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          HT393                                                            Maldong Decisions About the Uc--7%e
          .m3
          E9                                                                       Development of Maine's Islands
          1994
          C.1








               Cover Photo: Christopher Ayres
               Design: Nancy Griffin
               Maps: Richard Kelly
                             RA elissa  IAI-& erm ar,
               %A1UjJ111 0 IWIVII 0 VVOL
               Printing: Letter Systems


               Photo credits:
               Christopher Ayres: pp. vi, 1,- 3, 24, 32, 39, 52, 58, 59, 60
               Island Institute: pp. iv, 4, 7, 21, 29, 43, 45, 46, 47, 64, 71
               Ross Edwards: p. 5
               Peter Ralston: pp. 8, 51
               Katrina Van Dusen: p.'14
               The Nature Conservancy: p. 34
               National Park Service: p. 35
















               Exploring Limits': Making Decisions About the Use & Development of Maine Islands was produced by the Maine State Planning Office
              with funding provided by the,U.S. Department of Commerce, Off ice of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, under the Coastal
              Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended. Printed under appropriation number NA27 OZO31 0-01.








                EXPLORING. LIMITS:
                Making De'c'isio*ns About the,
                Use & Development
                of Maine Islands

                                                                                                 57


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                Maine State Planning Off ice                                                           Island Institute
                184 State St.                                                                            60 Ocean St.
                                                                                                   ockland, ME 04841


                                                                 KOAA Coastal Services Center Library
                 VZ*"rtY of CSC. Library                         2234 South Hobson Avenue
                                                                 Charleston, SC 29405-2413







                   ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

                   Holly Dominie of H. Dominie, Inc. of Manchester,     
                   Maine, researched and wrote the text of this publication.                            Robert Gerber, Lissa Robinson, an
                                                                                                             Robert G. Gerber, Inc.
                        Katrina Van Dusen of the Maine State Planning Office                            Ron Gordon, Friday    Harbor, Washington
                   conceived of this project, directed its progress, and edited the                     Jim Hatch, affordable housing consultant
                   text. Annette Naegel of the Island Institute provided consid-                        Rick Knowland, City of Portland
                   erable data and resources. Cynthia Bourgeault edited some                            Raymond Leonard, Sterling College, Vt.
                   of the text. Anne Hayden gave continuing support. Carol                              Burnham Martin, National Park Service
                   Shaw's earlier work on island carrying capacity provided                             Jean Martin and Robert Peterson, Maine Dept. of Human
                   direction for this project.                                                               Services
                                                                                                        Mike Parker, Steven Pinette, Main Dept. of Environmen-
                        Many other people, hopefully none forgotten here,                                    tal Protection
                   contributed rules of thumb or information. They include:                             William Perkins, Applied Wastewater Technology, Inc.
                      John Alb  Iright and Fran Rudoff , Maine Dept. of Eco-                            Ron Poitras, Hancock County Planning Commission
                                                                                                        Rick Rogers, Town of Islesboro
                           nomic and Community Development,                                             Matt Scolnikoff, Town of Isle au Haut
                      Brad Allen and Gary Donovan, Maine Dept. Inland                                   John Spear, Town of Vinalhaven
                           Fisheries and Wildlife
                                                                                                        Steve Spencer, Maine Dept. of Conservation, Bureau of 
                      Raquel and Peter Boehmer and Bill Payne, Monhegan                                      Public Lands
                      Jerry Bley, Creative Conservation                                              Barry Timson, Timson and Peters,
                      Sarah Brusila, Land Use Regulation Commission                                  Rachel Therrien, Maine Waste Management Agency
                      Laura Cabot-Carrigan, Bill Ferdinand, and Richard
                           Sherwood, Maine State Planning Office                                       Everyone's help is gratefully appreciated.
                      Steve Davis and Dave Getchell, Maine Island Trail Asso-
                           ciation
                      Orlando Delogu, University of Maine School of Law
                      Judy Dunah and Helga Hournere, Monhegan Associates
                      Rob Elder, Maine Dept. of Transportation
 





                                            TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                          Acknowledgements                                         page ii
                                          Letter to the Reader                                     page   v
                                          Chapter 1: Islands Accentuate Limits                     page   1
                                          Chapter 2: Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors       page   9
                                                  Groundwater                                      page   9
                                                  Solid Waste                                      page 25
                                                  Social Experience                                page 33
                                                  Soil & Vegetation Resiliency                     page 41
                                                  Wildlife                                         page 47
                                                  Scenic Quality & Character                       page 53
                                          Chapter 3: Using Limits to Decide an Island's
                                                  Future                                           page 61
                                          Appendix 1: Islesboro Sanitary Survey Form
                                                  and Lincolnville Plumbing Inspection Policy      page 73
                                          Appendix 2: Quantifying Resident & Visitor Populations   page 75
                                          Appendix 3: Methodology for Buildout Study               page 78
                                          Appendix 4: Island Data: Populati-n, Hol icing & Ferry
                                                  Ridership Data                                   page 79
                                          Appendix 5: Selected Contacts and References             page 82



































































                                                                                   ......... .....
                                                                                                                                        '0.  'W














                  Dear Reader,

                  Maine's coastal islands are special places to many of us-whether you live on one, are a regular or occasional visitor, or
                  enjoy them from afar. These islands constitute a unique natural and cultural resource of state and national significance.
                  However, people are concerned that the variety and intensity of human activities on and around the islands are begin-
                  ning to threaten fragile island ecosystems and the unique quality of island life.

                  Exploring Limits: Making Decisions About the Use and Development of Maine Islands is intended to be both a primer
                  on understanding the limits on use and development of islands and a how-to guide for assessing certain elements that
                  make up an island's carrying capacity. We hope the publication will be interesting for people who haven't thought much
                  about the limits of an island's natural resources, and useful for those who are working to assure that critical island
                  resources ar@ adequately protected as islands are used and developed.

                  The publication is designed for people in island towns and towns with offshore islands, the State Land Use Regulation
                  Commission, which regulates land use on several hundred islands, and communities and individuals considering long-
                  range plans for a single island. People living in other coastal areas, particularly those on Maine's coastal peninsulas,
                  should also find it relevant. It can be used as a specially-tailored guide to comprehensive planning for islands.
                  The Maine State Planning Office and the Island Institute collaborated to produce this handbook, part of a bigger island
                  project, initiated in 1992 by the State Planning Office. The goals of the Islands Project are to provide information to
                  island residents and visitors that will enable them to make decisions that guide future island use and development in a
                  manner that is sensitive to an island's natural resource limitations, and to pursue changes to state laws and policies so
                  that they better consider the unique values and constraints of islands.

                  We are interested in feedback about how this handbook was useful to you.

                  Sincerely,

                  Katrina Van Dusen                                                                                     Annette Naegel
                  Maine State Planning Office                                                                            Island Institute

                                                                       April 1994




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           ISLANDS ACCENTUATE LIMITS
           The Maine Islands

                                                                                       unincorporated, falling under the jurisdiction of the State
                The Maine islands are a treasure of national and interna-              Land Use Regulation Commission, including Monhegan and
           tional significance, an integral part of the beauty and rich-               Matinicus. There are eight island towns including the Cran-
           ness of our coast. The State's Coastal Island Registry counts               berries, Swans Island, Frenchboro, Isle au Haut, Islesboro,
           4,617 islands, including ledges exposed at high tide. Another               North Haven, Vinalhaven, and Long Island, and the islands
           inventory identified 1,149 islands of over 10 acres in size.                that surround them.
           However, people use a variety of estimates to describe how
           many islands there are, who owns and uses them, and                                     .. .. .
           who has jurisdiction over them; the lack of definitive
           information about numbers of islands and their owner-
           ship adds to their mystique.
                                                                                                                                                  t 2k
                                                                                                                                                )ON


                Fourteen of the islands have year-round popula-
           tions; a few more have a family or two living on them
           all year; roughly 30 have summer communities; quite
           a few more have one to a few seasonal residences. The
                                                                                                       -4
           majority of Maine's islands have no human habitation;                                  1, -4 0.4 0:.
           ma
             ny of these are important habitat for seabirds.
                                                                                                                It

                                                                                                      1:4 1.4
                The State owns 1300 islands, although many of                    11
           these are ledges. A small number, less than 50, are                  J..              I FAR
           owned by federal agencies, towns and private conser-
           vation organizations. The rest are privately owned.

                The vast majority of the islands are under the
                                                                                                    FA









           jurisdiction of a mainland municipality, including the          More than two dozen islands along the Maine coast are linked to the mainland by
           year-round communities on Peaks, Cliff and                      a bridge, like this bridge to Deer Isle. This handbook focuses on islands that do
           Chebeague Islands. Three hundred and six islands are            not have bridges.


                                                                                                                                                    1







                 Island Accentuate Limits


                       Clearly there are myriad differences between the islands                 island. Intensive recreational use of an uninhabited island can
                 of Maine's archipelago when it comes to size, habitation,                      destroy vegetation or disrupt nesting seabirds. On islands,
                 ownership, or governance, but their similarities are equally                   once a limit is exceeded, the damage is often irreversible.
                 striking-they are all rocky outcroppings in the sea. They are
                                                                                                'r L% -L I P% I % aft A rl o% noft a mLft          o-.  P,. aft
                 covere  A IVVI.41,          or SO.]. urosi, -_@__ --lcs arc                                          -UPUICUU11 L___AJJ1U01U11
                         %A IL11  111A11111IL1111 111 1  11 VVaL%,l 3UFF11                      I I 1W 10101 1U r
                 limited. Unique plants and wildlife are abundant. Scenic
                 beauty abounds. Their many common geological and eco-                               Like most of the Maine coast, the islands have become
                 logical features makeMaine islands similarly fragile and                       popular places. Ironically, while the 14 fulltime island
                 vulnerable to harm from unlimited use, and development.                        communities struggle to maintain their year-rou   nd popula-
                                                                                                tions, nearly all the islands have witnessed dramatic increases
                 Islands Accentuate Limits                                                      in seasonal visitation. Figures from nine of these islands
                                                                                                show a combined increase of 404 vacation homes during the
                       As all islanders know, both the. charm and the challenge                 1980s, resulting from both new construction and the conver-
                 of island living are imposed by the island's distinct geo-                     sion of year-round homes to seasonal use. Population on the
                 graphical boundaries. The surrounding barrier of the sea                       year-round islands routinely doubles or triples in the summer,
                 means that essential goods and services not available on the                   and in some cases increases even more.
                 island must be transported by boat or plane, creating addi-                         But even seasonal, "second'-home" use patterns do not
                 tional expense and delay. Groceries, building supplies,                        'give the full piciture of this dramatic increase in popularity.
                 heating oil, the mail: all these must travel onto the island,                  The islands are also being visited in unprecedented numbers,
                 while many islanders head off to,the mainland for medical                      by daytrippers and other short-term visitors. Passenger and
                 appointments, major shopping, entertainment, and other                         vehicular traffic on the Maine State Ferries (serving Swan's
                 specialized needs. On all but the three largest of the year-                   Island, Frenchboro, North Haven, Vinalhaven, Islesboro, and
                 round island communities, students must commute to the                         Matinicus) increased by approximately 50% between 1982
                 mainland for high school.                                                      and 1992, and the number of bicycles (bearing seasonal
                       Even more significant, from a plannino, standpoint,                      daytrippers) nearly doubled-up 935o. Ride      'rship on Casco
                                                               0                                Bay ferries also increased during the decade at an overall rate
                 islands accentuate limits because the amount of land is,finite,                of about 33%. During the peak summer months, passenger
                 and other natural resources can be depleted. Usescan conflict                  totals on these lines routinely double. (For more information
                 quickly, more so than on the mainland. Runoff from a poorly-                   on population, housing and ferries, see Appendix 4.)
                 placed septic system cab pollute the clamflats on which
                 islanders are economically dependent. A leaking landfill can
                 contaminate the drinking water for the entire island. Skyrock-
                 @ting real estate prices can drive working islanders off the


                 2







                                                                                                            How Much is Too
                                                                                                            Much?

                                                                                                                 This is the question increasingly
                                                                                                            being asked by island residents and
                                                 IRMA,                                                      owners, island planning boards, and even
                                                                                                            the visitors themselves. There's a subjec-
                                                                                                            tive element, of course: if you're used to
                                                                                                            being the only one on the beach, it feels
                                                                                                            crow e w en one ot er ami y s ows up.
                                                 C-x
                                                                                                            But aside from that kind of intuitive

                                                                                                                                       P
                                                                                                            reaction, are there actual hysical limits
                                                                                                            beyond which an island's capacity to
                                                 A

                                                                                                            absorb this increase in users can no longer
                                                                                                            be stretched? From around the islands
                                                                  P11  A,
                                                               _2 -al
                                                                  r. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
                                                                          N,                                there are many signs for concern:
             In the last decade, biking has grown in popularity with island visitors. Between 1982 and 1993 the
            number of bikes carried on State ferries increased 93%. These people are waiting on the pier in
            Rockland to board the Vinalhaven ferry.
               Recreational boat traffic has also increased substantially.                    On Swan's Island, residents became concerned during
          With the growing popularity of sea kayaking and small boat                   the building boom of the late 1980s when many island wells
          cruising, some boaters have experienced increased competi-                   began going dry or experiencing salt water intrusion as new
          tion for favorite picnicking and mooring spots and greater                   wells were added at an average rate of 15-20 per year. A
          traffic along the most popular travel routes. A 10-year-old                  Water Committee was established by the Planning Board to
          Island Institute study showed recreational boat usership                     study the island water table and wetland "recharge areas," to
          remaining fairly constant between 1979 and 198 1, then                       determine if protective zoning measures were needed.
          jumping dramatically-doubling, in fact, in 1982 and 1983.                          - Islesboro is faced with a safety problem created by the
          In 1993, the Maine Island Trail Association began a three-                   growing number of bicyclists on its narrow, winding roads.
          year study monitoring recreational use of 27 islands. The                    There were a number of accidents during the 1992 and 1993
          study's results showed a 25% increase in the number of boats                 seasons, in some cases necessitating emergency runs to
                       IPin MNI 11








          visiting the islands over the 10 years since the last survey.                mainland hospitals.


                                                                                                                                                      3







                 Island Accentuate Limits


                                                                                                                The 1993 Maine Island Trail Association
                                                                                                          survey of recreational island use indicated that a
                                                                                                          few islands are used intensively; in the survey of


                                                                                                          1,Q11F nf -ill thp 1-%ozite nbsenn-.rl in tht-..-,t1rv(-,y vkited
                                                                                                          27 islands from Casco Bay to Blue Hill Bay, one

                                                                                                          Jewell Island in Casco Bay. The majority of the
                                                                                                          boats (71%) visited only four islands. Conflicts
                                                                                                          between local people and recreationists have been
                                                                                                          reported on Crow Island in Muscongus Bay. In
                                                                                                          July 199 1, police barricaded Cow Island in Casco
                                                                                                          Bay at the request of its exasperated private
                                                                                                          owner to prevent repeated "trashing" by weekend
                                                                                                          revelers.



                                                     V@


                   Use of Maine islands by sail and motor yachts, sea kayakers and other small boats has
                   increased steadily over the last 15 years. The Maine Island Trail Association was formed in Help in Setting Limits
                   1987 to develop and maintain a 325-mile-long waterway, promoting thoughtful use and
                   volunteer stewardship of the islands on the trail by recreational boaters.
                                                                                                   The concept of a quantifiable carrying capacity may
                        Responding to increased numbers of daily visitors,                    seem like a fairly new notion when applied to island growth
                 which in peak season are estimated on some days to exceed                    management and planning. But it's a well-established prin-
                 200, Monhegan residents have begun to question how many                      ciple of ecology, the branch of science that deals with how
                 off-islanders the-community can absorb each day without                      populations interact within their environment. And in fact,
                 seriously stressing the water supply, natural environment, and-              that is what we're really talking about when we start to raise
                 public services-not to mention the special character of                      concerns about how many people'an island can accommo-
                 island life.                                                                 date.
                        Wildlife biologists are concerned about the effect of                      According to this principle, populations of species in
                 proposed residential development on the north end of Metinic                 any given environment are limited in size by the amount of
                 Island in outer Penobscot Bay, an important habitat for                      habitat, food, water, and other survival requirements avail-
                 eiders, arctic terns, black guillemots, herring,gulls and black-             able within the confines of that environment. Ultimately,
                 backed gulls.


                 4








           population size is determined by the factor which is the most
           crucially limited-i.e., if there is no drinking water, the
           environment becomes uninhabitable even if there is adequate
           soil and vegetation. The combined impact of these factors
           defines the carrying capacity: a specific, quantifiable upper
           limit to the size of the population that environment can
           s
              p
            u port.
                 Here the concept of carrying capacity is applied to
           human populations on small, finite habitats such as islands.
           The discussion of limiting factors falls into five general
           categories, including cultural as well as ecological consider-
           ations:
                 1. HABITAT: How many people can be accommodated
           without disrupting natural populations of plants and animals,
           especially sensitive or rare species?
                 2. PHYSICAL SPACE: How much traffic will the
           roads hold safely? How many structures can be built on the
           land that is appropriate f6ir development?
                                                                                                       pe,
                 3. ENVIRONMENTAL: How many people will the
                                                                                                         7
           available water supply accommodate? How much waste can
           be accommodated without contaminating the environment?
                 4. AESTHETIC/EXPERIENTIAL: How many                                                     AMICK
           people can occupy a remote island at one time without
           destroying the sense of solitude for all? How many tourists
           can an island community absorb without feeling invaded?
           How much visible shoreline development can an island
           absorb without losing its "remote and unaltered" visual
           appeal or historical character?                                                     Technological fixes,  like this sewage  treatment  system being
                 5. FISCAL/TECHNOLOGICAL: How much money                                       installed on Squirrel Island, can mitigate existing environmental
           or technology is available or desirable to make it easier to                        problems, and in some cases expand an island's carrying capacity
           accommodate greater numbers? (The more there is available,                          by providing infrastructure to accommodate more homes or
           the more likely that carrying capacity will be a fluid number.)                     businesses.

                                                                                                                                                               5







                   Island Accentuatelimits

                                                                                                            For town planners and concerned citizens, the carrying
                         Although specifics vary from island to island, concern                       capacity approach offers three powerful advantages:
                   about any of the following factors can move islanders, to
                   undertake a thoughtful examination of carrying capacity:                                 1. IT IS EMPIRICAL. It begins by gathering data-six'
                                                                                                      mecific cateaories are explained in detail in the next section
                            a Amount of developable -land avaliabie (i.e., piaces@
                              without steep slopes, wetlands, or fragile habitats                     of this handbook-rather than from subjective opinions and
                            * Amount and quality of freshwater supply,                                foregone conclusions.
                            0 Sewage treatment capacity                                                     2. IT IS OBJECTIVE. Opinions can be reality-tested
                            - Transportation facilities for carrying/landing freight                  against solid -data, not mere; rumor or opinion.
                              and passengers
                              Island road systems                                                           1 IT SERVES AS A BASIS FOR INFORMED, OPEN
                              Sensitivity of ecosystem, natural communities, or
                                                                                                      DECISION-MAKING.
                              species
                              Island character                                                              The approach suggested in this handbook is quantitative,
                              Availability of public facilities (parking, recreational                to the extent that '11 rules of thumb" are available to help
                              facilities, harbor facilities, public toilets)                          establish limits for growth. It should be emphasized, of
                              Amount of open space
                              Availability of housing, especially at a   Iffordable                   course, that these are not ironclad figures, but rather, suggest
                                                                                                      a range which in turn depends on the initial assumptions
                              prices                                                                  made. Islanders, island owners, and policy makers for the
                              Management alternatives for solid waste                                 offshore islands need to understand the implications of policy
                   Usin'g Carrying Capacity as a                                                      choices they make and decide on a case-by-case situation
                                                                                                      how much change is ultimately acceptable.
                   Planning Tool                                                                            Empowerment of islanders, island owners, and others
                                                                                                      with jurisdiction over islands comes from having the courage
                        The carrying capacity approach to planning is not new,                        to suggest that anisland has quantifiable limits to growth,
                   but it is only beginning to be applied extensively in Maine.                       and the'patience'to engage in the process of determining what
                   Until recently land and islands were relatively inexpensive                        these limits may be. The consequences of failing to recognize
                   and uncrowded. But now mounting pressure on the resources                          these limits will irrevocably and unnecessarily change the
                   is testing limits and calling for a more thoughtful and objec-                     islands as we now know them.
                   tive accounting of the limits to development and use of                                  Carrying capacity analysis is a powerful too] that can
                   Maine's offshore islands.                                                          help-if islanders have the political- will to use it.

                   6











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            An assessment ot an island's carrying capacity can be used by a community in making decisions about
            appropriate limits on growth.


























