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STATISTICAL REVIEW OF THE U.S. COASTAL ZONE Materials prepared for the Office of Coastal Zone Management by The Conservation Foundation 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Prepared under Contract No.: NA 8AAA02282 (OCZM) ,1980 392 -S83 19 80 :I : 392 fti I ::D0 .s STATISTICAL REVIEW OF THE U.S. COASTAL ZONE Materials prepared for the I ~~~~~~Office of Coastal Zone Management 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~by U ~~~~~~~The Conservation Foundation 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. Washington, D.C. 20036 U. S.- DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE 5 ~~~~~~CHARLESTON SC 29405-24 13 prepared under Contract N. .p NA 8OAAA02282 (OCZM) DL.August 26, 1980 Property of CSC Library hf STATISTICAL REVIEW OF THE U.S. COASTAL ZONE Prepared by: The Conservation Foundation 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Suite 300 Washington, D.C. 20036 Contract No: NA 80AAA02282 (OCZM) August 26, 1960 TABLE OF CONTENTS I NTRODUCTION 1 Section I THE SHOREFRONT 3 1. Length of the United States Shoreline 4 2. Ownership of the Shoreline by State 6 3. The Uses of the Shoreline by State 7 4. Length of Beach by State 8 5. Length of Eroding Shoreline by State 10 6. Expenditures on Beach Erosion Control Projects 11 7. 'Characteristics of Major Barrier Islands 12 8. Length of Barrier Island by State 19 9. Development Status of Major Barrier Islands 20 Section II PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 23 10. River and Basin Discharge to the Seas 24 11. Changes in Sea Level Observed at Selected Coastal Points 28 12. Tide Ranges for Selected Coastal Points 30 13. Sea Surface Water Temperatures for Selected Coastal Points 34 Section III WATER QUALITY 36 14. Condition of Shellfish Waters 37 15a. Bioconcentration of Metals by Shellfish 39 15b. Bioconcentration of Metals by Phytoplankton 40 16a. Biocontamination -- Mussel Watch Hot Spots 40 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) 16b. Biocontamination -- The Occurrence of Biocide Residues in Juvenile Estuarine Fishes by State -- 1972-1976 42 17. Types and Amounts of Ocean Disposal by Geographic Area -- 1973-1978 43 18a. Oil Spills by Year Reported by the United States Coast Guard 45 18b. Oil Spills Reported During Outer Continental Shelf Operations in the Gulf of Mexico 47 18c'. Oil Spills by Coast -- 1975-1977 47 18d. Oil Spills by Location -- 1976 and 1977 47 18e. Oil Spills by Coast and Location -- 1976 and 1977 48 18f. Oil Spills by Source (Volume and Number) -- 1975-1977 50 18g. Oil Spills by Leading Causes (Volume) -- 1975-1977 50 18ho Oil Spills by Leading Causes (Number) -- 1975-1977 51 Section IV COUNTY PROFILES 53 19. Coastal Counties -- Names and 1976 Population 54 20. Agriculture in Coastal Counties 59 21a. Employment and Business Establishments 60 21b. Coastal County Population by State -- 1960, 1970, 1976 63 21c. Coastal County Nonmetropolitan Population by State -- 1960, 1970, 1976 64 21d. Coastal County Metropolitan Population by -State -- 1960, 1970, 1976 65 21e. Coastal County Population by Regions -- 1960, 1970, 1976 66 21f. Coastal Population Characteristics by State 1976 67 Section V ENERGY 70 22. Coastal Electrical Generating Capacity by State 71 23. Nuclear Power Plants in the Coastal Zone 73 24a. Revenue and Production Value of Outer Continental Shelf Leases 77 24b. Producing Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Leases 78 24c. Total Offshore Oil Production by State 78 24d. Total Offshore Gas Production by State 78 24e. Offshore Production of Crude Oil and Condensates by Year 80 24f. Offshore Production of Natural Gas by Year 81 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) Section VI ESTUARINE AND WETLAND RESOURCES 82 25. Fish and Wildlife Estuarine Habitat Lost -- 1947-1967 83 26. Existing Coastal Wetlands and Wetlands Loss by Type -- 1780, 1954, 1978 84 27. Wetland Type Descriptions 85 28. 1954 Estimates of Coastal Wetlands by State and Type 87 29. Most Recent State Estimates of Coastal Wetlands 88 30. Dredge and Fill Permits and Reported Violations 90 a. --From all Coastal Districts 90 b. -- Districts New England and New York, New York 91 c. -- Districts Philadelphia, Pennsylvania through Savannah, Georgia 91 d. Districts Jacksonville, Florida through Galveston, Texas 91 e. -- Districts Los Angeles, California through Seattle, Washington 92 31a. Use of Wetland Types by Game and Fur Animals 93. 31b, Number of Game and Fur Species Using Wetlands by State 94 Section VII LIVING RESOURCES 95 32a. History of Domestic Fishery Landings. 96 32b. History of Commercial Landings of Selected Species 98 32c. History of Fisheries Employment 98 32d. Value of the Catch in Constant Dollars per Fisherman 98 33. Current Catch Compared to Record Catch by State 99 34. State Landings -- 1978 , 100 35a. Top 20 U.S. Fisheries Ports -- 1976-1978 by Value of Catch 101 35b. Top 20 U.S. Fisheries Ports -- 1976-1978 by Weight of Catch 102 36. Commercial Catch Per Fisherman -- 1974 103 37. Estuarine Recreational Fisheries 104 a. -- Number of Fish by Year 104 b. -- Number of Anglers by Year 105 c. -- Weight of Fish Caught by Year 105 d. -- Number of Fish Per Angler 106 38. Leading Species in the 1970 Recreational Fish Catch by Region 107 39. Coastal Colonies of Herons and their Allies 110 40. Endangered Species 114 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) Section VIII NATURAL AREAS 125 41. Coastal National Parks 126 a. -- Acreage and Visitation 126 b. -- Size and Visits by Region 127 c. -- Size and Visits by Class of Park 128 42. National Wildlife Refuges 128 a. -- Acquisition Costs and Acreage by State 129 ,.b. --Visits by State 130 c. -- Visits by Region 130 d. -- Endangered and Threatened Species Reported on National Wildlife Refuges 131 43. Private Conservancy Holdings -- Numbers and Acreage by State 133 44. Estuarine Sanctuaries 135 Section IX RECREATION 137 45. Saltwater Recreational Fishing 138 a. -- Participation and Expenses 138 b. -- Per Capita Activity 138 c. -- Constant Dollar Expenditures 140 46. Coastal Recreation -- Boating, Swimming, and Water Skiing 142 Section X HURRICANES 144 47. Damages and Deaths from Major Hurricanes in the United States -- 1954-1979 145 Section XI 'PORTS 150 48. Port Development Expenditures by Public Port Authorities -- 1946-1978 151 49. Expenditures of the Corps of Engineers -- Navigation Projects 154 50. Commerce at Selected Ports -- 1977 156 Section XII APPENDIX 158 51. Comparative Coastal Areas 159 52. Concentration of Certain Elements in Sea Water 161 53. Conversion Factors 162 a. -- Length Conversion Factors 162 b. -- Area Conversion Factors 162 c. -- Volume Conversion Factors 163 d. --Mass Conversion Factors 163 e. -- Hydrocarbon Weight and Energy Equivalents 163 f. -- Metric Prefixes 164 54. State Ranks 165 * INTRODUCTION The information selected for presentation in this almanac was selected on the basis of relevance to resource issues, the quality of data, and economy in production of the document. We have selected data that are nationwide or regional in scope and, to the extent feasible, available by individual states. We have selected data that are recent in time, collected by known and uniform standards, and that related to natural resources. We excluded Alaska, usually, because it is less well I ~known, studied, and catalogued, and because it is unique in so many ways. We excluded Hawaii,.usually, because it also is unique in many ways. We also excluded the Great Lakes in order to focus on the ocean coast, 3 ~although it is popular these days to talk of the great lakes as part of the nation' s "coastal zone". We have organized the data tables by natural resource categories I ~and by the categories of use of the resources. Thus, information on recreational fish catches appears in a fisheries resource category while data on cash expenditures and days spent fishing appears in a use category with other recreational information. The information that we present is derived largely from existing publications. In some cases, we have copied material directly from original sources; distilling the most important facts. In other cases (e.g., Tables 32d, 36, 38, and 45c) we have reorganized available information and presented it in new formats to reveal fresh insights. In some instances, we have taken raw information and analyzed it by our own methods (e.g., Tables 8, 9, 20, 21, 23, and 30). While the federal government collects a great many facts, many of them are unavailable in a form that relates specifically or comprehe'n- sively to the coastal zone. For example, the government provides insurance to homeowners in flood prone areas but detailed information is not available about the extent and type of coastal investment, the proportion of policies in high hazard zones, the extent of land use controls provided by local 3 ~go vernment for resource protection, and so forth. Similarly, the federal I ~INTRODUCTION U ~government has a large investment in wetlands protection but has not produced a recent national inventory of wetland types and the extent of past losses. On the positive side, we are able to use some of the massive amount of general statistical data which, though not specifically oriented to the coast, can be used for coastal purposes where available an a county- by-county basis. In order to make use of this information, we have compiled a list of coastal counties which we have designated as being truly coastal in character. The information on energy, agriculture, employment, and population in the coast is all based on this county list. Each table, or set of tables is preceded by interpretative comments which may briefly state the significance of the data and select a few highlights to bring to the reader's attention. Where necessary, we have added caveats about potential problems and limitations of the data, or we * ~have described the origins of the data. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ H~ SHOREFRONT U ~~The coast consists of uplands and wetlands adjacent to and interacting with ocean's and estuarine waters, as well as whatever freshwater may be a part of it. In contrast to this broad ill-defined band, or zone, the shorefront is itself the edge where land and water meet. It is the line we cross going from one realm to the other. We provide in this section some of the fundamental characteristics describ- I ~ing this place -- how big it is, who owns it, what do we do with it, how we have tried to protect it. Barrier islands are given considerable attention in this section, because they are so heavily influenced by the forces of the sea 1 -- storms, tides, currents, and winds--and are therefore often poorly suited for occupancy. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~.SOEINELNT ~~~Telntoftesrein-tebudrbtwnthladndhesao ~~it sure-pviethbaidecitooftecatSeeameses ~~ftelnt ftesoeinehv endvlpdfravreyo ss ~~h iffrn esrsrfetdfeetaonso hrln eal h ~~DprmnofCmechadeisdtomaue:1th"GnrlSrli" ~~wicinldsolthssonsadbyththvenrnewietan3 ~~ilean hnol otepitweete arwt hsdsac.(hs ah separte mesue the "ainlShoreline"-thic aloudr goeswe toeln n the head of ~~~idwtr it eturis-prviesth bsi dscipio o te oat.Seerl eau4s 1. SHORELINE LENGTH (Cont.) Table 1. LENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES SHORELINE. General Tidal National Coastline1 Shoreline, Shoreline2 United States 13,443 91,154 80,577 Coterminous only 4,993 53,677 32,344 Atlantic 2,069 28,673 18,691 Gulf of Mexico 1,631 17,141 8,989 Pacific 7,623 40,298 52,897 Artic 1,060 2,521 --- Maine 228 3,478 2,500 New Hampshire 13 131 40 Massachusetts 192 1,519 1,200 Rhode Island 40 384 340 Connecticut --- 618 270 New York 127 1,850 638 New Jersey 130 1,792 469 Pennsylvania --- 89 --- Delaware 28 381 226 Maryland 31 3,190 1,939 Virginia 112 3,315 993 North Carolina 301 3,375 3,661 South Carolina 187 2,876 3,063 Georgia 100 2,344 204 Florida (Atlantic only) 580 3,331 2,316 Florida (Gulf only) 770 5,095 3,949 Florida (Atlantic and Gulf) 1,350 8,426 6,265 Alabama 53 607 352 Mississippi 44 359 247 Louisiana 397 7,721 1,943 Texas 367 3,359 2,498 California 840 3,427 1,827 Oregon 296 1,410 500 Washington 157 3,026 2,337 Alaska (Pacific only) 5,580 31,383 --- Alaska (Artic only) 1,060 2,521 --- Alaska (Pacific and Artic) 6,640 33,904 47,300 Hawaii 750 1,052 930 Sources: 'U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA. 1975. The Coastline of the United States; 2U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. The National Shoreline Study. 5 2. SHORELINE OWNERSHIP The ownership of the shoreline is a major factor in determining who has access from land to sea. This table summarizes the ownership of the shore- line shoreward of Mean High Water, most of which is privately owned (in the majority of states, the land seaward of Mean High Water is public property). Public ownership landward of Mean High water is at a minimum in the North Atlantic region (13%), and at a maximum in the South Atlantic region (56%). Note: "Non-federal public" ownership is land owned by the states, counties or other non-federal public entity. Table 2. OWNERSHIP OF THE SHORELINE BY STATE. Non-Federal Federal Public Private State or Region Miles % Miles % Miles % Maine 20 * 60 2 2420 97 New Hampshire 2 5 10 25 28 70 Massachusetts 90 8 175 15 935 78 Rhode Island 10 3 50 15 280 82 Connecticut 5 2 50 19 215 80 New York 34 5 202 32 402 63 New Jersey 67 14 130 28 272 58 Delaware 12 5 46 20 168 74 Maryland 225 12 35 2 1679 87 Virginia 109 11 115 12 769 77 North Carolina' 573 16 59 2 1038 28 South Carolina' 435 14 1452 47 832 27 Georgia 29 14 23 11 153 75 Florida' 689 11 277 4 5203 83 Florida (Atlantic)' 159 7 87 4 2028 88 Florida (Gulf)' 530 13 190 5 3175 80 Alabama 2 * 13 4 337 96 Mississippi 33 13 43 17 171 69 Louisiana 246 13 332 17 1366 70 Texas 388 16 55 2 2055 82 California 411 22 357 20 1057 58 Oregon 83 17 158 32 238 48 Washington 155 7 107 5 2075 89 TOTAL' 3618 11 3749 12 21693 67 Maine to Virginia 574 7 873 11 7168 87 North Carolina to Atlantic Florida' 1196 13 1621 18 4051 44 Gulf Florida to Texas 1199 13 633 7 7104 79 Pacific 649 14 622 13 337U 72 I Some shoreline of uncertain ownership * Less than 1% Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971. The National Shoreline Study. * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 3. SHORELINE USES How has the shoreline been portioned among major uses? This table pro- vides the answer by four, broad categories. Public recreational shoreline -- including public parks, boat launch ramps and moorage facilities for recreation -- has the smallest slice. Private recreational shoreline -- including similar facilities for private use -- is next. Non-recreational shoreline -- including shoreline developed for nonrecreational activities, such as industries, residences, and harbors -- is second to largest. Un- developed shoreline with no facilities -- including considerable recreational opportunity for those who would rough it -- has the largest slice. Table 3. THE USES OF THE SHORELINE BY STATE. Public Private Nonrecreational Recreation Recreation Developed Undeveloped State or Region Miles % Miles % Miles % Miles Maine 13 * 967 39 260 10 1260 50 New Hampshire 8 20 30 75 2 5 0 0 Massachusetts 235 20 800 67 85 7 80 7 Rhode Island 50 15 270 79 20 6 0 0 Connecticut 30 11 225 83 15 6 0 0 New York 210 33 70 11 250 39 108 17 New Jersey 290 62 35 7 12 3 132 28 Delaware 33 15 34 15 3 1 156 69 Maryland 105 5 111 6 1623 84 100 5 Virginia 50 5 56 6 155 16 732 74 North Carolina 98 3 321 9 239 7 3003 82 South Carolina 84 3 50 2 580 19 2349 77 Georgia 16 8 5 3 0 0 183 89 Florida 386 6 763 12 1445 23 3672 59 Alabama 32 9 210 60 5 1 105 30 Mississippi 31 13 106 43 10 4 101 41 Louisiana 18 * 28 1 46 2 1851 95 Texas 386 15 160 6 107 4 1845 74 California 432 24 178 10 228 12 989 54 Oregon 205 41 81 16 110 22 104 21 Washington 147 6 40 2 77 3 2073 89 TOTAL 2859 9 45.42 14 5272 17 18843 60 Maine to Virginia 1024 12 2598 30 2425 28 2568 30 North Carolina to Texas 1051 6 1645 9 2432 13 13109 72 Pacific 784 17 299 6 415 20 3166 68 * Less than l% Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971. The National Shoreline Study. 7 4. BEACH LENGTH Sunbathing is the core of a coastal. vacation. The states are blessed with varying amounts of beaches -- from 2 to 79% of their total shoreline. The Pacific coast has the highest percentage of shoreline as beaches (55%), but states on other coasts may also have extensive beaches. The definition of a beach in the National Shoreline Study (from which this information is taken) is somewhat variable. Most Corps Districts define a beach as an area with sand between high and low tide, but one District (Alaska) calls it an area of unconsolidated material between the low and ex- treme high waterlines. Table 4. LENGTH OF BEACH BY STATE. Pct. of Pct. of Miles National State Miles National of Shoreline or of Shoreline State Beach in Beaches Region Beach in Beaches Maine 60 2 Alabama 227 65 New Hampshire 25 63 Mississippi 97 39 Massachusetts 940 78 Louisiana 835 43 Rhode Island 185 54 Texas 377 15 Connecticut 145 54 California 412 23 New York 331 52 Oregon 300 60 New Jersey 215 46 Washington 1847 79 Delaware 76 34 TOTAL 10983 30 Maryland 46 2 Virginia 294 30 Maine to Virginia 2320 27 North Carolina 1269 35 North Carolina to South Carolina 196 6 Atlantic Florida 3600 25 Georgia 102 50 Florida Gulf to Florida Atlantic 390 15 Texas 2504 29 Florida Gulf 968 26 Pacific 2559 55 1 See Table i for "National Shoreline" lengths by State. Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. The National Shoreline Study. S. SHORELINE EROSION Nature continually shapes the coastline. It tears sediments away from oeplace (erosion), and leaves them in another (deposition). Erosion and deposition may operate in the same place but during different seasons (see below). Many areas have undergone net erosion loss in recent years. Nation- wide, almost half of our shores are erod-ing. The North Atlantic states have the highest percentage of erosion, while the South Atlantic states have the lowest. New York is the state with the highest percentage of eroding shore- line (100%), and Washington State has the lowest percentage of eroding shore- '. ~line (4%). Erosion is a natural hazard and presents a problem for the owners and users of many shoreline developments and facilities. In this table, there I ~are two classes of erosion. The first is critical, and the second is non- critical. An area experiencing one or the other is significantly eroding. Critical erosion is erosion which "pres-ents a serious problem because the rate of erosion considered in conjunction with economic, industrial, I ~recreational, agricultural, navigational, demographic, ecological, and other relevant factors indicates that action to halt such erosion may be justified" (Source, same as table 5) Noncritical erosion does not mean I ~insignificant: "Many noncritical eroding shores in all probability would have been classified critical if development had occurred close to the shore." (Source, same as table 5). EROSION AND DEPOSITION OPERATE SEASONALLY. The processes of erosion and Edeposition can work in the same place but at different seasons. This figure shows the growth and erosion of a beach near Carmel, California by a series of dated slopes, based on actual measurements. Vertical dimension is exaggerated Iten times. The dotted line shows how the berm was cut back during the following winter. (Figure courtesy of Scientific American) * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 5. SHORELINE EROSION (Cont.) Table 5. LENGTH OF ERODING SHORELINE BY STATE. Signif- Critically Non critically icantly State or Total eroding eroding eroding1 Not eroding Region Shoreline Miles Miles % % Miles Maine 2,500 20 2,475 99 99 5 New Hampshire 40 2 5 36 90 95 2 5 Massachusetts 1,200 135 11 1,030 86 97 35 3 Rhode Island 340 5 7 310 91 98 5 1 Connecticut 270 25 9 240 89 98 5 2 New York 638 299 47 399 53 100 0 0 New Jersey 469 122 26 110 23 49 237 51 Delaware 226 28 12 31 14 26 167 74 Maryland 1,939 180 9 1,500 77 86 259 13 Virginia 993 258 26 300 30 56 435 44 North Carolina 3,661 539 15 723 20 35 2,399 66 South Carolina 3,063 57 2 191 6 8 2,815 92 Georgia 204 7 4 37 18 22 160 78 Florida 6,266 292 5 690 11 16 5,284 84 Alabama 352 33 9 111 32 41 206 59 Mississippi 247 37 15 69 28 43 142 57 Louisiana 1,943 29 2 1,554 80 82 360 19 Texas 2,498 93 4 259 10 14 2,146 86 California 1,827 80 4 1,487 81 85 260 14 Oregon 500 64 11 102 20 33 335 67 Washington 2,337 7 91 4 4 2,239 96 TOTAL 31,513 2,332 7 11,685 37 45 17,496 55 Maine to Virginia 8,615 1,094 13 6,371 74 87 1,150 13 North Carolina to Georgia 6,928 603 9 951 14 22 5,374 78 Florida to Texas 11,306 484 4 2,683 24 28 8,138 72 Pacific 4,664 151 3 1,680 36 39 2,834 61 *Less than 1% 'Significantly eroding = critically eroding and non critically eroding. Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. The National Shoreline Study. 