Management of Hawaii's coastal zone for water quality objectives

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Zo~Izhemnehton

HAWAII COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Technical Supplement No. 2

Management of Hawaii's Coastal Zone
for Water Quality Objectives
by
Dr. Stephen Lau

oef CSC LibraTY

U. S. DEPARTIENT OF COMMERCE NOAN
COASTAL SERVICES CENUER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 294O5-2413

This document was commissioned for the
State of Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development
by the
Pacific Urban Studies and Planning Program, University of Hawaii

The preparation of this report was financed in part
through a Coastal Zone Management Program Development Grant
from the United States Department of Commerce

August, 1975

MANAGEMENT OF HAWAII'S COASTAL ZONE

FOR

WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES

P.H1. McGAUHEY

L.S. Lau

WRRC Cooperative Report No. 4
Technical Supplement C to
Document 1:
Technical Considerations in Developing a Coastal Zone Management
Program for Hawaii
Pacific Urban Studies and Planning Program,
University of Hawaii

November 1975

WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii

PREFACE

This paper presents an overview of wastewater management as related to the

quality of Hawaii's coastal waters. It is meant to be indicative, rather than

exhaustive, in nature for planners and interested lay readers. It examines

concepts for establishing an inland boundary of the coastal zone, and reflects

some of the results of studies made during the course of the "Quality of

Coastal Waters" project supported principally by the University of Hawaii Sea

Grant Program during the years 1971 to 1975.

This report is a posthumous publication of the senior author. The first

three chapters we-re completed in detail and the last three chapters up to the

final draft form by both authors. The junior author undertook the responsibil-

ity for the completion of the manuscript in its entirety.

CONTENTS

PRE FACE
CHAPTER I. ENVIRONMENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
OF HAWAII COASTAL WATER QUALITY................ 1
Influencing Coastal Features .1...........
Wastewater Management Practices. ....................2
Concepts of Water Quality Criteria for Wastewater Disposal....... 3
Present Institutional Arrangement. ...................4

CHAPTER II. REASONS FOR CONCERN REGARDING HAWAII'S
COASTAL WATER QUALITY. ....................6

CHAPTER III. CONCEPTS OF HAWAII'S COASTAL ZONE
BOUNDARIES AND MANAGEMENT. .................7
Characteristics and Management of Coastal
and Noncoastal Land: A Conceptual Summary............... 8
Coastal Water Quality Management through Coastal Zone Management:
An Example for Identifying the Limit of Coastal Zones.......... 9
CHAPTER IV. GENERATION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
THROUGH LAND AND WATER UTILIZATION. .............27
Hawaii Land Use Districts. .......................27
Coastal Zone: Land Section. ......................28
Coastal Zone: Seaward Section. ....................31

CHAPTER V. STRESS INDICATIVE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
FOR HAWAII COASTAL WATER ENVIRONMENT. .............34
CHAPER VI. MANAGEABILITY OF SOME HAWAIIAN COASTAL ZONE SITUATIONS. ....38
Manageable Situations. .........................38
Poorly Defined Situations. .......................41

GLOSSARY. .................................43

BIBLIOGRAPHY. ...............................45

FIGURES

1. Conceptual Coastal Zone and Management Schematic. ..........10

2. Principal Water Quality Vectors in Coastal
and Noncoastal Land System. .....................15

3. Principal Water Quality Vectors in a Typical (Hypothetical)
Noncoastal Sector of a Land System. .................21

4. Principal Water Quality Vectors in a Typical (Hypothetical)
Coastal Land Sector of a Land System. ................24

5. Seaward Extension of Coastal Zone Sector of a Land System. .....26

6. Sugarcane Industry as a Waste Generating System. ..........29

TABLES

1. Hawaii Coastal Zone Activities Generating Wastes and
Altering Marine Resources. .....................32

2. Stress Indicative Quality Parameters of Coastal Waters. .......36

3. Stress Indicative Quality Parameters of Coastal Sediment. ......37

CHAPTER I

ENVIRONMENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF
HAWAII'S COASTAL WATER QUALITY

The Hawaiian Islands are small in size yet rise rapidly from sea level to
high elevations. These facts in combination create an intrinsically intimate
interaction between the land and adjoining coastal waters. The distance from
the coast to the most remote inland point is 10.6 miles (17.1 km) for Oahu,
10.8 (17.4 km) for Kauai, 10.6 (17.1 km) for Maui, 3.9 (6.3 km) for Molokai,
5.2 (8.4 km) for Lanai, and 28.4 (45.7 km) for Hawaii. For the entire State,
the percentage of land areas with elevation exceeding 2,000 ft (609.6 m) is
50.9%, and the percentage of area with slope exceeding 20% is 17.0 (Department
of Planning and Economic Development 1969).

Influencing Coastal Features

Several major coastal features of the Hawaiian Islands which influence
coastal zone management and coastal water quality considerations are: reef
communities, varying shoreline characteristics, deep ocean water, low nutrient
content in the ocean waters, and high circulation and energy levels of the
coastal waters.

Offshore coral reefs (mostly fringing type) occur in the older islands
such as Kauai, Oahu, and Maui. Reef building, by coral and algae, is one of
the littoral processes that help shape terraces near sea level, thus creating
shallow waters in the otherwise steeply cropping submarine topography that
characterizes Hawaii. The reefs together with the shallow waters they confine,
provide: a protective habitat for marine biota, supply of shell and coral
detritus for beach buildup, and the marine resources for recreation. A few
miles out from the shoreline, there is a steep submarine dropoff down to approx-
imately 18,000 ft (5486.4 m) to the ocean floor which does not provide a biolog-
ical substrate and opportunity for the accumulation of high nutrients in the
ocean water as does the continental shelf of the mainland U.S. coasts.

Surface ocean currents, tides, and the dominant waves generated by the
northeast trade wind affect Hawaii's open type shoreline configurations. Local
thermo- and density-stratification of ocean water exists in Hawaii's coastal
waters, close enough to the coast to permit utilization of the submerged field
concept for sewage discharge from sewer outfalls.

Hawaii's white sandy beaches, formed of shell and coral detrital marine
deposits from the reefs and reef platform, are world-known and provide a play-
ground for Hawaii's people and tourists. Of the total 934.4 miles (1503.4 km)
of tidal shoreline of the 6 major islands, 184.9 miles (297.5 km) are classified
as sandy, with 24.4 miles (39.3 km) considered safe, clean, accessible, and gen-
erally suitable for swimming (DPED 1969, Table 8). Sea cliffs of varying
heights constitute a part of Hawaii's coastline and provide some of the most
spectacular sights, as well as sites for recreational shoreline fishing.

STREAM REGIME. Many streams, generally those on the windward side of the
mountains and especially those portions originating in the high rainfall
watershed, are rendered perennial by high level groundwater discharge and
provide a habitat for aquatic biota. Perennial streams in Hawaii invite and,
indeed, have been subjected to substantial diversion for various types of
uses. Kahana Stream on Oahu, which drains an otherwise -relatively undeveloped
watershed, is an example.

Storm runoff draining into the Hawaiian coastal water is distinguished
by its intensity and abruptness of occurrence. Its color and turbidity also
set it off visibly from the clear blue ocean water. A unique flood hydrology
arises from the intensity of storms, short stream courses, and the small size,
and steepness of the drainage basin slopes (Wu 1969; Fok and Lau 1973). Thus,
periodic land cleansings occur and exert a significant impact on the quality
of coastal water and its ecosystems. The-quality parameters discharged into
the water include sediment, -nutrients, toxic and other dissolved chemicals,
and a salinity different from that of the coastal water (Chun, Young, and
Anderson 1972; Matsushita and Young 1973). The impact of these quality para-
meters is accentuated in marinas and bays where the water circulation is weak
and mixing is consequently poor.

Downstream Equivalent: Hawaii's Coastline. From a water quality stand-
point, the conventional concept of "upstream sewage-today, downstream-drinki ng
water-tomorrow" finds no application in Hawaii. Storm water in any specific
situation, together with the water quality parameters it transports, -reaches
the coastline in a matter of hours, disperses in the coastal water, and exerts
its influence over a certain specific reach of the shoreline. The population
distribution in Hawaii parallels the coastline--the Hawaiian downstream equi-
valent- -rather than being strung out along the course of the river, as is
generally the case for mainland river ba sins. For that matter, Hawaii's navi-
gable waters are, with only few exceptions, coastal rather than inland waters.

Groundwater Relation to Coastal Water Quality. Interchange between the
ocean water and groundwater in the Hawaiian Islands manifests itself in such
exchange phenomena as:

1. Salinity encroachment of the fresh groundwater (Ghyben-Herzberg lens)
by the underlying salt water, both permeating the subsurface (Lau
1967)

2. Incursion of fresh or brackish groundwater, and the nutrients con-
tained therein, into the ocean

Both exchange phenomena affect water quality, the second phenomenon
affecting coastal water quality directly and marine biota indirectly.

Wastewater Management Practices

Coastal waters surrounding the islands of Hawaii traditionally served,
and will continue to serve, as the ultimate sink for wastewater, either
directly or indirectly. Point sources of wastewater discharge are the more
obvious contributors of pollution. There are presently 142 points sources
of the following types (Dept. of Health 1975):

1. Municipal sewage, both treated and untreated

2. Agricultural and industrial sources including irrigation tailwater,
wash water, trash wash water, process water for sugarcane; thermal
water and wash water for pineapple; thermal water from electrical
power generation; and miscellaneous

3. Military installations, including both industrial and domestic
wastewater

Most point sources discharge directly into open coastal water but some
discharge into bays and harbors by way of open channels or by way of perennial
or intermittent streams which empty quickly into the coastal water.

Nonpoint sources of discharges are also major contributors of wastewater
into the Hawaiian environment. Unlike point discharges, their manner of dis-
charge into the receiving water is diffused over an area. Examples of non-
point sources in Hawaii are sediments eroded by heavy rain, storm runoff water
from urbanized and construction areas, and cesspool seepage from unsewered
homes.

