al problems, i.e. in regard to groundwater protection, dispersal will provide the greatest rinrinminitv for infiltration and dilution of contaminants from I ... , C Pond- septic systems. But this viewpoint only considers one aspect of @Y Indian I\ carrying capacity. Alternatives exist to suburban-style, grid-like L subdivision of land, alternatives to protect what people value most about an island. 1@lano I-Theif 1.@ I Site development in one or more new pockets. If island 0 iffick Stone 1. pockets of development are sited carefully , shoreland character can be retained, sensitive habitats avoided, and the psychologi- a :N* cal benefits of open space maintained. The approach makes it CO tw Marsh 1. easier to share wells, septic systems, docks and to take advan- tage of the best locations for each. It also reduces the number of roadways and utilities that must be built and maintained, thus Wreck 1. reducing costs. A Bar 1. Louds Island development protects 88% of the project as* open space: SCALE 0 A development recently permitted by the Land Use Regulation mile Commission will concentrate eight lots, ranging in size from one to 2.3 acres, in two pockets on Louds Island in Muscongus Bay near Bristol's Round Pond. The subdivision t 8 places all of the shoreland and.much of the interior, amounting LOUD'S 7 to 94 acres, under a conservation easement prohibiting future -4. bpiiin development. The lots are located on the most favorable soils ISLAND space. .......... of the property, some distance from significant coastal wildlife Subdivision resources on the site, and in a manner that will screen them 6 visually from the ocean and island public ways. The 106-acre project comprises almost 13% of the 825-acre island, where V 30 seasonal residences already exist. 68 Site development in or near existing villages or neighborhoods. There is a functional appeal to living in a Performance-based zoning is key to sound village-people like having neighbors nearby and being able development where intensive development is to walk a short distance to the harbor, post office or store. not appropriate around existing villages: There is also an aesthetic appeal-people feel comfortable The main islands of Harpswell may be connected to with the scale and arrangement of buildings and streets and the mainland by bridge, but the town faces problems the unique landmarks of village settings. The pull that places similar to the offshore islands, only more intensively. The like Monhegan and Carver's Harbor on Vinalhaven have in community is composed of three large and narrow islands attracting visitors, and the many paintings of them, attest to and one long peninsula, connected by four bridges and their experiential quality. Directing growth to existing surrounded by 47 outer islands. Finding appropriate spots where growth will be encouraged was one of the most villages and settlements provides other benefits as well, such difficult challenges of the community's 1993 update of its as protecting natural resources, scenic quality, and open comprehensive plan. space in outlying areas. The town finally settled upon a strategy that requires Sewage disposal and water supply are major stumbling development densities and site layouts to adhere to the blocks for concentrated development-as are sometimes carrying capacity of individual sites, with a minimum lot size of two acres per unit set for all subdivision lots. The town's local regulations prescribing large lot development. The cost Future Land Use Map identifies the most suitable locations of providing centralized sewage treatment is usually too high for growth. The Comprehensive Plan proposes many for the small populations of Maine's islands. Innovation is policies and implementation strategies aimed at encourag- needed in this area to apply alternative technologies to small ing development to locate within these areas, with more collection systems. Also, it can be difficult to find water stringent restrictions aimed at development sited else- where. Most of the outer islahds will be zoned for Re- supplies with high enough yields to serve a community source Protection. system. Monhegan and Vinalhaven are fortunate to have See map, page 70. such supplies. Attitudes are another stumbling block. Even though they like the feel of village neighborhoods, having privacy or owning land on the coast is more important to many people. Open space and privacy can be designed into village areas to offset these potential drawbacks. 