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                                                                                                                                              Groundwater
           LOOKING CLOSELY AT SIX LIMITING
           FACTORS
                   This chapter provides guidance for assessing the                       sand and gravel aquifer large enough to supply a community
           carrying capacity of several discrete island attributes or                     system. Public systems on Vinalhaven and North Haven
           resources and "rules of thumb" for living within the limits of                 depend upon freshwater ponds.
           those resources to accommodate change. The "rules of
           thumb" included are a best assessment for the moment, but                            Monhegan aquifer reaching capacity
           they could be constantly revised in response to experience,                            About 10 miles offshore of Port Clyde in Knox County,
           experimentation and research. These include groundwater,                           Monhegan Island is home to 450 residents (about 80 stay
           social experience, vegetation and soil resiliency, nesting                         year-round) and up to 200 or more daytrippers who visit
           habitat, and scenic quality. Quantitative limits are probably                      each day during the summer. The island, under a square
           most readily available for these because they tend to draw the                     mile in size, is noted for its outstanding scenery, artists'
           most concern. Some islands may have different or additional                        studios, grand old hotel, and traditional architecture.
           resources whose carrying capacity should be considered in                              From May to November, the community relies almost
           designing a strategy for managing the impacts of use and                           solely on a chlorinated water supply from a sand and
           development. This chapter also exan-dnes the issue of solid                        gravel aquifer beneath "The Meadow," a bog wetland lying
                                                                                              within the heart of the village. The rest of the year,
           waste because of its priority among state concerns.                                residents make do with drilled wells, dug wells, and
           Groundwater                                                                        cisterns. Businesses use saltwater and stream flow to
                                                                                              supplement their water supplies.
           Limits and Threats                                                                     A 1989 study by Timson, Schepps & Peters, Inc.
                Freshwater supply is a critical factor limiting the devel-                    found that the aquifer can theoretically support another
           opment of offshore islands. Most islands depend upon local                         200 individuals under average recharge conditions. This
           groundwater to meet their needs, relying primarily upon                            assumes that each resident consumes 40 gallons per day
                                                                                              over the 3-month summer season. However, there have
           bedrock aquifers. Where soils are deeper, many islanders use                       been water shortages in recent years because the present
           dug wells, but the trend is toward drilled wells.                                  water delivery and storage system is incapable of meeting
                A few island communities have water-supplies from                             water demand in a dry summer. The question remains,
           sources other than bedrock aquifers. For instance, Peaks,                          could the aquifer provide for the additional demand under
           Great and Little Diamond, and Cushing Island in Casco Bay                          drought conditions, if the delivery system were upgraded,
           tap into the Portland Water District system. Monhegan has a                        without inducinIg saltwater intrusion?

                                                                                                                                                         9






                Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors


                     If it wasn't for the fact that fresh-
                water is lighter than saltwater and
                floats upon it, drinking water would be                          Aischarge                           discharge
                scarce on islands. Fortunately, between          Sea Level
                5 and 10% of the annual rainfall seeps
                                                                                                0"
                into the cracks in the bedrock or into                                                                        see below-
                the thicker, more permeable soils to                                              recharge
                replenish the store of groundwater                                                                          AV
                found in the bedrock below. More
                recharge occurs in the interior parts of
                an island than at the perimeter.
                                                                                               Freshwater
                                                            Cross        Section
                    The precipitation that g'ets into the
                ground recharges a lens-shaped body of               of an                                                Saltwater
                freshwater that sits under the su'rface of  Island       Aquifer
                most islands. This "lens" is usually
                deepest under the center of an island                   water table                      well being pumped
                and tapers to meet the sea below the
                high tide line. The freshwater saturat-                                                     cone of depression
                ing the bedrock literally floats upon the
                saltwater underlying and. surrounding
                it. The groundwater entering the                                                                                ocean
                bedrock moves through fractures in the
                rock. It travels down into the lens in
                the interior as "recharge" and up                     Freshwater                        ap         Saltwater
                toward the surface at the edges of the                                                 0
                island where it is "discharged" into the                                                         displacement of interface
                                                                                                                 caused by pumping of well
                ocean.
                                                                                                            saltwater Intrusion
                    Groundwater supply can be
                meager on coastal islands, depending                                                                      of an
                upon the permeability of the local                                                               Island Aquifer
                                                           Source: W. B. Caswell, 1979.


                10







                                                                                                                                        Groundwater

           bedrock and depth of soil cover. When a favorable system of                reasonable alternative source to replace the water supplied by
           'fractures is lacking, bedrock cannot store much water. Fur-               the aquifer, if it were to be contaminated. The petitions for
           thermore, the thin soil cover of islands limits the amount of              sole source status include estimates of the enormous cost to
           precipitation that can seep into the ground. Thin soils be-                pipe water to each of the islands from the mainland. To date,
           come quickly saturated so that most rain and melted snow                   the program is in force on Monhegan, Vinalhaven, and North
           tends to stay on the surface, running directly into streams and            Haven. It is pending on Islesboro, Matinicus, and Swan's
           the ocean.                                                                 Island. Frenchboro declined to participate.
                Groundwater quality on coastal islands is particularly                     The federal program, however, really accomplishes little
           susceptible to contamination for two reasons: inadequate soil              beyond the important step of recognizing the fragility of sole
           cover and saltwater intrusion. Thin soils are not effective in             source aquifers. Basically, it allows the EPA to review
           filtering out harmful bacteria and metals in subsurface sew-               federally funded projects to see that they don't harm these
           age system effluent, household wastes, and stormwater runoff               aquifers, and to raise public awareness about the need for
           because they have limited soil particle surface area on to                 protecting them.
           which these contaminants can adhere. Groundwater can also
           be contaminated by encroachment from the sea through                            More assertive steps need to be taken to make real gains
           saltwater intrusion. Areas where development is already                    in assuring the protection of groundwater quantity and qual-
           concentrated, such as village areas without public water                   ity on islands. The following sections describe some useful
           supply or sewage systems, are especially vulnerable.                       carrying capacity rules of thumb primarily developed by
                                                                                      Robert G. Gerber, Inc. The reliance upon Gerber's findings
                Groundwater supplies deserve respect since, once                      in this handbook reflects the great number of studies the firm
           contaminated, they are highly expensive and difficult to                   of consulting geologists has conducted over the years for
           clean; and on islands, they are usually the only potable water             Maine islands.
           supply available. Unfortunately, contaminants usually take
           several years to reach -a well. By the time a pollution source
           is detected and stopped, a substantial amount of groundwater               Groundwater quantity
           contamination may have taken place.
                                                                                              Only so much water can be taken out of an island's
               The State has petitioned the U.S. Environmental Protec-                bedrock "aquifer" without exceeding the amount of water
           tion Agency to designate the groundwater on several islands                from precipitation that replenishes it. The amount of precipi-
           as "sole source aquifers." Under the federal law, these                    tation that finds its way into the bedrock depends upon the
           communities have an aquifer "needed to supply 50 percent or                island's size, bedrock characteristics, and soil cover. While
           more of the drinking water" for the island and there is no                 sand and gravel allows 40-50% of the annual precipitation to






                  Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                  infiltrate the ground, on islands hydrogeologists estimate that                             hold or business, the fewer number of households that
                  only about 5-10% of precipitation reaches the groundwater                                   can be accommodated.
                  supply.
                                                                                                      Groundwater quality
                           I linnik- The movt important sten in safeauardin2
                           groundwater supply is to ensure that enough terrain is                          Saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion occurs when
                           left in its natural state to allow rainfall to infiltrate the              too many wells are located or drilled too deep in a shoreland
                           ground. By limiting the amount of impervious sur-                          area - the area where the freshwater lens thins out. When
                           face (e.g. roads, parking lots, and buildings) to 25%                      water is withdrawn from them faster than they are replen-
                           of an island's land area there should be no reduction
                           in the groundwater recharge rate.                                          ished or if the wells are drilled deeper than the freshwater
                                                                                                      lens, saltwater is drawn into the wells. Saltwater intrusion
                           On islands more than 100 acres in size, which are
                           more likely to have thicker and more permeable soils,                      may also occur in some wells located a considerable distance
                           at least incertain locations, a maximum density of                         from the shore because of interconnected fracture patterns in
                           one acre per unit is recommended to maintain ad-                           the bedrock.
                           equate groundwater quantity, providing that 75% of                              Saltwater is unhealthy to drink and corrodes plumbing
                           the. island's terrain is left undisturbed. On narrow
                                                                                                      fixtures. Wells contaminated by saltwater need "rest" in
                           peninsulas, smaller islands, or where water supply is                      order to'rejuvenate, i.e. pumping or drought conditions need
                           known to be limited, such as on parts of Swan's                            to stop so that fresh groundwater can be replenished. The
                           Island, an overall residential density, island-wide or in                  time for recovery depends upon the porosity and recharge
                           a particularly sensitive area, of no greater than 2.5                      rate of the aquifer and the amount of rainfall.
                           acres pet unit should ensure that all available runoff is
                           captured to recharge the water supply. To more                                  People like to be near the shore. Because most develop-
                           specifically address carrying capacity, communities                        ment occurs around the perimeter of an island, the likelihood
                           may want to vary the lot size based upon specific                          of saltwater intrusion increases with the density of develop-
                           geologic settings of different parts of their island. The
                           table on page 18 provides    Iguidance for site specific                   ment and amount of water usage. This is particularly a threat
                           planning.                                                                  when islands convert from low water use systems such as
                                                                                                      hand pumps to pressurized water systems that make it pos-
                           Limits on water consumption are advised where                              sible for households to pump much higher amounts.
                           supply is limited and pressurized water pumps are
                           used. As a general rule, especially in shoreland areas,
                           the greater amount of water pumped by each house-



                  12







                                                                                                                                       Groundwater


               In the Town of Harpswell, a complex
          of narrow islands and peninsulas, for ex-                          Town of                       BRUNSWIC
          ample, many wells located in intensively                                                                                           WEST
                                                                      HARPSWELL                                                                    H
          developed shorefront areas have been
          contaminated with salt water. The accompa-                           Maine
          nying map shows the locations where this                                                                                          -'0
          has occurred.                                                                                   "4


               Assessing which areas are vulnerable
          to saltwater intrusion is complicated by
                                                                                                                            N
          rising sea level. Scientists estimate that sea
          level in Maine may rise as much as three                       Irk-
          feet during the next 100 years because of                    A,
          climatic change. This means that the                                    jf r
                                                                           '@(P   jf, r
          brackish boundary between saltwater and                                                                                                  Cl)
          the freshwater underlying the shoreland area
          will migrate landward, especially in flatter                                                    N

                                                                                                                     "un
          areas, as the sea rises.
                                                                               @@P pmr)
                                                                                           /'w
                                                                               OUJ,


                                                                                                                         cc@

                                                                                                                                                X


                                                                              M
                                                                                                                                            0
                                                                                      0 A
                                                                                                                                          00
                                                                                  7(                   xV
                                                                                                                                            0
                                                                                                                                          0
                                                                                                                                @H



                                                                                                                            4
                                                                               ,A Of'-

                                                                   4Y
                                                                               /A
                                                                                          SCALE
                                                                                  0      1      2      3     El    Wells reflecting saltwater intrusion
                                                                                                   miles




                                                                                                                                                   13






                Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                        Limits: If wells are located away from the zone of
                        influence of saltwater at densities less than one unit
                        per acre, and the amount of water withdrawn from
                        them does not exceed the amount recharged even in
                        r1rniiaht xipnrc ,n1txx7nti-r intnminn shmild nnt he a
                        problem. This is not to say that development in the
                        interior of islands is immune from saltwater intrusion.
                        In places where more than 250 gallons a day per acre
                        are withdrawn, saltwater intrusion could occur con-
                        siderably toward the interior, especially during dry
                        periods and where fracture zones are most favorable.

                        To avoid the interface between the freshwater lens                                                                       %NNW%
                        and the sea, and to anticipate sea level rise, new wells
                        should be located at least 200 feet above the high
                        water mark in undeveloped areas and set back 400
                        feet in places where development is already concen                                                 I., A:
                        trated. These setbacks can be used as minimum
                        guidelines island-wide, but anon-site investigation
                        for each new well is needed because of the high                        Wells drilled close to the ocean shore are vulnerable to saltwater
                        variability of hydrogeologic conditi  ons.                             intrusion.

                        Finding potable water without risk of saltwater
                        intrusion can be difficult on smaller islands. The rule              risk to the quality of ground and surface waters. An island's
                        of thumb for islands smaller than 5 acres is that they               carrying capacity can be increased and threats to water
                        usually cannot support a reliable year-round water                   quality decreased by upgrading inadequate systems.
                        supply.
                                                                                                  Fifty years ago, a household used about 5 gallons of
                      Contamination from subsurface wastewater dis-                          water a day. Outhouses were the norm and people generated
                posal. New subsurface wastewater disposal systems are not                    very little "gray water", i.e. the effluent from sinks, bathtubs,
                usually a threat to the environment, providing they are in-                  washing machines, and dishwashers. Pressurized pumps and
                stalled properly using the latest technology. -However, many                 drilled wells now make 250 gallons a day of water use
                older sewage disposal systems in use on the islands pose a                   possible. Cesspools and septic systems may not have been


                14







                                                                                                                                            Groundwater


          upgraded over the years to handle the increasing volume of
          wastewater. Until 20 years ago or more, septic systems could                       Non-conforming lots are getting more
          be installed within the seasonal high water table. Effluent                        attention:
          from undersized systems and systems installed within the                               The "Colony" near Dark Harbor on Islesboro is a
          water table or on thin soils is likely to break out at the surface                 good example of the difficulty of managing septic
          over time, posing a risk to human health and water quality.                        wastes on non-conforming island lots. Subdivided
                                                                                             into postage stamp-sized lots around the turn of the
                Homeowners are not usually required to upgrade old                           century, as were many shoreland areas in Maine, the
          septic systems when expanding or converting homes to year-                         settlement provided housing for people who worked
          round use, although the changes increase the likelihood that                       for the "summer people." Wastewater disposal on
          the system will malfunction.                                                       lots as small as 99 x 130 sq. ft. was not a problem
                                                                                             when outhouses and hand pumps were used.
                Systems can be difficult and expensive to replace,                           Greatly increased water use, however, has resulted
          especially on older subdivided lots which offer little or no                       in some contaminated wells
          alternative space for a retrofit. Because of the high cost of                          The town is now conducting a survey of the
          hauling fill from the mainland to upgrade a leach field, many                      condition of septic systems in the area in anticipation
          islanders look the other way when their system fails.                              of applying to the Department of Environmental
                                                                                             Protection for a Small Community grant to build
                                                                                             clustered treatment systems. Even such group
                                                                                             systems managed by landowner associations are not
                                                                                             free from possible failure, however. Their successful
                                                                                             maintenance and repair requires cooperation among
                                                                                             landowners, as well as the introduction of low-flow
                                                                                             plumbing fixtures and other water conservation
                                                                                             measures.
                                                                                                 See Appendix' 1 for a copy of the sanitary survey
                                                                                             Islesboro has asked all home and business owners
                                                                                             to complete.

                                                                                             source: Rick Rogers, Islesboro Code Enforcement Officer








                                                                                                                                                        15






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors



                                       Sewage treatment alternatives breath new life into existing development:

                                An innovative sewage treatment system has
                            anowed urcas isiand, one of      .V. Vashir-iy1ur-i,s San juan            -1 he put-fip -5 1 Iiiie U-1 io each tank i-nove the effiluen't
                            Islands, to clean up a nagging contamination prob-                    through the system at a regular rate and amount of
                            lem t 'hat stifled the vitality of the commercial area                flow, with periods of inactivity in-between. This     -
                            near the ferry landing. Thetightly knit area of resi-                 means that the common sand filter can "have some
                            dences and businesses has a year-round population                     time off' between doses to rejuvenate its air and
                            of about 100. Daytrippers increase the number of                      bacterial content for greater efficiency. The indi-
                            people"'downtown" two to three times in the summer.                   vidual pumps also beat the problem of gravity by
                                                                                                  avoiding the need for large pumps that move flows
                                The new system replaced cesspools, direct                         up-gradient in conventional systems.
                            discharges, holding tanks and other non-conforming
                            subsurface waste disposal systems that were con-                          Diamond Lake, Washington, also used individual
                            taminating Puget Sound and threatening public                         pumps to overcome gravity Its "step-collection
                            health. Each "user"now has a 1000-gallon concrete                     system" starts with individual screened vaults that
                            septic system, fitted with a screen and pump. The                     feed into mains that are relatively small in diameter
                            screened effluent, about 90% of the original input, is                (1.5-4") and sized larger as the effluent gets closer to
                            pumped from the,individual tanks into a common                        the communal treatment facility The collection
                            sand filter. The sand filter removes over 95% of the                  system feeds into an aerated lagoon system that
                            biological oxygen demand and total suspended                          discharges eventually into the lake.
                            solids. What comes out at the other end is chlori-
                            nated, then discharged @into the Sound.                                   The cost of a step and sand filter in Elkten,
                                                                                                  Oregon, was $7,000 per household compared with
                               'The screen is an innovation that leaves 90% of                    about $28,000 per household, the cost of a conven-
                            the solids and little liquid in the holding tank, rather              tional system in a community of similar size.
                            than a large amount of "blackwater." This means
                                                                                                      Source: William Perkins, Applied Wastewater
                            that the tanks need only be pumped every 10 to 15                         Technology, Boxford, IVIA.
                            years, compared to the conventional unscreened
                            system primarily used in Maine which needs to be
                            pumped every two to four years.






                 16







                                                                                                                                         Groundwater


               Many islanders rely on overboard discharge systems,                     bacteria. Minimizing the risk of contamination from house-
          which treat sewage effluent by passing it through a sand filter              hold chemicals is best accomplished by their proper disposal,
          system, chlorinating it, and discharging it into the ocean.                  which means not pouring them down the drain.
          These systems were originally permitted to allow develop-
          ment on marginal soils, where installation of a septic system                     The Plumbing Code is believed by many professionals
          and leach field was problematic.                                             to be unreliable in protecting against nitrate-nitrogen con-
                                                                                       tamination, especially where development is concentrated on
               However, overboard discharge systems can introduce      '               small lots (< one acre) with thin soils, i.e. less than three feet
          toxic chlorine into the marine environment or cause bacterial                to bedrock. Drinking water standards deem a safe concentra-
          contamination of shellfish. These systems may not be an                      tion of nitrate-nitrogen to be not more than ten milligrams per
          environmental threat when they work, but the Department of                   liter. In excessive amounts, which fortunately are not com-
          Environmental Protection estimates that as many as 50% do                    mon, the contaminant is dangerous to young children. It can
          not function properly. The state has established a program to                cause a deadly condition known as methemoglobinemia, or
          remove overboard discharges where feasible, usually by                       "blue-baby syndrome". It may also be linked to the occur-
          converting to in-ground disposal systems. In recent years,                   rence of stomach cancer in the general population.
          technological advancements have made the construction of                             Limits: To account for the inability of thin and
          subsurface disposal systems possible in places that had                              marine clay soils to adequately dilute nitrate-nitrogen,
          previously been unsuitable, however the risk of contaminat-
          ing groundwater is still a concern.                                                  a maximum density island-wide of 1.5-3 acres per
                                                                                               unit can be used as a rule of thumb for islands that
               On some islands, where an alternative sewage treatment                          rely upon on-site wells and septic systems. Relatively
          method would be prohibitively expensive and technologically                          flat islands that contain relatively good soils (deep
          challenging and no commercially valuable shellfishing areas                          sandy or silty till, or sand and gravel) can use the 1.5
          will be affected, such as Monhegan, the state allows the                             acre per unit factor in calculating an estimate of
          continued use of overboard discharge systems.                                        carrying capacity; those where the soils are predomi-
                                                                                               nantly shallow or clay should use a factor of three
               Monitoring and improving sewage treatment can mini-                             acres per unit or greater.
          mize the risk of groundwater contamination from sewage                               This "rule of thumb" can be used to estimate the total
          effluent. However, there may still be concern that nitrate-                          number of residential units that can be built on an
          nitrogen, pathogenic bacteria, and household chemicals in                            island without exceeding nitrate-nitrogen limits. On
          effluent could contaminate wells. It is generally believed that                      Vinalhaven, where Robert G. Gerber, Inc. completed
          subsurface disposal systems that meet-Maine's current                                an in-depth evaluation of existing data, the firm
          Plumbing Code provide adequate treatment of pathogenic


                                                                                                                                                     17






                     Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors



                                               Good site planning is essential in Maine's complex glaciated terrain:


                                  The rules of thumb recommended for groundwater in                                   Thick Silty Till (>3')
                            this handbook are intended to provide guidance in planning                                Well to  Iproperty line:      1      e
                            overall development densities for an island or portions of an                                                            00 fe't minimum
                            island. Because hydrologic and geologic factors can vary                                  System to property line: 350 feet minimum
                                                                                                                      Individual lot size:          2.5 acres
                            greatly within short distances due to glacial effects and
                            fracture patterns in the bedrock, there should be more                                    Cluster density:              0.4 units/acre
                            detailed study of each particular site to establishing lot sizei                          Marine Clay[Thin, Silty Till
                            and septic system setbacks from wells and property lines.
                            Designing a site to fit its natural capacity will help ensure an                          Well to property line:        100 feet minimum
                            adequate amount of groundwater recharge and avoid septic                                  System to property line: 400 feet based on dilution
                            contamination of wells.                                                                   Individual lot size:          5 acres
                                                                                                                      Cluster density:              0.2 units/acre
                                      The following table can help homeowners and land
                            planners determine the appropriate lot size for any given site                            Sand and Gravel
                            based upon its soil characteristics. Where the direction of
                                                                                                                      Well to property line:        100 feet minimum
                            groundwater flow is relatively obvious (sloping sites) and                                System to property line: 200 feet minimum,
                            assuming drought conditions, separations and approximate                                                                250 feet where
                            sizes should be     Ias follows:                                                                                        systems in the same
                                                                                                                                                    development are down gradient
                                                                                                                      'Individual lot size:         .5 acres, depending on slope
                                      Thin Sandy Till (<3')                                                           Cluster density:              1.2 units/acre
                                      Well to property line:      100 feet minimum                                    For areas with slopes of 5% or less, the direction of
                                      System to property line:    250 feet minimum                           groundwater flow-is difficult to determine, and well-septic separa-
                                      Individual lot size:        1.7 acres                                  tion should be calculated conservatively as if the well is downhill
                                      Cluster density:            0.6 units/acre                             from the system. Cluster densities are approximate and require
                                                                                                             site-specific evaluation for verification of the protection of ground-
                                                                                                             water quality and public health. Source: Robert G. Gerber, Inc.