10 3 ~~~~~~~~~~.10 6. EROSION CONTROL To September 30, 1978, $109 million have been spent for Federal/local cooperative beach protection projects authorized by The Congress and managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The purpose of most projects has been to forestall beach erosion, a process driven by powerful natural forces that often frustrates the most advanced engineering technology. While groins, bulkheads, and seawalls are imperfect solutions because they go against nature, people who have already built too close to the sea often have no better solution. Table 6 presents the total reported costs by the Corps for beach protection but does not include elaborate inlet navigation projects with their jetties and seawalls, which could otherwise be classified as beach erosion control measures. Table 6. EXPENDITURES ON BEACH EROSION CONTROL PROJECTS. Construction Costs No. of Total Local Percent State Projects Federal Contribution' Local Maine 0 ......... New Hampshire 2. 821,583 325,999 28 Massachusetts 8 2,360,178 1,450,245 38 Rhode Island 3 1,066,261 345,146 24 Connecticut 18 2,312,104 1,047,195 31 New York 2 19,772,153 13,872,883 41 New Jersey 5 2,945,601 1,146,325 28 Delaware 2 329,365 0 0 Maryland 1 97,750 80,648 45 Virginia 3 2,256,366 385,845 15 North Carolina 1 - 620,000 0 0 South Carolina 1 1,535,352 637,336 29 Georgia 1 2,137,738 2,024,856 49 Florida 13 17,998,725 9,765,976 35 Alabama 0 ---.... Mississippi 1 1,133,000 0 0 Louisiana 0 ......... Texas 1 1,543,344 1,543,344 50 California 12 9,244,867 4,370,646 32 Oregon 0 ......... Washington 1 5,868,378 225,069 4 TOTAL 72,042,165 37,221,513 34 TOTAL FEDERAL AND LOCAL 109,263,678 Operation and maintenance costs assumed by local authorities and not listed here. Source: Adapted from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Chief of Engineers. FY 1978 Annual Report, Volume II, Field Reports. 3 7m BARRIER ISLANDS I ~~Barrier islands pose special beach problems. These are the long low sandy islands located off mainland coasts. They are a subclassification of barrier structures which includes spits and peninsulas having many of the same planning problems as the barrier islands we list here. A few notable examples of barrier structures ate: Guano Spit, 32 miles long in St. Johns County, Florida; Cape San Blas. Spit, 20.4 miles long in Gulf County, Florida; Gulf Shores I ~(Mobile Point Spit), 29.4 miles long in Baldwin County, Alabama; and Matagorda Peninsula, 51.4 miles long in Matagorda County, Texas. There are many others as well. Barrier islands range from wild and isolated to heavily urbanized. Galveston, Atlantic City, Miami Beach, and Hatteras are examples of cities I ~located on barrier islands. Active barrier islands are fronted by ocean beaches, and often backed by extensive marshes or mangrove swamps. These islands take the brunt of the ocean's force, and so provide a buffer between 3 ~the mainland and the seas. They change constantly in shape and size as well as in number, as new inlets open, or old inlets close. This dynamic feature drew the Department of the Interior to conclude that permanent human I ~habitation of many barrier islands is hazardous-' This same report lists almost 300 barrier islands, from which we selected for Table 7 true barrier islands generally over 500 acres in highland area, based on an earlier report (See Table 7 for source). Some no longer appear as islands, having recently become part of the mainland. A few (the sea islands of Georgia) are not strictly barrier islands, because they are Pleistocene rather than Holocene Iformations; i.e., they are composed of older sediments than the true barrier islands. 1U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service. 1980. Alternative Policies for Protecting Barrier Islands Along I ~the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States, and-Draft Environmental Impact Statement. Washington, D.C. 20243. 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~12 7. BARRIER ISLANDS (Cont.) Table 7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS (ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS). State/Island Name Length Access County Atlantic Coast Barrier Islands Massachusetts Plum Island 8.4 Bridge Essex Monomoy Island 8.9 Boat Barnstable New York Westhampton 15.2 3 Bridges Suffolk Fire Island 53.4 Ferries, 2 Bridges Suffolk Jones Beach Island 14.5 3 Bridges Suffolk and Nassau Long Beach Island 9.5 3 Bridges Nassau New Jersey Sandy Hook 12.7 Bridges, Monmouth Ferry, Highway Island Beach 20.9 3 Bridges Ocean Long Beach Island 20.2 1 Bridge Ocean Pullen Island 4.3 Boat Atlantic Brigantine 8.2 1 Bridge Atlantic Absecon 8.3 6 Bridges Atlantic Peck Beach 8.4 4 Bridges Cape May Ludlam Beach 3.5 3 Bridges Cape May Seven Mile Beach 7.7 4 Bridges Cape May Wildwood 6.6 3 Bridges Cape May Delaware Fenwick Island (Delaware portion) 6.1 Highway Sussex Maryland Fenwick Island 8.8 2 Bridges, (Maryland portion) Highway Worcester Assateague Island (Maryland portion) 21.7 1 Bridge Worcester Virginia Assateague Island (Virginia portion) 13.3 1 Bridge Accomack Wallops Island 6.5 Causeway Accomack Metomkin Island 6.6 Boat Accomack Cedar Island 6.6 Boat Accomack 13 7. BARRIER ISLANDS (Cont.) Table 7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS (ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS) (cont.). State/Island Name Length Access County South Carolina (cont.) Bull Island 7.1 Ferries Charleston Capers Island 3.1 Boat Charleston Isle of Palms 6.9 Bridge Charleston Folly Island 6.5 Bridge Charleston Kiawah Island 10.1 Bridge Charleston Seabrook Island 1.9 Bridge Charleston Edisto Island 5.8 Bridge Charleston Hunting Island 4.2 Bridge Beaufort Fripp Island 3.9 Bridge Beaufort Pritchards/Long Island 2.6 Boat Beaufort St. Phillips Island 1.2 Boat Beaufort Hilton Head Island 13.8 Bridge, Beaufort Airport Dafuskie Island 3.7 Boat Beaufort Georgia Savannah Beach 3.2 Bridge Chatham Tybee Island 5.6 Boat Chatham Wassaw Island 6.1 Boat Chatham Ossabaw Island 10.2 Boat Chatham St. Catherines Island 10.7 Boat Bryan Blackbeard Island 8.0 Boat McIntosh Sapelo Island 5.8 Ferry McIntosh Little St. Simons Island 7.8 Boat McIntosh/Glynn St. Simons Island 4.3 Causeway Glynn Jekyll Island 8.4 Causeway, Glynn Bridge Little Cumberland Island 2.8 Boat Glynn Cumberland Island 16.6 Ferry Glynn Florida Amelia Island 13.0 2 Bridges Nassau Little Talbot Island 7.0 2 Bridges Duval Anastasia Island 14.5 3 Bridges St. Johns Canaveral 53.8 Bridge, Volusia/Brevard Causeway, Railroad Cocoa Beach Island 39.2 8 Bridges, Brevard Causeways Vero Beach Island 28.5 5 Bridges, Indian R./St. Lucie Causeways 15 7. BARRIER ISLANDS (Cont.) Table 7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS (ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS) (cont.). State/Island Name Length Access County Florida (cont.) Hutchison Island 22.4 4 Bridges, St. Lucie/Martin Causeways Jupiter Island 16.1 2 Bridges Martin/Palm Beach Lake Worth 12.1 2 Bridges Palm Beach Palm Beach 15.6 6 Bridges Palm Beach Boca Raton 14.5 3 Bridges Palm Beach Hillsboro Beach 5.5 3 Bridges Palm Beach/Broward Ft. Lauderdale 11.3 3 Bridges Broward Hollywood Beach 13.2 Bridges Broward Miami Beach 9.4 6 Bridges Dade Virginia Key 1.8 Bridge Dade Key Biscayne 4.8 Bridge Dade Number of Atlantic Coast Barrier Islands = 93 Gulf of Mexico Barrier Islands Florida Cape Romano/Kice Island 4.8 Boat Collier Marco Island 4.6 2 Bridges Collier Keewaydin Group 9.3 Boat Collier Bonita Beach 5.6 Bridge Collier/Lee Lover's Key Group 2.7 2 Bridges Lee Estero Island 7.1 2 Bridges Lee Sanibel Island 11.2 Causeway, Lee Bridge Captiva Island 6.2 Bridge Lee North Captiva Island 4.2 Boat Lee Cayo Costa 8.0 Boat Lee Gasparilla Island 6.9 2 Bridges, Lee/Charlotte Rail road Bocilla Island 6.2 Boat Charlotte Manasota Key 13.3 3 Bridges Charlotte/Sarasota Casey Key 7.1 2 Bridges Sarasota Siesta Key 7.3 2 Bridges Sarasota Lido Key 2.3 2 Bridges Sarasota Longboat 10.4 2 Bridges Sarasota/Manatee Anna Maria Key 7.6 3 Bridges Manatee Mullet Key 2.6 Bridge Pinellas Long Key 4.1 3 Bridges Pinellas Treasure Island 3.5 3 Bridges Pinellas 16 7. BARRIER ISLANDS (Cont.) Table 7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS (ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS) (cont.). State/Island Name Length Access County Florida (cont.) Sand Key 14.1 4 Bridges Pinellas Clearwater Beach Island 3.3 3 Bridges Pinellas Caladesi Island 2.4 Boat Pinellas Anclote Keys 3.4 Boat Pinellas/Pasco Dog Island 8.0 Ferry Franklin St. George Island 18.7 Bridge Franklin Little St. George Island 10.1 Boat Franklin St. Vincent Island 8.7 Boat Franklin Hurricane/Shell Island 5.9 Boat Bay Santa Rosa Island 47.9 4 Bridges Okaloosa/Escambia Perdido Key 13.2 2 Bridges Escambia (Florida portion) Alabama Perdido Key 1.6 2 Bridges Baldwin (Alabama portion) Dauphin Island 13.8 Bridge Mobile Little Dauphin Island 3.5 Bridge Mobile Mississippi Petit Bois 7.0 Boat Jackson (Pettibone) Island Horn Island 14.1 Boat Jackson Ship Island' 5.7 Tourboat Harrison Cat Island 3.9 Boat Harrison Louisiana Chandeleur and Breton 27.8 Boat St. Bernard/Plaquemines Islands Grand Isle 7.2 Bridge Jefferson Timbalier Island 8.3 Boat Lafourche/Terrebone Isles Dernieres2 16.2 Boat Vermillion/Cameron/ Terrebone 17 7. BARRIER ISLANDS (Cont.) Table 7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS (ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS) (cont.) State/Island Name Length Access County Texas Galveston Island 28.6 Bridges Galveston Matagorda Island 36.2 Boat, Calhoun Airfield St. Joseph Island 19.3 Boat, Aransas/Nueces Airfield Mustang Island 18.0 Ferry, Nueces Bridges Padre Island North 75.1 Causeway Nueces/Kleberg/Kenedy Padre Island South 39.9 Causeway Willacy/Cameron Number of Gulf Coast Barrier Islands = 55 Two islands 2 Eight islands Source: Adopted from John R. Clark, et. al., July 1977. Review of Major Barrier Islands of the United States. New York: The Barrier Islands Workshop; Robert Peoples, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Pers. comm. 18 8. BARRIER ISLANDS Over 1500 miles of major barrier islands front the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. These islands maintain quiet sounds, estuaries or lagoons between themselves and the mainland for fisheries, nurseries for fishes, marshes, and recreation on calmer waters. This table compares the general shoreline to the length of barrier islands fronting each state. Maryland has the highest percentage of its shoreline fronted with barrier islands, because the general shoreline measures only Maryland's ocean coast. North Carolina is second. Table 8. LENGTH OF BARRIER ISLAND BY STATE. No. Total % of State No. Total % of of Length General or of Length General State Islands' (mi.) Shoreline2 Region Islands (mi.) Shoreline Massachusetts 2 18 9 Louisiana 11 59 15 New York 4 93 73 Texas 6 217 59 New Jersey 10 100 77 TOTAL 147 1,61U 47 Delaware 1 6 21 Massachusetts to Maryland 2 31 98 Atlantic Virginia 9 67 60 Florida 95 1,063 50 North Carolina 20 285 95 Massachusetts to South Carolina 18 96 51 Virginia 28 315 50 Georgia 12 89 89 North Carolina Florida 49 560 41 to Atlantic Florida Atlantic 17 283 49 Florida 67 753 65 Florida Gulf 32 247 32 Florida Gulf Alabama 3 19 86 to Texas 52 542 35 not additive, because some islands are in two states. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA. 1975. The Coastline of the United States; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. The National Shoreline Study. Source: Adopted from John R. Clark, et. al., July 1977. Review of Major Barrier Islands of the UniteWdStates. New York: The Barrier Islands Workshop; Robert Peoples, U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Pers. comm. 19 9. BARRIER ISLAND DEVELOPMENT _ Barrier island change constantly in size and shape. The Department of Ithe Interior has concluded that most are poor places for permanent human habitation.-' Nevertheless, over one-third of the length of major barrier islands is developed. Development reaches its peak in New Jersey, and is at a minimum in Mississippi. Over one-third of the length of major barrier Iislands is preserved. Land which is preserved is defined as being owned by an individual or organization which has the intent and the ability to keep its property in an undeveloped state for the forseeable future. The highest Iproportion of preserved barrier island is on the North Atlantic coast (58%). Over one-quarter of barrier island length is currently uncommitted to either development or preservation, although some of this length is on the verge Iof development, because it has the facilities, such as roads, power, and sewage which will allow development. Florida has the greatest expanse in this last category. This information is presented, as is the other information on barrier I ~islands, as length, because we find that the estimates of island area often vary widely between sources, while sources usually agree on length. Ii ~See Text to Table 7. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 9. BARRIER ISLAND DEVELOPMENT (Cont.) Table 9. DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF MAJOR BARRIER ISLANDS. Undeveloped and unpreserved but with infra- Undeveloped structure for and development State or Developed Preserved Unpreserved extant Region Miles % Miles % Miles % Miles % Massachusetts 1.8 10 15.5 90 0 0 0 0 New York 38.2 41 54.5 59 0 0 0 0 New Jersey 70.0 70 24.9 24 3.8 4 2.1 2 Delaware 3.0 49 2.3 38 0.8 13 0 0 Maryland 8.8 29 21.7 71 0 0 0 0 Virginia 3.0 4 64.4 96 0 0 0 0 North Carolina 94.7 33 119.8 42 47.1 17 23.8 8 South Carolina 33.2 35 34.5 36 21.4 22 6.9 7 Georgia 15.3 18 41.4 49 28.2 33 0 0 Florida 247.7 44 89.7 16 142.9 26 75.8 14 Florida Atlantic 135.9 48 28.3 10 64.2 23 54.3 19 Florida Gulf 103.8 43 45.4 19 72.7 30 21.5 9 Alabama 6.1 32 0.5 3 11.6 61 0.7 4 Mississippi 0 0 26.8 87 3.9 13 0 0 Louisiana 6.3 11 28.0 47 25.2 42 0 O- Texas 29.0 13 116.4 54 55.1 25 16.6 8 TOTAL 549.1 34 624.4 38 334.0 20 123.8 8 Atlantic 403.9 38 407.3 38 165.5 16 87.1 8 North Atlantic 124.8 40 183.3 58 4.6 1 2.1 * South Atlantic 279.1 37 224.0 30 160.9 21 85.0 11 Gulf 145.2 25 217.1 38 168.5 30 38.8 7 * Less than 1% Source: Adopted from John R. Clark. July 1977. Review of Major Barrier Islands of the United States. New York: The Barrier Islands Work- shop; Robert Peoples, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. pers. comm. 21 PERCENTAGE OF BARRIER ISLAND LENGTH DEVELOPED IN-ONE OF THE m CATEGORIES ON THE HORIZONTAL AXIS > m I vs rn . . _ n A c NORTH ATLANTIC REGION co s! =SOUTH ATLANTIC 0 GULF < 0 * r NORTH ATLANTIC m - m z z SOUTH ATLANTIC ~~~~~~~N oF~~~~~~~~~~~ 0O GULF Cr 'CD o m I -h m c NORTH ATLANTIC CD mr c D <_ �0 SOUTH ATLANTIC o 00 ' P GULF CD n n c= p o * NORTH ATLANTIC CD o m - un m 1-4 tn m o- _ =Xo mSOUTH ATLANTIC OUTmm 0o GULF z cGULF C= cD 11 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Physical characteristics set a broad framework within which man, other animals, and plants must adapt and live. The flow of rivers to the sea dilutes in-rushing salt water, and the combination of the two forms estuaries (see Section VI). The salinity regime in an estuary changes in response to changes in river discharge. As river discharge varies, the * ~salinity that a sedentary animal will experience also varies. Sea level changes daily due to solar and lunar tides. Animals that live within the zone continually covered and uncovered by ebbing and flooding tides--the intertidal zone--are adapted to living now under water, and then I ~under the air for long periods of time. Fifteen thousand years ago, sea level was 400 feet lower than it is today. The range of temperatures at some places along the coast is large --over 50 degrees F at some places. People and animals who use the sea year round must make provisions for this wide range of temperatures. * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~23 10. RIVER DISCHARGES Water which evaporates from the oceans and lakes forms the clouds which release rain or snow over land masses. Precipitation runs off the land and finds its way to rivers which flow to the coast. This water cycle has many implications. First, the positioning of salinity gradients in estuaries is controlled in part by river flow. Second, terrestial runoff carries pol- lutants -- ranging from sediments to fertilizer to pesticides, and other com- pounds -- into estuaries and the ocean. Third, many organisms have intricate adaptations to reproduction in the expected estuarine flow regimes. Thus, the flow of rivers to the sea is an important physical characteristic. The information presented in Table 10 refers to the average flow of rivers discharging to coastal waters where those coastal waters are adjacent to the coterminous United States. Thus the St. Lawrence River, for example, which drains the United States is not listed. The flow of each river is highly variable. For example, the mean discharge of the Susquehanna River is about 40,000 cubic feet per second (cfs), but during Hurricane Agnes in June, 1972, its flow exceeded 1,000,000 cfs. The three rivers with the largest average discharge to the sea in the coterminous United States are (1) The Mississippi at 650,000 cfs (37% of the U.S. total), (2) the Columbia river at 281,200 cfs (16% of the U.S. total), and (3) the Mobile River at 63,160 cfs (4% of the U.S. total). Table 10. RIVER AND BASIN DISCHARGE TO THE SEAS. River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs)' Atlantic Ocean (cfs)1 Total Passamaquoddy Bay to Penobscot Bay 23,500 6.5 I Penobscot River 16,750 71.3 St. George River to Cape Cod Bay 41,020 11.4 Kennebec River 11,210 27.3 Androscoggi n River 7,229 17.6 Saco River 4,040 9.8 Merrimack River 9,183 22.4 Cape Cod to New York- Connecticut State Line 34,810 9.7 Connecticut River 21,400 61.5 Housatonic River 3,799 10.9 New York-Connecticut State Line to Cape May 32,770 9.1 24 10. RIVER DISCHARGES (Cont.) Table 10. RIVER AND BASIN DISCHARGE TO THE SEAS (cont.) River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs) Atlantic Ocean (cfs) Total Hudson River and smaller streams 22,700 69.3 Cape May to Cape Henry 101,200 28.2 Delaware River 19,900 19.7 Susquehanna River 40,290 39.8 Potomac River 13,700 13.5 James River 10,030 9.9 Cape Henry to Neuse River 27,500 7.7 Chowan River 4,626 16.8 Roanoke River 8,620 31.3 Pamlico River 4,693 17.1 Neuse River 5,703 20.7 Cove Sound to Black River 28,440 7.9 Cape Fear River 9,475 33.3 Pee Dee River 15,270 53.7 Santee River to Sapelo I sland 35,290 9.8 Savannah River 10,280 29.1 Ogeechee River 3,513 10.0 Altamaha River to Cape Kennedy 25,860 7.2 Altamaha River 12,140 46.9 St. Johns River 8,868 34.3 Cape Kennedy to Cape Sable 9,000 2.5 Atlantic Ocean Total 359,400 River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs) Gulf of Mexico (cfs) Total Cape Sable to Alligator Creek 2,500 0.3 Peace River to New River 27,200 3.1 Suwanee River 680 39.3 Apalachicola River 26,700 3.0 Wetappo Creek to Perdido River 25,100 2.8 Choctawhatchee River 7,360 29.3 25 10. RIVER DISCHARGES (Cont.) Table 10. RIVER AND BASIN DISCHARGE TO THE SEAS (cont.) River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs) Gulf of Mexico (cfs) Total Escambia River 6,880 27.4 Mobile Bay 64,200 7.2 Mobile Bay 63,160 98.4 Pascagoula River to Pearl River 31,200 3.5 Pascagoula River 15,200 48.7 Pearl River 12.900 41.3 Mississippi River 650,000 73.3 Vermillion, Mermentau and Calcasie Rivers 10,800 1.2 Sabine River to Rio 49,700 5.6 Grande Sabine River 9,050 18.2 Neches River 8,240 16.6 Trinity River 7,490 15.1 Brazos River 6,220 12.5 Colorado River 3,000 6.0 Guadalupe and San Antonio Rivers 2,350 4.7 Nueces River 820 1.6 Rio Grande 660 1.3 Gulf of Mexico Total 887,400 River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs) Pacific Ocean (cfs) Total Colorado River 200 0.04 Tia Juana River to Ventura River 500 0.1 San Jose Creek to Pesadero Creek 2,400 0.5 San Francisco Bay 30,400 6.1 Lagunitas Creek to Smith River 42,100 8.4 Eel River 9,120 21.7 Klamath River 17,100 40.6 Smith River 4,360 10.4 26 10. RIVER DISCHARGES (Cont) Table 10. RIVER AND BASIN DISCHARGE TO THE SEAS (cont.) River Area Discharge Discharge Area as a % of U.S. River as a % of Discharge Discharge to Discharge Basin Basin or River (cfs) Pacific Ocean (cfs) Total Oregon Coastal Area 53,300 10.7 Rogue River 11,000 20.6 Umpqua River 10,700 2U.1 Columbia River 281,200 56.4 Naselle River to Nooksack River 89,100 17.8 Chehalis River 7,730 8.7 Queets River 4,120 4.6 Snohomish River 8,800 9.9 Skagit River 16,350 18.4 Nooksack River 3,720 4.2 Pacific Ocean Total 499,200 Coterminous United States Total 1,746,000 - cfs is cubic feet per second which equals 448.8 gallons per minute Source: Alfonso Wilson and Kathleen T. Iseri. 1969. River Discharge to the Sea from the Shores of the Conterminous United States, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-282. 