In vogue since about 1970 is wastewater injection into the coastal sub-
surface groundwater by means of "effluent" injection wells (Takasaki 1974).
As a rule, the natural groundwater flux in the subsurface moves towards the
ocean. The injected water and quality parameters undergo dilution, dis-
persion, and chemical and biological reactions with the groundwater and the
rock. Despite these processes, some of which are attritional and others
contributional, some quality parameters will eventually be discharged into the
coastal water. Knowledge defining these processes is presently meager for
both the Hawaii basaltic rock and Ghyben-Herzberg lens (Peterson and Lau
1974).

Land disposal of treated effluent via irrigation water presents a pos-
sible alternative to ocean disposal in Hawaii. Irrigating sugarcane with
effluent has been demonstrated to be promising in terms of the protection of
groundwater and sugar qualities, and the maintenance of sugar and cane yields
by a recently completed pilot field study on Oahu (Lau et al.1975).

Concepts of Water Quality Criteria for Wastewater Disposal

A comparison of spectrum and concentration of physical, chemical, and
microbiological quality parameters present in wastewaters with data on the
same quality parameters in the receiving water may serve as a starting point
for evaluating the impact of quality changes on the biota. From this premise
evolved the "effluent standard" concept of water quality control, i.e., re-
ducing the concentrations and eliminating certain quality parameters from
wastewater, as guided by health and environmental criteria or standards, prior
to disposal. However, it is generally recognized that natural processes in
the receiving water can and do lessen or alter certain impacts of the dis-
charge. This premise provides the primary basis for a "receiving water
standards" concept, i.e., specifying the limits of concentration of various
quality parameter standards not to be exceeded in the receiving water
(McGauhey 1968). The State of Hawaii has adopted both types of standards.

Chapter 38 of the Public Health Regulations stipulates the effluent standards,
and Chapter 37A the receiving water standards (State of Hawaii, Department of
Health 1974).

As a general rule, the effects on biota of physical processes, such as
dilution and dispersion of conservative (unchanging and nondissipating) phy-
sical and chemical parameters in the receiving water, are considerably simpler
to determine than are those of biological processes leading to effects such
as biostimulation and sublethal toxicity. The basic difference between
physio-chemical and biological processes is reflected in the different level
of the present understanding of the effects of these processes and poses a
major difficulty in defining biological impact of any wastewater discharge
today.

Present Institutional Arrangement

The State of Hawaii Department of Health (DOH) is the regulatory agency
empowered by both the State of Hawaii and the federal government to exercise
authority over water pollution control and wastewater discharges in the State
of Hawaii. In matters where the federal government has primary authority, it
serves as the intermediate agency between the principal federal water pollu-
tion control agency, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the waste
dischargers, which include municipalities, military installations, industries,
and private entities. In matters where the State has full freedom of deci-
sion, it is the primary control agency. Its principal authority is set forth
in detail in the State PubZic Health Regulations, (DOH 1974, chaps. 37, 37A,
and 38). The regulation mode of the Department is essentially that of a
permit and variance system. The original state permit system has been re-
cently changed to NPDES (National Pollution Discharge Elimination System)
permits to conform with federal regulations. Full exposition of the institu-
tional framework for water quality control is being prepared by the DOH as a
part of its overall environmental planning as well as the Hawaii Water
Resources Regional Study (HWRRS) as a part of the nationwide level-B planning
program under the Federal Water Resources Council.

The federal Coastal Zone Management Act (PL 92-583) enacted in 1972 is
intended to develop a national program for the management, beneficial use, pro-
tection, and development of the land and water resources of the coastal zones.
Coastal zone, as defined in the Act, means coastal waters and adjacent shore-
lands strongly influenced by each other and includes transitional and inter-
tidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands and beaches. Furthermore, the coastal
zone extends seaward to the limit of U.S. territorial seas and inland only to
the extent necessary to control shorelands, uses of which have a direct and
significant impact on coastal waters. Under the Act, state governments are
the focal point for coastal zone management. The federal assistance enters
by way of grants for development of a management program and for administra-
tion of the program. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce is the federal designated administrative
agency.

The State of Hawaii has designated its Department of Planning and Econo-
mic Development (DPED) to administer the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act
of 1972. This implies that its role in management of the coastal zone

involves both coastal water and land. As is hereinafter demonstrated, waste-
water generation and discharge into coastal water are intimately tied to land
use and management practices. Hence, there exists a potential institutional
overlap in jurisdiction between the DOH and the DPED as well as other agencies
having authority over land uses, planning, and management.

CHAPTER II

REASONS FOR CONCERN REGARDING HAWAII'S COASTAL WATER QUALITY

Hawaii's coastal water environment provides a unique natural resource
for year-round recreational activities which enhance island living, such as
surfing, water skiing, sailing, swimming, snorkeling, scuba diving, and sport
fishing. In addition, the scenic beauty of Hawaii's coastal and ocean envi-
ronment attracts many visitors from all over the world. Thus, a very s~ignifi-
cant fraction of the State's economy derives from recreation, which in turn
depends upon the safeguarding and enhancing of H aai' coastal resources and
of its traditional 'Island life style.

Because of its dependence on the quality of the coastal environment to
maintain and propagate their species, the biota of Hawaiian waters constitutes
another major reason for coastal water quality protection. The well being of
aquatic life enhances both recreational and commercial activities, e.g., sport
and commercial fishing, fishery research., etc, Many of Hawaii's residents
have always enjoyed fishing both as a pastime and as a source of food for the
family.

Some measure of the value of clean coastal water comes from contrasting
Hawaiian coastal water and,, hence, its quality, with those of two other places
in the world: Piraeus, near Athens, Greece and Kaohsiung, in Taiwan, must be
rated among the important shipping harbors in the world and are exceedingly
valuable to commerce and industry for both countries; however, an inordinately
low priority is placed on the quality of the marine ecosystem. Both harbors
suffer from extremely weak circulation and receive apparently unlimited dis-
charges of waste. The water environment is repulsive, the odor bad, and
aquatic life virtually absent. In total., the water serves as nothing more
than a shipping pathway and a waste receptacle,

CHAPTER III

CONCEPTS OF HAWAII'S COASTAL ZONE BOUNDARIES AND MANAGEMENT

One extreme concept holds that there are essentially no noncoastal areas
in Hawaii because of the small land mass. The fact that the major islands of
Hawaii are topographically high-rise islands is of no major consequence be-
cause it can be argued that there is nothing done by man upon these heights
that does not directly affect the coastal land area and the adjoining coastal
water and, therefore, that the entire island may be considered as a coastal
zone and managed by a single coastal zone agency.

In the purest sense, the designation of coastal zone land hinges on
whether the results of man's activities are so directly identifiable in detail
that they can be controlled by coastal management techniques. Under this
rationale, it is possible to consider that the high elevation of the central
zones of the islands of Hawaii makes them noncoastal zones by the mere absence
of human activity, except in a few instances, such as the astronomy observa-
tory of Mauna Kea and the scattered homes on Tantalus. Moreover, at inter-
mediate elevations, such as Schofield Barracks and the nearby pineapple
plantations on the central plain of Oahu, the need for and nature of control
of domestic wastewaters and agricultural practices could not be identified at
the shoreline with such accuracy that a coastal management agency alone could
replace the DOH and the Department of Agriculture (DOA), etc., in controlling
the quality of wastewater released in these areas. Thus, in Hawaii the ab-
sence of man's activities is not the only measure by which to identify non-
coastal lands. This point becomes obvious if one considers situations in the
U.S. mainland, such as the zone between the Alleghanies and the Sierras. By
no stretch of the imagination could one envision that water quality measure-
ments and observations at the New Orleans delta area would enable the regu-
latory agency to manage intelligently the wastewaters from the cities, farms,
and industries of America'a heartland. There, a number of agencies are res-
ponsible for controlling the quality of wastewater discharges and coastal
zone management must be built around the realities of what legally enters the
coastal zone. Thus, the noncoastal zones produce one of the factors a coastal
zone agency must evaluate and recognize in management of the coastal zone.

From such considerations as the foregoing, we might distill a basic cri-
terion that can be applied to Hawaii in relation to identifying a number of
sectors of coastal land which should properly be designated as coastal zone
land and, hence, subject to management by the coastal zone agency. For
example, if one assumes that only high central land is noncoastal, the ques-
tion of coastal zone limits lies in answering the question: Beyond what
inland limits or boundaries, in any specific sector of the state under con-
sideration, is it impossible to relate the quality of the land, water, and
life of human or other living things, to what man does?

Under this assumption, the coastal zone agency would of necessity
represent a super-agency which the DOH, DOA, the Board of Water Supply (BWS),
etc., would serve by providing input data and enforcing requirements set by
the super-agency. Obviously, neither the federal authorizing statute nor

the legislature of Hawaii had anything of this sort in mind in establishing
the Coastal Zone Authority.

It is therefore necessary to adopt a less all-embracing assumption and
to answer instead the question: Beyond what identified line can coastal zone
management techniques manage the land area of Hawaii only by disrupting other
zonal considerations which may be equally, or more, important than those
within the coastal zone?

The concept of a coastal zone by which land management protects coastal
water quality involves inputs from noncoastal zones having other appropriate
objectives postulates dividing the shoreline, with its adjacent 3-mile marine
zone, into a series of sectors based on geography, public land use, recrea-
tion, value of aquatic life, and other factors, Each of these sectors would
be a part of the coastal land zone comprising a Seaward Sector and a Landward
Sector. But each might have a separate inland boundary based upon man's
occupancy and activity on the land. This would mean that land management by
agencies outside the boundary line would proceed as usual but inputs from the
coastal zone management agency would be one of their considerations in con-
trolling water quality discharges. Similarly, management of the given sector
of a coastal zone would involve utilization of inputs from other land manage-
ment entities, but the coastal zone agency would manage the particular sector
for the optimal protection of the environment within that, and adjacent,
sectors. For example, the DOH would supply most of the standards and other
objectives which the coastal management agency seeks to achieve in the coastal
zone; and the cooperation of inland management agencies would also be neces-
sary to minimize objectionable water quality parameters flowing from non-
coastal zones into coastal zones. Conversely, the coastal zone agency would
have to accept agricultural and domestic wastewater effluents, as well as dis-
charges from uninhabited land, in whatever condition preferred by inland
management agencies (and nature). Similarly, the coastal zone agency would
utilize as inputs to management, the regulations of the DOH and other state
and federal agencies. Coastal zone management experience would most certainly
feed back information to regulatory agencies which would aid in refining their
water quality requirements.