                     18







                                                                                                                                                 Groundwater


                   recommended a 2-acre maximum density in most                                     3.       The location, type, depth, yield, water levels,
                   parts of the island.                                                                      and quality of existing wells on the island;
                Alternatively, the carrying capacity for nitrate-nitr6gen                           4.       The relationship of the fresh groundwater
           can be increased by using peat-lined leachfields, which halve                                     supply to its interface with saltwater;
           the amount of nitrate-nitrogen entering the groundwater.                                 5.       The geology, safe yield, and water quality of
                                                                                                             any groundwater aquifers suitable for existing
                Other contaminants. Petroleum, salt, and other chemi-                                        or potential community water supply;
           cal products are also threats to Maine's groundwater. Most                               6.       Any existing or potential land use patterns,
           contamination problems, such as household chemicals poured                                        practices, or contamination sites that threaten
           down a toilet, could be avoided through better education and                                      the quality and quantity of the island's ground-
           heightened sense of personal andcorporate responsibility for                                      water supply, and in particular, the number of
           the environment. Some of these contaminants pose signifi-                                         households/businesses and amount of water
           cant health risks and their discharge into the environment is                                     use that can be supported on the island with-
           illegal.                                                                                          out degrading water quality or exceeding
                                                                                                             groundwater recharge; and
           Inventorying Groundwater                                                                 7.       Recommendations for protecting the quality
                                                                                                             and quantity of the resource.
                To assure the availability of adequate, high quality                             A less extensive and expensive assessment of ground-
           drinking water supplies over the long term, islanders need a                     water resources can be compiled from a review of existing
           clear understanding of their island's groundwater resource.                      data such as published maps, well drilling logs, water quality
           Such a study should address the following:                                       test data, and borings from development permit applications
                   I .     The characteristics of bedrock geology, espe-                    or public works projects. Such a "first-cut" in-office ground-
                           cially the locations of fractures and topo-                      water analysis can generally be contracted for less than
                           graphic lineaments that indicate recharge areas                  $10,000, depending upon the size, location, and complexity
                           and migration patterns of groundwater re-                        of the setting and issues to be studied. Those communities
                           sources;                                                         preferring a citizens' approach, should consult "The Planning
                                                                                            Process for Local Groundwater Protection" available from
                   2.      The physical and hydraulic characteristics of                    the Department of Environmental Protection.
                           surficial geologic deposits and the thickness of
                           the soil on the island, particularly those areas
                           most important for ensuring recharge;



                                                                                                                                                             19






                   Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors.

                   Developing a Local Strategyto Manage                                            such as recreation may be all that is advisable.
                   Groundwater                                                                           To guard against nitrate-nitrogen contamination, densi-
                                                                                                   ties should be even lower than calculated on the basis of
                        Considerable information is available from state and                       water quantity alone. On islands with extensive flat areas
                   federal- agencies on how to manage groundwater. i he
                   followin discussion highlights some suggestions that are                        with thick soils, densities should be no greater than I..*) acres
                            9                                                                      per unit.' On all others, they should be no greater than three
                   especially pertinent to islands:                                                acres per unit.
                        Establish an island-wide maximum density for                                     These generalized numbers are useful for assessing an
                   development. Many communities make the mistake of                               island's carrying capacity, but they do not substitute for site-
                   believing that full development will never occur, so they                       specific hydrologic studies,- which can be required as part of
                   don't plan for it. But it canand may, so islanders should be                    local review of certain development proposals.
                   sure that the development pattern allowed by local regula-
                   tions is the one they want to end up with. (See the "buildout"                        Many communities rely upon the Plumbing Code as a de
                   discussions on page 65 and in Appendix 3.)                                      facto means of managing growth. The code may not be
                                                                                                   effective in establishing development densities that ensure
                        Islanders need to assess whether full development of                       clean surface and ground waters. It addresses only contami-
                   their island or a portion of it will exceed its overall carrying                nation from septic systems and does not ensure adequate
                   capacity. In the case of groundwater, how much of the                           groundwater quantity or protect against contamination from
                   island's water supply and contaminant absorption capacity                       stormwater runoff and saltwater intrusion.
                   can each individual lot or development use up as its fair
                   share? The,development density a community or landowner                               Code changes proposed in 1994, may make considerable
                   group uses as a guide for groundwater carrying capacity                         amounts of land developable that had not previously met the
                                                                                                   standards of the code. In the absence of strict local zonin *
                   needs to be based upon several factors.                                                                                                         91
                                                                                                   the new regulations coulcl result in development patterns that
                        The bottom line is that overall maximum densities                          change an island's special character. Recognizing theparrow
                   should not be greater than one acre per unit-at a minimum                       focus of the Plumbing Code, it is all the more important to
                   - to maintain quantity and avoid saltwater intrusion on.                        address the multiple facets of carrying capacity locally.
                   islands over 100 acres in size without narrow peninsulas.
                   On peninsulas, islands between five and 100 acres, or where                           Site wells and wastewater treatment systems in the
                   water supply is limited, overall densities should not be                        most advantageous parts of an island. Because the reli-
                   greater than 2.5 acres per unit. On islands less than five                      ability 'of both wells and septic systems is so tenuous on
                   acres in size the chance of finding potable water is low and                    coastal i'slands, it best to site them in the most favorable
                   the likelihood of salt.water intrusion is great; low impact uses                locations.


                   20







                                                                                                                                                     Groundwater


                 Ideally, individual wells or a community well should
           be sited in the interior portions of an'island to avoid salt-                          Innovative designs and conservative
           water intrusion. However, new water quality monitoring                                 standards can help:
           requirements for community water supplies could put the                                     Islesboro Affordable Properties has sited 8 lots on less
           cost of regulatory compliance out of reach for homeowner                               than half of a 14-acre property. Even though the soils are
           associations interested in sharing common wells. Commu-                                good, project planners used design criteria more stringent
           nity water supplies are defined by Maine's Drinking Water                              than the Plumbing Code, such as increased separation
           Program as those serving 25 persons and/or more than 15                                distance between the bottom of the disposal field and the
           service connections.                                                                   seasonal high water table, to increase their confidence
                                                                                                  that the septic systems will not fail over the long term.
                                                                                                  The lots average around 20,000 sq. ft., considerably less
                 Alternatively an innovative or conventional communal                             than the town's minimum size of 1.5 acres for conven-
           wastewater treatment facility could be installed to concen-                            tional lots. This leaves more than 50% of the land in
           trate wastewater treatment in the location where it will do                            common open space.
           the least harm.                                                                            Another approach would be for a community or
                                                                                                  landowners association to create a "sanitary district," as
                 Consider using alternative sewage treatment tech-                                Eagle Lake, Maine, has, with the authority to own and
           nology or innovative regulatory schemes. New technol-                                  maintain holding tanks that are required for all develop-
           ogy such as sand filter systems, peat bogs, and wetland                                ment instead of leach fields. The quasi-municipal district
           systems are being used with success around the United                                  would be responsible for periodically having the holding
                                                                                                  tanks pumped and maintained. While this approach
           States. Because of limiting soil and bedrock conditions, the                           applied to an island requires a car ferry to transport the
           Chewonki Foundation in Wiscasset recently installed man-                               septage collection trucks, it offers the advantage of
           made cattail marshes to treat its sewage instead of a tradi-                           minimizing the risk of contaminating an island's only
           tional leach field. Usually, alternative treatment systems                             source of water supply and making the transport of
           minimize the reliance on soils to perform the treatment                                septage more cost effective.
           function.                                                                                   Innovative technology such as "advanced biological
                                                                                                  systems" and administrative arrangements such as Eagle
                                                                                                  Lake's sanitary districts can also enable communities to
                                                                                                  site new development in areas of existing settlements.
                                                                                                  Villages are often the most sensible locations for develop-
                                                                                                  ment for social, fiscal, aesthetic, and environmental
                                                                                                  reasons, if the sewage treatment and water supply
                                                                                                  challenges can be successfully resolved.




                                                                                                                                                                 21






             Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors















                                                              Open
                                                              Space


                 Public
                  Trail.
                Easement








                                                          Islesboro, Affordable Property
                                                                       Site Plan
                                                     SCALE
                                          0                         500

                                                                  feet




             .22







                                                                                                                                              Groundwater


                   Other suggestions. Several other techniques for
           protecting groundwater mentioned in the discussion of limits                                   Monitor water quality and water levels. Water
           are listed below:                                                                              levels can be obtained from drilling records
                           Limit impervious surface to no more than 25%                                   from local well drillers or the Maine Geologi-
                           of an island;                                                                  cal Survey and recorded in a methodical way
                                                                                                          in the Town Office. Communities may want
                           Require a setback of at least 200 feet between                                 to require well drillers to file this information
                           septic systems and down-gradient property                                      locally.
                           lines to avoid the risk of contaminating wells;
                           Conduct a sanitary survey of septic systems in
                           villages or other densely settled or problem                       Lincoinville puts the lid on
                           areas and develop a management strategy to                         non-conforming septic systems:
                           upgrade non-conforming and/or .
                           malfunctioning septic systems or provide an                            The Lincolnville Board of Selectmen has adopted
                           alternative approach to treating wastewater;                       an administrative policy requiring that no plumbing
                           (See Appendix 1)                                                   fixture be added to a structure built earlier than 1980
                           Install water saving devices and other conser-                     without documentation that the septic system is
                           vation measures;                                                   designed to accommodate the change. If the owner
                                                                                              cannot document the design of the system, the
                           Adopt local standards more stringent than                          plumbing inspector will conduct a dye test to verify its
                           Maine's Plumbing Code, requiring landowners                        capacity. Rick Rogers, Code Enforcement Officer/
                           to certify, if possible, or to upgrade if neces-                   Plumbing Inspector for Islesboro and Lincoinville,
                           sary, their non-conforming septic systems to                       recommends that every town enact requirements
                           meet current standards before permits are                          more stringent than the State Plumbing Code to
                           granted for expansions or conversions; (See                        protect against system failures. For more information
                           Appendix 1)                                                        on the Lincoinville policy, see Appendix 1.
                           Use composting toilets, destroilets, privies, or
                           alternatives to conventional toilets as another
                           way to conserve water;
                           Require setbacks from the shore for wells and
                           limit the amount of withdrawal on a per acre
                           basis to 250 gallons per day; and



                                                                                                                                                         23



























                                                                                          4
                                                                                    IN4WI,'






























                                  24





                                                                  SOLID WASTE

            Limits and Threats

                 In contrast to the'concept of carrying capacity as the                                   Unless an island has its own landfill - and the days
            upper limit of growth, solid waste requires a minimum                                of such landfills are numbered - it will pay more per ton for
            population base on an island for effective management on a                           waste management than mainland communities. An Island
            community basis.                                                                     Institute study in 1991 reported the 1990 municipal cost per
                 A minimum trash generation rate is necessary to offset                          ton for managing waste on eight islands with municipal
            the high costs of managing solid waste. The less a commu-                            programs ranged from $19 to $424. In comparison, most
            nity produces, the more difficult it is to establish cost-effec-                     mainland communities without landfills spend between $75
            tive recycling and transportation to one of the state's regional                     and $250 a ton for disposal, and $50 to $120 a ton for recy-
            transfer or disposal facilities. Ironically, the lower the popu-                     cling, according to the Maine Waste Management Agency.
            lation and the less trash generated, the higher the per unit
            costs are to manage the trash that is generated.                                              Island Solid Waste Management
                                                                                                          Costs (per ton):
                Average Waste Generation Rates (tons                                                      Isle au Haut 0             Chebeague        $66
                per person per year):                                                                     Matinicus         0        Frenchboro       $83
                      Population        Non-Bulky      Bulky      Total                                   Vinalhaven        $19      Islesboro        $108
                                                                                                          Swan's Island     $34      Cranberries      $358
                       < 1,000                0.35     0.11       0.46                                    North Haven       $65      Monhegan         $424
                1,000 to 2,000                0.49     0.15       0.64                                    source: Island Institute, 1991
                2,000 to 5,000                0.55     0.17       0.72
                5,000 to 10,000               0.75     0.23       0.98
                      > 10,000                0.77     0.23       1.00                                    Isle au Haut and Matinicus have had no municipal
                source: Maine Waste Management Age        .ncy.                                  waste management program. The responsibility is left to
                                                   I                                             individuals who burn, bury, reuse, recycle, or remove the
                Average generation rates for Maine municipalities, in-                           trash from the island. The next six communities in the table
                cludes commercial generation, so rates will vary with
                types of business and levels of activity.                                        have landfills that will be closing because of state and federal


                                                                                                                                                                      25






                Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors


                regulations. The Cranberries and Monhegan transport mate-                               Municipal Solid Waste in Maine
                rial for recycling and disposal to the mainland.' Vinalhaven,                                Overall Composition, 1991
                Matinicus, and Islesboro are working with Camden-Rockport                                       (percent by weight)
                Transfer Station to handle portions of their waste.

                     Solid waste management is difficult on islands for three                                                   paper 35.7%
                reasons. They have unique physical characteristics, small                  demolition debris 3.4%
                and fluctuating population bases, and they are isolated. With              yard/wood 9.8%
                inadequate soil cover and vulnerable groundwater supplies,
                islands are especially poor places for landfills. As discussed
                in the groundwater section, all Maine islands are sole source
                aquifers from which most islanders derive their potable                      glass 5.3%
                water. Accordingly, even development of a "fail-safe"                          metals 9.9%                               other 10.5%
                landfill would present unique risks and high costs to island                                                         pet litter/diapers 2.6%
                                                                                                    textiles 1.7%-
                residents.                                                                              plastics 6.5%        food 14.7%

                     Population also works against waste management on                                    Municipal Solid Waste on Monhegan
                islands - on two counts. First, year-round island popula-                                       Overall Composition, 1988
                tions are relatively low, precluding cost efficiencies that                                        (percent by weight)
                mainland communities of greater size can achieve. Second,
                island populations fluctuate dramatically by season. Island
                communities need a flexible contractual arrangement with a
                hauler and a disposal 'facility that takes into account seasonal                   glass 9.7%                        paper 33.1 %
                changes in the amount of waste generated.
                                                                                             metals 5.2%
                     The high cost of disposing of small amounts of trash
               -cannot be offset easily by joining with neighboring commu-
                nities. Water gets in the way. Transportation by boat raises                plastics 8.6%
                the overall cost of disposal. Costs related to disposal often
                exceed the cost to bring an item to an island in the first place.
                For example, the removal cost of a dilapidated car may
                exceed the cost,of bringing the car on the island.                                                             food 43.4%



                26







                                                                                                                                         Solid Waste


          Inventorying the Waste Stream                                                    Monhegan's SWAT Team (Solid Waste Attack Team) set
                                                                                      up its waste tally system on the public dock during the month
                  Before an effective solid waste management strategy                 of August 1988 with the help of consultant Will Brinton. The
          can be developed for an island, an assessment needs to be                   garbage committee sent letters to all taxpayers on and off the
          made of how much trash is generated, and what is its compo-                 island well in advance of the summer season. The letters
          sition. To find out, a community can conduct an "audit" of                  explained about the audit and how to participate. Residents,
          its waste stream.                                                           hotels, restaurants, and other businesses were asked to sepa-
                                                                                      rate their garbage into several categories and package each
                  Maine law defines municipal solid waste as solid
          waste generated by homes and normal commercial opera-                                     Monhegan Garbage Separation
          tions. Paper is the largest component (slightly greater than a                                        Tally Sheet
          third) and food wastes the'second largest component (almost                    0                                                  0
          15 %) of Maine's municipal waste.                                                                                 DATE:
               Island communities may vary significantly from the                        Material            Weight (in pounds)     Day's Total
          state-wide profile, depending upon the presence or absence of                    Tare
          restaurants, hotels, industries, and other businesses.
          Monhegan, for instance, found through its local trash audit                    Glass
          that almost one-half, rather than one-seventh, of the waste                    Plastics
          stream was composed of food wastes. Since food wastes
          were the single largest component, a home-based composting                     Metals
          program became a high priority. Restaurant waste makes up
          the largest share of the island's food wastes, but since much                  Moist Food Waste
          of this waste is in liquid form and harder to compost,                         Wet Food Waste
          Monhegan's program has targeted home-based generators
          first.                                                                         Paper

               Waste stream analysis, in addition to enabling informed                   Newspaper
          decisions about management options, has another important                      Cardboard
          benefit. It can raise public consciousness, get people in-
          volved in the issue, and ensure timely and positive response                   *container weight which is deductedfrom total weight
          to local trash disposal initiatives. That was certainly
          Monhegan's experience.


                                                                                                                                                   27






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                 category in a clear plastic bag. The town dock was open for                    Managing Solid Waste
                 collection between 5 and 6 p.m. each evening when the trash
                 was counted and weighed on freight scales. When the audit                           When Maine's landfill-related environmental problems
                 was complete, support was high for going ahead with a                          became evident, the state sought a way to minimize the
                                                                                                i-n,%Arr%nmPntn1 nnd finnnri -1 rn,,t-, of wiste disposal alterna-
                 targeted stratCrgy IIUI- 111"llar,11-Ig 1VX                                    -- - ---- ____             -a- - - - - - -       I
                                                                                                tives. The answer was a statewide policy making disposal
                       The audit on Monhegan is just one example of how an                      the option of last resort.
                 audit can be conducted. An audit should be as simple as
                 possible, but should document:                                                      The top priorities of the strategy 'are reducing both the
                                                                                                volume and toxicity of municipal solid waste and reusing
                          1.      The types and'amounts of waste generated,                     products and materials. Since 1988, the state has reduced
                                                                                                municipal solid waste generation by almost 10%. Recycling
                          2.,     How trash is normally collected and disposed                  is next in priority and already the state-wi& recycling effort
                                  of on the island,                                             has doubled. To increase the amount recycled, towns are
                                                                                                now focusing attention on composting. All of these efforts
                          3.      How many people and local businesses gener-                   are aimed at reducing the amount of waste requiring dis-
                                  ate the waste, and                                            posal, the last resort in the strategy. The Maine Waste
                          4.      The types of management options th    Ie commu-               Management Agency is also now placing emphasis on ways
                                  nity may wish to consider.                                    to manage construction and demolition debris, market
                                                                                                recyclables, and reduce waste management costs.
                       The way an audit is conducted can vary. Tally sheets                          How do islands fit into the state's strategy? Progress
                 can be developed for different types of audits such as house-                  has been slow because of the special characteristics of is-
                 holds or marine industries. Waste categories can be specific                   lands. Traditional means of managing solid waste on islands
                 .or general. If,'for example, a community wishes to explore                    have included open burning, burial at sea, and landfilling. In
                 crushing glass for reuse on the island rather than shipping it                 many cases, residents and visitors have also carried their
                 off, it would need to know how much glass overall i's gener-                   w Iastes off-i'sland to mainland communities. Historicall'  -, the
                 ated in order to determine what size glass crusher to pur-,                                                                                y
                 chase.                                                                         dispogal of white goods, junk cars, construction debris, and
                                                                                                chemicals such as waste oil have been left to individual
                                                                                                responsibility.

                                                                                                     One by one, all of these options, except removal to the
                                                                                                mainland, are being discouraged or eliminated for environ-,


                 28







                                                                                                                                                Solid Waste


           mental reasons. Faced with a tough federal requirement for
           groundwater monitoring and clean-up and a state law phasing
           out unlicensed landfills, the island communities of
           Frenchboro, Swans Island, Islesboro, North Haven,
           Vinalhaven, and Chebeague Island must look for alternative
           means of dealing with their formerly landfilled wastes.

                Most of these communities have arranged for private
           contractors to haul waste to the mainland on existing runs of
           the ferries.


                Isle au Haut and Matinicus must now also develop their
           own municipal programs. Monhegan is in compliance
           having conducted a waste audit and put in place its program
           for composting food wastes; crushing glass; collecting
           batteries, paint solvents, and white goods; and compacting
           the rest for mainland disposal.