27 11. SEA LEVEL CHANGES The sea has been slowly and relentlessly rising from polar ice melt. Changes in relative sealevel along U.S. coasts are due not only to the change in height of sealevel, but also to the changes in the level of the land. From both causes, relative sealevel is rising -- at over 2 feet per century at Galveston, Texas; but, in isolated cases, decreasing at over 4 feet per century in Juneau, Alaska. Many of our nation's coasts have shallow slopes that rise gradually. Relatively small changes in sealevel in these areas can drastically alter the extent of exposed or submerged lands. For example, on a coast with a 1 degree slope, a 20-inch vertical drop in sealevel would move the shoreline over 30 yards seaward. Table 11. CHANGES IN SEA LEVEL OBSERVED AT SELECTED COASTAL POINTS. cm/ inches/ cm/ inches/ decade century decade century Northeast Coast Southeast Coast Portland, ME 2.2 8.66 Charleston, SC 3.8 14.96 Eastport, ME 3.3 12.99 Savannah, GA 3.1 12.20 Boston, MA 2.8 11.02 Miami Beach, FL 2.6 10.24 Woods Hole, MA 3.3 12.99 Gulf Coast Newport, RI 3.0 11.81 Key West, FL 2.3 9.06 New London, CT 2.6 10.24 Pensacola, FL 2.7 10.63 Montauk, NY 2.6 10.24 Galveston, TX 6.3 24.80 New York, NY 2.9 11.42 Pacific Coast Sandy Hook, NJ 4.9 19.29 La Jolla, CA 1.7 6.69 Atlantic City, NJ 4.1 16.14 Los Angelos, CA 0.5 1.97 Lewes, DE 3.7 14.57 San Francisco, CA 1.3 5.12 Philadelphia, PA 2.8 11.02 Astoria, OR -0.1 -0.39 Annapolis, MD 4.2 16.54 Seattle, WA 1.9 7.48 Solomons, MD 4.0 15.75 Friday Harbor, WA 1.0 3.94 Norfolk, VA 4.7 18.50 Juneau, AK -13.4 -52.76 Ketchikan, AK -0.2 -0.79 Source: Modified from Steacy D. Hicks, March 20, 1978. An average geo- potential Sea Level Series for the United States. J. Geophysical Research, Vol. 83, 1377-1379. 28 I~~11. SEA LEVEL CHANGES (Cont.) ~~~ALNIC OS HRLN A AIDGETYi h atadwl ~~udutdycninetinteftr.Tiiluraoncmrsth * ALATI CAS WORELDIDE CHANGS VAIED GREATLEVLYnb inferdfo the radiocarbndwl aeofshalowatrelaine organisms and 11,00 depth ago which they wrbbeshreliei allctherece Satmhepoles were from theAla.Cnfimticsefof NothAeia, thecotnta I~~ea shelf wand other ladparts ofthworld. The dephincoverisenc of eehn et (tringes) frexsshampes pleat (dth)and the shelfo-wtherehsbn ulfomtions ~(i g caleedcouritesy of(cienii mrcles). I~~~~~~~~~~~~2 * 12. TIDE RANGES * ~~The ebb and flood of the tide is one of the fascinatin g characteristics of the coast. Tides flood and drain many coastal wetlands and other inter- tidal areas, alternately subjecting the plants and animals to ocean waters, and the air. They produce currents (which often exceed three knots) in I ~coastal waters which can be a detriment or an advantage to the mariner. Tides are produced by the pull of the sun and the moon on the earth, H~~and by the centrifugal force which produces a high tide on the side of the planet opposite the sun and the moon. The effect of the sun is about one- half that of the moon (0.46), because of the greater distance from the sun to the earth. In some places, the tide are semidiurnal, that is, there are two high and two low tides per day. In other plates, the tides are diurnal, that is, there is only one high and one low tide per day. In either case, the tidal patttern repeats itself every 24 hours and 50 minutes (the length of a lunar cycle). When the sun and the moon are in line, which is the case during new and full moons, they produce high high tides, and low low tides termed "spring tides." When the sun and the moon are perpendicular to one I ~another, they produce lower high tides, and higher low tides termed "neap tides." There are about two weeks between spring tides, and about two weeks between neap tides. Freshwater flow, winds, and extremes of barometric pressure can alter the expected tide pattern. In this table, "mean range" is the difference between mean high and mean low waters. "Spring range" is the average range of tides which are the result of new and full moons. "Diurnal range" is the difference in height between mean higher high water, and mean lower low water in areas subject to diurnal tides. Of the stations given'here, the maximum mean range is 26.1 feet in Anchorage, Alaska, or in the coterminous United States the maximum mean range is 18.2 feet in Eastport, Maine. The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, I ~Canada has the highest mean tide range in the world --38.4 feet --and a spring tide range in excess of 43 feet. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 12. TIDE RANGES (Cont.) TYPICAL TWIE CURVES FOR UNITED STATES PORTS F.u I 1d at Ie IS 16 17 IS Lun., data: A-moon In apoget Ft. A OI IE a 0- loIt quarter POsroN E - Moon on Equator ~~~~~~~I �~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- new moon ( 7O r 'A ri *I I a ' Al .I Ilit I II I flI51i r~ ~ II I II I I 11111 I I I I I ItI I I I I I 1 I I 1 ItI I t I ill I It I I I I AIIlI I I I IIIII I Iit II 1 I I a 11 iii Ii iti 1i:1if 11 1 II It if I I I I III iI14.JII II V ~~~~~~ ~ ~~I 'I I NEW YORK A A I 1 it it A~~~ IAli F'ltIt All I IN lit 11 f IN I I I't fll Il I I 4I I 1111 II .1I I 1 IVI I I - I VI 1 f 11 'I I t I II I If II I 0 IA I I t If if NA69P TON ROADS L I - - I A AII A I VIV V V vJ V V V v V VV VU\ I 1/IlI% ti Xil I I I I fyy VV rI ,rvA\ SAVANNAH RIVER ENTR w I 1 kAl II II II S i I . I. n I it.l II I A I III I A A gi 11 1;1 I~ ~II fltItIiI Itit II lIft ItIt1111111 11 1111 II Itll 111 II II If illII II I I I II if IIf II If l 11I1t If V III 11 I II I) II I f 1 4 1 II I \ 11 1 II i I -1U II " II I II f II T V u 0Uil KEY WEST %0FX PW'-X- e__ X N_ t%.OF-xI %_/NIX-t fI I N, t X1 * I JV It~~~~~~~~ IPENSACOLA P r I. - - THE PATTERN OF TIDE at various places along the coast. Note that the largest amplitude of tides is near new or full moons. Pensacola tides are diurnal tides -- one high and one low tide per day. The patterns depicted above Pensacola are semi-diurnal tide patterns -- two highs and two lows per day. The pattern at Galveston is a mixed pattern -- sometimes diurnal and som~times semi-diurnal. (Figure from same source as Table 12.) 31 I~~~~~~~ruo 12. TIDE RANGES (Cont.) Table 12. TIDE RANGES FOR SELECTED COASTAL POINTS. Mean Spring Mean Spring (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) Maryland (cont.) Maine Crisfield (Little 2.0 2.4 Eastport 18.2 20.7 Annemessex River) Bar Harbor 10.5 12.1 Baltimore (Fort McHenry) 1.1 1.3 Portland 9.0 10.4 Annapolis 0.9 1.0 New Hampshire St. Mary's City 1.5 1.7 Portsmouth 7.8 9.0 Virginia Massachusetts Assateague Beach 3.6 4.4 Boston 9.0 10.4 (Tom's Cove) Woods Hole 1.8 2.2 Ship Shoal Inlet 4.0 4.8 (Oceanographic Tangier Sound Light 1.6 1.9 Institution) Alexandria 2.8 3.2 Cape Cod Lighthouse 7.6 8.8 Norfolk 2.8 3.4 Rhode Island Virginia Beach 3.4 4.1 Newport 3.5 4.4 North Carolina Block Island 2.9 3.6 Kitty Hawk (Ocean) 3.2 3.8 (Old Harbor) Cape Hatteras 3.6 4.3 Connecticut Albemarle and Pamlico New London 2.6 3.1 Sounds (State Pier) Oracoke Inlet 1.9 2.3 New Haven 6.2 7.1 Beaufort (Pivers 3.0 3.6 (Harbor entrance) Island New York Wilmington 4.2 4.5 Port Chester 7.2 8.5 South Carolina Brooklyn Bridge 4.3 5.2 Myrtle Beach 5.1 6.0 Port Jefferson 6.6 7.6 Georgetown Lighthouse 3.8 4.4 Fire Island 4.1 5.0 Charleston 5.2 6.1 Breakwater (Customhouse Wharf) New Jersey Folly Island 5.2 6.1 Sandy Hook 4.6 5.6 Parris Island Atlantic City 4.1 5.0 (Beaufort River) 7.1 8.3 (Steel Pier) Georgia Cape May Harbor 4.4 5.3 Savannah 7.4 8.6 Delaware Sapelo Island 6.8 8.0 Rehoboth Beach 3.9 4.7 Jekyll Point 6.6 7.7 Cape Henlopen 4.1 4.9 Florida Maryland (Atlantic Coast and Keys) Ocean City 3.4 4.1 Jacksonville (Dredge Depot) 2.0 2.3. 32 12. TIDE RANGES (Cont.) Table 12. TIDE RANGES FOR SELECTED COASTAL POINTS (cont.) Mean Spring Mean Diurnal (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) Florida (cont.) Texas (cont.) Cape Canaveral 3.5 4.1 Pass Cavallo -- 1.4 Ft. Lauderdale 2.3 2.8 Aransas Pass Channel -- 1.4 (Bahia Mar Yacht Club) Port Isabel -- 1.3 Miami Beach 2.5 3.0 (Pacific Coast) Key West 1.3 1.6 Washington State Seattle 7.6 11.3 Mean Diurnal Friday Harbor, 4.5 7.7 (Gulf Coast) (ft) (ft) San Juan Island Everglades City 2.0 2.6 Bay City, Grays Harbor 7.1 9.2 Naples 2.1 2.8 Oregon Sarasota -- 2.1 Coos Bay 5.6 7.3 Clearwater 1.8 2.6 Astoria 6.5 8.2 Apalachicola -- 1.7 California Pensacola -- 1.3 Cape Mendocino 4.0 5.7 Alabama Alcatraz Island 4.1 5.8 Mobile -- 1.5 Carmel Cove, Carmel Bay 3.5 5.2 Mississippi Santa Barbara 3.6 5.3 Biloxi -- 1.8 Los Angeles 3.8 5.4 Louisiana (Outer Harbor) Chandeleur Light -- 1.2 San Clemente 3.7 5.3 Timbalier Island -- 1.2 Point Loma 3.7 5.3 Mermentau River -- 2.5 Alaska (entrance) Sitka 7.7 9.9 Texas Juneau 13.8 16.4 Sabine Bank -- 2.8 Port Valdez 9.7 12.0 (Lighthouse) Anchorage 26.1 29.0 Galveston -- 1.4 Hawaii (Galveston Channel) Honolulu 1.2 1.9 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NOS, Tide Tables: 1978 High and Low Water Predictions East Coast of North and South America (Including Greenland); Tide Tables: 1978 High and Low Water Pre- dictions West Coast of North and South America (Including the Hawaiian Islands). 33 . _ ................. 33 * 13. SEA TEMPERATURE Ocean temperature near the poles, the tropics, and in the depths of the ocean does not fluctuate much on an annual basis. The temperate zone oceans on the other hand vary enormously on an annual basis. A 57-year record of temperatures at Charleston, South Carolina, reveals a 41 degree F difference between mean February and mean August sea temperatures. The same location has a 49 degree F difference between recorded maximum and minimum water temperatures. The east coast and west coast differ a good deal in the variability of temperature. The six stations in California show a 34 degree difference between recorded maximum and minimum temperatures within the entire state. Many single locations on the Atlantic or Gulf coasts display a 40 degree difference between mean temperatures, and a 50 degree difference between extreme temperatures. Temperature variations are important, because they dictate a very broad range of temperature adaptations that long-lived temperate zone animals must have. These temperature fluctuations are sufficiently regular, that many animals use them for proximate cues in their reproduction and migration cycles as well as in other activities. Ocean temperatures are determined by the amount of sun that an area re- ceives, as well as the length of time over which it receives sunlight. Ocean currents that may reach an area also influence temperature. The warm Gulf Stream current, and the cool California current markedly effect the temper- ature along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. CENTRIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT EQUIVALENTS. �C �F General Formulae: �F = 9/5 0C + 32 0 32 �C = 5/9 (�F - 32) 5 41 10 50 15 59. 20 68 25 77 30 86 35 95 40 104 from 1887 to 1893 is not used here 2 no data collected 1947 to 1953 3 to 1877 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Tidal Datums and Information Branch, Tides and Water Levels Division. 34 13. SEA TEMPERATURE (Cont.) Table 13. SEA SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURES FOR SELECTED COASTAL POINTS (OF).4 FEBRUARY AUGUST coldest warmest year of monthly monthly first max. average min. max. average min. record Eastport, ME 40 30.7 28 57 54.5 46 1929 Portsmouth, NH 40 31.6 30 69 64.6 50 1944 Boston, MA 52 29.8 28 75 70.7 50 1921 Woods Hole, MA 39 29.5 27 77 73.2 66 1944 Newport, RI 42 32.5 28 78 72.4 64 1955 New London, CT 43 33.6 31 80 75.8 67 1947 Bridgeport, CT 48 33.0 30 86 81.4 70 1964 Montauk, NY 41 30.3 29 79 72.6 62 1947 Willets Pt., NY 46 29.5 28 81 75.1 64 1931 NY (The Battery), NY 44 31.3 29 79 77.2 66 1926 Sandy Hook, NJ 45 30.7 28 83 78.0 68 19441 Atlantic City, NJ 44 29.8 28 80 76.1 57 1911 Cape May, NJ 45 34.0 28 80 75.9 66 1965 Philadelphia, PA 46 32.5 -- 86 82.8 -- 19222 Lewes, DE 47 31.5 29 83 77.5 67 1947 Solomons, MD 46 33.1 30 87 82.8 72 1937 Baltimore, MD 45 32.4 31 86 82.0 71 1914 Washington, DC 52 33.8 32 90 85.1 73 1944 Kiptopeke Beach, VA 51 34.1 28 85 81.0 68 1951 Myrtle Beach, SC 60 44.1 40 89 85.0 73 1951 Charleston, SC 63 44.8 40 89 85.8 76 1921 Ft. Pulaski, GA 64 45.8 41 89 86.2 78 1939 Fernandina, FL 70 50.9 44 90 86.0 75 1944 Miami Beach, FL 79 64.0 58 92 88.8 82 1939 St. Petersburg, FL 76 55.4 50 90 87.4 80 1946 Pensacola, FL 75 49.3 42 92 87.3 78 1923 Dauphin Is., AL 69 46.4 45 91 86.8 77 1966 Galveston, TX 66 46.4 44 92 87.9 80 1957 Port Mansfield, TX 72 53.1 48 88 85.7 78 1963 Newport Beach, CA 63 55.9 54 78 72.7 58 1955 Los Angeles Harbor CA 69 52.7 51 77 72.4 61 1923 Avila Beach, CA 63 51.2 46 70 64.6 54 1945 Santa Monica, CA 63 54.1 51 74 70.8 60 1945 San Francisco, CA 58 48.4 44 66 63.4 50 19213 San Francisco, CA 59 49.5 47 68 62.1 56 1855 Crescent City, CA 57 46.0 44 65 61.1 48 1933 Astoria, OR 50 36.0 32 75 71.6 58 1925 Neah Bay, WA 51 42.2 38 62 55.8 47 1935 Port Townsend, WA 48 40.1 39 56 54.4 45 1973 Seattle, WA 51 43.7 42 64 59.1 52 1922 See footnotes on previous page 35 U III WATER QUALITY U ~~The quality of coastal water is important to us even if we can't drink it, because we swim in it, harvest shellfish from it, and live near it. We have degraded coastal water quality by dumping sewage, discharging chemical wastes, and spilling oil and other toxic substances into it. These con- taminants are taken up and concentrated in the body tissue of shellfish and juvenile fishes and require the closing of shellfishing areas. They spoil I ~our beaches and erode the beauty of the coast. The statistics presented in this section outline the character and I ~magnitude of water quality problems; for example, the ability of some organisms to concentrate elements by two-million fold, the extent of ocean dumpings, closings of shellfish beds, and characteristics of oil I ~spills. 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~36 * 14. SHELLFISH WATERS I ~~The National Shellfish Register compiles information from state agencies on the status of the states' shellfish beds. In this classification, open waters are waters that are approved for the direct market harvesting of shell- I ~fish. These waters are below designated hazardous levels of pathogenic micro- organisms and/or industrial wastes, as determined by sanitary survey. Con- ditional waters are normally open waters subject to periodic closures. Restricted waters may be harvested if the shellfish are moved to open waters- and allowed to purge themselves of contaminants. Closed waters are closed to all shellfishing because of the current or probable future occurrence of hazardous levels of contaminants. Most often, these contaminants are bacteria from sewage discharges. The Pacific Coast states -- California, Oregon, and Washington -- have I ~the highest percentage of closed waters (60.6% of the acreage classified here). Pennsylvania through Virginia have the lowest percentage --8.7%. Note though that not all waters are classified here. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 14. SHELLFISH WATERS (Cont.) Table 14. CONDITION OF SHELLFISH WATERS (ACRES), 1974 State Open Conditional Restricted Closed Maine 930,325 6,531 6,728 101,281 New Hampshire Massachusetts 310,881 325 4,091 29,060 Rhode Island 96,019 10,836 . 20,134 Connecticut 248,751 2,227 68,956 Subtotal 1,585,976 19,929 10,819 219,431 New York 477,241 266 151,096 New Jersey 244,695 7,544 23,370 119,581 Subtotal 721,936 7,810 23,370 270,677 Pennsylvania Delaware 205,153 153 28,251 Maryland 1,213,576 111,319 Virginia 1,315,209 724 120,271 Subtotal 2,733,938 877 259,841 North Carolina 1,379,563 604,038 South Carolina 199,323 1,344 74,917 Georgia 49,494 154,473 Florida 663,126 84,099 1,024,966 Alabama 81,937 187,513 85,589 Mississippi 76,232 27,678 Subtotal 2,449,675 272,956 1,971,661 Louisiana 2,000,117 464,161 Texas 822,447 285,168 Subtotal 2,822,564 749,329 California 11,178 4,718 263,045 Oregon 7,075 7,693 13,305 Washington 155,655 21,313 42,382 Subtotal 173,908 33,724 318,732 Grand Totals 10,487,997 335.,296 34,189 3,789,671 Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement, "National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters-1974," EPA-330/1- 75-002 (Denver, Colorado, December, 1975), p. 17. 38 15.BIOCONCENTRATION Some marine organisms are filter feeders, and filter large volumes of water as they feed, extracting nutrients. In the process of filtering or contacting this water they concentrate certain elements, sometimes to an extraordinary degree. A scallop, for example, can concentrate cadmium by over 2 million times. In other words, a scallop may have a concentration of cadmium in its body 2 million times higher than the surrounding water. Phytoplankton are small plants that float in the upper layers of the ocean. They too concentrate certain elements, and these elevated concentrations may be passed on to the numerous animals that feed on the phytoplankton. The levels concentrated in shellfish or other biota can potentially be used as an indicator of recent average levels of an element or a pollu- tant in seawater. Bioconcentration is also important to human health because food species may concentrate pollutants to a level harmful to humans that eat them. Table 15a. BIOCENCENTRATION OF METALS BY SHELLFISH. Enrichment factors Scallop Oyster Mussel Silver 2,300 18,700 330 Cadmium 2,260,000 318,000 100,000 Chromium 200,000 60,000 320,000 Copper 3,000 13,700 3,000 Iron 291,500 68,200 196,000 Manganese 55,500 4,000 13,500 Molybdenum 90 30 60 Nickel 12,000 4,000 14,000 Lead 5,300 3,300 4,000 Vanadium 4,500 1,500 2,500 Zinc 28,000 110,300 9,100 Source: R.R. Brooks and M.G. Rumsby. 1965. The Biochemistry of Trace Element Uptake by some New Zealand Bivalves. Limology and Oceanography 10:521-527. 39 15. BIOCONCENTRATION (Cont.) Table 15b. BIOCENCENTRATION OF METALS BY PHYTOPLANKTON. Element Enrichment Factor Element Enrichment Factor Aluminum 10,000 Manganese 4,000 Beryllium 1,000 Nickel 5,000 Cerium 90,000 Niobium 1,000 Chromium 2,000 Plutonium 2,600 Cobalt 1,000 Scandium 2,000 Copper 30,000 Silver 20,000 Iron 40,000 Zinc 20,000 Lead 40,000 Zirconium 60,000 Source: F.G. Lowman, et al., 1971. In Radioactivity in the Marine Environment",at-i-onal Academy of Sciences, Washington. p. 161 In P.G. Brewer, 1975. Minor Elements in Sea Water In Chemical Oceanography. [eds.] J.P. Riley and G. Skirrow Academic Press, N.Y., p. 430. 16.BIOCONTAMINATION Given that some marine organisms concentrate various compounds, their use as monitoring tools is enticing. They sample water continuously and for long periods without cost. Dr. Edward Goldberg at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and others have capitalized on this feature in their "Mussel Watch" program. They have established 100 sampling location around the country, and collect mussels or oysters at intervals. Here, we identify "hot spots," or locations where levels of contaminants were higher than those sampled elsewhere for the sampled species. Note that oysters are usually more effective bioaccumalators than mussels.- Phillip Butler, pers. comm. 40 16. BIOCONTAMINATION (Cont.) Table 16a. BIOCONTAMINATION -- MUSSEL WATCH HOT SPOTS Location Contaminant Cause HEAVY METALS South San Francisco Bay Silver 2.3 ppm2 Savannah River, and Silver 2.1-4.3 ppm Charleston, South Carolina4 Nickel 3.3-4.2 ppm Zinc 2660-4060 ppm Copper 192-220 ppm Cadmium 2.7-3.7 ppm New York to New Hampshire Cadmium 1.2 to 6.2 ppm Copper 4.3 to 11 ppm Lake Sabine, Louisiana4 Copper 410 ppm Zinc 7080 ppm Silver 6.0 ppm HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS San Francisco to San Diego DDE' 17,000 ppb3 historical sewage especially San Pedro DDD1 1,200 ppb outfall from manufacturing which is now discontinued South San Francisco Bay, PCB 590 ppb Numerous California industrial Rincon Point, California PCB 130 ppb sources Point Fermin, California PCB 250 ppb San Pedro Harbor, California PCB 440-8700 ppb San Diego Harbor, California PCB 360-1400 ppb Boston to New York PCB to 838 ppb St. Augustine, Florida PCB 149 ppb Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island PCB 281-626 ppb PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS Espirito Santo Bay, Texas4 Contained aromatic compounds Matagorda Bay, Texas4 characteristic of petroleum Galveston Bay, Texas4 and which are not natural Boundary Bay, Washington constituents of organisms 1 Breakdown product of DDT, a biocide. 2ppm is parts per million (1 ppm equals one millionth of a gram per gram of organism dry weight). 3ppb is parts per billion (1 ppb equals one billionth of a gram per gram of organism dry weight). 4oysters, all others are mussels. Source: E.D. Goldberg, et al. 1978. The Mussel Watch Environmental Conser- vation, 5(2):1-25. 