In each sector, the management procedure would involve a realistic eval-
uation of the environmental factors to be considered as objectives in operat-
ing the management function: recreation, quality of human life, protection
of aquatic life, development of economic enterprise, etc.

Characteristics and Management of Coastal and Noncoastal Land:
A Conceptual Summary

Figure 1 illustrates that the coastal zone may be divided into two
sectors: the Seaward Section and the Landward Section. The Seaward Section
is envisioned as being primarily the indicator, or alarm zone, for the Land-
ward Section, although it has resource materials in itself which are manage-
able without regard to the Landward Section. It involves the coastal habitat
of diadromous fish, pelagic fish, benthic dwellers, as well as reefs and
marine ferromanganese deposits of economic interest. It also involves areas
suitable for aesthetic enjoyment only, beaches and parks, and marinas, each
with its requirements for land management.

The Landward Section is intended to depict both intensive and noninten-
sive human development at various levels of sanitation, each of which produces
point and nonpoint sources of wastes that may require special management in
order to achieve the requirements and the objectives of the indicator
(seaward) section of the zone.

A rough summary of the characteristics and management problems is in-
cluded and stresses: (1) the interdependence of land management and water
management agencies in some cases, and their essential independence in other
situations; (2) the monitoring or indicating sector's health will call for
the services of knowledgeable persons both inside and outside the responsible
agencies, and for the maximum cooperation between all agencies; (3) the need
for the information attained from, and the personnel who participated in, the
"Quality of Coastal Waters" (QCW) project, One may say that the water and the
ecology are among the objective functions without which the concept of Coastal
Zone Management is reduced to the mere social problems of facilitating the
getting along together of a lot of people in close quarters, while subscribing
to a variety of sanitation standards.

HGH RISE WITH MARINAS

15~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ytMt HIGH RISE HOUSING
LCOOSI '~~~~ ~ ~e,,A.IniOEVELOPMENT

)Vol)~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3IDOOU1IHHAIAQ

FIGURE 1. CONCEPTA3 OSA OEADMNGMN CEAI

Q3 ---B ETCH~~~~~~

LEGEND: FIGURE I COASTAL ZONE AND MANAGEMENT SCHEMATIC

NONCOASTAL ZONE COASTAL ZONE
Landward Section Seaward Section
Characterized bVr: Characterized by: Characterized by:
1. Land little used by humans for 1. Human occupancy in intense 1. Extend from shoreline to 3-mile
agriculture, industry, or even groups such as high-rise dwell- (4.8 kmn) limit
recreation ings and associated services 2. Series of sectors of varying
2. Land dedicated to agriculture 2. Variable width from shoreline to utility:
zonal boundary; possibility in Sand and coral materials
3. Land occupied by subdivisions some instances of being essen- Habitat for diadromous and
and towns tially discontinuous except for pelagic fish
4. Large areas of nonpoint source a narrow roadway access and Habitat for commercial food
infiltration of water which parking strip fishes
may reach the Seaward Section 3. Greatest area of population den- Habitat for food chain organ-
of the Coastal Zone either by sity of each island both in num- isms
surface runoff or underground bers of dwellings and occupants, Recreational activities
seepage variety of human activity, and, Major Significance:
5. Point source industrial and do- consequently, of pollutants 1. Resource materials characteris-
mestic wastes that are subject which may: tic of coastal waters
to release only after treatment. a. Damage the environment for 2. Sensor or indicator of pollution
Degree of treatment and require- human living o otmnto y
ments not a function of the b. Generate the greatest amount a.Seaefomwtrs contaminatogy
Coastal Zone Management objec- and variety of point-source a Sepge romn waer noncataering
tives since in the matter of pollutants g r u d i nocatlre
wastewater discharge the respon- c. Generate the greatest amount passing through cultivated or
sibility for water quality lies and variety of materials from cnatuaeisting sluble aremials,
with a state agency other than nonpoint sourcescotingslbehmca,
the Coastal Zone Land Management d. Seep into the Seaward Section s oure.,seepag fromcs zone.in
agency. ~~~~~~waters and, if considered b. Seepage from waters entering
6. Nonpointz sources, principally in harmful, present the most ground in Landward Section of
the control of agricultural pests difficult task of locating CatlZn n asn
and forest management requirements and controlling waste at its t hougarfsea Zone srace pasin
for pesticides, which may or may source shoil urie refuseo sufaertil
not ever reach, or be detectable Major Significance: ized land areas, gardens sub-
in, the coastal zone land or 1. The principal reason for dividing jected to pesticides, etc.
waters (and most likely not) island into different types of c. Surface runoff from nonpoint
zones for land management sources on noncoastal land
2. Area in which greatest disagree- d. Surface runoff from nonpoint

Management Problems: ment between people arises be- sources on Landward Section of
Generally, the management of non- cause of conflicting economic Coastal Zone
coastal land is directed to objec- and societal reasons e. Direct discharges of debris into
tives beyond that of the Coastal 3. Represents the critical zone as marinas
Zone agency and, hence, is not far as water pollution is con-* fReuedsaedolndt
readly ssiged r reolvd byany cerned and, thus, is the zone in beach sites
single land management agency which which greatest effort and most g.Tetdounraddicre
might be envisioned for all types intelligent management must be gfreate poi ntsrested dischargel
of land within the State of Hawaii obtained if the quality of l a m ond ore nnnosa
This means that there is some point coastal waters is to be main- ln
where the hazy boundary between tained h. Treated or untreated discharges
coastal and noncoastal land is an 4. Difficult to define absolutely from point sources in Landward
inescapable fact, hence, there must because of population pressures Section of Coastal Zone
be information feedback across this which tend to force development i. Debris or residues resulting
line both of a factual and a scien- of higher elevation lands, typ- from commercial development of
tific nature. ically into the noncoastal zone mineral or biological resources
In some instances, such as depicted least affected by nature and within Seaward Section itself
in Figure 1, agricultural land may man Management Possibilities:
lie indisputably within the Coastal 5. Imposes problems of land manage- 1. Subject to management to control
Zone. In this case, it is assumed ment for water quality and aes- results of direct exploitation
that the Coastal Zone management thetic purposes upon previously or use of Seaward Section itself
agency will be the one with major existing problems of health, including, marinas and fresh
jurisdiction, but that its decisions zoning, and planning, thereby water (and saline water) intru-
anwgilldane tofa expefromotsd nture requiring either: sions into Landward Section)
witsll havnt comromaotside sythem a. A splitting of the responsi- 2. Serves principally as indicator
agency islincetnasyembility of health and other of need for management of Land-
of management that will not be des- existing agencies at the ward Section or of noncoastal
tructive of agricultural economy, coastal zone boundary; or activities, and as a monitor of
yet consistent with the water qual- b. Creating a new agency or board the effectiveness of land man-
ity objectives of the Seaward Sec- with special duties and under- agement measures in zones which
tion of the Coastal Zone. standing of Coastal Zone land affect it

pkoblems,, which must work inSinfcce
harmony with existing agencies 1. Represents the critical sector
6. Requires greater use than in the of the state, i.e., the princi-
past of specialized knowledge of pal objective of management of
the effects of pollutants (from coastal and noncoastal land
nonpoint as well as point sources) areas in Hawaii is the protec-
on the indicator area--the sea- tion of the waters surrounding
ward section of the zone the island. Other societal ob-

7. Would seem to require that the jectives, such as visual harmony,
state avoid any single approach and the results of overcrowding
to the coastal zone problem, in terms of crime, lower-quality
i.e., the coastal zone should of life, problems in high-rise
be divided into sectors for man- living, etc., including public
agement purposes if the Seaward health, are important but are
Section is to be more uniformly not the major reasons for a
protected. (See accompanying Coastal Zone Management Act per
discussion of the rationale.) se
Management Possibilities: 2. Because of the significance of
The coastal zone management re- the quality of water in the Sea-
quires both maximum cooperation ward Section of the Coastal
between all regulatory agencies in Zone, with which economic and
the state, plus greater use of other values of the aquatic en-
consultant committees of water vironment are associated, the
quality experts. Very careful de- major management instrument of
finition and hard-nosed adherence the Coastal Zone is the proper
to principles is needed. interpretation and implementa-
tion of the findings of the
health, engineering, and biolog-
ical team which assembled the
QCW project

Coastal Water Quality Management through Coastal Zone Management:
An Example for Identifying the Limit of Coastal Zones

Assuming that the State has established a Coastal Zone Authority for
reasons of land use control and planni'ng, and other appropriate functions,
it becomes necessary to establish on rational grounds the appropriate landward
limits of such an authority. To this end, and to the end of identifying the
hinges in the water use system where such an authority might look with the
pu rpose of protecting coastal water quality-, Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 have been
prepared.

Figure 2 represents graphically a roughly isometric section through a
hypothetical land area extending from the summit of a mountain range., and
demarks the inland boundary of a drainage area, to the offshore 3-mile limit
of the ocean receiving drainage from surface runoff and groundwater movement
gene-rated by precipitation on the entire area. It is not assumed that no
other water quality pathways occur, but for planning and management purposes
the concept is presumed to be adequate.

Note that Figure 2 depicts undeveloped mountain land, open space uti-
lized as a park, agriculturally developed land (both at higher elevations and
in the coastal plain), inland urban areas, coastal urban areas with an indus-
trial center, urban park, swampy areas, airstrips, golf course, beaches,
marinas, and commercial and recreational use of the seaward extension. Fig-
ures 3, 4, and 5, are detailed sections of Figure 2 and delineate land use by
numbers.

Figure 3 represents the section of Figure 2 which does not properly be-
long within the purview of a Coastal Authority. Figure 4 then represents the
landward sector of the coastal zone, while Figure 5 depicts the seaward
extension of the coastal zone. Obviously, the zone line between the seaward
extension and the land sector of the coastal zone is the water line.1 The
landward extent of the coastal zone, however, is determined less easily. It
is established herein by the following criterion based on water quality: The
Coastal Zone terminates at the line where the quality of water, or the degra-
dation of the quality of water, is primarily the result of the activities of
urban dwellers on the coastal plain which includes the valley flats.