                                                                                            Managing solid waste at an island home: a burn barrel and grain
                On islands without a year-round community, waste                            bag of trash waiting for monthly pickup. Although it's not usually a
           management practices vary. Mainland communities and the                          formal local policy, one way islanders reduce the amount of trash
           Land Use Regulation Commission, depending upon which                             that needs to be hauled off-island is to burn what they can.
           entity has jurisdiction over an island, should require a solid                       Reuse and reduction. Since the cost of transporting
           waste disposal plan to be part of any island development                       waste to the mainland is so high, the best policy is to keep
           proposal they review. Currently individual applicants for                      solid waste levels as low as possible. This means using
           Land Use Regulation Commission permits make their own ad                       products and materials longer, reusing them for new pur-
           hoc arrangements with whichever community they wish.                           poses, and reducing the amount used in the first place. These
                The management strategies that hold most promise for                      strategies fit well with the self reliance of islanders many of
           Maine's islands are discussed below. Brochures can also be                     whose familie@'s have been practicing thenifor generations.
           obtained from government agencies explaifiing how to                                 One of the ways that everyone, especially large volume
           develop some of these options. Since no single management                      food handlers such as hotels and restaurants, can contribute
           option will serve as a cure-all for any town's waste problems,                 to waste reduction on islands is to purchase items that have
           islanders should consider adopting a mix of options.                           less packaging,,condensed concentrations, or refillable

                                                                                                                                                          29






                 Looking Closely at Six Limitinï¿½ Factors

                 containers. Some products, such as small appliances, have                    benefits of the program. The Cranberries also recycle these
                 been redesigned to facilitate their recycling.                               materials, as well as newspapers.

                      A possible incentive for reducing trash generation is to
                 imp. "nnv_hv_thf-._hqor" nririnor to onver nRrt nf the rn,-;t of                     Composting. Composting is a form of recycling, and
                 disposal. Under unit pricing, households and businesses are                  an effective way to reduce the volume of waste that.needs to
                 charged for disposal ser-vices based upon the amount of trash                be hauled off-island. Yard wastes, such as fallen leaves,
                 they generate. For instance, Monhegan charges $2 a bag'for                   grass clippings, weeds, and the remains of garden plants
                 trash disposal. If consumers know they must pay more to                      make excellent compost. Kitchen wastes free of meat, bones,
                 produce more garbage,'they will take advantage of source                         fatty foods can also be'composted. These materials are
                 reduction and recycling opportunities to redute their trash-                 placed in an outdoor container where they are turned periodi-
                 and their trash disposal bills. Case studies show that pay-by-               cally to facilitate the natural decay process brought about by
                 the-bag programs reduce conventional waste collection most                   microbes, fungi, and other organisms under the right condi-
                 effectively when used in conjunction with recycling and                      tions. The resulting product-compost-can be used to
                 composting programs.                                                         enrich the soil for growing gardens, trees, and shrubs, a
                                                                                              welcome supplement to the thin soils commonly found on
                      Recycling. The money that can be saved on landfill and                  islands. Woody yard wastes can be shredded and used as a
                 incinerator fees is an incentive for recycling. On the main-                 mulch for gardens and a surface for paths. It, too, will
                 land, recycling usually costs less than disposal. While no data              eventually decompose.
                 exists for island communities'yet, the savings are probably
                 not as great because islanders pay high transportation costs                      Monhegan has a backyard composting program for
                 for both recyclables and trash. Remember the figures men-                    island households. The town bought composting units with a
                 tioned earlier: mainland communities typically spend $50 to                  grant, as an incentive to get people involved.
                 $120 to recycle a ton of waste, while they spend on average
                 $75 to $250 per ton for collection and disposal.                                  The University of Maine Cooperative Extension Service
                                                                                              offers a good handbook and video on composting available
                      Several island communities are already involved in                      for people who are interested. The Knox-Lincoln County
                 recycling. The Camden-Rockport Transfer Station is work-                     Cooperative Extension at 594-2104 can provide details.
                 ing cooperatively with Vinalhaven, North,Haven, Islesboro,
                 Monhegan, and Matinicus to collect portions of their waste                        Disposal. No benefit is derived from materials that
                 stream. Vinalhaven has initiated a voluntary recycling pro-                  must be disposed of, unless energy is made in the process of,
                                                                                              incineration. Dis osal,is a financial sink hole, made even.
                 gram. -North Haven recycles crushed glass, aluminum and                                        p
                 tin, and involves students.in educating townspeople about the                deeper by the high transportation costs and low volume

                 30







                                                                                                                                                Solid Waste


           generation of island populations. With the closing of the                               program to the island's needs and keep up public
           landfills and the ban on burning and ocean dumping, islands                             outreach over the long term to maintain active support
           are moving toward hauling material for disposal off-island to                           and participation.
           an incinerator or licensed landfill.                                            4.      When planning a local management system, consider
                The only disposal options are to contract with an off-                             both the public and private collection approaches.
           island landfill or incinerator for waste disposal, perhaps by                           Collection programs are often the most costly compo-
           joining a compact of mainland communities or hiring a                                   nent of the system and need to be designed with care.
           private firm to come to the island, haul the material off, and                  5.      Consider obtaining priority reservations for haulers'
           dispose of it properly. Monhegan belongs to the Camden-                                 use of public ferry service to and from the mainland;
           Rockport Transfer Station which hauls disposable wastes to a                    6.      Maximize the load volume per trip. Consider using a
           regional incinerator. Vinalhaven recently contracted with a                             trash compactor on island to make the most of storage
           private hauler for the same service.                                                    capacity at the collection point (odor and leachate
                Vinalhaven, Monhegan, the Cranberries, and the Port-                               nuisance need to be prevented or kept to a minimum);
           land islands set aside a day or two a year for collection of                    7.      Use a default factor of $ 1.00/ton/rnile for transporta-
           white goods and harmful wastes. Junk cars are a particular                              tion costs on the mainland as a general rule of thumb
           problem. One of the most innovative ways to deal with them,                             in addition to the boat/ferry costs;
           in addition to the excise fee the state now charges, is charging                8.      On privately owned islands, "carry in, carry out" is
           a fee for each car brought onto an island. to cover the eventual                        the best policy; make arrangements for mainland
           cost of removal.                                                                        disposal; and
                Some suggestions from the Maine Waste Management                           9.      Minimize the frequency of collection-to the extent
           Agency for managing waste on islands include the following:                             that aesthetic and health factors, household/business
           1.      Conduct a waste stream assessment to pinpoint waste                             storage capacity, and seasonal, climatic, and demo-
                   management needs;                                                               graphic variations allow.
           2.      Look at both the short- and long-term trends for jobs
                   and population on the island to project waste stream
                   growth;

           3.      Use a public education and involvement program to
                   establish two-waypommunication between waste
                   managers and the people they serve. Tailor the



                                                                                                                                                          31
































                                                                                                                   A





















                                                  14








                32





                                                SOCIAL EXPERIENCE

                  Trying tofigure out how many tourists are                              seclusion and independence. Some families have been rooted
                  enough on an island is like boiling a frog in                          on their island for generations. Many make a living from the
                  cold water If you put thefrog into hot water,                          sea.
                  it'll jump out immediately. If you place it in
                  cold water and start raising the heat, thefrog                               For residents and short-term visitors alike, the quality of
                  won't realize what's happening until it @ too                          an island experience depends in great measure upon the
                  late. It's equally difficultfor us islanders to                        number of people one encounters in relation to the kind of
                  detect how the gradual increase in the number                          experience one expects. Those seeking privacy don't want to
                  of daytrippers is affecting our psyche.                                share island space with a lot of othe  r people. Those expecting
                          Maine island resident                                          a quiet, close-knit community that makes its living from the
          Limits and Threats                                                             sea are put off by a large number of tourists and strangers
                                                                                         wandering around. Residents who make a living from tour-
               Islanders and visitors value islands for many of the same                 ists may welcome the swelling numbers. Other residents
                                                                                         believe too many tourists hurt their businesses, especially if
          reasons, but they sometimes have conflicting expectations,                     they cater to those looking for a quiet retreat from the faster-
          even among themselves, about the kind of experience they                       paced mainland.
          want to have while on an island.
                                                                                              In recent years, at least, numbers of visitors and how or
               Daytrippers and other visitors go out to the islands to                   whether to limit or direct them has been an issue with some
          walk, exercise, camp, bike, boat, pursue art, observe nature,                  island residents and landowners. For example, the number of
          enjoy the scenery, or explore a village or landscape reminis-                  daytrippers on Mo'nhegan, bikers on Islesboro, hikers on Isle
          cent of an earlier time. Many seek solitude. Most usually go                   au Haut, and boaters visiting popular undeveloped islands
          with the expectation of a special experience.                                  have been a concern.
               People live on an island year-round or seasonally for                            How can everyone's expectations be met? The simple
          many of the same reasons people visit. Some residents value                    answer is, they can't. But islanders, as landowners or com-
          the sense of interdependency among neighbors necessitated                      munities, can identify the kinds of experience they want and
          by island living. Others, especially those who summer on                       visitors to their island seek, and weave that knowledge into
          smaller islands, like their islands for the opposite reason-                   the larger discussion of an island's ecological, environmental,


                                                                                                                                                        33






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                 physical, and fiscal limits, and economic viability. A com-
                 munity can use its understanding of how people feel about                        Monhegan daytrippers see themselves
                 the social fabric of the island in making decisions about                        in many ways
                 factors that influence%the numbers of people drawn t   'o it, for
                 Pvnmr,%1P thp timp nf  "onnmir activity it nrnmotev, nr the                          A 1993 survey of 670 daytrippers conducted by
                     -11-1     ..7r-                                                              Monhegan Associates found that many label them-
                 capacity of the utilities it develops.
                                                                                                  selves as sightseers (68%). and/or hikers (57%).
                      Some islanders wonder what kind of limits can be                            Twenty percent (20%) called themselves naturalists;
                 imposed legally to limit island visitors. University of Maine                    17% photographers; 14% seekers of solitude; and
                 School of Law professor Orlando, DeLogu says that if the                         10% artists.
                 social experience of a particular island or group of islands is
                 a special part of Maine's heritage, then social carrying capac-                      Almost 70% visited island shops and restaurants.
                 ity can play an important role in establishing limits to growth.                 Just under half visited the community's museum.
                                                                                                  Around 40% visited art studios or the art gallery.
                 However, case law directs communitites not to limit resid    ents                About one in four opted for a cold swim in the @ocean.
                 or daytrippers based simply on the reason that they "like a
                 small population." Such limits would have to be supported                             The survey enabled respondents to select more
                 by conclusive technical data, such as information document-                      than one choice for how they see themselves and
                 ing that tourists have an adverse effect on an island's tradi-                   what they did while they were on the island. A paid
                 tional fishing economy, for example.                                             surveyor interviewed willing parties of daytrippers
                                                                                                  departing on the return trips to the mainland on 17
                                                                                                  afternoons during the summer of 1993.

                                                                                                  Monhegan residents generally agree
                                                                                                  about why they live or summer on the
                                                                                                  island

                                                                                                      Most residents say they live there because of the
                                                        P
                                                                                                  general quality/way of life and natural beauty/clean
                                                                                                  environment, according to a 1989 survey conducted
                                                                                                  for the Monhegan Advisory Committee.        Other
                                                                                                  reasons cited, in decreasing order of importance,
                                                                                                  include: island people, privacy, family, "other", and
                                                                                                  work opportunity.
                   Darnariscove Island off Boothbay Harbor is a popular destination
                   for recreational boaters.



                 34






                                                                                                                                       Social Experience


                Isle au Haut, an exceptional case because much of the
           island is part of Acadia National Park, provides an example                           Limits: In a carrying capacity study for Acadia
           of how to manage for a- quality experience on a remote and                            National Park, the Appalachian Mountain Club
           undeveloped island.                                                                   recommended that people who arrive on Isle au Haut
                                                                                                 by park boat at Duck Harbor be limited to 90
                                                                                                 daytrippers and 30 campers a day. The total number,
                                                                                                 (120), was derived by multiplying the average party
                                                                                                 size, (3), times the number of "stopping places" in the
                                                                                                 southwest comer of the island, (40), where use is
                                                                                                 heaviest. This limit is based on the finding that
                                                                                                 visitors and residents using the park want to occupy a
                                                                                                 private place.

                                                                                                 According to the study, "When groups stop, for
                                                                                                 reasons such as picnicking, resting, sketching, or
                                                                                                 watching, they usually stop in a place where they can
                                                              NMI,
                                                                                                 view the sea. Groups tend to look for a stopping
                                                                        N
                                                    N"                                           place where they are out of earshot of other groups
                                                                                                 and can see only one or two other groups. Because
                                                                                                 this opportunity to occupy a private place seemed an
                                                                                                 important part of the Isle au Haut experience, and
           k.-   A                                                                               because these places are limited, the number of places
                                                                                                 that are available were counted . .


                                                                                                 Visitors and islanders alike believe the park is already

                                t
                                                                                                 at the upper end of its carrying capacity, with respect
                                     ir
                        lot                                                                      to providing a quality experience for all users. And at
                                                                                                 least until now, residents believe the park is managing
                                                                                                               that effectively minimizes the number of
                                                                                                 use in a way
                                                                                                 visitors exploring the settled parts of the island.

                                                                         14@                  The principle used for Isle au Haut-basing visitor
            Hikersenjoy views from one of Isle au Haut's spectacular "stopping           limits on the number of stopping places--can be applied to
            places."


                                                                                                                                                         35






                  Looking Closely at Six Urniting Factors

                  other islands,with trails and camping sites. But the analysis,                       f.     The practicality of limiting use or discourag-
                  as did the one for Isle au Haut, should also consider the                                    ing visitors, managing impacts, and monitor-
                  capacity of natural conditions to withstand use. For example,                                ing results.
                  wildlife and vegetation may not be able to tolerate the
                  ainount oicifOot traffilic thilat will' result if-10-jut thic, -a C C C p tC      Annendix 2 offers a method for surveying the number of
                  number of people using stopping   Iplaces.                                   daytrippers using an island. Such a survey.can be expanded
                                                                                               to ask questions about social experience. As mentioned
                                                                                               above, Monhegan polled residents through a conventional
                  Inventory! ng. Social Experience-                                            public opinion survey and polled daytrippers on return trips
                                                                                               to the mainland. Both residents and transient visitors were
                       What levels of use or development provide a satisfying                  surveyed on Isle au Haut.
                  experience? How many more people can be accommodated                              One of the limitations of the M'onhegan survey (see next
                  before the island feels crowded? The answers can be deter-                   page) in providing guidance about the acceptability of the
                  mined by surveying residents and/or visitors on a particular
                  island, and observing their behavior.                                        island's social experience is that it did not find out why
                                                                                               people want the size of year-round/seasonal/daytripper
                         An- island community wanting to manage its experien-                  populations to change. Knowing people's reasons would help
                                                                                               the community choose appropriate management measures.
                  tial qualities needs to know the following:
                         a.      The numbers of users and their activities;                         For instance, if a community knows the reasons year-
                                                                                               round islanders feel comfortable with the present number of
                         b.      How visitors access the island"                               daytrippers (e.g. making an income) and seasonal residents
                                                                                               want to curb the number of dayirippers (e.g. encroachment on
                         C.      The impacts people have;                                      their privacy), it can make some changes that will help
                                                                                               minimize the impacts from tourism, such as using signs to
                         d.      The acceptable levels of use related to experi-               direct daytrippers to the most appropriate areas.
                                 ential quality and the environment, as per-
                                 ceived by the owners, residents, or visitors
                                 themselves;

                         e.      Who standsto gain or. lose from curtailing
                                 numbers of visitors, seasonal residents or year,
                                 round residents; and


                  36






                                                                                                                                   Social Experience

               1989 survey asks Monhegan residents                                     Managing Social Experience
               how many people should be on the                                             Developing a strategy to manage the number of visitors
               island                                                                  for social reasons is probably the most difficult of the carry-
                    Monhegan contracted with Jim Haskell and                           ing capacity issues to tackle. Setting limits outright for the
               Associates and its subcontractor O'Brien &Associ-                       number of daytrippers has political, economic, and legal
               ates to find out, among other issues, how year-round                    implications. It is one thing to say that too many people will
               and seasonal residents feel about the number of                         hurt the environment; and another to say that too many
               people on the island. Seventy-six residents re-                         people will make an experience less satisfying.
               sponded to the 1989 survey; three out of four were
               seasonal.                                                                    Legally, limiting visitors on social grounds may be an
                                                                                       abridgement of constitutional rights in the absence of clear,
                   Most respondents, year-round and seasonal                           specific evidence that too many people will destroy the
               alike, wanted the year-round population to increase.                    unique character or special heritage of a place. Policy mak-
               They favored a level of between 109 and 159                             ers and the courts have recognized the need to regulate
               people, (up from the present population of around                       experiential use in highly sensitive places, e.g. whitewater
               90). On the issue of summer population they dis-                        rafting quotas on Maine's Kennebec and Penobscot Rivers.
               agreed. Seasonal residents favored a slightly higher                    While this principle has not yet been applied to coastal
               level, about 436 people compared with the less than                     islands, it certainly could be considered.
               400 people selected by the year-round residents.
               They -disagreed again upon the numl@er of                                    In many cases, it will be more appropriate to use man-
               daytrippers. A majority of year-round residents                         agement techniques that lessen the impacts of daytrippers,
               would prefer the number to remain about the same,
               while two out of three seasonal residents would                         and make policy decisions that discourage interest in an
               prefer to see it decrease.                                              island, rather than limit access to visitors outright.

                   Some key issues were not asked in the                                       In response to the increase in recreational boating in
               Monhegan survey that could help a community better                      recent years, and the accompanying increase in island visits,
               determine the implications of such findings. Ways to                    the Maine Island Trail Association attempts to direct small
               focus such a survey are discussed on the following                      boat owners looking for a place to picnic, explore, or camp to
               page.                                                                   islands where they are welcomed. The Association has
                                                                                       permission for its members to use a string of public and
                                                                                       privately owned islands. By creating a trail network, the


                                                                                                                                                    37






                    Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                        Exploring the reasons behind                                                       privately owned islands. By creating a trail network, the
                        attitudes:                                                                         Association hopes not only to direct boaters to islands whose
                                                                                                           owners have agreed to public access, but also to steer people
                        A community may already have a sense of why residents                              away from the more vulnerable islands such as those with
                        %AIMMt tr% inntniirnnA nr rf-,rowAnp more davtriooers or it                               A
                                                                                                           se-11; 11 n
                        may wish to ask questions such as the following in a
                        survey. The questions and possible responses should be                                   In exchange for access to the islands, the Association
                        tailored to island conditions by a committee broadly
                        representing the community and appointed to help pre-                              promotes their wise use by its members. The Association's
                        pare the survey.                                                                   guide book not only lists the islands on the trail, but also,
                        1 .  If you are satisfied with the, present number of                              promotes appropriate island behavior. The Association hopes
                             daytrippers to the island, check one or more of the                           that this educational approach will be effective in limiting
                             following reasons:                                                            environmental impacts on the islands.
                             Personal economic gain                                                              In similar, fashion, the Cranberry Isles mail boat and
                             Vitality of island economy
                             They don't do any harm                                                        ferry schedule includes a map directing people to island
                             They make life more interesting                                               attractions. Monhegan has a brochure and map recommend-
                             It is important to share island heritage with others                          ing island etiquette and listing island businesses and services.
                             They have a right to be here no matter what I think                           Information about "acceptable behavior" and the location of
                             Other?                                                                        public'spaces and toilets i's invaluable. People seem willing
                        2.   If you are dissatisfied with the present number of                            to do the right thing if they have the right information.
                             daytrippers to the island, check one or more of
                             the following reasons:                                                              Some selected techniques for managing use are listed
                             I prefer to see fewer people walk by my home                                  below:
                             They are noisy
                             They contribute little to local economy                                                 a.      Regulate mooring placement and use and
                             They litter           I                                                                         docking space and tie-up times at town facili-
                             They come into my yard or onto my beach
                             We don't have enough public toilets/water supply                                                ties;
                                      for them
                             I feel like I don't know anyone I see anymore                                           b.      Provide signs, maps, and other educational
                                                                                                                             materials that steer visitors to appropriate
                             The island feels crowded
                             Their questions bother me                                                                       places, highlight routes that spread people out,
                             It's -harder to get boat tickets when I want them                                               and minimize impacts on islanders;
                             It's harder to find parking on the mainland at the ferry
                             Other?                                                                                  C.      Institute higher ferry fares for daytrippers, than


                    38






                                                                                                                                    Social Experience


                  d.      Negotiate with commercial excursion and
                          ferry boat owners and organized groups to
                          develop schedules and head cou    'nts that con-
                          tribute to quality experiences;

                  e.      Ask organizations that carry people to an
                          island, e.g. windjammers and commercial                                       4Y,
                          boats, to be aware of islanders' or landowners'
                          management goals for an island;                                                                                            J 7

                  f.      Charge a fee to daytrippers to cover the costs
                          of public toilets, solid waste disposal, beach/
                          open space access, brochure printing, and                                          OF
                          others services needed to manage visitor use;

                  9.      Regulate land use, e.g. limiting use of water-
                          front property to activities related to marine
                          trades.






                                                                                                                                411



                                                                                         Residents and daytrippers waiting for the ferry to Chebeague Island.