41 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 16. BIOCONTAMINATION (Cont.) Fishes contact compounds in seawater either via their gills, from their food, or by transmission from their parents. If a compound is fat soluble, fishes can store it, and so fish too are useful monitoring tools. Information on three chlorinated hydrocarbons is presented here. PCB's are used as insu- lators in electric devices. They are no longer manufactured. DDT and Dieldrin are now in restricted use in the U.S.; they are both long-lived pesticides. Connecticut, California, and Maryland rank highest in the percentage of samples with PCB, DDT, and Dieldrin residues respectively. Washington state, Delaware, and Georgia rank highest in the average concentration of residues (in those samples with residues) of PCB, DDT, and Dieldrin respectively. Table 16b. BIOCONTAMINATION -- THE OCCURRENCE OF BIOCIDE RESIDUES IN JUVENILE ESTUARINE FISHES BY STATE -- 1972-1976. PCB DDT DIELDRIN % samples Average % samples Average % samples Average No. of with concen- with concen- with concen- Estuaries residues tration' residues tration1 residues tration sampled Rhode Island 75 330 28 21 -- -- 1 Connecticut 87 323 31 41 8 15 4 New York 63 262 72 76 4 24 3 Delaware 51 780 75 213 4 59 3 Maryland 36 306 58 108 25 30 8 Virginia 38 439 67 64 4 10 3 North Carolina 9 242 48 36 2 20 19 South Carolina 1 182 29 19 -- -- 6 Georgia 3 323 10 22 3 60 9 Florida 26 83 52 24 18 10 11 Alabama 23 163 69 35 -- -- 3 Mississippi 0 -- 29 75 10 17 4 Louisiana 2 256 12 38 2 15 14 Texas 24 135 67 49 12 20 9 California 31 229 87 77 2 34 7 Oregon 10 182 26 24 -- -- 5 Washington 17 1674 4 23 -- -- 6 The arithmetic average in parts per billion of geometric means of positive samples in all collection years. Source: P.A. Butler and R.I. Schutzmann. 1978. Residues of Pesticides and PCB's in Estuarine Fish, 1972-76 - National Pesticide Monitoring Program. Pesticides Monitoring Journal, 12(2):51-59. 42 17. OCEAN DISPOSAL Many of the Nation's most difficult waste disposal problems have been solved by ocean dumping, an activity that has been a source of controversy for the last 10 years. The greatest trouble has been over the practice of New York City to dump sewage sludge in the shallow waters offshore from Sandy Hook, New Jersey. This sludge has blighted an area of many square miles of ocean bottom displacing marine bottom life and has occasionally washed up on Long Island beaches where it has been termed "black mayonnaise" because of its appearance and consistency. Table 17. TYPES AND AMOUNT OF OCEAN DISPOSAL BY GEOGRAPHIC AREA (IN APPROX. TONS) -- 1973-1978. WASTE TYPE (A) ATLANTIC 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Industrial Waste 3,642,000 3,642,000 3,322,300 2,633,200 1,783,600 2,5485,C00* Sewage Sludge 4,898,900 5,010,000 5,039,600 5,134,000 5,270,900 5,535,C00* Construction and Demolition Debris 973.700 770,400 395,900 314,600 379,000 241,CCO Solid Waste 0 0 0 0 <100 0 Explosives 0 0 0 0 0 0 Incinerated (Wood) 10,800 15,800 6,200 8,700 15,100 18,COO Incinerated (Chemicals) 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTALS 9,526,200 9,438,200 8,764,000 8,227,400 7,311,700 8,342,000 * 1978 increase over 1977 due to plant shut down during a strike in 1976-77 at NL industries (a permittee). �* 1978 increase primarily due to upgrading of sewage treatment plants to secondary treatment in NYC, Middlesex Co. and Joint Mtg. of Essex & Union Cos. WASTE TYPE (B) GULF 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Industrial Waste 1,408,000 937,700 119,600 100,300 60,200 173 Sewage Sludge 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction and Demolition Debris 0 0 O 0 0 0 Solid Waste 0 0 0 0 0 0 Explosives 0 O 0 0 0 0 Incinerated (Wood) 0 0 O O 0 0 Incinerated (Chemicals) 0 12,300 4,100 0 17,600 0 TOTALS 1,408,000 950,000 123,700 100,300 77,800 173 -I 43 I 43 I 17. OCEAN DISPOSAL (Cont.) WASTE TYPE J(C) PACIFIC 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Industrial Waste 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sewage Sludge 0 0 0 0 0 0 Construction and Demolition Debris 0 0 0 0 0 0 Solid Waste 240 200 0 0 0 0 Explosives 0 O 0 O O O' Incinerated (Wood) 0 0 0 O 0 O Incinerated (Chemicals) O 0 O 0 12,100 0 TOTALS 240 200 0 0 12,100 0 WASTE TYPE TOTALS OF A, B, AND C 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Industrial Waste 5,050,800 4,579,700 3,441,900 2,733,500 1,843,800 2,548,173 Sewage Sludge 4,808,900 5,010,000 5,039,600 5,270,900 5,134,000 5,535,000 Construction and Demolition Debris 973,700 770,440 395,900 314,600 379,000 0 Solid Waste 240 200 0 0 <100 0 Explosives 0 0 0 0 0 0 Incinerated (Wood) 10,800 15,800 6,200 8,700 15,100 18,000 Incinerated (Chemicals) 0 12,300 4,100 0 29,700 0 TOTAL 10,934,440 10,388,400 8,887,700 8,327,700 7,401,600 8,101,173 Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Waste Water Programs. June 1979. Annual Report to Congress January-December 1978, Washington, D.C. 44 18. OIL SPILLS I ~foTherFederal Water Pollution Control Act requires that any discharge f oil or hazardous substance in harmful quantities, be reported to the "appropriate agency of the United States Government." The Coast Guard has Been designated as that agency by Executive Order 11735. Tables 18a to 18h Summarize some of the information that has been reported to the Coast Guard. Table 18i reports hydrocarbon spills during outer continental shelf acti- Iities (including pipeline spills, production spills, and spills from ollisions) in the Gulf of Mexico. Table 18b is derived from the U.S. eological Survey. Im The Coast Guard not only records coastal spills, but also spills on in- and waters. In some cases it has been possible to exclude inland spills from he data reported here. Tables 18d, f, e and i detail information which is applicable only to coastal waters. In the other cases, although the absolute Eumbers would change if it were possible to eliminate inland spills, the rank Ind the percentage of particular events quite probably would not. These tables show that while most spills are small in volume, a very few Iarge spills contribute most of the spilled volume. Most spillage occurs on 1he Gulf Coast (numbers and volume), in ports and harbors (by number), and far offshore by volume. The leading source of spills is classified "unknown" or "miscellaneous" (by number) and is "hull or tank rupture or leak" (by volume). She largest volume per spill is associated with pipelines, while offshore =roduction and miscellaneous or unknown sources have the smallest volume per spill. I i ITable 18a. OIL SPILLS BY YEAR REPORTED BY THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD -- 1972-1 977J1 Year Thousands of Gallons Number of Spills 972 16,764 8,380 973 20,481 11,003 1974 16,916 11,435 975 14,967 10,141 976 23,125 10,660 977 17,6235 10,6205 4 I I I ~~~~~~45 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) Table 18b. OIL SPILLS REPORTED DURING OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OPERATIONS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO.2 Spills of 50 Bbl. or More Spills of Less Than 50 Bbl. Number Barrels Spilled Number Barrels Spilled Year Largest Total 1970 7 53,000 84,325 -- . 1971 11 450 1,285 1,245 1,493 1972 2 100 150 1,159 1,032 1973 4 9,935 22,175 1,171 921 1974 8 19,833 22,721 1,129 667 1975 2 166 266 1,126 711 1976 3 4,000 4,714 948 522 1977 4 300 670 864 611 1978 3 900 1,139 873 581 TOTAL 44 -- 137,445 8,515 6,538 Total Spilled 143,983 barrels or 6,047,286 gallons Table 18c. OIL SPILLS BY COAST -- 1975-1977.1 Coast Number of Spills % Gallons Spilled % Atlantic 7,322 31 11,981,278 31 Gulf 10,575 45 14,930,794 39 Pacific 5,3975 23 11,625,8775 30 TOTAL 23,294 100 38,537,949 100 Table 18d. OIL SPILLS BY LOCATION -- 1976 and 1977.1 Number of Spills % Gallons Spilled % River Channels 3,305 21 2,816,468 9 Ports and Harbors 6,649 43 3,058,634 10 Beaches & Nonnavigable Waters 888 6 6,880,809 22 0 to 3 miles offshore 3,386 22 1,072,631 3 3 to 12 miles offshore 703 5 47,500 * 12 miles + offshore 6925 4 17,325,0835 56 TOTALS 15,590 100 31,201,125 100 47 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) Table 18e. OIL SPILLS BY COAST AND LOCATION -- 1976 and 1977. 1 Volume of Gallons Number of Spills Per Atlantic Spills Pct. (Gallons) Pct. Spill Total 4,627 10,515,589 2,273 River Channels 1,457 31 829,559 8 569 Ports & Harbors 2,336 50 1,194,674 11 511 Beaches & Nonnavigable Waters 340 7 517,149 5 1,521 O to 3 miles offshore 403 9 404,361 4 1,003 3 to 12 miles offshore 81 2 12,667 * 156 12 + miles offshore 43 * 7,557,179 72 175,748 Pacific Total 3,629 11,184,954 3,082 River Channels 422 12 96,236 * 228 Ports & Harbors 2,275 63 1,149,484 10 505 Beaches & Nonnavigable Waters 223 6 243,778 2 1,093 0O to 3 miles offshore 688 19 86,500 * 126 3 to 12 miles offshore 64 2 4,175 * 65 12 + miles offshore 31 * 9,604,781 86 309,832 Gulf Total 7,260 9,500,582 1,309 River Channels 1,426 20 1,890,673 20 1,326 Ports & Harbors 2,038 28 714,476 8 351 Beaches & Nonnavigable Waters 325 4 6,119,882 64 18,830 0 to 3 miles offshore 2,295 32 581,770 6 254 3 to 12 miles offshore 558 8 30,658 * 55 12 + miles offshore 618 9 163,123 2 264 48 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) THE WRECK OF THE ARGO MERCHANT. The Argo Merchant, a Liberian tanker, ran aground 28 miles southeast of Nantucket Island carrying 7.3 million gallons of heavy industrial fuel oil. This grounding occurred in December, 1976. (photo courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard) 49 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) Table 18f. OIL SPILLS BY SOURCE (VOLUME AND NUMBER) -- 1975-1977.1 Number % of Volume % of Gallons of Total of Spills Total Per Source Spills Number (Gallons) Volume Spill Vessels 9,679 31s 28,871,5285 52 2,982 Land Vehicles 1,215 4 1,941,003 4 1,598 Non Transportation 4,385 14 12,100,987 2 2,759 Facilities Offshore Production 3,639 12 433,546 1 119 Pipelines 1,672 5 9,350,683 17 5,592 Marine Facilities 1,609 5 879,593 2 547 Land Facilities .505 2 640,593 1 1,269 Misc. or Unknown 8,717 28 970,586 2 111 TOTAL 31,421 100 55,188,519 100 1,756 Table 18g. OIL SPILLS BY LEADING CAUSES (VOLUME) -- 1975-1977.1 Cause4 Gallons Spilled Hull/Tank Rupture/Leak 25,876,701 Other Structural Failure 10,614,536 Pipe Rupture/Leak 6,942,916 Transportation Pipeline Rupture/Leak 3,123,443 Unknown/Miscellaneous 1,397,778 Tank Overflow 1,110,311 Other Equipment Failure 1,077,496 Other Personnel Error 864,088 Improper Handling Operation 798,088 Valve Failure 741,103 50 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) Table 18h. OIL SPILLS BY LEADING CAUSES (NUMBER) -- 1975-1977.1 Cause Number of Spills Unknown/Miscellaneous 10,632 Other Equipment Failure 2,792 Tank Overflow 2,534 Pipe Rupture/Leak 2,402 Hull/Tank Rupture/Leak 2,3755 I mproper Handling Operation 1,625 Other Personnel Error 1,433 Transportation Pipeline Rupture/Leak 1,308 Other Structural Failure 1,284 Valve Failure 1,008 * less than 1% Source: 1U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard. 1978. Polluting Incidents in and around U.S. Waters: Calendar Year 1977 30 pp.; 1977, Calendar Year T97E 31 pp.; 1976, Calendar Year 1975. 24 pp. 2U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey-Conservation Division. 1979. Outer Continental Shelf Statistics Calendar Year 1978. 3Excludes one spill of 9.6 million gallons in international waters off Hawaii. Railroad/Highway/Aircraft Accidents were the cause of 1,495,129 gallons of oil spill in 1976 and 1977. It was not reported as a cause in 1975. $Includes one 9.6 million gallon spill from the Hawaiian Patriot spill that did not reach the U.S. 200 mile lTimit. 18. OIL SPILLS (Cont.) PELICANS RECOVER FROM OIL SPILL. These birds were soaked with oil by the wreck of the Ocean Eagle in San Juan harbor, Puerto Rico. (photo courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard by CPHOT John Lehman, U.S.C.G.) 52 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~VCUNYPOIE ~~~~epe iteadbsnsearatrcetoteUScat.C- ~~~ety 7preto u ouaioad2pecnofurbsessae Pepe.iteadbusinesses farms andtfrmacreagad mtropoltan UaSd nonmtoliant pour- laininth coastal counties.o Yeactaonly Th seerctint of ourlntiaeas intecasta countaies. soeewhast arbiotrar becsagiultue thanoe temsight sexpectio var gretl Thsablscecordibe, stoathe purpseste, the compieOurnrtei for designationt and our list of coastal counties are given in Table 19 and its accompanying text. These counties define the land portion of the coast. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 19. COASTAL COUNTIES Large amounts of statistical information are available for individual whole counties but very little for coastal parts of the counties, separately. The best that one can do for most of the data sets is to treat all counties that touch on coastal waters as coastal entities. Thus, one must first identify counties that one considers to be coastal and compile a list for I ~each state. Because some coastal counties have large areas far from coastal waters this procedure will err slightly by including some areas which are not coastal. In states that have no large rivers (e.g., Maine, New Hampshire, I ~and Alabama) this is a simple task. But states with large rivers (e.g., New York, Virginia, and Oregon) present a more difficult problem, because one must decide how far up the rivers to go. The list of coastal counties that we present is one which includes counties which we find to have substantial shoreline along, or physical interactions with saline waters. As with any list of coastal counties, ours is somewhat arbitrary. The reader will I ~find that this list of coastal counties is shorter than many and could be categorized as a list of "maritime counties." Tables 20, 21, 22, 23 and 51 are based on this list of coastal counties. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 19. COASTAL COUNTIES (Cont.) Table 19. COASTAL COUNTIES -- NAMES AND 1976 POPULATION. Alabama Florida Baldwin 69,600 Bay 90,200 Mobile* 344,300 Brevard 231,400 67 Counties Broward* 850,200 2 Coastal Counties Charlotte 42,800 Citrus 38,300 California Collier 64,100 Alameda* 1,097,100 Dade* 1,438,500 Contra Costa* 598,700 Dixie 6,600 Del Norte 15,900 Duval* 556,500 Humboldt 105,900 Escambia* 226,500 Los Angeles*, 1 7,003,800 Flagler 7,500 Marin* 221,400 Franklin 7,700 Mendocino 59,100 Gulf* 10,400 Monterey 271,500 Hernando 30,000 Napa 91,400 Hillsborough* 581,500 Orange* 1,755,600 Indian River 45,500 San Diego* 1,616,500 Lee 159,600 San Francisco* 663,600 Levy 16,600 San Luis Obispo 131,600 Manatee 123,700 San Mateo* 584,100 Martin 46,800 Santa Barbara* 284,200 Monroe 50,100 Santa Clara* 1,194,600 Nassau 29,900 Santa Cruz 162,900 Okaloosa 103,600 Solano* 193,800 Palm Beach* 466,200 Sonoma 255,200 Pasco 137,100 Ventura 450,900 Pinellas* 646,200 58 Counties St. Johns 39,800 20 Coastal Counties St. Lucie 69,300 Santa Rosa* 48,100 Connecticut Sarasota 162,600 Fairfield* 800,200 Taylor 14,200 Middlesex 125,200 Volusia 209,500 New Haven* 759,400 Wakulla 9,000 New London 243,900 Walton 17,700 8 Counties 67 Counties 4 Coastal Counties 34 Coastal Counties Delaware Georgia Kent 91,900 Bryan 8,300 New Castle* 400,400 Camden 11,900 Sussex 89,600 Charlton 6,600 3 Counties Chatham* 188,000 3 Coastal Counties Glynn 48,900 55 19. COASTAL COUNTIES (Cont.) Table 19. COASTAL COUNTIES -- NAMES AND 1976 POPULATION (cont.). Georgia (cont.) Maryland (cont.) Liberty 23,800 Kent 16,700 McIntosh 8,300 Queen Annes 21,600 159 Counties St. Marys 52,500 1 Consolidated Government Somerset 19,800 7 Coastal Counties Talbot 25,800 Wicomico 59,600 Louisiana Worcester 27,200 -Cameron 9,100 23 Counties Iberia 62,700 14 Coastal Counties Jefferson* 413,400 Baltimore City* 818,600 Lafourche 74,800 1 Independent City Orleans* 564,100 1 Coastal Independent City Plaquemines 26,300 St. Bernard* 60,100 Massachusetts St. Charles 33,300 Barnstable 132,800 St. John the Baptist 25,900 Bristol* 469,300 St. Mary 61,600 Dukes 7,800 St. Tammany 81,900 Essex* 627,800 Tangipahoa 73,000 Nantucket 5,500 Terrebone 85,800 Norfolk* 618,200 Vermillion 45,300 Plymouth* 380,700 Washington 42,900 Suffolk* 714,400 64 Parishes 14 Counties 15 Coastal Parishes 8 Coastal Counties Maine Mississippi Cumberland* 204,400 Hancock 19,100 Hancock 39,400 Harrison 145,500 Knox 32,400 Jackson 110,900 Lincoln 23,800 82 Counties Sagadohoc 26,100 3 Coastal Counties Waldo 27,000 16 Counties New Hampshire 8 Coastal Counties Rockingham 166,600 10 Counties Maryland 1 Coastal County Anne Arundel* 350,000 Baltimore* 642,300 New Jersey Calvert 28,000 Atlantic* 190,600 Cecil 55,200 Bergen* 878,400 Charles 62,500 Cape May 74,700 Dorchester 30,200 Cumberland 132,400 Harford 140,200 Hudson* 574,100 56 19. COASTAL COUNTIES (Cont.) Table 19. COASTAL COUNTIES -- NAMES AND 1976 POPULATION (cont.). New Jersey (cont.) Oregon Middlesex 592,300 Clatsop 39,200 Monmouth 490,500 Columbia 32,400 Ocean 305,600 Coos 60,100 Salem* 62,600 Curry 14,400 Union* 517,000 Douglas 82,800 21 Counties Lane* 242,800 10 Coastal Counties Lincoln 28,100 Tillamook 18,600 New York 36 Counties Bronx* 1,329,200 8 Coastal Counties Kings*,2 2,381,600 Nassau* 1,404,400 Rhode Island New York* 1,407,100 Bristol* 45,700 Queens* 1,968,900 Kent* 149,700 Richmond* 328,800 Newport 81,700 Rockland* 254,300 Providence* 572,100 Suffolk* 127,500 Washington 86,500 Westchester* 879,300 5 Counties 62 Counties 5 Coastal Counties 9 Coastal Counties South Carolina North Carolina Beaufort 60,100 Beaufort 39,900 Charleston* 263,000 Bertie 20,900 Colleton 29,500 Brunswick 32,900 Georgetown 38,200 Camden 5,700 Horry 88,900 Carteret 36,400 Jasper 13,200 Chowan 11,500 46 Counties Craven 69,100 6 Coastal Counties Currituck 10,200 Dare 9,600 Texas Hyde 5,700 Aransas 10,800 New Hanover 95,900 Brazoria 130,700 Onslow 115,100 Calhoun 17,800 Pamlico 9,600 Cameron 174,200 Pasquotank 28,300 Chambers 13,300 Pender 21,000 Galveston* 189,800 Perquimans 8,700 Harris* 2,067,900 Tyrell 3,900 Jackson 12,900 Washington 14,900 Jefferson 245,200 100 Counties Kenedy ' 600 18 Coastal Counties Kleberg 33,000 57 19. COASTAL COUNTIES (Cont.) Table 19. COASTAL COUNTIES -- NAIES AND 1976 POPULATION (cont.) Texas (cont.) Virginia (cont.) Matagorda 29,000 Chesapeake* 108,100 Nueces* 251,900 Hampton* 126,700 Refugio 9,100 Hopewell 23,900 San Patricio 51,300 Newport News* 142,100 Willacy 16,800 Norfolk* 284,100 254 Counties Portsmouth* 108,600 16 Coastal Counties Suffolk 46,400 Virginia Beach* 224,200 Virginia Williamsburg 11,600 Accomack 31,200 38 Independent Cities Caroline 16,300 9 Coastal Independent Cities Charles City 6,500 Essex 8,000 Washington Gloucester 17,100 Clallam 42,300 Isle of Wight 20,100 Grays Harbor 61,600 James City 20,900 Island 36,400 King and Queen 6,000 Jefferson 12,400 King George 9,500 King* 1,148,100 King William 8,200 Mason 24,400 Lancaster 9,800 Pacific 16,000 Mathews 8,100 Pierce* 420,800 Middlesex 7,000 San Juan 5,600 New Kent 7,300 Skagit 55,800 Northampton 15,400 Snohomish* 269,500 Northumberland 9,600 Thurston 97,200 Prince George 20,800 Wahkiakum 3,700 Richmond 6,600 Whatcom 91,500 Surry 6,000 39 Counties Westmoreland 13,400 14 Coastal Counties York* 31,300 95 Counties 21 Coastal Counties * Metropolitan county 1 Most populous coastal county 2 Second most populous coastal county 3 Second least populous coastal county 4 Least populous coastal county Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1977. Current Population Reports, Series P-25. 21a. EMPLOYMENT AND BUSINESS Business is attracted to the coast for many reasons, among them: access to bulk transportation facilities and marine resources. Based on our list of coastal counties (Table 19), 28 percent of all American busi- nesses and employees are located in the coast. Outside of the completely coastal states (Rhode Island and Delaware), California 6as the greatest proportion of its businesses and employees in coastal counties (more than 75 percent), while North Carolina and Georgia have the lowest proportion of their businesses and employees in the coast (about 6 percent). Table 21a. EMPLOYMENT AND BUSINESS ESTABLISHMENTS. Coastal Employees 7 of State Coastal Businesses X of State State (in 100's)1 Total (in 100's)1 Total Maine 1,270 47 115 51 New Hampshire 335 14 33 18 Massachusetts 5,988 32 422 38 Rhode Island 2,920 100 202 100 Connecticut 6,080 60 392 63 New York 37,532 68 2,473 68 New Jersey 11,735 53 759 54 Delaware 1,904 100 111 100 Maryland 6,056 56 364 53 Virginia 3,180 24 219 25 North Carolina 1,032 6 87 9 South Carolina 1,172 14 96 19 Georgia 878 6 60 6 Florida 13,140 56 1,036 58 Alabama 1,078 12 76 12 Mississippi 741 14 44 11 Louisiana 4,878 49 302 44 Texas 12,158 32 658 26 California 53,512 85 3,419 79 Oregon 1,201 19 116 22 Washington 6,460 69 498 65 All Coastal States 177,141 63.8 11,675 61.6 United States 626,478 28.32 41,428 28.22 1 As of March 12, 1976 2 % of nation's employees or businesses in coastal counties Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, County Business Patterns: 1976. 