69 Using Limits Develop sparsely or not at all. Some islands are not appropriate for much, if any, Town of BRUNSWICK WEST development. Many are too small to yield a BATH HARPSWELL source of potable water, given the risk of saltwater intrusion. O:hers, usually small as Maine well, provide habitat for species that require isolation from people during the breeding season. 9" Monitoring and Adjusting R. the Management Strategy T Once a town or landowner has adopted and put in place an island management strategy, it is important to periodically moni- 03 tor the results to make sure it is working. Are use or development levels creating impacts fl 9 beyond the acceptable limits of change to which people have agreed? If conditions change, then perhaps the management strat- 01. i egy needs to change. 'T@ J > Groundwater quality, seabird nesting 0 'b success, scenic quality, trail and vegetation @Wo V ( (�rr(ttoo 0 A 0 0 V erosion, and visitor/islander satisfaction with w ft the island "experience", among other factors, "'r"u1m %9 -\ \ " "', \ - < "" 0 (P/P/ can be tracked. The choice of indicators to 61,@@ 0\kl@ U) monitor should be based upon: which are directly observable, relatively easy to mea- ,/, (Ow.) VVE Areas suitable for development sure, related to management objectives, ));- SCALE sensitive to changes in conditions, and 0 1 2 3 amenable to management. miles 70 Structure is built on Jordans Delight, an island that supports 2% of state's 2,660 nesting pairs of black guillemots: This 28-acre Washington County island in Harrington is a highly significant seabird nesting area, supporting the rare Leach's storm-petrel and black guillemots, as well as eiders, gulls and cormorants. According to Margaret Anderson, the manager of nearby Petit Manan National Wildlife Refuge, the island is perhaps the largest nesting ground on the east coast for black guillemots. For this reason, the island appears on Maine's Register of Critical Areas. A structure was built there in 1993 by the island's owner and a permit to build a wharf was filed with DEP, raising questions about the appropriateness of developing an island with such high ecological value and the effective- Jordans Delight "boathouse." ness of state and local habitat protection measures. In an uncommon, but not unique, twist, the town of Harrington did not have Jordans Delight on its zoning maps at all, and so no resource protection was provided at the local level. "Significant wildlife habitats" are listed as resources to be protected by the State's Natural Resources Protection Act. Until these habitats are mapped, and the maps are approved by the Board of Environmental Protection, habitat cannot be considered in the regulatory process, except when it exists in conjunction with another protected re- source, such as a wetland. When the mapping is com- pleted, probably sometime in 1994, all or part of Jordans Delight may be designated as a significant "seabird nesting island" providing protection for the seabird habitat in the face of future development proposals. 71 Using Limits On some Maine islands it may be several years before proximity to wildlife, and the relative quaintness of island there is the political will to set limits. In such a case, monitor- communities lull summer visitors into a false sense of secu- ing existing conditions to detect trends is especially impor- rity that their island will never change. However, to be tant, so that discussions about what to do can be based upon complacent about the future of the islands will put them at fact rather than perceptions. risk; island wildlife, water supplies, environmental quality and community character are subject to limits rarely experi- It's Time to Act! enced on the mainland. Those qualities that typify island life often, work against It is the responsibility of all-residents, visitors, munici- planning for their protection. The continuing accommodation pal, state and federal officials-to exercise stewards 'hip of to weather, the reliance on boat travel, the enduring nature of Maine's islands. With this book as a guide, those concerned their island's rockbound shore tempt year-round island about the future of the islands can begin'to lay the foundation residents to believe that human impactsare insignificant in for protecting the qualities that make Maine's islands special comparison to the forces of nature. The sense of isolation, places to live, work