                                                                                                                                                     39






                  Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors


                                                        San Juan, Islands set goals to manage tourism:

                                The San Juan Islands, an archipelago of 172                     3.  The county, the nonprofit sector, and/or the
                            ;^1-4^ ;@ 1A1-k;-f^n IQfqfn'O DIRrint Q^imrl raninn                     nrivnfin cortnr Izhrm dri qttpmnt M i-rh jrqfp Al
                            IOIC;tido 11 1 V V"@I III I@J-I I -- @ I @Zj- -1 - .                    r...-_                          -_          -
                            are a major tourist destination. Marine tourism in the                  tourists about the importance of caring for the
                            region has grown steadily due to increasing promo-                      island ecology and instill in them a respect for the
                            tion and exposure in national and international                         islands and their residents.
                            media, coupled with rapid growth of nearby mainland                 4., Public policy should recognize that residents
                            population centers in Washington and British Colum-                     have a right to live in a stable, constructive
                            bia.                                                                    community in which tourists are invited to partic-
                                In response, San Juan County, the political                         pate. in ways that do not damage the community
                            jurisdiction that encompasses the islands, is devel-                5.  Amenities provided by San Juan County should
                            oping a "Tourism Plan" to manage increasing use                         not act to attract more tourists to the area or
                            conflicts and minimize environmental and socio-                         attract the type of tourist who expects amenities
                            economic impacts. The County's -Tourism Planning                        as part of their travel experience.
                            Advisory Committee is spearheading the develop-                     6.  San Juan County should develop only a) those
                            ment of the plan and engaging the public in the                         public facilities which residents want for their own
                            process, with the help of The Madrona Group as                       -  use and enjoyment, for which use by tourists
                            consultants.
                                                                                                    would be incidental, and b) those public facilities
                                While the plan is in its early.stages of develop-                   which reduce to  Iurist impacts.
                            ment, some of the policies the committee is consid-                 7.  In order to preserve the quality of life of county
                            ering recommending include:                                             residents, the natural environment of the islands,
                                                                                                    and the prime resource for the tourism industry,
                            1 . Tourists should pay, through taxes, fees, and                       protection of the islands natural beauty, wildlife,
                                                                               I
                                other revenues principally targeted at tourists, for                historic and cultural features, and the rural, small
                                all of the direct and indirect costs of the public                  town atmosphere should be'a high priority.
                                services or facilities attributable to tourism.
                                                                                                8.  The county economy should be diversified by
                            2.  Carrying capacity of public facilities should be                    creating more year-round employment or sea-
                                defined and calculated and used as criteria in                      sonal industries that peak outside of the tourist
                                tourism planning.                                                   season.





                  40





                       SOIL AND VEGETATION RESILIENCY

                          "Islands, like mountains, have shallow, fragile                    This discussion focuses on managing recreational use to
                          soils which are subject to erosionfrom. com-                  minimize impacts on island soils and vegetation, however,
                          paction due to overuse. Also like alpine areas,               these are not the only impacts of recreational use. Promoting
                          their vegetation is under a variety ofphysi-                  proper disposal of human waste and trash, discouraging the
                          ological stresses. In the case of islands, the                destruction of trees for use as fire wood, and minimizing the
                          stresses resultfirom the effects of wind and                  opportunities for uncontrolled fires are some of the chal-
                          salt, which combine to prune vegetation on the                lenges of managing use on the heavily visited islands.
                          windward side of islands. Frequent storms
                          and high winds cause significant blowdown,                         The quantitative "rules of thumb" contained in this
                          and, in some cases, airborn particles of salt                 section were gleaned from Dr. Raymond Leonard, former
                          are carried into island interiors where signifi-              Director of the U.S. Forest Service's Backcountry Research
                          cant mortality to the vegetation can occur                    Project. These suggested limits can be a very powerful tool
                                                                                        for island managers - if applied at a point when island use is
                          By virtue of their isolation, islands are also                still low. Once heavy use occurs, impacts are more intense
                          refugesfor rare species of plants and ani-                    and longer-lived and people's behavior is harder to change.
                          mals. " (Conkling and Leonard, 1984)                          When badly abused, vegetation may take years to reestablish
          Limits and Threats                                                            itself, or decades if the soil base is destroyed.
                                                                                                Limits. The amount of picnicking, camping, and
               Heavy human use can impact an island's soil and veg-                             hiking soil and vegetation can withstand depends
          etation beyond the point from which it can recover from year                          upon a site's physical characteristics. A bog or steep
          to year. Some of the state's most popular islands for recre-                          slope can bear very little use. A flat grassy area
          ational use, such as Jewell Island in Casco Bay and Hell's                            tolerates much more abuse than a pine-needled forest
          Half Acre off Stonington, show signs of stress from extensive                         floor. Most island sites can be used for backcountry
          use by people. The natural systems of other islands are likely                        recreation without showing visible effects if no more
          to be degraded unless their limits are understood and use of                          than 100 person visits per year occur. One expects
          the islands is carefully planned and monitored.                                       persistent decline, however, if a site receives 500
                                                                                                person visits or more a year. When use reaches 1000
                                                                                                person visits a year, a site has to be actively managed
                                                                                                to offset threats to soil and vegetation.


                                                                                                                                                      41






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                         These  'rules of thumb must be tempered with knowl-                    Inventorying Vegetation and Soil
                         edge of how many people use a site at any one time,
                         how long they stay, what parts of the -site they use,                  Impacts
                         and the particular characteristics of the island. In
                                                    A c;fi@ mrAr  thrpi--rinxi ni-rind               To determine whether physical impacts to soil and
                         will probably not impact vegetation and soil in a                      vegetation are occurring, island managers may want to
                         persistent manner, especially if they limit use to the                 establish baseline and monitoring data. Studies of this type
                         most resilient parts of the site. One hundred people                   measure the amount of soil cover and types of species within
                         using the same site for three days are likely to leave                 study plots called transects. Soil loss and changes in species
                         visible effects, as would ten people per day using the                 are measured over time to determine rates of change. Rates
                         same site over a ten-day period. Most sites can                        of use can be determined with counters installed at key points
                         tolerate parties of two visiting 25 times a year for                   along a trail or, less comprehensively, by people tallying
                         two-day visits. More resilient ones can tolerate 50-                   users.
                         100 visits under the same conditions. The Maine
                         Island Trail Association recommends keeping group                           Island managers may want     'to consult the following
                         size small, six people or fewer on smaller or more                     studies for a description of methods to use. The U.S. Forest
                         popular islands, and keeping visits short, three days or               Service's Backcountry Research Project has recorded the
                         less.                                                                  results of its research on Big Garden Island and Hurricane
                                                                                                Island in People and Islands: Resource Managementfor
                      Based upon erosion and vegetation loss studies, the                       Islands in the Gulf of Maine (1984). The Appalachian Moun
                 Appalachian Mountain Club found that trails on Isle au Haut                    tain Club described the approach used in its study of carrying
                 could tolerate no more than 50 people a day without exces-                     capacity on Isle au Haut in Interim Reports 2 & 3: Visitor
                 sive wear. The Club also advised Monhegan Associates,                          Use and Impact Patterns on the Isle au Haut Acadia National
                 stewards of 17 miles of island trails, that its trail system can               Park (1989). The Island Institute in collaboration with the
                 withstand more use than it presently attracts, depending upon                  Maine Island Trail Association will be developing a long-
                 the specific condition of different trails. Based upon the                     term system for examining recreational impacts of selected
                 results of a survey and an assumption that between 60 and                      islands.
                 200 daytrippers visit the island on a summer day, between 34
                 and 114 hikers can be expected out on the trails. Most of the
                 hikers visit the same places: Lobster Cove, White Head, and
                 Burnt Head. Even the heavily used trails to these spots have
                 greater capacity, with management, according to the Appala-
                 chian Mountain Club representative..


                 42






                                                                                                                                                                                       Soil & Vegetation Resiliency


                                                                                                                                     Managing Soil and Vegetation
                                                                                                                                     Resiliency

                                                                                                                                            Intensive management to prevent soil and vegetation
                                                                                                                                     loss is not yet a necessity on most Maine islands, and it won't
                                                                                                                                     have to be, at least in the next five years or so, if the islands
                                                                                                                                     are managed well as an overall system. This is the kind of
                                                                                     lt*w                                            cooperative venture that the Maine Island Trail Association is
                                             WE REQUEST ;HAT ALL                                                                     trying to achieve in encouraging its 2000 members to be
                                             PERSONS USE THE PORTION
                                             OF THE BEAC
                                                             H BEYOND THIS                                                           good stewards of the more than 70 public, semi-public, and
                                             POLE MARKER. OWNERS AND
                                             STAFF WILL HAVE TO ASK                                                                  private islands available for use by its members.
                                             THAT YOU MOVE THERE.
                                             PLEASE DO NOT ADVANCE
                                             INLAND.
                                                                                                                                            For the more heavily-used islands, active management
                                             Help us protect the sand dunes
                                             and keep the environment clean.                                                         will be a necessity despite the best educational efforts. For
                                             We are committed to a significant
                                             program for protection of wildlife                                                      instance, Monhegan Associates has learned techniques from
                                             and conservation of flora and
                                             historical sites. Many areas of                       ff                                the Appalachian Mountain Club that will help keep trail
                                             this island are ecologically and             VIN4     . 1z
                                             archeologically sensitive. it is                                                        widths ftom being excessively widened. And the private
                                             unlawful to enter these premises
                                             without written, dated permission                                                       owners of Butter Island in Penobscot Bay, a popular wind-
                                             of the landowner.
                                                    R.4. ftWW Gd- H.-Iod cq-.u_                                                      jammer and cruising destination, are now using signs, bro
                                                                                                                                     chures, and a caretaker to direct people to certain stopping
                                                                                                                                     places, camp sites, and trails.
                             114                                                                                                            Such management techniques are discussed below:
                                                                                                                                            Encourage use where you want it and can manage it.
                                                                                                                                     It is important to establish acceptable patterns of use and
                                                                                                                                     behavior before many people discover an island so that as use
                                                     f                                                                               increases, people will be in the habit of doing "the right
                                                     V
                                                                                                                                     thing". Once people get in the habit of using a particular site
                   Sign directs visitors to Roque Island to a certain, limited part of                                               or using it in a particular manner, it can be very difficult and
                   the island.                                                                                                       costly to get them to change.



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   43






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors


                      Over the long term, the limits of resiliency are bound to                  Use a caretaker,when signs of damage start @o show.
                 be reached-on many islands, especially on the more popular                 When vegetation and soil no longer rebound quickly from
                 ones, as the number of small boat owners and windjammer                    use, it is probably time to establish a caretaker on the island
                         nn thp Mninp rnno orrow Fnr this, reason.
                                                                     it is wise             to ensure people use designated areas. Experience has shown
                 to use brochures, signs, and educational materials to direct               that when such high levels of use are reached, there are
                 people to the islands that are deemed most appropriate for                 usually enough users to pay for the cost of the caretaker
                 recreational use., Only the more resilient islands should be               through a fee system, according to Ray Leonard.
                 targeted for use. Those with fragile ecosystems, sensitive
                 plant and animal species and communities, landowners that
                 do not welcome public use, and wildlife sanctuaries should
                 not be publicized.

                      Plan to actively manage sites as use grows and direct
                 people to use the parts of each island that are most resil-
                 ient. When island use exceeds 100 person visits a year,
                 specific sites for camping and other activities should be
                 designated. Tent platforms, for instance, go a long way
                 toward avoiding detrimental soil and vegetation loss. Signs
                 directing people to the most resilient camp sites and trails on
                 an island can be helpful in establishing healthy Use patterns.
                 On privately-owned islands that are open to public use, signs
                 can. direct visitors away from the parts of the island a land-
                 owner would like to keep private. Brochures and publica-
                 tions such as the Maine Island Trail Association member
                 handbook can inform people about camping, waste disposal,
                 and other techniques that conserve island integrity and
                 landowners' good will. Harpswell has published a brochure
                 that describes the special features of local islands and pro-
                 motes their wise use.







                 44-






                                                                                                                            Soil & Vegetation Resiliency

                                                                                                   MAW -

                                                                      14@








                                                "C







                                                                                                N,

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              Driftwood camp on an island in the Muscle Ridge.















                                                                                                                                                          45











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                                               Ap@


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                                                                                               W- Nz-

















           46






                                                                  WILDLIFE

          Limits and Threats

               Coastal Maine is a highly productive biological environ-                 wading birds, waterfowl, and raptors. Some species are
          ment, providing food and shelter for 150 species of marine-                   considered rare or endangered; others are found in spectacu-
          related birds and 26 species of marine mammals. This                          lar abundance; overall it is a resource considered to be of
          diverse assembla  ge includes seabirds, shorebirds, seals,                    international, state, and regional significance.
                                                                                                                          Coastal wildlife is integral to
                                                                                                                     Maine's character and heritage
                                                                                                     _71@@
                                                                                                        li@          and it has contributed to making
                                                                                                                     the coast a major tourist destina-
                                                                                                                 @C  tion. Ironically, this outstanding
                                                                                                                     resource is jeopardized by the use
                                                          Ilk                                                        and development it has spawned.
                                            ',J
                          N                  t    .1. --,", ,                     A*
                                                                                                                          The Maine Department of
                                                                                                                     Inland Fisheries and Wildlife has


                                                                                                                     torying coastal wildlife resources
                                                                                                                     primary responsibility for inven

                                                                                                                     and promoting appropriate man-
                                                                                                                     agement measures for adoption by
                                                                                                                     state and local government and
                                                                                                                     private land owners. In 1994 the
                                                                                                                     Department of Inland Fisheries
                                                                                                                     and Wildlife was in the midst of
                                0''                                                                                  mapping coastal wildlife habitat
                                                                                                                     for regulation under Maine's
                                                                                                                     Natural Resources Protection Act.
            Gull's nest on Little Brimstone Island.                                                                  Since standards relating to the
                                                                                                                     carrying capacity of individual


                                                                                                                                                       47






                  Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                  species are subject to change, this handbook emphasizes                              Colonial Waterbirds on Coastal Islands
                  colonial nesting waterbird habitat by way of example.
                                                                                                                                1977                     1991
                        Colonial waterbirds nest in groups called colonies.       Four                 Species              No. of   Nesting      No. of    Nesting
                                                                                                                           Colonies Pairs       Colonies Pairs
                  me.rie.-, of colonial seabirds and seven SDecies of wadinL-
                  birds nest on Maine's islands.                                                       Common Eider        241       22,390        325      30,1.76
                                                                                                       Double-crested
                        The table to the right shows the estimated number of                           Cormorant           103       15,333        132      28,044
                  colonies and nesting pairs for these species. Four hundred                           Herring Gull        223       26,037,-      258      23,176
                  fifty-two, or about 10%, of Maine's coastal islands and                              Great Black-
                  ledges have recent records of one or, more nesting waterbirds.                       backed Gull         220         9,847       255      13,642
                  A partial list of these islands can be found in the Department                       Arctic Tern             9       1,640         10      2,094
                  of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife's Coast of Maine Wildlife                           Common Tern          24         2,095         24      3,914
                  Management Area Plan, (199 1).                                                       Roseate Tern            3          80          6         127
                                                                                                       Laughing Gull           6         231          9         716
                                                                                                       Atlantic Puffin         1         125          3         144
                        Seabirds prefer undeveloped, unforested islands. Most                          Black-headed
                  islands used by nesting waterbirds are relatively small. The                         Gull                    0             0        1            1
                  outer coastal islands are superior for nesting because of their                      Leach's Storm-
                  relative isolation from predators such as foxes, mink, and                           petrel               17       19,131          18     19,411
                  raccoons, but as use by recreational boaters and vacation                            Black Guillemot 115             2,668       132       2,776
                  home-owners has increased, conflicts between nesting birds                           Razorbill               2          25          3         75
                  and people are more frequent, even on the outer islands.                             Great Cormorant         0             0        4         29
                                                                                                       Great Blue Heron     18           903         30      1,281
                        Development, human activity, and the pets, sheep and                           Black-crowned
                  other predators introduced by people can destroy nesting                             Night Heron             8         117          9         96
                  habitat, expose eggs, adults and young to predation, and                             Glossy Ibis             3          75          2         134
                  crush burrows and eggs. For this reason, many seabird island                         Little Blue Heron       2             4        2            4
                                                                                                       Snowy Egret             4          90          3         252
                  owners do not use them during the breeding season orc'hoose                          Tricolored Heron        1             1        1            1
                  not to develop their properties at all.                                              Cattle Egret            0.            0        1            2

                        Just over half of the islands used by nesting waterbirds                           Source: Island Nesting Colonial Waterbird Assessment,
                  are owned by the state and at least 32 more are owned by                                 Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, 1992
                  other private or public conservation organizations. However,


                 '48







                                                                                                                                                 Wildlife
           many important islands remain in private ownership. A                        Inventorying Waterbird
           change in use of these private islands could jeopardize the
           health of the birds and their habitat. Birds on publicly-owned               Populations
           islands are also at risk when they are disturbed during the
           nesting season by campers, picnickers, and other boaters.                         Island landowners and communities should not conduct
                                                                                        their own inventories of the numbers of colonial waterbirds
                 Indeed, one need only to look to the 19th century, when                nesting on their islands. Attempts at inventorying by an
           even gulls were in short supply in Maine, to see the impact                  untrained person pose undue risks to the birds. The Depart-
           that human exploitation and disturbance can have on these                    ment of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife has conducted baseline
           birds. The seabirds were displaced by human activity, im-                    population studies that can be relied upon.
           pacted by sheep, and taken for meat, feathers, eggs, and even                Managing Waterbirds and Other
           fish bait. Seabird populations dramatically declined in the
           1800's when human populations on Maine islands peaked.                       Wildlife Populations
                The status of several species of seabirds is currently                       The State of Maine's approach to managing wildlife is
           precarious. Endangered species such as the Roseate Tern                      aimed at maintaining abundance and diversity. Endangered
           war-rant special attention. The Arctic Tern, Leach's Storm                   species such as the Roseate Tern are not the only concern.
           Petrel, and Atlantic Puffin are being watched for signs of                   Habitat for all wildlife is important. In addition to protecting
           decline. Eiders, Herring and Blackbacked Gulls, and                          existing waterbird nesting islands, it is important to protect
           Doublecrested Cormorants seem to be doing well.                              complexes of islands from development so the waterbirds
                                                                                        and other wildlife will be free to move if necessary from one
                  Limits. Wildlife biologists recommend a "rule of                      island to another as conditions change.
                  thumb" of no use by people or sheep during the                            The State's Natural Resources Protection Act provides
                  nesting season because colonial nesting waterbirds                    protection for certain wildlife habitat identified in the law as
                  can tolerate very little disturbance. In terms of carry-              @6 significant." Among the protected resources are: endan-
                  ing capacity, an island used by nesting waterbirds can                gered and threatened species; certain waterfowl and wading
                  accommodate little, if any, use and   'development                    bird habitats; shorebird habitat; and seabird nesting islands.
                  during the nesting season. Keeping sheep on nesting                   In 1994, the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and
                  islands poses a risk to waterbirds because the sheep                  Wildlife was preparing assessments and management plans
                  can trample burrows, crush eggs, and destroy the                      for protecting these wildlife habitats of state importance,
                  higher grass and shrubs required by some species to                   including guidelines for implementing the wildlife protection
                  conceal nests from predators.                                         provisions of the Natural Resources Protection Act. The
                                                                                        Department has identified 295 islands as significant seabird


                                                                                                                                                        49






                  Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                  nesting habitats. The Land Use Regulation Commission has                           Basically, management of colonial waterbird popula-
                  special standards for seabird nesting islands. The Natural                    tions has four major objectives:
                  Resources Protection Act standards will be designed to                                Protecting colonial waterbirds;
                  complement the Land Use Regulation Commission's wildlife                              Minimizing loss of nesting habitat;
                  1-h4af  pro f-+;-
                                                                                                        Limiting opportunities tor disturbance during the
                                                                                                        nesting season; and
                       State and federal regulations also protect the birds                             Avoiding the introduction of predators.
                  themselves. The regulatory arena is complex due to the
                  overlapping jurisdictions of several levels of government.                         Protecting colonial waterbirds. Protecting the birds
                  The Migratory Bird Tre   'aty Act specifies the birds that can be             themselves using all of the regulatory and nonregulatory
                  hunted, (e.g. Eiders), and protects all but nuisance,birds, such              tools available should be a -top priority. As discussed above,
                  as starlings, from harm and harassment. It also requires a                   'the regulatory arena is complex due to overlapping state and
                  permit for activities, such as research, that may disrupt the                 federal regulations. Local governments can protect habitat
                  birds. State regulations govern seasons and other matters                     with restrictive zoning. Landowners can take nonregulatory
                  pertaining to hunting Eiders, formulated within the guidelines                steps such as posting their islands to warn visitors away from
                  provided by the federal government.                                           nesting areas.
                       The federal and state Endangered Species Acts protect                         Minimizing permanent ha       bitat loss. Development or
                  endangered and threatened species such as the Roseate Tern                    building is not appropriate on waterbird nesting islands,
                  and B'ald Eagle. Guidelines for protection of these species                   except in very rare cases where the nesting colony is located
                  can be found in the Department of Inland Fisheries &                          in a relatively small'area of a very large island, and adequate
                  Wildlife's Atlas of Essential Wildlife Habitats for Maine's                   visual buffers can be maintained to prevent disturbance. To
                  Endangered and Threatened Species, and Bald Eagle Man-                        find out whether an island's seabird population can tolerate
                  agement System and Data Base. The guidelines for Bald                         any use or development, contact the Department of Inland
                  Eagles limit incompatible uses within 660'of a nest occupied                  Fisheries and Wildlife's Regional Wildlife Biologist assigned
                  in at least one of the last three years. Lesser restrictions                  to your region.
                  prevail in the zones from 660'- 1320' and 1320'-2640' from the                     Sheep are another consideration in limiting habitat loss,
                  nest.
                                                                                                although their influence is more temporal than houses, docks,
                                                                                                and roads. Free-ranging sheep turn Common Eider and Laugh-
                       In addition to the protections provided by the regulatory.               ing Gull nesting cover into short grass that offers no protection,
                  process, many island owners and communities may want to
                                                                                                driving the birds into marginal habitat or off the island.
                  take their own steps to protect the birds and their habitat.