There are other ways in which this criterion might be stated. for
example, The landward limit of the Coastal Zone is that point beyond which
water quality is the proper function of the State whose application of cri-
teria and enforcement measures is general in application, rather than speci-
fic, to a particular geographic feature or a specific population concentration.

IAccording to the Environmental Shoreline Protection Act 176, SB No. 42 (State
of Hawaii Eighth Legislature 1975), the "coastal zone" is defined as
.. all waters subject to tidal influences extending seaward to the outer
limit of state jurisdiction, and the land, water, and other resources
therein and thereunder, and the adjoining lands extending inland to such
boundary as determined by the state commission under this chapter."

.- z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ON ,/AS
/~~~~~~~
:'4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
~~~~~~a~ ~~Z

'%,~ii IN

FIGURE 2.PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN COASTAL AND NONCOASTAL LAND .SYSTEM

There are other, and perhaps better, ways to state this criterion, but
its intent may be explained by reference to Figures 3 and 4. Note that
Figure 3 passes along across the border of the noncoastal zone water which is
of a quality determined by:

1. Surface runoff of -rainfall on undeveloped land

2. Groundwater quality which. is determined by-geologic factors and by
soluble materials applied during crop cultivation
3. Surface runoff from agricultural land, and from an inland urban area
and its sewerage

Presuming that the surface wash from the city was unacceptable to ocean
waters, or that the sewage was inadequately treated to be acceptable, or that
farming practice was productive of excess silt and chemicals, whose respon-
sibil ity might it be to correct such a situation? The criterion suggests that
it is the responsibility of the DOH and related state agencies, acting either
on their own initiative or on complaint from the Coastal Authority, to impose
the regulations and the monitoring necessary to insure that water crossing
into the coastal zone via vectors 7, 8, and 9, (Fig. 3) is of such quality
that no further treatment is -necessary on the part of the Coastal Authority
to make it acceptable.

A further rationalizing of this criterion might result from a study of
Figure 4, which is envisioned as within the coastal zone. Here management and
use of the park land is a function of the Coastal Authority by reason that the
activities of people, the presence and activities of which justified the
creation of a Coastal Authority in the first place, are the determinant in the
quality of water reaching the sea. The same may be said for the golf course.
Agricultural crop land is a concern of the Coastal Authority bec ause it lies
in the coastal plain and its effects on water quality, although requiring the
cooperation of other agencies, are subject to management under the zoning
powers of the Coastal Authority, plus the location of its discharge in waters
of importance to the local population. Similarly, surface runoff from the
city park, the beaches, the airstrip, and the city streets are all under the
proper control of the Coastal Authority -- obviously with the assistance and
authority of the DOH, etc. The deterioration in surface water quality that
entered the zone as vector 9 (Fig. 3), prior to its exit via vector 17
(Fig. 4), is a matter for concern of the Coastal Authority. Other vectors
that are coastal zone matters and shown in Figure 4 are: treated sewage,
vector 20; marina discharge, vector 18; grou ndwater seepage, vectors 19 and
21; surface runoff., vector 13; beach runoff, vector 16; and swamp discharge,
vector 14. This is to say that the water quality discharges shown in F igure
4 are either the responsibility of the Coastal Authority, acting in concert
with other state agencies, or there is no need to create the Coastal Authority.

At this point, it should be made plain that the Coastal Authority is not
envisioned as usurping the role of the DOH and other state 'agencies which, by
law, are responsible for water quality but, rather, as being the 'agency that
spotlights the problems within the Coastal Zone so that societal and environ-
mental objectives can be attained by cooperating authorities, and, more im-
portant, as leading the land use and land management effort of the state in
the direction that enables the flow of water of acceptable quality across the

bridges (or via the vectors shown in Figure 4 leading to the sea (Fig. 5).

Figure 4 stresses, by its mere barrenness, the fact that water quality
control is a land use function. The vectors depicted here are peculiar to
the sea itself, which must be added to those coming across the vectors of
Figure 4, in evaluating the quality of the Seaward Extension of the Coastal
Zone. Most important are: vector 24, which depicts the commercial and
recreational use of the ocean waters; vector 25, which may be influenced by
vector 14 (swamp) in Figure 4; and vector 22, which depicts the mixing of
quality factors within the ocean itself.

KEY TO FIGURE 2, WITH PRINCIPAL QUALITY TRANSFERS
VECT~OR NATURE OF WATER TYPICAL MAJOR QUALITY PARAMETERS
NO.
I Fraction of rainfall which infiltrates Dissolved gases from atmosphere; wind-blown dust par-
land surface ticles (volcanic); and, possibly, gases from industrial
activity, automobile and bus exhaust, etc.

2 Fraction of rainfall which runs off Same as vector 1, plus organic debris; soluble products
land surface of decaying organic matter; soil and rock detritus con-
taining heavy metals and other minerals; bacteria.

3 Surface runoff from agricultural land Same as vector 2, plus soil particles with possible ad-
(plantation), irrigation overflow sorbed pesticide and fertilizer compounds; organic de-
bris, possibly high in phosphates.

4 Surface runoff from agricultural land Same as vector 3.
(truck crops), irrigation overflow

5 Surface runoff from inland urban area, Materials such as vector 1: organic debris from vege-
rainfall (vector 1), street cleaning; tation peculiar to city; automobile gas and oil leaks,
combating fires; lawn sprinkling dust from worn auto tires, sidewalk and street litter,
and animal excreta; coliform bacteria; general bacteria;
virus.

6 Treated sewage from inland urban area Increased concentration of chlorides, sulfates, bicar-
bonates, nitrogen compounds, coliform organisms, virus,
etc.; BOD, COD, a-ad other components of treated sewage,
depending upon degree of treatment required by regula-
tory agency.

7 & 8* Underground seepage

9 Accumulation of vectors 2, 3, 4, 5, & Components of all vectors in system in unpredictable
6 less fraction of all surface vectors concentration and combinations.
infiltrating into the ground, and frac-
tion of vector I which distributes it-
self anywhere on area drained by vec-
tor 9
*NOT SHOWN IN FIGURE 2; see Figure 3.

KEY TO FIGURE 2.Continued

VECTO NATURE OF WATER TYPICAL MAJOR QUALITY PARAMETERS

10 Runoff from natural land area and cover Organic debris characteristic of natural vegetation;
utilized as a public park human and animal wastes.

11 Surface runoff from golf course Organic debris from greens; miscellaneous litter.

12 Surface runoff from agricultural land; Same as vector 4, depending upon crop and irrigation
irrigation overflow (see vector 4) practice, if any.

13 Surface runoff from city park Materials characteristic of vector 11, excess irrigation
water, including fertilizers; possible herbicidal and
insecticidal material; litter and animal excreta from
high-intensity use of land.

14 Discharge from tidal swamp; wetland Water characteristic of vegetated marsh; components of
crop cultivation vector 12 (irrigated or unirrigated agricultural crop
land; surface runoff, vector 15 from industrial devel-
opment and airstrip).

15 Surface runoff from industrialized land Materials characteristic of vector 2; oils washed from
area; surface runoff from airstrip paved surfaces; miscellaneous debris and chemicals lost
by carelessness or design.

16 Surface wash from beach Litter, food scraps, lotions, etc., used by people
utilizing beach for recreational purposes.

17 Vector 9 plus surface runoff from metro- Characteristics described for vector 9 greatly increased
politan area, storm drains, and seepage in concentration and variety. Oils, grease, and debris
from infiltration of rainfall into drain- washed from street surface; bacteria and viruses.
age system from overlying city surface

is Debris generated by marina boats Oils, paint, food scraps, litter, illegal use of toilets
on boats, sea organisms (aquatic) incubated by confined
waters of marina.
19 Underwater spring and seepage of ground- Characteristics of vector 1, plus infiltration from any ~
water or all inland areas, including the adjacent airstrip.

KEY TO FIGURE 2. Continued
VECTOR
NO. NATURE OF WATER TYPICAL MAJOR QUALITY PARAMETERS
20 Underwater discharge of treated muni- Characteristics of treated sewage containing some in-
cipal sewage dustrial waste; nature and concentration depending upon
degree of treatment imposed, monitoring schedule, etc.
Fertilizers, bacteria and virus, and toxic materials
most critical elements.

21* Groundwater as vector 19 with differ- Seepage similar to vector 19 but from different areas.
ent constituents.

22 Water quality determined elsewhere, Unpredictable except on basis of knowledge of circula-
e.g., open ocean or other sectors of tion of currents and the nature of discharge from other
island Coastal Zone adjacent sectors of the Coastal Zone land.

23 Water quality determined elsewhere, Similar to vector 22.
e.g., vector 14 (swamp discharge)

24 Pollutants resulting from commercial Oils, fish cleanings, food debris, human excreta, etc.
and recreational use of seaward sec-
tor of Coastal Zone

25t Rainfall, as vectors 1 plus 2, in Same quality parameters, as vector 1, this table.
Figure 2.

*NOT SHOWN IN FIGURE 2; see Figure 4.
tNOT SHOWN IN FIGURE 2; see Figure 5.

A<\~~~~~?\ ,'

UNDEVELOPED LAND

FIGURE 3> PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN A TYPICAL (HYPOTHETICAL)
-NONCOASTAL SECTOR OF A LAND SYSTEM
ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~'

\\' ~'\ ~A pE

FICURE 3� PRINCIPAL I#ATER QUALITY VECTORS IN ^ TYPICAL (.HYPOTHETICAL)
I'10',COASTAL SECTOR OF A LANI) SYSTEM

KEY TO FIGURE 3
H PRIlNCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN NONCOASTAL SECTOR OF A LAND SYSTEM

MELBA MNXTUE OF WATER TYPICAL MAJOR QUALITY PARAMETERS
NO.
1-2 Precipitation (See Key to Fig. 2, vectors 1 and 2; repeat in this
table).

3-6 (See Key to Fig. 2; repeat in this
table).

9 (See Key to Fig. 2; repeat in this
table).

7 Seepage of groundwater beneath land Dissolved gases and minerals carried down by vector 1
surface. passing through soil mantle and underground strata of
undeveloped land, orchard, and agricultural crop land.
(If vector 7 contains components unacceptable to ocean,
correction is made under guidance of authorities other
than the Coastal Authority via controls in agricultural
practice, or, in any event, quality changes in vector 7
are not a responsibility of the Coastal Zone Authority).

8 Seepage of groundwater beneath land Dissolved gases and minerals carried down by vector 1
surface. passing through soil mantle and underground strata of