or visit. R _-YO 14' 4C, 72 Islesboro Sanitary Survey Appendix 1 Property Owner SANITARY SURVEY Mailing Address Islesboro Sanitary Survey Form (& winter, if you're seasonal) Local Address Phone Tax Map & Lot Number & Lincoinville Plumbing Type of Structure (circle one) Year-round dwelling Seasonal dweLling Business Other Inspection Policy Number of bedrooms, lofts, or other sleeping areas- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of restrooms/bathrooms 1 2 3 4 Do you have plans to expand your building or convert it to year-round use? If so, when Wastewp ter Treatment Information What type of disposal system do you have? (Circle one) Pit privy Incinerating toilet Holding Tank Composting toilet Septic tank only Cesspool only Septic tank + Cesspool Straight pipe Septic tank+leachfield Overboard discharge Unknown Other Date the system was installed 19 Unknown What is the tank made of? (circle one) Steel Concrete Fiberglass Plastic Unknown How often do have the tank pumped? When was the last time the tank was pumped? Distance of tank from waterbody (lake, pond, stream, wetland) Distance of leachfield or cesspool from waterbody Distance of privy. from waterbody Possible Problem S)@mptoms Occasionally Frequent Seasonally Slow draining fixtures in house: Wastewater backup in house: Odors Liquids ponding in yard: Other problems (explain): Water SuRply Information Type of water supply (circle one): Drilled well Dug well' Lakewater Have you had problems with water quality (color, odor, taste,etc.)?_ Has your water ever been tested and shown any contamination? Distance of well to septic tank Distance of your well to neighbors septic tank Comments: (please write on back) Islesboro Sanitary Survey 73 Appendix 1-Lincoinville Plumbing Policy TOWN OF LINCOLNVILLE PLUMBING INSPECTION POLICIES AND PROCEDURES,#1 PURPOSE: The quality of water in the Town of Lincolnville, available for-'domestic and recreational uses, is of great concern to the Lincolnville Board of Selectmen. To ensure t-hat the quali,ty of tL's water meets or exceeds the federal and state mandated standards,, the Town con'tracts with a State of Maine Licensed Plumbing Inspector (LPI). This LPI is charged with the responsibility to operate within,the plumbing guidelines established by the State of Maine. POLICIES AND PROCEDURES: In addition to those policies, rules, and regulations set forth by the State of Maine, the Selectmen have directed the LPI to require each person, property owner or agent for the property owner, applying for an HHE 211, Internal Plumbing Permit, to first submit the septic waste facility serving the structure on the property to a LPI-administered dye test to prove that the septic syste.m is not ma.Ifunctioning. If the tested septic facility fails the dye test, the property owner must make appropriate repairs before receiving the Internal Plumbing Permit. 'The LPI may waive the dye test requirement if the property owner can supply proof, in the form of an HHE 200, Subsurface Wastewater Disposal System Permit, showing that the system has been installed since January 1, 1980, in compliance with the State 6f Maine Rules and Regulations. The design factors must meet or exceed the proposed usage requirements. The fee for the performance of the dye test will be reviewed and set each year by the Selectmen and will be paid to@ the LPI performing the dye test. REPLACES - All previous policies and procedures with the same specific subject 4 , I APPROVED: Lincolnville Plumbing Inspection Policy Chairman, B6ard of Sele 5XMen 74 Appendix 2-Survey Methods APPENDIX 2 to provide a list of the lodging and camping fa- Quantifying Resident and Visitor cilities and the number of beds/sites in each. Populations Contact these establishments directly to deter- mine their annual counts or to obtain their esti- The survey methods described below can be used to mated occupancy rate. Or estimate the total num- help figure out how many people are living on or visiting an ber of ovemighters using a state-wide vacancy island. This information is especially important for manag- rate. Also, ask each establishment how many ing use by transient visitors. seasonal workers from the mainland they house Year-round and seasonal residents: Most island and employ. If inforination is available about how many establishments/beds were on the is- communities keep track of the number of year-round resi- lands in the 1970s, trends can be established dents. If the