60 20. AGRICULTURE Coastal regions, especially the coastal plain from New Jersey through Texas, provide large flat areas that are amenable to agriculture. Agriculture effects coastal waters because the fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides necessary for agriculture most easily enter coastal waters when applied in coastal counties. In addition, agriculture has historically impacted coastal resources by converting wetlands to agricultural purposes. As with any use of the land, agriculture changes the natural land forms and characteristics. For these reasons agricultural activity is important to coastal managers. Table 20. AGRICULTURE IN COASTAL COUNTIES. No. of % of Farm % of % of area State Farms' Farms2 Acreage' Acreage2 in Farms' Acres3 Acres' Maine 2,226 34.6 437,713 28.7 8.8 196.6 236.7 New Hampshire 372 15.0 45,829 9.0 10.4 123.2 210.0 Massachusetts 1,662 37.0 174,981 29.1 10.2 105.3 133.8 Rhode Island 597 100.0 61,068 100.0 9.1 102.3 102.3 Connecticut 1,356 39.6 151,867 34.5 10.4 112.0 128.6 New York 1,066 2.4 66,904 0.7 4.9 62.8 215.4 New Jersey 2,929 39.5 344,317 35.8 15.4 117.6 129.8 Delaware 3,400 100.0 630,605 100.0 49.7 185.5 185.5 Maryland 8,473 56.0 1,489,238 57.0 35.7 175.8 173.7 Virginia 5,150 9.7 1,207,571 12.5 26.7 234.5 183.7 North Carolina 8,193 9.0 1,321,727 11.8 23.9 161.3 123.2 South Carolina 3,947 13.5 802,029 13.0 24.2 203.2 211.0 Georgia 534 1.0 168,965 1.2 7.1 316.4 252.7 Florida 13,010 40.1 5,098,284 38.6 27.7 391.9 406.6 Alabama 2,109 3.7 406,832 3.4 22.6 192.9 209.1 Mississippi 685 1.3 110,507 0.8 9.6 161.3 266.7 Louisiana 5,800 17.0 1,589,947 17.0 21.9 274.1 274.8 Texas 8,923 5.1 6,654,449 5.0 74.5 745.8 770.9 California 21,147 31.2 9,431,361 28.2 41.2 446.0 493.3 Oregon 4,995 18.7 1,177,533 6.5 11.2 235.7 681.8 Washington 7,597 25.8 698,346 4.2 5.9 91.9 566.5 Total Coastal Counties 104,171 15.0 32,070,073 10.3 27.4 307.9 448.3 Coastal States 696,128 100.0 312,105,501 100.0 (116,844,291)5 All U.S. 2,314,013 1,017,030,357 44.9 439.5 Coastal 2 Coastal as a percentage of the state 3 Per coastal farm 4 Per farm 5 Total coastal county area in acres Source: Adapted from Q.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Census of Agriculture: 1974. 59 21a. EMPLOYMENT AND BUSINESS (Cont.) SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA FROM 50,000 FEET. Of the states which are not entirely coastal, California has the highest proportion of its employees and businesses in the coastal counties. This is an infrared view of California taken by a U-2 aircraft in part of a NASA effort to analyze earth resources. (photo courtesy of NASA) 61 .2. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS Many of our largest cities are in coastal counties, and so it is not surprising that a large fraction of the American public lives in this narrow strip. This population makes demands for living space, recreation, and waste disposal, and these demands must be met largely within the coastal counties and waters. We break coastal population into population living in metropolitan (as determined by the Bureau of the Census), and non-metropolitan counties. This division reveals a number of interesting trends. Between 1960 and 1970, popu- lation growth in the coast exceeded that in the rest of the nation by 58 per- I ~cent. Between 1970 and 197~6, however, population growth in the coast trailed population growth in the nation by 32 percent. These tables show that _this trend is the result of decreases in population in the metropolitan areas of' the Northeast, and the Mi-d-Atlantic. Coastal non-metropolitan counties have, since 1960, outstripped national growth. We find that 27.1 percent of all Americans lived in coastal counties in 1976. The Department of Commerce (Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1979) concludes that 53 percent of the 1976 population -of the United States was coastal. The difference arises from two sources. First, we do not include counties around the Great Lakes. Excluding the Great Lakes from the Commerce figures would leave 39 percent of the population in I ~the coast. The remaining difference arises from our differences in defining coastal counties. Theirs includes any county or independent city entirely or substantially within 50 miles of U.S. coastal shorelines, whereas ours included only those that touch on saline waters. Therefore, our county list is shorter (see Table 19). By any measure, many Americans live in the narrow strip of land that constitutes the U.S. coast. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) Table 21b. COASTAL COUNTY POPULATION BY STATE -- 1960, 1970, 1976. % Change In the Coast In the State State 1960 1970 1976 60-70 70-76 60-70 70-76 Maine 439,851 464,883 509,700 5.7 9.6 2.4 8.0 New Hampshire 99,029 138,951 166,600 40.3 19.9 21.5 12.1 Massachusetts 2,597,027 2,862,093 2,956,500 10.2 3.3 10.5 1.8 Rhode Island 859,488 949,723 936,000 10.5 -1.1 10.1 -1.1 Connecticut 1,588,514 1,882,926 1,928,700 18.5 2.4 19.6 2.3 New York 10,694,633 11,574,982 10,081,100 8.2 -12.9 8.7 -1.0 New Jersey 3,146,738 3,718,552 3,818,200 18.2 2.7 18.2 2.6 Delaware 446,292 548,104 581,900 22.8 6.2 22.8 6.2 Maryland 2,026,229 2,293,907 2,350,200 13.2 2.5 26.5 5.2 Virginia* 688,158 1,327,372 1,356,400 92.9 2.2 17.2 8.7 North Carolina 441,605 477,404 538,400 8.1 12.8 11.5 7.5 South Carolina 403,667 441,785 492,900 9.4 11.6 8.7 9.8 Georgia 272,618 286,837 295,800 5.2 3.1 16.4 8.6 Florida 3,776,208 5,379,329 6,577,400 42.5 22.3 37.1 23.0 Alabama 363,389 376,690 413,900 3.7 9.9 5.4 6.1 Mississippi 189,050 239,944 275,500 26.9 14.8 1.8 6.7 Louisiana 1,335,181 1,546,663 1,660,200 15.8 7.3 11.8 6.4 Texas 2,258,833 2,828,725 3,254,300 25.2 15.0 16.9 12.5 California 12,320,082 15,724,192 16,757,800 27.6 6.6 27.0 0.1 Oregon 393,635 455,570 508,400 15.7 11.6 18.2 11.5 Washington 1,756,506 2,220,278 2,284,800 26.4 2.9 19.5 0.1 Total Coastal 46,096,733 55,738,910 57,744,700 20.9 3.6 16.8 5.2 National' 179,108,000 202,728,000 213,377,000 --- 13.22 5.32 Total % Coastal 25.7 27.5 27.1 --- --- --- --- Coastal States 94,936,612 110,925,225 116,741,069 --- --- --- 63 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) Table 21c. COASTAL COUNTY NONMETROPOLITAN POPULATION BY STATE -- 1960, 1970, 1976. % Change State 1960 1970 1976 1960-1970 1970-1976 Maine 257,100 272,355 305,300 5.9 12.1 New Hampshire 99,029 138,951 166,600 40.3 19.9 Massachusetts 79,674 106,547 146,100 33.7 37.1 Rhode Island 140,945 179,934 168,200 27.7 -6.5 Connecticut 274,610 345,164 369,100 25.7 6.9 New York 0 0 0 -- -- New Jersey 1,031,903 1,435,060 1,595,500 39.1 11.2 Delaware 138,846 162,248 181,500 16.9 11.9 Maryland 388,143 469,667 539,300 21.0 14.8 Virginia* 271,284 331,142 331,300 22.1 O.U North Carolina 441,605 477,404 538,400 8.1 12.8 South Carolina 187,285 194,135 229,900 3.7 18.4 Georgia 84,319 99,021 107,800 17.4 8.9 Florida 897,869 1,358,150 1,811,800 51.3 33.4 Alabama 49,088 59,382 69,600 21.0 17.2 Mississippi 189,050 239,944 275,500 26.9 14.8 Louisiana 466,701 564,439 622,600 20.9 10.3 Texas 653,738 679,457 744,700 3.9 9.6 California 949,739 1,305,379 1,544,400 37.4 18.3 Oregon 230,745 242,212 265,600 5.0 9.7 Washington 327,703 387,382 446,400 18.2 15.2 Total Coastal 7,159,376 9,047,973 10,459,60U 26.4 15.6 National Total 51,373,000 53,503,000 57,714,000 4.12 7.92 % Coastal 13.9 16.9 18.1 64 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) Table 21d. COASTAL COUNTY METROPOLITAN POPULATION BY STATE -- 1960, 1970, 1976. % Change State 1960 1970 1976 1960-1970 1970-1976 Maine 182,751 192,528 204,400 5.4 6.2 New Hampshire 0 0 0 -- -- Massachusetts 2,517,353 2,755,546 2,810,400 9.5 2.0 Rhode Island 718,543 769,789 767,800 7.1 -0.3 Connecticut 1,313,904 1,537,762 1,559,600 17.0 1.4 New York 10,694,633 11,574,982 10,081,100 8.2 -12.9 New Jersey 2,114,835 2,283,492 2,222,700 8.0 -2.7 Delaware 307,446 385,856 400,400 25.5 3.8 Maryland 1,638,086 1,824,240 1,810,900 11.4 -0.7 Virginia* 416,874 996,230 1,025,100 139.0 2.9 North Carolina 0 0 0 -- -- South Carolina 216,382 247,650 263,000 14.5 6.2 Georgia 188,299 187,816 188,000 -0.3 0.1 Florida 2,878,339 4,021,179 4,765,600 39.7 18.5 Alabama 314,301 317,308 344,300 1.0 8.5 Mississippi 0 0 0 -- -- Louisiana 868,480 982,224 1,037,600 13.1 5.6 Texas 1,605,095 2,149,268 2,509,600 33.9 16.8 California 11,370,343 14,418,813 15,213,400 26.8 5.5 Oregon 162,890 213,358 242,800 31.0 13.8 Washington 1,428,803 1,832,896 1,838,400 28.3 0.3 Total Coastal 38,937,357 46,690,937 47,285,100 19.9 1.3 National Total' 127,079,000 148,730,000 155,860,000 17.02 4.82 % Coastal 30.6 31.4 30.3 65 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) Table 21e. COASTAL COUNTY POPULATION BY REGIONS -- 1960, 1970, 1976. 1960 1970 1976 % Change % Change All Coastal Counties 1960-1970 1970-1976 Northeast3 16,278,542 17,873,558 16,578,600 9.8 -7.3 Mid Atlantic4 6,307,417 7,887,935 8,106,700 25.1 2.8 South Atlantic5 4,894,098 6,585,355 7,904,500 34.6 20.0 Gulf 4,146,453 4,992,022 5,603,900 20.4 12.3 Pacific 14,470,223 18,400,040 19,551,000 27.1 6.3 Metropol i tan Northeast 15,427,184 16,830,607 15,423,300 9.1 -8.4 Mid Atlantic 4,477,241 5,489,818 5,459,100 22.6 -0.6 South Atlantic 3,283,020 4,456,645 5,216,600 35.8 17.1 Gulf 2,787,876 3,448,800 3,891,500 23.7 12.8 Pacific 12,962,036 16,465,067 17,294,600 27.0 5.0 Nonmetropolitan Northeast 851,358 1,042,951 1,155,300 22.5 10.8 Mid Atlantic 1,830,176 2,398,117 2,647,600 31.0 10.4 South Atlantic 1,611,078 2,128,710 2,687,9U0 32.1 26.3 Gulf 1,358,577 1,543,222 1,712,400 13.6 11.0 Pacific 1,508,187 1,934,973 2,256,400 28.3 16.6 *There were jurisdictional changes between 1960 and 1976 1 Exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii 2 7 increase in the National Total 3 Maine to New York 4 New Jersey to Virginia 5 North Carolina to Florida 6 Alabama to Texas 7 California to Washington Coastal States Totals (1970-110,925,225; 1976-116,741,069; 1960-94,936,612) Source: 1960 and 197U is adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population: 1970, Vol. I, Part A; 1976 is adapted from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-25. 66 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) Table 21f. COASTAL POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS BY STATE -- 1976. % of Population in % Nonmetro- % of Population in % Nonmetro- Coastal Counties politan Coastal Counties politan State (1976) (1976) State (1976) (1976) ME 47.6 59.9 SC 17.3 46.6 NH 20.1 100.0 GA 5.9 36.4 MA 51.1 4.9 FL 78.8 27.5 RI 100.0 18.0 AL 11.3 16.8 CT 62.2 19.1 MIS 11.6 100.0 NY 55.8 0.0 LA 42.8 37.5 NJ 51.9 41.8 TX 25.8 22.9 DE 100.0 31.2 CA 83.9 9.2 MD 57.0 22.9 OR 21.9 52.2 VA 26.8 24.4 WA 66.9 19.5 NC 9.9 100.0 Total Coastal 49.5 18.1 National 27.1 37.0 POPULATION GROWTH OF PARTS OF THE NATION AS COMPARED TO THE NATION AS A WHOLE cD OL.O o c 2.32%- I-= (1.32% Per Year) I I,.o CD oL POPULATION GROWTH--1960 to 1970 - (1 .32% Per Year) o. Zr POPULATION GROWTH--1960 to 1970 67 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) POPULATION GROWTH OF PARTS OF THE NATION AS COMPARED TO THE NATION AS A WHOLE Here, we compare the growth rate of parts of the United States to the nation as a whole. The tic marks along the vertical axis mark growth rates 1% greater, and 1% less than annual national growth rate. Note that a 2% annual growth rate (which is about the rate of the Nonmetropolitan coastal counties) means that the population will double in about 35 years. The parts of the nation whose growth is shown here are: A. Coastal Counties (as listed in Table 19) B. Coastal States (as listed in Table 19) C. Nonmetropolitan coastal counties (as listed in Table 19) D. National nonmetropolitan counties E. Metropolitan coastal counties (as listed in Table 19) F. Metropolitan counties nationwide. 0 V) D I= o � 1.88% - o~ fezNATIONAL Io A B C D E F F TO GROWTH -j<,~~~~~~~~ ~~ -(0.88% Per Year) z, m-0.12% - I~~~~~L CDj z~ L- I~I POPULATION GROWTH--1970 to 1976. 68 21. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS (Cont.) THE CHESAPEAKE BAY TO NEW YORK CITY FROM OUTER SPACE. This six photograph montage was taken from an Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 (ERTS-1) at an altitude of 562 statute miles. Many notable geographic landmarks are obvious: The Barriers islands along the coast of New Jersey, and the Delmarva peninsula; the Susquehanna and Potomac Rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay; the Delaware river broadening out into the Delaware Bay; and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania. (photo courtesy of NASA) 69 U~VEEG ~~~~nryiscuilfrtefntoigoousoiy.Hew ~~~ecibsttbysaethditiuinotwtyeofeegrsucs I ~Hoeverghy ofte negatively effor the functironmeting whic thscety. aerew imacs.Scribestaty wiltave, the deideiuto how two baaceepected energyreourcenta cot gins the bnftofcoast. is i able2 loatndn--kpwe decibenula mind nonucea Anotecria fomgfeneraigyfclte which imarelcatsdi the coast. istheofshoe productionofgs adolThae rquarmntswichties coastuand coffshore warer largmet. Inwever, they ofte doegativel efctrthe oiendvirofndmestinwich ntural gaswre prodcaed. ofstuare.nTe locqustionsf pathisculargy, have susantial potentialfo toimpacts Soityilhae todcid oastoalaneepce environmental coss gans te enfis f oatalloaton--eein i mndth 2.ELECTRICAL POWER Given the demands of coastal population and business, energy generation in the coast is a necessity. Coastal counties, adjacent to enormous supplies of cooling water, provide the technological criteria essential to the instal- E~~lation of electrical generating facilities. This table lists all sources of electrical generating capacity -- nuclear, hydroelectric, coal, oil, gas and geyser. Each of these has its own peculiar effects on the coast. The infor- I ~mation given here is based on the county list given in Table 19. The Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions have large amounts of capacity installed within the coastal counties (63 and 64% of the state totals E ~respectively). The Gulf Coast (excluding Florida) has the lowest percentage of it capacity installed in coastal counties (26). Georgia has the smallest percentage of its electrical generating capacity in the coast of any state with 7 percent of the total in coastal counties. Note that because several plants are typically located at one site, I ~the number of sites of electrical plants is considerably less than the number of plants. ~~~~HRA ISHREfrmperpatunrtcebylodcce ~~coin acashevstestesurneosses(asLdig I~~aiona Poob onCak I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 22. ELECTRICAL POWER (Cont.) Table 22. COASTAL ELECTRICAL GENERATING CAPACITY BY STATE (ALL SOURCES). Number of Capacity Percentage of States' State Plants (Megawatts) Plants Capacity Maine 62 1,691 41 83 New Hampshire 10 635 22 41 Massachusetts 81 5,845 44 61 Rhode Island 8 249 100 100 Connecticut 53 5,751 61 93 New York 153 17,923 31 57 New Jersey 79 8,985 66 72 Delaware 23 1,632 100 100 Maryland 85 6,946 88 76 Virginia 41 3,937 38 38 North Carolina 17 2,671 10 17 South Carolina 27 2,288 14 19 Georgia 23 1,076 13 7 Florida 264 25,441 85 91 Alabama 10 1,950 7 11 Mississippi 9 1,797 25 33 Louisiana 45 6,043 37 48 Texas 98 12,489 27 25 California 208 26,205 38 70 Oregon 34 1,076 17 11 Washington 77 2,212 30 12 All Coastal 1,407 136,842 37 45 All United States' 9,174 578,666 152 242 Region Northeast 367 32,094 38 63 Mid Atlantic 228 21,500 65 64 South Atlantic 331 31,476 39 44 Gulf 162 22,279 24 26 Pacific 319 29,493 32 45 1 Excluding Alaska and Hawaii 2 Coastal county plants or capacity as a percentage of the nations total. Source: Adapted from Kenneth J. Shanks. April, 1979. Inventory of Power Plants in the United States. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Data and Interpretation. 72 I~3 NUCLEAR POWER The coast provides technologically feasible sites for nuclear power I ~plants, because of the access to massive amounts of cooling water typical of the coast. We give the name and location of existing and projected nuclear power plants, along with figures on the capacity (in Megawatts = MW), the maximum AT (the maximum increase in temperature of the effluent water I ~in OF), and the rate of water intake in cubic feet per second (cfs). A nuclear power plant is deemed coastal if it occurs in one of the coastal counties listed in Table 19. It may be instructive to compare these to I ~the figures on temperature in Table 13, and river discharge in Table 10. If Construction proceeds as projected, 11 of 21 coastal states plan to increase the percentage of their electrical generating capacity based on I ~coastal nuclear power. At present, Maine has the highest percentage of its capacity installed as coastal nuclear power with 42 percent. Note that because several plants are typically located at one site, the number of sites of nuclear power plants is considerably less than the number of plants. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 23. NUCLEAR POWER (Cont.) Table 23. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN THE COASTAL ZONE. Coastal Nuclear Power and % of States Max. Intake Existing Projected State Location Plant Name MW A T (cfs) Status Capacity Capacity ME Wiscasset Yankee 864 25 950 Op. 42 32 NH Seabrook Seabrook 1b 2200 45 1733 12/82 0 57 I 2b 12/84 MA Plymouth Pilgrim 1 678 29 720 Op. H 2C 1180 6/85 7 16 RI N. Kingston Rome Pt. 1 2300 11/86 0 90 a 2 11/88 CT Haddam Neck Haddam 662 22 870 Op. 35 45 Waterford Millstone 1 662 22 935 Op. " 2 910 23 1150 Op. * 3 1156 5/86 3 NY Brookhaven Shoreham 844 20 1275 9/80 7 11 Buchanan Indian Pt 1 275 15 695 Op. � 2 1013 15 1950 Op. * 3 1013 16 1920 Op. Suffolk Co. Jamesport 1b 1191 7/88 ~ 2b ~1191 7/90 NJ Lacey Twp. Oyster Creek 550 20 960 Op. 14 34 Forked R.b 1251 12/83 Salem Salem 1 1170 14 5100 Op. " 2a 1115 79 Salem Co. Hope Creek lb 1067 9/84 M 2b 1067 5/86 MD Lusby Calvert Cliffs 1 918 10 5490 Op. 20 13 " 2 911 Op. VA Williamsburg Surry 1 847.5 14 -- Op. 16 10 ~~" ~ 847.5 Op. NC Southport Brunswick 1 866.7 14 4000 Op 11 6 a 2 866.7 Op. FL Florida City Turkey Pt 3 760 15 -- Op. 12 11 a 4 760 Op. Fort Pierce St. Lucie 1 850 Op. " 2b 850 4/83 Crystal R. Crystal R. 3 890 17 1520 Op. LA St. Charles Co. Waterford 3a 1165 4/81 0 5 TX Matagorda Co. South Tx. 1 1250 10/80 0 3 ' 2 1250 3/82 CA San Clemente San Onofre 1 450 19 793 Op. 1 12 " 2a 1181 20 2213 11/81 " 3a 1181 11/83 Diablo Canyon Diablo Canyon 1a 1136 20 3684 79 ~" 2a 1159 79 '" ~3 1181 1/83 Humbolt Bay Humbolt Bay 3 65.3 Op. OR Ranier Trojan 1 1216.0 Op. 12 9 WA Grays Harbor Satsop lb 1240 1/84 County Satsop 2b 1240 7/85 0 8 Source: Adapted from Kenneth J Shanks. April, 1979. Inventory of Power Plants in the United States. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Data and Interpretation. John Clark and Willard Brownell, 1973. Electric Power Plants in the Coastal Zone: Environmental Issues. American Littoral Society Special Publication No. 7. Highlands, NJ. Plant Status, New York Times, Oct. 23, 1979, Page B7. Footnotes aoperation Permit pending bconstruction Permit pending cconstruction Permit pending 74 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS Oil and gas are produced offshore in great quantities. In 1978 over 13 percent of domestically produced oil and over 26 percent of domestically pro- duced natural gas came from offshore wells. Offshore waters have two divi- sions. The Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) includes shelf waters beyond state territorial waters. The OCS is under federal jurisdiction and has an area of 875,000 square miles. Oil and gas produced shoreward of the boundary are produced on state lands. In Texas and West Florida, the state lands extend 3 marine leagues offshore (about 10 miles), and everywhere else the state lands extend to only three miles offshore. The seaward limit of the OCS * ~is not well defined legally, but extends roughly to include all submergd lands that lie under less than 200 meters of water (about 650 feet). I ~ ~~The U.S. Department of the Interior determines which areas will be bid upon. A bidder proposes some combination of royalties, and bonus for the I ~right to drill for specified minerals. In addition, he is charged a rental fee which is set by the Department of the Interior. The U.S. Geological Survey, on the basis of exploratory findings selects that bid which it believes will produce the most revenue. Minimum royalties have been 16-2/3% of the production value of minerals taken from the lease. Annual rental and minimum royalty has been $3-10 per acre. A lease is typically about 5,000 acres. Through this bidding and royalty system, the federal government has I ~received 70% of the total production value of the oil and gas produced on the OCS from 1953 through 1978. In some years, however, the revenue paid by the drilling companies to the federal government has been greater than the pro- duction value of the minerals, due to (among other reasons) large bonuses I ~paid for the lease initially, compensated for by oil and gas obtained at a later date. Most of the U.S. offshore (state and federal) oil and gas has been produced off the coast of Louisiana. b Note that some conversion factors pertaining to oil and gas may b found in Table 53f. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) AN OIL PLATFORM in the Gulf of Mexico off Louisiana* (photo courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard) 76 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) Table 24a. REVENUE AND PRODUCTION VALUE OF OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF LEASES. % Cumulative Revenue Total Revenue Total Production Value of Cumulative Year (in Thousand $) (in Thousand $) Production Value 1953 2,358 5,037 47 1954 147,660 14,370 774 1955 117,197 27,061 575 1956 11,716 39,498 324 1957 14,840 61,073 200 1958 20,150 96,471 129 1959 118,829 150,473 110 1960 323,782 200,970 127 1961 51,345 273,636 93 1962 564,570 376,676 102 1963 98,963 450,866 87 1964 194,939 506,784 76 1965 146,445 594,223 65 1966 354,466 801,725 60 1967 675,859 947,215 63 1968 1,558,052 1,179,912 77 1969 362,029 1,443,870 66 1970 1,238,961 1,707,593 68 1971 456,012 2,135,677 59 1972 2,624,958 2,229,179 69 1973 3,494,981 2,486,865 80 1974 5,598,758 3,570,054 94 1975 1,723,325 3,924,915 86 1976 2,967,860 4,402,440 83 1977 2,509,742 5,774,056 76 1978 2,941,112 .7,096,500 70 TOTAL 28,318,912 40,497,138 1 70 Columns do not add to totals, because of rounding after addition. 77 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) Table 24b. PRODUCING OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OIL AND GAS LEASES (BY YEAR AND ADJACENT STATE). California Texas Louisiana Total Year No. Acres No. Acres No. Acres No. Acres 1954 0 0 0 0 58 240,028 58 240,028 1955 0 0 4 5,760 102 432,316 106 438,076 1960 0 0 13 23,040 285 1,141,959 298 1,164,999 1965 0 0 13 37,620 406 1,632,544 419 1,670,164 1970 10 42,256 34 146,340 557 2,329,365 601 25,117,961 1971 12 53,776 34 146,340 596 2,497,933 642 2,698,049 1972 16 76,816 39 166,320 636 2,659,880 691 2,903,016 1973 17 82,576 42 174,960 660 2,769,934 719 3,027,470 1974 29 145,012 44 186,480 668 2,803,654 741 3,135,146 1975 14 63,617 44 189,630 725 2,987,540 783 3,240,787 1976 14 63,617 70 330,414 749 3,082,564 833 3,476,595 1977 24 121,672 92 454,278 780 3,317,335 896 3,893,285 1978 24 121,672 121 615,583 786 3,366,831 931 4,104,086 Table 24c. TOTAL OFFSHORE OIL PRODUCTION BY STATE THROUGH 1978. State Lands OCS Lands State % Thousands % of State's Thousands % of State's of Total Adjacent of Total of Total Offshore State Barrels Offshore Barrels Offshore Prod. Alaska 663,445 100 0 0 7.9 California 1,670,050 90 185,561 10 22.1 Louisiana 1,165,074 20 4,660,298 80 69.5 Texas 17,960 43 23,808 57 0.5 Table 24d. TOTAL OFFSHORE GAS PRODUCTION BY STATE THROUGH 1978. State % Millions % of State's Millions % of State's of Total Adjacent of Total of Total Offshore State Cubic Feet Offshore Cubic Feet Offshore Prod. Alaska 733,690 100 0 0 1.4 California 628,737 90 69,860 10 1.4 Louisiana 8,786,472 19 37,458,119 81 90.5 Texas 1,825,685 53 1,619,004 47 6.7 78 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF. Spottail pinfish and gorgonians (soft coral) at a depth of about 100 feet 30 miles off the coast of North Carolina. This rock outcrop is an unusual "island" on the shelf off the Atlantic Coast (Photo by Mark Hooper). 79 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) Table 24e. OFFSHORE PRODUCTION OF CRUDE OIL AND CONDENSATES BY YEAR. Total U.S. Total Offshore % of Domestic Production Production % from % from Production (millions of (millions of OCS State from Offshore Year barrels) barrels) Lands Lands Sources 1954 2,315 48.6 7 93 2.10 1955 2,484 59.1 11 89 2.38 1956 2,617 73.4 15 85 2.8U 1957 2,617 83.7 19 81 3.20 1958 2,449 86.2 29 71 3.52 1959 2,575 100.1 36 64 3.89 1960 2,574 116.8 43 57 4.54 1961 2,622 133.4 48 52 5.09 1962 2,676 162.2 55 45 6.06 1963 2,753 188.1 56 44 6.83 1964 2,787 214.8 57 43 7.71 1965 2,849 242.7 60 40 8.52 1966 3,028 300.3 63 37 9.92 1967 3,216 368.2 60 40 11.45 1968 3,329 471.2 57 43 14.15 1969 3,372 525.8 59 41 15.59 1970 3,517 575.7 63 37 16.37 1971 3,454 615.1 68 32 17.81 1972 3,456 614.8 67 33 17.79 1973 3,361 582.7 68 32 17.34 1974 3,203 532.7 68 32 16.63 1975 3,057 495.3 67 33 16.20 1976 2,968 462.9 68 32 15.60 1977 2,985 438.7 69 31 14.70 1978 3,150 416.6 70 30 13.23 1954-1978 73,414 7,909.1 61 39 10.77 80 24. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS (Cont.) Table 24f. OFFSHORE PRODUCTION OF NATURAL GAS BY YEAR. Total U.S. Total Offshore Production Production % from % from (billions of (billions of OCS State % Offshore Year cubic feet) cubic feet) Lands Lands OCS & State 1954 8,743 84.8 66 34 0.97 1955 9,405 128.2 63 37 1.36 1956 10,082 143.4 58 42 1.42 1957 10,680 174.3 47 53 1.63 1958 11,030 258.0 49 51 2.34 1959 11,620 353.4 59 41 3.04 1960 12,771 440.5 62 38 3.45 1961 13,254 478.1 67 33 3.61 1962 13,877 640.3 71 29 4.61 1963 14,66.7 763.3 74 26 5.20 1964 15,462 849.8 73 27 5.50 1965 16,040 939.4 69 31 5.86 1966 17,207 1,373.2 73 27 7.98 1967 18,171 1,837.8 65 35 10.11 1968 19,322 2,321.3 66 34 12.01 1969 20,698 2,844.7 69 31 13.74 1970 21,921 3,218.1 75 25 14.68 1971 22,493 3,750.7 74 26 16.67 1972 22,532 3,757.4 81 19 16.68 1973 22,647 3,975.3 83 17 17.55 1974 21,601 4,229.8 83 17 19.58 1975 20,109 4,257.5 81 19 21.17 1976 19,952 4,296.3 84 16 21.53 1977 20,025 4,540.0 82 18 22.67 1978 19,597 5,104.1 86 14 26.05 1954-1978 413,906 50,759.7 78 22 12.26 Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey- Conservation Division. Outer Continental Shelf Statistics- Calendar Year 1978. 81 ~V SU AI EADWTADRSUC. ~~~~"netayisasm-nlsdcatlbdofwtrhihasare ~~~onciowihteoeseanwihnwihsawtrimeuebl ~~~~yi c ly " estuaryisesaebreedmiyetlndls.dCoastalbodofalierwetlhansafe arnectionawitha are sujo peridi imesion and soitheir whaichsetater ismpsreab- merctivity and otecreattibut ises aive pnetarte ofither marin tenironent.tire widely believed that they are key parts of the marine environment. Further, many terrestial species have coastal wetlands as a part of their habitat. Estuaries lengthen the shoreline, and therefore provide points of access * ~to the coastal waters for many people. 1Donald W. Pritchard. 1967. "What is an estuary: Physical Viewpoint." In Estuaries, edited by George H. Lauff. AAAS. Washington, D.C. * ~~~~~~~~~~~~82 25. ESTUARINE AREAS The total area of coastal estuaries is over 15 million acres. This is about one-half of the area of the state of New York. In 1967 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considered almost half of the estuarine area to be "im- portant habitat" for fish and wildlife. In the twenty years preceding this report, the area of this important habitat had decreased by almost 8 percent. California experienced the greatest decrease as the San Francisco-Suisun Bay lost 192,000 out of 294,000 estuarine acres between 1950 and 1967 until filling was virtually stopped by state action� Maryland, Georgia, and Virginia each lost less than 1 percent of their important estuarine habitat in the years 1947 to 1967. Table 25. FISH AND WILDLIFE ESTUARINE HABITAT LOST -- 1947-1967. Acres of Estuaries Basic Area Area of Basic Percent of Habitat Lost Loss Total Important by Dredging of State Area Habitat and Filling Habitat Alabama 530,000 132,800 2,000 1.5 California 552,100 381,900 255,8U0 67.0 Connecticut 31,600 20,300 2,100 10.3 Delaware 395,500 152,400 8,500 5.6 Florida 1,051,200 796,200 59,700 7.5 Georgia 170,800 125,000 800 0.6 Louisiana 3,545,100 2,076,900 65,400 3.1 Maine 39,400 15,300 1,000 6.5 Maryland 1,406,100 376,300 1,000 0.3 Massachusetts 207,000 31,000 2,000 6.5 Mississippi 251,200 76,300 1,700 2.2 New Hampshire 12,400 10,000 1,000 10.0 New Jersey 778,400 411,300 53,900 13.1 New York 376,600 132,500 19,800 15.0 North Carolina 2,206,600 793,700 8,000 1.0 Oregon 57,600 20,200 700 3.5 Rhode Island 94,700 14,700 900 6.1 South Carolina 427,900 269,400 4,300 1.6 Texas 1,344,000 328,100 68,100 8.2 Virginia 1,670,000 428,100 2,400 0.6 Washington 193,800 95,500 4,300 4.5 TOTAL 15,347,000 7,115,900 563,000 7.9 Source: Modified from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Tabulation, p. 30, hearings on estuarine areas, House Merchant Marine and Fisheries subcommittee on fisheries and wildlife conservation, March 6, 8, 9, 1967. 83 26. WETLAND TYPES AND LOSS The Soil Conservation Service has estimated the original, natural wetlands of this country at 127 million acres.' In 1956, the Interior Department published a wetlands survey, which was the product of state and federal investigations of portions of states. They classified wetlands into 20 types. Types 1 through 11 are noncoastal. The remainder are coastal and are defined in Table 27. These wetland types are, despite their shortcomings, now widely used although a new classifica- tion system has recently been developed by the Fish and Wildlife Service.2 Experienced wetland scientists have estimated the acreage of wetland types at various times in the past, and from these figures, gross wetland loss can be imprecisely determined. These figures can present a misleading picture of a very dynamic system, however. For example, it appears that mangroves (Type 20) have sustained no losses between 1954 and 1978. However, in 1954, the mangrove stands in the Florida Keys and Bay had been devastated by a series of hurricanes, and the inventory that year followed a succession of wet years. Between 1954 and 1978, there was revegetation of mangroves at some sites but considerable natural and man-induced losses at other locations, particularly the filling of mangrove swamps on the southwest Florida coast for housing developments. However, the digging of new drainage canals, the reopening of old canals, and the development of waterways for recreation craft has resulted in saline intrusion and the extension of the mangrove forest northward into the Everglades.3 A very dynamic story is hidden behind two numbers. (R. Macomber, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, pers. comm.) Wetlands of the United States. Circular 39, 1956. L.M. Cowardin, V. Carter, F.C. Golet, E.T. LaRoe, 1979. Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services. 103 pp. 3 The Trees of South Florida: The Natural Environments and Their Succession, Frank C. Craighead, Sr., 1971. Table 26. EXISTING COASTAL WETLANDS AND WETLANDS LOSS BY TYPE -- 1780, 1954, 1978. Existing Wetlands (millions of acres) Acres of Wetland Lost Annually Wetland Types 1780 1954 1978 1780 to 1954 1954 to 1978 12 to 14 6.0 4.0 2.0 11,500 83,000 15 to 18 4.5 3.7 3.2 4,800 20,800 20 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 0 TOTAL 11.0 8.2 5.7 10,300 103,800 Source: R. Macomber, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, pers. comm.; 84 27. WETLAND TYPES Table 27. WETLAND TYPE DESCRIPTIONS. Type Name Water Depth Dominant Plants 12 Coastal shallow Up to 6 inches Diverse freshwater and fresh' marshes at high tide brackish species including many grasses, reeds, rushes and sedges 13 Coastal deep Up to 3 feet Diverse freshwater and fresh marshes at high tide brackish species 14 Coastal open Up to depths Pondweeds, milfoils, freshwater of 10 feet wildcelery, wigeongrass, and others 15 Coastal salt A few inches Glassworts, saltwort flats at high tide and seablite 16 Coastal salt A few inches at Saltmeadow cordgrass, meadows monthly high tide and saltgrass 17 Irregularly flooded Up to a few Needlerush salt marshes inches at times 18 Regularly flooded Up to 2 feet at Saltmarsh cordgrass salt marshes daily high tide 20 Mangrove swamps Up to 2 feet Mangroves (four species) Includes low brackish estuaries where mean salinities are below 10%. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1971. Wetlands of the United States. Their extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife. Circular 39. 27. WETLAND -(PES (Cont.) I i I I I I ! I I I I I t f,',,SH nr Bogue Inlet, North Carolina (Photo by Mark Hooper). 86 ,'. .- - .C~~Ei~-.---.t= �:i~i~S~- C�~iZL~~l �t us--At -,~~~~~~~; ': h xOi-5S =rz '' 28. WETLAND AREA The 1954 wetlands survey of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service deter- mined that there were over 7 million acres of coastal wetlands. Almost half of this area was in Louisiana. In general, the data for this survey were collected by examination of maps and field checks or by relying on the knowledge of local state and federal agents. These data generally exclude wetlands less than 40 acres in size. Table 28. 1954 ESTIMATES OF COASTAL WETLANDS BY STATE AND TYPE Acres of Wetland Type State 12&13 15&16 17 18 Total Maine1 11,549 16,178 --- 1,455 29,182 New Hampshire 400 5,285 --- 375 6,060 Massachusetts, 3,435 34,520 --- 7,940 45,895 Rhode Island 195 1,360 --- 645 2,200 Connecticut 6,442 7,496 --- 2,037 15,975 New York' 9,010 24,855 --- 11,530 45,395 New Jersey' 69,750 150,440 --- 20,870 241,060 Delaware 20,714 49,578 --- 43,756 114,048 Maryland 70,330 64,790 53,050 15,890 204,060 Virginia --- 20,250 24,700 86,100 210,250 North Carolina 47,500 --- 100,450 58,400 206,350 South Carolina 80,400 --- 91,000 345,000 516,400 Georgia 31,700 650 74,850 285,650 392,850 Florida 38,800 39,600 302,900 46,100 950,400 20-523,000 Alabama 17,350 --- 12,100 --- 29,450 Mississippi 28,463 1,758 5,790 18,398 54,409 Louisiana 2,951,262 33,000 15,400 520,800 3,520,462 Texas 44,114 528,053 18,378 18,888 609,433 California 10,730 23,497 --- 83,605 117,832 Oregon 10,250 1,125 --- 1,895 13,270 Washington --- 8,340 --- 6,795 15,135 TOTAL 3,452,394 1,010,775 698,618 1,576,129 7,260,916 Source: 'George P. Spinner. 1959. A plan for the marine resources of the Atlantic coastal zone. New York: American Geographical Society, remaining states from 1954 wetland surveys published by the U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Game. 87 29. WETLAND AREA Since the 1954 wetlands survey of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, many of the states have conducted their own surveys. These surveys were con- ducted for a variety of reasons, by a variety of methods, and used a variety of criteria. For example, some states surveyed every wetland, regardless of size, while others included only those over 40 acres in size. Because of this diversity, these results should not be compared to those in Table 28 for the purpose of determining changes in the area of wetland. Each state defined its own wetland types, and in order to list them together, we have superimposed the categories shown below. The "Salt to Brackish" category is a subdivision of the other two categories. The "All Coastal" and "All Tidal" categories are probably equivalent, and reflect each state's own designation. Louisiana has the greatest wetland acreage followed by Florida, Georgia, and Texas (in that order). Table 29. MOST RECENT STATE ESTIMATES OF COASTAL WETLANDS (ACRES). State Salt to Brackish All Coastal All Tidal Maine 16,909 28,303 --- New Hampshire --- --- 7,500 Massachusetts 43,280 ...... Rhode Island 3,668 15,635 --- Connecticut --- 15,387 New York --- -- 23,500 New Jersey --- -- 245,000 Delaware 74,516 83,450 --- Maryland 165,379 211,647 --- VVirginia 164,886 --- 212,874 North Carolina 158,850 206,350 --- South Carolina 369,463 515,235 --- Georgia --- 475,000 Florida 981,803 2,254,1bU --- Alabama 16,004 121,603 --- Mississippi 63,982 64,805 --- Louisiana 2,066,763 3,910,664 --- Texas 374,912 412,516 --- California --- 126,000 --- Washington --- 15,135 --- Oregon 18,823 29,933 --- TOTAL 4,519,238 7,995,436 979,261 Coastal and Tidal 8,974,697 88 29. WETLAND AREA (Cont.) Source ME Frederick B. Hurley. pers. comm., Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. Augusta, Maine. NH C.H.J. Breeding, et. al., October, 1974. Soil Surveys of New Hampshire Tidal Marshes, University of New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, Res. Rpt. No. 40. MA W.P. MacConnell, 1975. Bulletin 630, Massachusetts Cooperative Extension Center, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. RI W.P. MacConnell, 1974. Remote Sensing Land Use and Veqetative Cover in Rhode Island, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. CT Robert Leach, pers. comm., Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. NY John Ren Kavinsky, pers. comm., New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Marine Resources, Tidal Wetlands Bureau. NJ Thomas F. Hampton, undated memorandum, Properties Affected by the Wetlands order and Procedural Rules and Regulations. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Marine Resources, Trenton. DE F.C. DNrber, et. al., 1976. An Atlas of Delaware's Wetland and EstuarineResources. Delaware Coastal Management Program, Technical Report No. 2. MD Elder Ghigiarelli, pers. comm., Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Zone Unit, Annapolis. VA Arthur F. Harris, pers. comm., Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point. NC Kenneth A. Wilson, April, 1962. North Carolina Wetlands, Their Distribution and Management. North Carolina Wildlife Resources Comm., Raleigh. SC Ralph W. Tiner, Jr., 1979. An Inventory of South Carolina's Coastal Marshes. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department, Marine Resources Center, Charleston Technical Report No. 23. GA Fred Marland, pers. comm., Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Marshland Protection Brunswick, Georgia. FL Anonymous, March, 1978. Statistical Inventory of Key Biophysical Elements in Florida's Coastal Zone. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Division of Environmental Programs, Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning, Tallahassee. AL B.A. Vittor and J.P. Stout, 1975. Delineation of Ecological Critical Areas in the Alabama Coastal Zone. Marine Environmental Science Consortium, Dauphin Island. MS Lionel Electeris, 1973. The Marshes of Mississippi, pp. 147-190. In J.Y. Christmas [ed.] Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Inventory and Study, Mississippi. LA William S. Perret, et. al., 1971. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study, Louisiana-Phase I, Area Description. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission. TX John Batterton, pers. comm., Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. CA Bruce M. Browning, pers. comm., California Department of Fish and Game, Coastal, Wetlands Program, Sacramento. OR G.J. Atkins and C.A. Jefferson, August 1973. Coastal Wetlands of Oregon. Oregon Coastal Conservation and Development Commission, Florence. WA No recent data, information transferred from Table 28. 89 30. DREDGE AND FILL PERMITS AND VIOLATIONS Based on records from October 1977 through September 1978, when a viola- tion of federal dredge and fill law (Section 404 of the Clean Water Act) is reported, 28 percent of the projects receive an after-the-fact permit, 60 percent are found not to require a permit, and 12 percent are submitted for litigation. When an application is submitted, 16 percent are withdrawn or cancelled, and I percent are denied. Sometimes the applications are with- drawn or cancelled by the applicant, because "we work with the applicant and in some cases where issuance is unlikely we might 'discourage' the applicant from further processing because the permit would not likely be approved."' Therefore, the distinction between the withdrawn and denied categories is not as clear cut as it might be. These data are based on the reports of coastal districts, which cover large areas. When we queried district offices as to the percentage of per- mits which were issued in either coastal or tidal waters, we were told that it was more than three quarters. Of the offices that were contacted, only the Mobile, Alabama district quoted a lower figure -- 35 percent. These data are applicable to wetlands, because a portion of the dredging and filling takes place within wetlands. The Corps has no record of what this portion is. Pers. comm. Curtis L. Clark, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. April, 1980. Table 30a. DREDGE & FILL PERMITS (A TO C) AND REPORTED VIOLATIONS (D TO G) FROM ALL COASTAL DISTRICTS. Section 10 Section 404 Section 10 & Permits Permits 404 Permits All Permits Action1 % % % A 857 14 279 22 951 18 2,087 16 B 52 * 19 2 84 2 155 1 C 5,436 86 958 76 4,241 80 10,635 83 D 297 32 71 17 212 29 580 28 E 535 57 297 72 422 57 1,254 60 F 104 11 44 11 107 14 255 12 G 936 100 412 100 741 100 2,082 100 90 30. DREDGE AND FILL PERMITS AND VIOLATIONS (Cont.) Table 30b. DREDGE & FILL PERMITS (A TO C) AND REPORTED VIOLATIONS (D TO G) -- Districts New England and New York, New York Section 10 Section 404 Section 10 & Permits Permits 404 Permits All Permits Action1 # % # % # % # % A 76 16 23 10 172 31 271 21 IB 5 1 2 * 10 2 17 1 C 400 83 215 90 378 68 993 78 D - 70 32 8 47 81 38 159 35 E 86 39 9 53 93 43 188 41 F 65 29 0 0 42 19 107 24 G 221 100 17 100 216 100 454 100 Table 30c, DREDGE & FILL PERMITS (A TO C) AND REPORTED VIOLATIONS (D TO G) -- Districts Philadelphia, Pennsylvania through Savannah, Georgia Section 10 Section 404 Section 10 & Permits Permits 404 Permits All Permits Action1 # % # % # % # % A 187 12 86 21 374 23 647 18 I~~~ B 22 1 9 2 37 2 68 2 C 1,383 87 315 77 1,228 75 2,926 80 D 101 48 32 17 87 30 220 32 E 107 50 131 71 187 64 425 62 F 4 2 21 11 19 6 44 6 G 212 100 184 100 293 100 689 100 Table 30d. DREDGE & FILL PERMITS (A TO C) AND REPORTED VIOLATIONS (D TO G) -- Districts Jacksonville, Florida through Galveston, Texas Section 10 Section 404 Section 10 & Permits Permits 404 Permits All Permits Action # % # % # % # % A 416 12 107 24 302 11 825 13 B 20 * 7 2 28. 