North Slope Borough coastal management program, Prudhoe Bay area

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH
P. 0. Box 69
Barrow, Alaska 99723
Phone: (907) 852-2611

MAYOR Eben Hopson, Sr.

ASSEMBLY Jacob Adams, President
Lennie Lane, Jr.
Edward Hopson, Sr.
Nelson Ahvakana
Joseph Akpik
Arnold Brower, Sr.
Alice Solomon'

PLANNING COMMISSION Billy Nashoalook
Riley Morry
Amos Lane
Warren Matumeak
Annie Brower

PLANNING DIRECTOR Herb Bartel

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The time and information contributed to this report by many
individuals, industries and government agencies are gratefully
acknowledged.

The cover photographs are courtesy of Sohio-BP Alaska.

US Department of Commerce
NOAA Cca--taJ Services Center Library
2234 South klGbson Avenue
COASTAL ZONE Charleston, SC 29405-2413
WORMATiON CENVO

NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH

COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

PRUDHOE BAY AREA

prepared for the

N 0 R T H SLOPE BOROUGH

ALASKA CONSULTANTS, INC.

JUNE 1978

The preparation of this report was financed in part by funds from the
Alaska Coastal Management Program and the Office of Coastal Zone
Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U. S.
Department of Commerce, administered by the Division of Commuity
Planning, Department of Community and Regional Affairs.

TABLE OF CONTENTS B. LOCAL PLANS AND ORDINANCES ...... 35
Page 1. North Slope Borough Land Use Plans . .35
1. INTRODUCTION .......................... 1 2. Zoning Ordinance ................. 35
A. ALASKA COASTAL MANAGEMENT 3. Subdivision Regulations ............ 36
PROGRAM ........................... 1 4. Building Codes ................... 36
B. NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH COASTAL S. Flood Hazard Ordinance ........... 36
MANAGEMENTPROGRAM ............. 1 6. Capital Improvements Program ...... 37
C. PRUDHOE BAY AREACOASTAL C. COOPERATIVE AGREEMENTS .......... 37
MANAGEMENTPROGRAM ............. 4 1. Cooperative Management Agreement ..37
2. Coordinated Permit and Project
11. BOUNDARIES ............................. 5 Review Procedure ................. 38
D. LAND OWNERSHIP ................... 38
111. ASSESSMENT OF PLANNING ACTIVITIES E. I NDUSTRY/130 ROUGH COOPERATION ... 38
AND NEEDS .............................. 9 F. BOROUGH COMMENT AND
CONSULTATION .................... 39

1 V. COASTAL MANAGEMENT ISSUES ............ 13

V. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS AND WATERS ... 17 VI 11. PRUDHOE BAY COASTAL AREA INVENTORY .41
A. CONSERVATION AREAS .............. 17 A. CLIMATE ........................... 41
B. SEASONAL CONSERVATION AREAS .... 19 1. Temperature ..................... 41
C. AREAS WHICH MERIT SPECIAL 2. Wind ........................... 41
ATTENTION ......................... 20 3. Precipitation ..................... 41
D. SENSITIVE HABITAT ................. 20 B. PHYSICAL SETTING .................. 42
E. ZONE OF PREFERRED DEVELOPMENT ..21 1. Geomorphology and Stratigraphy .... 42
2. Soils ........................... 42
VI. OB)ECTIVES, POLICIES AND STANDARDS .... 23 3. Permafrost ...................... 42
A. BACKGROUND ....................... 23 4. Surface Water .................... 45
B. OBJECTIVES ......................... 25 5. Coastal Erosion and Relief .......... 46
C. POLICIES ........................... 25 6. Waves, Currents and Tides .......... 48
1 . Siting of Major Public and Private 7. ice ............................ 48
Facilities ............ 26 C. VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE .......... 51
2. Management of Valuable Commercial, I . Vegetation ...................... 51
Recreation, and Subsistence Resources 27 2. Wildlife ......................... 53
3. Intergovernmental Coordination . . . . . 30 a. Fish ...................... 53
D. STANDARDS ........................ 32 b. Land Mammals .... * * ' * * ' * * * *54
C. Furbearers and Small Game .... 56
VII. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES ............ 33 d. Marine Mammals ............ 57
A. FEDERAL AND STATE CONSISTENCY e. Birds ...................... 59
WITH LOCAL PLANS AND ORDINANCES .33 D. PETROLEUM RESOURCES ............. 61

E. RECREATION AND CULTURAL b. Pt. Thomson and Flaxman Island . .102
RESOURCES ......................... 64 C. Additional State Acreage ........ 103
1 . Cultural Significance .............. 64 3. Pipelines .......................... 103
2. Recreation Resources .............. 66 a. Natural Gas Pipeline ............ 103
3. Scenic Resources ................. 67 b. National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska
F. POPULATION AND ECONOMY .......... 71 Pipeline ..................... 104
1. Past Population Trends ............. 71 C. Arctic National Wildlife Range
2. Population Composition ............ 72 Pipeline ..................... 104
3. Employment Composition .......... 73 4. Subsistence ........................ 104
4. Unemployment and Seasonality of 5. Recreation and Tourism .............. 105
Employment .................... 74 B. LAND CAPAB I LITY ..................... 105
5. Recent Trends and Changes ......... 74 1 . Land Availability ................... 105
6. Income Levels ................... 75 2. Waterfront Access .................. 105
G. LAND USE AND PUBLIC FACILITIES 3. Development Resources .............. 107
AND SERVICES ...................... 80 a. Water ....................... 107
1 . General Land Use Patterns .......... 80 b. Gravel ....................... 107
2. Facilities and Services .............. 81 4. Availability of Oil and Gas
a. Public Safety ............... 84 Transportation Facilities ............. 108
b. Health .................... 85 a. Trans-Alaska Pipeline Capacity .... 108
C. Recreation ................. 86 b. Trans-Alaska Pipeline Availability . .109
d. Communications ............ 86 5. Fish and Wildlife Resources ........... 109
e. Transportation .............. 86 6. Recreation and Tourism Resources ..... 109
f. Utilities ................... 88 C. POTENTIAL IMPACTS ................... log
1. Consumption of Habitat .............. 109
1 X. USE POTENTIALS, CONSTRAINTS a. Population ................... 109
AND CONFLICTS ...................... 91 b. Pipelines ..................... 110
A. OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT ........ 91 C. Facilities ..................... 110
B. RECREATION AND TOURISM .......... 94 2. Disruption of the Environment and
C. MINING ............................. 96 Environmental Pollution ............. III
D. FISH AND WILDLIFE .................. 97 a. Construction ................. fl]
b. Water Usage .................. III
X. FORECAST OF DEMANDS, C. Gravel Usage .................. I]]
CAPABILITIES AND IMPACTS ............... 99 d. Noise ....................... 112
A. DEMANDS ........................... 99 e. Obstacles to Migration .......... 112
1. Offshore Exploration and Development]00 3. Competition for Fish and Wildlife
a. Prudhoe Bay-Large ........... 100 Resources ......................... 113
b. Canning-Camden ............ 101
2. Onshore Exploration and Development 102
a. Kuparuk River .............. 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY 114

iii

TABLES Figure 13 Prudhoe Bay Unit Area ................. 82
Page Figure 14 Deadhorse Airport Land Use ............. 83
Table I Nonagricultural Wage and Salary Employment Figure 15 Land Tenure ......................... 106
Distribution, Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse Area,
July 1977 .............................. 76
Table 2 Nonagricultural Wage and Salary Employment
Distribution, Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse Area, 1976 76
Table 3 Nonagricultural Wage and Salary Employment
Distribution, North Slope Borough, 1976 ..... 77
Table 4 Nonagricultural Wage and Salary Employment
Distribution, Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse Area
and State of Alaska, 1976-1977 ............ 77
Table 5 Average Monthly Wage, Alaska Census
Divisions, 1976 .......................... 78
Table 6 Average Monthly Wage by Industry Sector,
Barrow-North Slope Division, 1975-1977 ...... 79

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Figure I North Slope Borough Coastal Management
Phases .............................. 2
Figure 2 Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area ............... 7
Figure 3 Classification of Coastal Lands and Waters ... 18
Figure 4 Surficial Geology ...................... 43
Figure 5 Soils ................................ 44
Figure 6 Coastal Classification ................... 47
Figure 7 Coastal Relief and Currents .............. 49
Figure 8 Coastal Fast Ice ....................... 50
Figure 9 Biologically Sensitive Areas .............. 55
Figure 10 Oil and Gas Leases ..................... 63
Figure I I Sites of Historic and Subsistence Importance . 65
Figure 12 Areas of Scenic Importance .............. 69

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Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION (OCM) recognized the need for local participation and an
expanded local role in the coastal management planning
In recent years, coastal areas of the United States have process. In 1977, the OCM made a commitment to meet this
experienced burgeoning populations and continued develop- need by providing local governments an opportunity to
ment. The results have been reflected in continuing and develop local coastal management programs tailored to their
magnified conflicts among alternative land uses, especially own particular circumstances and needs. Grant money was
between those of a business and industrial nature and those made available through the Alaska Department of Communi-
of an open space, recreation and conservation nature. ty and Regional Affairs on a matching basis for coastal
In response to these and other overwhelming coastal develop- planning and management program development.
ment activities throughout the United States, Congress passed Concomitantly, the Alaska Coastal Management Act of 1977
the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The Act estab- established broad State policy for the development of the
lished a system for providing guidance and assistance in overall State management program of which the district
developing coastal planning and management programs. Con- programs comprise a significant part. The Act provides that
gress placed responsibility with the various coastal states, the district programs are to be developed under the guidance
working with local governments and the public and Federal of the Alaska Coastal Policy Council according to guidelines
agencies, to prepare precise plans and actions that would lead and standards developed by the Council and approved by the
to logical and intelligent uses of coastal areas. Legislature. The Standards of the Alaska Coastal Management
Program and Guidelines for District Coastal Management
A. ALASKA COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM Programs were developed in 1977, subject to review and
The State of Alaska initiated its own coastal management comment by local governments and residents in public
program in 1974. The process of coastal program develop- hearings around the State, and submitted to the Legislature
ment began in the Alaska Department of Environmental for approval early in 1978.
Conservation and focused on the uses of technical informa-
tion to promote wiser management decisions. This effort was B. NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH COASTAL MANAGE-
designed to assist the formulation of resource plans within MENTPROGRAM
departments, to assist permit review processes, to provide a In the North Slope Borough, the conflicts that originally
basis for making State decisions on resource allocation and to engendered Federal and State coastal management programs
serve as a foundation for resource management policy. are exemplified by the Prudhoe Bay experience. just over 10
As work proceeded, however, it became apparent that many years ago, the Prudhoe Bay area was, for all practical
additional activities, primarily involving coordination of the purposes, one of America's last great wildernesses used by the
many Federal, State and local government agencies involved indigenous Eskimo residents for subsistence fishing and hunt-
in coastal matters, were needed for the coastal management ing activities. Since that time, the country's largest domestic
program formulation process. With this in mind, the Gover- reserve of oil and gas has been discovered in the area, a road
nor, in 1975, transferred responsibility for the coastal man- has been built connecting Prudhoe Bay to the rest of North
agement program to his Division of Policy Development and America, and a multitude of oil industry support activities
Planning. have been located in the area. The prospect of new discov-
eries of petroleum offshore in Prudhoe Bay and adjacent
At its inception in 1975, the Office of Coastal Management areas and the possibility of opening the Haul Road to the

North Slope Borough Coastal Management Program Phases

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public pose the very real possibility of additional develop- Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, discussed its rele-
ment and degradation of the coastal environment. These vance to the State and the Borough, and advanced a series of
actions could prove detrimental to the lands and waters of recommendations to involve the Borough in a far-reaching
the coastal area and threaten the subsistence resources which program of the management of its coastal area. It was
are the basis of the age-old Inupiat culture and economy. considered particularly crucial that this program be develop-
Because of these circumstances, the North Slope Borough has ed at the local level inasmuch as the Borough's position and
long recognized the need for a coastal management program actions on a variety of issues affecting its coastal lands and
and has actively participated in the Alaska Coastal Manage- waters transcend the concerns of Congress and sometimes the
ment Program since its inception. It was represented at the State. The Borough often conceives itself as being in an
Association of Coastal Mayors Workshop, convened by the obverse position in which it fears a wise and balanced use of
Department of Community and Regional Affairs in 1976 to the land and water of the coastal area may not be exercised
consider OCM rules and regulations for the Coastal Energy by the Federal and State governments.
Impact Program and other coastal management issues, and it The issue paper recommended that because of the size,
is represented on the Alaska Coastal Policy Council. The complexity and importance of coastal management to the
Borough planning staff has worked closely with the Depart- North Slope Borough, the development of the coastal man-
ment of the Interior's Beaufort Sea OCS program and with agement program be considered in four interrelated phases.
the NPR-A study team to ensure that Borough coastal The first phase would focus on the Prudhoe Bay area, that
management concerns are adequately represented. part of the Borough coast lying between the National
Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A) on the west and the
The North Slope Borough's concern with the coastal environ- Arctic National Wildlife Range on the cast. This is the coastal
mentextends beyond Borough, State and national boundaries. area that roughly coincides with imminent State and Federal
In response to oil and gas operations offshore Greenland, offshore lease sales and therefore is under the most immedi-
Canada, the Soviet Union and the U. S., the Borough in 1976
set out to organize the circumpolar Inupiat community to
work toward a single set of rules for all Arctic shelf
operations as a means of protecting the environmental securi-
ty of the people of the Borough. The first meeting of the
Inuit Circumpolar Conference was held in Barrow in June
1977. The primary focus of this conference was Arctic
conservation and environmental protection, with a view
toward developing an international Arctic policy. An ICC
Interim Committee is writing a charter which will be ratified
at the next Circumpolar Conference.

In 1976, in anticipation of the availability of State grant
assistance for the development of a district coastal manage-
ment program, the Borough Planning Department developed
an issue paper addressing coastal management in the North
Slope Borough. This paper reviewed pertinent sections of the

ate pressure from future development. Phase 11 would include Management Program. Primary contacts within the various
the Arctic National Wildlife Range and adjacent offshore agencies are also identified. In addition, this chapter identi-
areas and would be based partly on data beingdeveloped by fies areas that require further study.
the State and Federal governments in preparation for the Chapter IV enumerates and briefly analyzes local issues
joint Federal-State OCS Beaufort Sea lease sale. Phase III pertinent to coastal management in the North Slope Bor-
would include the NPR-A and offshore areas and would
depend heavily on material developed by the Department of ough. In Chapter V, lands and waters of the Prudhoe Bay
the Interior's NPR-A land use study. Phase IV would com- Coastal Area are classified according to their importance to
prise the remainder of the western area of'the Arctic coast the preservation of fish and wildlife resources and habitat and
not included in Phase 111. In developing its coastal manage- their suitability for development. Chapter VI, Objectives,
ment program, the North Slope Borough has adopted this Policies and Standards, sets forth the objectives of the North
approach. Slope Borough in the management of the Prudhoe Bay
Coastal Area, proposes policies or plans of action for imple-
C. PRUDHOE BAY AREA COASTAL MANAGEMENT menting these, and describes in general terms existing Feder-
PROGRAM al, State and local government standards available to effectu-
ate North Slope Borough policies for the conduct of activities
Phase 1, the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal Management Program, in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Strategies for implementing
has been undertaken prior to legislative approval of "Stan- the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal Management Program are
dards of the Alaska Coastal Management Program" and described in Chapter VI I.
"Guidelines for District Coastal Management Programs." An
attempt has, been made to monitor changes in the draft Chapter VII 1, Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area Inventory, describes
standards and guidelines and to reflect these in the Prudhoe the natural and man-made environment of the study area and
Bay Area Coastal Management Program. However, in the identifies traditional and current use of the land and its
absence of definitive standards and guidelines, the elements resources. In Chapter IX, the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is
contained in the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal Management analyzed for its potential to accommodate several different
Program have been based largely on policy guidance contain- uses-oil and gas development, tourism and recreation, min-
ed in the 1977 Coastal Management Act and the Scope of ing, and fish and wildlife. Constraints and conflicts related to
Services governing conduct of the study effort and thus differ each potential use are also identified.
somewhat from what might be expected from the standards Chapter X, Forecast of Demands, Capabilities, and Impacts,
and guidelines. Following is a brief description of the Prud- discusses the demands that potential uses would place on the
hoe Bay Area Coastal Management Program. lands and waters of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, assesses
Chapter 11 sets forth the North Slope Borough's rationale for the capability of the lands and waters to accommodate these
determining coastal management boundaries and delineates demands, and describes the impacts that are likely to occur as
the specific boundaries for the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. a result of each potential use.
Chapter 111, Assessment of Planning Activities and Needs,
describes various studies being undertaken by the Federal,
State and North Slope Borough governments that are rele-
vant to the Borough's Coastal Management Program and
relates these specifically to the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal
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Boundaries

11. BOUNDARIES climate on the land. The State of Alaska's standards and
guidelines for coastal management program boundaries in-
The Federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 defines clude the zone of direct interaction and the zone of direct
the coastal zone as "the coastal waters (including the waters influence but exclude the zone of indirect influence.
therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other
and in proximity to the shorelines ... and includes islands, in The North Slope Borough has extended these State-establish-
transitional and interticlal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and ed boundaries southward to include that area encompassed
beaches. The zone extends ... to the international boundary by the natural physiographic province of the Arctic Coastal
between the United States and Canada and, in other areas ' Plain. This province provides essential habitat to the region's
seaward to the outer limit of the United States territorial sea. fish and wildlife which range widely over the Arctic coastal
The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the plain during various phases of their life cycle. Because of the
extent necessary to control shorelands, the use of which have potential impact on these resources from development, the
a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters." southern boundary has been extended to encompass as much
as possible of their essential habitat.
The Alaska Coastal Policy Council has adopted initial coastal In connection with the development of the Arctic Coastal
area boundaries, which may be modified locally by coastal Management Program, there should be undertaken an investi-
resource districts such as the North Slope Borough. In gation of both the North Slope Borough's and the State of
establishing initial coastal boundaries, the Coastal Policy Alaska's authority offshore beyond the three-mile limit.
Council considered work conducted by the Alaska Depart- Nevertheless, it is essential that efforts be made to assure that
ment of Fish and Game's Marine and Coastal Habitat Manage- Borough and State offshore boundaries coincide for purposes
ment Program which divided the coast into three zones based of taxation and the enforcement of regulations relating to
on biological and physical factors: the zone of direct inter- development.
action, the zone of direct influence and the zone of indirect
influence. The first zone, that of direct interaction, has both I
a landward and seaward limit. The landward limit comprises
the backshore regions influenced by saltwater intrusion,
including the extent of intrusion up river channels. The
'of
landward limit of this zone averages 2 to 3 miles inland but
extends 60 miles up the Colville River channel. The seaward
limit of the zone of direct interaction encompasses the area
of shorefast ice and the shear zone. In the zone of direct
influence, the boundary includes optimum waterfowl and
shorebird nesting habitat and polar bear clenning habitat up
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to 25 and 30 miles inland. Offshore, the zone of direct
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influence extends into the pack ice to a yet undetermined
distance. Consequently, the offshore extent of the indirect
coastal zone influence includes all watersheds of rivers flow-
ing into the Beaufort Sea as well as the extent of anadromous
fish spawning and the primary influence of a maritime

Phase I of the North Slope Borough Coastal Management
Program focuses on the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, that part
of the Borough coast lying between National Petroleum
Reserve-A)aska @NPR-A) on the west and the Arctic National
Wildlife Range on the east. The eastern boundary of NPR-A
is currently disputed by the State of Alaska and the U. S.
Department of the Interior. In 1972, the U. S. Navy which
then had jurisdiction over the Reserve asserted that the
boundary encompassed the right bank of the Colville River.
The State, however, contends that the eastern boundary
commences at the peak at the head of the northernmost of
the two eastern forks of Midas Creek and runs true north
approximately 70 miles until it intersects with the western or
left bank of the Colville River, whereupon it follows the left
bank via the Nechelik Channel until it intersects with the
Arctic Ocean. For the purpose of this program, the western
boundary of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area will coincide with
the State- recogn i zed eastern boundary of NPR-A.

Prudhoe Bay Coastal Zone

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III. Assessment of Planning Activities and Needs

111. ASSESSMENT OF PLANNING others from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service have been the
ACTIVITIES AND NEEDS source of information relating to fish and wildlife habitat. In
addition, Mr. Robert Worl has been the contact for informa-
The exploration and development of Prudhoe Bay petroleum tion of a mote general nature relating to North Slope
resources and the extremely high potential for additional Borough participation and the overall progress of the study.
major oil and gas development in the Arctic have engendered The Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program conducted
a wide variety of planning studies by the Federal, State and by the Bureau of Land Mangement's Alaska Outer Continen-
North Slope Borough governments. Because petroleum devel- tal Shelf Office is directed toward predicting and evaluating
opment is so intricately interwoven with coastal management the effects of Alaska OCS petroleum development upon the
in the North Slope Borough, these studies are particularly physical, social, and economic environments within the State.
relevant to the Borough's Coastal Management Program. The analysis addresses the differing effects among various
These studies have provided much of the data from which the geographic units: the State as a whole, the regions within
Prudhoe Bay area inventory and analysis have been develop- which oil and gas development is likely to take place, and the
ed.
various communities within these regions. The Beaufort Sea
The Federal government is currently involved in two major Regional Study is currently in progress, and, when completed
planning efforts on the North Slope-the land use study and will provide the basis for the Federal Environmental State-
plan for the development of oil and gas resources within the ment relating to Beaufort Sea OCS lease sales. Information
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A) and the Alaska developed in the course of this program has contributed to
OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program. The Naval Petroleum the discussion of the demands, capabilities and impacts of
Reserve Production Act of 1976 directed the Secretary of future development activity in the Prudhoe Bay area, the
Interior to "conduct a study to determine the values of, and cultural, recreation and historical significance of the land and
best uses for, land contained in the Reserve." This study is to to the discussion of land and water classification. Primary
take into consideration the Natives who live or depend on contacts in the Alaska OCS Office have been Mr. William
such lands, the scenic, historical, recreational, fish and wild- Civish, Mr. Dean Yoesting, and Mr. Wink Hastings.
life, wilderness values, mineral potentials and other values in State regulations require the completion of a Social, Econom-
the Reserve and must be completed before any development ic and Environmental Analysis (SEEA) prior to major oil and
can take place. The study is being conducted by a study team gas lease sales. The SEEA for the joint Federal-State Beaufort
composed of personnel from the Department of the Interior, Sea lease sale scheduled for December, 1979 is being coordi-
the State of Alaska, and the North Slope Borough. Close nated by the Alaska Department of Natural Resources which
coordination has been maintained throughout the develop- is charged with the administration of State mineral lease
ment of the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal Management Program sales. The SEEA will contain input from the State Depart-
with the NPR-A study effort. A number of people involved ments of Community and Regional Affairs, Environmental
with this study have been particularly helpful. Mr. William Conservation, Fish and Game, and Health and Social Ser-
Thomas from the Cultural Heritage and Recreation Service vices. Material developed by Community and Regional Af-
has provided input on wilderness, recreation and scenic fairs for inclusion in the SEEA has provided the basis for the
values; Mr. William Schneider from the National Park Service physical inventory of the Prudhoe Bay-Deadhorse area and
has been the contact for information relating to subsistence the demography and economy of the study area. Mr. George
and cultural and historical values; Mr. Wayne Pichon and Cannelos of Community and Regional Affairs and Mr. Patrick

Dobey of Natural Resources have been the points of Contact Program, State agencies are involved in identifying geophysi-
for information relating to this effort. cal hazard areas and existing facilities and potential needs for
a wide variety of activities: recreation, energy, transportation
The Petroleum Development Study, North Slope Alaska, and utilities, fish and seafood processing, timber harvesting
conducted by the Department of Natural Resources, is and processing, mining and mineral processing, subsistence
scheduled for completion in the summer of 1978. In the and cultural resources. The Geological and Geophysical Sur-
course of this study, several petroleum development scenarios vey Division of the Department of Natural Resources (James
have been run on a computer model that varies a number of Riehle) developed the material on geophysical hazard areas
parameters including amount, location and timing of oil which has been incorporated in the Borough's Coastal Man-
discoveries, and outputs information such as yearly oil agement Program. The fish and wildlife inventory and infor-
production, work force requirements for each phase of mation relating to habitat rely heavily on work done by
development, and total water and grave) needs. Data from ADF&G as part of the Alaska Coastal Management Program.
this study have been used to estimate petroleum resources in In connection with this effort, ADF&G has identified poten-
the study and adjacent areas and to determine demands and tial critical habitat areas on the North Slope and delineated
impacts on the land and resources given certain levels of biophysical processes and their boundaries. In addition, the
petroleum development. Mr. Robert Klein, Department of fish and wildlife of the North Slope have been inventoried in
Natural Resources, has been the main contact point for detail. Primary contacts in connection with this work were
material relating to this study. Mr. Rich Cannon, Ms. Debra Clausen, Mr. Ed Klinkhart and
Also in connection with proposed lease sale activity in the Mr. Robert McClain.
Prudhoe Bay area the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Through the development of the Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal
(ADF&G) is conducting an environmental survey of the Pt. Management Program related efforts being undertaken by the
Thomson area. This survey includes on-site analysis and North Slope Borough Planning Department have been closely
discussions with local residents and the managers of the monitored.
Arctic National Wildlife Range. The study will identify ice
hazards and the fish and game resources of the area and
man's relationship to them. The work will provide the basis
Y. . . . . .
for Fish and Game's position vis-a-vis the Pt. Thomson lease
sale and lease tract stipulations. In addition, Fish and Game
Habitat Protection personnel are involved in the development
of lease stipulations for the joint Federal-State Beaufort Sea
lease sale. Coordination with these activities has been through
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Mr. Lance Trasky and Ms. Debra Clausen of ADF&G's
Habitat Protection Division.

The Office of Coastal Management, which administers the
Alaska Coastal Management Program, is charged with the
responsibility of coordinating the activities of the various
State agencies participating in the Coastal Management Pro-
gram. Under the aegis of the Alaska Coastal Management

The Beaufort Sea Study, Historic and Subsistence Inventory: relevant to coastal area management which, because of the
A Preliminary Cultural Resource Assessment by Jon M. lack of available information warrant further study. Fore-
Nielson identified historic and subsistence sites, and wildlife most among these are the barrier islands which lie offshore of
populations and migrations. Material contained in this report the Beaufort Sea coast between the Canning and Colville
provides the basis for the identification of areas of subsist- Rivers. Long known as important habitat for bird nesting,
ence and cultural importance within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal feeding and resting, polar bear denning sites and as a
Area. protection against coastal erosion from high wave action and
ice movement, very little else is known about their function
The Borough Planning Department has done several studies or their vulnerability to development. Some oil exploration
of the North Slope Haul Road which are reflected in the has already taken place on Flaxman Island, and the industry
Prudhoe Bay Area Coastal Management Program. The first, is apparently looking to other islands in the chain as possible
North Slope Borough: Legal Powers and Options on the Haul support bases and drill sites for future offshore activity.
Road and Adjacent Federal and State Lands, analyzes the Detailed inventory and analysis are required to determine
Borough's choices regarding the Haul Road. A second Bor- what impact, if any, such activity would have on the islands
ough planning effort, relating to the Haul Road inventories and the surrounding ecology.
cultural and historical sites in the Haul Road corridor. Water and gravel are critical resources on the North Slope.
Both are required in large quantities for oil and gas develop-
A week-long Elders Conference sponsored by the Planning ment and both are essential habitat for fish and wildlife.
Department brought elders from North Slope villages to Gravel resources throughout the North Slope Borough should
Barrow to gather historical and cultural information. Material be identified and their extent measured. In addition, analysis
concerning migration patterns of the bowhead whale which should be undertaken to identify possible impacts on fish
came to light as a result of this conference has been reflected habitat, in particular, from industrial exploitation of the
in the Coastal Management Program. Additional information resource. Exploitation of water sources used by fish for
on wildlife resources and migration patterns and traditional overwintering could lower water levels to such a degree that
land use was obtained during a March 1978 meeting of the the water would freeze to the bottom and kill the fish. To
Borough Planning Commission in Barrow and a public hear- ensure that wildlife and industrial use of water do not
ing held in Barrow in February to discuss proposed guidelines conflict, additional studies should be undertaken to identify
and standards for the Alaska Coastal Management Program. fish wintering spots, on the one hand, and the amount of
water that can safely be taken, on the other.
The North Slope Borough's Arctic Coastal Zone Management There is presently only limited commercial fishing on the
Newsletter published monthly has identified a number of Arctic coast. In its inventory of fish and game resources of
coastal management issues which are addressed in the Pro- northern and western Alaska, the Alaska Department of Fish
gram. Issues Overview and Coastal Zone Management Pro- and Game identified a commercial whitefish operation on the
gram Considerations prepared for the Borough by Alaska Colville River delta which harvests approximately 3,000
Consultants, Inc., have also contributed to the identification broad and 1,000 humpback whitefish during the summer and
of coastal management issues and considerations. 20,000 least and 40,000 arctic cisco annually in the fall.
All these studies notwithstanding, there remain several issues Almost all of these are marketed locally. According to the

University of Alaska's Environmental Information and Data ------
Center there appears to be a potential for expanding com-
mercial fishing in the region. Significant additional study will
be required, however, to determine the economic feasibility
of an expanded commercial operation.

The bowhead whale is the single most important element in
the Arctic coastal Eskimo subsistence culture. Bowhead
populations are thought to have dwindled to such a degree in
recent years that there is a threat to the continued existence
of this species. Although there has been a great deal of local,
national, and international attention focused on the bowhead &Oak-
recently, relatively little is actually known about population
levels or bowhead behavior. While there is little whale
hunting east of Point Barrow according to local hunters, the r-
bowhead migrates along the coast in the study area beyond
the 6-meter (20-foot) isobath and apparently feeds and calves
in the Colville River Delta. Development of a detailed data that require further investigation. Located generally in the
base on bowhead population and behavior is seen as an area between Howe and Narwhal Islands off the mouth of the
essential prerequisite for effective resource management. Sagavanirktok River, these have been designated by the
Effective management will be necessary to ensure the preser- USGS as the "Narwhal Island Boulder Field." This is a large,
vation of this important subsistence resource. unique substrata boulder field which appears to have a
different species composition from the rest of the Beaufort
There are two distinct caribou herds on the North Slope, the Sea shelf. Scientists are not certain of the biologic impor-
Porcupine which generally occupies the area from the Can- tance of the field to the restof the area and feel that it should
ning River east to the Canadian border, and the Western herd be studied further.
found west of the Colville River. Although the Porcupine
population is currently high and stable, the Western herd has
decreased alarmingly in recent years. Relatively isolated as
they are from human impact other than subsistence hunting,
these herds provide an excellent opportunity to study why
and how large caribou populations become depleted. By
monitoring the Porcupine and Western herds carefully, it may
be possible to learn how population recovery can be facil-
itated.

During the course of surveys with side-scan sonar, high
resolution seismic profile, and the fathometer, the U. S.
Geological Survey has delineated a large number of locations
on the Beaufort Sea shelf in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area

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IV. Coastal Management Issues

IV. COASTAL MANAGEMENT ISSUES the North Slope Borough with revenues from Prudhoe Bay
oil and gas property taxes.
The exploration and development of North Slope petroleum The opportunity for local employment stems the outflow of
resources have raised a number of issues pertinent to coastal young people from the region, a serious problem in the past.
management. Primary among these is the conflict between Although some older Borough residents might deplore this,
use of the land for development purposes, on the one hand, the opportunity for local employment for cash wages also
and its use for the production of wildlife resources, on the provides a buffer when hunting and fishing are lean.
other.

The entire North Slope is prime fish and wildlife habitat and D-2 land designations are currently only tentative and depend
harbors a variety of land and water species. For centuries, upon the decision of the U. S. Congress. The status of other
these have provided the basis for the subsistence economy land within the Borough is also undecided at this time. Under
and culture of the Inupiat people who inhabit the coastal AS 29.18.190, a borough or city may select 10 percent of the
region. From the point of view of local residents, it is vacant, unappropriated, unreserved State land located within
imperative that fish and wildlife resources and their essential its boundaries. Thus far, the State and Borough have been
habitat be protected. unable to resolve the question of just which State land is
available for selection, and the Borough has received none of
Petroleum development has had both positive and negative its entitlement. The status of several Native allotments within
impacts. On the negative side is the direct consumption of the Prudhoe Bay area is also subject to question: The State
wildlife habitat by petroleum associated facilities and struc- leased the land on which these contested allotments are
tures. Indirectly, the consumption of water and gravel re- located to oil companies for exploration and development,
sources also may disrupt or destroy habitat. Furthermore, the ignoring their existence. Allotment holders believe that they
intrusion of large numbers of people into the region has can supply proof of occupancy sufficient to satisfy the law
resulted in increased sport hunting and fishing, thus increas- and establish their ownership.
ing pressure on wildlife resources.