information is not available locally, most of the using factors from a 1970s Arthur D. Little & state's larger libraries and some regional planning commis- Co. study. The study estimated 2.5 people per sions have U.S. Census data and other population estimates room with a state-wide occupancy rate of 60- and projections compiled by the Department of Human 70%. Services. The Census or local property tax listings can be 2. Division of Health Engineering, Maine De- used to determine the number of seasonal homes in the community, from which a rough estimate of seasonal resi- partment of Human Services. The Division dents can be developed, based upon an assumption about licenses about 70% of the motels, hotels, bed how many people stay in each dwelling and for how long. and breakfasts, campgrounds, cabins, and other lodgings in the state. The Division (287-5671) Overnighters- This category can be estimated for those can provide a computerized list of establish- islands with licensed motels, hotels, bed and breakfasts, and ments for the town or township in which an is- camping establishments. If this information is not already land is located and the number of rooms/sites available, it can be compiled with the help of one of the listed for each. If the island is part of a main- following sources: land community, figure out which of the listed establishments are on the island. The inspector 1. Local Code Enforcement Officer. If building assigned to the region can provide additional permits have been issued for island establish- help, if necessary. He or she has specific knowl- ments, the code enforcement officer may be able edge of each licensed establishment. Again, an occupancy rate will have to be estimated. 75 Appendix 2 Campers: Isle au Haut can obtain information from with friends/lodging; and f. Other information of interest to the com- Acadia National Park about the number of campers who stay munity (see Chapter 2, Social on the island during the year. Collecting camper information Experience). for other islands will not be so easy unless there is an estab- lished campground operated by the state or licensed with the 2. Select sample dates. The sample dates selected Division of Health Engineering. Landowners may know how will depend upon whether peak use of an island many camp overnight if users are in the habit of asking or its total seasonal use is of greatest interest. permission, as many do at Richmond Island in Cape Eliza- a. Total seasonal use. First divide the season beth. If not, an estimate could be based upon information into three parts, perhaps April-June, July and about island recreational use currently being collected by the August, and September-November, depend- Maine Island Trail Association. ing upon the island and its use. If daytrippers Daytrippers: If an island is served by ferry, develop a are of greatest concern, sampling only the survey and estimate the number of daytrippers that visit using July-August period may be sufficient. Group the method described below, suggested by Richard Sherwood the months according to the number of daily at the State Planning Office. Private ferry companies may not ferry trips to make extrapolation of the re- want to participate because of the proprietary nature of the sults easier. Then divide each week into two information. A survey will not only help determine the parts, perhaps Friday-Monday'and Tuesday- number of daytrippers, but also the number of people who Thursday. Randomly select one,weekday lodge, rent cottages, live on the island, or come intermittently segment and one weekend segment for each for other reasons. of the three seasonal divisions. For instance, There are three steps to the process: one may 'have selected the weekdays of the first week in June and the weekend of the 1. Develop a questionnaire. Information to collect third week in April for the spring sample,' through the survey includes: and used a similar approach for the summer a. Where pe Iople' are coming from; and fall samples. These six samples will be b. How many people are in each party; large enough to estimate total seasonal use. C. The purpose of their trip; b. Peak use. If knowing the most intense use d. How long they stay; an island gets at peak times is the priority e. What island activities they engage in and interest, select the weekend or week when Where, i.e. hike, bicycle, visit art ferry ridership is greatest. This information galleries, eat at restaurants, stay can be obtained from the ferry service. 