                  50







                                                                                                                                               Wildlife


               Limiting disturbance during the breeding                                      ----- --                              . . . ..........
          season. TiminR is everything with breeding waterbirds.
          Because the birds are so sensitive, even "low impact
          uses" such as bird watching and picnicking can flush
          them off their nests. Nesting begins around April 1.
          Many of the birds are done by July 15, but a few re
          quire more time. The amount and timing of seclusion
          depend on the island and species. Some waterbirds are
          still rearing their chicks into August. A prohibition
          against disturbance is equally important from the water
          where people should conduct their activities at least 1/4
          mile off shore. Construction isn't advisable from                                                 -Vat
          March 1 through August 15.     Eagles, by comparison,
          require a longer time period, from February I to August
          31.                                                                                                                        F

               Avoiding the introduction of predators. Mink,
          raccoons, foxes, and other predators should not be
          introduced onto a colonial waterbird nesting island.
          Some people have done so inadvertently, thinking to rid
          their island of a pesty raccoon by. transferring it to
          another island. The consequences are devastating to
          nesting birds. Cats and dogs should not be allowed to
          roam freely.                                                      Many islanders have had their flower and vegetable gardens eaten by deer.
                                                                           Whether there are too many deer and how to limit their numbers is frequently a
                                                                           topic of animated conversation among islanders.












                                                                                                                                                   51












                                                                                     OWN=




                             71




                          41

                                                                   IRA






                                                                         K:-@O


                                                                          41A

















           52





                          SCENIC QUALITY AND CHARACTER

           Limits and Threats
                 The scenic beauty of the Maine coast is a national asset                             With respect to islands, each one of us probably can
           and islands provide much of the visual richness. Harvard                                   think of a view that we hope will be there, unblem-
           researcher Carl Steinitz summed up the most important                                      ished, in perpetuity. We can probably also think of a
           influences on people's visual preferences for the Mount                                    spot where some development activity has marred a
           Desert area. While the study was conducted for Acadia                                      scenic place or view, such as a house on a prominent
           National Park, the results are instructive for rest of the coast.                          bluff, many houses strung along the shore, or a tall
           He found that Acadia visitors:                                                             communication tower.
                    I .     Do not like to see a "culturally modified", i.e.                          State mandated shoreland zoning now provides some
                            developed landscape, (with the exception                                  protection of the shoreline by requiring that most
                            listed in #3);                                                            buildings are set back 75 feet from the high tide line
                    2.      Seek a sense of mystery; they wish to be                                  and by limiting the amount of tree clearing that can
                            drawn further into the scene;                                             go on in the 250-foot strip along the shore. However,
                                                                                                      a town, a community or an individual island land
                    3.      Like coastal development that is generic to                               owner can take additional measures to ensure that
                            the Maine landscape;                                                      development is sited in a way that protects the natural
                    4.      Like to see water;                                                        appearance of islands, the shorelands, and the distinct
                                                                                                      boundaries of island settlements. Measures can also
                    5.      Do not like to see tourist-oriented develop-                              be taken to encourage development that reinforces
                            ment;                                                                     island architecture and community values.
                    6.      Like distant views;                                                       Limits. The Steinitz study mentioned earlier did not
                                                                                                      quantitatively explore how much of Maine's coastal
                    7.      Like to see a "folded" landscape (one with a                              landscape can be developed without detrimental
                            lot of edges and layers), typically mountains                             effects. However, a study Greg Buhyoff and Doug
                            and islands; and                                                          Wellman published in the Journal of Leisure Re-
                    8.      Like to see diverse and well-maintained                                   search documents that "landscapes become 'aestheti-
                            vegetation distributed in the foreground and                              cally damaged' rather quickly, with the greatest
                            middle ground of a view.                                                  impact expected within the first 10% of the area


                                                                                                                                                               53






                  Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                          changed." Their study shows that sometimes a little                                      development from view. Areas with gentler
                          bit of development can have a rather strong and                                          slopes and high, dense tree cover can screen
                          immediate effect on overall visual quality. Applying                                     development from view better than steeply
                          this rule of thumb to the Maine coast, if the g*oal for                                  sloping terrain with immature tree growth or
                          an idnntj nr Pnrnnh-v nf ichnile ic rptni                                                                                   1- -A
                                                                          its remote,                              ric, ti-CC, COvCin 111%, r,1kCtL%,1 L11%,
                                                                                                                                                     OlvF- ullu
                          natural character, at least 90% should remain undevel-                                   shorter the trees, the more likely a structure
                          oped, and highly intrusive new development should                                        will be visible. The greater proportion of
                          be avoided altogether.                                                                   softwood in the tree cover, the more likely
                                                                                                                   people won't be able to see the development
                          Erv Zube's work, undertaken in the 1970s when he                                         even during the winter;
                          was affiliated with the University of Massachusetts,
                          also provides guidance for islands where unspoiled,                              2       Vegetation renewal potential. Some islands
                          natural character is not the goal. His New England                                       will not support tree cover because of natural
                          research showed that when more than 50% of a                                             conditions such as Wind, salt spray, and lack
                          landscape appears developed with low density resi-                                       of adequate soil cover. While these islands are
                          dential development, it no longer appears "rural" in                                     usually so small that development is pre-
                          character. A Yugoslavian study drew the same con-                                        cluded, development of the larger unvegetated
                          clusion, and that much more surrounding open space                                       islands wou  IId be highly conspicuous. In
                          is needed (70% or more) when development is more                                         contrast, areas that are open because people or
                          dense.                                                                                   sheep have managed the vegetation can be
                                                                                                                   allowed to revert back to trees to minimize the
                  Inventorying Visual Carrying                                                                     visibility of.development. However, because
                  Capacity                                                                                         people like the look of fields, as well as
                       Islanders and island stewards who are interested in                                         Woods, sometimes it is desirable to maintain a
                  inventorying their island's visual resources should consult the                                  diverse landscape.
                  Department of Economic and Community Development's                                       3.      Visual exposure of the site to key viewing
                  publication titled, How to Conduct An Inventory of Scenic                                        areas (i.e. whether it can be seen from the.
                  Areas.                                                                                           water or public ways, trails and facilities).
                       In inventorying an island's visual carrying capacity, one                                   The community needs to decide which scenic
                  should especially consider the following:                                                        areas are important. If the community wants
                                                                                                                   to maintain a natural appearance from the
                          1 .     Existing screening capacity, i.e. the likeli-                                    water, then it should identify places on the
                                  hood that tree cover and/or terrain will screen                                  island that can be seen from the water. For


                  54






                                                                                                                             Scenic Quality & Character
                           gently sloping islands, this is usually just the               Managing Visual Resources
                           shoreland. A community should also consider
                           whether to include in the inventory other                           Can the visual quality and unique character of the
                           landforms visible from the water. Acommu-                      islands be protected without stopping development alto-
                           nity concerned about an island's character                     gether? Three strategies offer ways to meet this challenge
                           from the vantage point of those who drive or                   successfully:
                           walk interior roads can map these
                           "viewsheds" as well; and                                            Concentrate development where possible. Conven-
                                                                                          tional development patterns tend to sprawl in grid fashion
                   4.      Visual quality, i.e. the degree to which an                    throughout a landscape. It's difficult to anticipate the ulti-
                           area is considered visually pleasing. Open                     mate effect on visual character because most development
                           fields, pronounced landforms, groups of                        occurs incrementally, house-by-house. People get used to
                           islands, views of the water from island roads,                 such change, a little bit at a time. But at some point, a place
                           and traditional architecture are just some of                  begins to take on a new character. An island that once felt
                           the more important features that can contrib-                  unspoiled or remote, now begins to look just like any other
                           ute to an island's visual quality.                             developed landscape.




                                                                                                                      All                                  @IA
                              @fM, qAAAA1A
                                                                   IN h













                   A






             Concentrate development within or near existing villages, avoiding development that sprawls throughout the landscape.


                                                                                                                                                         55






                 Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors

                       Wherever possible, the most effective policy is to site                      For some islands, dispersing development on large lots
                 development in pockets or within or near existing villages                    may be the best way to conserve other important values and
                 and settled areas of an island, to retain as much open space as               sensitive resources. In any case, the development pattern
                 possible. Many local ordinances include "growth areas" or                     needs to respond to an island's particular characteristics.
                 rhicti-rincy nrnvicinnc tn 5ir-Pnrnnfleh th;c nhiprt;vp Trlpnllxr
                 ,decisions about which islands or parts of islands should be                       Develop areas with high potential for screening
                 developed would be made as part of a regional process to                      development from view and protecting scenic quality.
                 identify growth areas for an entire bay or watershed. To                      Those who are planning the future of an island should look
                 retain a lafidscape with a remote undeveloped character, only                 forIthe places that are most capable of hiding development
                 a very small percentage'Of the total visible area should be                   from view, unless of course, the area to be developed is a
                 developed, whereas a rural, developed character could sustain                 village area or other place where the community wants
                 a little more development. In making policy decisions about                   development to be conspicuous. Villages and harbor water-
                 visual character,consideration needs to be given towho the                    fronts are usually highly visible but positive components of
                 viewing audience is: boaters on the water, people exploring                   Maine's scenic beauty. Local land use ordinances can en-
                 the land base of an island itself, island residents?                          courage development to locate in villages or areas where
                                                                                               development will be the most inconspicuous.


















                   Avoid building in places with high Visibility from the water, instead build in areas with a high potential for screening new development from view.


                 56






                                                                                                                              Scenic Quality & Character

                 Screen development from view where a naturally                                            screen new development from view (currently,
            appearing landscape is important. Even if development is                                       this is only a consideration in the 250-ft.
            located in a place with good screening it doesn't mean that                                    shoreland area); and
            the project will not be seen once it is built. A project can be
            designed sensitively to take advantage of the screening power                          3.      Rooftops and other evidence of development
            of a site. For instance, building a road directly up a rise,                                   to be sited below ridgelines and tree cover.
            might allow people to see it from the water, whereas, having
            the road traverse the slope along its topographic contours can                      People who own an entire island or large property on an
            hide it from view. Standards can be incorporated into local                    island don't have to wait for local or state government to
            ordinances and Land Use Regulation Commission regula-                          protect the visual interests of their property. Private land-
            tions that require:                                                            owners can accomplish the same objectives through thought-
                                                                                           ful subdivision plans, deed restrictions, and conservation
                    I .     Sensitive road and utility siting on slopes,                   easements.

                    2.      The retention of existing vegetation or plant-
                            ing of new vegetation in critical places to

















                                                                                                                                                             J

             Design development to take advantage of the screening power of a site, so that it will not be seen once it is built.


                                                                                                                                                            57






                Looking Closely at Six Limiting Factors



                                                                                                                           Swan's Island
                                                                                                                           communication tower
                                                                                                      -a                   makes scenic impact
                                                                                                                           A 300-foot high transmitter tower-,
                                                                                                                           with FAA-mandated flashing red
                                                                                                                           light, was recently installed on
                                                                                                                           Swan's Island by a cellular phone
                                                                                                                           company. Island residents have
                                                                                                                           divergent opinions about the tower
                                                                                                                           -some find it an unsightly blem-
                                                                                                                           ish in their view, others are excited
                                                                                                                           by the availability of improved
                                                                                                                           communications technology With
                                                                                                                           no island-wide zoning, the tower
                                                                                                                           did not require planning board
                                                                                                                           approval. Similar towers have
                                                                                                                           been proposed on other islands in
                                                                                                                           recent years. In response to such
                                                                                                                           a proposal, Islesboro adopted
                   This prominent house on a'North Haven bluff is a Penobscot Bay landmark, but if a new                   ordinance language limiting the
                   house were built on a similarly visible point, people would probably feel as though the                 height of towers.
                   value of a highly scenic place had been compromised. People can work with local
                   government to inventory and protect such special places.

















                  58







                         r  009%61W

                                  Ak






























                            In some communities there are not many scenic views of the water from public roads.    Local governments or island
                            communities may want to consider ways to protect views valued by residents. Protection techniques range from vegetation
                            management, to conservation easements, to preserving open views (i.e., maintaining fields).









                                                                                                                                                         59

















          4T














                                           Vol'


































     60





           USING LIMITS TO DECIDE AN ISLAND'S
           FUTURE

                This chapter attempts to describe a very difficult task-                       Occasionally islanders' concerns are focused on only
           pulling together the study of each limiting factor into an                     one resource or factor and the level of use that it can sustain,
           overall carrying capacity analysis for an island, and.turning                  in which case the carrying capacity analysis can be very
           that into a comprehensive island management strategy.                          focused. The Island Institute has experience in preparing
                Island towns preparing a comprehensive plan and                           these more selective plans, and they can be consulted for
           implementing ordinances as a part of Maine's Growth Man-                       help.
           agement Program should be able to use this handbook as a                       Put "n          he Factors Together
           tool in that process. Considerable information about compre-                               I steps lead up to putting the factors together.
           hensive planning is available from the Office of Community                     Some o the steps ate discussed here at length, and others
           Development in Augusta and from regional planning agen-                        hardly at all.
           cies. (See Appendix 5.) Those materials should be referred to
           for guidance on how to design/a public planning process,                            To initiate an analysis of an island's carrying capacity,
           supplementing the discussion that follows. Island communi-                     someone-an individual or a group of people-needs to
           ties under the jurisdiction of the Land Use Regulation Com-                    make a general assessment of the recent trends in use and
           mission and peopie wishing to do an island plan at less than                   development of the island, and the impact of those activities
           the town level may find the comprehensive planning materi-                     on natural resources and quality of life. Most likely, if there is
           als useful as well.                                                            interest in considering limits, there is consensus in the com-
                Mainland towns with islands under their jurisdiction                      munity that there is a problem. Defining the problem will
           should also consider the carrying capacity of the islands                      direct the analysis.
           when making decisions affecting their future use and devel-                         This handbook focuses on one step of a process, analyz-
           opment. The vast majority of Maine islands are part of a                       ing levels of use and development that can be sustained by
           mainland town, but rarely are the islands' unique limits and                   the six factors discussed in Chapter 2. However, that step
           values given consideration during the local comprehensive                      must be one of several in a long-term planning exercise.
           planning and ordinance-writing process.                                        Steps in that process would probably include: further assess-
                                                                                          ment of the current situation; analyzing limiting fact6rs;
                                                                                                ti

                                                                                               Sev a





















                                                                                          putting the factors together; deciding on solutions; and


                                                                                                                                                        61






               Using Limits




                                                              Summary of Rules of Thumb
                  Groundwater Quantity:
                                           1.     Limit impervious surfaces to < 25% island
                                           2.     Islands 100 acres or more: maximum density of 1 acre per unit
                                           3.     Islands less than 100 acres: maximum density of 2.5 acres per unit
                  Groundwater Quality:     Saltwater intrusion
                                           1 .    Islands 5 acres or more: maximum density of 1 acre per unit
                                           2@ .   Islands less than 5 acres: no development
                                           Septage contamination (on-site welilseptic):
                                           1 .    Relatively flat islands with good soils: maximum density of 1.5 acres per unit
                                           2.     Islands with shallow/clay soils: maximum density of 3 acres per unit
                  Social Experience:       Remote recreational experience:
                                           1.     Numbeeof "stopping places" multiplied by average party size = maximum daily use
                  Vegetation and Soil      Annual limits:
                  Resiliency:              1 .    No impact on ve'etation or soils if site visited by less, than 100 people per year
                                                                 9
                                           2.     Persistent decline expected if used by over 500 people per year
                                           3.     Active management needed if used by over 1000 people per year
                                           Size of party.
                                           1      No impact: 20 people over 3 days/ 25 visits of 2 people each using site for 2 days (sensitive
                                                  sites)/50-1 00 parties of 2 people each using site for 2 days (resilient sites)
                                           2.     Visible eff ects: 100 people over 3 days/1 0 people over 10 days
                  Seabird Nesting Islands:
                                           1      No development; if construction is necessary, avoid April 1 -July 15
                                           .2.    No sheep/almost no use by people 4/1-8/15
                  Scenic Quality:
                                           1      Remote, "unspoiled" character desired: develop no more than 10% of island or island
                                                  complex/no highly intrusive development
                                           2.     Rural character desired: develop no more than 50% of island/island complex




               62








           implementing them. Effort should be made to involve as                                         How much of the land is buildable and at what
           many affected people as possible.                                                              densities based upon water supply and subsur-
                In addition to the analysis of limiting factors, such as                                  face sewage disposal? The table on page 64
           those discussed in Chapter 2, it will probably be necessary to                                 discusses the value of conducting a buildout
           put some effort into quantifying the numbers of residents and                                  analysis. An explanation of how to do the
           visitors to an island. It is important to understand the charac-                               analysis can be found in Appendix 3.
           teristics of the people who are currently, or likely in the                                    What other natural or cultural factors alter the
           future, to exceed an island's carrying capacity-year-round.                                    appropriateness of identified areas and densi-
           residents, people who own or rent seasonal homes, and                                          ties? For instance, are there important wildlife
           transient visitors who come for the day or lodge or camp for                                   habitats such as eagle nesting areas that should
           a night or longer. In addition to the people who live on an                                    be removed from "buildable" status? What
           island year-round and seasonally, planners need to know                                        proportion of the island is developable and
           generically who and how many transient visitors there are,                                     how does this amount/location stack up
           how they get there, why and when they come, and what they                                      against the scenic quality rules of thumb?
           do while on the island. Methods for quantifying resident and                                   If all the buildable land were eventually to be
           visitors are discussed in Appendix 2.                                                          developed, how would the island's social
                Once analyses of factors that are most likely to stress an                                experience change? Would resulting densities
           island's carrying capacity have been completed, the next step                                  enhance or threaten its traditional character?
           is to determine how they relate to one another. There is not                                   How would peak populations, including day
           one simple way to put the factors together because of the                                      trippers and other short- term visitors along
           great variability among island circumstances. The table on                                     with year-round and seasonal residents, make
           the facing page summarizes the "rules of thumb" recom-                                         the place feel psychologically, i.e. comfort-
           mended for each of the issues considered.                                                      able, small and friendly, overcrowded, just
                Some of the key questions to ask when putting it all                                      like any other residential area?
           together are:                                                                         3.       If an island does not have development poten-
                   1 .     Does the island have development potential?                                    tial:
                           If it is smaller than five acres or used by                                    What uses are appropriate?
                           seabird nesting colonies then the answer may                                   How much recreational use can its vegetation
                           be "no".                                                                       and soil withstand? Will that amount exceed
                   2.      If it has development potential:                                               the social carrying capacity of the island's
                                                                                                          recreational experience? Will recreational


                                                                                                                                                        63






                Using Limits


                                uses threaten sensitive wildlife populations
                                such as seabird nesting colonies?
                     These questions are meant to help direct the analysis
                that needs to be done to weave limiting factors together.
                There are many other important questions to answer, depend-
                ing upon the island. For populated islands, fiscal limits will
                probably be an important factor to consider along with the
                others. Once this cross-c'utting analysis is completed, a clear                                     T7'75,14 1.0
                picture should evolve of how much use and development an
                island can withstand.
                Developing Management Goals
                and Strategies
                     Some big decisions have to be made to make the leap
                from knowing what an island's carrying capacity is, to adopt-
                ing measures to assure that limits are not surpassed. Usually
                this step in the planning process is described as setting
                management goals and adopting implementation strategies.                    Ale                       4
                These goals and strategies can direct the type and intensity of
                use and development to insure that an island's resources are
                sustained. Islanders need to decide what level of impact on
                drinking water supplies, seabird habitat, the character of the              A lot of dialogue needs to take place in a community to reach
                island"s landscape, and other factors they are comfortable                  consensus on goals and to implement strategies for balancing
                                                                                            growth with resource protection.
                with. Communities also need to decide to what degree put-
                ting limits on use and development is acceptable. Finding
                consensus on goals and strategies that balance growth with
                resource protection is a challenge for any community.