The introduction of a development culture into the North
Slope has raised social and cultural issues as well. There is
fear on the part of some older residents that with increased
cash income, dependency on subsistence hunting and fishing W_ M_
will lessen. With the need to hunt and fish removed, the old
skills required to conduct these activities will be lost, thus
destroying the basis of the Inupiat culture.

However, Prudhoe Bay development has brought positive
benefits as well. One direct benefit has been the creation of
new employment opportunities for Borough residents in the
Prudhoe Bay complex. Less obvious but of considerably
greater impact are the expanded services and facilities and
new employment within traditional communities provided by

Access to the land has long been a hotly contested issue on countries. An oil spill in the Mackenzie River delta, for
the North Slope. On the one hand, there is a whole series of example, would not only have serious impacts on the Alaskan
issues raised by the possibility of opening the Haul Road to arctic coast and its wildlife resources but could also have
public usage. North Slope Borough residents feel that public wide ranging impacts on wildlife in other parts of the world if
usage of the road and the influx of large numbers of people sea mammal and bird habitat were affected.
associated with it will put unendurable pressure on habitat
and fish and wildlife resources. Borough officials also fear
that open access will necessitate the provision of extensive
facilities and services by the Borough and will become an
economic burden.

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While North Slope residents are not in favor of opening the
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Haul Road to the public, they are concerned about access to
subsistence hunting and fishing grounds. Several of the
proposed D-2 classifications preclude subsistence hunting and
fishing. Furthermore, the establishment of "national inter-
est" enclaves may serve to cut local residents off from
traditional subsistence grounds if access through them is not
provided.

Finally, there is the issue of local control and participation in
Federal and State government actions affecting the North
Slope Borough. Centuries of life in the Arctic have made
Borough residents eminently knowledgeable in matters con-
cerning the land and its resources, yet the opinion of the
Borough is rarely solicited by either the State or Federal
governments in important decisions involving the North
Slope. Local zoning has been largely ignored by other
government agencies and therefore has not been effective.

Many fish and wildlife species inhabiting the North Slope are
migratory in nature and spend portions of their life cycle in
other regions of the State or in other parts of the world. This
is particularly true of birds and sea mammals such as the seal,
walrus and whale and some land mammals as well. Since
political boundaries are meaningless to migrating species,
management according to these lines is ineffective at best. In
the polar region, policies and actions of one country vis-a-vis
natural resource management or development can have sen-
ous impacts on the resources and habitat of neighboring

Consistent or at least compatible policies on the part of those habitat for two endangered animal species: the peregrine
countries bordering the Arctic Ocean would greatly enhance falcon and the bowhead whale. The bowhead is important to
the ability to monitor and manage the region's wildlife local residents because it forms the mainstay of their diet and
resources and habitat. The agreement on the Conservation of the basis of their subsistence culture.
the Polar Bear is a step in this direction, but it is limited to Although increased cash has enabled the Eskimo to make
one species, the polar bear. It is the policy of the North Slope modern substitutions for many of the traditional items
Borough that the entire Arctic Ocean should be similarly historically obtained from the bowhead, for example, fuel,
managed on an international scale. and modern technology has significantly altered hunting
Proposals under Section I 7(d)(2) of the Alaska Native Claims techniques, subsistence hunting of the whale and other sea
Settlement Act of 1971 presently under consideration by the mammals remains an integral element in the culture of the
U. S. Congress raise a number of coastal management issues. region.
The legislation proposes a variety of land classifications
within the North Slope Borough: wild and scenic river, Both the bowhead whale and the peregrine falcon, because of
wildlife refuge, national park, national preserve, wilderness the precarious state of their existence, have international
area. Each of these is associated with a different and significance. In this context, the potential impact of petro-
sometimes conflicting habitat management philosophy. The leum development becomes even more serious and raises the
wild and scenic river classification is designed to preserve question whether any development should be allowed. Cer-
waterways in their primitive condition, thus no habitat tainly if development is allowed, the protection of endanger-
enhancement of any kind is allowed. (interestingly enough, ed species must be assured.
the designation of rivers within the study area as wild and
scenic would in a sense accomplish just the opposite of'the
goal. The rivers are wild and scenic, but classifying them as
such would attract numbers of boating enthusiasts and thus
destroy their virgin character.) Similar provisions against
habitat enhancement apply to wilderness and national pre-
serve classifications.

On the other hand, habitat enhancement is allowed in
national parks and wildlife refuges. Development of tourist
facilities and services is also allowed in national parks.
Resource development is allowed under certain conditions in
a wildlife refuge. If these classifications become fact, adjoin-
ing lands will be managed with entirely different policies:
Habitat enhancement will be precluded in some, encouraged
in others. Human usage will be stimulated in some, discour-
aged in others. Furthermore, each classification is the man-
agement responsibility of a different government agency,
sometimes with conflicting goals and objectives.
The coastal area of the North Slope Borough is seasonal

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Classification of Lands and Waters

V. CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS AND WATERS which is appropriate for permanent, long-term facilities and
services and petroleum development zones which appear
The purpose of the Coastal Management Program from the appropriate for more temporary support activity required for
perspective of the North Slope Borough is to safeguard its oil and gas exploration and development.
interests as comprehensively as possible. Of primary interest
to the Borough are the fish and game resources on which the
subsistence economy and culture of the local residents A. CONSERVATION AREAS
depend. Thus, the overall thrust of the Coastal Management Conservation areas are areas of particular environmental
Program is to protect these resources. Aside from the overall importance in which development of any kind, except pipe-
policy of protecting the region's fish and wildlife however, line crossings and activities of overriding national interest,
there is substantial benefit to be gained by the Borough from would be entirely inappropriate. However, stream clearing
the development of the region's petroleum resources. Petro- and wildlife enhancement activities will be encouraged in
leum development provides a tax base which enables the these areas. Within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, those lands
Borough to provide its residents with important facilities and and waters classified as conservation areas include the entire
services and at the same time to increase local employment. reach of the Colville and Canning Rivers and their associated
Therefore, petroleum development will be allowed but only delta systems and Howe Island at the mouth of the Saga-
where it does not threaten important subsistence resources vanirktok River.
and their habitat. The Colville and Canning Rivers provide important fish
To ensure that development takes place with the least spawning and overwintering habitat and are thus susceptible
possible impact on fish and wildlife resources and habitat, to severe degradation from water and gravel removal and
lands and waters in the study area have been classified into from snow cover removal during winter. The Colville River
areas according to their importance to the preservation of delta is perhaps the most productive bird habitat on the
these resources, on the one hand, and their suitability for entire North Slope. Because it is one of the first ice-free
development, on the other hand. Within the study area lands water bodies in spring, it serves as an important bird staging
and waters fall into four classifications depending upon their area during spring and fall migration. Both the Canning and
importance as wildlife habitat: (I) conservation areas where Colville deltas provide important bird nesting habitat and are
habitat is of such sensitivity that no development is allowed; used heavily by anadromous fish for summer feeding. In
(2) seasonal conservation areas where habitat is extremely addition, these two deltas have been identified by wildlife
vulnerable during the ice-free season and therefore is protect- experts as prime polar bear clenning habitat. The Colville
ed from development during that time; (3) areas which merit delta, and to a lesser extent the Canning River delta, may also
special attention within which development activity is allow- serve as whale and seal feeding and calving grounds.
ed with utmost concern for wildlife habitat; and (4) sensitive Located at the mouth of the Sagavanirktok River between
habitat which is generally not as productive as in preceding Heald Pt. and Foggy Island, Howe Island is a little more than
classifications but nevertheless important to protect the a mile long and 300 yards wide. It is completely tundr,-
region's overall ecosystem. covered and contains a number of small ponds. Until 1971,
Areas which seem suitable for petroleum development have Howe Island was apparently used sparingly as a nesting spot
been designated the zone of preferred development. These by lesser Canada geese, pintails, old squaw, eiders, and a few
fall into two classifications: the industrial development zone shorebirds. Beginning in 1971, however, the island has been

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CONSERVATION AREAS
SEASONAL CONSERVATION AREAS
AREAS WHICH MERIT SPECIAL ATTENTION

SENSITIVE HABITAT
7

PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT ZONES
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ZONE

Figure 3

the chosen nesting habitat for a colony of snow geese. This is B. SEASONAL CONSERVATION AREAS
the first snow goose colony recorded in the area and the only Many species of fish and game found on the North Slope are
one identified in the entire State of Alaska. For this reason, migratory in nature, and thus certain habitats are extremely
the island is considered appropriate for the special protection sensitive seasonally. Primary among these are the complexes
afforded by classifying it a conservation zone. comprised of the nearshore barrier islands, their associated
Land use on the North Slope has traditionally revolved lagoons, and the mainland coastal wetlands adjacent to them.
around the availability of subsistence resources. Thus, it is From break-up to freeze-up, roughly May to October, these
not surprising that heavy concentrations of sites with historic provide the nesting, moulting and post-breeding habitat for a
and cultural significance have been identified in thosf,, areas wide variety of migratory bird species. Anadromous fish from
where fish and game resources are most abundant and the region's major streams feed in the protected lagoon
accessible. Within the study area, graves and the remains of systems during the season of open water, and seals and
cabins, sod houses and ice cellars are particularly prevalent whales feed and calve there. Local whalers have identified an
along the Colville River and two main channels of the delta, additional bowhead feeding and calving ground offshore from
the Nechelik and the Kupigruak. Sites of historic and cultural the Colville River delta beyond the 6-meter isobath. The
significance will be protected from disruption from structures U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service locates peregrine falcon
or development activity by specified distances of separation. nesting habitat generally east of the Kuparuk River 15 to 20
Historic and cultural sites within the study area continue to miles inland from the coast. As they are intensely used only
be heavily used today for subsistence hunting and fishing seasonally, consonant with the time of open water, these
lands and waters have been classified as seasonal conservation
purposes. areas. During the time when these are critical wildlife habitat,
no development activity should be allowed.

The seasonal conservation areas abound with sites of historic,
cultural, and subsistence significance. As in the conservation
zones, these sites will be protected from intrusion at all times
by a specified distance of separation.

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C. AREAS WHICH MERIT SPECIAL ATTENTION D. SENSITIVE HABITAT
Although fish and game habitats are most sensitive in those Although not currently highly productive for fish and game
lands and waters classified as conservation and seasonal or heavily used for subsistence hunting and fishing, the area
conservation areas, river drainages, coastal wetlands, near- classified as sensitive habitat does apparently harbor a resi-
shore waters and the barrier islands throughout the Prudhoe dent caribou population and at certain times of the year is
Bay Coastal Area provide important nutrient input for the used by wolves, grizzly bears, ptarmigan and other coastal
entire area and thus are considered "areas which merit special plain animals which spend significant portions of the year in
attention." Within the areas designated areas which merit the northern foothills of the Brooks Range. Relatively speak-
special attention, utmost concern for habitat protection ing, however, human activity is likely to have less impact on
should be exercised. fish and game populations and traditional land use in this
The Colville, Canning and Sagavanirktok River drainages area than in any other in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area.
provide overwintering and spawning habitat for fish and the
willow vegetation common to these same drainages supports
a small moose population. Coastal wetlands of the study area
are used to some extent as nesting, feeding and moulting
grounds by large numbers of migratory birds. Nearshore
waters associated with the mainland coast and the barrier
islands are feeding grounds for migratory birds. The coastal
area between the Canning and the Colville Rivers, including
the barrier islands, is apparently prime clenning habitat for
polar bears.

Underwater surveys by the U. S. Geological Survey have
identified a large number of locations in the area between
Howe and Narwhal Islands off the mouth of the Sagavanirk-
tok River that require further investigation. Designated by . .....
the U.S.G.S. as the "Narwhal Island Boulder Field," this is a
large, unique substrata boulder field which appears to have a
different species composition from the rest of the Beaufort
Sea shelf. Scientists are not certain of the biologic impor-
tance of the field to the rest of the area and feel that it
should be studied further.

Although not as important culturally or historically as areas
designated as conservation or seasonal conservation zones,
the areas which merit special attention include some sites of
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historic and cultural significance and continue to be used
subsistence purposes. These should be protected from devel-
opment activity on a site specific basis.

E. ZONE OF PREFERRED DEVELOPMENT
The zone of preferred development has been chosen on the
basis of its compatibility with fish and wildlife resources and
subsistence land use, the location of existing oil and gas
development, and anticipated future demands for facilities
and services insofar as these can be determined at this time.
These are areas within which oil and gas development would
seem likely to be most appropriate and within which such
development should be encouraged. Zones of preferred devel-
opment fall into two classifications-the industrial develop-
ment zone where long-term, permanent development is allow-
ed and the petroleum development zone within which only
temporary structures and support facilities are allowed.

The industrial development zone is synonymous with the
existing Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse complex and the Pipeline/
Haul Road utility corridor. In order to minimize additional
impact and to avoid the unnecessary duplication of facilities
and services, permanent development within the Prudhoe Bay
Coastal Area should be limited to this already developed area.

The petroleum development zones are much larger in area
than the industrial development zone and are designed to
accommodate temporary activity related to anticipated new
petroleum development. No permanent development will be
allowed in these areas except such essential structures as
platforms, pipelines, and pump houses.

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VI. Objectives, Policies and Standards

VI. OBJECTIVES, POLICIES AND STANDARDS

A. BACKGROUND

There can be little question that the life supporting habitat considered permanent residents of the North Slope Borough.
and the subsurface resources are the critical elements in the Most governmental employees providing services on the
development of coastal management objectives, policies and North Slope remain a limited number of years. Those
standards within the North Slope Borough generally and the associated with the military either directly or by contract
Prudhoe Bay area in particular. The habitat, of course, normally are rotated after a year or two at their station on
supports the fish and wildlife populations. The populations the North Slope. Individuals in the scientific community
provide subsistence for the resident Inupiat and the process generally remain only on a project basis or until their field
involved in the Inupiat's susbsistence pursuits forms the basis data are collected or, in other instances, seasonally migrate to
of Inupiat culture. On the other hand, the subsurface re- the north for research of limited duration. And the employ-
sources have resulted in petroleum development. This devel- ees of the oil and gas industry on the North Slope are rotated
opment provides jobs, business opportunities and tax reve- from their base camp outside the North Slope on a still
nues for North Slope Borough residents. These revenues are shorter basis.
imporvements are carried out by resident Inupiats who
recieve income for their labor. This process, in turn, results in During the last population estimate on July 1, 1977, for
a higher standard of living for the North Slope Borough Alaska State revenue sharing, there were 9,163 people in the
permanent resident population. Therefore, the basis of Borough. Of this number an estimated 3,612 lived in the
Inupiat culture and the means for the Inupiat to subsist and permanent Borough communities. The total population of
prosper are vested in the prudent management of the lands the Borough on July 1, 1976 was estimated at 12,614 with a
and waters of the Borough and the resources therein. total of 3,630 residing in the permanent communities. A
Borough population count during September 1973 listed
Regarding the people of the North Slope Borough, the only 3,333 residents within the permanent communities. Thus,
permanent long-term residents have been the Inupiat. There during the period of Prudhoe Bay petroleum development,
are residents other than Eskimos, however, these residents are the Borough communities grew at an average rate of approxi
essentially transient and can be classified within four broad mately 2.5 percent per year. This is a modest rate of growth
categories. The first are residents whose purpose for being considering that the Prudoe Bay petroleum-related employ-
within the Borough is associated with providing services to ment counted as population increased from an estimated 253
the local Eskimo population. Employment-produced income in September 1973 to 8,801 in July 1976.
which supports these residents is forthcoming principally
from Federal, State and local government units and to a The community composition is approximately 85 percent
lesser extent the Native corporations. The second group is who are essentially life-long Inupait residents and 15 percent
associated with military complexes. The third group is the other residents who are generally white people who have
scientific community who is studying the Arctic. And the moved to the Borough for employment in the public service
fourth group is associated with natural resource extraction area. This immigration to the Borough communities has
principally of oil and gas resources. resulted in large parts from the Boroughs assumption of new
areawide powers in recent years, the upgrading of health
Although considered residents, few of these people can be services in this area and the increase in Arctic research as s
result of national interest in petroleum production. Overall
however, the community population in the Borough is quite
stable with only a relatively small amount of growth.

The cultural base of the I nupiat of the North Slope is largely quantities of subsurface resources beyond those discovered
vested in the subsistence pursuits of the people. It is impor- and in the process of development in the Prudhoe Bay area
tant to recognize that the incomes of the people of the North such as other petroleum resources, coal, phosphates and
Slope are supplemented by subsistence activities. In many other minerals. However, despite this storehouse of mineral
cases this is not essential from the perspective of obtaining resources, the costs associated with development are extreme-
sufficient nutrition. However, subsistence is essential if this ly high. Therefore, the discovery of major deposits is required
Inupiat culture is to survive. The esteem accorded the captain at this time before production is considered or deposits of a
for his skill and bravery; the sharing of the catch on a smaller scale must be located close to existing transportation
community basis; the provisions for the old, the infirm, the systems thereby reducing costs before production would be
ill and the needy from the catch; the camaraderie and contemplated. Even drastic increases in value over time due
brotherhood fostered in the hunt; the passing of legends from to increased scarcity may not result in the development of
generation to generation; and the total reliance upon )nupiaq the resources if costs of production increase at a similar rate.
as the language of the hunt; are all basic to the Inupiat Furthermore, substitutes for these resources may be develop-
culture which prizes the abilities of people to survive in the ed and employed. Technology, in general, becomes a two-
Arctic and from this evolves the sophisticated personal edged sword in this case. It may serve to reduce costs of
relationships, the generous sharing of time and property and development in the Arctic, permitting commercial develop-
other elements appreciated in so-called "village living." ment on the one hand. On the other hand, it may provide
The economic base of the Inupiat of the North Slope substitutes for these Arctic resources. For example, in 1978,
Borough is vested in the natural resource extraction indus- there is no development of the Beluga coal fields which are
tries, principally the petroleum industry in the Prudhoe Bay large, quality subbituminous deposits at tidewater near
area. This industrial sector has provided the residents of the Anchorage. The increased demand for coal is being filled
Borough with greater opportunity for employment and with through increased production of the established eastern coal
increased business opportunities both through village and region and the open pit mining of new western deposits. The
regional corporation enterprises and as individual entrepre- potential supply from these areas certainly looks as though it
neurs. It has also provided a source of tax revenues which in will extend in time to a point where alternate sources of
turn create employment and business opportunities whJe power may be developed and provide reasonably low-cost
providing needed facilities and services to the people. energy.
As a result of natural resource extraction, the Borough has Given this admittedly pessimistic scenario, it would be sheer
been afforded the opportunity of raising the level of living of folly to impose policies which would prohibit development
its people. And this industry sector can only be considered of the few potential commercial deposits which may exist
basic to the continued improvement of future living condi- aside from the present Prudhoe Bay field. Therefore, a
tions in this harsh environment. Threats to the continuation policy is mandated that will enable the exploration, designa-
of natural resource development in the North Slope Borough tion and development of what in all likelihood will be a
are threats to the social and economic well-being of the relatively small number of commercial deposits of nonrenew-
people of the North Slope Borough. able petroleum resources. These resources are scarce in the
quantities, at the grades and in the locations which make
Estimates by Federal and State agencies concerned with the them commercial. And in terms of the most complete
assessment of natural resources indicate the existence of large commercial extraction only relatively small amounts of the

land's surface will be disturbed and temporarily occupied. B. OBJ ECTIVES
Nevertheless, this does not imply either rapid development or The North Slope Borough objectives in the management of
uncontrolled development. Unquestionably, no development the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area are as follows:
should take place in areas such as those of irreplaceable 1 . To value and have valued by others the long-term needs
habitat, extremely scenic and aesthetically pleasing areas, of fish and wildlife above all competing uses.
historic sites and other such areas of concern within the 2. To enforce sound management of all fish and wildlife
Borough. However, regarding natural resource development resources and the environment upon which the fish and
in most of the remainder, it is more a question of enforcing wildlife and man depend.
standards resulting in development of the highest quality 3. To effect management on the basis of total ecosystems.
with concern for the environment in the broadest sense. 4. To use Borough regulatory powers, to enter into agree-
On the other hand, it is well understood by the permanent ments and to generally promote the protection of fish
inhabitants of the North Slope Borough that the fish and and wildlife habitat regardless of jurisdiction.
wildlife and the environment required for their maintenance, 5. To compel management plans and actions to perpetuate
and hopefully their enhancement, must be protected to and enhance the habitat to obtain optimum fish and
insure a perpetual harvest for subsistence uses and the wildlife populations.
maintenance of the Inupiat culture.
This has become an increasingly formidable task since the 6. To insist upon the protection of endangered and threat-
Inupiat is expected to exercise the utmost prudence not only ened species.
to insure his own perpetual taking but to insure the con- 7. To preserve the traditional Inupiat lifestyle and culture
tinued maintenance or enhancement of fish and wildlife for by maintaining unimpaired subsistence use and access to
the remainder of the United States as well as other nations. all lands and waters and the fish and wildlife which
inhabit them and by preserving the historic resources of
Since the basis of the Inupiat culture is vested in subsistence the Inupiat culture.
gathering activities his claim to this renewable resource must 8. To permit competing uses only when assured that the
be of a higher order than any other user. However, despite effects will neither result in decreased productivity of
this legitimate primary claim to the resource, it is fully fish and wildlife resources within the ecosystems nor the
realized that no one will gain with the deterioration of the loss of endangered or threatened species.
stocks or with extinction at the extreme. Therefore, it is of
great interest to the Inupiat and a policy of the North Slope 9. To support competing uses only to the extent that they
Borough to insure a safe environment for the optimum contribute to the health and well-being of the perma-
nent residents of the North Slope Borough and fulfill
propagation of the fish and wildlife for subsistence uses as the intent and spirit of self-determination as embodied
well as for the benefit of other peoples. At the same time, in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.
there must be allowances for prudent development of petro-
leum resources under strict regulation. No longer will the C. POLICIES
Inupiat bear the burden of fish and wildlife conservation
through a return to the nonclevelopment policies which were The policies or plans of action in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
replete with poverty and privation for many if not most. The Area for carrying out the objectives of the Coastal Manage-
call is for prudent multiple use development of excellence. ment Program are tailored toward the perpetuation and
25

enhancement of wildlife and wildlife habitat, while at the as the Prudhoe Bay production and the upcoming gas
same time recognizing the existence of competing uses and pipeline should be the top priority use in the Haul Road
the necessity of accommodating these in the future. How- utility corridor. Uses such as tourism facilities, sport
ever, policies relating to competing uses call for outright hunting and fishing resorts and remote subdivisions
avoidance, severe limitation, stringent requirements and regu- should definitely be discouraged at this time.
lation and actions to overcome their effects. Since the
following policies have broad effects in most cases, it should Future related energy development such as that contem-
be understood that their influence extends beyond the plated in the Beaufort Sea area, NPR-A and regional
categories in which they are placed. corporation lands should also be considered a prime use
for the Haul Road. However, such development should
I . Siting of Major Public and Private Facilities continue to pay its own way as far as road development
and maintenance are concerned.
� The location of all facilities will be on a site specific In keeping with its policy to minimize land use through
basis by permit so as to avoid unnecessary dispersal of the joint use of facilities and the concentration of
facilities as well as to provide a means of protecting development, the Borough policy is to limit access to
areas meriting special attention such as archeological the land. This position is critical regarding ingress and
and historic sites, hunting and fishing camps and egress along the Pipeline Haul Road. It is the Borough
grounds, and areas of exceptional habitat. policy that all traffic should pass through the Borough
� Sand and gravel borrow pits must be located on a site with an absolute minimum of stops or impact on
specific basis. This mining should not take place during adjacent lands and resources within the Prudhoe Bay
portions of the year when there would be substantial Coastal Area.
harm to the environment such as the silting of rivers and Solid waste disposal on the barrier islands, artificial
streams. Mining should not take place on the beaches or islands or at sea should not be permitted nor should
offshore unless no alternatives exist and only then there be any disposal in the rivers or lakes which
when it can be demonstrated that the shoreline dynam- support or are capable of supporting fish and wildlife.
ics are not to be altered.
� Transportation facilities should be multimodal to the Any major lease sales resulting in the addition of
maximum extent possible thus enabling utility and facilities in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area should submit
transportation modes to be placed in a single corridor. a plan of such activities with the proposed optimum
The number of corridors should be minimized through location of facilities prior to any development.
cooperative long-term planning efforts. Archeological and historic sites and sites of cultural
� Airports and helicopter pads should be located so that significance such as fishing and hunting camps are to be
there is a minimum of impact upon migrating wildlife, avoided in the siting of any facilities. No activity is to be
breeding grounds and nesting areas. Furthermore, air permitted in known sites and a thorough investigation
routes and altitudes should be designated and maintain- of proposed sites for any proposed development should
ed to minimize disruption of wildlife. be undertaken prior to construction. These sites are
generally small and present little problem in working
� It is the Borough position that energy development such around them.

It is Borough policy that the joint use of sites and landing areas and service bases will be confined to
facilities, including existing facilities, should be encour- Prudhoe Bay. Safety of offshore personnel is deemed by
aged to the maximum extent possible. Included in the the Borough as the only exception meriting considera-
facilities under consideration should be the shore-based tion for shoreline locations. The prime areas of consider-
production facilities, pipelines, freshwater storage areas, ation in this regard are viewed as being the DEW Line
material sites, airfields, roads, disposal sites, and trans- stations which are no longer in use.
portation corridors. Upon consideration of flooding, soils, and other charac-
Although areas subject to flooding as a result of a teristics, there shall be a concentration of facilities in
100-year flood have not been precisely identified, there the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area sufficient to take
appears to be little question that the Prudhoe Bay/ advantage of the economics of utilities such as piped
Deadhorse complex is in the floodplain of the Saga- sewer and water, power and other infrastructural
vanirktok River. In order to promote the public health, elements such as existing roads and communications.
safety and general welfare of the Borough and to
protect the environment, the loss of life and property, 2. Management of Valuable Commercial,
the disruption of commerce and governmental services Recreation, a d Subsistence Resources
and the impairment of the tax base, facilities shall in Since the entire offshore area nominated for oil and gas
location, design, construction and operation be protect- leasing has been classified by the Borough Coastal
ed against flood damages. Management Program as an area which merits special
No permanent residential settlement or new towns attention, severe use restrictions should be established
should be located in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. The on a seasonal basis for all tracts leased.
practice of maintaining camps for employees who are The Borough has a vital interest in preserving from
shuttled into the area for work periods then outside to destruction or detrimental impact those sites or areas of
their permanent residence is viewed by the Borough as historic, architectural, archeological and general cul-
the best means of limiting the impact of people upon tural significance identified in Beaufort Sea Study-
the environment. Permanent residential development Historic and Subsistence Site Inventory. Many of the
would increase the consumption of wildlife habitat, sites shown on USGS 1:250,000 maps in this report
pollution and competition for limited subsistence re- could meet National Register criteria. However, many
sources. The major private and public facilities created sites require interpretation in far greater detail to guar-
by this activity should be confined to the Prudhoe antee that historic preservation and environmental re-
Bay/Deadhorse area. quirements are completely met. Especially important to
Long-term structures or facilities for administration, the coastal Inupiat and the North Slope Borough are the
operations or residence should be located in the Prud- barrier islands from Thetis Island to Icy Reef. If there is
hoe Bay/Deadhorse area. No long-term facilities other to be compatible development offshore, these sites must
than pipelines, pump houses, and other structures or be held inviolate. Therefore, identification, study and
facilities absolutely necessary to the operations of petro- interpretation of these sites in detail must be carried out
leum fields should be located outside this area. prior to lease sales so that conflicts will be avoided.

Major shoreline use and facilities such as docks, barge Areas deemed irreplaceable habitat which support abun-

clant fish and wildlife populations and which should be for Native Allotment claims and where provided for
totally removed from surface use are Colville River and under the terms of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement
its delta, the Canning River and its delta, and Howe Act, the Borough desires that no land be sold or
Island which is a part of the Sagavanirktok River delta. conveyed in fee to private parties in this area.
The Colville River delta is the most productive water- To further strengthen local control of development in
fowl area on the North Slope, an anadromous fishery the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, the North Slope Bor-
and a site of polar bear denning. The Canning River
delta is also an important area for waterfowl and ough has actively pursued land selections in the immedi-
anadromous fish. And Howe Island is the only identified ate vicinity of Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse.
snow goose breeding ground in Alaska. Not only should Aggressive management of fish and wildlife and their
there be no surface use in these areas but a sufficient habitat should not be abandoned simply because petro-
buffer area should be maintained to exempt these areas leum development exists in the area. The Borough
from other forms of disturbance such as noise pollution. believes that management and programs of habitat
In addition, no activity should be permitted in known improvement should be more intensive during this
sites of archeological and historic importanceor in sites period of habitat consumption and fish and wildlife
of cultural significance such as fishing and hunting disruption.
camps.
Petroleum development producing a nonrenewable re-
The area from the Colville River delta to Egg Island source will perhaps occupy portions of lease sale areas
which includes Simpson Lagoon and Gwydyr Bay is an for only a relatively short period of time. Although this
important seasonal feeding ground for anadromous fish period may be a substantial part of our lives, it is still
and whales, a polar bear clenning area and a waterfowl temporary. Therefore, the permanent long-range values
area. It is unquestionably an area of exceptional habitat.
The Borough recommends that this area not be consid-
ered for oil and gas leasing until safe development is
demonstrated in other offshore areas and then only on a
seasonal basis.

The area enclosed by the Maguire Islands and Flaxman
Island is also an important seasonal feeding ground for
anadromous fish, whales and some waterfowl. This is an X" i@
area of exceptional habitat and the Borough recom-
mends that it not be considered for oil and gas leasing AN&
until safe development is demonstrated in other off-
shore areas and then only on a seasonal basis.