undeveloped land and inland town. (See note, vector 7,
above).

KEY TO FIGURE 4
SHOWING PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN COASTAL SECTOR OF LAND SYSTEM

VECTOR NATURE OF WATER TYPICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
NO.
9, 10, CSee Key to Figure 2; repeat in this table)
11, 12,
13, 14,
15, 16,
17, 18,
20

1 & 2 Precipitation presumed to fall on area
represented by Fig, 2 to influence
underground seepage of undeveloped
land, etc., of Fig. 3, and by passage
through park land, agricultural land,
city, etc., shown in Fig. 6

21 Underground seepage of water Quality affected by nature of water entering zone via
vector 8, Fig. 3, especially, plus infiltration on
golf course, city park, and city areas of Figure 4.

ONL

SE Woo

FIGURE 4+PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN A TYPICAL (,HYPOTHETICAL)
COASTAL LAND SECTOR OF A LAND SYSTEM
-~~ ~ BU~U~ x.'____~ -~- / I

ENR~~A' - -_......

\\~~~~,~)

FIGURE 4,c PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN A TYPICAL (.HYPOTHETICAL)
COASTAL LAND SECTOR OF A LAND SYSTEM

KEY TO FIGURE 5
SHOWING PRINCIPAL WATER QUALITY VECTORS IN SEAWARD EXTENSION OF LAND SECTOR OF COASTAL ZONE
VECTOR
NATURE OF WATER TYPICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
NOC.
22, 23 (See Key to Fig. 2; repeat in this
24 table)

25 Precipitation, vectors 1 & 2 Fresh water; atmospheric gases; gases discharged to
combined. atmosphere by urban and industrial activity; volcanic
dust and gases; windborne dust particles and bacteria;
windborne soil particles containing heavy metals or
absorbed agricultural chemicals.

FIGURE SEWR XESO FCATA ZN ETRO ADSSE

CHAPTER IV

GENERATION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS THROUGH
LAND AND WATER UTILIZATION

Utilization of water and land resources in Hawaii's coastal zones for
domestic, commercial, agricultural, and industrial purposes produces a great
variety of wastes. Depending on the nature of each situation, the wastes pro-
duced contain water quality parameters such as soil particles, nutrients,
thermal waste that differ from those in either quantity or quality, or both,
present in the affected environment. In other situations, diversion of steam
flow for water supply and concrete channelization of streams for drainage pur-
poses not only changes the hydrologic regime but also the water quality para-
meters in the downstream estuaries and coastal water as well. Besides sources
on land, wastes are generated from human activities within the seaward sec-
tion. In what follows, the nature of typical waste generation resulting from
activities in Hawaii's coastal zone is highlighted as a basis for examining
coastal zone management for water quality objectives.

Hawaii Land Use Districts

Land uses in Hawaii are classified into four basic districts: agricul-
tural, urban, conservation, and rural (State of Hawaii Session Laws of Hawaii
1961 Act 187).

AGRICULTURAL LAND. Agricultural lands are those with a high capacity for
intensive cultivation. In Hawaii, agricultural lands are primarily used for
cultivation of sugarcane, pineapple, and diversified crops, and for cattle
grazing and forest.

URBAN LAND. Because of locational advantages, i.e., infrastructural
benefits from economies of scale and short commuting distances, urban areas
tend to take the form of a commercial and industrial core with a residential
fringe. The land characteristics preferable for prime agricultural use are
also desirable for urban development. It is not surprising that suburban
developments such as Mililani Town, Pearl City Highlands, and Pearlridge
threatens, or has already supplanted, agricultural uses.

RURAL LAND. The "rural" designation was established to permit small
parttime type of farming and to include occupant's residence. As such,
"rural" is defined as areas "?primarily of small farms mixed with very low
density residential lots."

CONSERVATION LAND. The State Land Use law established the Conservation
District to: protect watersheds and water supply; preserve scenic and histo-
ric areas; provide parkland, wilderness and beach reserves; conserve endemic
plants, fish, and wildlife; prevent floods and soil erosion; and protect
forestry and related activities.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT. The State Land Use Commission, established by

legislation in 1961, is charged to classify all land, public and private, and
regulate its use throughout the State. Besides the Land Use Commission, ad-
ministration of the Land Use law is the concern of the State Departments of
Planning and Economic Development, Land and Natural Resources, and Taxation;
the counties of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii; and the City and County of Honolulu
Planning Commission. Land uses within urban districts are administered
solely by the counties. For agricultural and rural districts, the Commission
establishes regulations and the counties are responsible for their adminis-
tration. The counties may choose to adopt more stringent controls than those
imposed by the State. The conservation districts are solely under the juris-
diction of the State Department of Land and Natural Resources. District
boundaries may be changed by the Commission through a petition and public
hearing process.

Coastal Zone: Land Section

SUGARCANE. Agricultural land under sugarcane cultivation using furrow
irrigation can generate irrigation tailwater (excess runoff from the furrows)
which carries soil particles, residual fertilizer, and agricultural chemicals.
During early growth and during and after harvest, the soils exposed are often
transported by both rain or wind producing nonpoint sources of pollution dur-
ing both cultivation and harvest as depicted in Figure 6. Process of the
harvested cane at the mill produces cane wash water which is laden with silt
and ash., trash (bagasse), and mill wash water, and rest room wastes. The
mill wastes are point sources of discharge and when discharged into coastal
water, the mill waste creates a turbid plume clearly visib le for miles.

LIVESTOCK. In Hawaii, livestock consists principally of cattle, hogs,
and chickens generating feed lot wastes as point sources. Feed lot wastes
are high in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), soil particles,
and animal coliform bacteria (State of Hawaii 1971, Zone of Mixing Applica-
tion: Inaoale Str.,. Waima-nalo and Wailua, Oahu, 25 Aug. 1971). Overgrazing
of land by cattle may indirectly increase the potential of soil erosion in
grassland and forest and subsequent coastal water pollution. Pinpointing soil
erosion to excessive grazing as the only cause is difficult., as botanists and
foresters are perennially in dispute with game rangers and ranchers (Pereira
1973).

URBAN. This category includes domestic, commercial, and industrial land
uses and their point and nonpoint sources of pollutants~, or water quality
parameters.

Storm runoff water carries wastes from lawns and streets and from cleared
or uncleared vacant land. Water quality parameters thus transported may
include fertilizers, pesticides, eroded soil particles, organic debris, street
litter and trash, oil and gasoline spillage, animal excreta, and precipitated
atmospheric pollutants. Storm runoff water is generally regarded as a non-
point source for land manageme'nt purposes even though some of the water is
discharged into the ocean at specific points.

Wastewater from domestic, commercial and public areas is commonly known
as sewage. Raw sewage contains pathogenic bacteria and viruses of human

SOURCE: Lau et al. 1 972.

FIGURE 6. SUGARCANE INDUSTRY AS A WASTE GENERATING SYSTEM

origin, biostimulatory nutrients, salts, grease and other floatables, putres-
cible organic material, and grit. Raw sewage is one of the few most objec-
tionable wastewaters in Hawaii, notwithstanding its nutrient content as
fertilizers and water content or reuse. Even after secondary treatment, the
treated sewage effluent still retains considerable amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus, viruses, and most of the salts. Most sewage discharges into the
environment are through sewers and thus are regarded as point sources. The
only sewage nonpoint sources are the scattered household cesspools allowing
effluent to seep into the subsurface. While most collected raw sewage and
sewage effluent have historically been discharged indirectly into coastal waters,
some are discharged by way of streams or terminally into a reservoir. Of
particular concern are those water bodies that seasonally run low or even dry,
e.g., the upper tributaries of Waikele Stream on Oahu and Wahiawa reservoir,
thus creating serious pollution problems.

Industrial. Industrial wastewaters vary greatly both qualitatively and
quantitatively from one industry to the other. Fortunately, the so-called
"dirty" heavy industries such as steel mills and chemical plants producing
toxic substances are not of serious concern in Hawaii. A few petroleum
refineries and wood treatment plants are about the only notable chemical
plants in Hawaii. Electric power generating plants in Hawaii utilize great
quantities of ocean or brackish waters or even some fresh water for cooling
purposes. The same great quantities of water now heated are discharged into
Hawaii's coastal waters such as at Kahe and Waiawa on Oahu. The high temper-
ature of the thermal wastewater and certain chemical additives used for
inhibiting metal corrosion represent potential polluting sources.

Processing of agricultural products and fisheries in Hawaii include
sugarcane (Lau et al.1973), pineapple (McMorrow et al.1969), tuna (Chun 1968),
and miscellaneous lesser crops. All of these process plants produce consider-
able biodegradable organic material, suspended material, and their own pecu-
liar parameters such as grease from tuna wastes.

Construction. The grading, filling, and excavating phases of construc-
tion denude groundcover and expose soils which are wind-borne and transported
in storm runoff, thus presenting a real problem to the quality of Hawaii's
coastal and surface waters. The situation is aggravated by intense rainfall
producing runoff water that as a rule rapidly drains into coastal water with-
out any detention, natural or otherwise. An example of a problem area is the
Hawaii Kai marina (U.S. Corps of Engineers 1975). Not only is the reddish,
turbid coastal water aesthetically objectionable, but the sediment is also
destructive to benthic biota and siltation presents navigational problems.

FLOOD CONTROL AND STREAM CHANNELIZATION. On Oahu, numerous small streams
in metropolitan Honolulu and suburban areas are already, or will be, chan-
nelized for urban drainage of storm runoff water. For small watersheds with
short stream length draining into the ocean, channelization as a flood control
measure is a sound approach (Fok and Lau 1973). Tradeoff should be recognized,
however, in that once drainage channels are lined with concrete and complete
with hydraulic structures, channel runoff is accelerated and the natural
habitat of aquatic life, such as diadromous fish, and aquatic plant life is
lost.

DIVERSION OF TERRESTRIAL WATERS FROM COASTAL ZONE. An outstanding

situation is the diversion of streamflow for irrigating sugarcane and other
uses within or outside the watershed. This usually takes place upstream in