                     Island towns and mainland towns with islands under
                their jurisdiction have primary responsibility for local land       For instance, the state is developing regulations to guide land use
                use decisions. However, the state also has planning and             decisions on islands with habitats of state significance, such as
                regulatory responsibilities that affect island carrying capacity.   colonial seabirds, under the Natural Resources


                64









                 A build out analysis can help a community understand the long-range implications of land use planning:

                    Development can have a cumulative impact on an                                  development, and environmentally constrained areas.
               island's water resources, maintains Robert Gerber, a                                 When they looked at what remained, they identified two
               hydrogeologist who has conducted groundwater studies on                              possible areas where they could encourage or direct
               several year-round and seasonally inhabited islands. This                            growth. The community voted in favor of one of these
               fact alone makes it worthwhile for an island to examine                              areas, based on the proximity to the existing built commu-
               what level of development is enough.                                                 nity and the suitability for septic disposal. This was then
                    On Vinalhaven, Gerber thought about this limit as he                            approved by LURC, the agency that regulates land use on
               provided the town with a minimum lot size recommendation                             Monhegan. With the facts in hand, the community chose to
               to ensure safe, clean and plentiful water supplies. He                               favor development within an already developed area while
               based his figure, which assumed maximum residential                                  protecting the rest of the island. To their advantage, 65% of
               development, on the ability of island soils to absorb and                            the island is owned and protected by the Monhegan
               filter septage. Another community might have other limits or                         Associates. In other communities without a comparable
               tolerances they would not want to exceed as they think                               amount of protected open space, there may be even more
               about minimum lot sizes. His recommendation for                                      incentive to identify acceptable limits of growth based
               Vinalhaven turned out to be more restrictive than the                                environmental, as well as socioeconomic conditions.
               current zoning, assuming maximum development.                                            A build out provides baseline information for a commu-
               Vinalhaven has the opportunity to use Gerber's build out                             nity to consider when asking questions such as: what are
               scenario in future deliberations about the island's land use                         our limiting factors and how do we want our community to
               ordinances.                                                                          look down the road? The theoretical analysis of maximum
                    On another island, concern about cumulative impacts                             residential development and consideration of the related
                                                                                                    cumulative impacts can motivate a community to revise
               led the community to identify acceptable lot sizes and
               growth and rural areas. Monhegan examined where                                      current zoning regulations affecting minimum lot sizes,
               building could still take place by going through a build out                         setbacks, and resource protection zones, as well as
               exercise. They identified buildable areas by eliminating                             identified growth and rural areas.
               developed areas, "wildland" areas where zoning precludes                                 For more information on conducting a build out see
                                                                                                    Appendix 3.










                                                                                                                                                                  65






                     Using Limits


                                                                                       Setting Management Goals


                                  A carrying capacity analysis conducted for Isle au Haut                                 Impacts on the Town of Isle au Haut
                             bv the Appalachian Mountain Club under contract to                                                                     C)f 4"e
                                                                                                                                                       Lit L               L
                             Acadia National Park offers a good example of manage-                                                  III lt;LU!Jl lit]                             a;
                             ment goals. Isle au Haut is a 6,700 acre island in                                                     resource-based economy and not develop a
                             Penobscot Bay with a year-round community of about 75                                                  tourism-based economy, intensive visitor manage-
                             people. The park encompasses the southern half of the                                                  ment will direct most Park visitors to the Park.
                             island, about 3,241 -acres. A committee of island residents                                  Social conditions
                             and park personnel developed the following management                                                  Visitors should be few enough in number that
                             goals, selectively included and abbreviated here for                                                   they can be spread out along the coast and
                             simplicity:                                                                                            have a sense of privacy.
                                  Environmental conditions                                                                          Natural appearing shoreline v'istas should be
                                           Environmental protection should be the highest                                           maintained.
                                           priority in the park section of Isle au Haut, with                                       Campground design should provide for a sense of
                                           visitor experience having lower priority. Manage-                                        privacy.
                                           ment activities will be adopted with the objective of
                                           nondegradation of the environment.                                             Isle au Haut in the context of Acadia National Park as a
                                                                                                                                    whole
                                           The environment should be primarily shaped by
                                           natural forces, and human activities should not be                                       Both experiences, visiting the undeveloped
                                           'generally apparent to the average visitor.                                              shoreline and visiting an island are special. In this
                                           The objective of preventing degradation of envi-                                         context, Isle au Haut should be recognize       *d as a
                                           ronmental conditions does not preclude trail.                                            remote area within, the Acadia National Park
                                           maintenance or relocation, or other construction to                                      system.
                                           manage visitors.                                                          The national park setting on Isle au Haut is unusual to be
                                           Endangered and rare species and their habitats                            sure, but the kind of thinking island residents and park
                                           will be protected.                                                        officials did to set the tone of visitor use and management
                                                                                                                     is helpful to all who plan the future of islands. Not only are
                                           Vegetation beside trails should generally not                             the process and specific management goals illustrative, so,
                                           show the effects of trampling. Trail treadways                            is the thinking about how one island fits into the biaaer
                                           may be defined and duff and organic soil worn                             picture, in the case of non-park islands, in the context of a
                                                                                                                     bay or the Maine coast as a whole.
                                           away, but they should not be excessively wide
                                           ordeep.





                     66









           Protection Act. There are also decisions that individual
           landowners or island owners can make about the use,
           development, and conservation of their properties.
                                                                                                                 eft
                   After goals have been set, management strategies
           should be developed and implemented to ensure the goals                                       Stonington
                                                                                                                          V1
           are realized. Many techniques can be applied to managing
           use and development of islands, but.this handbook is not
           intended to explore each fully. Some are mentioned in                                                     W@) 10
           Chapter 2 for each of the carrying capacity factors dis-
           cussed. Others can be brainstormed through local com-                                   0                4fd& - A
           mittees, island landowner associations, and organizations
           and agencies willing to help.                                                                      MUJI/
                Where development capacity of an island is con-
           cerned, one of the most important issues to consider is the
           ultimate land use pattern that is desired for an island. It is
           not enough to plan for an overall density. It is equally                                                                                   C%
                                                                                                                             own
                                                                                                                            Dock
           im ortant to decide how that development will be distrib-
             p
           uted around the island. Which pattern is chosen should
           depend upon the island's particular limiting factors. It                                 -Z
           should also take into account the pattern and character of
           existing development.
                                                                                                   ZI                      j.T
                                                                                                                            ca
                Several ways to distribute development within the                                        uc   a
           carrying capacity of an island are discussed below. How-
           ever, this is not an exhaustive discussion of land use
                                                                                                                                      0@
           planning techniques. The state's Growth Management
           Program should be consulted for further guidance on state
           land use goals and planning assistance materials. (See                                LEGEN                          ISLE AU HAU7
           Appendix 5.) Numerous publications on planning tech-                                          Acadia
                                                                                                         National Park                  Maine
           niques are available commercially.                                                    ............... .Road
                                                                                                                                          Scale
                Traditionally, settlement patterns created tight-knit                                    Ferry route             0      1       2      3
                                                                                                         campground                           _-NMENOMW
           villages surrounded by much more sparsely settled rural


                                                                                                                                                        67






                  Using Limits

                  areas, even on islands. Morerecently, development has been
                  spread throughout rural areas. Some people believe such dis-
                  persal will limit environment   al problems, i.e. in regard to
                  groundwater protection, dispersal will provide the greatest
                  rinrinminitv for infiltration and dilution of contaminants from
                                                                                                             I      ... ,
                                                                                                             C     Pond-
                  septic systems. But this viewpoint only considers one aspect of                                  @Y                                  Indian I\
                  carrying capacity. Alternatives exist to suburban-style, grid-like                                                    L
                  subdivision of land, alternatives to protect what people value
                  most about an island.                                                                                                 1@lano               I-Theif 1.@
                                                                                                                                             I
                        Site development in one or more new pockets. If island
                                                                                                                 0                                        iffick Stone 1.
                  pockets of development are sited carefully , shoreland character
                  can be retained, sensitive habitats avoided, and the psychologi-
                                                                                                                                       a
                                                                                                                                         :N*
                  cal benefits of open space maintained. The approach makes it                                  CO         tw
                                                                                                                                                Marsh 1.
                  easier to share wells, septic systems, docks and to take advan-
                  tage of the best locations for each. It also reduces the number of
                  roadways and utilities that must be built and maintained, thus
                                                                                                                                                             Wreck 1.
                  reducing costs.                                                                                                                         A
                                                                                                                                    Bar 1.


                      Louds Island development protects 88% of the
                      project as* open space:                                                                                                         SCALE
                                                                                                                                                0
                      A development recently permitted by the Land Use Regulation                                                                             mile
                      Commission will concentrate eight lots, ranging in size from
                      one to 2.3 acres, in two pockets on Louds Island in
                      Muscongus Bay near Bristol's Round Pond. The subdivision                                                                                t
                                                                                                                                                8
                      places all of the shoreland and.much of the interior, amounting
                                                                                                                LOUD'S                          7
                      to 94 acres, under a conservation easement prohibiting future
                                                                                                                                                 -4. bpiiin
                      development. The lots are located on the most favorable soils                             ISLAND                              space.
                                                                                                                                             ..........
                      of the property, some distance from significant coastal wildlife
                                                                                                               Subdivision
                      resources on the site, and in a manner that will screen them
                                                                                                                                            6
                      visually from the ocean and island public ways. The 106-acre
                      project comprises almost 13% of the 825-acre island, where
                                                                                                                                                 V
                      30 seasonal residences already exist.




                  68








                 Site development in or near existing villages or
           neighborhoods. There is a functional appeal to living in a                            Performance-based zoning is key to sound
           village-people like having neighbors nearby and being able                            development where intensive development is
           to walk a short distance to the harbor, post office or store.                         not appropriate around existing villages:
           There is also an aesthetic appeal-people feel comfortable                                 The main islands of Harpswell may be connected to
           with the scale and arrangement of buildings and streets and                           the mainland by bridge, but the town faces problems
           the unique landmarks of village settings. The pull that places                        similar to the offshore islands, only more intensively. The
           like Monhegan and Carver's Harbor on Vinalhaven have in                               community is composed of three large and narrow islands
           attracting visitors, and the many paintings of them, attest to                        and one long peninsula, connected by four bridges and
           their experiential quality. Directing growth to existing                              surrounded by 47 outer islands. Finding appropriate spots
                                                                                                 where growth will be encouraged was one of the most
           villages and settlements provides other benefits as well, such                        difficult challenges of the community's 1993 update of its
           as protecting natural resources, scenic quality, and open                             comprehensive plan.
           space in outlying areas.                                                                  The town finally settled upon a strategy that requires
                 Sewage disposal and water supply are major stumbling                            development densities and site layouts to adhere to the
           blocks for concentrated development-as are sometimes                                  carrying capacity of individual sites, with a minimum lot size
                                                                                                 of two acres per unit set for all subdivision lots. The town's
           local regulations prescribing large lot development. The cost                         Future Land Use Map identifies the most suitable locations
           of providing centralized sewage treatment is usually too high                         for growth. The Comprehensive Plan proposes many
           for the small populations of Maine's islands. Innovation is                           policies and implementation strategies aimed at encourag-
           needed in this area to apply alternative technologies to small                        ing development to locate within these areas, with more
           collection systems. Also, it can be difficult to find water                           stringent restrictions aimed at development sited else-
                                                                                                 where. Most of the outer islahds will be zoned for Re-
           supplies with high enough yields to serve a community                                 source Protection.
           system. Monhegan and Vinalhaven are fortunate to have                                     See map, page 70.
           such supplies.

                 Attitudes are another stumbling block. Even though
           they like the feel of village neighborhoods, having privacy or
           owning land on the coast is more important to many people.
           Open space and privacy can be designed into village areas to
           offset these potential drawbacks.





                                                                                                                                                             69






               Using Limits


                    Develop sparsely or not at all. Some
               islands are not appropriate for much, if any,                    Town of                      BRUNSWICK
                                                                                                                                              WEST
               development. Many are too small to yield a                                                                                     BATH
                                                                         HARPSWELL
               source of potable water, given the risk of
               saltwater intrusion. O:hers, usually small as                      Maine
               well, provide habitat for species that require
               isolation from people during the breeding

               season.



                                                                                    9"
               Monitoring and Adjusting
                                                                              R.
               the Management Strategy
                                                                                                                                                   T
                    Once a town or landowner has adopted
               and put in place an island management
               strategy, it is important to periodically moni-
                                                                                                                                                   03

               tor the results to make sure it is working. Are
               use or development levels creating impacts
                                                                                                                             fl 9
               beyond the acceptable limits of change to
               which people have agreed? If conditions
               change, then perhaps the management strat-

                                                                                                            01. i
               egy needs to change.                                                                                                             'T@

                                                                                                                                    J         >
                    Groundwater quality, seabird nesting

                                                                                                                                              0
                                                                                                   'b

               success, scenic quality, trail and vegetation
                                                                                                                                          @Wo
                                                                                                                                    V
                                                                                                                                     ( (ï¿½rr(ttoo 0
                                                                                           A 0
                                                                                                                                              0
                                                                            V
               erosion, and visitor/islander satisfaction with
                                                                                      w
                                                                                          ft
               the island "experience", among other factors,                              "'r"u1m               %9        -\ \    " "', \ -   < ""
                                                                                                                   0
                                                                                   (P/P/
               can be tracked. The choice of indicators to
                                                                      61,@@ 0\kl@ U)
               monitor should be based upon: which are
               directly observable, relatively easy to mea-
                                                                        ,/, (Ow.)
                                                                      VVE                                            Areas suitable for development
               sure, related to management objectives,                    ));-
                                                                                            SCALE
               sensitive to changes in conditions, and                               0     1      2      3
               amenable to management.                                                               miles


               70










                                                                                             Structure is built on Jordans Delight, an island
                                                                                             that supports 2% of state's 2,660 nesting pairs of
                                                                                             black guillemots:
                                                                                                 This 28-acre Washington County island in Harrington is
                                                                                             a highly significant seabird nesting area, supporting the
                                                                                             rare Leach's storm-petrel and black guillemots, as well as
                                                                                             eiders, gulls and cormorants. According to Margaret
                                                                                             Anderson, the manager of nearby Petit Manan National
                                                                                             Wildlife Refuge, the island is perhaps the largest nesting
                                                                                             ground on the east coast for black guillemots. For this
                                                                                             reason, the island appears on Maine's Register of Critical
                                                                                             Areas.
                                                                                                 A structure was built there in 1993 by the island's
                                                                                             owner and a permit to build a wharf was filed with DEP,
                                                                                             raising questions about the appropriateness of developing
                                                                                             an island with such high ecological value and the effective-
             Jordans Delight "boathouse."                                                    ness of state and local habitat protection measures. In an
                                                                                             uncommon, but not unique, twist, the town of Harrington
                                                                                             did not have Jordans Delight on its zoning maps at all, and
                                                                                             so no resource protection was provided at the local level.
                                                                                                 "Significant wildlife habitats" are listed as resources to
                                                                                             be protected by the State's Natural Resources Protection
                                                                                             Act. Until these habitats are mapped, and the maps are
                                                                                             approved by the Board of Environmental Protection, habitat
                                                                                             cannot be considered in the regulatory process, except
                                                                                             when it exists in conjunction with another protected re-
                                                                                             source, such as a wetland. When the mapping is com-
                                                                                             pleted, probably sometime in 1994, all or part of Jordans
                                                                                             Delight may be designated as a significant "seabird
                                                                                             nesting island" providing protection for the seabird habitat
                                                                                             in the face of future development proposals.





                                                                                                                                                        71






                  Using Limits

                       On some Maine islands it may be several years before                      proximity to wildlife, and the relative quaintness of island
                  there is the political will to set limits. In such a case, monitor-            communities lull summer visitors into a false sense of secu-
                  ing existing conditions to detect trends is especially impor-                  rity that their island will never change. However, to be
                  tant, so that discussions about what to do can be based upon                   complacent about the future of the islands will put them at
                  fact rather than perceptions.                                                  risk; island wildlife, water supplies, environmental quality
                                                                                                 and community character are subject to limits rarely experi-
                  It's Time to Act!                                                              enced on the mainland.
                       Those qualities that typify island life often, work against                    It is the responsibility of all-residents, visitors, munici-
                  planning for their protection. The continuing accommodation                    pal, state and federal officials-to exercise stewards   'hip of
                  to weather, the reliance on boat travel, the enduring nature of                Maine's islands. With this book as a guide, those concerned
                  their island's rockbound shore tempt year-round island                         about the future of the islands can begin'to lay the foundation
                  residents to believe that human impactsare insignificant in                    for protecting the qualities that make Maine's islands special
                  comparison to the forces of nature. The sense of isolation,                    places to live, work or visit.










                                        R
                                         _-YO















                                                  14' 4C,





                  72






                                                                                                                                                                       Islesboro Sanitary Survey
               Appendix 1                                                                                          Property Owner                 SANITARY SURVEY
                                                                                                                   Mailing Address
               Islesboro Sanitary Survey Form                                                                       (& winter, if you're seasonal)
                                                                                                                   Local Address
                                                                                                                   Phone                                         Tax Map & Lot Number
               & Lincoinville Plumbing                                                                             Type of Structure (circle one)   Year-round dwelling Seasonal dweLling
                                                                                                                         Business           Other
               Inspection Policy                                                                                   Number of bedrooms, lofts, or other sleeping areas- 1 2 3 4 5                     6
                                                                                                                   Number of restrooms/bathrooms          1    2     3     4
                                                                                                                   Do you have plans to expand your building or convert it to year-round use?
                                                                                                                       If so, when


                                                                                                                                           Wastewp ter Treatment Information
                                                                                                                   What type of disposal system do you have? (Circle one)
                                                                                                                      Pit privy                        Incinerating toilet
                                                                                                                      Holding Tank                     Composting toilet
                                                                                                                      Septic tank only                 Cesspool only
                                                                                                                      Septic tank + Cesspool           Straight pipe
                                                                                                                      Septic tank+leachfield           Overboard discharge
                                                                                                                      Unknown                          Other
                                                                                                                   Date the system was installed 19           Unknown
                                                                                                                   What is the tank made of? (circle one)    Steel Concrete       Fiberglass
                                                                                                                          Plastic       Unknown
                                                                                                                   How often do have the tank pumped?
                                                                                                                   When was the last time the tank was pumped?
                                                                                                                   Distance of tank from waterbody (lake, pond, stream, wetland)
                                                                                                                   Distance of leachfield or cesspool from waterbody
                                                                                                                   Distance of privy. from waterbody

                                                                                                                                              Possible Problem S)@mptoms
                                                                                                                                                       Occasionally        Frequent      Seasonally
                                                                                                                   Slow draining fixtures in house:
                                                                                                                   Wastewater backup in house:
                                                                                                                   Odors
                                                                                                                   Liquids ponding in yard:
                                                                                                                   Other problems (explain):

                                                                                                                                               Water SuRply Information
                                                                                                                   Type of water supply (circle one): Drilled well      Dug well'      Lakewater
                                                                                                                   Have you had problems with water quality (color, odor, taste,etc.)?_
                                                                                                                   Has your water ever been tested and shown any contamination?
                                                                                                                   Distance of well to septic tank
                                                                                                                   Distance of your well to neighbors septic tank

                                                                                                                   Comments: (please write on back)

                                                                   Islesboro Sanitary Survey


                                                                                                                                                                                                            73






                 Appendix 1-Lincoinville Plumbing Policy




                                                                                                             TOWN OF LINCOLNVILLE

                                                                                                             PLUMBING INSPECTION

                                                                                                          POLICIES AND PROCEDURES,#1

                                                                                       PURPOSE: The   quality of water in the Town of Lincolnville,
                                                                                       available for-'domestic and recreational uses, is of great
                                                                                       concern to the Lincolnville Board of Selectmen. To ensure
                                                                                       t-hat the quali,ty of tL's water meets or exceeds the federal
                                                                                       and state mandated standards,, the Town con'tracts with a
                                                                                       State of Maine Licensed Plumbing Inspector (LPI).   This
                                                                                       LPI is charged with the responsibility to operate within,the
                                                                                       plumbing guidelines established by the State of Maine.


                                                                                       POLICIES AND PROCEDURES:  In addition to those policies,
                                                                                       rules, and regulations set forth by the State of Maine,
                                                                                       the Selectmen have directed the LPI to require each person,
                                                                                       property owner or agent for the property owner, applying
                                                                                       for an HHE 211, Internal Plumbing Permit, to first submit
                                                                                       the septic waste facility serving the structure on the property
                                                                                       to a LPI-administered dye test to prove that the septic
                                                                                       syste.m is not ma.Ifunctioning. If the tested septic facility
                                                                                       fails the dye test, the property owner must make appropriate
                                                                                       repairs before receiving the Internal Plumbing Permit.
                                                                                       'The LPI may waive the dye test requirement if the property
                                                                                       owner can supply proof, in the form of an HHE 200, Subsurface
                                                                                       Wastewater Disposal System Permit, showing that the system
                                                                                       has been installed since January 1, 1980, in compliance
                                                                                       with the State 6f Maine Rules and Regulations. The design
                                                                                       factors must meet or exceed the proposed usage requirements.
                                                                                       The fee for the performance of the dye test will be reviewed
                                                                                       and set each year by the Selectmen and will be paid to@ the
                                                                                       LPI performing the dye test.