The Borough views public land ownership as being an
extremely important means of avoiding and mitigating
undesirable impacts. Lease agreements may provide
controls unavailable by other means. Therefore, except

of the area should receive emphasis. carbons. If allowable means of transporting petroleum
0 All lands upon termination, cancellation or abandon- from offshore fields as written or implied in lease sale
ment of leases should be returned as closely as possible contracts are later barred for environmental reasons,
to their natural state. This would include artificial claims would undoubtedly be filed by lessees. Or,
islands, causeways and roads which should be removed environmental objections would be subjugated by eco-
nomic considerations. Therefore, it is viewed by the
after their use has ended.
Borough as being extremely important that the means
0 The quantities of land or the number of tracts to be of transporting petroleum to shore or from offshore
leased during lease sales should be capable of being loading systems and the effects of these transportation
closely monitored. The areas should be of the scale to modes be thoroughly investigated prior to sales.
allow the responsible authorities to thoroughly enforce Despite extensive experience in petroleum exploration,
and manage the stipulations of lease sale contracts and development, production and transportation in the
general authorities under law. Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, many new considerations
0 Lands beyond the barrier islands except those capable are posed by proposed offshore activities. The Borough
of being explored and produced from the barrier islands views increased knowledge of the following factors as
should not be leased at this time. The technology being critical to successful petroleum exploitation with
required to safely explore, develop and produce from a minimum of environmental disruption: barrier reefs or
artificial islands, drillships, rigs or platforms beyond the former barrier islands, the so-called Narwhal Island
barrier islands needs to be demonstrated before such boulder field, underwater permafrost, the effects of oil
risk-taking ventures should be allowed. spills in the cold Beaufort Sea waters and an oil spill
contingency plan considering these effects, the effects
0 Exploration, development and production drilling of artificial islands and causeways upon the marine
should be permitted to locate only on a site specific environment, effects of this environment upon subsea
basis onshore and on the barrier islands and from pipelines, especially new methods such as installation of
artificial islands. Thus, potential spills or blowouts at casing by directional drilling for emplacement of carrier
the wellhead would result in the oil flowing upon the pipe, and the effects of subsea gravel mining on the
surface (land, ice or snow) where it could be impounded marine environment.
and cleaned up rather than chancing a spill in the
Beaufort Sea. By reason, the danger of subsea or A thorough set of stipulations dealing with noise pollu-
underwater escapement of oil is simply not worth the tion, erosion, silting, gravel extraction, water usage and
chance, especially where endangered marine species are waste disposal should be included in lease sale stipula-
involved. A spill could conceivably destroy food sources tions. The Borough considers strict regulation in these
of the bowhead whale and other endangered species. If matters to be invaluable to the protection of the
no alternate habitat or source of food was available, the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area environment.
consequences could be tragic. Although not promulgated by the State of Alaska, the
A separate plan of operations should be submitted for studies as required in the Oil and Gas Pre-Leasing
development/production phases. However, implicit in Procedures (I I AAC 81.210-430) regarding social, eco-
lease sale contracts is the intent to produce hydro- nomic and environmental analyses of proposed lease

sales is viewed by the Borough as being essential prior to of quicker recovery from environmental loss or damage.
any lease sale by the State. I I AAC 81.040 permits the Lands consumed in the conduct of petroleum explora-
Director of the Division of Lands or his designee to tion, development, production and transportation
exempt the proposed joint Federal/State Beaufort Sea
lease sale from any and all requirements of sections should be valued as to the loss of fish and wildlife
210-430. Considering the complexities involved in this habitat. Funds compensating the State or Federal gov-
frontier area and the presence of endangered species, the ernment for this loss should then be expended within
Borough believes an exemption of these studies not to the region for habitat improvement, thereby mitigating
be in the best interest of the Borough And the State. the loss of habitat. The Borough views this as a deter-
rent to unnecessary consumption of space (habitat) as
� Environmental training in the broadest sense should be well as a means of avoiding the loss of fish and wildlife
undertaken in all areas. In addition to archeological, resources.
geological and biological considerations, the program The existence of habitat which is capable of producing
should consider the historic, social, and cultural aspects plentiful wildlife is essential to the preservation of
of the North Slope and its residents. In this way a Inupiat subsistence economy and culture. Since the
greater appreciation and respect for the Inupiat and maintenance of these is of paramount importance to the
their values may be gained by those working for the people of the Borough, it is Borough policy to strictly
petroleum industry on the North Slope and in the limit any activities which would inhibit habitat produc-
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area in particular. tion. Conversely, the Borough believes that whenever
� The Borough considers a field training program as possible habitat enhancement programs should be
required by 18 AAC 75.310 Contingency Plans to be of strongly encouraged.
great importance. Borough staff observations of recent
oil spills indicate that failures in techniques and equip- Recreation and tourism are both activities whose devel-
ment could have been detected and corrected as a result opment directly infringes on wildlife supporting habitat
of field training exercises prior to actual oil spills. and which threaten to compete for subsistence re-
� An inventory should be undertaken quantifying the life sources. To minimize their adverse impact, facilities and
of the coastal habitat including the number of marine services supporting these activities should be confined to
organisms and the amount of biomass prior to a lease already developed areas.
sale. Furthermore, dollar values should be estimated. It is Borough policy to discourage land classifications
Also included should be the fair market value and such as Wild and Scenic River and National Park which
utility/rent value of beach and shoreline property and would serve in the long run to encourage increased
the shoreline properties of the estuaries. These quan- tourist and recreation use of the land.
tities and values agreed upon by the lessees and the
lessors and should then be included in the stipulations 3. 1 ntergovern mental Coordination
of the lease sale contract to provide a basis for calcula-
tions of environmental loss or damage which might The Borough views participation in all governmental
occur. This is looked upon by the Borough as a activities directly affecting the lands and waters of its
deterrent to careless practices resulting in pollution, as coastal area as a primary means of attaining its goals. It
spurring clean-up actions if a spill results, and as a means is the policy of the North Slope Borough to actively and

willingly participate in planning, policy development required by lease sale contracts, Federal and State laws
and regulatory activities within the North Slope Bor- and local ordinances, a joint office should be established
ough. Thus, the North Slope Borough calls for the to coordinate and expedite the processing of all govern-
fullest opportunity allowable under law to participate mental permits and project reviews. Such a "one stop
and coordinate activities with other governmental en- shopping center" concept is seen by the Borough as
tities. providing a more coordinated, responsive and empirical
The North Slope Borough policy in regard to fish and approach to the management of lands and waters after
wildlife management can be summed up as one of active lease sales. From the industry's viewpoint, it would
participation in a cooperative management system of serve to avoid duplication and time and effort consumed
excellence with an overriding priority for subsistence in locating and dealing with numerous seemingly auton-
uses. The Borough views the Alaska Eskimo Whaling omous governmental units. Furthermore, this approach,
Commission as a beginning. Although this Commission which would be a part of the lease sale stipulations, is
was formed for the local self-regulation of a single seen as being more logical if extended to include
endangered migratory subsistence species, its formation existing and potential petroleum basins or petroleum
was encouraged by the Federal government and it is provinces rather than individual lease sales. The entire
actively cooperating with State and Federal officials in Beaufort Sea area both onshore and offshore and both
the management of this vital resource. Federal and State lands and waters appear amenable to
this approach.
Since the petroleum industry, especially in its offshore The Borough views agreements among the circumpolar
operations, is extremely complex with innumerable
variables presented during the exploration of each lease nations regarding the environmental protection of the
sale area and during the development and production Arctic Ocean to be in the best interest of all nations.
phases after the location of commercial quantities, the Thus, the Borough will continue its efforts toward the
Borough views a close working relationship between realization of an Arctic Oceans policy with other gov-
industry and government as a means of satisfactory and ernmental units.
mutually beneficial site location and protection of the The exploration and development of energy resources
environment. The Borough realizes that severe limita- both onshore and offshore in the frontier Arctic areas of
tions exist in planning where the location of the petro- Alaska, Canada, Greenland and the Soviet Union are
leum finds are not known. Thus, once the deposits are viewed by the North Slope Borough as being potentially
defined, the development of plans must begin anew with detrimental to the fragile Arctic environment. As a
a whole series of alternate means of developing, produc- means of environmental protection, the Borough will
ing and transporting the product. Most often this in- attempt to effect intergovernmental coordination result-
volves the consideration of adjacent and nearby finds. ing in an international Arctic coastal management pro-
Thus once lease sale contracts are entered into, there gram and a cooperative environmental impact assess-
must be a degree of flexibility during the production ment protocol.
and development phases. To assure maximum protec-
tion of the environment, the Borough must maintain a It is the North Slope Borough's view that rules of
close, ongoing relationship with the industry. operation for the exploration, development and produc-
In order to facilitate the sound environmental practices tion of petroleum of neighboring Arctic Ocean nations

be at least as stringent as those in Alaska. To insure the although embodying in part the Borough's policies, are not
safe development of petroleum resources in the Arctic, a structured to attain Borough goals. It is the standards
common set of rules for onshore and offshore develop- developed at the local level which must guide Federal and
ment must be formulated and agreed upon. Coordinat- State regulatory and enforcement authority toward the at-
ed, unified intergovernmental activity is viewed as being tainment of local goals.
necessary to initiate such an agreement. The development of reasonable, yet effective standards in the
D. STANDARDS Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is not an easy task due to the
nature of the petroleum industry whose land uses and
The standards or the rules to be applied in carrying out the activities overshadow all other effects upon the environment.
North Slope Borough policies for conducting activities on the This is a large, dynamic and complex industry which as it
lands and waters of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area cannot be moves offshore poses even greater threats to the environ-
formulated prior to the development of the basic tools of ment.
implementation. Although the coastal management program
enables the formulation of goals and policies, the develop- To counter these threats to the environment, codes and
ment of standards requires carrying out a basic program of ordinances are required which prevent surface development
comprehensive planning culminating in the enactment of in specific areas, limit development on a seasonal basis in
codes and ordinances in which the standards are embodied. other areas, and severely regulate activities in all areas where
Or Borough standards can evolve through agreements with development is allowed. This requires the legal enforcement
other units of government where standards are jointly devef- of standards based upon contingency plans and these plans
oped . However, if the North Slope Borough is to develop and the standards to be applied must have a degree of
confidence in and understanding of its position regarding flexibility which makes them amenable to changes or unfore-
standards and their enforcement, it must go through the seen occurrences.
process of developing standards independently prior to nego- Even during limited lease sales, vas .t areas are leased for
tiations. exploration. Within these areas, the location of commercial
It should not be interpreted that there are no standards being petroleum deposits, if any, are unknown. Speculation as to
applied to development in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. A quantities and locations can be made and contingency plans
wide range of standards in the form of regulations are being can be drawn. However, if commercial finds are realized and
applied by Federal agencies such as the Environmental defined, changes in the development plan may be required.
Protection Agency, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Quantities and location may force the consideration of
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Office of Pipeline Safety, alternate means of developing, producing and transporting
the Occupational -Safety and Health Administration, and the product. The alternative may prove to be more or to be
many others, while State agencies such as,the Department of less environmentally damaging or disruptive. Or new tech-
Environmental Conservation, the Department of Fish and nologies may provide environmental safeguards unknown in
Game, the Department of Transportation and Public Facil- the past. Thus, the standards drawn must be rigid enough to
ities, the Department of Natural Resources, and others have effectively control the use of the lands and waters of the
their own standards which overall vary from those applied by Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area yet they must be sufficiently
the Federal government. flexible to respond to change.
However, it is reasonable to assume that these standards,

40*

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VII. Implementation Strategies

VII. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES successful undertakings were legislative when, for example,
the Borough played a major role in the transfer of NPR-A
During the formative years of North Slope Borough organiza- from Navy to Interior with strong regulatory, study and
tion and development from its inception on July 1, 1972 to classification requirements designed to protect the environ-
date, the Borough has depended in large part on Federal and ment. In the area of archeological, historic, and cultural sites,
State agencies' pursuing the legislative mandate of numerous the Borough has provided invaluable identification and infor-
pieces of legislation tailored to protect the environment. mation for the protection of these sites. These policies and
Borough actions were reserved to investigation of particularly the adoption of a zoning ordinance for the Haul Road
damaging or disruptive events as reported by inhabitants of provide a basis for the control of development along this
the Borough and to intercession in behalf of these residents route. The Borough Capital Improvements Program for the
with State and Federal officials in an attempt to rectify such Prudhoe Bay area seeks to consolidate development of major
situations. As development activities increased with the trans- private and public facilities and to connect them to one
Alaska pipeline construction, the Prudhoe Bay oil field common utility system. Borough/State cooperation in study
development, the exploration of areas adjacent to the Prud- efforts such as the Social Analysis of the Beaufort Sea Lease
hoe Bay field and the accelerated exploration of NPR-A, Sale welcomed Borough input.
reports of environmental damage and disruption increased However, despite the individual efforts of some Federal and
dramatically. State agencies, the North Slope Borough feels largely ignored.
The Borough witnessed a large consumption of productive Decisions are often made which directly affect the Borough
habitat, the disruption of fish and wildlife migrations, without even notification being sent to the Borough or
damage to overwintering fish populations and other impacts without a solicitation for its inputs. Borough reports, some
of oil and gas exploration and development. Blowouts while compiled almost exclusively from local sources, are often
drilling offshore from the Mackenzie River delta in Canada ignored. Borough ordinances directly applicable to land use
heightened the concern for the environment in the North and development are often dismissed. In summary, except in
Slope Borough. And announcements of proposed lease sales rare circumstances, the North Slope Borough finds itself a
in the Beaufort Sea were seen to threaten the very existence foreign party to much planning, policy development and
of the bowhead whale which is an endangered species and regulation within its own corporate limits and the Borough
paramount to the subsistence and culture of the coastal does not see the tangible results as being development of
Inupiat of the North Slope Borough. Furthermore, not to be excellence with the utmost concern for the environment.
omitted by this general plight is the inland Inupiat of
Anaktuvuk Pass who along with their coastal relatives foresee A. FEDERAL AND STATE CONSISTENCY
the opening of the Haul Road to the general public as being WITH LOCAL PLANS AND ORDINANCES
damaging and disruptive to the wildlife resources. They are The State's police power delegated to the North Slope
especially concerned with the disruption of the caribou herds Borough extends to all lands within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
and fear increased direct competition for this scarce subsist- Area. This includes Federal and State lands as well as
ence resource. privately owned properties. However, the extent of control
Clearly, the protection of the environment by the local may be limited.
governmental unit, the North Slope Borough, was mandated In the area of land use development and environmental
by the permanent residents of the Borough. Perhaps the most protection, local control and planning have been relied upon

by the State and Federal governments throughout the nation. Subsections 307(c)(1) and (2) provide assurances that all
This is especially evident within the realm of public welfare Federal activities including development projects directly
where such Federal legislation as the National Environmental affecting the coastal area are undertaken in a manner consist-
Policy Act of 1969 and the Environmental Quality Improve- ent to the maximum extent practicable with approved State
ment Act of 1970 recognize the importance of both State coastal management programs.
and local governments. Furthermore, the primary responsibil- Thus, with local representation on the Alaska Coastal Policy
ity for the enhancement of the national environment through
control of pollution, water and land resources, transporta- Council charged with the development of standards and with
tion, and economic and regional development is seen to rest the approval of district management programs, the local
with State and local governments.

Of course, Federal authority over its lands is well established.
It may be proprietary or legislative in nature and stems from
the "Property Clause" of the U. S. Constitutio n, Article 1,
Section 3, Clause 2, and the Supremacy Clause, Article VI,
Clause 2, respectively. However, in particular cases courts
have held that States and local units of government delegated
State authority may exercise control over Federal lands to
the extent that regulation would not be inconsistent or
clearly frustrate Federal policies and programs.

Federal jurisdiction over Federal property in laws enacted by M,
the Congress may be determined by express or implied intent
to allow or not to allow State or local laws to be applied.
Recent legislation such as the Federal Land Policy and
Management Act of 1976 calls for public and State/local
government consultation and participation in BLM's develo
p-
ment of land use plans for public lands. This legislation
further calls for the land use plans of the Secretary to be
consistent with State and local plans to the maximum extent
he finds consistent with Federal law and the purposes of the
Act. However, although the extent of consistency with local
plans is not well spelled out, it is clear that local authority
has not been totally preempted.

Somewhat differently than the Federal Land Policy and
Management Act of 1976, the Coastal Zone Management Act
of 1972, as amended (16 USC 1451 et seq.) seeks consistency
for Federal activities with States and their local governmental
41
units while excluding Federal lands from the coastal area.

governmental unit is afforded the opportunity to have Feder- detailed plans for each separate community to be undertaken
al and State actions and activities in the coastal area consist- as demanded.
ent with local government management plans. This basic document is needed to assemble, inventory and
The Alaska Statutes, Section 35.30.020, more clearly calls analyze basic information regarding traditional use, fish and
for consistency with local government plans and ordinances wildlife, economic, financial, cultural and other data. Pur-
as follows: "A department shall comply with local planning suing one factor may be at the cost of others, thus there are
and zoning ordinances and other regulations in the same inherent conflicts which may require alternative plans or the
manner and to the same extent as other landowners." clear establishment of priorities. This plan is required as a
Although this provision is applicable to all State-owned land basis for zoning both by State law and North Slope Borough
in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, department means only the code (19.04.010) and will be completed as soon as possible.
Department of Transportation and Public Facilities and the Since a major portion of the Borough comprehensive devel-
University of Alaska. opment plan must necessarily be concerned with oil and gas
The North Slope Borough is committed to undertaking the activities and facilities, a comprehensive land use plan for the
development of plans and ordinances to exercise the powers Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area will be undertaken concurrently
of land use planning and control required by the State of with the Borough comprehensive development plan. Al-
home rule boroughs and required to implement the Prudhoe though comprehensive in intent, the plan would emphasize
Bay Coastal Area Management Program. However, since well the means of obtaining a more concentrated development of
in excess of 90 percent of the lands and waters of the facilities and uses in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area so that
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area are in the ownership of the State common roads, utilities, airports and other facilities could be
and Federal governments, the Borough plea for adherence to realized without substantially reducing wildlife habitat in the
local plans and ordinances must be by virtue of the doctrine area. This plan will then form the basis for a zoning and
of Federal and State consistency. floodplain ordinance, subdivision regulations, and building
codes in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area.
B. LOCAL PLANS AND ORDINANCES 2. Zoning Ordinance
The basis for the development of reasonable and effective If the objectives of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area Manage-
standards in carrying out the policies set forth by the ment Program regarding the siting of facilities in an orderly
Borough to attain its objectives in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal manner and the prudent use of lands and waters are to be
Area is vested in the traditional land use controls of local carried out, zoning provides a princip;@; means of implemonta-
government. tion.
I . North Slope Borough Land Use Plans Given the objectives and the policies of the North Slope
As a part of its planning program, the Borough will develop a Borough's Coastal Management Program for the Prudhoe Bay
comprehensive development plan which will consider a range area and the Boroughwide elements of:
of physical, social and economic factors and which will
include plan elements for land and water use, facilities and 1. a relatively stable permanent community population
transportation. This comprehensive plan will be a structure composed in large part of indigenous peoples with lands
plan (a general regional plan) for the Borough with the set aside for any conceivable community expansion,

2. the basis of the Inupiat culture of the North Slope those activities which have been conducted on the lands and
Borough being vested in subsistence pursuits, waters of this area since the arrival of the Eskimo would be
3. natural resource extraction providing the present and encouraged to continue. The extraction of oil and gas, on the
future economic base for an improved standard of living other hand, would require permits from the Borough based
and, upon the fulfillment of specified conditions. Tourism and
recreation and related development would also require per-
4. the need for environmental safeguards to protect the mits from the Borough based upon the fulfillment of speci-
habitat nurturing subsistence resources, fied conditions.
the following zoning scenario is envisioned. 3. Subdivision Regulations
Outside of the village selections under Section 12(a) of the North Slope Borough subdivision regulations are to be ap-
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, the only pertinent land plied to the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area. In order to foster
uses within the North Slope Borough are either related to efficient development requiring minimum road lengths and
mineral resource extraction (petroleum) or subsistence gath- utility linkages and thus habitat consumption, any further
ering activities (hunting and fishing). Within the Section subdivision of this area should be regulated by subdivision
12(a) village selection areas are a variety of land uses ordinance. However, subdivision regulations as with zoning
normally associated with small Alaska communities. But, ordinances and building codes must consider the effects of
since population growth in the permanent Borough commun- flooding and thus a flood hazard ordinance dealing with
ities is not a major factor and lands available through the floodplains.
Al.aska Native Claims Settlement Act are sufficient to accom-
modate any conceivable population growth, it is doubtful 4. Building Codes
there will be encroachment of the villages upon the remaining The Uniform Building Code with amendments will be adopt-
Borough lands outside the village selections. ed and applied immediately to the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse
area where construction has proceeded to date without the
Therefore, the Borough envisions that all lands (and waters) assurance of sound construction for all facilities. Unquestion-
within the North Slope Borough, inc(uding the Prudhoe Bay ably, most facilities which are intended to be used through-
Coastal Area, with the exception of the village selections out the period of petroleum production are built to high
under Section 12*(a) will be zoned by the Borough as a standards. However, facilities exist that would not meet any
wildlife enhancement zone. The uses allowed in this zone code and this is viewed as a threat to the public health, safety
would be all activities contributing to the perpetuation and and general welfare especially where flooding is a possibility.
enhancement of wildlife and wildlife habitat and subsistence Of course, the Uniform Building Code must be severely
activities. Uses allowed on a conditional basis and requiring a amended to take into consideration the needs and the
conditional use permit to insure sound environmental loca- difficulties involved in Arctic construction and possible flood
tion and practices would be oil and gas extraction and related conditions.
activities and tourism and recreation.
This zoning would allow subsistence hunting and fishing 5. Flood Hazard Ordinance
without impairment. No permits would be required and Within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, there are areas subject
access would not be limited as to time and route. In essence, to periodic flooding. These areas could potentially cause

serious damage to property, disrupt communications and nance for adoption by the Borough Assembly.
government services, result in extraordinary public expendi-
tures, impair the local and State tax base and cause wide- C. COOPERATIVE AGREEMENTS
spread pollution. Foremost among the areas of concern must If the Borough does not reinforce or in some cases establish
be the floodplain of the Sagavanirktok River. Some petrol- its presence, it will abdicate its powers to the State and
eum-related development has taken place within the known Federal governments in the areas of planning, policy develop-
floodplain. However, the extent of this floodplain during a ment and regulation of its lands and development thereon.
so-called "100-year flood" is unknown. Thus, it appears to be Thus, the Borough will have little assurance of meeting its
a prudent act to undertake a hydrological study of the objectives. Although the Borough must establish this standing
Sagavanirktok River to determine the extent and intensity of
flooding in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, especially the with land use policies and controls over development through
Deadhorse area. If flooding which would cause damage were the use of its police powers as well as taxation, spending and
forecast to take place there, the area then would be desig- eminent domain, the ultimate means of attaining Borough
nated as a flood hazard area and a flood hazard ordinance goals could be through cooperative agreements.
would be developed and enacted by the Borough. Such an 1. Cooperative Management Agreements
ordinance would assure that safe construction would take
place in the future. As an alternative, the ordinance could be The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area with the Arctic National
tied to any of the ordinances in the affected area such as the Wildlife Range abutting to the east, NPR-A recommended as
ordinances dealing with zoning, subdivision and building the North Slope Wildlife Refuge in current Section 17(d)(2)
codes. legislation adjacent to the west and the proposed Borough
zoning point toward a cooperative management agreement as
6. Capital Improvements Program the most effective means of attaining Borough goals in the
The North Slope Borough Capital Improvements Program is Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area as well as throughout the Borough.
an ordered, long-term schedule for acquiring and building The proposed Borough zoning would undoubtedly be facili-
public facilities deemed to be needed by the Borough. in the tated by a cooperative management agreement among the
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area the Capital Improvements Program Federal government, the State of Alaska, the North Slope
has been used to overcome water, sewer and waste disposal Borough and the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation as the
problems in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area. However, the largest private landowner in the North Slope Borough. Ad-
current Capital Improvements Program calls for thecomple- ministratively, such an agreement would have toguarantee the
tion in 1978 of a complex consisting of a solid waste participants a voice in the planning, policy formulation and
incinerator and sewage treatment plant and a water reservoir regulation of these lands and waters.
to accommodate foreseeable future demands.
Of course, such a cooperative management agreement could
This program is in keeping with Borough policies regarding not be realized without significant effort and substantial
the concentration of facilities permitting common piped accord on such matters as subsistence priorities and oil and
utilities in the Deadhorse area. Should other projects of gas extraction. Then, upon reaching an agreement on substan-
environmental protection be identified requiring outlays of tive issues, the assignment of responsibilities and the develop-
public capital, they will be included in the Capital Improve- ment of procedures for actively administering the substance
ments Program and the Capital Improvements Program ordi- of the agreement would have to be worked out.

It is within the context of such an agreement that the development. Therefore, this single office would be the focal
Borough believes the people of the North Slope can play a point of govern ment- i nd ustry contact for permits and project
significant role. The participation of local residents in the review for the entire Beaufort Sea area, both onshore and
processes of inventorying wildlife, improving wildlife habitat, offshore.
monitoring the effects of development and regulating actions
on the lands and waters would be a distinct asset to all groups D. LAND OWNERSHIP
concerned. The ownership of lands by a local public authority can
There can be little question that the Alaska Eskimo Whaling provide controls unavailable by other means. And barring
Commission developed and successfully implemented a regu- maladministration of these public lands, leasing policies
lAtory program to enforce the quota on bowhead whales provide an effective way of avoiding or mitigating undesirable
established by the International Whaling Commission. With- impacts while enforcing safe, well planned development. But,
out the accord developed by local whaling captains for village since the lands in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area are almost
quotas and their self-imposed regulatory procedures, it is exclusively owned by the State and Federal governments, this
option is not currently open to the Borough and any
doubtful the prudence and restraint exhibited by the Eskimo
whalers during this past spring whaling season would have Borough control on these lands would depend upon the
been forthcoming. This provides an example to regulatory exercise of Federal and State consistency.
agencies of the virtue and the value of direct local participa- However, the North Slope Borough has selected State lands
tion. in the more intensely developed Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area
2. Coordinated Permit and Project Review Procedure under Section 29.18.190 of the Alaska Statutes. This section
The North Slope Borough foresees the establishment of a allows the Borough to select 10 percent of the vacant,
formal office to coordinate and expedite the processing of all unappropriated, unreserved State land within its boundaries.
governmental permits and project reviews as being essential. Although this portion of the Borough land selection was
If the sound environmental practices required in lease sale denied by administrative discretion, legal action brought by
contracts, Federal and State laws and local ordinances are to the Borough is pending before the State Superior Court. The
be facilitated, then a single Federal, State and Borough office conveyance of this State land to the Borough would provide
is required. Such a "one stop shopping center" concept is an added dimension in controlling future development in this
most densely developed area. And it is the Borough intention
seen as providing a more coordinated, responsive and empiri- to pursue gaining title to this land.
cal approach to the management of lands and waters after oil
and gas lease sales. E. IN DUSTRY/130 ROUGH COOPERATION
However, this approach which should be a part of the lease The North Slope Borough has sought the advice of the
sale stipulations is seen as being more logical if the coordinat- petroleum industry in the Prudhoe Bay area regarding
ed permit and review procedure would be extended to Borough planning and development activities. It has also
include the whole of an existing and/or potential petroleum informed the petroleum industry regarding its plans and
basin or petroleum province. Thus, the Borough recommends programs and it has received similar information from the
this approach be implemented not only for the proposed industry. This mutual exchange of information and render-
joint Federal/State Beaufort Sea Lease Sale, but that it be ings of assistance which has somewhat languished lately will
implemented immediately to facilitate ongoing onshore be intensified.

It is fully recognized by the Borough that if plans and
standards of performance are to be required and ordinances
developed and enacted for the Prudhoe Bay area, a close
working relationship will be required with the petroleum
industry to assure that the regulations developed are reason-
able and effective, not punitive and unworkable. Thus, it is
the intention of the Borough to more fully utilize the
knowledge and expertise available through the Industrial
Representatives Advisory Committee to the North Slope
Borough Planning Commission.

F. BOROUGH COMMENT AND CONSULTATION
A variety of Federal and State programs will be beyond the
direct control of local ordinances or the degree of control
possible through local ordinances will be limited. However,
comments or consultation of leasing or permit issuing agen-
cies is often required or sought from the Borough. This
process provides the Borough with the opportunity to obtain
information regarding proposed development or activity and
it also provides the Borough the opportunity to advance its
views.

Although there can be no guarantee that Borough views will
influence the decision-making, well reasoned, well prepared,
timely responses reflecting Borough goals based upon Bor-
ough plans, programs and ordinances can contribute toward
influencing agencies and attaining Borough objectives. The
Borough views the information it receives and its responses as
being extremely important where petroleum or petroleum-
related activities or development are concerned since the
dynamics involved in this industry's operations require con-
stant reappraisal.

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VIII. Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area Inventory

Vill. -PRUDHOE BAY COASTAL AREA INVENTORY. 2. Wind
The most striking characteristic of the wind on the Arctic
The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area inventory describes the coast is its persistence. At Barrow, according to the U. S.
natural and man-made environment of the Prudhoe Bay Weather Service, there is a no-wind condition only 1.3
Coastal Area and traditional and current use of this by local percent of the time. A calm condition is present 4.4 percent
residents, industry and nonresident visitors. Particular empha- of the time at Barter Island to the east of the study area.
sis has been placed on identifying subsistence resources and Wind decreases appreciably inland from the coast. At Umiat,
habitat that are susceptible to impact from development. 90 miles from the coast on the Colville River, there is no
wind about 18 percent of the time.
A. CLIMATE At Barter Island, from May to December, the prevailing
The climate of the Arctic coastal plain differs significantly winds are east-northeast and average from 10.6 to 19.5 knots
from other parts of the State. Temperatures are relatively per hour (12.2 to 22.5 miles per hour). From December to
colder both summer and winter and an almost constant wind April there is a secondary prevailing wind from the west
produces a chill factor which makes the temperature lower averaging from 15.4 to 19.5 knots per hour (17.7 to 22.5
than that registered on the thermometer. Although lakes and miles per hour). At Barrow, the year-round prevailing wind is
streams cover the coastal plain, the annual precipitation is from the east-northeast and averages from 12.4 to 17.5 knots
sufficiently low to classify the zone arid. From November to per hour (14.3 to 20.2 miles per hour).
January cold temperatures and wind, combined with con- As has been mentioned previously, the chill factor created by
tinual darkness, often make outdoor activity difficult and wind is an extremely important consideration for human
sometimes impossible. beings living and working on the Arctic coastal plain. It also
plays a crucial role in determining the navigability of the
1. ILELerature Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during their short ice-free season.
For nine months of the year, from September to June, If an easterly wind prevails from August to October when the
temperatures in the region are below freezing. February is the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas are normally open, the ice is
coldest month with an average daily temperature of -1 2'F at moved away from the coast and maritime traffic is possible.
Barter Island and Barrow, the two stations closest to the A prevailing westerly wind during these same months moves
the ice toward shore and can seriously impede or prevent
study area. July and August, which have average daily shipping operations.
temperatures of about 45*F, are the two warmest months;
however, even during these two months, there are days with
temperatures below freezing. Of more significance to humans 3. Precipitation
than the air temperature, however, is the wind chill tempera- With an average annual precipitation of from 4 to 6 inches,
ture. A body that is warmer than the air will lose heat until the Arctic Slope is considered an arid zone. In general, April
the body and air temperature are equalized. The rate of loss is the driest month at Barrow and Barter Island. Barrow
of body heat is dependent on barriers to heat loss such as receives, in April, an average of 0.17 inches of its total
insulation and clothing. If heat is lost at a rate greater than precipitation and Barter Island receives just 0.11 inches
the body can replace it, hypothermia can result. Wind during this same month. August, on the other hand, is the
accelerates this process at a measurable rate. wettest month at both stations. Barrow receives nearly an

inch or 21 percent of its 4.89-inch average annual precipita- vegetation, topography, drainage and time. The parent mate-
tion in August, and slightly more than an inch or 14 percent rial is the rock or unconsolidated deposits which determine
of Barter Island's average annual precipitation of 7.05 inches the chemical and mineral composition of the soil. The
falls during August. weathering of the parent material and the action of climate
and plant and animal life slowly change the parent material
B. PHYSICAL SETTING into soil. On steep slopes, a portion of the rainfall runs off
1. Geomorphology and Stratigraph leaving less to support plant life. However, the gently sloped
The area encompassed by the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is lands found in the study area have more water and promote
located within a physiographic province, the Arctic Coastal better plant growth. If lowlands are poorly drained, then
Plain. The Arctic Coastal Plain is generally featureless, swamps will form. In the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, most
tundra-covered terrain rising gradually from the Arctic shore soils are formed under poor drainage. The wet soil of the
to a maximum elevation of 600 feet along its southern Arctic Coastal Plain thaws to a maximum of 18 inches in the
boundary with the Arctic Foothills province. The area is summer and the underlying permafrost prevents good drain-
covered by thousands of lakes, meandering rivers and streams age. The texture of the soil, whether it be sandy, loamy, or
and numerous permafrost features. clayey, depends upon the parent material and is determined
by the proportion of different sized particles in the soil.
Quaternary and recent consolidated deposits such as silt, 3. Permafrost
clay, sand and gravel up to 45 meters thick comprise most of
the Beaufort Sea coastal plain. These deposits overlie late Permafrost is any earth material that remains frozen over
Mesozoic sediments, conglomerate and shale and Tertiary several years. A layer of permafrost as much as 1,800 feet
beds of conglomerate, sandstone and siltstone. Paleozoic (550 meters) thick underlies the entire Prudhoe Bay Coastal
rocks thin out from the Brooks Range and are deposited Area. Between the ground surface and the permafrost is a
conformably against the Barrow Arch which runs approxi- shallow layer of earth that thaws to a maximum of 18 inches
mately parallel to the Beaufort Sea coast in the study area. In in summer and freezes completely during the winter. Called
addition, Mesozoic rocks (the Jurassic and Triassic beds) the active layer, this earth accumulates water from rain and
which also thin out from the Brooks Range were deposited snow and ice melt. The underlying permafrost prevents the
conformably on top of these. On the north side of the Arch, infiltration of water and forces surface drainage creating a
the older rocks forming the Arch were truncated by erosion liquid environment. This, in turn, promotes the development
prior to the deposition of the Cretaceous. of the marsh and tundra typical of the region. This vegetative
Many widespread fault systems and an angular unconformity mat insulates and preserves the permafrost and increases its
truncate progressively older rock units. These stratigraphic depth. Disruption to the vegetative mat impairs its insulative
and structural conditions created favorable traps along the effect and causes the permafrost to thaw which results in
Barrow Arch for development of oil and gas. The producing subsidence and erosion.
oil field at Prudhoe Bay is atop the Barrow Arch which is Permafrost also underlies much of the sea floor in the
8,000 to 10,000 feet deep at that location. Beaufort Sea shelf although its eastward extent and distribu-
tion are not known. However, on the basis of bathymetry,
2. Soils general subsea permafrost distribtuion can be estimated. In
Soil formation is affected by the parent material, climate, areas of grounded fast ice, usually associated with less than 2

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meters (6 feet) of water depth, ice-rich permafrost will be prior to river ice break-up, melted water overflows the ice,
found. Offshore Prudhoe Bay, thick unboncled (nonice-rich) sometimes for several miles on each side of the frozen
layers of permafrost have been recorded in water depths channel bed. If river ice break-up occurs after the period of
greater than 2 meters (6 feet). Since the entire Alaskan peak flooding, ice jams may significantly increase the height
Beaufort Sea shelf was exposed during the last glacial age and of the water and cause extensive flooding. Local flooding
was susceptible to permafrost formation, relict ice-bonded may also occur during the winter when water from rivers or
permafrost probably exists out to the 90-meter (290-foot) springs bursts through the surface of the ice and overflows
isobath. It should be noted that these estimates are very the channel. When this overflow freezes, aufeis, which resem-
rough. The actual extent of the permafrost is unknown. bles an ice mound or thick ice sheet, is formed. When it
occurs, aufeis buildup can disrupt river crossings such as
4. Surface Water roads, bridges or pipelines.
There are two types of lakes in the Arctic region: glacial lakes
Although the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is covered by and thaw lakes. Glacial lakes, formed from melting glaciers,
numerous rivers, streams, takes and marshes, continuous are generally found in foothills and mountains close to the
permafrost and ice resulting from the cold winter tempera- source of the glacier, consequently there are few lakes of this
tures severely limit the availability of surface water on a type in the study area. Thaw lakes, however, are quite
year-round basis. Surface water is readily available during the common in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. These are pro-
region's short summer both for human and industrial use * cluced by the pooling of melted snow and ice in slight
The only sources of water during the region's long winter are depressions, augmented during summer by the thaw from
melted ice and snow or the few large rivers such as the underlying permafrost. As this process continues over time,
Canning, Colville, and Sagavanirktok which are fed by the lake deepens and widens. The larger thaw lakes (0.62 to
groundwater wells and maintain flows year-round and the 1.2 miles in surface area) tend to be elongated and oriented
deeper lakes which do not freeze to the bottom. These same
rivers and lakes are used by fish for overwintering.