the high rainfall area where streamflow is perennial under natural conditions.
Depleting the streamflow, which would otherwise reach downstream and the
coastal water, obviously would and did alter the stream drainage pattern,
water quality, and biota in the downstream sections, as well as the salinity
of and biota in the coastal water. Qualitative or quantitative impacts have
not been assessed except in overall terms. Examples are found in west Maui,
such as Iao; Molokai, such as Waikolu; and northeast Oahu such as Waiahole.

Another situation of diversion with less obvious effects on water quality
is groundwater development intercepting groundwater which would otherwise
reach the coastal water as spring discharges, diffused seepage, or via wet-
lands. The Kalauao spring area in east Pearl Harbor is an example of reduced
discharge (Lau and Mink 1966); however, the impact of such diversions on
coastal water quality has not been investigated.

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT. Sandy beaches, open air and open spaces, lack of
crowding, rocky cliffs, and colorful reefs with abundant reef life, are but
some of the superlative amenities enjoyed in Hawaii and which must be safe-
guarded to retain desirable water quality parameters.

Coastal Zone: Seaward Section

Man's activities in the Seaward Section extending from the shoreline to
the 3-mile limit may generate and unload wastes in the coastal water or alter
or destroy marine resources in the process of resource utilization. Thus, a
net benefit is necessarily the mode for evaluation. In Hawaii, the effects
resulting from these activities range from major assets that require careful
and thorough planning fully supported by the best of scientific knowledge to
minor or negligible benefits that can be rendered reasonably innocuous by
broad regulations and lax enforcement.

Given Hawaii's ocean orientation, the Hawaii shoreline is perhaps the
most important locus for various recreational and commercial activities,
Being the interface between the land section and the seaward section, the
shoreline is most vulnerable to pollution by both land and sea activities.
In what follows, several activities commonly present in the Hawaii coastal
zone seaward section as listed in Table 1 are contrasted in light of their
nature for generating wastes or altering marine resources both at the shore-
line and in the coastal waters.

SIGHTSEEING, SURFING, BODY CONTACT WATER SPORTS, BOATING. These acti-
vities are of essentially nonpollution generating type except for littering.
There is no evidence supported by statistical data that the Waikiki Beach
water suffers from coliform contamination above the water quality standards
(Lau et al. 1973). Motor boating in shallow waters will resuspend sediment
and thus increase water turbidity and possibly nutrients in the water column.

BEACH PARK USES, SHORELINE FISHING, SHIPPING. Beach park uses generally
produce litter which are generally more noticeable at the shoreline than in
the coastal water. Shoreline fishing, as such, is nonpollution generating;
over-fishing has decreased the catch on Oahu. Shipboard wastes can be a

TABLE 1

HAWAII COASTAL ZONE ACTIVITIES GENERATING WASTES AND ALTERING MARINE RESOURCES

ALTERATION OF
ACTIVITIES WASTE GENERATION MARINE RESOURCES
Moder- Minor/ Moder- Minor/
Major ate None Major ate None

SHORELINE
Sightseeing X X
Beach park uses X
Shoreline fishing X X
Wave/current/sediment X X
regulating structures
Harbors (small boat) X X
Harbors (military/ X X
commercial)
Marinas (urban residential) X X

COASTAL WATERS
Surfing & body contact X
water sports
Boating X
Shipping X X
Waste disposal X X

problem depending on the stringency of the discharge control regulations and
their enforcement.

WAVE/CURRENT/SEDIMENT REGULATING STRUCTURES, SMALL BOAT HARBOR. The
construction of these coastal structures is destructive to the benthic biota
at the project sites and change the local habitat of the marine organisms
during and after construction. While regulating structures like groins do
not produce wastes, shoreline activities in small boat harbors together with
boating activities can be a moderate source of water pollution in the absence
of stringent control regulations.

MILITARY/COMMERCIAL HARBORS, MARINAS, WASTE DISPOSAL. Construction of
harbors and marinas undoubtedly alter the natural environment and destroy
certain natural marine resources. The Pearl Harbor area undoubtedly has all
the potential pollution generating activities because of its naval ship traf-
fic, docking, and maintenance and repair facilities. In addition, Pearl Harbor
receives both urban and agricultural surface runoff-from Waikele Stream which
drains the largest watershed on Oahu, several discharge sources of sewage
treatment plant effluent, thermal wastewater, and sugarcane mill wastes. Ac-
cording to a recently completed modeling of Pearl Harbor (Water Resources
Engineers 1974, 1975), water quality projections for Pearl Harbor indicate that
only minor improvements in dissolved oxygen and nutrients and violation of
water quality standards will likely continue, even with the elimination of all
point source discharges.

Marinas, such as that at Hawaii Kai, receive only nonpoint sources dis-
charge from essentially urban residential land use; however, water quality
parameters, as nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in the water column and
pesticides in the sediment, are among'the highest found anywhere in Hawaii and
there exists a distinct gradation of concentrations of these parameters de-
creasing from the inland waters towards the ocean (Lau et al. 1973), thus
reflecting the use of these materials in the adjoining coastal land and their
contribution to the coastal water environment. Indeed, all harbors and the
Hawaii Kai marina are classified as Class B waters, the lowest classification
for Hawaii coastal waters.

Waste disposal through ocean sewer outfalls, such as Sand Island, dis-
charging raw sewage at ani average daily rate of 62 mgd (234,670 m'/day) con-
tributes major pollution to coastal water as already pointed out. Sludge or
wastewater residue, however, is not separately ocean discharged in Hawaii.

CHAPTER V

STRESS INDICATIVE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR
HAWAII COASTAL WATER ENVIRONMENT

The relationship between coastal zone land and water uses, and the coastal
water quality and environment in Hawaii can be identified by obvious symptoms
in severely mismanaged situations. For example, shoaling or delta forming in
an abnormally short time span resulted from deposition of eroded soil from in-
tense and rapid urban development of coastal land in certain parts of Hawaii
Kai. Excessively and abnormally turbid coastal water, either in time or place
or both is another obvious symptom of possible unsatisfactory activities of
land and water uses. Fish and coral kills are even more dramatic and positive
evidences. On the other hand, gradual water quality changes persisting over a
prolonged period of several years can result in more subtle biological effects,
such as changes in diversity and species abundance.

Either harmful or beneficial effects on the coastal water environment may
result from man's activities on land and water in the coastal zone. Generally,
however, the effects are harmful rather than beneficial because the activities
producing them are generally narrowly exploitive in nature rather than planned
efforts to intelligently utilize resources.

Wise coastal zone management will require early identification of warning
signs of environmental stress which result from mismanaged situations, as well
as an accurate evaluation of the nature and intensity of human activity which
may be pursued beneficially.

To such an end, the "Quality of Coastal Waters" project examined various
situations to discover facts and principles that are directly applicable to
Hawaiian coastal waters. For example, it has been revealed that both sediment
quality and the aquatic biota should be examined together with the water column.
Certain quality parameters of the sediment were found to be more effective in-
dicators than their counterparts in the water column in terms of more than just
transient effects.

There are numerous quantifiable physical, chemical, and microbiological
quality parameters in a coastal water column but only a few are particularly
meaningful for indicating stresses. Point sources clearly should be subjected
to effluent quality monitoring which will presumably take into account the
characterizing of the quality parameters of the point sources, e.g., BOD for
sewage effluent and temperature for thermal wastewater. However, these param-
eters may or may 'not be highly sensitive to indicate medium-term or long-term
stresses as a result of the immediate attenuation offered by the dilution and
dispersion of the coastal water, thus losing their value as an effective param-
eter for monitoring,.e.g., BOD which becomes a virtually meaningless parameter
for monitoring of open coastal water. Toxic chemicals should be included in
an initial once-over baseline survey especially in coastal waters adjoining
those land uses having known usages of these chemicals. This inclusion is rec-
ommended despite the sublethal level of these chemicals as is generally the

case.

In all situations for monitoring of stresses in coastal waters subject to
either point or nonpoint sources of pollution, several water quality parameters
are judged to be essential or desirable as stress indicators for monitoring
purposes as listed in Tables 2 and 3. Monthly sampling and analysis for these
parameters should be sufficient for -routine surveillance of coastal waters.
Special areas, such as popular swimming beaches, should receive weekly checks
on coliforms despite their disputable scientific validity as true contamination
indicators. Intensive investigations may be conducted with more frequent sam-
pling and determinations for both essential and desirable parameters and others
as needed and as appropriate although not listed in these tables. Biological
monitoring of coral, algae, mollusks, and fish by underwater observations and
measurements may be less frequent and perhaps every three to five years even
for intensive investigation of stressed or potentially stressed areas.

TABLE 2

STRESS INDICATIVE QUALITY PARAMETERS
OF COASTAL WATERS

COASTAL WATER
Open Partially Enclosed

Parameters Essential Desirable Essential Desirable

Turbidity X X

Salinity X X

pH X X

Temperature X X

Total Nitrogen X X

Total Phosphorus X X

Dissolved Oxygen X X

Organic Carbon X X

Pesticides,
Herbicides,
Insecticides X X

Heavy Metals X X

Total Coliform X X

Fecal Coliform X X

Fecal Streptococci X X

TABLE 3

STRESS INDICATIVE QUALITY PARAMETERS
OF COASTAL SEDIMENT

SEDIMENT
Open Coastal Water Partially Enclosed
Coastal Water

Parameters Essential Desirable Essential Desirable

Pesticides X X

Heavy Metals X X

STRESS INDICATIVE BIOTA IN COASTAL WATER

Micromollusc X X

Coral X X

Algae X X

Invertebrate X X

Fish X X

CHAPTER VI

MANAGEABILITY OF SOME HAWAIIAN COASTAL ZONE SITUATIONS

Averting undesirable situations is preferable to having to correct them.
During the past few years, experience gained in Hawaii has revealed that the
former may indeed be possible for a limited number of situations. On the other
hand, there are present management measures or the lack of any measures, for