76 Survey Methods 3. Select boat trips. Decide whether to survey all or just some of the boat trips that are made to the island on the dates selected. Every trip doesn't have to be included to get a good sample, but the more trips included, the better the esti- mate will be. If there are 16 trips to the island over the weekend segment, randomly select a couple from the busiest part.of the day. 4. Conduct the survey. Arrange for some "vol- unteers" to help conduct the survey. Four to ten interviewers will be needed, depending upon the size of the boat, length of the trip, time of year, and how the survey is administered. Ideally, the interviewers would be on the boat, circulate among the passengers, and complete a survey for each party/person on the trip. Alternatively, a questionnaire could be given to each person/ party as they get on the boat, and collected when they disembark. 5. Extrapolate results. To calculate seasonal use, first multiply the average number of daytrippers/trip in the weekday or weekend sample by the number of boat trips/segment, by the number of segments in the season. Sum the total for both weekend and weekday segments to get total use for each season; sum all of the seasons to get the total for the year. 77 Appendix 3-Build out Study Methodology give you an estimate because not all lots will be the same size. Appendix 3 Unbuildable acreage: Of the remaining undeveloped land, determine how much land cannot be developed because Methodology for a theoretical of natural constraints, legal constraints, or zoning restrictions. build out study Natural constraints include flood plains, wetlands, poor soils, steep slopes, and wildlife habitats. In addition, conserved One way to catch a glimpse of an island's future is to lands, which restrict development through ownership, should analyze how land use decisions made today will affect an be included. Map these areas on a topographic base map. island's landscape over the long-term. This is done theoreti- Other zoning restrictions and conservation easements can cally and is called a build out study. Such a study assumes also be mapped. Acreages for all of these should be tallied maximal development potential for every buildable lot, and separately, and then totalled. calculates the number of possible residences under this 3. Determine buildable acreage. The land that remains ,assumption. It reflects a worst case scenario, probably not. after the built and unbuildable land are subtracted is the what will actually happen. However a build out analysis can buildable acreage, Which can be considered for development provide useful information for discussions about use of through subdivision, as grandfathered lots, or outright. resources, limits of growth, and carrying capacity. Overlays of the development constraints, mapped on the Methodology: topographic base map, and the existing development mapped on the parcel map, need to be combined, somehow, on the 1. Determine area to be studied: a watershed, a proposed same map to show where development could occur in the development site, an entire island. A parcel map and a topo- future. For lots requiring roads to facilitate their develop- graphic map are needed for this exercise. All information ment, 15% of the land area@can be subtracted.from the build- should be mapped for visual presentation,'and data compiled able acreage for right-of-way and utility construction. .The for numerical analysis. remaining acreage is then multiplied by the minimum lot size 2. Determine built and unbuildable acreage. to determine the maximum number of houses that can be Built acreage: Refer to the tax commitment book to built. identify all lots within the study area that havebuildings on This information, used by a community during their them. Map these on the parcel map. Further refinement can planning process, unveils whether the current zoning ad- be added by noting separately lots which can be subdivided equately addresses the community's ability or desire to under current zoning and those which cannot be further respond to maximum grow 'th. In reality each parcel consid- subdivided. Total built acreage is calculated by multiplying ered "developable" would be evaluated individually to nummurn lot size(s) by the number.of built lots. This will determine suitability for house, septic, water, etc. 78 Appendix 4-1sland Data Appendix 4- Population, Housing & Ferry Ridership Tables Figure 1. Population of Year-Round Island Communities 'Year-round Population 1990 Area 1990 1980/842 % Change Persons SQ KM1 Population Population 1980-1990 SQ KM Cumberland County Cliff Island 1.21 87 90 (3%) 71.96 Chebeague Island 8.60 337 350 (4%) 39.17 Cushing and Peaks Island 4.14 775 1002 (23%) 187.11 Long Island town 3.20 201 140 44% 62.81 Lincoln County Monhegan plantation 2.22 88 109 (19%) 39.60 Knox County Isle Au Haut town 32.83 46 57 (19%) 1.40 Matinicus plantation 4.15 67 66 2% 16.14 North Haven town 30.15 332 373 (11%) 11.01 Vinalhaven town 65.58 1072 1211 (11%) 16.35 Waldo County Islesboro town 36.92 579 521 11% 15.68 Hancock County Cranberry Isles town 8.23 189 198 (5%) 22.98 Frenchboro town 12.47 44 43 2% 3.53 Swans Island town 36.15 348 337 3% 9.63 Total 4165 4497 (7%) 1. U.S. Census Bureau, 1990. 2. Portland Islands: Portland Islands Land Use and Zoning Study Greater Portland Council of Governntents estitnates 1984; all other islands: U.S. Census Bureau, 1980. 79 Appendix 4 Figure 2. Housing on Year-Round Island Communities Total Housing Units Vacation Homes 1990 Percent Change Percent Change 1980/84 80/84-90 1990 1980 80-90 Cumberland County Cliff Island 151 141 7% 101 NA Chebeague Island 420 NA 268 NA Cushing and Peaks Island 805 882 (9%) 447 NA Long Island town 296 286 3% 202 NA Lincoln County Monhegan plantation 147 151 (3%) 105 98 7% Knox County Isle Au Haut town 136 11.3 20% 116 84 38% Matinicus plantation 101 99 2% 70 30 133% North Haven'town 441 378 17% 303 222 36% Vinalhaven town 1038 994 4% 551 488 13% Waldo County' Islesboro town 636 586 9% 341 302 13% Hancock County Cranberry Isles town 325 292 11% 234 137 71% Frenchboro town 53 46 15% 27 26 4% Swans -Island town f 385 342 13% 208 157 32% Total 4934' 4303 15% 1857, 1544 20% Source: Portland Islands 1984: Portland Islands Land Use and Zoning Study Greater Portland Council of Governments. All other data: U.S. Census Bureau. 80 Island Data Figure 3. Maine State Ferry Service Ridership (July 1, 1981-june 30, 1982 through July 1, 1991-june 30, 1992) Number of passengers change Number of vehicles change Number of bicycles change 1992 1982 82-92 1992 1982 82-92 1992 1982 82-92 Vinalhaven 94,096 68,429 38% 21,965 16,779 31% 2,576 1,233 52% North Haven 43,533 28,827 51% 11,173 7,571 48% 1,126 637 77% Islesboro 177,770 115,026 55% 85,896 50,193 71% 3,061 1,593 92% Swans Island 64,151 45,998 39% 23,347 17,129 36% 2,313 1,230 88% Frenchboro 2,530 2,530 --- 1,058 807 31% 1 8 (88%) Total 382,165 260,810 -47% 143,492 92,479 55% 9,07; 4,701 93% Note: The Ferry Service was extended to Matinicus in 1985. The number of passengers declinedfrom 138 to 85 per year (through 1992); and the number of vehicles declinedfrom 109 to 53. Source: Maine State Ferry Service Figure 4. Casco Bay Lines and Casco Bay Island Transit Ridership Number of passengers April I - March 30 % change 1991-92 1982-83 1982-83 to 1991-92 Peaks Island 505,564 409,119 24% Little Diamond 15,245 13,479 13% Great Diamond 20,051 14,800 35% Long Island 85,691 56,376 52% Chebeague 11,181 10,462 7% Cliff 23,674 20,789 14% 1 Total 698,436 525,025 33% Source: Casco Bay Island Transit District 81 Appendix 5 Nichols, H. 1993. Draft Supplement to the Comprehen- APPENDIX 5 sive Planning Manual on Island Planning. Maine Department of Economic and Community Develop- Selected.Contacts and References ment. Shaw, Carol. 1988. Island Carrying Capacity. - Maine A. ISLAND CARRYING CAPACITY/ Dept. of Economic and Community Development and LAND USE PLANNING the State Planning Office. Shaw, Carol. 1991. Carrying Capacity'Analyses For Lead Agency Contacts: Tourism and Growth Management In Coastal Com- Katrina Van Dqsen, Maine State Planning Office, 287- munities. Masters Thesis, Dept. of Landscape Archi- 3261 tecture and Regional Planning, University of Massa- chusetts. Fran'Rudoff, Department of Economic & Community Development, 624-6800 B. GROUNDWATER Ann 'ette Naegel, Island Institute, 594-9209 Lead Agency Contact: John Bubier, Greater Portland Council of Governments, 774-9891 Marianne DuBois, Department of Environmental Protec- Tom Martin, Hancock County Planning Commission, tion, (groundwater protection) 287-3901 667-7131 Paui Parker, Department of Environmental Protection Pat Jennings, Mid-Coast Planning Commission, 594- (overboard discharge program) 287-3901 2299 Key references: Key references: Dutram, P.W. 1988. The Planning Processfor Local Cabot-Carrigan, L. 1993. Recent Island Development, Groundwater Protection, Ground Water Standing Trends in Maine: A Preliminary Study. Draft report of Committee, Land and Water Resources Council. the Maine Coastal Program, State Planning Office. Island Institute. 