The major rivers of the study area are the Canning, the
Kavik-Shaviovik, the Sagavanirktok, the Kuparuk-Toolik,
and the Colville. With a drainage area of 24,000 square miles
and a length of approximately 400 miles, the Colville is the
largest of these. The Sagavanirktok drains an area of 5,546
square miles and extends approximately 166 miles; the
Kuparuk drains 3,649 square miles and is 183 miles long; and
the Canning River drains 2,256 square miles and is U 7 miles
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long. Although most rivers and streams in the Prudhoe Bay
Coastal Area are frozen to the bottom from December to
May, the Colville, Sagavanirktok and Canning Rivers maintain
47-
limited flows during these months.

The extent of flooding depends upon the amount of accu-
mulated snow and the time of melting. Floods occur when,

10 to 15 degrees west of true north. Thaw lakes shallower near-shore barrier islands facing them. They are formed from
than 6 to 8 feet usually freeze to the bottom during winter. river deposits accumulated over years. River deposition coasts
Although the larger lakes may not freeze entirely, they extend the shoreline seaward and generally have low relief (0
usually contain impurities from frozen layers and thus are to 4 meters).
not potable. Wave erosion coasts are exposed directly to the open ocean
The permafrost of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area prevents and consist of bedrock sea cliffs or poorly consolidated
subsurface drainage and thus severely limits the availability of permafrost. The cliffs are wave straightened and have a nearly
ground water. The only potential year-round source of continuous appearance. They are generally less than I I
ground water is the unfrozen alluvium located beneath large, meters high and are subject to erosion from wave action.
deep rivers and lakes which do not freeze entirely during the Marine deposition coasts are shaped by sea waves and
winter. Here, the surface water bodies create a warming currents and are in the process of active buildup from these
effect which thaws the surrounding alluvium. The alluvium forces. In general, these coasts are fronted by nearshore
aquifers underlying rivers generally have better quality water barrier islands and spits roughly parallel to the coast but
and greater storage potential than those underlying lakes separated from them by a narrow body of water usually less
because the movement of the river water continuously than 5 kilometers wide. The barriers afford some protection
recharges them. from the ocean pack ice, waves and currents. Marine deposi-
5. Coastal Erosion and Relief tion coasts have a generally low relief of less than 4 meters.
A unique feature of the Beaufort Sea coast is that it is frozen Beaufort Sea coastal relief or sea cliff height can be classified
fast and is therefore protected from erosion during 8 to 9 in three categories. Low coastal relief is less than 2 meters in
months of the year. Nevertheless, the shoreline in the height; moderate coastal relief ranges from 2 to 5 meters; and
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is retreating rapidly. The perma- high coastal relief is greater than 5 meters in height. Because
frost is highly susceptible to thermal erosion effects. During of the ongoing coastal retreat process and the generally flat
the summer, the soil above the permafrost thaws, making it terrain of the area, coastal relief is dependent upon the
weak and highly susceptible to slumping. In addition, the elevation of the adjacent land surface relative to sea level.
surface water has a warming effect on the underlying perma- Low relief is associated with barrier islands and spits, deltas
frost. These two factors in combination with wave and of river deposition coasts and sea cliffs along low sections of
current action break down the ice bonding in the permafrost the tundra surface.
and undercut coastal banks and bluffs to form "thermo- Moderate relief is distinguished by sea cliffs along wave
erosional niches." These niches make the overhanging bluff erosion coasts and marine deposition coasts. These cliffs
increasingly unstable and eventually it collapses. The slumped contrast with the flat tundra surface and are undergoing
soil affords temporary protection from direct wave attack, moderate erosion. Some cliffs of moderate relief are steep
thus retarding coastal retreat. and uniform in appearance, while others are irregular as a
result of erosion and permafrost thawing. High relief coasts
In 1972, P. V. Sellmann of the U. S. Army's Cold Regions generally consist of steep, sheer sea cliffs of relatively
Research and Engineering Laboratory developed three differ- uniform appearance. Normally found along wave erosion
ent coastal classifications on the Arctic coast: river deposi- coasts, these cliffs are subject to only moderate erosion
tion, wave erosion, and marine deposition. River deposition because of the protection afforded by bedrock and large
coasts characteristically are river deltas and sometimes have ramps of snow and ice.

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6. Waves, Currents and Tides Along the Prudhoe Bay coast, the lunar tides are weak and
Wave generation in the Beaufort Sea is significantly limited have a minor effect on sea level. The mean range of sea level
by the almost continuous presence of ice. During the short from these tides is less than 15 centimeters or 6 inches. In the
summer months when the ncarshore areas are ice free, most absence of strong tides, other factors, such as wind and
wave action is from the northeast since that is the direction atmospheric pressure, become unusually significant. Meteoro-
of the prevailing winds. Floating ice and barrier islands logical tides or storm surges resulting from atmospheric low
partially protect the coast from wave action and consequent pressure and westerly winds, have caused the sea level to rise
erosion. as much as three meters (10 feet) according to the Coastal
Studies Institute of Louisiana State University.
Wave size is dependent upon wind velocity and the extent of
open water for the wind to blow across. Heaviest wave action
occurs in September and October when wind is strongest and 7. Ice
the nearshore area is usually free from ice. In the Beaufort The Beaufort Sea is icebound for at least nine months of the
Sea, waves generally have a duration of from two to three year, but break-up and freeze-up vary greatly from season to
seconds and are less than 50 centimeters or 20 inches high. season. Break-up has been observed as early as June 13 but
During severe storms, however, waves of one to three meters generally occurs early in August. Freeze-up has occurred as
and lasting from five to ten seconds have been recorded by late as October 25, but the average freeze-up is the first week
the Coastal Studies Institute of Louisiana State University. in October.
Sensitivity of coastal areas to storm surges and waves is Leads in the Beaufort Sea are associated with break-up.
directly related to coastal relief. Areas with low relief (less Beginning in June, there are scattered leads along the Arctic
than 2 meters in height) are vulnerable to frequent storm coast from Cape Lisburne to Barrow. At about this same
surges and frequent flooding from waves. Zones of moderate time, a lead begins to form at the mouth of the Mackenzie
relief, from 2 to 5 meters in height, are subject to infrequent River and extends westward along the Alaskan coast to about
storm surges and quite frequent storm wave flooding. The the Colville River delta by mid- or late July. These are the
zone of high relief (from 5 to 8 meters in height) is routes used by whales and seals migrating northward and
vulnerable only to infrequent high storm waves of three eastward. The area of coast from Barrow eastward to the
meters or more. The zone of very high relief (greater than 8 Colville delta is normally the last to break up because of the
meters) is free from storm surge or wave flooding danger. prevailing wind flow.
Shallow water, the ice pack and barrier islands limit currents The existence of open water in the Beaufort Sea is dependent
in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. The Beaufort Sea gyre, an upon the winds. Easterly and southerly winds hold the ice
anticyclonic (clockwise) gyre centered midway between the pack offshore, while northerly and westerly winds force the
floes in the direction of the shore. Even when the main body
Arctic coast and the North Pole dominates the surface of ice recedes from the coast, however, drifting floes and
current of the Beaufort Sea. This current carries the ice pack bands of fast ice occur in the inshore waters.
in a westerly direction along the continental shelf at the rate
of from three to ten kilometers a day. Nearshore, between Beaufort Sea ice can be classified in three major zones:
the barrier islands and the coast, the current is wind related grounded fast ice, generalized fast ice, and pack ice. Ground-
and therefore highly variable over short periods of time. ed fast ice, which extends from the shore seaward to the 30-

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to 60-foot isobath and reaches a maximum depth of 6 feet by of Arctic regions. Much of the tundra of the Arctic Coastal
the end of winter, is seasonal and relatively little deformed. Plain resembles grassland, and except for willows and birch
Its extent seaward depends upon the shoreline configuration, found along some river and stream banks, never grows above
water depth, the time of year and pressure exerted by pack a foot tall. Depending upon moisture and slope, the species
ice. Near shore, where water is less than six feet deep, the composition varies. The tundra which dominates the study
freezing continues into the sediments of the ocean bottom, area is generally described as wet. Moist tundra characterizes
thus binding the ice to it. It is nearly static throughout the foothills region of the Brooks Range, and alpine tundra
winter. occurs in the mountainous areas or along well-drained rocky
Generalized fast ice extends from the outer limit of the ridges. Wet tundra covers nearly 80 percent of the Arctic
grounded fast ice to the shear zone which separates it from Coastal Plain, while moist tundra comprises the remaining 20
the pack ice. Generalized fast ice is extremely dynamic. It percent.
constantly produces large, linear leads which freeze and form Wet tundra soil thaws to about 30 centimeters during
new ice susceptible to deformation by pressure from the pack summer. Because of the impermeability of permafrost, water
ice. The area between the generalized fast ice and the pack from melted snow and ground ice is trapped on the surface in
ice, the shear zone, is subject to great stress from penetration poorly drained lowlands and floodplains and provides a wet
by pack ice. This action produces ridges and ice hummocks as environment in which vegetation thrives. Sedges and moss are
high as 13 feet and protuberances which often extend to the the predominant wet tundra species, but cottongrass, herbs,
sea floor and may gouge it as the shear ice moves. heather and small willows are also present.
Beyond the shear zone is the constantly moving pack ice. Moist tundra is characteristic of the southern coastal plain
Sixty to seventy percent of the pack consists of large, and foothills and the better drained areas within the study
multi-year floes from 6 to 12 feet thick. First-year ice, area. Cottongrass tussocks ranging from 6 to 10 inches (15 to
generally less than 8 feet thick, and leads constitute the
remainder of the pack.

The Beaufort Sea pack ice also contains "ice islands" which
have broken off from Ellesmere Island or other ice shelves in
the Canadian Arctic
and have moved westerly with the
prevailing winds. Ranging from 30 to 100 meters (96 to 320
feet) thick, these ice islands sometimes become grounded in
the shallow waters of the Beaufort Sea. When subjected to
pressure from the ice pack, they may gouge the sea bottom.

C. VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
1. Vegetation
Terrestrial vegetation throughout the Arctic Coastal Plain is
relatively uniform. It consists principally of tundra, a word
used to describe the vast, nearly level, treeless plains typical

25 cm) high predominate, and mosses and lichens are found by shallow waters formed during spring thaw when meltwater
in the moist channels between tussocks. Other plants typical overflows stream basins or is trapped in vegetated tundra
of a moist tundra environment are such small shrubs as dwarf depressions. I 'n June, these basin depths rarely exceed 10
birch and willows and herbs like cloudberry and bistort. centimeters in depth; however, by August, surface water is
Well-drained gravel, sand, and silt found along the floodplains absent or only a few centimeters deep. Plants tolerant of
of the major rivers in the study area provide appropriate soil periodic flooding cover all or most of Flooded Tundra.
for the growth of high brush. The plants of this community Class 11, or Shallow-Carex, accounts for 21 percent of the
include willows, mosses and lichens and such herbs as dwarf total wetlands. These are"shallow ponds with a gently sloping
fireweed and lupine. shore zone surrounded by and usually containing emergent
The most conspicuous habitat feature of the moist coastal Carex-aquatilis with a central open water zone. Water depths
tundra .is the extensive wetlands which cover 50 to 75 range from 10 centimeters to 30 centimeters in June to
percent of the coastal'plain in the study area. In spring, water considerably less in August.
from rapidly melting snow flows over frozen surfaces and fills Class 111, Shallow-Arctophila, accounts for 4 percent of the
numerous shallow thaw lakes and ponds, streams and rivers. total. These include ponds or pools in beaded streams
As summer progresses, standing water disappears from some containing Arctophila-fulva in the central zone and shore-
depressions, nevertheless, the percentage of surface area ward stands of A. fulva or Carex aquatilis. Maximum depths
covered by wetlands remains high. of Class I I I wetlands range from 20 to 50 centimeters.
Carsen and Hussey (1962) divided the Arctic Coastal Plain Class IV, Deep-Arctophila, comprises I I percent of the total
into eastern and western sections on the basis of the size and wetlands. These are wetlands of either large pond or lake size
shape differences of thaw lakes, with the Colville River that lack emergents in the central zone and contain stands of
forming the boundary between the two. In the eastern Arctophilia fulva near shore. Maximum water depths exceed
section, which includes the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, 30 centimeters.
wetlands generally range from about 3 meters to rarely more
than 1.6 kilometers in length. Class V, Deep-Open wetlands account for 5 percent of the
A study of waterbirds and their wetland resources at Storker- total and are characterized by large deep lakes that have
sen Point conducted by Bergan et al (1977) described these abrupt shores, sublittoral shelves and a deep central zone.
wetlands in 8 'classifications on- the basis of size, depth, The maximum depth of Class V wetlands is 1.1 meters. A.
vege.tation and water chemistry. It should be noted, however, fulva is absent or present in less than 5 percent of the
that these do not include incised and braided streams, their shoreline.
deltas and associated nonfluvial wetlands. Although the area Class VI, Basi n-Complex, accounts for 17 percentof thetotal
encompassed by this study does not include the entire in the area. They are large, partially drained basins that may
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, the apparent geological and contain nearly continuous water in spring. Later in summer
vegetational homogeneity of the coastal plain in this area water levels recede, leaving a pattern of green Carex-aquatilis
would indicate that it is fairly representative of the region. and open water where Arctophila fulva may grow along the
Class 1, Flooded Tundra, comprises roughly 29 percent of the margins of deeper pools or throughout shallow pools. In late
total wetlands in the area. Flooded Tundra is characterized summer, Class VI wetlands are characterized by stands of

Alopecurus alpinus and Dupontia fischeria growing on a moss of such species as salmon which migrate from open ocean
substrate. waters. Rivers are usually free from ice only four or five
Class VII, Beaded Stream wetlands account for 5 percent of months of the year. During the winter months, all but the
the total. These are small, often intermittent streams consist- largest of the rivers freeze to the bottom, thus limiting
ing of a series of channels formed in ice wedges and linked to suitable spawning and overwintering spots. The shallow lakes
which abound on the Arctic Coastal Plain present similar
pools that develop at ice wedge intersections. The relation- limitations as they also freeze to the bottom during winter.
ship between water depths and aquatic plants appears to be Consequently, suitable fish habitat is limited to those deeper
similar to those in ponds and lakes. In spring, Beaded Streams lakes which do not freeze to the bottom and to the region's
may flood surrounding lowlands, thus creating Class I Flood-
ed Tundra, but by mid-July, waterflow is usually confined to
stream channels and beads and flow may be intermittent.
d
Oki* . ... ... ...
Class Vill, Coastal Wetlands, comprises 3 percent of the totat
in the study area. These are aquatic habitats that occupy low
areas bordering the Beaufort Sea and within a zone directly
influenced by sea water. Coastal wetlands vary from lagoons NONE"_,
confluent with the sea to ponds periodically inundated by
high wind tides. They are brackish or subsaline and have a
characteristic vegetation dominated by Carex subspathacea
and Puccinellia phryganodes at basin margins and on adjacent
flats.

Although the ice-free season is short, wetlands play an
extremely important role in the overall ecosystem of the
study area. They provide the principal attraction for the
L
many water-related birds which visit the area seasonally.
According to Bergman et al., the aquatic invertebrates that "Sot
characterize these wetlands appear to be a major food source
for breeding and young waterfowl and to provide an essential
nutrient source for laying female ducks and shorebirds.

2. Wildlife

a. Fish
The extreme climate of the North Slope region does not
provide a suitable environment for many species of fish
commonly found in warmer waters of the State. The pres-
ence of ice in the Beaufort Sea for nearly nine months of the
year and the unpreclictability of break-up limits the presence

three major rivers, the Canning, the Colville, and the Saga- humpback salmon, the Dolly Varden and lake trout, sheefish,
vanirktok, which, since they are fed by groundwater springs, smelt, capline herring, pike, blackfish, sucker, the freshwater,
maintain some running water year round. tom, and Siberian cod, the flounder, sculpin, and the stickle-
back.
All these factors notwithstanding, the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
Area contains large numbers of several fish species. Of these, There is presently only limited commercial fishing in the
the whitefish is the most widely distributed in the region's Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. According to the Alaska Depart-
rivers and lakes. Five species of whitefish are found here: the ment of Fish and Game, there is a commercial whitefish
round whitefish, the broad whitefish, the humpback, and the operation in the Colville River delta which harvests approxi-
least and arctic cisco. All except the "resident" round mately 3,000 broad and 1,000 humpback whitefish annually
whitefish are anadromous and outmigrate to summer feeding during the summer and 20,000 least and 40,000 arctic cisco
grounds in the river deltas and nearshore salt water during the annually during the fall. Most of these are sold locally.
summer months, returning to the rivers in early fall to spawn
and overwinter. b. Land Mammals
The arctic char is also widely distributed in the lakes and The North Slope in general does not provide a suitable
rivers of the North Slope. In the eastern Arctic, the Saga- habitat for most large terrestrial mammals primarily because
vanirktok and the Canning Rivers and to a lesser extent, the the severe coastal climate does not favor the growth of trees
Colville River, which provide running water year round, and brushy willows on which these animals typically depend
appear to provide the most suitable habitat for this fish. for food. Dependent as they are on the existence of trees and
Arctic char are both anadromous and resident. The latter are larger brushy willows, most large land mammals found in the
most often lake dwellers, spawning and overwintering in the North Slope region are located in the foothills and upper
lakes in which they reside. Anadromous arctic char inhabit reaches of the Brooks Range.
the flowing waters of rivers during the freshwater periods of Only four large land mammals-the moose, the caribou, the
their life. They outmigrate during May and June to nearshore grizzly bear, and the polar bear-are found in appreciable
feeding grounds and return to the rivers in September and numbers on the coastal plain. Although there are two
October to spawn and overwinter, typically in gravel-bottom- significant herds of caribou on the North Slope, according to
ed stream beds near groundwater springs. the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), the
A third widely distributed fish in the study area is the arctic Western herd typically goes no further east than the Colville
grayling. Found predominantly in streams and higher eleva- River and the Porcupine herd is generally associated with that
tion lakes of the North Slope, this fish seldom leaves the area from the Canning River east to the Canadian border.
fresh water although it is found in deltas during break-up Members of the North Slope Borough Planning Commission
when these are primarily fresh water. Arctic grayling spawn report that the absence of caribou in the study area is a
in May and June and fry are reared in the calm shallow recent phenomenon and is directly attributable to develop-
waters of lakes and flowing systems. They overwinter in ment activity at Prudhoe Bay. These same sources recall
deeper lakes, deep pools in rivers, and near groundwater significant caribou population in the region in years past.
springs.

Other fish identified in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area but The Canning, Colville and Sagavanirktok Rivers all provide
present in lesser numbers are the arctic lamprey, the dog and the dense willow vegetation stands required by the moose for

BIOLOGICA

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F

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L
1* F

NPR-A
OOOONMM-

habitat. According to the ADF&G there is a current popula- the offshore islands, is approximately 50 miles wide and
tion of from 1,000 to 1,400 moose in the North Slope region includes a corridor of land extending about 25 miles from the
and almost all of these are found along the Colville and coast and the strip of adjoining shorefast ice. The shorefast
Canning Rivers. Approximately 75 moose are harvested here ice extends from the shore outward to the moving ice and
annually, primarily by sportsmen from outside the region. includes offshore islands. Some denning also takes place on
The grizzly bear is distributed throughout the North Slope. the drifting sea ice. Dens typically are located in cut banks
Within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, the grizzly is found in and gullies where drifting snow accumulates and affords some
the spring in the major river valleys where they search for protection. While pregnant females are denning from Novem-
carrion or prey on ungulates. In the summer, they disperse ber until March, males come ashore in search of carrion and
from the valley bottoms to high in the alpine areas. In the other food. Both sexes return to the ice in spring to feed on
fall, if there is a good crop of soapberry, they may again be seals. Most of this activity is concentrated where currents
.concentrated in the willow stands in the river valley. The keep the ice in motion causing open leads or newly frozen
leads where seals congregate.
grizzly breeds from May to mid-J uly and dens from October
to April or May. Cubs are born in the den in January or Since 1972 the Marine Mammal Protection Act has limited
February. According to the ADF&G, critical habitat for the harvest of polar bear to Natives for subsistence purposes.
grizzly bears on the North Slope consists of large areas which Prior to passage of the Act, hunters took approximately 260
are undeveloped and sparsely inhabited. Important habi- bears annually; since that time, however, only 50 to 60 bears
tats are the valley bottom riparian willow stands, poorly have been harvested annually by Natives. The meat is eaten
drained areas where horsetail grows abundantly and the and skins are used for garments, mainly as mukluks and
riverbeds. Although there are no statistics for the study area mittens, and as parka ruffs.
itself, ADF&G estimates the grizzly population of Unit 26
(the North Slope) to be from 500 to 700. This is based on an
aerial survey of the Canning River drainage which found an C. Furbearers and Small Game
average of one bear per SO square miles. The ADF&G Of the eleven economically important land furbearers found
estimates an annual Unit 26 harvest of up to 35 grizzlies. The regularly within the State of Alaska, only five are present in
sport harvest has averaged 12 bears an nually since 196 1. The significant numbers on the Arctic Slope. These are the red
resident sport use accounts for 20 percent of the harvest, fox, the arctic fox, the wolf, the weasel, and the wolverine.
nonresident guided hunters for 75 percent and domestic or With the exception of the arctic fox, however, these are
local use S percent. sparse on the coastal plain and are concentrated primarily in
There are two distinct populations of polar bear in Arctic the foothills of the Brooks Range because the topography
Alaska. One of these, the north population, numbering about and permafrost on the coastal plain limit available denning
2,500 animals, ranges along the Arctic coast and on sea ice habitat.
north of the coast from the Canadian border to Point Lay. The arctic fox is the only furbearer on the coastal plain
One of the most critical habitats to the welfare of polar bears which occurs in sufficient numbers to be the subject of
is the area used for denning. According to the ADF&G, some intensive trapping. It is found on the coastline, the open
of the most intensive denning on the Arctic coast occurs tundra, rocky beaches and also, like the polar bear, on the sea
from the Colville River cast to the Canadian border which ice many miles from shore. The arctic fox breeds in spring
includes the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. This area, including and dens in elevated, well-drained soils found in association

with pingos, riverbanks, sand dunes and old lake shores, all of extend east of Barrow, the Colville and Mackenzie Rivers
which serve as sources for granular fill material for human contribute significant nutritional material to the Beaufort
use. Sea.
Arctic foxes feed on rodents (especially the lemming), hares, The waters of the Arctic Ocean support a wide variety of
and to a lesser extent on birds and eggs. Dependent as they marine mammals at some time during their annual cycle.
are on lemmings as a food source, the fox population Principal among these are the walrus, four species of ice-
undergoes extreme fluctuations consonant with the rise and associated phocine seals (ringed, bearded, harbor, and ribbon)
fall of the lemming population. In off years, when the and four whale species-the bowhead, grey, minke and
lemming population is low, foxes are forced to depend more beluga. To some extent all these are seasonally migratory,
heavily on the maritime environment. In these years, in usually moving north in the spring in search of food and then
particular, the fox depends heavily on beach carrion and retracing their path in winter. Although the distribution and
leftovers from polar bear kills. Thus, the marine environment numbers of marine animals shift continuously, the Bering Sea
is also an important habitat. supports more animals in winter and the Chukchi Sea is more
According to the ADF&G, Game Management Unit 26 intensively used during the summer. The Beaufort Sea is a
accounts for roughly 40 percent of the State's average annual relatively less productive environment for sea mammals but
arctic fox harvest of 2,369. Most of these are trapped by nevertheless supports significant numbers.
local residents of the coastal villages from Wainwright to (1) Whale. Although a number of different whale species
Kaktovik and are either sold to local stores, fur buyers or have been sighted in Arctic waters, only two, the bowhead
tourists or are utilized for subsistence purposes. and the beluga, are numerically or culturally significant in the
Although small game animals like the squirrel, porcupine, the Beaufort Sea. The bowhead, in particular, has been prized for
hare and the ptarmigan and grouse are all found on the North centuries by the Arctic coastal Eskimo. At the present time,
Slope, only the arctic ground squirrel and willow ptarmigan there are no quantitative data available on the numbers of
are abundant on the coastal plain. The arctic ground squirrel bowhead or beluga whales which migrate in shore leads from
ranges from sea level to high in the Brooks Range. Its meat is the Bering Sea into the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas nor is
eaten by local residents and the fur is used for parka ruffs. much known about the behavior of these animals once they
The willow ptarmigan is found most often in the 2,000 to arrive at their summer feeding and calving grounds located
2,800-foot elevation of the Brooks Range foothills where it there.
breeds, but in the fall females move to lower elevations and At least two resident beluga populations have been identified
become a food source for local residents. in Alaska. One, of approximately 300 to 400 animals, is
localized in the Cook Inlet. The other is resident in Bristol
d. Marine Mammals Bay and numbers perhaps 1,000 to 1,500. Belugas begin a
The Bering and Chukchi Seas, and to a lesser degree the northward migration to Arctic waters in April, traveling in
Beaufort Sea, comprise some of the most biologically produc- large herds. Once through the Bering Straits, the animals
tive areas in the Northern Hemisphere. Nutrient-rich water follow open leads along the Siberian and Arctic coasts. By
from the Yukon River distributed northward by prevailing May and June some of these have reached the eastern
currents provides the nutritional support for a myriad of Beaufort Sea and the pack ice around Banks Island. Although
marine organisms. Although these waters do not usually the precise movements of the beluga within the study area

are not known, they are generally believed by local inhabi- May and have been observed there all summer, but there is no
tants to be present seasonally in the entire nearshore reach precise information on their activity in the western Beaufort
from the Colville River to the Canning River. Unlike the Sea during this time. At a 1978 Elders Conference conducted
bowhead which is not found in water depths less than 6 by the North Slope Borough Commission on History and
meters, the beluga is found in extremely shallow water close Culture held to document traditional land use and subsist-
to shore and in river estuaries. The fall return migration ence values, elders reported an apparent westward movement
begins in September preceding freeze-up since belugas cannot over the past two years of the bowhead breeding habitat. The
maintain breathing holes in thick ice and generally do not elders reported unusual numbers of bowhead breeding and
swim long underwater. Belugas are hunted during both the calving in the area between Kaktovik and Herschel Island, far
spring and fall, migrations, but more heavily during the west of the usual habitat near Banks Island. The elders
former. The ADF&G in 1974 estimated that Alaskan speculate two possible explanations for this movement: a
Eskimos utilized at least 200,000 pounds of beluga annually population growth or habitat displacement caused by Canadi-
and estimates the annual Bering Sea-Arctic Ocean beluga an Beaufort Sea oil and gas operations.
harvest at from 100 to 300 whales. It is not known, however, Although very little whaling actually takes place in the study
how many of these are harvested in the Beaufort Sea cast of area, except off Kaktovik during the fall migration, the
Barrow.
bowhead migrates through the area beyond the 6-meter
The bowhead population was decimated by intensive com- (20-foot) isobath. According to local whalers, the bowhead
mercial whaling during the nineteenth century and has never feeds and calves offshore from the Colville River Delta,
fully recovered. Although there has been no commercial beyond the 6-meter isobath.
whaling since 1915 and the species has been protected from
all but subsistence hunting by Alaskan Natives by the Marine (2) Seal. There are three species of ice-related seals found
Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species in the study area: the bearded seal, the harbor seal, and the
Act of 1973, their numbers apparently remain dangerously ringed seal. The ringed seal has a high and stable population
low. In response to this situation, the International Whaling of over one million in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas alone
Commission (IWC) in 1977 imposed stiff quotas on the and is the most widely distributed ice-inhabiting seal of
taking of bowhead whales. In 1977, the IWC estimated the Arctic and subarctic Alaska. Most ringed seals inhabit areas of
bowhead population to range from 800 to 1,200, with 1,000 shorefast ice in winter and migrate north with the retreat of
the most likely figure. However, a population count conduct- the ice pack in spring and summer. Recently, ringed seal
ed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration harvests by Alaskan hunters have been about 5,000 annually,
(NOAA) during the 1978 spring bowheadmigration, counted well below the annual recruitment of the population. Al-
2,264 bowheads. More than 1,700 whales were actually seen. though this species is present in the region year round, most
Thus, according to NOAA, the bowhead population appears hunting takes place in the spring and summer when weather
to be in better shape than the IWC estimated. conditions are better.
Like the beluga, the bowhead whale begins its northward The bearded seal rarely ventures far from sea ice, In late
migration from the Bering into the Chukchi and Beaufort winter and early spring, they @Are found from the southern
Seas in April and May. Its arrival at Barrow normally varies edge of the ice pack in the Bering Sea north to the solid cover
by two weeks depending on ice conditions. Bowheads are of the polar ice pack. As the pack moves northward in spring,
reportedly at Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic by mid- the bearded seal follows and by late summer is found along

the southern edge of the pack. Fall brings a reversal of this residents of Bering Sea villages. Residents of Arctic Alaska
process. The total Bering Sea-Arctic Ocean bearded seal harvest only about 100 walrus according to the ADF&G. This
population is estimated to be relatively stable at 200,000, relatively small harvest stems partly from the Arctic Eskimos'
and the present annual harvest by Soviet and Alaskan hunters preference for whale meat and partly because walrus disperse
is about 4,000, approximately 1,500 of these by residents of widely in the northern Chukchi and Beaufort Seas and are
northwest Alaska. not always accessible.
Harbor seals are found seasonally along the entire northern e. Birds
Alaska coast. Prior to parturition in late winter, the entire The Arctic Coastal Area and the adjacent seas are inhabited
population occupies the southern edge of the polar ice pack. by approximately 163 bird species. Most of these are present
As break-up progresses, most follow the ice pack north, only seasonally, however. Some species come here specifical-
gradually moving toward land, including the offshore islands, ly to nest, others to feed, and still others migrate through the
where they rest and feed intermittently. With the approach region on their way to and from breeding grounds in other
of winter, they usually precede the ice pack south. areas of the Alaskan, Canadian and Soviet Arctic. Though
some few species such as the snow bunting may arrive in the
The annual harvest of the harbor seal by Americans and region in early April, most do not arrive until early May; fall
Soviets is 7,000 or less, about evenly split between the two migration begins as early as August, but most do not leave
countries. Total population is estimated at from 200,000 to until September and some species are known to remain until
250,000 animals. About half the harvest occurs during spring early November.
when the animals are moving north, the remainder during the Most waterfowl and shorebird species found in the study area
southern migration in September and October. are coastal migrants. As many as one million eiders migrate
(3) Walrus. Following a significant decline in population as east along the Beaufort Sea coast in early May, and two-
a result of heavy commercial hunting during the nineteenth th.irds of the species bound for the Canadian Arctic islands
century, the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort and East Siberian migrate along this route as well. As many as one-tenth of the
Seas' walrus population has undergone significant regenera- world's whistling swans nest within one to five miles of th e
tion over the past half century. Today, the entire population Arctic coast; major concentrations of these are found within
is estimated at roughly 200,000 animals, close to its level the study area at Prudhoe Bay and at the mouths of the
prior to the advent of commercial hunting. The walrus Colville and Canning Rivers. The only known nesting colony
winters in the central and northwest Bering Sea many miles of snow geese within the State is found within the study area
from the Alaskan mainland. They begin their northern on Howe Island in the delta of the Sagavanirktok River.
migration in late March and April and reach the northern Average densities of 1,400 birds per square mile are found as
Chukchi Sea by mid-July. Most then move west to the far as 50 to 60 miles inland from the coast, while even greater
Siberian coast, but some also disperse along the southern densities per square mile of waterfowl and shorebirds occur
polar ice cap in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. In September along the coast and adjacent inshore waters. Fluctuations in
and October they begin moving south again to the Bering these densities occur with food availability and weather
Sea. conditions.