other situations concerning Hawaii's coastal zone that may impart serious conse-
quences because of the dearth of pertinent scientific data and information to
evaluate the management measures. In either case, i.e., either the manageable
situations or the poorly defined situations, warrant continuous and thoughtful
analysis and studies that will demonstrate the adequacy or inadequacy of knowl-
edge and the urgency of research needs.

Manageable Situations

DOMESTIC SEWAGE. Discharge of domestic wastewater into the coastal water
environment even after secondary treatment poses a major potential problem.
The problem would arise if the discharges were made in near shore shallow water
of restricted circulation and within the reef. Indicators of the problem are:
(1) increase in turbidity, (2) increase in nutrients and primary productivity
with the possibility of eutrophication, (3) buildup of a benthic sludge bank
and destruction of corals (if present).

A near classic example of this situation is the discharge of secondary
sewage effluent into the southern section of Kaneohe Bay. There the above indi-
cators became especially evident. The final decision made for corrective mea-
sures after two intensive studies (City and County of Honolulu 1972; Cox et al.
1973), was the relocation of sewer outfalls and, hence, diversion of the sewage
effluent discharges outside the bay and transmission to Mokapu Point, a location
of open coast with strong and predominantly offshore ocean currents. The Mokapu
Point ocean outfall extends about a mile from the shore in 105-ft (32-m) deep
water and is designed to provide high initial dilution of effluents plus disper-
sion by ocean currents.

Discharge of large quantities of raw sewage or even primary-treated sewage
can be a problem even for open coastal areas, if the adjoining coastal waters
are intended for recreational uses such as, surfing, swimming, and snorkeling.
A classic example is the existing Sand Island sewer outfall which discharges
raw sewage at the average rate of 62 mgd (234,670 mS/day) collected from the
entire Honolulu coastal plain from Niu Valley to Halawa Valley. Although the
average net transport by coastal currents is off-shore, the proximity to Waikiki
and Ala Moana Beaches and shoreward shifting ocean currents and wind require
immediate corrective measures to eliminate the slightest chance of beach pollu-
tion. The adopted measures include treatment of the sewage and extension of the
outfall 9,120 ft (2778 m) from shore and into deeper 240-ft (73.2-m) water which
favors submersion of the discharged sewage below the ocean surface and offers
initial dilution plus dispersion by ocean currents.

These two examples represent but a glimpse into the wide range of situa-
tions where engineering management of wastewater calls for systems that can be
specifically designed for the situation (McGauhey 1968).

Water recycling of sewage effluent by irrigation represents a real and
acceptable alternative for many situations for Hawaii. In 1975, the rationale
for recycling is clear: provide an alternative for ocean disposal, and conserve
natural water resources. A 3-yr pilot field investigation recently completed
by the University of Hawaii Water Resources Research Center cooperating with
sugarcane and public works agencies on Oahu has demonstrated the acceptability
of using secondary sewage effluent for irrigation of sugarcane fields and grass-
land (golf courses) without endangering the subsurface potable groundwater sup-
ply from contamination by viruses and salts and without necessarily decreasing
the sugar yield. (Lau 1975; Lau et al. 1974; Dugan, Young, and Lau 1974).
Thus, land disposal of sewage effluent in Hawaii has become a new management
alternative.

GENERATION AND DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT. Generation and deposition of sedi-
ments can occur by water transport during the clearing stage of land develop-
ment, or during construction and grading prior to landscaping for any develop-
ment, e.g., housing, highways, and other transportation systems. A recent exam-
ple of severe silting in coastal water was the result of an intensive urban res-
idential housing development in a valley adjoining the Hawaii Kai marina. Erod-
ed soil has formed thick and extensive shoaling in a formerly navigable marina
channel within two to three years. This situation could have been manageable
by practicing vegetal or structural soil conservation methods, using desilting
traps, and enforcing and implementing more stringent grading ordinances. Pres-
ently, dredging is being considered as a temporary corrective measure.

TOXIC CHEMICALS USED IN URBAN RESIDENTIAL LAND. Coastal waters of restrict-
ed circulation, such as a marina or a bay abutting urban residential areas, rep-
resent a potential toxic chemicals problem in the water and particularly in the
sediment. According to QCW project findings, high levels of dieldrin and a and
y chlordanes (used in termite control pretreatment during construction), DDT,
DDE, and DDD, were present and predominated in the coastal sediments even in an
area of dry climate where dry weather flow of water does not always occur as a
transporting agent. The concentration of the insecticides in the marina sedi-
ment was much higher than that found in the adjacent coastal sediments. The
fate of the insecticides is not exactly known at this state of knowledge; howev-
er, there is preliminary evidence that they are biologically available to aquat-
ic fauna, such as certain fishes and especially the benthic or bottom-dwelling
organisms, such as crabs, worms and shrimps (Lau et al. 1973). Dieldrin, and
a and y chlordanes have been banned recently by the EPA as DDT was a few years
ago.

Heavy metals, such as lead, are present in exceptionally high concentrations
(several tens of ppm) in Hawaii's coastal sediments. However, it is known that
the Hawaiian soils and rocks, as well as automotive fuel containing lead, are
principal sources of lead present in coastal sediments. Similarly, other heavy
metals, including copper, zinc, chromium, and nickel are also soil-originated.

The exact origin of mercury and cadmium found in the coastal sediment is
uncertain; however, urban storm runoff discharging into the Ala Wai Canal, con-
tains biologically available mercury, a fact reflected in the increased mercury

content in shrimp and worms present there after storms (Luoma 1974). Manage-
ment techniques directly applicable to this situation have -not been developed.

SANITATION PRACTICE IN URBAN LAND. Litter, grit, animal excreta, plant
cuttings, and trash collection residues are removable items in the program
designed to eliminate nonpoint sources of water pollution. This can be rigor-
ously practiced and enforced as is done in Singapore (ca. 1973). Catchment
basins which receive these street-swept refuse materials must, however, be
cleaned out frequently in order to be effective.

Automobile gas and oil spill, exhaust, and other less visible materials
are far more difficult to control. Inventory and quantifications of these
materials a-re unavailable for Hawaii conditions.

AGRICULTURAL LAND: MANAGEMENT OF TAILWATER FROM SUGARCANE IRRIGATION.
This represents a manageable situation as has been demonstrated on the McBryde
sugarcane plantation on Kauai by flattening the furrow slopes and using
settling-evaporation ponds located at the lowest end of the fur-row irrigation
system and also at likely discharge points into adjoining coastal water. About
70 ponds are presently deployed over a coastal zone spanning 13 miles (20.9 kin)
and have been demonstrated to be effective (Lau et al. 1973). Their simple
construction poses no special initial cost. Sediment accumulated in the ponds
is periodically dredged out and reclaimed in the fields.

AGRICULTURAL WASTE MANAGEMENT: SUGAR MILL WASTES. The Kilauea Plantation
sugar mill wastes cited earlier represented the ultimate severe point source of
agricultural waste in Hawaii. The complete elimination of mill wastes after
the plantation's closure in 1971 aided by heavy seas is responsible for the
rapid and -nearly complete recovery of the coastal water quality and the associ-
ated beach environment within one year (Lau et al. 1973).

Another major control measure at McBryde is the use of a hydroseparator
followed by retention in a mill reservoir to settle out the sediment from the
sugarcane wash water and to recycle the liquid to the irrigation system and
the soil back to the field. oh the Big Island's Hamakua Coast, the -present
harvesting practice will be substituted with a dry harvester, thus, eliminating
much of the soils and wash water from the mill wastes. Bagasse is being used
as fuel for power generators, thus, eliminating another source of waste.

Clearly this is a manageable situation with an acceptable economic expen-
diture for industry.

SHORELINE STRUCTURES. Piers, jetties, breakwaters, and harbors can be
potential problems if coastal water quality is not included as a -primary design
parameter by ocean or coastal engineers. Environmentally detrimental effects
caused by waste discharge into poorly circulating waters created by structures
have been cited for Piraeus, Greece and Kaohsiung, Taiwan. In such cases where
the competing uses are keen, coastal water quality objectives a-re compromised;
however, the coastal water quality should not be sacrificed to the degree that
result in health hazards and total environmental degradation.

SHIPBOARD DISCHARGES AND OIL SPILLS. Oil spills, either in harbors or in
open coastal waters, represent problem-prone situations as have been demon-
strated time and again. The Smithsonian Institute has now established an in-

ventory and instant reporting system of these type of disasters (Smithsonian
Institution 1975). It is unlikely that these types of accidental discharge are
totally preventable, but corrective measures for containing their spread and
recovery or removal of the spill are available or being developed. Hawaii
would benefit, not so much by developing its own measures, but by keeping track
of the technological development for testing and possible adoptation in Hawaii.

SPECIAL USE DESIGNATION: HANAUMA BAY. Hanauma Bay is both a state park
and a marine conservation district. It is a popular recreational area because
of its natural attributes and proximity to Honolulu. It provides a natural
habitat for seaweed, fishes, coral, crustaceans, and other organisms. Body
contact sports include snorkeling, skin diving, swimming, and underwater photo-
graphy. Hanauma Bay was designated a marine conservation district in 1967 to
protect the diverse marine life from excessive exploitation. Restrictions pro-
hibiting the taking of any aquatic flora and fauna, or substrate materials were
imposed allowing marine life to be only viewed and photographed. With this
protection, fishes, corals, and other marine life have flourished while the bay
continues to serve as a prime recreation area. This protected use situation
provides an example of good management of coastal resources.

INSISTENCE OF NATIONAL UNIFORMITY. Prior to the enactment of the Coastal
Zone Management Act, Hawaii suffered, and is still suffering, from the lack of
institutional flexibility at the federal government level. Ignorance of, or