                                                                                       REPLACES - All previous policies and procedures with the same
                                                                                                 specific subject
                                                                                                             4 , I
                                                                                       APPROVED:


                             Lincolnville Plumbing Inspection Policy                          Chairman, B6ard of Sele 5XMen

                 74






                                                                                                                          Appendix 2-Survey Methods
           APPENDIX 2                                                                                    to provide a list of the lodging and camping fa-
           Quantifying Resident and Visitor                                                              cilities and the number of beds/sites in each.
           Populations                                                                                   Contact these establishments directly to deter-
                                                                                                         mine their annual counts or to obtain their esti-
                The survey methods described below can be used to                                        mated occupancy rate. Or estimate the total num-
           help figure out how many people are living on or visiting an                                  ber of ovemighters using a state-wide vacancy
           island. This information is especially important for manag-                                   rate. Also, ask each establishment how many
           ing use by transient visitors.                                                                seasonal workers from the mainland they house
                Year-round and seasonal residents: Most island                                           and employ. If inforination is available about
                                                                                                         how many establishments/beds were on the is-
           communities keep track of the number of year-round resi-                                      lands in the 1970s, trends can be established
           dents. If the information is not available locally, most of the                               using factors from a 1970s Arthur D. Little &
           state's larger libraries and some regional planning commis-                                   Co. study. The study estimated 2.5 people per
           sions have U.S. Census data and other population estimates                                    room with a state-wide occupancy rate of 60-
           and projections compiled by the Department of Human                                           70%.
           Services. The Census or local property tax listings can be                            2.      Division of Health Engineering, Maine De-
           used to determine the number of seasonal homes in the
           community, from which a rough estimate of seasonal resi-                                      partment of Human Services. The Division
           dents can be developed, based upon an assumption about                                        licenses about 70% of the motels, hotels, bed
           how many people stay in each dwelling and for how long.                                       and breakfasts, campgrounds, cabins, and other
                                                                                                         lodgings in the state. The Division (287-5671)
                Overnighters- This category can be estimated for those                                   can provide a computerized list of establish-
           islands with licensed motels, hotels, bed and breakfasts, and                                 ments for the town or township in which an is-
           camping establishments. If this information is not already                                    land is located and the number of rooms/sites
           available, it can be compiled with the help of one of the                                     listed for each. If the island is part of a main-
           following sources:                                                                            land community, figure out which of the listed
                                                                                                         establishments are on the island. The inspector
                   1.     Local Code Enforcement Officer. If building                                    assigned to the region can provide additional
                          permits have been issued for island establish-                                 help, if necessary. He or she has specific knowl-
                          ments, the code enforcement officer may be able                                edge of each licensed establishment. Again, an
                                                                                                         occupancy rate will have to be estimated.



                                                                                                                                                        75






                   Appendix 2

                         Campers: Isle au Haut can obtain information from                                                              with friends/lodging; and
                                                                                                                        f.      Other information of interest to the com-
                   Acadia National Park about the number of campers who stay                                                            munity (see Chapter 2, Social
                   on the island during the year. Collecting camper information                                                         Experience).
                   for other islands will not be so easy unless there is an estab-
                   lished campground operated by the state or licensed with the                                2.       Select sample dates. The sample dates selected
                   Division of Health Engineering. Landowners may know how                                              will depend upon whether peak use of an island
                   many camp overnight if users are in the habit of asking                                              or its total seasonal use is of greatest interest.
                   permission, as many do at Richmond Island in Cape Eliza-                                             a. Total seasonal use. First divide the season
                   beth. If not, an estimate could be based upon information                                               into three parts, perhaps April-June, July and
                   about island recreational use currently being collected by the                                          August, and September-November, depend-
                   Maine Island Trail Association.                                                                         ing upon the island and its use. If daytrippers
                         Daytrippers: If an island is served by ferry, develop a                                           are of greatest concern, sampling only the
                   survey and estimate the number of daytrippers that visit using                                          July-August period may be sufficient. Group
                   the method described below, suggested by Richard Sherwood                                               the months according to the number of daily
                   at the State Planning Office. Private ferry companies may not                                           ferry trips to make extrapolation of the re-
                   want to participate because of the proprietary nature of the                                            sults easier. Then divide each week into two
                   information. A survey will not only help determine the                                                  parts, perhaps Friday-Monday'and Tuesday-
                   number of daytrippers, but also the number of people who                                                Thursday. Randomly select one,weekday
                   lodge, rent cottages, live on the island, or come intermittently                                        segment and one weekend segment for each
                   for other reasons.                                                                                      of the three seasonal divisions. For instance,
                         There are three steps to the process:                                                             one may   'have selected the weekdays of the
                                                                                                                           first week in June and the weekend of the
                         1. Develop a questionnaire. Information to collect                                                third week in April for the spring sample,'
                   through the survey includes:                                                                            and used a similar approach for the summer
                                    a.       Where pe   Iople' are coming from;                                            and fall samples. These six samples will be
                                    b.       How many people are in each party;                                            large enough to estimate total seasonal use.
                                    C.       The purpose of their trip;                                                 b. Peak use. If knowing the most intense use
                                    d.       How long they stay;                                                           an island gets at peak times is the priority
                                    e.       What island activities they engage in and                                     interest, select the weekend or week when
                                                     Where, i.e. hike, bicycle, visit art                                  ferry ridership is greatest. This information
                                                     galleries, eat at restaurants, stay                                   can be obtained from the ferry service.


                   76






                                                                                                                                           Survey Methods

                   3.      Select boat trips. Decide whether to survey all
                           or just some of the boat trips that are made to
                           the island on the dates selected. Every trip
                           doesn't have to be included to get a good sample,
                           but the more trips included, the better the esti-
                           mate will be. If there are 16 trips to the island
                           over the weekend segment, randomly select a
                           couple from the busiest part.of the day.
                  4.       Conduct the survey.      Arrange for some "vol-
                           unteers" to help conduct the survey. Four to ten
                           interviewers will be needed, depending upon the
                           size of the boat, length of the trip, time of year,
                           and how the survey is administered. Ideally, the
                           interviewers would be on the boat, circulate
                           among the passengers, and complete a survey
                           for each party/person on the trip. Alternatively,
                           a questionnaire could be given to each person/
                           party as they get on the boat, and collected when
                           they disembark.
                  5.       Extrapolate results. To calculate seasonal
                           use, first multiply the average number of
                           daytrippers/trip in the weekday or weekend
                           sample by the number of boat trips/segment,
                           by the number of segments in the season.
                           Sum the total for both weekend and weekday
                           segments to get total use for each season; sum
                           all of the seasons to get the total for the year.







                                                                                                                                                          77






                 Appendix 3-Build out Study Methodology

                                                                                                give you an estimate because not all lots will be the same size.
                 Appendix 3                                                                          Unbuildable acreage: Of the remaining undeveloped
                                                                                                land, determine how much land cannot be developed because
                 Methodology for a theoretical                                                  of natural constraints, legal constraints, or zoning restrictions.
                 build out study                                                                Natural constraints include flood plains, wetlands, poor soils,
                                                                                                steep slopes, and wildlife habitats. In addition, conserved
                       One way to catch a glimpse of an island's future is to                   lands, which restrict development through ownership, should
                 analyze how land use decisions made today will affect an                       be included. Map these areas on a topographic base map.
                 island's landscape over the long-term. This is done theoreti-                  Other zoning restrictions and conservation easements can
                 cally and is called a build out study. Such a study assumes                    also be mapped. Acreages for all of these should be tallied
                 maximal development potential for every buildable lot, and                     separately, and then totalled.
                 calculates the number of possible residences under this                             3. Determine buildable acreage. The land that remains
                 ,assumption. It reflects a worst case scenario, probably not.                  after the built and unbuildable land are subtracted is the
                 what will actually happen. However a build out analysis can                    buildable acreage, Which can be considered for development
                 provide useful information for discussions about use of                        through subdivision, as grandfathered lots, or outright.
                 resources, limits of growth, and carrying capacity.                            Overlays of the development constraints, mapped on the
                 Methodology:                                                                   topographic base map, and the existing development mapped
                                                                                                on the parcel map, need to be combined, somehow, on the
                       1. Determine area to be studied: a watershed, a proposed                 same map to show where development could occur in the
                 development site, an entire island. A parcel map and a topo-                   future. For lots requiring roads to facilitate their develop-
                 graphic map are needed for this exercise. All information                      ment, 15% of the land area@can be subtracted.from the build-
                 should be mapped for visual presentation,'and data compiled                    able acreage for right-of-way and utility construction.    .The
                 for numerical analysis.                                                        remaining acreage is then multiplied by the minimum lot size
                       2. Determine built and unbuildable acreage.                              to determine the maximum number of houses that can be
                       Built acreage: Refer to the tax commitment book to                       built.
                 identify all lots within the study area that havebuildings on                       This information, used by a community during their
                 them. Map these on the parcel map. Further refinement can                      planning process, unveils whether the current zoning ad-
                 be added by noting separately lots which can be subdivided                     equately addresses the community's ability or desire to
                 under current zoning and those which cannot be further                         respond to maximum grow      'th. In reality each parcel consid-
                 subdivided. Total built acreage is calculated by multiplying                   ered "developable" would be evaluated individually to
                 nummurn lot size(s) by the number.of built lots. This will                     determine suitability for house, septic, water, etc.


                 78






                                                                                                                                                                    Appendix 4-1sland Data
             Appendix 4- Population, Housing & Ferry Ridership Tables

                                                                                Figure 1. Population of Year-Round Island Communities


                                                                                                                             'Year-round Population


                                                                                                                                                                                   1990
                                                                                             Area                   1990            1980/842             % Change                Persons
                                                                                          SQ KM1              Population           Population            1980-1990              SQ KM

                                           Cumberland County
                                                Cliff Island                                 1.21                   87                  90                     (3%)                71.96
                                                Chebeague Island                             8.60                   337                 350                    (4%)                39.17
                                                Cushing and Peaks Island                     4.14                   775                 1002                   (23%)              187.11
                                                Long Island town                             3.20                   201                 140                    44%                 62.81


                                           Lincoln County
                                                Monhegan plantation                          2.22                   88                  109                    (19%)               39.60

                                           Knox County
                                                Isle Au Haut town                            32.83                  46                  57                     (19%)                 1.40
                                                Matinicus plantation                         4.15                   67                  66                     2%                  16.14
                                                North Haven town                             30.15                  332                 373                    (11%)               11.01
                                                Vinalhaven town                              65.58                  1072                1211                   (11%)               16.35

                                           Waldo County
                                                Islesboro town                               36.92                  579                 521                    11%                 15.68


                                           Hancock County
                                                Cranberry Isles town                         8.23                   189                 198                    (5%)                22.98
                                                Frenchboro town                              12.47                  44                  43                     2%                    3.53
                                                Swans Island town                            36.15                  348                 337                    3%                    9.63


                                                              Total                                                 4165                4497                   (7%)

                                                1. U.S. Census Bureau, 1990.
                                                2. Portland Islands: Portland Islands Land Use and Zoning Study         Greater Portland Council of Governntents estitnates 1984;
                                                   all other islands: U.S. Census Bureau, 1980.




                                                                                                                                                                                                      79






                       Appendix 4




                                                                          Figure 2. Housing on Year-Round Island Communities


                                                                                                 Total Housing Units
                                                                                                                                                                   Vacation Homes
                                                                                     1990                               Percent Change                                                  Percent Change
                                                                                                        1980/84               80/84-90              1990                  1980                 80-90

                                   Cumberland County
                                        Cliff Island                                  151                 141                 7%                     101                   NA
                                        Chebeague Island                              420                 NA                                         268                   NA
                                        Cushing and Peaks Island                      805                 882                 (9%)                   447                   NA
                                        Long Island town                              296                 286                 3%                     202                   NA

                                   Lincoln County
                                        Monhegan plantation                           147                 151                 (3%)                   105                    98                   7%

                                   Knox County
                                        Isle Au Haut town
                                                                                      136                 11.3                20%                    116                    84                 38%
                                        Matinicus plantation                          101                   99                2%                       70                   30                133%
                                        North Haven'town                              441                 378                 17%                    303                   222                 36%
                                        Vinalhaven town                              1038                 994                 4%                     551                   488                 13%
                                   Waldo County'
                                        Islesboro town                                636                 586                 9%                     341                   302                 13%

                                   Hancock County
                                        Cranberry Isles town                          325                 292                 11%                    234                   137                 71%
                                        Frenchboro town                                 53                  46                15%                      27                   26                   4%
                                        Swans -Island town  f                         385                 342                 13%                    208                   157                 32%
                                                     Total                           4934'                4303                15%                    1857,                1544                 20%

                                 Source: Portland Islands 1984: Portland Islands Land Use and Zoning Study Greater Portland Council of Governments.
                                          All other data: U.S. Census Bureau.







                       80







                                                                                                                                                                                        Island Data



                                                                       Figure 3. Maine State Ferry Service Ridership
                                                                   (July 1, 1981-june 30, 1982 through July 1, 1991-june 30, 1992)


                                                           Number of passengers        change        Number of vehicles       change      Number of bicycles        change
                                                              1992        1982         82-92         1992         1982        82-92         1992         1982        82-92

                         Vinalhaven                          94,096        68,429      38%           21,965       16,779      31%         2,576         1,233          52%
                         North Haven                         43,533        28,827      51%           11,173        7,571      48%         1,126           637          77%
                         Islesboro                         177,770        115,026      55%           85,896       50,193      71%         3,061         1,593          92%
                         Swans Island                        64,151        45,998      39%           23,347       17,129      36%         2,313         1,230          88%
                         Frenchboro                           2,530         2,530       ---          1,058           807      31%               1            8        (88%)
                              Total                        382,165       260,810       -47%          143,492      92,479      55%         9,07;         4,701          93%

                          Note: The Ferry Service was extended to Matinicus in 1985.        The number of passengers declinedfrom 138 to 85 per year (through 1992); and the number
                                 of vehicles declinedfrom 109 to 53.

                          Source: Maine State Ferry Service



                                                       Figure 4. Casco Bay Lines and Casco Bay Island Transit Ridership

                                                                                                     Number of passengers
                                                                                                     April I   - March 30                        % change
                                                                                                  1991-92               1982-83             1982-83     to 1991-92

                                                      Peaks Island                                   505,564               409,119                      24%
                                                      Little Diamond                                 15,245                 13,479                      13%
                                                      Great Diamond                                  20,051                 14,800                      35%
                                                      Long Island                                    85,691                 56,376                      52%
                                                      Chebeague                                      11,181                 10,462                      7%
                                                      Cliff                                          23,674                 20,789                      14%
                                                                                                         1
                                                           Total                                     698,436               525,025                      33%

                                 Source: Casco Bay Island Transit District


                                                                                                                                                                                                    81






                 Appendix 5

                                                                                               Nichols, H. 1993. Draft Supplement to the Comprehen-
                 APPENDIX 5                                                                        sive Planning Manual on Island Planning. Maine
                                                                                                   Department of Economic and Community Develop-
                 Selected.Contacts and References                                                  ment.
                                                                                               Shaw, Carol. 1988. Island Carrying Capacity. - Maine
                 A. ISLAND CARRYING CAPACITY/                                                      Dept. of Economic and Community Development and
                      LAND USE PLANNING                                                            the State Planning Office.
                                                                                               Shaw, Carol. 1991. Carrying Capacity'Analyses For
                 Lead Agency Contacts:                                                             Tourism and Growth Management In Coastal Com-
                    Katrina Van Dqsen, Maine State Planning Office, 287-                           munities. Masters Thesis, Dept. of Landscape Archi-
                         3261                                                                      tecture and Regional Planning, University of Massa-
                                                                                                   chusetts.
                    Fran'Rudoff, Department of Economic & Community
                         Development, 624-6800                                              B. GROUNDWATER
                    Ann  'ette Naegel, Island Institute, 594-9209                           Lead Agency Contact:
                    John Bubier, Greater Portland Council of Governments,
                         774-9891                                                              Marianne DuBois, Department of Environmental Protec-
                    Tom Martin, Hancock County Planning Commission,                                tion, (groundwater protection) 287-3901
                         667-7131                                                              Paui Parker, Department of Environmental Protection
                    Pat Jennings, Mid-Coast Planning Commission, 594-                              (overboard discharge program) 287-3901
                         2299                                                               Key references:
                 Key references:                                                               Dutram, P.W. 1988. The Planning Processfor Local
                    Cabot-Carrigan, L. 1993. Recent Island Development,                            Groundwater Protection, Ground Water Standing
                         Trends in Maine: A Preliminary Study. Draft report of                     Committee, Land and Water Resources Council.
                         the Maine Coastal Program, State Planning Office.                     Island Institute. 1986. Ground Water Reconnaissance
                    Cabot-Carrigan, L. 1993. A Resource Guide to Informa-                          Study For Islesboro.
                         tion About Coastal Islands. Draft report of the Maine                 Maine Tomorrow. 1993. Treat It Right: Alternative
                         Coastal Program, State Planning Office. -                                 Wastewater Systems That Protect    Water Quality. For
                    Market Decisions, Inc. 1992. Comprehensive Planning:                           the Maine Department of Environmental Protection
                         A Manualfor Maine's Communities. Maine Depart-                            and the Department of Economic & Community
                         ment of Economic and Community Development.                               Development.
                    Martin, B. H  *and K. D. Kimb@ll. 1989. Final Report                       R. G. Gerber, Inc. 1989. Vinalhaven Ground Water
                         Visitor Use and Impact Patterns On the Isle Au Haut                       Resource Study an  'd Municipal Water Supply Evalua-
                         Acadia National Park, Maine. Appalachian Mountain                         tion. For Vinalhaven Land Trust.
                         Club.


                 82







                                                                                                                        Contacts & References

             R. G. Gerber, Inc. 1988. City of Portland Island                      E. SOIL AND VEGETATION RESILIENCY
                 Groundwater Management Study. For City of Port-                   Lead Agency Contact:
                 land.
             Timson, Barry S. 1989. Monhegan "Meadow" Aquifer                          Annette Naegel, Island Institute, 594-9209
                 Preliminary Hydrogeology and Management Consid-                   Key References:
                 erations. For Monhegan Plantation and James
                 Haskell and Associates.                                               Conkling, P. W., R. E. Leonard, and W. H. Drury. 1984.
                                                                                          People and Islands: Resource Management For
          C. SOLID WASTE                                                                  Islands In the Gulf of Maine. Island Institute.
          Lead Agenc    Iy Contact:                                                F. WILDLIFE
             Rachel Therrien, Maine Waste Management Agency, 287-                  Lead Agency Contacts:
                 5300                                                                  Steve Timpano, Department of Inland Fisheries and
          Key References:                                                                 Wildlife, 287-5252
             Caniff, Julie Ann. 199 1. Solid Waste Managementfor                       Gary Donovan, Department of Inland Fisheries and
                 Maine's Outer Islands. The Island Institute.                             Wildlife, 287-5252
             University of Maine Cooperative Extension Service.                        Sue Gawler, Maine Natural Areas Program, Dept. of
                 1991. Home Composting. 90-EWQI-1-9231.                                   Community and Economic Development, 624-6800
             Maine Waste Management Agency. 1993. Highlights of                    Key References:
                 State of Maine Waste Management Plan.                                 Allen, R. B. 1992. Island-Nesting Colonial Waterbird
          D. SOCIAL EXPERIENCE                                                            Assessment. Department of Inland Fisheries and
                                                                                          Wildlife.
          Lead Agency Contact:                                                         Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. 199 1.
             Cate Cronin, Maine Island Trail Association, 596-6456                        Coast of Maine Wildlife Management Area Plan.
          Key References:                                                              Woodard, S., A. Hutchinson.- and M. McCollough. Endan-
                                                                                          gered and NonGame Wildlife Project. 1986. The
             Getchell, David. 1993. Monitoring Report on Recre-                           Penobscot Bay Plan. Department of Inland Fisheries
                 ational Use of a Selected Number of Uninhabitated                        and Wildlife.
                 Islands on the Maine Coast. Maine Island Trail                        Atlas of Essential Wildlife Habitatsfor Maine's Endan-
                 Association.                                        I                    gered and Threatened Species. Department of Inland
             Martin, B. H. and K. D. Kimball. 1989. Final Report                          Fisheries and Wildlife. Updated annually.
                 Visitor Use and Impact Patterns on the Isle au Haut,
                 Acadia National Park, Maine. Appalachian Mountain
                 Club.


                                                                                                                                              83







                 Appendix 5


                 G. SCENIC CHARACTER
                 Lead Agency Contacts:
                     Fran Rudoff, Dept. of Community and Economic Devel-
                        opment, 624-6800

                 Key References:
                     Dominie, H. 1990. How To Conduct An Inventory of
                        Scenic Areas. Maine Dept. of Economic and Com-
                        munity Development.
                     Dominie, H. and Mary Droege. 1987. A Proposed
                        Method For Scenic Coastal Landscape Assessment
                        with Field Test Results For Kittery to Scarborough
                        and Cape Elizabeth to South Thomaston. Maine State
                        Planning Office.
                     Dominie, H. 1988. Important Scenic Resources. In
                        Evaluation of Island Resources: Hancock County
                        and a Portion of Knox County, Maine.
                     Terrence'J. Dewan & Associates. 1990. Scenic Inventory
                        Mainland Sites of Penobscot Bay. For   'the Critical
                        Areas Program of the Maine State Planning Office.
                     Terrence J. Dewan & Associates. 1992. Scenic Inventory
                        of Islesboro, Vinalhaven, North Haven, and Associ-
                        ated Offshore Islands. For the Critical Areas Program
                        of the Maine State Planning Office.











                 84


















                                                                                                                                     4. Q A -I


                Maine State Planning Office                                      April 1994                                                   Island Institute
                State House Station 38                                                                                                       60 Ocean Street
                Augusta, ME 04333                                                                                                      Rockland, ME 04841
                (207) 287-3261                                    This document is printed on recycled paper.                                  (207) 594-9209



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