The annual retrieved harvest of walruses by Alaskans has The onshore areas provide nesting habitat for most birds in
recently averaged about 1,600 animals, most of these by the study area but a few species such as the plover, sandpiper,

and eider use the offshore islands. Onshore habitats consist Twenty-one species have been observed in the offshore areas
primarily of the wetlands, coastal sedge meadows, sea of the Beaufort Sea. Sixteen of these breed on either tundra
beaches, cutbanks along streams and rivers and old beach or offshore islands. Eiders, scoters, old squaws, phalaropes
lines. Approximately 24 species of birds nest in the onshore and gulls are the most conspicuous offshore birds, but loons,
areas of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area: eleven of these are jaegers, alcids and arctic terns are also common. Although
swimming birds such as loons, ducks and geese and four birds are sometimes found many miles from shore on the
others are species of sandpiper. pack ice, most don't stray beyond 5 miles of the mainland or
barrier island coast. As a result of studies conducted by the
Black-bellied plovers, jaegers, and glaucous gulls occasionally Bureau of Land Management in connection with the joint
use water areas there. Lapland longspurs and snow buntings Federal/State OCS lease sale scheduled for December 1979, a
are the only songbirds commonly present. Although they number of the offshore islands within the study area have
don't nest here, common visitors to the onshore area include been designated as important bird nesting grounds. Pingok,
snow geese, common eiders, arctic terns, snowy owls and Cross, Niakuk and Duck Islands are considered by the BLM
ravens. to have high bird nesting importance, while Flaxman, Pole,
Howe, Egg and Thetis Islands are considered to have medium
Brackish inshore waters or lagoons between the mainland and nesting importance.
barrier islands are rich in nutrients and invertebrate orga- The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is the seasonal home of the
nisms. These areas are extremely important as a source of peregrine falcon, an endangered species. Although Federal
food for both onshore and island nesting populations and for law protecting endangered species does not allow specific
the millions of waterbirds which utilize the onshore areas as a identification of the bird's nesting habitat, U. S. Fish and
major migration route in spring and fall. In addition, old Wildlife biologists locate these generally east of the Kuparuk
squaws and Canada geese depend upon the onshore areas for River about 15 to 20 miles inland from the coast. The
moulting.

The coastal islands serve as a barrier to drifting pack ice and
provide shallow ice-free feeding and resting areas for water-
fowl, gulls and terns. Because they also tend to contain
summer coastal runoff, the islands harbor lagoons of varying - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
salinity and high productivity. With the exception of Cross
and the Niakuk Islands, Beaufort Sea barrier islands support NOTT/ ,
very low numbers of breeding birds. Cross Island has a
significant number of breeding common eiders and the
Niakuk Islands have large concentrations of glaucous gulls.
t
The greatest use of the islands, however, occurs during the t
postbreeding season when many land species move to the
coast. Beginning in mid-July, old squaws concentrate in bays
near the islands where they feed and moult. Later in the
month they are joined by juvenile red phalaropes, juvenile
Sabine's gulls, arctic terns and other shorebirds.

peregrine falcon ranges as far as the coast to feed on nesting selected over 4 million acres on the North Slope, almost all
shorebirds. Like most bird species found on the North Slope, located on the Arctic Coastal Plain between NPR-A and the
the peregrine falcon is only a seasonal visitor and spends the Arctic National Wildlife Range. Significant portions of this
winter in South America. have been offered for oil and gas leasing in four sales held in
1964, 1965, 1967, and 1969. It was on land obtained during
D. PETROLEUM RESOURCES the three earliest leases (1964, 1965, and 1967) that Atlantic
The single most important factor in the economy of the Richfield in 1968 drilled the so-called Prudhoe Bay "dis-
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is its oil and gas resources. covery" well. The 1969 lease sale was held after the an-
Although a number of oil seeps on the North Slope were nouncement of the discovery.
known to Native Eskimos and early arctic explorers, modern Additional sales are planned in the area in the future. Two of
interest in oil and gas in the region dates to 1901 when the these are offshore leases sales. The first is a joint State/
first geologic traverse was undertaken. Sufficient positive Federal lease sale scheduled for December 1979. This lease
data as to potential resources had been acquired by 1923 to area is located offshore between the Canning and Colville
cause President Harding to establish Naval Petro@eum Reserve Rivers and encompasses most of the area within the three-
No. 4. This designation was changed in 1976 to National mile limit and some adjacent Federal tracts. The second
Petroleum Reserve-Alaska or NPR-A when the Department of
the Interior took over its management.

Following the establishment of NPR-A, the U. S. Geological
Survey undertook considerable reconnaissance surveys in the
1920's and 1930's. In 1944, spurred by the pressure of World
War 11, the Navy began a vigorous exploration and drilling
program in NPR-A which, after the war, was continued until
1953 under private contract. This effort resulted in the
discovery of nine oil and gas fields, none of which contained
commercially recoverable quantities.

Prior to 1958, Federal land on the North Slope, with the
exception of NPR-A, was closed to mineral leasing for many
years. Leasing was restored in 1958, however, and in that
year 3.4 million acres were offered on a noncompetitive
44AW
basis. Between 1958 and 1966, when the leasing program was
suspended because of Native protest, BLIVI leased 5 million
of
acres of a total 22.3 million acres offered for lease. Although
no Federal lands on the North Slope were leased after 1966,
the program was not officially terminated until 1969.

In 1959 when Alaska became a State, it received title to all
tide and submerged lands and, in addition, acquired the right
to select about 102 million acres statewide. Thus far it has

offshore sale will take place in 1982, but the specific area to barrels of oil and from 0 to 19.3 trillion cubic feet of gas
be leased has not yet been announced. Two onshore sales are between the 0 to 200-meter isobaths in the Beaufort Sea
also planned. The first is scheduled for October 1978 and will from Barrow east to Demarcation Point on the Canadian
involve land east of Pt. Thomson on the study area's eastern border. However, because of present technological limitations
boundary. The second sale is scheduled for April 1981 and these estimates must be scaled down to the 20-meter (60-
will include previously unleased acreage in the Prudhoe Bay foot) isobath. Approximately 60 percent of the Beaufort
area. province lies within the 20-meter isobath. Estimates of from
0 to 4.6 billion barrels of oil and from 0 to 11 .6 trillion cubic
Since the discovery of the Prudhoe Bay field in 1968, the feet of gas are obtained by allocating 60 percent of the
Beaufort Sea region has been the subject of heightened overall estimates.
interest on the part of the petroleum industry. This has been
reflected in increased exploration activity both in the study Data on petroleum resources in some areas adjacent to the
area and also in the adjacent National Petroleum Reserve- study area are limited. For example, the U. S. Department of
Alaska and the Arctic National Wildlife Range with increased the Interior is currently exploring the NPR-A, but estimates
demands for additional lease acreage. of the resources there vary greatly. In 1976, the Federal
Thus far, this interest has certainly been justified. The main Energy Administration estimated the NPR-A to contain 5
billion barrels of oil and 14.3 trillion cubic feet of gas, but
reservoir (Sadlerochit) at Prudhoe Bay is estimated to contain current estimates place this closer to only I billion barrels.
9.6 billion barrels of recoverable oil and 25 trillion cubic feet Oil exploration is not currently allowed in the Arctic Nation-
of gas, the largest known petroleum reserve in North Ameri- al Wildlife Range, but resource experts consider the area to
ca. In addition to the Sadlerochit formation, however, other have a high hydrocarbon potential. Onshore exploration of
pools in the area of unknown extent are apparently capable adjacent land would appear to have minimal impact on the
of producing oil. Atlantic Richfield Company is currently Prudhoe Bay district. All support for NPR-A exploratory
undertaking a production test on the Kuparuk River forma- activities are contained within NPR-A, and since exploration
tion of the Prudhoe Bay field. According to the Alaska is not presently allowed in the wildlife range, there will be no
Division of Oil and Gas Conservation, this pool is estimated impact from this direction at least in the near future.
to contain I billion barrels of recoverable oil.
Future impact on the Prudhoe Bay area from NPR-A or
It is difficult to estimate how much additional oil will be wildlife range development activity will depend on two
discovered in the area. The U. S. Geological Survey in 1975 factors: The size and location of future discoveries and the
estimated that there are from 5 to 16 billion barrels of oil route and type of system developed to transport the re-
and 14 to 49 trillion cubic feet of gas on the entire North sources. The Department of the Interior is in the process of
Slope, but these estimates of undiscovered resources are not evaluating the best procedures for the development, produc-
broken down by area. A study conducted by the Alaska tion, transportation and distribution of NPR-A petroleum
Department of Natural Resources in 1977 estimated the resources. At the same time, a special Interior Department
area's undiscovered resources to contain from 0.5 to 1.5 task force is studying the best use for land within and
billion barrels of oil and from 1.5 to 5 trillion cubic feet of adjacent to NPR-A for such values as subsistence, scenery,
gas. historic, recreation, fish and wildlife and wilderness. Results
The U. S. Geological Survey estimates that the undiscovered of these studies will be presented to the Secretary of Interior
recoverable oil and gas resources are from 0 to 7.6 billion in 1979 and he will, in turn, make a recommendation to

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Congress as to the future use of NPR-A. The impact of barrier islands, and the river valleys, particularly the Colville
development of NPR-A will depend to a large extent upon River. In general, these coincide with those areas where
the decision made by Congress as to the disposition of subsistence resources have been most abundant. Although
NPR-A. Potential impacts from wildlife range development these locales continue to be used today on a seasonal basis
depend upon if and when it is opened to exploration and for their subsistence resource value, subsistence use of the
development. land there is less intense now than it has been in the past.
E. RECREATION AND CULTURAL RESOURCES Within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area there is one State of
Alaska Historic Site and one entrant in the National Register
I Cultural Significance of Historic Sites. This is the former campsite of explorer/
Although there is currently no permanent Native population geologist Ernest cle Koven Leffingwell located on Flaxman
living within the study area, the land has in the past been the Island off the Canning River delta. Leffingwell mapped the
site of numerous temporary settlements and seasonal hunting Arctic coast from 1907 to 1914 and conducted some of the
and fishing camps. Recent archeological and historical first significant scientific studies on permafrost. In addition,
studies undertaken by the North Slope Borough and the he nam,-d the Sadlerochit Formation which has since become
Federal government have identified hundreds of old grave famous as the main reservoir of the Prudhoe Bay oil field.
sites, sod hut and ice cellar outlines, and a wide variety of
artifacts which give ample testimony to the historical and
cultural significance of the land. These are identified and
described at some length in an inventory published recently
by the North Slope Borough. Additional inventories in
NPR-A and within the study area are being prepared by the
National Park Service.

A number of cultural and historic sites identified by the
North Slope Borough and the Federal government appear to
be of sufficient significance to merit National Historic Regis-
ter status, and appropriate documentation is being prepared
to make a determination of their eligibility. For other
identified sites, there are not enough data available to make
such a determination and additional study is required. Both
"registered" and potentially eligible national historic sites
have full protection under Federal law if they are on Federal
land or if they may be impacted either directly or indirectly
by Federal action. Within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area,
most land is State owned and thus registered historic sites
located there are the responsibility of the State.
Within the study area sites of historic and cultural signifl -
cance are heavily concentrated along the entire coast, the

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2. Recreation Resources Bay environs. A guide service, located in the Colville River
At the present time, there are no recreational facilities in the delta about 20 miles north of Nuiqsut, transports sport
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area'outside those provided by the oil fishermen to rivers and lakes within the study area in its two
industry and NANA at Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse. The planes.
absence of facilities does not indicate that the area lacks
recreational significance, but rather that the remoteness of A task force headed by the Heritage Conservation and
the region from major population centers and the limited Recreation Service (formerly the Bureau of Outdoor Recrea-
facilities and access have kept use pressure at a minimum. tion) has expended considerable effort during the past year
Even with these limitations, however, there is some existing developing the wilderness scenery and recreational potential
conventional recreational use of the land both by residents of element of the overall NPR-A land use plan. While its findings
Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse, the Barter Island DEW Line station, relate specifically to the NPR-A, some of these can be applied
and nonresidents who fly in from outside. As residents of generally to the Arctic Coastal Plain which comprises much
Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse are not allowed to possess firearms, of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. The Heritage Conservation
their use of the area's resources is limited to fishing. and Recreation Service considers the study area to have
significant resources available to provide a variety of recrea-
According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game tional activities. The flat topography and the low vegetation
(ADF&G), a number of nonresident hunters and sport fisher- prevalent in this region are particularly conducive to sightsee-
men visit the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area annually. Data ing and wildlife and waterfowl viewing. Although hiking is
generated from harvest ticket report forms which are re- made difficult in summer by mosquitos and swampy soil
quired submittals from "successful" hunters indicate that conditions, there is potential for such sports as cross-country
there were from 50 to 100 nonresident caribou hunters in the skiing and snowmobiling in late winter and early spring when
region during 1977. This number would undoubtedly have days are longer and temperatures have moderated.
been higher had the ADF&G not imposed strict "bag limits"
and a permit system in Game Management Unit 26, which
includes the study area, as a means of protecting the Although the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
dwindling Western Arctic caribou herd. Although moose are has not yet assessed the boating potential of any rivers within
not generally prevalent on the Arctic Coastal Plain, they are the study area, it has studied portions of the Colville and
found in some numbers in the Colville River valley, the considers the river to have significant wilderness scenery and
western boundary of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. ADF&G recreational potential. Segments of the Colville have been
estimates that there were 23 nonresident moose hunters in included in the Administration's D-2 proposal as part of the
Game Unit 26 during the 1977 moose hunting season. It is National Wild and Scenic River System, and H.R. 39 as
assumed that most, if not all, of these were in the Colville passed by the House of Representatives proposes that all
area. rivers within NPR-A, including the Colville, be included in
the Wild and Scenic River System. The Heritage Conservation
Although there are no accurate figures on the number of and Recreation Service and the State of Alaska will study the
sport fishermen using the area, Atlantic Richfield officials potential of the Sagavanirktok River during the summer of
report that some Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse residents do 1978. The State has asked the Service to study the wild and
fish in their limited free time, particularly in the Sagavanirk- scenic potential of the Canning River, but at this time, there
tok and Kuparuk Rivers and along the coast in the Prudhoe are no definite plans to do so.

3. Scenic Resources addition to their scenic value, the Franklin Bluffs contain
Probably the greatest attraction of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal important falcon and hawk aeries. The site is in some
Area is its primitive condition and the wide variety of unique jeopardy due to the proximity of the trans-Alaska pipeline
Arctic geological and ecological phenomena that exist there. and Haul Road.
Although oil and gas development and the trans-Alaska The White Hills (4) are a 500- to 600-foot plateau so named
pipeline have degraded the pristine quality of the Prudhoe for the white pediment gravel and light-colored bedrock
Bay area and the pipeline corridor, the impact of this which characterize them. The plateau affords an impressive
development has been quite restricted and large portions of panoramic view of the Arctic Coastal Plain and from the
the study area remain untouched by industrial development. eastern side, some spectacular badland topography. There has
In an attempt to ensure protection of the unique ecological been exploratory drilling for petroleum off the eastern
and biological features of the Arctic lowland from intrusion boundary, and the White Hills themselves are potentially
by development, the National Park Service in 1974 initiated a vulnerable to oil exploration.
program to identify unique examples of tundra environment
to be included in the Natural Landmark Program. The Sagavanirktok River (5) provides a classic example of a
In connection with this effort, the Park Service identified 16 braided stream. Included in this 51,840-acre site are three or
geographic locations within the study area as appropriate for four main channels that flow on a three mile wide floodplain
nomination as Natural Landmarks. It is the opinion of the in an intricately braided network. Although the river at this
Park Service that all of these contain geological or ecological location has probably suffered irreparable damage from
values of such distinction as to be of national significance. pipeline and Haul Road construction, the National Park
Nine of the proposed landmarks illustrate geological themes Service, nevertheless, considers it to have a high degree of
and the remaining seven represent ecological themes. national significance.
The Putuligayuk Plains (I) provide an excellent example of a The Kadleroshilik River (6) is significant as an example of
flat interior plain. They are characterized by permafrost pingo development. This site encompasses more than 30
landforms including pingos, high- and low-centered polygons pingos and numerous closed depressions that will probably
and braided streams. As the majority of the plains lie in the undergo future pingo development, as well as abundant high-
trans-Alaska pipeline utility corridor, they are in some and low-centered polygons, thermokarst lakes and thaw pits.
jeopardy because of their proximity to the pipeline. This area has a delicate ecological balance and the Park
Service recommends that it be set aside while it is still
The I 5,000-acre Foggy Island Bay site (2) illustrates a raised relatively unspoiled.
coastal plain. The land surface is nearly flat, contains thermo-
karst and oriented lakes and abundant polygons and ice The Toolik River Pingo Field (7) contains approximately 60
wedge cracks. The land in the Foggy Island Bay area is owned pingos in various states of development. Most of these are on
by the State of Alaska and has been leased to numerous oil the alluvial floodplain of the Toolik River with the highest
companies, and some exploratory drilling has taken place. about 100 feet above the surrounding plain. Polygonal
ground, braided streams, thermokarst and oxbow lakes and
Rising 500 to 600 feet above the surrounding lowlands, the sand dunes are also prevalent. The State of Alaska has leased
gravel-covered Franklin Bluffs (3) are a spectacular landmark. this area for oil exploration. There are exploratory oil wells
Composed of exposed bedrock, weathering has created in the nearby and the pingo field is in some jeopardy from possible
bluffs brilliant hues of red, pink, yellow, orange and white. In future exploratory activity.

LANDMARK LANDFORM/UNIQUE FEATURES

I Putuligayuk Plains Plains, lakes and lakeshores, permafrost
2 Foggy Island Bay Raised coastal plain, permafrost, lakes and lakeshores, sea
and seashores

3 Franklin Bluffs Gravel pediment plateau

4 White Hills Gravel pediment and bedrock plateau

5 Sagavanirktok River Braided channel

6 Kadleroshilik River Pingos, polygons, beaded streams, plain

7 Toolik River Pingo Field Pingos, polygons, plains, river systems
8 Shaviovik River Pingo Field Pingos, polygons, plains

9 Ishukpak Bluff Fold, fault, river system
10 Franklin Bluffs & the White Hills Tertiary formations, unique flora, microtopography, falcon
aeries

I IBeechey Mound Area Coastal topography, waterfowl nesting area, pingos, poly-
gons, oriented lakes

12 Colville River Delta Deltas, seashores and islands, lakes and lakeshores, eolian.
Large arctic delta with unique fish populations, waterfowl,
dunes and tidal flats

13 Cross Island Offshore island on Arctic coast, polar bear clenning sites,
waterfowl nesting, marine strands
14 Flaxman Island Island, colian. Site of explorer's cabin and camp, location of
erratic boulders, waterfowl

IS Kadleroshilik Mound Large mature pingo
16 Colville River Bluffs Bluffs along middle course of braided river, falcon aeries,
moose habitat, willow tree growth, coal deposits, Petroleum
Reserve campsite

Source: U. S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

AREAS of
(Potential

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The Shaviovik River Pingo Field (8) provides additional good during spring and fall. Although the site has scenic value, it
examples of pingos and high- and low-centered polygons and may not warrant national significance.
has several braided streams in advanced stages of develop- The bluffs of the Colville River Delta (12) host major
ment. concentrations of raptorial birds including falcons, hawks and
The Ishukpak Bluff (9) is a noted example of the effect of eagles. The river valley's protected willow thickets serve as a
the movement of the earth's crust. Black and white beds wintering range for some species of birds and the delta's
emphasize the folding and faulting of the strata. The bluffs dunes support a large population of Arctic ground squirrels
host falcon and hawk aeries; the river flats are characterized and foxes.
by aquatic and wet sedge tundra and tussock tundra occurs Cross Island (13) lies approximately I I miles off the Saga-
on the river bluffs. vanirktok River delta between the Midway Islands to the
The Franklin Bluffs/White Hills site (10) includes all or west and McClure Island to the east. Although the island does
portions of four previously identified sites: Franklin Bluffs, not support a large resident bird population, it does provide a
White Hills, the Sagavanirktok River, and the Shaviovik River resting place for waterfowl and shorebirds during migration.
Pingo Field. In addition to the already described unique Polar bear denning sites are also present.
features of these sites, this proposed landmark hosts a variety Located off the Arctic coast in the Beaufort Sea, the
of animal life. Falcons and hawks nest on the bluffs, and proposed Flaxman Island Natural Landmark (14) lies just
golden eagles, swans and jaegers have also been observed in west of the mouth of the Canning River. Although the island
the area. Caribou move through the area in summer and can is a bird nesting site and a refuge for migrating birds, the
frequently be seen in small groups on the gravel bars within primary reason for proposing it as a Natural Landmark lies in
the riverbeds. Wolf tracks are abundant and grizzly bears are its historic significance. As mentioned previously, Flaxman
sometime 's seen. The well-drained Franklin Bluffs support a
variety of vegetation types which contrast with the uniform
sedge tussock tundra predominant on the upland surface of
the Arctic lowland. The Park Service considers this potential
71,
landmark to have a high degree of national significance and
deems it extremely vulnerable because of its proximity to the
p i p e I i n e.

The major features of the Beechey Mound Area (11) are
offshore islands, pingos and coastal tundra. The northern-
most island of the Return Island group and the ]ones Islands,
which are included in the site, are less than 20 feet above
mean sea level and present good examples of Arctic beach.
Beechey Mound and several other pingos in the area were used
by early explorers as navigational aids. The littoral tundra
provides suitable habitat for waterfowl. During the summer,
swans, loons, and a variety of shorebirds are present and large
numbers of eider ducks migrate up and down the coast

Island is the former campsite of explorer/geologist Ernest cle I
Koven Leff ingwell.

Located approximately three miles inland from Foggy Island
Bay, the Kadleroshilik Mound (15), which stands about 200
feet above the surrounding tundra, is one of the largest
pingos in the Arctic lowland. The Mound is a roost for
predatory birds and has a small population of ground squir-
rels. There are no apparent dangers to the integrity of the
site.

The Colville River Bluffs (16) are unique for both biological
and geological reasons. The bluffs contain large aeries of such
rare raptorial birds as peregrine falcons and rough-legged
hawks. Also within the bluffs there are numerous coal
exposures. The river valley supports a relatively large moose
population, the only moose in significant numbers in the
North Slope region. This site also includes the lshukpak Bluff ed lagoon systems are also rated by the public as high
described previously. The site's integrity is in no apparent resource areas and have thus been designated "Scenic Arctic
danger. Barrier Island and Lagoon Systems." At the present time,
In addition to the 16 Natural Landmarks within the study these designations are solely for resource identification pur-
area proposed by the National Park Service, the State poses and have no legal connotations; however, they may
Division of Parks has proposed the establishment of the possibly receive some legislative consideration in the future.
Arctic Coast State Monument. Located to the west of F. POPULATION AND ECONOMY
Prudhoe Bay on State-owned property, the proposed Monu-
ment would afford visitors access to view the natural features 1. Past Population Trends
and abundant waterfowl of the area in concert with petro- Historical patterns of settlement along the Arctic coast were
leum exploration and development. The State envisions that based upon subsistence harvesting of sea mammals. Small
visitor usage of the proposed Monument would be closely bands of coastal Eskimos hunted, fished, and traded with
controlled. nomadic inland Eskimos who hunted the caribou. Various
settlements and seasonal campsites existed in the Prudhoe
In 1977, the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission Bay Coastal Area at one time or another. The 1890 U. S.
undertook to identify natural and landscape features around Census noted "no permanent settlements along the Arctic
the State deemed by the public as having high resource merit. coast between Point Barrow and the Mackenzie River" but
As a result of this study, three rivers within the study area, acknowledged the existence of temporary camp and trading
the Canning, Sagavanirktok, and Colville Rivers, have been sites within the region. In 1919, however, explorer-geologist
designated by the Planning Commission as "Scenic Arctic Ernest cle Koven Leffingwell identified two permanent settle-
Rivers." In addition, Flaxman Island and its associated ments in the Canning-Colville coastal environs. Beechey
lagoon system and Pingok and Spy Islands and their associat- Point, located 25 miles east of the Colville River, had a

permanent population of 66 in 1919 according to Leffing-
well; more recently, in 1939, the U. S. Census identified 12
people living at this settlement. Also in 1919, Leffingwell
identified a permanent settlement at the west entrance of
Foggy Island Bay, 35 miles southeast of Beechey Point at the
mouth of the Sagavanirktok River and named this Brower
Village after the trader Charles Brower.
Other historic places in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area region
identified by the Federal Field Committee for Development
Planning in Alaska are Oliktok (west of Beechey Point); Point
McIntyre, located between the Kuparuk and Sagavanirktok
Rivers; Tigvariak Island, west of Brower Village; and
Shinagru, an historic trading center at the mouth of the
Canning River.
No permanent settlements have been identified at any of
these locations since 1939; however, many of these sites people living there, an increase of well over 1 000 percent. At
continued to be used during this period as seasonal campsites the height of pipeline construction, in July 1976, approxi-
for hunting and fishing purposes. Historic Native presence mately 8,800 people were living in various camps within the
here is evident today in the remains of cabins and a number region. From July 1976 to July 1977 population decreased
of patented allotments sprinkled throughout the region. As roughly 43 percent, and it is anticipated that population will
happened with other similar historic settlements along the continue to decrease in the near future as pipeline construc-
Arctic coast, residents migrated to larger population centers tion is completed and the operational phase takes over.
in the region, notably Barrow, in search of wage employment
and government-provided social services such as schools and
medical facilities. 2. Population Composition
Following a period of little or no settlement activity in the Historically, influxes of white population into the Arctic
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area during the 25-year period from coastal region have been exclusively male. During the height
1940 to 1965, State-sponsored competitive oil and gas lease of the whaling industry in the late 19th century, the census
sales in 1964, 1965, 1967, and 1969 and attendant explora- noted 391 whites residing within the Arctic region, all of
- these male. This sexual disparity persists today. According to
tory activity brought an influx of population to the Prudhoe the U. S. Census, the outstanding feature of the population
Bay area. The discovery well for the Prudhoe Bay field was living at Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse in 1970 was that it was
spudded in 1967, and was officially announced in July] 968. exclusively male.
In 1970, according to the U. S. Census, there were 279
people living in the general Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area. A second peculiarity of the population is that it has a high
Five years later, just prior to start-up of construction on the median age-34.3 years at Deadhorse and 37.2 years at
trans-Alaska pipeline, according to figures provided by the Prudhoe Bay. Neither settlement had any residents under the
industry to the North Slope Borough there were 3,159 age of 18 or over 66 si nce al I persons cou nted I ived th ere for

some work-related reason and thus included only those of years. Construction of the gas pipeline and scheduled off-
working age. shore oil and gas lease sales promise to bring additional
Although there were many more people based in the Prudhoe persons with similar age, sex and racial characteristics back to
the area.
Bay/Deadhorse area in 1977 than in 1970, and the current
population does include some females, overall the characteris- 3. Employment Composition
tics of the population have not changed appreciably. All According to information provided to the North Slope
persons living in camps in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area Borough by the oil industry there were, in July 1977, 3,239
are still there strictly for purposes of employment, with people employed in that portion of the Prudhoe Bay/Dead-
dependents living elsewhere in the State or nation. Conse- horse area within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Included in
quently, the area's population continues to be dominated by this count are all those people employed in the Prudhoe Bay
males between the ages of 18 and 65. industrial complex (including Deadhorse) as well as those
Alaska Natives made up less than 10 percent of the popula- located in the two Alyeska Pipeline Company camps within
tion at Prudhoe Bay (8.2 percent) and Deadhorse (9.2 the study area, Franklin Bluffs Camp and Happy Valley
percent) in 1970 even though in the North Slope region as a Camp.
whole they comprised 83 percent of the population. As with There is some difficulty in obtaining an accurate sector
females, although the number of Natives working in the area breakdown from these data as they are in some cases
has increased since 1970, they do not account for a signifi- categorized by place of dwelling rather than by activity or
cantly greater proportion of the total population. employer (although in many cases these are one and the
These "peculiar" features of the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse same). For example, the industry reported that there were
population are likely to continue for at least the next several 448 people living at BP Construction Camp No. I in July
1977. One can assume that most of these were involved in
construction-related activities; however, the figure also in-
cludes some support personnel such as caterers and mainte-
nance personnel. Likewise, the 219 persons identified as
living at Deadhorse Camp and associated with NANA Oilfield
Services include employees involved in a variety of activities
such as transportation, communications and public utilities
(ERA Helicopter, Sea-Airmotive, RCA), finance, insurance,
and real estate (Alaska Bank of the North), etc. Because the
industry does not supply a definitive breakdown by employ
er, these people have all been placed in the service sector as
NANA Oilfield Services is the largest single employer among
them. Even with these data limitations, however, some
generalizations concerning the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse labor
force composition can be developed.

6,
In July 1977, the three largest employment sectors were
contract construction; transportation, communications and

public utilities; and mining. Contract construction accounted The most striking difference in employment composition of
for well over half or 54.8 percent of the Prudhoe Bay/Dead- the two areas is in the government sector. In 1976, 12.9
horse nonagricultural wage and salary employment. Transpor- percent of the North Slope Borough's nonagricultural wage
tation, communications and public utilities together repre- and salary employment was with either the Federal, State or
sented nearly 40 percent of the total nonagricultural wage local governments. However, in July 1977, only 0.2 percent
and salary employment. Only two other sectors-service and of the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex employment was in
government-had identifiable employment in July 1977. The the government sector, less than 0.1 percent at the State and
service sector had 5.2 percent of the total Prudhoe Bay/Dead- local level. Boroughwide, 9.4 percent of the total non-
horse employment and State and Federal government agricultural wage and salary employment was at the State and
together had less than 0.5 percent or 10 employees. There local government level. Mining, like contract construction,
were no local government employees in the area at the time was a more significant source of employment at Prudhoe Bay
of the July 1977 count. during 1977 than it was Statewide in 1976. In July 1977,
Overall, the composition of the study area's employment roughly 18 percent of the complex's employment was in
bears some marked similarities to that of the North Slope mining, whereas, Statewide, the mining sector accounted for
Borough as a whole, although it is not typical of the only 2.3 percent of the total nonagricultural wage and salary
employment composition of the Borough's traditional vil- employment.
lage s. Since well over half of the Borough's population and
significantly more than that portion of its employment lives 4. Unemployment and Seasonality of Employment
in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area, Boroughwide employ- Unemployment does not exist in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse
ment figures are understandably heavily weighted by the area. All people living in the region do so for job-related
activity at the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex. reasons, and once their jobs end, they simply leave. Nor do
Although there are no 1977 employment distribution data industry population statistics from 1974 to 1977 indicate
yet available for the North Slope Borough, a comparison of any definite pattern of employment seasonality. Employ-
July 1977 Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse figures with those compil- ment rose steadily in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area from
ed by the Alaska 'Department of Labor in 1976 for the January 1974 to July 1976 regardless of season. Since
Borough shows that contract construction was the largest January 1976, there has been a steady decrease in employ-
single employer for both. In 1976, 53.9 percent of the ment, but this can be attributed to completion of pipeline
Borough's nonagricultural wage and salary employment was construction rather than to seasonal changes in employment
in contract construction; in July 1977, 54.8 percent of those patterns.
living in the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex were employed 5. Recent Trends and Changes
in contract construction. Similarly 18.3 percent of the
Borough's 1976 nonagricultural wage and salary employment There have been two significant changes in Prudhoe Bay/
was in the mining sector, and 18.6 percent of the Prudhoe Deadhorse area employment in the past several years. First,
Bay complex employment was involved in mining activity. employment has decreased steadily since it peaked in the
Boroughwide, the service sector represented 6.2 percent of summer of 1976 during the height of pipeline construction.
the total nonagricultural wage and salary employment. In the In July 1976, the oil industry identified 8,856 persons living
Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area, the figure was a slightly lower and working the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area. In January
5.2 percent. 1977, this figure had fallen to 8,270, a decrease of 7 percent.