disregard for, Hawaii's unique and distinctive natural environment and insular
position within the largest ocean in the world, make it quite different from
the other 49 states and therefore, should not be expected to conform absolutely
and uniformly in every respect to PL 92-500. This was pointed out with the
Sand Island sewer outfall where all scientific facts indicate adequacy or ad-
vanced primary treatment, while the federal government insists on national uni-
formity of secondary treatment. The issue requires unnecessary expenditure,
and not environmental protection.

Poorly Defined Situations

SUBSURFACE TRANSMISSION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS. Scientific knowledge
and data on the water quality effects of seepage fr'om cesspools and effluent
from injection wells, are presently inadequate to predict dilution and disper-
sion that will'take place from the point of discharge to its final destiny in
the adjoining coastal water. Situations unique to Hawaii are the Ghyben-
Herzberg lens and the permeable basaltic rock. Intensive research is now in
progress to help define and predict these water quality effects.

AIRBORNE QUALITY PARAMETERS. Another example of Hawaii's uniqueness are
the live volcanoes which emit fumes of little known quality parameters. Mercu-
ry and sulfur have been identified in the airborne emission (Siegel and Siegel
1975; WRRC 1975). Also suggested as being air-borne are other heavy metals
(H. Y. Young in WRRC 1975). Motor vehicle pollutants (exhaust gases, suspended
particulates, and carbon monoxide) are highly concentrated in certain parts of
the urban areas of Honolulu. Whether natural or man-made, these quality param-
eters should be identified and quantitatively defined in terms of water quality
effects.

SEWAGE-BORNE ENTERIC VIRUSES. It has now been established that even after

disinfection, Honolulu sewage effluents contain pathogenic viruses of human
origin (Lau et al. 1975), and that these viruses are being discharged with the
sewage effluent into the receiving waters. The fate of these viruses in the
coastal water needs to be ascertained and if proved necessary, improved virus
inactivation before discharge should be considered to safeguard Hawaii's coastal
waters for recreational use. Research in this direction is now in progress at
the Water Resources Research Center.

TOXIC CHEMICALS PRESENT IN BIOTA. It has been established that nearshore
fishes in certain Hawaii coastal waters contain mercury and pesticides (Lau et
al. 1973). While mercury concentrations in fishes are seldom high enough to be
of concern, their presence in estuaries adjoining urban areas clearly indicates
the need for further studies (Luoma 1974).

BIOSTIMULATION. Nutrient additions to Hawaii coastal waters of restricted
circulation., such as south Kaneohe Bay and Hawaii Kai marina, have resulted in
various undesirable changes in the water quality and biota in these waters.
However, a more exacting definition of eutrophication through biostimulation is
needed for Hawaii in order to assist planning and management of other Hawaii
coastal zone lands and water.

ECOLOGICAL INVENTORY. A situation like Hanauma Bay has demonstrated wise
marine resource utilization. A similar situation exists on the west Hawaii
coast where urban land development is beginning and can develop to a massive
scale. Here, the unexploited marine resources should be a determinant for
determining appropriate land development. An on-going ecological inventory
should continue to provide the baseline data and guideline necessary for wise
resource utilization.

GLOSSARY

Benthic dweller (benthic biota) Organisms of, pertaining to, or living on
the bottom sediments
Biological substrate The base or material on which organisms live
Biota All animal and plant life of a region or
place
BOD Abbreviation of biochemical oxygen demand
denoting the amount of dissolved oxygen in
water required in the process of decomposing
organic matter by bacteria

Conservative quality parameters Unchanging and nondissipating quality para-
meters
Detritus Particulate organic matter products of the
decomposition of dead organisms
Diadromous fish Fish migrating between fresh and salt waters

Ecosystem A functional system which includes the or-
ganisms of a natural community together with
their environment

Effluent injection well Wells used to inject wastewater into the
subsurface

Eutrophication A state of overenrichment of a water body
with nutrients, thus producing a dense
growth of plant and animal life

Fringing coral reef Coral reef attached directly to or bordering
the island shores
Ghyben-Herzberg lens A body of fresh water floating on top of
salt water permeating the subsurface rock

Hydrology The science dealing with the occurrence,
distribution, circulation, and properties of
the waters of the earth, and their reaction
to the environment
Intertidal areas, zones The part of the biogeographic (littoral)
zone above the low-tide mark
Littoral processes, zones Actions pertaining to the biogeographic zone
between the high- and low-water marks

Nonpoint source of waste Diffuse discharge of waste into receiving
water
Pelagic fish Fish living in the open portion of ocean wa-
ters above the abyssal zone and beyond the
outer limits of the littoral zone

Point source of waste Discrete point discharge of waste into re-
ceiving water

Primary productivity The photosynthetic process rate by which
radiant energy is stored in the form of or-
ganic substances
Submerged sewage field Trapping and spreading of a rising sewage
plume below the ocean surface by natural
stratification of salinity and temperature
Waste water Unnecessarily large amounts of water used,
thus, wastage of water
Was tewater Effluent or liquid waste by-products of
sewage and industrial processing
Water quality parameters Characteristics or factors quantifying spe-
cific qualities of water

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chun, M.J. 1968. "Characterization of a tuna cannery waste." Master's thesis,
University of Hawaii.

; Young,R.H.F.; and Anderson, G.K. 1972. Wastewater effluents and sur-
face runoff quality. Tech. Rep. No. 63, Water Resources Research Center,
University of Hawaii.

City and County of Honolulu. 1972. Water quality program for Oahu with spe-
cial emphasis on waste disposal: Final report.

Cox, D.C.; Fan, P.F.; Chave, K.E.; Clutter, R.I.; Burbank, N.C.; Lau, L.S.; and
Davidson, J.R. 1973. Estuarine pollution in the state of Hawaii--VolZ. II:
Kaneohe Bay study. Tech. Rep. No. 31, Water Resources Research Center, Uni-
versity of Hawaii.

Dugan, G.L., and Young, R.H.F. 1973. Effects of coastal waste disposal in
Hawaii. Jour. Environ. Eng. Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 99(EES):691-
701.

; Young, R.H.F.; and Lau, L.S. 1973. Water quality and effluent stan-
dards of Hawaii. Jour. HydrauZ. Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 100(HY9):
1245-56.

Fok, Y.S., and Lau, L.S. 1973. Flood computations for the Hawaiian Islands.
Proc. IntZ. Symp. on River Mechanics 1:159-69, International Association for
Hydraulic Research Common Fluvial Hydraulics, Bangkok, Thailand.

Lau, L.S. 1967. Seawater encroachment in Hawaiian Ghyben-Herzberg systems.
Proc. NatZ. Synrp. on Groundwater Hydrology, pp. 259-71.

, and Mink, J.F. 1966. A step in optimizing the development of the
basal water lens of southern Oahu, Hawaii. In Proc. IntZ. Assoc. of Scien-
tific Hydrology, Pub. No. 72, pp. 500-8.

; Young, R.H.F.; Kanehiro, Y.; Green, R.E.; Hylin, J.W.; Young, H.Y.;
Klemmer, H.W.; Kay, E.A.; Reed, S.A.; Stroup, E.D.; and Povey, D.C. 1972.
The quality of coastal waters: First annual progress report. Tech. Rep. No.
60, Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

____; Kay, E.A.; Reed, S.A.; Russo, A.R.; Klemmer, H.W.; Townsley, S.J.;
Yamauchi, H.; Green, R.E.; Chun, M.J.; Dugan, G.L.; and Young, R.H.F. 1973.
The quality of coastal waters: Second annual progress report. Tech. Rep.
No. 77, Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

; Ekern, P.C.; Loh, P.C.S.; Young, R.H.F.; Burbank, N.C.; and Dugan, G.L.
1974. Water recycling of sewage effluent by irrigation: A field study on
Oahu--Second progress report for July Z972 to JuZy Z973. Tech. Rep. No. 79,
Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

; Dugan, G.L.; Ekern, P.C.; Young, R.H.F.; and Burbank, N.C. 1975.
Water recycling of sewage effluent by irrigation: A field study on Oahu--Fi-
nal progress report for August Z971 to June Z975. Tech. Rep. No. 94, Water

Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii, in press.

Luoma, S.N. 1974. Mercury cycling in a small Hawaiian estuary. Tech. Memo.
Rep. No. 42, Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

Matsushita, G.K., and Young, R.H.F. 1973. Baseline quality data for Kalihi
Streoam. Tech. Rep. No. 71, Water Resources Research Center, University of
Hawaii.

McGauhey, P.H. 1968. Engineering management of water quality. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

McMorrow, M.J.K.; Young, R.H.F.; Burbank, N.C.; Lau, L.S.; and Klemmer, H.W.
1969. Anaerobic digestion of pineapple mill wastes. Tech. Rep. No. 27,
Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

Pereira, H.C. 1973. Land use and water resources in temperate and tropical
climate. London: Cambridge University Press.

Peterson, F.L., and Lau, L.S. 1974. Subsurface waste disposal by injection
in Hawaii: A conceptual formulation and physical modeling plan. Tech. Memo.
Rep. No. 41, Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii.

Siegel, S.M., and Siegel, B.Z. 1975. Geothermal hazards, mercury emission.
Environ. Sci. & Technol. 9(5):473-75.

Smithsonian Institution. 1975. Center for short-lived phenomena.

State of Hawaii, Department of Health. 1971. Zone of mixing application,
Inaoale Stream, Waimanalo and Wailua, Oahu.

. 1972, 1973. Environmental Impact statement for Kahe, Waiawa, and
Honolulu Harbor power plants.

._ 1974. Public health regulations. Chaps. 37, 37A, 38.

. 1975. Draft consolidated environmental program plan for FY 1976.

State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Development. 1969. "Geo-
graphic statistics of Hawaii." Mimeographed.

State of Hawaii, Hawaii State Legislature. 1961. Session laws of Hawaii.
Act 187, First Hawaii State Legislature, Regular Session.

. 1975, Session laws of Hawaii. Act 21, Eighth Hawaii State Legisla-
ture, Regular Session.

Takasaki, K.J. 1974. Hydrologic conditions related to subsurface and surface
disposal of wastes in Hawaii. Water Resources Investigations 1-74 Open-File
Rep., U.S. Dept. Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.

U.S., Corps of Engineers. 1975 Draft environmental impact statement, Hawaii
Kai marina dredging.

Water Resources Engineers Inc. 1974. Validation and sensitivity analyses of

stream and estuary models applied to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Submitted to EPA.

._____ 1975. Application of the dynamic estuary model to Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii. in conjunction with the establishment of waste load allocations.
Submitted to EPA.

Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii. 1975. Annual report.
In press.

Wu, I-P. 1969. Flood hydrology of small watersheds: Evaluation of time pa-
rameters and determination of peak discharge. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agr. Engr.
12 (5) :655-63.