1986. Ground Water Reconnaissance Cabot-Carrigan, L. 1993. A Resource Guide to Informa- Study For Islesboro. tion About Coastal Islands. Draft report of the Maine Maine Tomorrow. 1993. Treat It Right: Alternative Coastal Program, State Planning Office. - Wastewater Systems That Protect Water Quality. For Market Decisions, Inc. 1992. Comprehensive Planning: the Maine Department of Environmental Protection A Manualfor Maine's Communities. Maine Depart- and the Department of Economic & Community ment of Economic and Community Development. Development. Martin, B. H *and K. D. Kimb@ll. 1989. Final Report R. G. Gerber, Inc. 1989. Vinalhaven Ground Water Visitor Use and Impact Patterns On the Isle Au Haut Resource Study an 'd Municipal Water Supply Evalua- Acadia National Park, Maine. Appalachian Mountain tion. For Vinalhaven Land Trust. Club. 82 Contacts & References R. G. Gerber, Inc. 1988. City of Portland Island E. SOIL AND VEGETATION RESILIENCY Groundwater Management Study. For City of Port- Lead Agency Contact: land. Timson, Barry S. 1989. Monhegan "Meadow" Aquifer Annette Naegel, Island Institute, 594-9209 Preliminary Hydrogeology and Management Consid- Key References: erations. For Monhegan Plantation and James Haskell and Associates. Conkling, P. W., R. E. Leonard, and W. H. Drury. 1984. People and Islands: Resource Management For C. SOLID WASTE Islands In the Gulf of Maine. Island Institute. Lead Agenc Iy Contact: F. WILDLIFE Rachel Therrien, Maine Waste Management Agency, 287- Lead Agency Contacts: 5300 Steve Timpano, Department of Inland Fisheries and Key References: Wildlife, 287-5252 Caniff, Julie Ann. 199 1. Solid Waste Managementfor Gary Donovan, Department of Inland Fisheries and Maine's Outer Islands. The Island Institute. Wildlife, 287-5252 University of Maine Cooperative Extension Service. Sue Gawler, Maine Natural Areas Program, Dept. of 1991. Home Composting. 90-EWQI-1-9231. Community and Economic Development, 624-6800 Maine Waste Management Agency. 1993. Highlights of Key References: State of Maine Waste Management Plan. Allen, R. B. 1992. Island-Nesting Colonial Waterbird D. SOCIAL EXPERIENCE Assessment. Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. Lead Agency Contact: Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. 199 1. Cate Cronin, Maine Island Trail Association, 596-6456 Coast of Maine Wildlife Management Area Plan. Key References: Woodard, S., A. Hutchinson.- and M. McCollough. Endan- gered and NonGame Wildlife Project. 1986. The Getchell, David. 1993. Monitoring Report on Recre- Penobscot Bay Plan. Department of Inland Fisheries ational Use of a Selected Number of Uninhabitated and Wildlife. Islands on the Maine Coast. Maine Island Trail Atlas of Essential Wildlife Habitatsfor Maine's Endan- Association. I gered and Threatened Species. Department of Inland Martin, B. H. and K. D. Kimball. 1989. Final Report Fisheries and Wildlife. Updated annually. Visitor Use and Impact Patterns on the Isle au Haut, Acadia National Park, Maine. Appalachian Mountain Club. 83 Appendix 5 G. SCENIC CHARACTER Lead Agency Contacts: Fran Rudoff, Dept. of Community and Economic Devel- opment, 624-6800 Key References: Dominie, H. 1990. How To Conduct An Inventory of Scenic Areas. Maine Dept. of Economic and Com- munity Development. Dominie, H. and Mary Droege. 1987. A Proposed Method For Scenic Coastal Landscape Assessment with Field Test Results For Kittery to Scarborough and Cape Elizabeth to South Thomaston. Maine State Planning Office. Dominie, H. 1988. Important Scenic Resources. In Evaluation of Island Resources: Hancock County and a Portion of Knox County, Maine. Terrence'J. Dewan & Associates. 1990. Scenic Inventory Mainland Sites of Penobscot Bay. For 'the Critical Areas Program of the Maine State Planning Office. Terrence J. Dewan & Associates. 1992. Scenic Inventory of Islesboro, Vinalhaven, North Haven, and Associ- ated Offshore Islands. For the Critical Areas Program of the Maine State Planning Office. 84 4. Q A -I Maine State Planning Office April 1994 Island Institute State House Station 38 60 Ocean Street Augusta, ME 04333 Rockland, ME 04841 (207) 287-3261 This document is printed on recycled paper. (207) 594-9209 3 6668 00004 3390