By July 1977, the figure had fallen to 5,35 1, a decrease of 56 tors is likely to persist at least in the near term. In July 1977,
percent of the July 1976 figure. In January 1978 there were even though the pipeline was officially operational, there was
only 3,374 people living and working in the area according to some residual construction activity. According to industry
industry spokesmen. There may be additional small decreases officials, this activity has tapered off since then and will
in the future, but industry expects employment to remain continue to do so in the future. However, the number of
relatively stable until such time as there is some major new employees involved in the mining and transportation sectors
oil and gas development in the area or until start-up of is expected to remain constant, thus increasing those sectors'
construction on the proposed gas pipeline. percentage of the total labor force.
Employment composition statistics reflect the recent switch
from pipeline construction to operation. In July 1976, during 6. Income Levels
the height of construction, there were 5,339 employees or Reliable figures on income are difficult to develop for the
84.7 percent of the area's total employment involved in Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area because State Department of
contract construction. One year later, in July 1977, just after Labor income statistics are generated on a Boroughwide
the pipeline became officially operational, 2,322 persons, rather than on an individual community basis. However,
representing 54.8 percent of the area's total labor force, were given the composition of the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse em-
classified in contract construction.
ployment, with its heavy concentrations in the mining,
Concomitant with this decrease in contract construction contract construction, and transportation, communications,
employment, there has been an increase in the mining and and public utilities sectors as opposed to the limited employ-
transportation, communications and public utilities sectors. ment in these sectors in the North Slope Borough's tradition-
Although the number of people employed in the mining al communities, some generalizations can be made about the
sector did not change appreciably from 1976 to 1977 (742 Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area.
persons in 1976 and 787 persons in 1977), the sector's Statistics developed by the State Department of Labor show
percentage of the total labor force did grow in the one year that wage levels in the North Slope Borough were among the
period. In 1976, mining accounted for 11.8 percent of the highest in the State in 1975 and 1976. The average monthly
total employment while in 1977, it accounted for 18.6 wage in the region in 1976 was $3,897, which is only slightly
percent of the total. lower than the three highest census divisions in the State,
The switch from construction to operation is even more Southeast Fairbanks, Val dez-Ch itina-Wh ittier, and Yukon-
apparent in the transportation, communications and public Koyukuk. All three of these divisions, like the North Slope
utilities sector. In 1976, there were 160 employees in this Borough, were heavily impacted by pipeline construction in
sector, 2.5 percent of the total labor force. Most of these 1976. Statewide, the average monthly wage in 1976 was
were employed by aviation and trucking companies support- $1,928. This figure, too, was impacted by the high level of
ing the construction effort. In 1977, however, this same construction activity engendered by pipeline construction.
sector had about 900 employees, 21.2 percent of the total A review of monthly wage levels by industry sector in the
labor force. Almost all of these were directly involved in the Barrow-North Slope census division for 1975, 1976 and the
operation of the pipeline, rather than in its support. first quarter of 1977 indicates very clearly why Boroughwide
The trend toward domination of employment by the mining wage figures are so high. The average wage in the construc-
and transportation, communications, and public utilities sec- tion sector in the region was more than $5,000 per month

TABLE 1 TABLE 2

NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY DISTRIBUTION NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY DISTRIBUTION
PRUDHOE BAY/DEADHORSE AREA' PRUDHOE BAY/DEADHORSE AREA'
JULY 1977 1976

Percent Percent
Industry Classification Number of Total Industry Classification Number of Total

Mining 787 18.6 Mining 742 11.8
Contract Construction 2,322 54.8 Contract Construction 5,339 84.7
Manufacturing - - Manufacturing - -
Transportation, Communication 901 21.3 Transportation, Communication 160 2.5
and Public Utilities and Public Utilities

Trade - - Trade - -
Finance, Insurance and Real Estate - - Finance, Insurance and Real Estate - -
Service2 219 5.2 Service3 55 0.9

Miscellaneous - - Miscellaneous - -
Government 10 0.2 Government 10 0.2
Federal 8) (0.2) Federal 8) (0.1)
State 2) (0.0)3 State 2) (0.0)2

TOTAL 4,239 100.0 TOTAL 6,306 100.0

1. Includes the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex, Deadhorse, and
1 . Includes the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex, Deadhorse, and Franklin Bluffs and Happy Valley Camps.
Franklin Bluffs and Happy Valley camps. 2. Represents less than 0.1 percent.
2. Includes 165 employees of NANA Oilfield Services as well as 64 3. Includes residents of NANA's Deadhorse public camp.
persons I iving at NANA's Deadhorse Camp as of July 1, 1977.
3. Represents less than 0.1 percent. Source: SOHIO-BP.

Source: North Slope Borough

TABLE3 TABLE4

NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY NONAGRICULTURAL WAGE AND SALARY
EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION
NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH PRUDHOE BAY/DEADHORSE AREA AND STATE OF ALASKA
1976 1976-1977

Percent Prudhoe Bay/
Industry Classification Number of Total Industry Classification Deadhorse 1977 Alaska 1976

Mining 1,271 18.3 Mining 18.6 2.3
Contract Construction 3,738 53.9 Contract Construction 54.8 17.6
Manufacturing Manufacturing - 6.0
Transportation, Communication 316 4.6 Transportation, Communication 21.3 9.2
and Public Utilities and Public Utilities

Trade Trade - 16.1
Finance, Insurance and Real Finance, Insurance and - 4.1
Estate Real Estate

Service 445 6.4 Service 5.2 16.2
Miscellaneous 0 - Miscellaneous - .7
Government 892 12.9 Government 0.2 27.6
Federal 239) 3.4) Federal ( 0.2) ( 10.5)
State 652 9.4 State ( 0.0) ( 8.2)
Local Local ( 8.9)

TOTA L 6,932 100.0 TOTAL 100.0 100.0

*Employment figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations. Source: Alaska Department of Labor.

Source: Alaska Department of Labor.

TABLES

AVERAGE MONTHLY WAGE
ALASKA CENSUS DIVISIONS
1976

Average Monthly Wage
Census Division
STATE TOTAL $1,928
Aleutian Islands $1,499
Anchorage $1,613
Angoon $ 899
Barrow-North Slope $3,897
Bethel $ 940
Bristol Bay Borough $1,309
Bristol Bay $1,142
Corclova- McCarthy $1,220 4
Fairbanks $2,161
$1,093
Haines
j u neau $1,414 r
Kenai-Cook Inlet $1,742
Ketchikan $1,294
Kobuk $1,161
Kodiak $1,287
Kuskokwim $1,S77
$1,316
Matanuska-Susitna
Nome $1,286
$ 918
Outer Ketchikan
Prince of Wales $1,493
$1,178
Seward
Sitka $1,377
Skagway-Yakutat $1,229
Southeast Fairbanks $3,956
Upper Yukon $2,009
Valdez-Chitina-Whittier $3,932
Wade Hampton $1,349 4',A@
4
Wrangell- Petersburg $1,290
Yukon-Koyukuk $4,082
I In

Source: Alaska Department of Labor. 44,

TABLE6

AVERAGE MONTHLY WAGE BY INDUSTRY SECTOR
BARROW-NORTH SLOPE DIVISION
1975-1977

1975 1976 1977
Ist Qr 2nd Qr 3rd Qr 4th Qr Ist Qr 2nd Qr 3rd Qr 4th Qr 1 st Qr

Total Nonagricultural Industries $2,654 $2,879 $3,439 $3,310 $3,092 $3,904 $4,311 $4,230 $3,224
Mining $2,709 $2,662 $2,686 $3,201 $2,924 $2,946 $3,254 $3,162 $3,437
Construction $3,793 $3,738 $4,337 $4,OS5 $3,733 $5,103 $S,820 $6,120 $S,158
Transportation, Communications
and Utilities $2,231 $2,74S $2,692 $2,245 $2,889 $2,760 $3,093 $2,502 $2,799

Wholesale Trade

Retail Trade $ 457 $ 428 $ 483 $ 447 $ 612 $ 5S] $ 508 $ 642

Finance,Insurance &
Real Estate $1,013 $1,038 $1,456 $2,540 $1,564
Services $2,498 $2,282 $2,47S $2,939 $3,060 $3,251 $3,519 $3,094 $2,918
Federal Government $ 916 $ 885 $ 939 $ 992 $ 668 $1,039 $ 962 $1,078 $ 980
State & Local Government $ 852 $1,213 $1,442 $1,638 $1,007 $1,746 $1,4S3 $1,578 $1,426
Miscellaneous & Manufacturing

*Figures withheld to comply with disclosure regulations.

Source: Alaska Department of Labor.

after the first quarter of 1976, peaking at $6,120 per month dropped to slightly below $3,000 in the first quarter of 1977.
in the fourth quarter of 1976. Essentially all of this activity The largest share of these jobs was related to oil and gas
was located in the study area and was associated with the development or to pipeline construction activities.
trans-Alaska pipeline. Wage levels in transportation, communications and utilities
Average wage levels in mining, services and in transportation, were slightly below those in mining and services but were still
communications and public utilities in the North Slope high when compared with all other sectors except for
Borough were also high when compared with those of other construction. The highest average monthly wage recorded to
sectors. The average wage in mining exceeded $3,000 per date in this sector was $3,098 which was reached during the
month after the second quarter of 1976 (with a peak of third quarter of 1976. Again, most jobs in this sector were
$3,437 per month recorded for the first quarter of 1977). directed toward servicing oil and gas or pipeline activities or
Although some of this employment was in National Petro- associated with the DEW Line stations.
leum Reserve-Alaska, most of it occurred in the vicinity of Part of the reason for the very high wage rates in construc-
Prudhoe Bay. Another reason for the high average monthly tion, mining, servicesand transportation, communications and
wage rates in these sectors is the very large number of hours utilities in the North Slope Borough is due to the fact that
of overtime logged by employees, particularly in jobs asso- employers in this sector do not maintain office staffs in the
ciated with the pipeline. region (or if they do, they are very small). The Alaska offices
The salaries recorded for the North Slope census division in of most companies in these sectors are based in Anchorage or
tradeand government are much lower. Nearly all employment Fairbanks, or both. As a result, the lower salaries normally
in these sectors, however, is in the Borough's traditional paid to clerical and junior technical personnel are not
communities rather than in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area. reflected in North Slope Borough figures.
The highest average monthly wages in trade recorded for the In summary, persons employed at Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse
region between 197S and the first quarter of 1977 was only and along the pipeline enjoy extremely high incomes when
$642 (in the first quarter of 1977). Average monthly wages compared to those earned in the Borough's traditional com-
in government were higher than those in trade in the North munities and even to incomes Statewide. Furthermore, these
Slope Borough between 197S and the first quarter of 1977. incomes are not diminished by the high costs of living on the
The average for the Federal government sector was $980 per North Slope since all goods and services are provided by the
month in the first quarter of 1977 (down from a high of employer and almost all dependents live outside the region.
$1 078 in the fourth quarter of 1976). Again, essentially all
employment in the government sector is in the Borough's
traditional communities. Less than 0.2 percent of the Prud- G. LAND USE AND PUBLIC
hoe Bay/Deadhorse area employment is in the government FACILITIES AND SERVICES
sector, whereas Boroughwide in 1976, 12.9 percent of the I . General Land Use Patterns
total nonagricultural wage and salary employment was in the Prior to the arrival of the military in the 1950's and the oil
government sector. industry in the 1960's, use of the land in the Prudhoe Bay
Wages in services jobs also averaged more than $3,000 per Coastal Area was entirely subsistence oriented. Most of this
month in 1976 (with a peak of $3,S 19 per month in the third was concentrated along the coast, the barrier islands, and
quarter of 1976) although average wage rates in this sector major rivers where subsistence resources were most likely to

be plentiful. These same general subsistence land use patterns 2. Facilities and Services
persist today. The Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse complex is not an organized
political unit of government but rather a private industrial
Physical development in the study area is limited to the oil development located primarily on State-owned land within
and gas-related facilities at Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse, the the North Slope Borough. IL pays taxes to the Borough, is
pipeline Haul Road which supports these, and a number of subject to its areawide powers and, in theory, is dependent
widely scattered small gravel airstrips built by industry to upon it for the provision of certain services. In fact, however,
support oil and gas exploration. In addition, there are three the Borough has been required to provide only limited
DEW Line stations along the coast-Oliktok, Pt. McIntyre, services to the complex. As a result of an agreement between
and Flaxman at Bullen Point. Of these, only Oliktok is the oil companies and the North Slope Borough shortly after
presently an active station. incorporation in 1972, Prudhoe Bay has remained a private
industrial complex responsible for providing its own services.
The Prudhoe Bay area is an industrial enclave located in an Until recently, all services at Deadhorse have been provided
otherwise nonindustrial area. Because of the size of the field, by the service companies located there; however, in 1976
development is necessarily dispersed widely. In all, this because of recurring problems with the subdivision's solid
industrial area Occupies more than 400 square miles, more waste, sewage and water supply systems, the Borough created
land, in fact, than that occupied by the Borough's eight a utility service area at Deadhorse and assumed responsibility
traditional communities and numerous military installations. for the provision of sewage and solid waste disposal and for
Within the Prudhoe Bay complex are oil production facilities, the water supply. The ASRC has also applied to the Public
living accommodations for workers, and a wide variety of Utilities Commission to take over the Deadhorse telephone
support services. exchange currently operated by RCA Alascom.

Sixteen companies are involved in the development of the
Prudhoe Bay field. To avoid duplication of facilities, how-
ever, these companies entered into an agreement which
assigns the field operation to the two companies with the
largest interest: Atlantic Richfield Company operates the
eastern section of the field and BP (Sohio) manages the
western portion. Although each has constructed similar facil-
ities in their respective management areas, some facilities are
common. These include the central compression plant, the
central power plant, port facilities and an airstrip.

Many specialized services are not carried out by ARCO and
BP (Sohio) but are instead contracted to other firms. Al-
though camp facilities for some of these firms are located
close to operations, most are located near the Deadhorse
Airport on land [eased from the State Department of Trans-
portation and Public Facilities.

SEA

0
0".
0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BP 40- ARCO
operated arve, operated area

-0

r
L

.. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

hoe Bay Unit Area 0
0 L
DS, PADS and BUILDINGS
with structures
struct-
Road,
... BF lease ar.. . . . . . . . . ..
Z WELLS
J, Oil well (perforated/produci 11
0 Suspended oil well
0 Gas -11
0 Drilled gas/ l1q. input
Scheduled w r
FLOW LI 8 1 . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
-Gas tranei i.ea
1 well fl lines
Indic'
Cr oil transit lin a

Figure 13 scale I"= 4000' Alaska Con

- -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- LAND USE

THANSPORTATT01
RUNWAY -d TA

D SE AIRPORT

State and Federal government facilities in the area are also the State Department of Public Safety which empower them
limited. The State of Alaska owns and operates the Dead- to make arrests. They do not, however, have the authority to
horse Airport, and the Federal Aviation Administration carry weapons.
operates a flight service station there. Although the North Responsibility for provision of fire protection service within
Slope Haul Road is currently operated and maintained by the Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse lies for the most part with the
Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, the road is scheduled to companies operating there. Alyeska Pipeline Service Com-
be taken over by the State in October 1978 and will become pany is responsible for safety and fire protection of the
part of the State highway system. The State administration trans-Alaska pipeline and the one pump station within the
has recommended that the road be closed to all but industrial
and commercial tour bus traffic during the period of gas Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Pump Station No. I is outfitted
pipeline construction and that maintenance be the respon- with a range of equipment specifically designed to combat
sibility of the users. The State of Alaska also has a trooper fires resulting from oil and gas combustion. The station has
stationed at Deadhorse. The following is a detailed descrip- two built-in, fixed fire protection systems-a halon system
tion of both private and public facilities and services at and a combination water/foam system. In addition, a number
Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse. of -hand portable and wheeled extinguishers are also available.
There are two fire trucks at the station outfitted with a
Preliminary projections developed by both the Federal and 1,250-gallon water tank, 500 pounds of dry chemical, 125
State governments in connection with the joint Federal/State gallons of A3F foam and a 300-gallons-per-minute pump.
Beaufort Sea lease sale indicate that future oil and gas One of these trucks is available under a mutual aid agreement
exploration and development will probably engender employ- to supplement BP (Sohio) and Atlantic Richfield's fire
ment levels lower than those accommodated by Prudhoe Bay fighting capabilities.
and Deadhorse during the height of pipeline construction.
Thus existing facilities and services should be adequate to In addition to fire trucks, the pump station also has a
accommodate future development. portable twin-engine unit equipped with 450 pounds of dry
chemical and 200 gallons of premixed light water. This is
a. Public Safety usually mounted on the back of a pickup truck, but when
Police protection at Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse is provided by required, can be readily picked up by helicopter and flown to
another location.
an Alaska State Trooper who rotates every two or three
months out of Fairbanks. The police station, located near the A full-time safety and fire protection specialist is responsible
Deadhorse Airport, is equipped with a holding cell, where for the maintenance and operation of fire protection equip-
prisoners are held only until transportation to more adequate ment at Pump Station No. 1. This individual is also responsi-
facilities in Fairbanks can be arranged. The trooper is sup- ble for organizing and training the station's fire brigade.
ported by a four-wheel drive truck outfitted with local According to Alyeska safety officials, existing equipment is
communications and emergency medical equipment. adequate to protect the pump stations.

To supplement this service, the Prudhoe Bay operators Responsibility for management of the Prudhoe Bay field is
contract additional private security guards who cooperate divided between BP (Sohio) and Atlantic Richfield Company.
closely with the State Trooper. Usually retired policemen or Each has its own personnel and fire protection equipment
military, these security guards have special commissions from designed to meet the needs of its particular operation. These

differ in specifics, but both companies have systems which cally closing doors which would serve to contain fires within
meet guidelines established by the National Fire Protection specific areas and there is halon protection throughout. Water
Association for the types of fires most likely to occur in this for fire fighting comes from two sources-the 30,000 gallon
environment. Thus only one of the two companies' systems is swimming pool and the building's potable water source which
described here. has a 30,000 gallon reserve at all times. An additional 80,000
BP (Sohio)'s fire station is located close to its base operations gallon water tank equipped with two 500 gallons per minute
center. The company's safety engineer and three safety pumps is now under construction at the fire station.
technicians who are responsible for maintaining both fixed Responsibility for fire protection at Deadhorse Airport lies
and mobile fire protection equipment are housed here. A with the airport's owner and operator, the State Department
20-man fire brigade, assigned to each 7-hour shift and of Transportation and Public Facilities. Fire fighting equip-
equipped with electronic pagers is spread throughout the ment includes one three-quarter ton "quick response" vehicle
complex and can be called immediately in the event of a equipped with dry chemicals and one large tank truck with a
major fire. The entire brigade receives weekly training and all pumper. Lacking an organized fire department, operation of
brigade members are trained annually at special fire fighting the equipment is left to the airport manager and employees.
courses given at Texas A & M University. Mobile equipment
stationed at the firehouse includes a fire truck equipped with b. Health
a 750 gallons per minute pumper, a 2,000 gallon water tank,
400 gallons of 3F foam and 1,500 pounds of dry chemical. A Health services at Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse are limited to
water truck has a 2,000 gallon capacity and a 500 gallons per those provided by the two managers of the oilfield-Atlantic
minute pneumatic pumper. Richfield and BP (Sohio)-and to the Emergency Medical
In addition to mobile equipment, each of the company's Treatment Service provided by the State Trooper stationed at
Deadhorse. Atlantic Richfield has a well-equipped clinic at its
major facilities has a built-in fire protection system. The main base camp staffed full time by a physician and two
central power station has four, 4 ton carbon dioxide systems physicians' assistants provided under contract by a clinic in
for its turbines, several halon systems, and a 20,000 gallon Fairbanks. BP (Sohio) has two medical facilities, one at its
water tank with pumps powered by elevation and air pressure base operations camp and one at its Construction Camp
for each pair of turbines. No. 2. These are staffed by a licensed physicians' assistant or
The three gas gathering centers are similarly equipped. Each nurse practitioner who has a direct telephone connection to a
has a 433,000 gallon circulating system with two, 15,000 doctor in Anchorage.
gallons per minute pumps, one electric and one diesel. The service companies all have first aid rooms where minor
System outlets are located in each module within the gather- injuries and illnesses can be treated. In the event of more
ing centers. Each gathering center also has standard foam serious medical problems, however, they rely on the medical
application systems and is equipped with water curtains facilities of either BP (Sohio) or Atlantic Richfield, which-
between modules. Fire detection systems are varied, depend- ever firm it is under contract to. Under an agreement among
ing upon the particular activity involved and the type of fire Atlantic Richfield, BP (Sohio) and the service companies,
danger associated with it. ARCO's physician serves all personnel at Prudhoe Bay. All
The company's three housing complexes have elaborate fire patients with serious illnesses or injuries are evacuated to
detection systems. In addition, these buildings have automati- hospitals in either Fairbanks or Anchorage.
85

C. Recreation public restaurant, a movie theater, and a bar. A small gift
Recreation facilities within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area are shop caters to summer tourists.
limited to those provided by the oil industry at its camps d. Communications
within the Prudhoe Bay complex and by NANA Oilfield
Services at its Deadhorse "public camp." Oil company recrea- There are several discrete communications systems operating
tion facilities are closed to all but company employees and within the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex. RCA Alascom,
their guests, while those of NANA are open to the public. based at Deadhorse, provides all long distance service via
telecommunications satellite. An NC 10, cross-fire switch
Compared to the facilities available in most of the Arctic s system with a 400-line capacity provides local service. In
traditional villages, facilities available to people living in the February 1978, only about 250 of the 400 available lines
Prudhoe Bay camps are lavish. British Petroleum (Sohio) has were in use. Atlantic Richfield Company and BP (Sohio),
three camps in the Prudhoe Bay area. The base camp is each have their own in-house end-radio communications
equipped with a full gymnasium, including basketball and systems. In addition to handling calls inside ARCO and BP
handball courts, a swimming pool and saunas, an indoor (Sohio), these systems also provide access to RCA's Dead-
track, and a fully equipped exercise room. In addition, the horse exchange and to its long distance service. A separate
camp has a theater which shows scheduled movies and, on radio-based "alert" system, designed for use in emergency
occasion, live entertainment brought in from outside the situations, connects all the various Prudhoe Bay operations
region. Employees also have access to a wide range of and pipeline pump stations.
hobby-oriented and academic classes taught by fellow em-
ployees when a particular skill is locally available or by The ASRC has applied to the Public Utilities Commission to
imported specialists when it is not. install small telephone exchanges in all of the Borough's
Atlantic Richfield's Prudhoe Bay base camp has a range of villages except Barrow and to take over the Deadhorse
recreation facilities similar to that offered by BP (Sohio). exchange currently operated by RCA Alascom. RCA would
This camp has an indoor basketball court which can be retain its responsibility for long line service to connect
converted for volleyball and badminton and has an elevated Deadhorse to the State long distance network. As of Feb-
indoor track over it. The camp also has a fully equipped ruary 1978, the Public Utilities Commission had taken no
exercise room, saunas, pool tables and other table games. A action on the AS RC's application.
135-seat theater is included in the complex and is used for C. Transportation
both movies and live entertainment. Recreation activities are At the present time, the Deadhorse Airport is the only public
organized by a full-time recreation director. transportation facility in the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area.
Alyeska's one pump station operating within the Prudhoe Owned and operated by the State Department of Transporta-
Bay area has a large recreation area, half of which is devoted tion and Public Facilities, the airport has a 6,500 foot by
to table games such as table tennis and pool, with the other ISO foot gravel runway and an adjacent gravel helipad. The
half used as a theater for daily movie shows. The station also runway is scheduled to be paved in 1978. The runway and
has a sauna, a fully equipped exercise room and a commissary taxiway have medium-intensity lighting; however, high-
where employees can purchase personal items plus books, intensity lighting will be installed at the airport during the
newspapers and magazines. At Deadhorse, the 240-man pub- summer of 1978. Navigational aids include a very high-
lic camp operated by NANA Oilfield Services includes a frequency omn i range/d i stance measuring equipment (VOR/
86

DME), a glide slope, localizer, direction finder, visual ap- as Flaxman is located on Bullen Point just east of Mikkelsen
proach slope indicator (VASI), and a nondirectional radio Bay and has a 3,785 foot by 100 foot runway.
beacon 2 miles northeast of the airport. Airport facilities Road access to the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is provided by
include a terminal, utility-storage shop, a power plant, and the trans-Alaska pipeline Haul Road which connects with the
small transient camp. Extensive fueling is also available. State highway system at the Yukon River and runs parallel to
Deadhorse receives scheduled jet service daily from Fairbanks the pipeline to its terminus at Prudhoe Bay. The road was
and Anchorage via Wien Air Alaska. Aside from Wien flights, constructed by Alyeska Pipeline Service Company to second-
ERA Helicopter and Sea-Airmotive provide scheduled air ary highway standards and is scheduled to be turned over to
service out of Deadhorse to Kaktovik and Nuiqsut, respec- the State by Alyeska in October 1978. During construction
tively. Atlantic Richfield and British Petroleum (Sohio) and the initial operations phase of the pipeline, the Haul
Road has been closed to all but industrial traffic and
provide their employees with jet service from Anchorage and maintenance has been performed by Alyeska. When the road
Fairbanks to Deadhorse. ARCO charters a Wien 737 aircraft is turned over to the State, however, the State will assume
which operates once daily Monday through Friday. BP
(Sohio) has leased an Alaska Airlines 727 which operates on a maintenance responsibility and some public usage of the
nonscheduled basis. facility may be allowed.
Local service roads within Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse have
An airstrip at Prudhoe Bay, owned by the State Division of been constructed and are maintained by the oil companies
Lands and operated by Atlantic Richfield Company, is closed and Alyeska. The State will not assume responsibility for
to all but oil company traffic. The.facility has a 5,500 foot these when it takes over the Haul Road. The only port
by 150foot gravel runway with medium-intensity lighting. facilities within the study area are those associated with
Navigational aids include two-channel VHF and UHF radio Prudhoe Bay. Constructed initially in 1969 by the oil
and a communications tie-in with the Deadhorse flight service
station. Other small private airstrips are located throughout
the Prudhoe Bay area and along the pipeline corridor. These
are closed to all but private traffic.
INS, j@ff@""qqUo
S" Nix,

Outside the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area but still within the
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area there are three additional airstrips,
all associated with DEW Line stations. Oliktok, located 40
miles northwest of Prudhoe Bay, is an active DEW Line
station and has a 4,019 foot long gravel airstrip equipped
with medium-intensity runway and taxiway lights and non-
directional beacons and an 85,000 gallon jet fuel storage
tank. Pt. McIntyre, which has been abandoned by the Air
Force, is located 20 to 40 miles northwest of Prudhoe Bay
and has a 1,300 foot by 66 foot gravel runway. Three small
buildings and fuel storage facilities remain on the property. A
second abandoned DEW Line airstrip commonly referred to

companies, these consist of a gravel causeway and four barges quirements from nearby lakes and rivers or purchase their
placed at its end which serve as an unloading dock. A 25 acre water from hauling companies.
gravel pad adjacent to the dock serves as a storage area: A
second dock, 5,000 feet long and 50 feet wide, and associa- (1) Electricity. As has been mentioned previously, under
ted storage area, were constructed during the winter of the provisions of the Prudhoe Bay Unit Operating Agree-
1975/1976. Located more conveniently than the 1969 facil- ment, Atlantic Richfield and BP (Sohio) share responsibility
ity, this new dock has become Prudhoe Bay's primary port for the provision of electricity to the operating companies.
facility. Three heavy cranes are available for unloading cargo BP's central power station has a generating capacity of 100
from barges. Both port facilities are connected to the Prud- megawatts (100,000 kw). Power is delivered to the operating
hoe Bay complex by road. facilities through 69 kv transmission lines which traverse the
field. ARCO plans to expand the power-generating facility by
f. Utilities an additional 40 megawatts in 1980.
There is no central utility responsible for the provision of The service companies all provide their own power with
power, water or sewage and solid waste disposal services in diesel fuel purchased from Atlantic Richfield's topping plant.
the Prudhoe Bay industrial complex or at Deadhorse. Within At Deadhorse, Arctic Utilities' diesel-powered plant has a
Prudhoe Bay, Atlantic Richfield Company and BP (Sohio) generating capacity of 1900 kw. ALI provides power for its
provide their own water and sewage and garbage disposal own camp and sells excess capacity to the Deadhorse Airport
services. The responsibility for provision of electricity and gas and a number of smaller users in the Deadhorse area. In
utilities is shared jointly by the two companies. BP (Sohio) 1978, ALI plans to expand its generating capacity by 800 kw
constructed the central power station and electrical transmis- to accommodate the addition of the North Slope Borough's
sion lines, whereas Atlantic Richfield is responsible for new central utility.
conditioning the natural gas used for electrical generation and
heating systems for the field facilities and Alyeska Pipeline (2) Water. Within Prudhoe Bay, both Atlantic Richfield
Service Company's four pump stations north of the Brooks and BP (Sohio) have developed their own water sources and
Range. systems. Atlantic Richfield has a permit to pump 294,000
Lacking a central utility at Deadhorse, service companies gallons of water per day from the Sagavanirktok River and
located there have in the past been required to provide their 300,000 gallons per day from the Putuligayuk River. During
own utilities. Prior to 1974, all service companies provided the summer, water is piped directly to the operations center.
their own electricity and heat generators powered by diesel The winter water supply is held in a 138 million-gallon
fuel purchased from Atlantic Richfield's topping plant. In reservoir which is also filled during the summer from the
1974, however, Atwood Enterprises, Inc., formed an electric Sagavanirktok River.
utility which was, in turn, purchased in 1975 by Arctic British Petroleum obtains most of its water from the Kupa-
Utilities, Inc., a subsidiary of NANA Development Corpora- ruk River and Big Lake.The two reservoirs on the Kuparuk
tion. In January 1978, AUI provided power to Deadhorse River have a combined usable capacity of 42 million gallons
Airport and to approximately one-half of the service com- while a much smaller reservoir on Big Lake adjacent to its
panies located at Deadhorse. operations center has a 3 million gallon capacity. Styrofoam
All service company camps maintain their own package sew- floats and heated water circulated through the reservoir
age treatment plants and either supply their own water re- prevent the water from freezing during the winter.

Most of the water from the service companies at Deadhorse is (4) North Slope Borough Central Utility. There have been
obtained from Colleen Lake in the floodplain of the a number of problems with Deadhorse's existing solid waste,
Sagavanirktok River near the Deadhorse Airport. NANA sewage and water supply systems. Consequently, in 1976, the
Environmental Services has dropped a casing through the oilfield operators and service companies and the State of
reservoir ice through which hoses pump water into tank Alaska requested that the North Slope Borough create a
trucks for delivery to various users. A number of companies, utility service area at Deadhorse and construct a central
including NANA, Mukluk Freight Lines, and Frontier Equip- utility for the subdivision. Construction on the central utility
ment, have water-hauling vehicles which can be leased for was begun in 1976 and is scheduled for completion in 1978
approximately $85 per hour. There is no charge for the at a total cost of $18 million, $2.25 million of which will be
water, but NANA is in the process of applying for a water covered by a grant from the State of Alaska. The facility will
utility permit which would allow it to impose a tariff for the include a solid waste incinerator, a sewage treatment and
water as well as the delivery. water purification plant and a water storage reservoir avail-
able on a contractual basis to facilities within the Prudhoe
(3) Sewage and Solid Waste Disposal. Atlantic Richfield Bay/Deadhorse area. As these services are already provided
and BP (Sohio) each maintain their own separate sewage and by the oil company operators for their own facilities, it is
solid waste disposal systems. ARCO's operations center and expected that the central utility will be used for the most
construction camp have binary sewage treatment systems part by the service companies based at Deadhorse.
with the effluent piped to a holding lagoon. Overflow from
the lagoon flows into the Arctic Ocean. Burnable solid waste
is incinerated at each facility-, nonburnable waste is hauled by
truck to a landfill in a sand dune area east of the base camp.
BP (Sohio) has similar facilities for disposing of sewage and
solid waste at its camps.

The North Slope Borough under contract to NANA Environ-
mental Services has assumed responsibility for sewage and
solid waste disposal within Deadhorse. NANA has a sewage
treatment plant at its public camp with a 15,000 gallon per-
day capacity, sufficient according to NANA officials to
handle more than existing requirements. Sludge from the
sewage treatment facility and solid waste are disposed of in
NANA's incinerator. NANA's public camp is plumbed into
this system; other users are serviced by a 2,000 gallon tank
truck which hauls sewage to the 'treatment facility. Solid
waste is also hauled by NANA's trucks to its incinerator.

An additional sewage and solid waste disposal plant is located
at the Deadhorse Airport. Owned by the State and operated
under contract by NANA, this plant has had a number of
operational problems and is not currently in use.

IX. Use Potentials, Constraints and Conflicts

I X. USE POTENTIALS, CONSTRAINTS along the pipeline corridor within the study area have
AND CONFLICTS consumed valuable fish and wildlife habitat and have in some
cases removed this habitat from production or lessened its
A. OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT productivity. The coastal plain in the vicinity of Prudhoe Bay
The development of oil and gas resources within the Prudhoe has historically been the site of caribou breeding and the
onshore area between the Canning and Colville Rivers has
Bay Coastal Area has brought significant benefits to residents accommodated a small, but stable, resident caribou herd.
of the North Slope Borough. One direct benefit has been the According to members of the North Slope Borough Planning
creation of new employment opportunities for Borough Commission development has either forced these animals to
residents in the Prudhoe Bay complex. Less obvious but of other locations or eliminated them entirely.
considerably greater impact, however, are the expanded
services and facilities and new employment within traditional The expansion of development outside the immediate Prud-
communities provided by the North Slope Borough with hoe Bay/Deadhorse area to previously undeveloped onshore
revenues from Prudhoe Bay oil and gas property taxes. and offshore locales raises the very real possibility of addi-
tional habitat consumption. Of particular concern are the
In about the year 2000, existing Prudhoe Bay oil and gas effects of offshore development on the migration routes,
property is scheduled to begin to depreciate. Assuming no calving and feeding grounds of the beluga and bowhead whale
new development has come on line at this time, the Bor- and the barrier islands which provide nesting, feeding and
ough's tax revenues and operating budget will be severely resting habitat for migratory fowl. Nesting and feeding
constricted. As most employment in the region's permanent habitat of the endangered peregrine falcon also falls within
communities is generated through Borough spending, em- the study area. These could be seriously impacted from
ployment levels and incomes are likely to suffer. additional development. The extent to which offshore devel-
The possibility of discovering additional commercially ex- opment may impact important wildlife habitat is unknown at
ploitable oil and gas reserves within the Prudhoe Bay Coastal this time, but it is likely that concern for its protection will
Area is extremely high. Development of these would, of result in strict regulation of offshore petroleum development.
course, enlarge the Borough's tax base and provide additional A number of other negative impacts are connected with
revenues, thus enabling increased latitude in operating and petroleum development. Gravel is an essential commodity in
capital improvement expenditures. Future development most construction activities. Although ice roads and pads
would also extend further into the future the eventuality of have to some degree lessened the demand for gravel, it is
pressure on the Borough's revenues when the Prudhoe Bay required for its insulative effects for all permanent structures.
field oil and gas reserves run out. Buildings, roads and airstrips must be underlaid with a thick
Although the potential for discovering additional exploitable gravel pad to provide insulation from permafrost. An alterna-
petroleum resources in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area appears tive to gravel pads is to elevate the structure so that cold air
excellent, there are certain factors which could constrain may flow between it and the ground to maintain the integrity
their development. Primary among these is the consumption of the soil. If one of these two precautionary measures is not
of valuable fish and wildlife habitat by the structures, followed, the permafrost will gradually melt and cause the
facilities and services required for such development, structure to sink. Shortage of gravel in strategic locations will
either result in significantly increased costs due to long haul
Human and industrial activity at Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse and distances or preclude development altogether. Aside from

these economic considerations, however, are the potential development companies, the North Slope Borough and the
effects of gravel removal on fish habitat and stream courses. State of Alaska have assumed major financial commitments
Removal of gravel from stream banks and beds can disrupt in connection with Prudhoe Bay development. This detracts
fish spawning grounds and, in addition, cause serious stream from the resources available to the people of the Borough
siltation. and the State.
Water is another essential element in petroleum development. The short ice-free season presents several problems for indus-
Not only is it required for human consumption, but consider- try operating in the Arctic. First, it severely limits the time
able quantities are necessary for industrial purposes. Water is available for logistical support by sea and forces industry to
plentiful during the summer months, but during the winter it rely on other, . less efficient and more costly forms of
is in extremely short supply. What water is available at this transportation during much of the year. The short summer
time is found in deep lakes and the few large rivers that do season also places severe limitations on the time available for
not freeze to the ground, the same sites used by fish for operating conventional drilling structures. Since operating
overwintering. Extraction of water from these sources during conventional structures seasonally is probably uneconomical,
winter can cause them to freeze to the ground and thus industry will most likely find it necessary to design platforms
destroy overwintering fish habitat. As with gravel, lack of a to accommodate various degrees of ice loading.
nearby water supply could prove to be an economic deterrent The short ice-free season is a time of intense activity and
to petroleum development if water has to be transported over conflict on the Arctic coast. Break-up coincides with the
long distances. northern migration of two important subsistence resources
Water pollution is another serious constraint to petroleum for the coastal Eskimo, the whale and the seal, and is the
development. Oil spills resulting from "blow outs" and time when they are most accessible for hunting. Between
ruptured pipes pose a serious water pollution hazard on the break-up and the southern migration just prior to freeze-up,
North Slope where ice and severe climate conditions would these animals feed and calve along the coast and river deltas
make clean-up difficult if not impossible. Furthermore, the in the study area. The coastal area is also intensely used by
technology to prevent such mishaps is extremely costly. migrating fowl for feeding, nesting, and resting and for fish
Oil and gas field construction and production and attendant summer feeding habitat. Maritime activity coincides with
activities 'such as aircraft flights produce a great deal of noise. animal migration and uses basically the same routes. Con-
This "noise pollution" can seriously disrupt wildlife. Particu- struction of offshore rigs and support systems is much easier
larly susceptible to disruption from noise are clenning polar in the summer and this too could seriously impact important
wildlife habitat.
bears and breeding and nesting waterfowl. Thus, activity
which creates high levels of noise pollution may have to be Gouging and scouring by ice poses serious potential hazards
limited during these crucial periods. to underwater pipelines. In areas where there is a possibility
of this action, pipelines either will have to be buried at a
Future development would, of course, bring additional peo- depth sufficient to protect them or elevated on causeways.
ple into the region. These would, in turn, necessitate the Environmental concerns about causeways, however, would
provision of extensive support facilities and services. Particu- seem to eliminate them as a feasible alternative.
larly when proliferated, the development of facilities and
services is extremely expensive. Although the expense of Additional constraints to petroleum exploration and develop-
these has in the past been assumed for the most part by the ment are presented by potentially hazardous geologic condi-

tions. A report prepared by the State of Alaska Department to these. However, along with positive benefits have come
of Natural Resources has identified the Prudhoe Bay area as some very real negative impacts which have raised some
an "area of particular concern for geologic reasons." Accord- significant conflicts among residents of the North Slope. As
ing to this report, the location of the channel followed by has diminished the number of caribou in the Prudhoe Bay
barge tugs into Prudhoe Bay and to the gravel causeway area and expansion of this activity, particularly to the
constructed by Atlantic Richfield shifted relative to the offshore area, may impact the whale and fowl population.
shoreline by as much as 175 meters between 1950 and 1976. Degradation of wildlife resources is of utmost concern to
Shoaling of the channel is reported during open water season, residents of the North Slope for these provide the basis of the
and nearby Stump Island has also shifted southwestward and subsistence economy. Dimunition of the resources would
grown in area. seriously impair the Inupiat's ability to support themselves
from the land.
Exposed shoreline from Point McIntyre east has been eroded,
primarily by thermal erosion of permafrost tundra, at an Aside from the economic considerations associated with the
average rate of I meter per year but up to 3 meters a year loss of subsistence resources, petroleum development has
locally. In addition, the area offshore Prudhoe Bay is thought raised some social and cultural conflicts as well, particularly
to be underlain by ground below 0' C. Ice-bonded permafrost among older residents of the North Slope's traditional com-
is thought to occur just below the seabottom in areas munities. just as wildlife resources provide the basis of the
contacted by annual sea ice and at progressively greater region's subsistence economy, the pursuit or hunting of these
depths further seaward of the 2-meter isobath. Over ice
flooding and spring breakups on the larger rivers such as the
Sagavanirktok are also potential hazards.

Freight barges used the bay entrance channel almost exclu-
sively before the Atlantic Richfield causeway was construct-
ed and now that is heavily used for offloading. The short,
open-water season and expense of constructing offloading
and storage facilities imply that changes in channel configura-
tions and temporary interruptions in barge access can have
serious consequences. Future coastal activities anywhere in
the Beaufort Sea must allow for shoreline erosion and natural
changes in offshore bathymetry as well as potentially adverse
effects of the activities themselves on the rates of such
changes. Also, engineering design and construction must
allow for potentially adverse effects of melting bonded
permafrost, especially settlement and subsequent material
erosion, both onshore and offshore. 4L
.... .. ... .. .
Without doubt the development of Prudhoe Bay has brought
positive and tangible benefits to residents of the North Slope
Borough and any future development can be expected to add
93

is the cornerstone of Inupiat culture. There is a fear on the charter operators at Barrow and Deadhorse also fly fishermen
part of older residents that with increased cash income, the and hunters into the region.
dependency on subsistence hunting and fishing will lessen. The Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service considers
And with the need to hunt and fish removed, the old skills the study area to have sufficient resources available to
required to conduct these activities will be lost, thus destroy- provide a variety of recreational experiences. The flat topo-
ing the basis of the Inupiat culture. graphy and the low vegetation are particularly conducive to
Clearly what is needed to resolve these conflicts is an sightseeing and wildlife and waterfowl viewing. In addition,
environment in which both land uses-petroleum develop- there is potential for such sports as cross-country skiing and
ment and fish and wildlife production-are mutually compati- snowmobiling in late winter and early spring when the
ble. Petroleum development has brought significant benefits weather has moderated.
to North Slope residents: employment opportunities and Although the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
income have increased substantially and facilities and services has not yet assessed the boating potential of any rivers within
have been greatly expanded in the region's traditional vil- the study area, it has studied portions of the Colville River
lages. Naturally, Borough residents want to see these benefits and considers the river to have significant wilderness scenery
continue. Above and beyond their material well-being, how- and recreational potential. Segments of the Colville have been
ever, the Inupiat place tremendous value on the maintenance included in the Administration's D-2 proposal as part of the
of their subsistence lifestyle. National Wild and Scenic River System. The wild and scenic
designation would surely attract some recreational boating
B. RECREATION AND TOURISM enthusiasts to the area.
At the present time, there is little recreational or tourist use Probably the greatest attraction of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
of the land in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. There is, Area is its primitive condition and the wide variety of unique
however, potential for a great deal more. In the past, Arctic geological and ecological phenomena that exist there.
conventional tourism in the study area has been limited to The National Park Service has identified 16 geographic
the environs of the Prudhoe Bay complex where some tourist locations within the study area as appropriate for nomination
facilities exist. Since 1972, NANA Corporation has conduct- as natural landmarks. All of these contain geological or
ed a tour bus operation at Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse. ecological values of such distinction as to be of national
Patronage has risen steadily since the operation began, with signif icance.
the exception of 1977 when it fell slightly.
According to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, a In addition, the Alaska Division of Parks has proposed the
establishment of an Arctic Coast State Monument to the west
number of nonresident hunters and sport fishermen visit the of Prudhoe Bay on State-owned property. The proposed
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area annually. Although there are no monument would afford visitors access to view the natural
accurate figures on the number of sport fishermen using the features and abundant waterfowl of the area in concert with
study area, Atlantic Richfield officials report that some petroleum exploration and development.
Prudhoe Bay residents fish in their free time in the immediate
area of Prudhoe Bay as ADF&G regulations allow. A guide Clearly, the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area has an abundance of
service, located on the Colville River delta transports sport tourist and recreational resources which could serve to attract
fishermen to rivers and lakes within the study area, and large numbers of visitors to the region. That these have not

been exploited in the past is due primarily to the remoteness also be costly. Moreover, the facilities required to accommo-
of the region from major population centers, the lack of date tourists would consume additional wildlife habitat.
facilities and services, severe climate conditions for most of People generate trash and solid waste, which in turn causes
the year, and limited access. pollution. This is certainly unsightly and, when uncontrolled,
Opening the Haul Road to the public could significantly damaging to habitat as well. Open access to the region would
increase tourist and recreational usage of the land adjacent to certainly encourage the use of off-road vehicles. These create
the pipeline corridor. In response to a mandate issued by the noise which would disturb wildlife; they would also damage
State Legislature in 1977, the Governor in early 1978 the delicate tundra surface. Once damaged, tundra is practi-
announced that the Haul Road would be open year round to cally impossible to rehabilitate.
industrial traffic to support Prudhoe Bay and gas pipeline Given the large area and harsh climate of the region, insuring
construction and to tour bus traffic. In consonance with this the safety of visitors would be a major problem. While this is
policy, the Administration has submitted legislation request- in theory possible with adequate personnel and equipment, it
ing funds for the establishment of limited support facilities would be an extremely costly undertaking. Insuring the
along the road and at Prudhoe Bay. security of the pipeline would also become a problem with
the incursion of large numbers of tourists and recreationists
If this policy becomes fact, some tourist usage of the road into the region. There is very little distance between the Haul
will undoubtedly ensue. Impact on the surrounding area will Road and the pipeline itself, and, in fact, the pipeline is
be somewhat limited and controlled, however, as long as readily accessible from the road for most of its length in the
tourists are confined to buses and tour groups. Following study area. The vast distance to be covered would make it
completion of the gas pipeline, the State will be forced to almost impossible to assure total security of the pipeline.
reassess the question of general public utilization of the road.
If the decision is made to open the road to the public, Unrestricted tourist and recreation use of the land would
significantly increased exploitation of and pressure on recrea- raise major conflicts. The most valuable resources of the land
tional and tourist resources will result. from the point of view of the tourist and recreation user are
The existence of significant tourist and recreation resources the region's fish and wildlife. These are the same resources
notwithstanding, from the perspective of the North Slope prized most highly by the North Slope's Native residents.
Borough, there are a number of serious constraints on the Boating, hiking, skiing, snowmobiling all would impact to
development of a tourist and recreation industry in the some degree on wildlife habitat and in addition, could
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Access in the past has been a impede subsistence hunting and fishing activities. While some
limiting factor. Opening the Haul Road to the public would, visitors would come only to look, many others would come
of course, accomplish a great deal to alleviate this problem, with the express intention of consuming these resources in
but would, in turn, raise additional considerations. Auto- sport hunting and fishing. This would exert pressure on vital
mobile users require a wide variety of facilities and services: subsistence resources. As many of these are already seriously
fueling and repair services, rest stops, food and lodging depleted, the subsistence economy and culture could be
facilities, to mention only a few. Maintenance of the road to endangered.
accommodate the public is a very real economic constraint, Petroleum development has, thus far, had little direct adverse
but provision of all the required facilities and services would impact on the traditional villages of the North Slope, since
95

people conducting this activity have been largely confined to importance based on their potential for economic viability
the Prudhoe Bay enclave. Tourist and recreation users, and national or local economic need for them.
however, would be widely dispersed and would bring outside Despite the widespread presence of natural resources other
visitors into direct contact with local villages. With the than petroleum in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, it is
exception of Barrow, none of the villages have facilities to doubtful that any of these will be developed in the foresee-
accommodate visitors, nor do they wish to provide these. able future. Costs associated with mineral development are
While tourism and recreation might bring some material extremely high. To be economically viable, deposits must be
benefits to residents of the North Slope in terms of increased major in scope or located close to existing transportation
employment and opportunities for small commercial enter- systems. Even increases in value over time may not make
prises, the costs exacted by expanded tourism and recreation- these resources commercially attractive if production costs
al use of the land would seem to far outweigh any possible also increase substantially or if new technology is developed
benefits. to replace their function.

C. MINING Economic constraints aside, large-scale mineral development
Although mineral fuels such as crude oil, natural gas and coal in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area would be severely constrain-
are extremely abundant in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, the ed by environmental considerations. Conventional strip or
region appears largely unfavorable for metallic mineral open pit mining consumes large amounts of land and would
deposits. Low-grade phosphate deposits which could be used disrupt vast expanses of delicate tundra surface. This would
in the manufacture of commercial fertilizer have been identi- impinge upon valuable wildlife habitat, and it is highly
fied on the coastal plain just east of the Canning River, but questionable whether, once disturbed, it would ever be
according to the U. S. Geological Survey, these are not of possible to reclaim the land. Extensive mining development
sufficient quality or quantity to make the mining of them would inevitably require a permanent work force which
economically viable in the foreseeable future. would probably mean the development of new towns and the
attendant facilities and services required by these. This
The sediment characteristic of the Arctic Coastal Plain is the would, in turn, consume wildlife habitat.
type generally associated with the presence of uranium. The constraints and conflicts associated with extensive min-
Extensive further exploration is required to determine ing development are similar to those engendered by petro-
whether these sediments do, in fact, contain uranium and leum development. Impacts on wildlife habitat from petro-
whether it is of sufficient grade or quantity to warrant
commercial exploitation. leum development are temporary if attendant structures are
removed and habitat rehabilitated once the resources have
Roughly 90 percent of the State's total estimated coal been extracted. Open pit and strip mining, however, would
resources of 130 billion tons are located north of the Brooks permanently remove habitat from production as it is virtually
Range. Although most of the high-grade deposits occur west impossible to replace tundra surface once it has been re-
of the Colville River, significant beds of subbiturninous and, moved. Moreover, with petroleum development the benefits
to a lesser extent, bituminous coal have been identified in the accrued by local residents are extensive. Benefits not only to
study area between the Canning and Colville Rivers on the Borough residents but to the State as a whole from mining
coastal plain. At the present time, the U. S. Geological are doubtful. The costs related to this activity, on the other
Survey considers these deposits to have moderate to low hand, are extremely high.
96

D. FISH AND WILDLIFE tion are more readily accessible. Residents of Barrow,
The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is highly productive fish and Nuiqsut and Kaktovik continue to fish and hunt seasonally in
wildlife habitat. Specific fish and wildlife resources and the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. This activity is likely to
habitat of the region have been discussed in detail in Chapter continue as long as fish and wildlife resources are plentiful.
VI I I of this report. In general, however, the area's two major Fish and wildlife are also important recreation and tourist
rivers, the Canning and the Colville, and their associated resources. These presently support some limited sport hunt-
deltas, are particularly fertile wildlife habitat. Anadromous ing and fishing by both nonresident visitors and residents of
and resident fish are abundant in both rivers. The delta areas Prudhoe Bay and Deadhorse, although the activity of the
are important seasonally for large numbers of breeding, latter group is limited to fishing only as allowed by Alaska
resting and feeding birds. Seals, and to a lesser extent whales, Department of Fish and Game regulation. Fish and wildlife
are also found there seasonally feeding and calving. The also have significant scenic value. The flat landscape charac-
deltas are also considered prime polar bear clenning habitat. teristic of the region makes it possible to see for miles
Whales and seals migrate along the coastal area and waterfowl without obstruction and thus provides a particularly good
abound seasonally in the nearshore waters, particularly those environment for wildlife viewing. Many people visit the
region for the express purpose of viewing wildlife in its
protected by close-in barrier islands. Shorebirds breed and
feed on the barrier islands and to some extent along the coast natural habitat.
throughout the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. The coastal The continued healthy production of fish and wildlife re-
wetlands are also important habitat to a wide variety of sources in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area depends on two
water-related birds. Although the region is not highly produc- factors: the preservation of their essential habitat and con-
tive in terms of large land mammals, there is a substantial trolled exploitation of the resources themselves. Develop-
moose population in the Colville Rivervalley. In the past, the
study area has harbored a fairly stable resident caribou
population, but in very recent years this apparently has
declined.

For centuries, these resources have provided the basis for
Inupiat subsistence and livelihood, and the process associated -------
resources has provided the
with the gathering of these F777
context for the people's culture. Although there are currently
no permanent settlements within the study area, a multitude
of old ruins and gravesites and written records attest to the
historical occupation of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. And
as would be expected, the remnants of past inhabitants are
most prevalent where fish and wildlife are most plentiful.
The presence or absence of a permanent Native population in
the region does not mean that the wildlife resource value has
declined, but rather that people have moved to centers where
services and facilities such as medical assistance and educa- VON-

mentof any kind, whether it be petroleum-related, mining, or
tourism and recreation, consumes or disrupts habitat and
therefore is a constraint to wildlife production. Recreation,
in the form of sport hunting or fishing, involving as it does
the direct consumption of fish and wildlife resources, poses
an additional constraint to wildlife resource production.

Conflict arises when any of these development interests
compete for land necessary to preserve wildlife production
and the Native subsistence economy and culture which
depend upon it. As has been discussed in Section A of this
chapter, the resolution of the conflict between development
and wildlife resource production depends on the creation of
an environment in which both land uses can be conducted
compatibly, where benefits to the Borough and its residents
outweigh the costs to them.

4 P

4W,
-,'7' q,
.N1

X. Forecast of Demands, C6-lv%abil ities and Impacts
".P

X. FORECAST OF DEMANDS, Although it is not possible to anticipate the extent of future
CAPABILITIES AND IMPACTS discoveries in the area of the joint Federal-State lease sale
scheduled for December 1979, this lease sale is of great
The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area has potential for several uses. interest to the oil industry. In addition, industry has express-
Historically, the area has provided a wide variety of fish and ed considerable interest in the remaining unleased onshore
wildlife resources which have been the basis of the subsist- acreage located between the Canning and Colville Rivers. The
ence economy and culture of local residents. Although discovery of commercially developable reserves in any of
currently there are no permanent residents there, the region's these areas will require the construction of a variety of
resources continue to be used for subsistence purposes. The facilities as well as additional pipelines to connect with the
Prudhoe Bay area's oil and gas potential is extremely high trans-Alaska pipeline at Prudhoe Bay. Construction of a
and is currently being exploited. Additional petroleum devel- natural gas pipeline within the trans-Alaska pipeline utility
opment is anticipated in the future. corridor is also anticipated to take place in the next several
While there is presently only limited recreation and tourism years. If commercial reserves of oil and gas are found either
onshore or offshore the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska
activity in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, existing resources or the Arctic National Wildlife Range, pipelines will be
are sufficient to attract large numbers of visitors to the area, required to connect with the trans-Alaska pipeline. Trunk
given development of access and facilities and services. The pipelines from offshore locations would probably run direct-
study area has mineral resources other than petroleum, ly to shore and then traverse land to facilities at Prudhoe
however, the existence of these in other, more accessible, Bay.
areas of the State probably precludes their development in
the Prudhoe Bay area in the foreseeable future. Oil and gas resources are nonrenewable and will not last
forever. While they last, they will return significant benefits
The following sections discuss the demands these potential to local residents of the North Slope Borough in terms of
uses would place on the land in the study area, the capability
of the land to accommodate these uses, and their potential
impacts.

A. DEMANDS
The discovery of the Prudhoe Bay field has engendered
considerable interest in the oil potential of the Arctic in
general but especially in the Prudhoe Bay region and adjacent
offshore areas. Concomitant with the construction of the
trans-Alaska pipeline and production of the Prudhoe Bay
field, exploration in the area of Prudhoe Bay has continued,
primarily onshore. As a result of this activity, there have been
two discoveries recently near the eastern boundary of the
study area, on Flaxman Island and at Pt. Thomson. Another
discovery in the Kuparuk River formation is presently under
going tests.

facilities and services provided from property tax receipts and a. Prudhoe Bay-Large
in increased employment. Of more long-term concern to local The Prudhoe Bay-Large field comprises 38,000 acres and lies
residents, however, are the region's fish and wildlife re- between the nearshore Stump, Egg, and Long Islands and the
sources, which provide the basis of their subsistence economy outer Midway Island. Water depths range from about 6
and culture 'In most instances, oil and gas development is in meters at Stump Island to a maximum depth of nearly 18
direct conflict with these resources. Thus, while exploiting meters, 19 kilometers west-northwest of Midway Island.
the petroleum resources, it is necessary to protect fish and
wildlife resources and their habitat to ensure that these In this scenario, leasing is assumed to take place in the winter
remain and flourish when oil activity has finished. of 1979-80, with the first three exploratory wells being
drilled from two barge platforms and one soil and gravel
island in 1981. Two exploratory holes would be drilled each
1. Offshore Exploration and Development year from 1982 through 1987, except in 1986 when only one
The Federal government and the State of Alaska are sched- hole would be drilled. The field would be discovered in 1982,
uled to conduct a joint lease sale of tracts for oil and gas confirmed in 1983, and construction of development facil-
exploration and development during December 1979. The ities would begin in 1984. Production drilling begins in 1986
lease area is located in the Beaufort Sea between the Canning and peak production would be reached in 1991 and maintain-
River on the east and the Colville River on the west and ed until 1994. Oil production would be discontinued in 2006
extends from the shoreline to about the 20-meter (60-foot) and gas production would end in 2014.
isobath. Total acreage available for nomination is approxi- (1) Facilities. Platforms, wells and pipelines are the off-
mately 650,000 acres, which includes 236 tracts ranging in shore facilities required to develop this field. During the
size from 2,221 acres to 4,914 acres. exploration phase, a total of 14 exploratory wells would be
drilled from 4 barge-based platforms, 7 soil and gravel islands,
In preparation for the pending lease sale, the Departmentof and 3 ice islands. During production there would be 253 oil
the Interior has undertaken a study to determine impacts of wells, 15 gas wells and 22 development wells drilled over the
exploration and development in the Beaufort Sea area. As life of the field from the I barge-based platform, 4 soil and
gravel islands and I gravity island. Offshore pipelines would
part of this study, a number of petroleum development include 68 kilometers of interplatform connectors for oil and
scenarios have been created to predict the nature of the 48 kilometers for gas, plus 6 kilometers of oil and gas trunk
development. These scenarios include the proposed State- lines in twin corridors. Two flow centers would be located
Federal sale as well as other Federal OCS lands, but only two onshore if space is available; if not, processing would take
scenarios are directly related to the study area. The first is place offshore in modular treatment centers on each plat-
the so-called Prudhoe Bay-Large which is estimated to con- form. Two pipelines would carry oil and gas the 15 kilo-
tain 1.9 billion barrels of oil (Bbbl) and 4.75 trillion cub .ic meters to Pump Station No. I at Prudhoe Bay where existing
feet (tcf) of gas. The second is the Canning-Camden scenario transportation and communication networks would be
which includes two fields which together contain 1.3 Bbbl of utilized.
oil and 3.25 tcf of gas. A third scenario, Cape Halkett, would
also affect the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Even though the (2) Manpower. Labor associated with the exploratory
oil field is offshore from the National Petroleum Reserve- phase would include personnel involved in geophysical ex-
Alaska, a pipeline from the field would cross the study area. ploration, platform construction, and drilling. During periods

100

of open water, geophysical work would be conducted from employ 5 workers. All of these work force estimates would
boats by a crew of 30 and one onshore expeditor. During be in addition to the existing personnel at Prudhoe Bay.
winter, a mobile crew of 40 and an expediter would work
from the ice. Manpower required for construction of explora- b. Canning-Camden
tory platforms would depend on the type of platform to be The Canning-Camden scenario contains two major reservoirs
constructed: A soil platform would require 171 workers, a encompassing 17,000 and 26,000 acres. The Canning field
barge platform, 50 workers, and an ice island would require includes the eastern part of the Stockton Islands and the
78 workers. Regardless of platform type, each exploratory western half of Alaska Island, part of the Maguire Islands.
drill rig would employ 60 on-site workers plus 5 workers The Camden field is comprised of the eastern por Ition of
located in Deadhorse for field support. Alaska Island, Duchess and North Star Islands, and the
western part of Flaxman Island. Water depths range from
As with exploratory platforms, manpower requirements for about I meter at the eastern end of Flaxman Island to a
development platforms depend upon platform type. Soil maximum of about 75.4 meters at the fields' outer limit
platforms are estimated to require 150 workers, while it is beyond the barrier islands.
estimated that barge, gravity or submersible platforms each
would require 80 workers. Development drilling rigs normally Canning-Camden leasing is assumed to take place during the
require 60 people per rig and an additional 6 platform winter of 1979-80 and drilling would begin immediately
maintenance personnel. From the point of view of manpower thereafter from a ballasted barge. The Camden field would be
requirements, the major component of the development discovered in 1981, confirmed in 1982, and discovery of the
phase is the construction of oil field facilities. These include Canning field would follow in 1983. Construction would be
roads, flow stations, warehouses, shops, power plant and started on the Camden field and the decision would be made
distribution system, pipelines, operation center and gas con- to continue processing and transport of this output as well as
ditioning facilities. The height of this activity would occur that previously discovered on State lands.
just prior to production. With the Prudhoe Bay-Large The Canning field would be confirmed during 1984 and
scenario this would occur in 1986 and 1987 when employ- would lead to construction to accommodate both fields.
ment is estimated to be 2,750 and 2,529, respectively. When Production drilling would begin in 1990 and peak production
production begins in 1988, employment would stabilize at would be reached in 1993 and maintained until 1998. Oil
1,101 and be maintained at this level throughout the produc- production would cease in 2010 and gas production would
tion drilling phase. end in 2015.

Activities undertaken during the operating phase are remedial (I ) Facilities. Because of its distance from the Prudhoe
work, platform operation, and miscellaneous construction. Bay complex, some duplication of facilities would be re-
Remedial work includes such activities as casing reperforation quired for this scenario. The two fields would share an
and sand removal and would involve a full-time crew of 30. airstrip and harbor, but separate construction camps would
About 20 workers would be required to operate each plat- be built 15 miles apart. During the exploration phase, 18
form and these would be supported by about 700 workers holes would be drilled from 9 soil and gravel islands, 6 barge
employed at the operations center, at the power and sewage platforms and 3 ice islands. A total of 433 oil wells, 12 gas
treatment plants, in catering and in miscellaneous mainte- wells, and 75 development wells would be drilled for the two
nance activities. Miscellaneous construction projects would fields from 9 soil and gravel islands, 3 barge platforms and

101

one gravity island. Offshore pipelines would include 85 currently taking place. In addition to activity on current
kilometers of interplatform connectors for oil and 63 kilo- leases, the remaining State land in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
meters for gas, plus 10 kilometers each of oil and gas trunk Area is desired by the petroleum industry for exploration@
lines. A flow center located onshore opposite the Camden
field would serve it and a portion of the production from the
nearby State lands. The Canning field flow station located 15 a. Kuparuk River
miles west of the Camden flow station, would serve that field In addition to the currently producing Sadlerochit formation
and the remainder of the production from State lands. of the Prudhoe Bay field, there are two other onshore
Eighty-seven kilometers of onshore oil and gas pipelines horizons capable of producing oil, the Kuparuk River and
would connect each of the flow stations with Prudhoe Bay. Lisburne. There are no current plans to test or develop the
These pipelines would 'run adjacent to the coast, cutting Lisburne oil pool, however, Atlantic Richfield Company is
across drainage areas as far as Foggy Island Bay where they currently drilling two test wells in the Kuparuk River forma-
would move inland to connect with Pump Station No. 1. The tion which is estimated to contain I billion barrels of oil. If
Canning onshore plant complex would also include a power results are favorable, ARCO will proceed with its 32-well plan
plant, compressor, and pump station. Following construc- in the spring of 1978. Drill pads, an interim bridge across the
tion, a single base camp located near the harbor would serve Kuparuk River and a spine road through the middle of the
both fields. area to provide access to the wells are already in place and
(2) Manpower. With the exception of the development additional facilities will be trucked up the Haul Road in the
construction phase, manpower requirements and functions spring of 1978. The 200-250 worker construction camp, a
would be the same for the Canning-Camden scenario as for warehouse and shop are scheduled for completion by July
the Prudhoe Bay-Large scenario. Manpower requirements for 1978. Permanent housing facilities for approximately 100
the development-construction phase for Canning-Camden personnel will be barged to Prudhoe Bay in 1979; the
would be significantly less than for the Prudhoe Bay-Large permanent production facilities will follow in 1980. A pipe-
scenario because of the smaller size of the fields. From 1980 line will be built to connect with Pump Station No. I at
to 1984, workers would number about 200. With the advent Prudhoe Bay. The Kuparuk is expected to produce between
of construction activities in 1987, employment would rise to 60,000 and 80,000 barrels per day with initial production
2,048. Employment would fall off until 1990 when it would scheduled for mid-1981.
stabilize for the ensuing five years at about 1,000 workers.
Employment would then slowly decline until it would dis- b. Pt. Thomson and Flaxman Island
continue in 2015. These work force estimates are additional
to any oth6r development. In 1977, Exxon Corporation announced two oil and gas
discoveries. One is at Pt. Thomson located on the coast 50
miles east of Prudhoe Bay near the Arctic National Wildlife
2. Onshore Exploration and Development Range, and the second is eight miles east of Pt. Thomson on
Exploration activity on existing onshore leases will increase Flaxman Island. Confirmation wells are currently being drill-
as more fields are discovered onshore. Petroleum discoveries ed for both discoveries. According to one Exxon official,
at Pt. Thomson and Flaxman Island were announced in 1977. discovery of I billion barrels of recoverable oil would justify
For several years the Kuparuk River field has been known to the construction of a pipeline to join the field to the
exist and testing of the economic viability of the field is trans-Alaska pipeline at Prudhoe Bay.

102

C. Additional State Acreage chosen to transport Prudhoe Bay natural gas to market along
In a survey conducted recently by the Alaska Department of a route in the study area parallel to the trans-Alaska pipeline.
Natural Resources, the oil industry was asked to rank 36 In addition to the gas pipeline itself, the Alcan system will
areas of State land according to their petroleum potential and include within the study area a meter station, compressor
order of preference in which these lands should be leased. station, a major staging area, pipe storage yards, primary
The remaining onshore State acreage in the Prudhoe Bay area communications sites and helipads.
was ranked fourth in both categories. In April 1978, the Because the gas pipeline will follow the Alyeska Pipeline
State announced a five-year schedule of oil and gas lease route so closely, road construction will be minimal and will
sales. The schedule calls for several lease sales within the be limited to access to borrow pits, quarries and other
study area in addition to the previously announced State/ construction material sites. Most facilities will be located
Federal Beaufort Sea sale slated for December 1979. The next to the existing Haul Road or pipeline work pad. The
first, scheduled for October 1978, involves limited acreage in total additional acreage required by the Alcan project within
the Pt. Thomson area. A second onshore sale, scheduled to the North Slope Borough will be approximately 3,500 acres.
take place in April 1981, will involve major acreage in the Over 3,000 acres will be consumed by the 120-foot pipeline
Prudhoe Bay area. Sometime in 1982, the State will conduct right-of-way, the compressor station, stream crossings and
a second sale in the Beaufort Sea offshore area, but as yet the access roads. Although not so stated specifically, it is assum-
specific acreage involved has not been identified. Undoubted- ed that the remaining 500 acres will be devoted to pipe
ly, additional facilities will be required to develop any storage yards, the meter station, the operation and mainte-
reserves identified there. nance base and borrow pits.

Alcan's assumption that the natural gas pipeline can be
3. Pipelines constructed from the Alyeska work pad for the entire
A third demand that will be placed on the Prudhoe Bay 182-mile segment within the North Slope Borough may be
Coastal Area is hydrocarbon transportation. The gas of the overly optimistic. If the routes diverge significantly because
Prudhoe Bay field will need to be transported to market as of engineering difficulties, the acreage and material require-
will existing and future discoveries in the study area and ments would be increased substantially.
future discoveries in neighboring NPR-A and the Arctic
National Wildlife Range. A pipeline for Prudhoe Bay gas is It is assumed that pipeline construction will begin one year
scheduled for completion by 1982. Other production will after project approval and will last five years. Activity during
probably be transported by trunk pipelines to connect with project years two and three would include initial surveying,
the trans-Alaska pipeline or the gas pipeline. preparation of support facilities and movement of material.
Pipeline construction would take place during the summer of
a. Natural Gas Pipeline the third and fourth project years. The compressor station
A giant gas cap, estimated to contain 26.5 to 30 trillion cubic will be constructed concurrently with the pipeline and will be
feet of recoverable natural gas, sits atop the Prudhoe Bay oil completed at the end of the fourth year. Peak employment
field. Assuming an average calendar day throughput of 2.5 to on the North Slope portion of the line is scheduled for
3 billion cubic feet of natural gas, roughly 24 to 29 years of project years three and four and would involve 2,678 and
operation would be required to accommodate Prudhoe Bay 2,041 workers, respectively. The construction work force
gas reserves alone. The Northwest Pipeline Company has been declines to 82 in year five.

103

b. National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska Pipeline ly dependent upon the fruits of the land for their existence.
Any oil discovered offshore from National Petroleum Wildlife provided virtually the only food source for these
Reserve-Alaska (NPR-A) will be piped to shore and traverse people, and all other necessities of life such as fuel, clothing,
the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area to an appropriate pump tools and weapons were garnered from the natural environ-
station at Prudhoe Bay. Any onshore discoveries in northeast- ment.
ern NPR-A would be handled similarly. One of the scenarios Commercial whalers first introduced cash into the local
developed by the Federal government in connection with the economy in the mid-nineteenth century. Since that time,
OCS study assumes discovery offshore from Cape Halkett. there has been a dual economy on the North Slope, with
The pipeline for this field would cross Harrison Bay to dependence on subsistence hunting and fishing rising and
Oliktok Pt. in the study area. Since the base camp, harbor falling according to the availability of cash. Having undergone
and airstrip would be located at Cape Halkett, the only a number of these cash-flexibility cycles the Eskimo has
facilities in the study area would be the 41 -mile pipeline and
associated road from Oliktok Pt. to Prudhoe Bay. Some learned that continued existence in the Arctic is dependent
personnel such as expeclitors and field support would be upon the ability to harvest the region's renewable resources.
located at Prudhoe Bay. A multitude of old ruins, gravesites, artifacts, and written

C. Arctic National Wildlife Range Pipeline
The future of oil and gas exploration and development in the
Arctic National Wildlife Range is not known. In March 1978 0
the U. S. House Interior Committee in its deliberations on
D-2 legislation approved procedures for Federal exploration

version of H.R. 39 passed by the House in May 1978.
of the Range; however, these were not included in the final

Whether the U. S. Senate will address this issue in its D-2
considerations is not known at this time, nor can it be
predicted whether the final legislation will contain provisions
for Wildlife Range petroleum exploration. If there is commer-
cial petroleum development in the Wildlife Range at some
future date, there may be a requirement for a pipeline from
the Wildlife Range to Prudhoe Bay. Since the Canning-Cam-
den scenario road and pipeline would come within 2 kilome-
ters of the Wildlife Range, any Wildlife Range pipeline would
likely connect to the Canning-Camden pipeline or be built
parallel to it, thus minimizing impacts.

4. Subsistence
Prior to the arrival of western culture on the North Slope in
the mid-nineteenth century, the coastal Eskimos were entire-

104

records attest to historical human presence in the Prudhoe recreation and tourism usage of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal
Bay Coastal Area. Thus, it is apparent that in the past the Area.
natural resources of the region have been sufficient to
support various levels of population. Although not as heavily B. LAND CAPABILITY
used today as in times past, the area continues to support In this section different aspects of the land's capability to
subsistence activity. Today this activity is concentrated in meet the demands previously described will be enumerated.
those areas where fish and wildlife are most prevalent, that is
along the two major rivers in the study area, the Canning and I . Land Availability
the Colville, in the nearshore areas where fish, birds and sea With the exception of several military withdrawals and a
mammals are present seasonally, and on the barrier islands. scattering of Native allotments, almost the entire Prudhoe
The preservation of these resources, is absolutely essential to Bay Coastal Area belongs to the State of Alaska. As the
ensure their future ability to support a subsistence lifestyle
and culture for local residents. landowner, the State has the power to lease the land for oil
and gas exploration and development and also to issue
5. Recreation and Tourism permits for water and gravel extraction. In addition, as the
area is within the boundaries of the North Slope Borough, it
Even though there is great potential for recreational and is subject to its zoning and regulatory authority. There have
tourist usage in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area, there is been four onshore lease sales of acreage between the Canning
currently little demand for these activities. Generally limited and Colville Rivers and soon the offshore area will also be
to the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse area, tourist activities have leased for oil and gas exploration. As has been mentioned
been rising steadily since tour bus operations around Prudhoe previously, additional lease sales will take place in the future.
Bay, conducted by NANA Corporation in conjunction with The availability of land for subsistence purposes is not so
Alaska Tour and Marketing Services, began in 1972. As long easily determined. Although the entire Prudhoe Bay Coastal
as access to the study area is limited to air transport, the Area is in theory available for subsistence hunting and fishing
demand for tourism will not rise significantly. This is prob- in accordance with established State and Federal fish and
ably also the case for recreational usage. A number of game regulations, subsistence activities can take place only
nonresident hunters and fishermen visits the study area when wildlife resources are present. There are indications
annually, however, there are no accurate figures available on that Prudhoe Bay development has adversely affected wildlife
the number of people utilizing the study area. Although resources, most noticeably the fish population in the Saga-
residents of Prudhoe Bay are not allowed to hunt, some vanirktok River and caribou which used to be abundant in
residents fish in their limited free time. Currently, there has the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Thus, only to the extent that
been little demand on the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area for development activities do not destroy wildlife habitat and
recreational boating. However, if portions of the Colville resources will the land be available for subsistence activities.
River are designated as wild and scenic, the demand for that
use will increase. The demand for recreational and tourism 2. Waterfront Access
usage is a function of the accessibility to the region. As long
as incoming traffic to the area is restricted to air travel the The discovery of petroleum offshore in the Prudhoe Bay
demand for recreation and tourism will remain limited. On Coastal Area will necessitate construction of a pipeline to
the other hand, if the Haul Road is opened to unrestricted shore and then to Prudhoe Bay. Additionally, if the develop-
use, there will certainly be a marked increase in demand for ment occurs beyond a certain distance from the Prudhoe Bay

105

---------- ARCTIC sTl

BEAuFoRr 0 C'

41,

0
oD
ol

eA
OU
A

NPR-A v
4@

c" ce

0
cl)
do
00

or"

Figure
15

port, new port and dock facilities may be required. The daily consumption in arctic construction camps range from
capability of the shore to provide for these needs is some- 10 to 100 gallons per day of fresh water with an average
what limited. Natural wave and thermal erosion of coastal camp usage of approximately 80 gallons per capita per day.
bluffs of the Beaufort Sea is very rapid in some areas. The The Navy estimates that average water consumption for
protection of the pipeline from shoreline erosion at pipeline exploration wells is 25 barrels (42 gallons per barrel) per day.
landfalls is an important design consideration especially for Approximately 600 barrels are required daily for rig opera-
those coasts classified as wave erosion areas. Since the tion which includes the mixing of drilling mud and cement,
Beaufort Sea is shallow, water depth close to shore is an and washing down the rig floor. The water requirements for
important locational criteria for port siting. On the Beaufort production wells will be similar to the daily requirements of
Sea coast there are few sites capable of accommodating exploration wells; however, production wells can be drilled in
oceangoing vessels. Sites that have been identified by the significantly less time than exploratory wells, thus lowering
Arctic Institute of North America as having potential for total consumption. In order to maintain pressure and conse-
medium- to deep-draft ports include Pingok Island, Cross quently field production, water flooding is often used in
Island, Pole Island, Flaxman Island and Konganevik Point. secondary recovery efforts. Approximately 7 years after the
start of production, water flooding, which requires amounts
3. Development Resources of water from 3 to 10 times the volume of oil produced, is
For any development to occur, quantities of water and gravel initiated.
must be located. Water is required for human consumption as Water needs at Prudhoe Bay are currently being met by the
well as various industrial uses and gravel is primarily required Sagavanirktok, Putiligayuk and Kuparuk Rivers and Big Lake.
for its insulative capacity. The largest single use, secondary recovery, has not yet begun.
a. Water However, this water use will likely not conflict with fresh
water sources as sea water will probably be used. Sources for
North Slope water consumption has historically been limited future water needs will depend on the siting of development.
to domestic use by villages, use by the Naval Arctic Research A potential supply of water is from the rivers which do not
Laboratory in Barrow and DEW Line sites. The development freeze to the bottom during winter, namely the Colville,
of the Prudhoe Bay field and construction of the trans-Alaska Sagavanirktok and Canning Rivers.
pipeline has substantially impacted the available water re-
sources in some areas of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area as b. Gravel
demands have often outstripped supply during the winter Well-drained fill materials required in the construction of
months. Since large quantities of water are required in every roads, buildings, drill pads and -airstrips necessitate the
phase of petroleum development, water availability will location and development of sand and gravel resources in the
continue to be a- major concern in Arctic petroleum develop- Arctic. Even greater demands will be placed on these re-
ment. Regulation of water extraction from fish overwintering sources by offshore Beaufort Sea development than was
spots further limits the availability of water during winter. required for onshore development because of the need for
Water will be required for many purposes, including human such facilities as artificial islands and causeways, harbors, and
consumption, well drilling and secondary recovery. Rates of staging areas. As with water removal, there are environmental
domestic consumption vary greatly depending upon water concerns regarding sand and gravel extraction. These include
availability and transport facilities. Estimates of per capita possible siltation of fish spawning streams and offshore fish

107

habitats and the acceleration of erosion on beaches, rivers Pipeline Service Company would not increase current capa-
and coastal bluffs, barrier islands and tundra surface. cities until notified to do so by the seven owner companies.
Gravel requirements for various facilities on the North Slope At this time there are 8 pump stations each with 2 pumps
vary greatly depending on the specific use involved, availabil- and I reserve pump. In order to bring the pipeline up to its
ity of gravel and the site specific soil conditions. The volume design capacity, an additional 4 pump stations would be
of gravel estimated for offshore exploratory islands in the required and each of the 12 stations would need 3 pumps and
proposed Federal/State lease sale in the Beaufort Sea ranges I reserve pump. One of the 4 additional pump stations would
from 48,000 to 1,600,000 cubic yards depending on the be located in the study area approximately 20 miles south of
Prudhoe Bay. Although no estimate of work force or timing
type, size and depth of the island. Production islands are is available, Alyeska officials have indicated that the work
estimated on an average to require 621,133 cubic yards of force required to increase the pipeline capacity would most
gravel while causeways are estimated to utilize approximately likely be housed at the existing pump stations. With addition-
391,000 cubic yards per mile. Approximately 110,000 to al pump stations and looping of the pipeline, Alyeska
165,000 cubic yards are needed for an all-weather airstrip officials estimate capacity could reach 4 million barrels per
measuring 5,000 feet by 150 feet. Other facilities utilizing day.
gravel include staging areas/production centers (750,000 to
1,000,000 cubic yards) and drill pads or camps (35,000 to
50,000 cubic yards).

The Sagavanirktok, Putuligayuk and Kuparuk Rivers die
current gravel and water sources. The location and quantity
of gravel deposits and the environmental effects of extraction
will determine possible future gravel removal sites. Additional
gravel deposits have been identified in the deltas of the
Canning and Shaviovik Rivers as well as beach and subsea
deposits offshore.

4. Availability of Oil and Gas
Transportation Facilities
At this time the only transportation facility for oil or gas is
the trans-Alaska pipeline which is, of course, for oil. The gas
pipeline from Prudhoe Bay is planned to be completed by
1982, however, specific design characteristics have not been
completed.

a. Trans-Alaska Pipeline Capacity
Although the design capacity of the trans-Alaska pipeline is 2
million barrels per day, oil is currently being pumped through
the line at the rate of 1.2 million barrels per day. Alyeska

108

b. Trans-Alaska Pipeline Availability recreation and tourism resources, if they do indeed exist. The
In its planning studies for the Beaufort Sea lease sale, the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area has a variety of tourist and
Department of the Interior has assumed that the trans-Alaska recreational resources: fish and wildlife for sport hunting and
pipeline would be expanded to its design capacity and would fishing, unique geologic landforms and wildlife for sightseeing
transport 14.9 billion barrels of oil by the year 2010. This and streams and lakes for recreational boating. However, even
production would come from Prudhoe Bay, including Kupa- though the study area has tourist and recreational resources,
ruk (10.5 billion barrels), Flaxman Island-Pt. Thomson (0.4 the fragile nature of the land during summer when most of
billion barrels), Canning-Camden (1.3 billion barrels), Prud- those activities would take place, limits the availability of
hoe Bay-Large (1.9 billion barrels), and Cape Halkett (0.8 those resources. The Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area is predomi-
billion barrels). The yearly summation of output from those nantly marshy and wet during the summer. Gravel roads
fields results in a critical peak period in 1993 when the would have to be built to allow vehicular traffic access to the
throughput reaches 1.996 million barrels per day which is different areas. Increased human activity could drive wildlife
close to pipeline capacity. Any additional throughput from out of the area and also could damage the protective topsoil.
other sources could be accommodated by additional pump Recreational hunters and fishermen could also deplete certain
stations or looping of the pipeline. areas of their fish and wildlife.
5. Fish and Wildlife Resources C. POTENTIAL IMPACTS
The development of the Prudhoe Bay field coupled with the The potential impacts of the demands that will or may be
construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline and adjacent Haul placed on the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area are consumption of
Road has removed considerable acreage from productive habitat, disruption of the environment and environmental
wildlife habitat. The extraction of water and gravel from pollution, and competition for fish and wildlife resources.
nearby lakes, rivers and streams to facilitate that develop- These potential impacts will be discussed in this section.
ment has also altered fish habitat. Although much land in the I . Consumption of Habitat
Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area has been removed as habitat for Of the demands that will be placed on the study area, only
fish and wildlife, the area is still capable of supporting a one, subsistence activities, will not remove wildlife habitat.
multitude of wild creatures. In Chapter Vill the fish and Petroleum development, recreation and tourism will all con-
game of the study area are inventoried and therefore will not sume habitat by the siting of facilities, pipelines and new
be repeated here. The most noticeable effect of those population.
development activities is the removal of the area surrounding
Prudhoe Bay as a caribou calving ground. However, there is a. Population
still a great deal of virgin land remaining in the study area Since the entire population of the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area
that supports wildlife and fish. is there solely to work on petroleum development, popula-
tion increases and decreases are directly related to the level of
6. Recreation and Tourism Resources activity taking place there. The actual manpower require-
There are two aspects to consider when evaluating the ments for the various needs described earlier will hinge on the
capability of the land to provide for recreation and tourism; timing of development, the technology employed (for exam-
whether or not the land has recreation or tourism resources ple, type of platform), and the number, size and location of
and the ability to provide for the development of the fields.

109

It is anticipated that personnel of the Prudhoe Bay-Large run 30 miles due cast to Pump Station No. 1. The Prudhoe
scenario and those connected with construction of the Bay-Large scenario assumes four miles of both oil and gas
natural gas pipeline within the study area would be located in offshore lines. These would run from the north-northeast in
the existing Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse complex. If trunk pipe- the vicinity of the Midway Islands and would land just cast of
lines were to be built from the National Petroleum Reserve- Point McIntyre, at which point 9.5 miles of onshore trunk
Alaska and the Arctic National Wildlife Range, part of the pipelines will run due south across the Putuligayuk River to
construction crew would probably also be located at Prudhoe Pump Station No. 1. In the Canning-Camden scenario there
Bay. The work force required for producing the Kuparuk would also be two pipelines-one for oil and the other for
River oil pool will be located 30 miles west of Prudhoe Bay gas. Because there would be two separate fields, two offshore
at the site of development. The Canning-Camden scenario trunk pipelines would be necessary, One would run south
postulates locating the work force in the adjacent onshore between the Stockton and Maguire Islands and the other
area. If new population centers are developed outside of would run between the Maguire Islands and Flaxman Island
Prudhoe Bay, then duplication of services and facilities will landing at Bullen and at Point Thomson, respectively.
result. This would also increase the consumption of wildlife From Point Thom-son the oil and gas pipelines would follow
habitat. the coast to Foggy Island Bay and then run straight to Pump
S
tation No. 1, a distance of 54 miles. These pipelines could
also service the Flaxman Island/Pt. Thomson discoveries and,
if extended 6 miles, could also connect to the Arctic National
Wildlife Range. The Cape Halkett scenario postulates a
pipeline from offshore Cape Halkett, though the eastern
Jones Islands to Oliktok Point. From there, the pipeline
It! "f*-, would follow the coast until it reaches the Kuparuk River
where it heads southeast to Pump Station No. 1.

C . Facilities
Exploration for new petroleum resources within the Prudhoe
Bay Coastal Area will require very limited new construction
because the Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse industrial complex will
most likely be utilized as the staging, supply and communica-
tions center. Only after economically recoverable oil is
discovered would additional permanent onshore facilities be
built. Typically, onshore field development is located as near
as possible to the discovery or, for offshore fields, at the
b. Pipelines closest landfall. Facilities that could be required include an
oil/gas/water separating plant (flow station), gas compression
Within the study area, the natural gas pipeline will run Plant, base camp, airstrip, dock/har6or, storage area, and
parallel to the existing oil pipeline. Additional anticipate access roads.
pipeline construction includes the oil trunk line from the
Kuparuk formation to the trans-Alaska pipeline which will Facilities for Kuparuk and for the Canning-Camden scenario

110

and the potential Pt. Thomson/Flaxman Island development impacts, the soil and gravel from abandoned artificial islands
will be at the field or at the closest point onshore from the should be reused or the islands should be constructed so they
field. The Prudhoe Bay-Large scenario would require separate are readily demolished by wind and wave action when
production /process i ng facilities, but would utilize the exist- erosion control materials have been removed.
ing airstrip, harbor, and construction housing at Prudhoe b. Water Usage
Bay. Development of Cape Halkett assumes no facilities in
the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area. Similarly, development of the During the summer and fall months, water is abundant on the
Arctic National Wildlife Range would probably not require North Slope. However, during the eight month arctic winters,
facilities within the study area. Since the natural gas pipeline nearly all rivers, streams and lakes freeze to the bottom. A
will run parallel to the trans-Alaska pipeline, new facilities few pockets of water in deep lakes and large rivers do not
will be limited to the pipeline corridor. freeze and these often become the crowded habitat of
overwintering fish. Additional winter sources are found in
groundwater present in alluvial aquifers near large rivers and
2. Disruption of the Environment and beneath larger lakes which do not freeze to the bottom.
Environmental Pollution Melted ice and snow and deep lakes are the primary sources
The extent of alteration to the environment from develop- of community water during winter. In summer, developing
ment will determine the potential impacts of that develop- groundwater sources below the permafrost is not practical
ment. The location and quantity of water and gravel extract- because the permafrost extends from several feet below the
ed and the siting of construction, the noise pollution created surface to depths between 600 to 1,980 feet.
by it and obstruction to migration patterns will collectively Several ecological problems may be created by removal of
be the direct effects on the environment. water from unfrozen pockets. Partial removal of water
a. Construction supporting aquatic organisms crowds organisms into the
Gravel mining and road and workpad construction have remaining confined space and may cause a buildup of the
damaged fish and wildlife habitat throughout the pipeline organisms' waste metabolites or a decrease in dissolved
corridor. Undoubtedly, future pipelines in the study area will oxygen concentration due to the animals' respiratory activ-
cause similar damage. Therefore, the primary objective for ities. Removal of only a portion of the water may also
construction planning should be to reduce the amount of clewater marginal gravels which contain developing fish em-
land consumed by development. The Alaska Department of bryos. If a .11 water is withdrawn from an area mortality of
Fish and Game suggests burying pipelines especially through some species may occur. Withdrawal of water from fish
river deltas and floodplains to lessen the negative impact on overwintering pools may over time cause the fish to move to
habitat. Maximization of all currently existing facilities pro- other areas and potentially reduce village winter food
vides another means of reducing habitat consumption. When sources. For the above reasons, removal of water during
new facilities are built they should be removed after they are winter poses a potential, and often significant, threat to
no longer needed and the area returned to its natural aquatic organisms. Since no comprehensive formula has been
condition. Wildlife would, in time, return to inhabit the area. developed to protect overwintering organisms, each situation
Artificial islands, may negatively impact the biotic communi- should be investigated individually.
ty and, in addition, may constitute a hazard to navigation C. Gravel Usage
unless properly charted and marked. To lessen negative As has been discussed in previous sections of this report
111

significant demands will be placed on the sand and gravel sediments consist mainly of sands and gravels. The mining of
resources in the Prudhoe Bay Coastal Area by future petro- offshore sand and gravel is primarily to construct artificial
leum development, especially offshore exploration and pro- islands for exploration and production of oil and gas. Ex-
duction. Most of the gravel for the trans-Alaska pipeline and traction involves dredging by barge-mounted or land-based
Prudhoe Bay field construction has been extracted from river clamshell dredges, barge-mounted suction dredges or drag-
floodplains. In the future gravel may be mined both onshore lines. Although there is no experience with this type of
and offshore. Abandoned artificial islands and causeways are dredging in the study area, it has been used in the southern
the preferred source of fill materials. Other sources in order Beaufort Sea in Canada. According to Canadian scientists,
of preference are open pit terrestrial mines, the sea bottom sediment plumes and increased turbidity associated with
outside the 5-meter isobath, riverbeds, Beaufort Sea beaches, dredging and hydraulic fill operations have not seriously
the sea bottom inside the S-meter isobath and, finally, the impacted planktonic communities, benthic organisms, and
barrier island system. fish. There is concern, however, that the artificial island
(I ) Onshore gravel extraction. Most of the major rivers and program may have serious effects on Beaufort Sea whale
streams which originate in the Brooks Range contain sand populations. Disturbances from construction activity or the
and gravel. Coastal deposits east of the Colville River are physical presence of islands may cause whales to avoid
available in beaches, spits and barrier islands. Alterations to traditional calving and feeding areas and to alter migration
stream morphology have a number of effects on the aquatic routes.
biology. Fish spawning areas may be eliminated by the d. Noise
destruction or modification of the gravelly channel substrate. Excessive noise could potentially have a significant effect on
A significant impact associated with gravel extraction is the area's wildlife. Noise from construction activities coupled
siltation. Generally caused by equipment working in or near with increased noise from trucks and aircraft can reach
active channels, siltation is created by excavation in the unnaturally high levels of noise for the area. Although there
stream channel, gravel washing or increased erosion of the are little data on the effects of noise pollution on wildlife,
river channel and adjacent banks. Siltation can reduce fish clenning polar bears and breeding waterfowl appear to be very
food organisms, smother spawning gravel beds and adversely susceptible to disruption from noise.
affect egg development. These siltation problems can be e. Obstacles to Migration
avoided or corrected by the use of settling basins or diver- When considering obstacles to migration patterns or routes, it
sionary channels to keep equipment out of streams. Long- is common to refer to roads, pipelines or construction camps
term site rehabilitation measures @Such as replacement of as obstacles to migrating land mammals such as the caribou.
topsoil, restoration of pre-mining vegetation and contours Although this is a very significant concern, marine inhabi-
and various erosion control procedures can also mitigate tants must also be considered. The effects of artificial islands
siltation damage. Coastal erosion resulting from beach and and causeways on any species from migrating whales to
barrier island borrowing is also a major concern. Although microscopic organisms is largely unknown. Before the erec-
upland borrow sites are recommended there are few suitable tion of permanent structures, studies should be undertaken
sites on the North Slope due to permafrost, geotechnical and to determine the migratory patterns of the area. Besides
resource availability problems. physical barriers of roads or causeways, other factors such as
(2) Offshore gravel extraction. East of the Colville River noise or increased boat, truck and airplane traffic could be
delta, from the shoreline to the 60-foot isobath, the bottom obstacles to migration routes.

112

3. Competition for Fish and
Wildlife Resources
Although the population of the State as a whole has in-
creased dramatically over the past several decades, there has
been relatively little population change on the North Slope
outside Prudhoe Bay/Deadhorse. During this same period the
level of subsistence hunting and fishing has decreased. Per-
haps the most significant cause of this decrease results from
the switch from dogs to snow machines as the primary mode
of transportation, thus eliminating the necessity to harvest
vast quantities of game for dog food. Increased income has
also lessened Native dependence on fish and game. Regardless
of reduction in levels of subsistence harvest, the preservation
of traditional culture and historic patterns of subsistence is of
major concern to the people of the Arctic coastal region and
given a stable population, long-term subsistence harvest levels
should remain at a relatively low and stable level. There are a
number of pressures on fish and wildlife resources in the
region. Recreational fishermen and hunters are showing
'increased interest in hunting and fishing in the Arctic and are
beginning to compete with local residents for fish and game
resources. Activity related to development of Prudhoe Bay
has decreased fish populations in the Sagavanirktok River and
displaced traditional caribou calving grounds in the Prudhoe
Bay area. New facilities, gravel mining, and water collection
in connection with onshore development are likely to impact
wildlife habitat in the future. The possible impacts on fish
and wildlife from offshore development are largely unknown
and require extensive additional study.

113

I
I

I
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I

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117

DIVIDER SHEET DESCRIPTIONS AND PHOTO CREDITS Vill Lakes on the Arctic Coastal Plain (FSLUPQ
Chapter Ice lead near a pressure ridge (AEIDC)
I The Niakuk Islands (Sohio-BP Alaska) Clustered tufts of cottongrass (AEIDC)
11 Permafrost outlines or polygons (Sohio-BP Alaska) Woman ice-fishing (FSLUPC)
III Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission hearing Swan in flight near Prudhoe Bay (AEIDC)
(Sohio-BP Alaska) Prudhoe Bay discovery well (AEIDQ
IV Caribou grazing near a drilling rig (Sohio-BP Alaska) Polar bear exit hole (AEI DC)
V Atlantic Richfield dock facility at Prudhoe Bay Franklin Bluffs on the Sagavanirktok River (Sohio-BP
(Sohio-BP Alaska) Alaska)
vi Aerial view of Deadhorse (Bureau of Land Manage- A frozen mound of ice, called a pingo (ARCO)
ment) Ernest D. K. Leffingwell's camp on Flaxman Island
VII Inuit Circumpolar Conference, Barrow, June 1977 (Alaska Division of Parks)
(Steve Cysewski) Prudhoe Bay gathering center (Sohio-BP)
Vill Young Arctic fox (AEl DC) Deadhorse Airport (Alyeska Pipeline Service Com-
IX Female common eiders (AEIDC) pany)
X Union Oil Company ice island at Harrison Bay (F. C. Annual cargo sealift to Prudhoe Bay (Sohio-BP
Duthweiler) Alaska)
I X Flare pad development at a gathering center (Sohio-
TEXT PHOTO DESCRIPTIONS AND CREDITS BP Alaska)
Chapter Arctic char and seal skins drying on racks (AEl DC)
I Prudhoe Bay drilling rigs (ARCO) X Pump Station No. I (Alyeska Pipeline Service Com-
I I Pressure ridges in Beaufort Sea ice (AEIDC) pany)
III Aerial view of Prudhoe Bay (Sohio-BP Alaska) Traditional Eskimo whaling boat (AEIDC)
Trans-Alaska pipeline (Alyeska Pipeline Service Com-
Beaufort Sea coastal erosion (Sohio-BP Alaska) pany)
IV Caribou crossing an Arctic river (AEIDC) Atlantic Richfield Company base camp at Prudhoe
Aerial view of the trans-Alaska pipeline (ARCO) Bay (ARCO)
V Colville River (ARCO)
Birds in flight (AEI DC)
North Slope moose (ARCO)
VI Eskimo whaling camp on the Arctic ice (ARCO)
VII Aerial view of Beaufort Sea ice (Sohio-BP Alaska)

118

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