1 55 * C 2,904 87 333 74 2,316 88 5,553 86 D 49 32 20 20 25 18 94 24 E 78 51 67 66 75 55 220 56 F 25 16 14 14 37 27 76 19 G 152 100 101 100 137 100 390 100 91 30. DREDGE AND FILL PERMITS AND VIOLATIONS (Cont.) Table 30e. DREDGE & FILL PERMITS (A TO C) AND REPORTED VIOLATIONS (D TO G) -- Districts Los Angelos, California through Seattle, Washington Section 10 Section 404 Section 10 & Permits Permits 404 Permits All Permits Action # % # % # % # % A 178 19 63 40 103 24 344 23 B 5 * 1 * 9 2 15 * C 749 80 95 60 319 74 1,163 76 D 77 22 11 10 19 20 107 19 E 264 75 90 82 67 71 421 76 F 10 3 9 8 9 9 28 .5 G 351 100 110 100 95 100 556 100 Action Meaning Application A Cancelled or withdrawn " B Denied " C Permit or Letter of Permission issued Violations D After the fact applications accepted E Permit not necessary, or reported violation already under permit F Submitted for litigation ~" G Sum of D, E and F * Less than 1% Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data. SOME DREDGE AND FILL PERMITS ALLOW DREDGING OF VALUABLE WETLANDS. This photograph is from Davis, North Carolina (Conservation Foundation photo by M. Fahay). 92 31. WETLAND ANIMALS The 1954 wetlands survey of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed 25 species of game and fur animals which make use of coastal wetlands. The report also discussed more generally the use of wetlands by migratory birds. These species were discussed because they are widely known or used directly by man. Numerous other animals, both terrestial and aquatic, are found in wetlands, or depend in some way on wetlands. Some of these are listed in Table 39. The wetland types are described in Table 27. Table 31a. USE OF WETLAND TYPES BY GAME AND FUR ANIMALS. Species: Number of States Reporting Use in Wetland Type 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Small Game: Gallinules 7 7 6 1 1 1 1 .... Grouse, Sage 1 I .... 1 -- 1 I -- Mourning dove 1 i -- 2 .......... Pheasant 7 2 .. 2 -- 1 .... Quail, Bobwhite 4 --.... 1 ........ Rails 12 11 4 5 9 8 10 -- 1 Rabbit, Cottontail 9 2 .............. Rabbit, Swamp 4 3 -- 1 4 3 3 .... Snipe 10 5 -- 3 4 3 4 3 -- Woodcock 5 1 .. .... Big Game: White-tailed deer 6 5 -- 1 1 1 2 .... Black-tailed deer i 1 -- 1 2 -- 2 2 -- Fur Animals: Beaver 4 4 1 -- i -- 2 1 -- Bobcat I I ....... Fox (Red and Gray) 10 5 -- 8 2 7 1- Mink 16 13 9 -- 4 4 7 3 -- Muskrat 16 16 11 I 10 5 11 3 -- Nutria i 1 1 .... 1 .. ... Opossum 4 -- -- -- -- I -- -- Otter 13 12 10 -- 5 -- 5 1 -- Raccoon 17 12 11 2 11 6 10 5 -- Skunk 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 Weasel 2 2 ............... Alligator 3 3 1 -- I 1 ...... 93 31. WETLAND ANIMALS (Cont.) Table 31b. NUMBER OF GAME AND FUR SPECIES USING WETLANDS BY STATE. Number of Species Using Wetland Type State 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Alabama 5 2 -- -. 6 -- -- -- California 4 4 4 -. . - 1 1 -- Connecticut 8 6 5 -- 5 -- 4 . .. Delaware 9 4 3 -- 4 -- 4 . -- Florida 7 6 1 1 -- 4 4 -- 1 Georgia 12 3 3 2 4 5 5 -- -- Louisiana 19 19 4 4 6 5 3 -- -- Maine 5 4 4 -- 3 -- 3 3 -- Maryland 4 2 2 -- 2 2 2 2 -- Massachusetts 10 9 4 -- 3 -- 3 -- -- Mississippi 11 7 5 4 6 6 5 1 -- New Hampshire 9 6 4 -- 8 -- 6 5 -- New Jersey 9 7 4 -- 7 -- 7 5 -- New York 8 6 5 -- 7 -- 6 1 -- North Carolina 5 2 1 -- -- 4 2 -- -- Oregon 6 6 -- -- 6 -- 6 6 -- Rhode Island 8 6 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- South Carolina 7 4 3 1 2 3 3 -- -- Texas 4 4 -- -- -- -- -- Virginia 12 10 4 5 5 3 3 -- -- Washington -- -- -- 2 2 -- 5 3 -- Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Wetlands of the United States: Their extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife. Circular 39. 94 VHI LIVING RESOURCES I ~~~In 1880 the fisheries of the United States and Alaska brought in 1.7 billion pounds of fish whose value was 39 million dollars. By 1979, the E ~weight of the catch had increased by 3.7 times, and the value of the catch had increaed by 57 times. The 6 billion dollar a year commercial fishery provides high quality protein to eat, and oils for a variety of commercial uses. 3 ~ ~~The recreational fishery provides additional fishes for food and also for recreation. In 1970, the recreational catch was 240, of the total catch. The fisheries are a resource which is susceptible to human interference whether it be overfishing, pollution, or placing dams in the path of fish migrating upstream to spawn such as the shad and salmon. Other species live in the coast too. Table 39 provides an example of a species which is making a comeback from near extinction, while Table 40 lists species which are presently close to extinction. 32. FISHERIES HISTORY The retail value of the domestic fisheries landings in 1979 was over six billion dollars. This catch is heavily derived from nearshore waters. The catch'of six species (Table 32b) has historically accounted for about half the value of the fishery. These species are either entirely, or par- tially (usually for the purpose of reproduction, or as a nursery for juven- iles) estuarine dwelling, although only some species of shrimp are ever estuarine dwelling. For the fishery as a whole, about half of the catch (by value) is caught within 3 miles of shore. The percentage caught within 3 miles of shore by weight is even greater. In 1975, for example, 60% of the weight of the catch came from within 3 miles of shore. (Source same as table) Annual domestic fishery landings from 1950 to 1977 have weighed about 5 billion pounds. In 1978, the catch reached 6 billion pounds. Whether the 1978 and 1979 catches are a product of the recently initiated 200-mile Fishery Conservation zone (The Fishery Conservation and Management Act) is unknown. However, recent increases are in species not managed under the FCMA. The dockside value of the catch has grown from 99 million dollars in 1940 to over 1800 million in 1978. Commercial fisheries have historically provided employment to over 200,000 people. The recent year of greatest income for fishermen (adjusted for inflation) was 1973. A GNP deflator was used to adjust for inflation. Table 32a. HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FISHERY LANDINGS. Percentage of Catch Retail Value Dockside Value Catch Weight Caught within 3 (in millions (in millions (in billions miles of shore Year of dollars) of dollars) of pounds) (by dockside value) 1979 6,352 2,234 6.3 49 1978 5,994 1,854 6.0 46 1977 5,437 1,515 5.2 49 1976 3,754 1,353 5.3 47 i1975 3,008 971 4.8 47 1974 3,004 899 4.9 51 1973 2,801 907 4.7 49 1972 2,129 704 4.7 41 1971 1,968 643 5.0 46 1970 1,850 613 4.9 -- 1960 -- 354 4.9 -- 1950 -- 347 4.9 -- 1940 -- 99 4.1 -- 1930 -- 1U4 3.3 -- 1920 -- 78 2.2 -- 1908 -- 51 1.8 -- 1900 -- 43 1.8 1880 -- 39 1.6 -- catch of 1920 and earlier refer to U.S. catch without Alaska. Source: 1930-1880: U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1960. Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1951. 96 32. FISHERIES HISTORY (Cont.) THE HOLLY F. MURPHY AND CAPTAIN STACY II, two trawlers, berthed at Morehead City, California. The booms on each boat hold the trawls open. (photo by Mark Hooper) 97 32. FISHERIES HISTORY (Cont.) Table 32b. HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL LANDINGS OF SELECTED SPECIES (IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS). Year Menhaden Shrimp Salmon Blue Crabs Oysters Clams Total 1979 109 472 413 31 66 79 1170 1978 98 386 255 28 61 74 902 1977 68 355 221 27 53 74 798 1976 67 331 196 23 53 63 733 1975 49 226 116 19 43 41 494 1974 66 178 121 19 34 39 457 1973 73 219 125 17 35 35 504 1972 31 193 63 14 34 32 367 1971 36 167 78 12 30 31 354 1970 34 130 99 10 29 29 331 Table 32c. HISTORY OF FISHERIES EMPLOYMENT. Number Employed Number Employed in Processing Year as Fishermen and Wholesaling Total 1975 168,013 92,310 260,323 1970 140,538 86,813 227,351 1965 128,565 86,864 215,429 1960 130,431 93,625 224,056 1950 161,463 102,015 263,478 1940 124,795 90,215 215,010 1930 119,716 78,996 198,712 Table 32d. VALUE OF THE CATCH IN CONSTANT DOLLARS PER FISHERMAN. Dockside Constant Dollar Value (in Value Dockside Constant Dollar No. millions (in millions of Value Per Value Per Year Fisherman of dollars) 1972 dollars) Fisherman Fisherman 1975 168,000 971 763 5,780 4,543 1974 161,000 899 775 5,584 4,814 1973 149,000 907 857 6,087 5,754 1972 139,000 704 704 5,065 5,065 1970 141,000 613 671 4,347 4,757 1965 129,000 446 600 3,457 4,653 1960 130,000 354 515 2,723 3,964 1955 144,000 347 568 2,410 3,950 1950 161,000 99 185 615 1,147 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. 1973. Fishery Statistics of the United States 1970. NMFS Statistical Digest No. 64; Fisheries of the United States, Annual Reports for the Years 1979 to 1971. NMFS Current Fisheries Statistics 8000, 7800, 7500, 7200, 6900, 6700, 6400, 6100, 5900; U.S. Department of Commerce; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1979. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1979. 98 33. RECORD CATCHES In recent decades the value of the catch has increased, but the weight of the catch has remained fairly constant. However, the peak weight of the catch is long past in many states. Only five states have recorded peak catches in the 1970's (Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Oregon), while 3 states (Rhode Island, New York, Maryland) recorded their peak catches in the last century. Table 33. CURRENT CATCH COMPARED TO RECORD CATCH BY STATE. Year of Record Catch 1978 Catch x 100% State (Pounds) Record Catch Maine 1950 53.4 New Hampshire -- -- Massachusetts 1948 58.0 Rhode Island 1899 65.4 Connecticut 1930 5.7 New York 1880 10.8 New Jersey 1956 30.3 Delaware 1953 0.3 Maryland 1890 42.2 Virginia 1972 80.9 North Carolina 1959 87.4 South Carolina 1965 77.4 Georgia 1927 36.7 Florida 1938 71.0 Alabama 1973 79.4 Mississippi 1971 94.2 Louisiana 1978 100.0 Texas 1960 43.6 California 1936 41.0 Oregon 1978 100.0 Washington 1941 70.1 Source: U'S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. 1979. Fisheries of the United States, 1978. NMFS, Current Fisheries Statistics, No. 7800. 99 35. FISHERIES PORTS San Pedro, California was the leading fisheries port in the nation both by value and weight of the catch from 1976 through 1978 (3 year average). San Pedro achieves this status because it is the port of record for much of the fish caught in the Pacific Ocean. New Bedford, and Gloucester are the leading North Atlantic ports; Key West and Beaufort-Morehead City are the leading South Atlantic ports. Among Gulf Coast ports Brownsville-Port Isabel, Texas and Cameron, Louisiana lead (these ports are listed by value and weight, respectively.) While there are many ports in the country, the top twenty account for about half of the weight and value of the catch. We have combined three years worth of data rather than present just the most recent data to smooth out temporary increases and decreases of ports. Table 35a. TOP 20 U.S. FISHERIES PORTS -- 1976-1978 BY VALUE OF CATCH. Millions of Percentage of Dollars Total U.S. Cumulative Port (3 year average) Catch Value Percent San Pedro, CA 106.1 6.7 6.7 Dutch Harbor, AK 69.8 4.4 11.1 Kodiak, AK 67.7 ,4.3 15.4 San Diego, CA 47.7 3.0 18.5 New Bedford, MA 45.6 2.9 21.4 Brownsville-Port Isabel, TX 39.3 2.5 23.9 Dulac-Chavin, LA 37.5 2.3 26.2 Aransas Pass-Rockport, TX 35.3 2.2 28.5 Freeport, TX 25.6 1.6 30.1 Ketchikan, AK 25.1 1.6 31.7 Cameron, LA 24.9 1.5 33.3 Bayou La Batre, AL 24.1 1.5 34.8 Gloucester, MA 22.3 1.4 36.3 Empire-Venice, LA 20.3 1.2 37.5 Cape May-Wildwood, NJ 20.1 1.2 38.8 Petersburg, AK 18.7 1.1 40.0 Akutan, AK 18.5 1.1 41.2 Key West, FL 18.3 1.1 42.4 Golden Meadow-Leeville, LA 17.8 1.1 45.5 Eureka, CA 16.6 1.0 44.5 101 35. FISHERIES PORTS (Cont.) TABLE 35b. TOP 20 U.S. FISHERIES PORTS -- 1976-1978 BY WEIGHT OF CATCH. Millions of Percentage of Pounds Total U.S. Cumulative Port (3 year average) Catch Weight Percent San Pedro, CA 494.4 8.9 8.9 Cameron, LA 432.7 7.8 16.7 Pascagoula-Moss Pt., MS 275.2 4.9 21.7 Empire-Venice, LA 232.4 4.2 25.9 Dulac-Chauvin, LA 230.3 4.1 30.1 Kodiak, AK 169.5 3.0 33.2 Gloucester, MA 160.1 2.9 36.1 San Diego, CA 131.0 2.3 38.4 Dutch Harbor, AK 105.8 1.9 40.3 Beaufort-Morehead City, NC 96.1 1.7 42.1 New Bedford, MA 70.7 1.2 43.4 Pt. Judith, RI 55.32 1.0 44.4 Ketchikan, AK 55.21 1.0 45.4 Biloxi, MS 47.6 0.8 46.2 Cape May-Wildwood, NJ 45.1 0.8 47.0 Eureka, CA 42.8 0.7 47.8 Rockland, ME 40.12 0.7 48.5 Bellingham, WA 35.5 0.6 49.2 Portland, ME 34.5 0.6 49.8 Astoria, OR 34.2 0.6 50.4 1 Based on 1977 and 1978 2 Based on 1978 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. Fisheries of the United States, Annual Reports for the Years 1978 through 1976. NMFS Current Fisheries Statistics 7800, 7500, 7200. 102 36. COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Not only does the commercial fisheries catch vary between states, but so does the catch per fisherman. New York has the lowest weight of catch per fisherman, while Mississippi has the highest weight of catch per fisher- man; 39 times that of a New York fisherman. The range in value of catch per fisherman is also broad. A Texas fisherman lands a catch worth 6.8 times that of a Maryland fisherman. In order to determine catch per fisherman, we combined full and part- time fisherman by counting each part-time fisherman as one-half of a full- time fisherman. A full-time fisherman is defined as someone who receives more than half his annual income from fishing. Part-time fisherman receive less than half their annual income from fishing. It was not possible to make this distinction for California, or most other Pacific fishermen. Table 36. COMMERCIAL CATCH PER FISHERMAN -- 1974. Weight of Value of Thousands Thousands Catch Catch of Pounds of Dollars Full Part (Thousands (Thousands) Per Per Time Time of Pounds) of Dollars) Fisherman Fisherman Maine 6,863 11,330 138,352 48,499 11.04 3.87 New Hampshire 98 406 3,146 1,277 10.45 4.24 Massachusetts 4,420 4,812 273,753 82,873 40.10 12.14 Rhode Island 1,505 1,687 79,483 18,899 33.84 8.05 Connecticut 392 722 3,629 2,584 4.82 3.43 New York 3,176 9,385 37,422 28,263 4.76 3.59 New Jersey 1,947 1,134 143,582 19,812 57.11 7.88 Delaware 205 349 7,055 1,717 18.59 4.52 Maryland 4,459 11,774 64,317 22,898 6.22 2.21 Virginia 4,556 3,530 444,827 33,076 70.37 5.23 North 2,832 1,908 238,301 20,000 62.94 5.28 Carolina South 1,304 467 20,079 13,117 13.06 8.53 Carolina Georgia 1,304 459 17,750 11,947 11.57 7.79 Florida 2,168 642 56,943 18,512 22.88 7.44 (Atlantic) Florida 6,699 1,793 115,836 56,531 15.25 7.44 (Gulf) Alabama 1,615 180 31,564 21,016 18.51 12.33 Mississippi 1,442 406 305,758 14,347 185.87 8.72 Louisiana 9,101 2,247 1,114,898 86,028 109.04 8.41 Texas 5,945 520 85,980 92,659 13.86 14.93 California 16,681 --- 874,978 134,737 52.45 8.08 Oregon 4,486 18 86,229 26,015 19.18 5.79 Washington 10,505 339 146,021 61,581 13.68 5.77 TOTAL 91,703 54,108 Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. Fisheries Statistics of the United States 1974. Statistical Digest No. 6700. 103 37. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES Many people participate in the recreational fishery, and much of their catch is at some point in its life cycle estuarine dwelling. These tables give characteristics of the recreational catch for selected estuarine species. Sea trout were landed in largest numbers of any of these species in 1960, 1965, and again in 1970. Croaker, and flatfishes also comprise a large proportion of estuarine species landed. The data were collected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, a part of the Department of Commerce). No study was made of the 1975 fishery, but studies are forthcoming for the 1979 and 1980 fisheries. An individual is counted as an angler for each species that he or she catches. For this reason, addition of the total number of anglers is not a meaningful statistic. The data for participants in the recreational fishery is given under the Recreational heading (Section 9). Table 37a. ESTUARINE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES -- NUMBER OF FISH BY YEAR. 1970 1965 1960 (THOUSANDS OF FISH) Bluefish 36,458 30,525 23,814 Catfish 56,265 41,739 32,695 Croaker 66,016 51,134 45,577 Black Drum 14,710 5,676 9,577 Red Drum 18,164 11,195 15,277 American Eel 3,111 4,118 2,079 Flatfish* 52,078 48,432 44,895 Mullet 4,283 18,448 19,240 Chinook Salmon 912 856 468 Coho Salmon 1,447 1,384 364 Sea Trout 96,825 87,615 83,836 Striped Bass 16,268 18,251 12,402 Steel head 724 427 675 TOTAL 367,261 319,800 290,899 104 37. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES (Cont.) 37d. ESTUARINE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES -- NUMBER OF FISH PER ANGLER. 1970 1965 1960 Bluefish 25.3 32.0 26.5 Catfish 43.3 61.5 40.7 Croaker 48.1 42.6 48.8 Black Drum 30.8 17.8 20.6 Red Drum 21.0 14.4 23.9 American Eel 8.6 12.6 13.1 Flatfish* 20.4 22.3 22.8 Mullet 60.3 71.5 209.1 Chinook Salmon 4.2 4.6 3.7 Coho Salmon 4.5 4.5 2.7 Sea Trout 53.6 61.9 66.1 Striped Bass 17.2 21.1 18.1 Steelhead 6.2 11.2 10.2 * The flatfish category includes winter and summer flounder, but excludes Pacific flatfishes. Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. The 1970 Saltwater Angling Survey. Current Fisheries Statistics b20U; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 1968. The 1965 Salt-water Angling Survey. Resource Publication 67; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The 1960 Salt-Water Angling Survey. Circular 153. 106 38. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES The 1970 recreational catch yielded 1.58 billion pounds of fishes. The commercial catch for 1970 was 4.9 billion pounds. Thus, recreational fisheries accounted for 24% of the total catch in 1970. The highest pro- portion of the recreational catch was landed in the South Atlantic Region. Within any given region, about 15 species or species groups will account for 957 of the fish caught (the 1970 survey lists 79 species or species groups in all). In a given region the most common fish landed typically accounts for 20% of the catch. In total, the Spotted Seatrout, the Croaker, and Catfishes were the three most commonly caught species. Table 38. LEADING SPECIES IN THE 1970 RECREATIONAL FISH CATCH (BY NUMBER OF FISH CAUGHT) BY REGION. New Jersey to Cape Hatteras, Maine through New York North Carolina % Cumulative % % Cumulative % Atlantic Mackerels 29 29 Spot 20 20 Winter Flounders 18 47 Puffers 16 36 Puffers 9 57 Atlantic Mackerels 11 47 Bluefish 9 66 Perches 9 56 Summer Flounders 7 73 Bluefish 7 63 Striped bass 4 77 Striped Bass 6 69 Tautog 4 80 Weakfish 6 75 Cods 3 83 Winter Flounders 4 79 Porgies 2 86 Searobins 4 83 Searobins 2 88 Croakers 3 85 Kingfishes 2 91 Summer Flounders 2 88 Conner 2 93 Black sea basses 2 90 American Eel 2 95 Yellow Perch 2 92 TOTAL Number Caught 117,014,000 Miscellaneous 2 94 TOTAL Pounds Caught 267,451,000 Catfishes 1 95 (17% of Total) TOTAL Number Caught 168,209,000 TOTAL Weight Caught 246,267,000 (16% of Total) 107 38. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES (Cont.) Table 38. LEADING SPECIES IN THE 1970 RECREATIONAL FISH CATCH (BY NUMBER OF FISH CAUGHT) BY REGION (cont.). Cape Hatteras, North Carolina Florida Keys through Mississippi through Florida Keys River Delta % Cumulative % % Cumulative Grunts 12 12 Croakers 19 19 Porgies 9 21 Spotted Seatrout 15 34 Kingfishes 8 29 Catfishes 14 49 Spotted Seatrout 8 36 Sand Seatrout 12 60 Bluefish 7 43 Porgies 7 67 Spot 7 50 Kingfishes 6 74 Catfishes 6 56 Grunts 5 78 Yellowtail Snapper 6 62 Red Drum 4 82 Puffers 5 67 Summer Flounders 2 84 Croakers 5 72 Black Drum 2 87 Jacks 4 75 Mullets 2 89 Black Seabasses 4 79 Red Snapper 2 90 Black Drum 3 82 Groupers 2 92 Spanish Mackerels 3 85 King Mackerel 1 94 Red Drum 3 88 Spanish Mackerels 1 95 Groupers 2 90 TOTAL Number Caught 188,888,000 King Mackerel 2 92 TOTAL Pounds Caught 334,120,000 Summer Flounders 2 94 (21% of Total) Snook 1 95 TOTAL Number Caught 184,177,000 TOTAL Pounds Caught 403,913,000 (26% of Total) Mississippi River Delta through Mexico through Pt. Concepcion, Mexico California % Cumulative % % Cumulative Spotted Seatrout 25 25 Pacific Basses 19 19 Catfishes 16 41 Surfperches 18 37 Croakers 14 55 Bonitos 11 48 Grunts 12 67 Rockfishes 9 58 Sand Seatrout 8 75 California corbina 8 65 Red Drum 6 81 Croakers 7 72 Black Drum 5 87 California halibut 7 79 Kingfishes 3 90 Barracudas 5 83 Summer Flounders 2 92 Miscellaneous 3 86 Porgies 2 94 Sculpins and cabezon 2 88 Snappers 1 95 Tunas 2 91 TOTAL Number Caught 97,708,000 California yellowtail 2 92 TOTAL Pounds Caught 151,608,000 Jack mackerel 2 94 (10% of Total) Pacific flatfishes 1 95 TOTAL Number Caught 37,221,000 TOTAL Weight Caught 94,234,000 (6% of Total) 108 38. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES (Cont.) Table 38. LEADING SPECIES IN THE RECREATIONAL FISH CATCH (BY NUMBER OF FISH CAUGHT) BY REGION (cont.). Pt. Concepcion through Alaska (excluding Canada) % Cumulative % Smelts 18 18 Rockfishes 12 30 Pacific Flatfishes 9 39 Striped Bass 8 47 Sculpins and Cabezon 8 55 Surfperches 7 62 Miscellaneous 7 69 Coho Salmon 6 75 Cutthroat Trout 5 80 Chinook Salmon 4 83 Ling Cod 3 86 Steelhead 3 89 Cods 2 92 Sablefish 2 94 Croakers 1 95 TOTAL Number Caught 24,100,000 TOTAL Pounds Caught 79,230,000 (5% of Total) Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS. 1970 Salt-Water Angling Survey. Current Fisheries Statistics 6200. 109 * 39. COLONIAL BIRDS Herons were almost hunted to extinction early in this century for their feathers. They reestablished themselves, but are again in decline. This most recent decline may be due to loss of wetlands habitat (Source same as table). Herons live in colonies as do a number of other species. Associated with these colonies are a number of other species. (The birds belonging to each of ths-rop r given in the footnote to this table.) Thenumersof colonies listed here are a conservative count of coastal or near coastal colonies. They are thought to include all large colonies (more than 250 nests) and most medium colonies (50 to 250 nests). Many small colonies were found, but many were missed. Of course, many other species of birds dwell in coastal habitats, or U ~can otherwise be found at the coast. Many bird guides list coastal species, and the Audubon Society Christmas counts (published annually in the July issue of American Birds) census some bird populations at specific coastal locations. Table 39. COASTAL COLONIES OF HERONS AND THEIR ALLIES.' I ~State Number of Coastal Colonies Maine 20 New Hampshire - Massachusetts 14 I ~Rhode Island 3 Connecticut I New York 21 New Jersey 18 U ~Del aware 2 Maryl and 29 Virginia 35 I ~North Carolina 38 South Carolina 23 Georgia ,28 I ~Florida (Atlantic Coast and Keys) 73 Alabama 2 Mississippi 12 Louisiana 146 I ~Texas 120 110 39. COLONIAL BIRDS (Cont.) 1 Species of herons and allies Associated colonial and noncolonial included in census of Atlantic species found breeding in Atlantic Coast Colonies. Coast heron colonies. Great blue heron**,* Brown pelican*,** Great white heron Double-crested cormorant Green heron Anhinga*,** Little blue heron**,* Least bittern Cattle egret*,** Scarlet ibisa Reddish egret**,* Common eider Great egret**,* Bald eagle Snowy egret**,* Osprey Louisiana heron*,** American oystercatcher** Black-crowned night heron*,** Great black-backed gull Yellow-crowned night heron*,** Herring gull Wood Stork Laughing gull*,** Glossy ibis** Gull-billed tern*,** White ibis*,** Forster's tern*,** Roseate Spoonbill**,* Common tern** White faced ibis*,** Least tern*,** Royal tern*,** Note: Only those species above Sandwich tern*,** the line are listed in Black skimmer*,** the Atlantic Coast Census White Pelican* Olivaceous cormorant*,** * Listed in the Texas Colonial Sooty tern*,** Waterbird Census. Caspian tern*,** ** Listed in the Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama asingle record and not considered survey. a regular nester. 2 Only Mobile County. Source: R.G. Osborn and T.W. Custer. 1978. Herons and Their Allies: Atlas of Atlantic Colonies, 1975 and 1976. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services. 211 pp.; Gene W. Blaclock et al. 1978. Texas Colonial Waterbird Census, 1973-1976. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, FA Report Series No. 15; J.W. Portnoy. 1977. Nesting colonies of seabirds and wading birds--coastal Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services. FWS/OBS-77/07. 126 pp. 39. COLONIAL BIRDS (Cont.) COMMON EGRET in flight. (Photo by Mark Hooper). 112 39. COLONIAL BIRDS (Cont.) BABY HERONS in the nest. (Photo by Irving Hooper). 113 * 40. ENDANGERED SPECIES Aspecies is the collection of populations of interbreeding, or poten- tially interbreeding organisms. Throughout time, species have evolved, and gone extinct for a great number of reasons. In some cases, man has acceler- E ~ated this process of extinction by hunting, environmental contamination or other habitat alteration. The Endangered Species Act was passed in December 1973 in order to minimize man's extinction of species. Under the Act protec- E ~tion is afforded to plants, mammals, fishes, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates (except for certain pest insects). It classifies species close to extinction as either endangered or threatened, and prescribes acts to pro- mote their conservation. %An endangered species is defined in the act as "any I ~species [or subspecies] which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant part of its range." A threatened species is "any species [or sub- species] which is likely to become an endangered species within the forseeable future throughout all or a significant part of its range." The decision to place a species into one of these classifications rests primarily with the Department of Interior (although some species are under the jurisdiction of the Commerce Department) in consultation with the states, other federal agen- U ~cies, and interested persons or organizations. These species are listed in the Federal Register. The species given here are or were found in coastal counties. This 3 ~list was provided by Dr. John Nagy and Mr. Charles E. Calef of the Brookhaven National Laboratory. He used a county list very similar to ours. The species in this table are only those actually listed (as opposed to proposed or can- didate species) as of January 1, 1980. The following notation is used in this table: I ~~E Endangered T Threatened B Either E or T depending on location I ~ ~~E* Extirpated from c-oastal counties. 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~114 40. ENDANGERED SPECIES (Cont.) ALLIGATORS ARE AN ENDANGERED SPECIES, They lay one clutch of eggs per year which incubate for 90 days. This 7.5 foot long mother alligator is opening her nest. She has about 27 eggs inside and will carry roughly one-third 'of the hatchlings to the water in her mouth. The rest will make it on their own. Hunting has reduced alligators to their endangered status. (Okeefenokee National Wildlife Refuge in Georgia) (Photo by Eugene Meyers). Table 40. ENDANGERED SPECIES. o ME NH MA RI CT NY NJ DE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA MAMMALS m z 1) Myotls sodalis E E E E E 0 Bat, Indiana z 2) irsus arctos horribilis T* T* T* G0 Bear, Grizzly m M 3) Felis concolor couguar E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* M Cougar, Eastern U) 4) Odocoileus virginianus clavium E U Deer, Key (O m 5) Odocoileus virginianus leucurus E E Cn Deer, White-tailed, Columbian 6) Vulpes macrotis mutica E 0 Fox, Kit, San Joaquin 7) Panthera onca E* E* Jaguar CN 8) Fells yagouaroundi cacomitli E Jaguarundi 9) Trichechus manatus E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* Manatee, West Indian (Florida) 10) Fells wiedil E* Margay 11) Relthrodontomy; raviventris E Mouse, Harvert, Salt Marsh MAMMALS (Cont.) ME Nit MA RI CT NY NJ DiE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA 12) Fells pardalls E* E m Ocelot Z 13) Enhydra lutris nereis T T T > Otter, Sea, Southern G m 14) Fells concolor coryl E* E* E E E E Panther, Florida rn 15) Dipodomys heermanni morroensis E C Rat, Kangaroo M~orro Bay - m 16) Monachus tropicalls Em Seal, Monk, Caribbean (West Indian) 17) Sciurus niger cinereus E* E E Squirrel'. Fox, Delmarva Peninsula 18) Balaenoptera musculus E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Blue 19) Balaenoptera physalus E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Finback 20) Eschrichtius gibbosus E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E E E Whale, Gray 21) Megaptera novaeangllae E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Humpback 22) Eubalaena spp. E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Right 23) Balaenoptera borealis E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Sei 24) Physeter catodon E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Whale, Sperm MAMrIALS (Cont.) ME Nil MA RI CT NY NJ DE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA - 25) Canis lUPUS.E E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* mn Wolf, GrayZ 26) Canis rufus E*E *E*E *E Wolf, Red GZ BIRDSm 1) Gymnogyps californianus E E* 0 Condor, California 2) Grus canadensis pulla E Crane, Sandhill, MissIssippi 0n 3) Grus americana E* E CO Crane, Whooping 4) Numenius borealis E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* Curlew, Eskimo c 5) maliaeetus leucocephalus E E E E E *E E E E E E E E E E E E E E T T co ~~Eagle, Bald 6) Falco peregrinus anatum E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E E E E Falcon, Peregrine, American 7) Falco peregrlnus tundrius E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E Falcon, Peregrine, Artic 8) Branta canadensis leucoparela E E Goose, Canad-, Aleutian 9) Rostrhamus sociabilis plunmbeus E Kite, Florida Everglade (Snail Hawk) m - - - - - - - - - - - - - I BIRDS (Cont.) ME 'NH MA RI CT NY NJ DE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA o 10) Pelecanus occidentalis E* E E E E E E E E E E E m Pelican, Brown Z 11) Tympanuchus cupido attwaterl E* E > Prairie chicken, Greater, Attwater's Z m 12) Rallus longirostris obsoletus E :D Rail, Clapper, California m 13) Rallus longirostris levipes E O) Rail, Clapper, Light-Footed -m m 14) Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi E 0 Shrike, Loggerhead, San Clemente m Cn 15) Ammospiza maritima mirabilis E Sparrow, Cape Sable 16) Amphispiza belli clementae T Sparrow, Sage, San Clemente 17) Ammospiza maritima nigrescens E Sparrow, Seaside, Dusky 18) Melospiza melodia graminea E* Sparrow, Song, Santa Barbara 19) Sterna albifrons browni E Tern, Least, California 20) Vermivora bachr.dnii E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* Warbler Bachman's 21) Campephilus principalis E* E* E* E* E* E* E* E* Woodpecker, Ivory-Billed B1IRDS (Cont.) M AN CG LA SL XC RW ME NU MA RI CT NY NJ DE M AN CG LA SL XC RW 22) Picoides (Dendrocopus) borealis E E E E E E E E E Em Woodpecker, Red-CockadedZ PLANTS Z G) 1) Arabis macdonaldiana E m Rockcress, Mc Donald's a m 2) Erysimum capitatum var. angustatum E' 0 Wallflower, Coftra Costa U -u 3) Echinocereus reichenbachii var. albertii E m Cactus, Black Lace m 4) Dudleya traskiae E Cn Liveforever, Santa Barbara Island ) 0- 5).Arctostaphylos hookeri ssp. ravenii E : Manzanita, Raven's (Presidio) 6) Rhododendron chapmanii (minus var. chapmanii) E Rhododendron, Chapman 7) Lotus scoparius ssp. traskiae E Broom, San Clemente 8) Pogogyne abramsll E Pogogyne, San Diego 9) Harperocallis flava E Harper's Beauty 10) Malacothamnus clementinus E Bushmallow, San Clemente Island PLANTS (Cont.) ME NH MA RI CT NY NJ BE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA 11) Oenothera deltoides ssp. howellil E mn Evening-Primrose, Antioch Dunes o 12) Orcuttia mucronata E Z Grass, Orcutt. Cramptan's G mn 13) Delphinium kink lense E 3 Larkspur, San Clemente Island M 14) Castilleja grisea (hololeuca ssp. grlsea) E c) Indian Paintbrush, San Clemente Island 15) Cordylanthus nmaritimus ssp. maritimus E E* C Bird's-Beak, Salt Marsh mn REPTILES C) 1) Alligator mississippiensis E B T T E E T B Alligator, American 2) Crocodylus acutus E -~~~ Crocodile, American 3) Crotaphytus silus E Lizard, Leopard, Blunt-nosed 4) Klauberina riversiana T Lizard, Night, Island 5) Thamnnophis sirtalis tetrataenia E Snake, Garte.-, San Francisco 6) Drymarchon corals couperi T* T T T* T* Snake, Indigo, Eastern -~~~m -w VW -~-- REPTILES (Cant.) ME NH MLA RI CT NY NJ DC MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA 7) Nerodia (Natrix) fasciata taeniata -T m Snake, Water-, Salt Marsh, Atlantic o 8) CheloniamyWas T T T T T T T T T T T T T E T T T T T T Tz Tuttle, Sea, Green G) m 9) Eretmochelys imbricata E E E E E E E E E E E E E E -E E E E E E E :U Turtle, Sea, Ilawksbill M 1O) Dermochelys coriacea E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E C,) Turtle, Sea, Leatherback - 0n 11) Caretta caretta T T- T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T Tm Turtle, Sea, Loggerhead c 12) Lepidochelys kemipii E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E C Turtle, Sea, Ridley, Kemp's (Atlantic)0 13) Lepidochelys olivacea T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T Turtle, Sea, Ridley, Olive (Pacific) rQ ~~~ INSECTS 1) Shijimiaeoides battoides allyni E Butterfly, Blue, El Segundo 2) Lycaeides argyrognomon lotis E Butterfly, Blue, Lotis 3) Icaricia icario~des missionensis E Butterfly, Blie, Mission 4) Pseudophilotes enaptes smithi E Butterfly, Blue, Smith's INSECTS (Cont.) o ME Nl MA RI CT NY NJ DE MD VA NC SC GA FL Al. MS LA TX CA OR WA m 5) Callophrys mossii bayensis E Butterfly, Elfin, San Bruno > Z 6) Apodemia mormo langei E G) Butterfly, Metalmark, Lange's m 7) Papilio andraemon bonhotei T m Butterfly, Swallowtail, Bahama C) 8) Papilio aristodemus ponceanus T Butterfly, Swallowtail, Schaus' ) FISH m 1) Etheostoma sellare E Darter, Maryland o 2) Etheostoma okaloosae Darter, Okaloosa 3) Gasterosterus aculeatus williamsonii E Stickleback, Threespine, Unarmored 4) Acipenser brevirostrum E E E E E E E E E E E E E .E Sturgeon, Shortnose AMPHIBIANS 1) Hyla andersonil E Frog, Tree-, Pine Barrens, (Florida population) 2) Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum E Salamander, Long-Toed, Santa Cruz AMPHIBIANS (Cont.) ME NHl MA RI CT NY NJ DE MD VA NC SC GA FL AL MS LA TX CA OR WA z 3) Bufo houstonensis E Toad, Houston Z SNAILS m :I3 1) Orthalicus reses E m Snail, Tree, Stock Island C -U CLAMS m 0 NO LISTED SPECIES FOR COASTAL COUNTIES OF CONTERMINOUS U.S. m C) CRUSTACEANS 0 NO LISTED SPECIES FOR COASTAL COUNTIES OF CONTERMINOUS U.S. OTHERS NO LISTED SPECIES FOR COASTAL COUNTIES OF CONTERMINOUS U.S. VIII NATURAL AREAS Coastal county nonmetropolitan population growth outstripped other population growth between 1960 and 1976 (see the tables and figures in Section II). Population growth in these areas places demands on the development of the more natural areas of the coast. These natural areas provide not only for the preservation of wildlife, but also for recreational opportunities for millions of people. In this section, we show the results of federal efforts, as well as the efforts of two private groups to conserve natural areas in the coast. Although the amounts preserved seem large--4.6 million acres of federal coastal pro- perty, and nearly 200,000 acres of private conservancy property--these acres are less than 4% of the total area of the coastal counties. 125 41. NATIONAL PARKS The enabling legislation of the National Park System (1916) establishes the purpose of the service "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for future generations." Of the 321 units in the National Park System, 41 are on the Atlantic Gulf and Pacific Coasts of the contiguous 48 states. These areas occupy over 3.4 million acres and were visited by over 65 million people in 1978. The recent trend shows an annual increase in visitation of 6.5% annually. The gasoline shortage of 1979 led to a decrease in visits to the National Park system of 7.6%. The trend through 1978 had suggested that coastal park visitation would double in the next 11 years, but future increases are depend- ent on the availability of gasoline. Even with reduced energy use, the coastal parks will remain a public recreation resource of major significance. The acronyms describing each park type are given in full name in Table 41c. Table 41a. COASTAL NATIONAL PARKS, ACREAGE AND VISITATION. 1978 Visitors Average Annual % Acres (in thousands) Increase 1970-1978 Acadia NP, ME 38,631 3,130.0 1.4 Assateague Island NS, MD-VA 39,631 2,135.9 2.9 Biscayne NM, FL 103,642 177.4 9.3 9 Boston NHP, MA --- 2,749.0 -- Cabrillo NM, CA 144 1,338.2 0.8 Canaveral NS, FL 57,627 882.6 9.4 Cape Cod NS, MA 44,596 5,025.9 2.6 Cape Hatteras, NS, NC 30,319 2,043.3 5.0 Cape Lookout NS, NC 28,400 54.3 16.4 Castillo De San Marcos NM, FL 20 774.6 4.2 Channel Islands NP, CA 124,740 56.1 5.4 Colonial NHP, VA 9,462 10,804.2 2.45 Cumberland Island NS, GA 36,978 36.4 25.6 De Soto NMe, FL 30 142.2 0.7 Everglades NP, FL 1,398,800 1,136.1 -1.5 Fire Island NS, NY 19,579 637.1 3.9 Ft. Caroline NMe, FL 139 168.0 6.8 Ft. Clatsop NMe, OR 130 88.7 -3.8 Ft. Frederica NM, GA 214 42.0 5.4 Ft. Jefferson NM, FL 47,125 18.7 3.9 Ft. Matanzas NM, FL 299 293.5 4.3 Ft. McHenry NM, MD 43 527.8 -1.0 Ft. Point NHS, CA 29 806.0 6.1 Ft. Pulaski NM, GA 5,615 348.9 3.9 126 41. NATIONAL PARKS (Cont.) Table 41a. COASTAL NATIONAL PARKS, ACREAGE AND VISITATION (cont.) 1978 Visitors Average Annual % Acres (in thousands) Increase 1970-1978 Ft. Raleigh NHS, NC 157 349.2 2.2 Ft. Sumter NM, SC 64 204.9 1.7 Gateway NRA, NY-NJ 26,172 9,017.5 3.44 Golden Gate NRA, CA 38,677 8,960.9 23.03 Gulf Islands NS, FL-MS 139,775 3,971.6 15.22 Jean Lafitte NHP, LA 20,000 304.5 1.7 Mar-A-Lago NHS, FL 17 --- 7 -- 7 Olympic NP, WA 908,781 2,996.6 3.0 Padre Island NS, TX 133,918 867.0 2.1 Point Reyes NS, CA 67,265 1,945.8 5.5 Redwood NP, CA 109,028 513.4 8.6 St. Croix Island NM, Me 35 --- 2 Sagamore Hill NHS, NY 78 187.3 2.7 Salem Maritime NHS, MA 9 300.2 .5 San Juan Island NHP, WA 1,752 76.4 9.5 Statue of Liberty NM, NY-NJ 58 1,507.9 3.3 Wright Brothers NM,NC 431 483.5 -.2 Table 41b. COASTAL NATIONAL PARKS SIZE AND VISITS BY REGION. Visitors Average Annual % # Areas Acreage (in thousands) Increase 1970-1978 Atlantic 26 442,216 41,881.4 3.0 Gulf 6 1,739,648 6,440.1 9.5 Pacific 9 .1,250,546 16,782.1 14.1 All 41 3,432,410 65,103.6 6.7 1 first data 1972 2 first data 1973 3 first data 1974 4 first data 1975 5 first data 1976 6 first data 1977 7 not open to public 8 no Federal facilities 9 first data 1978 127 41 NATIONAL PARKS (Cont.) Table 41c. COASTAL NATIONAL PARKS -- SIZE AND VISITS BY CLASS OF PARK. Visitor in Average Annual % # Areas Acreage (thousands) Increase 1970-1978 National Park (NP) 5 2,579,980 7,832.2 2.1 National Seashore (NS) 10 598,088 17,599.9 6.5 National Monument (NM) 12 157,690 5,717.4 2.4 National Historic 4 22,214 13,934.1 2.4 Park (NHP) National Memorial (NMe) 3 299 398.9 2.3 National Recreation 2 64,849 17,978.4 13.2 Area (NRA) National Historic Site 5 290 1,642.7 3.9 (NHS) Source adapted from: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 1971, 1973, 1975, 1976. Public Use of the National Parks, annual report; 1978. National Park Statistical Abstract. 42. NATIONAL, WILDLIFE REFUGES The National Wildlife Refuge System was established in 1965.1 Wildlife Refuges are the product of legislation which consolidated the authority of the Department of the Interior to administer lands for the conservation of fish and wildlife, including habitats of threatened or endangered species. As of 1978 over 100 refuges containing over 1 million acres have been ac- quired for this purpose in the coastal area. Florida, with 17, has the most coastal refuges. These refuges, in addition to providing sanctuary for wildlife, serve as parks. There were over 13 million visits to coastal refuges in 1978. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. 1972. A Compilation of Federal Laws relating to Conservation and Develop- ment of our Nation s Fish and Wildlife Resources, Environmental Quality, and Oceanography. pp. 36-37. 128 42. NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES .(Cont.) Table 42a. NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES -- ACQUISITION COSTS AND ACREAGE BY STATE. Total Number of Acquisition Costs Area of Number of Coastal of Coastal Refuges Coastal Refuges State Refuges Refuges (in thousands) (in acres) Maine 6 6 1,118 26,661 New Hampshire 1 0 ... Massachusetts 7 6 889 10,783 Rhode Island 4 4 0 543 Connecticut 1 2 183 New York 9 7 178 5,681 New Jersey 4 4 9,528 35,430 Delaware 2 2 3,891 24,062 Maryland 5 4 3,171 21,391 Virginia 8 5 260 23,695 North Carolina 8 5 839 90,304 South Carolina 5 3 893 53,371 Georgia 8 6 824 35,100 Florida 21 17 10,237 277,033 Alabama 4 0 --- -- Mississippi 6 1 7,335 8,814 Louisiana 7 5 285 232,478 Texas 11 6 10,158 164,317 California 21 6 4,613 17,009 Oregon 16 4 469 8,836 Washington 16 9 4,019 16,219 TOTAL 170 101 58,707 1,051,910 Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Annual Report of Lands under control of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as of September 30, 1978. 129 42, NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES (Cont.) Table 42b. NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES -- VISITS BY STATE. Visits for Consumptive Total No. Refuges No. Coastal State Wildlife Recreation' Visits Reporting Refuges Maine 4,537 33,775 2 6 New Hampshire --- - - 0 0 Massachusetts 105,612 1,280,362 4 6 Rhode Island 6,591 47,121 4 4 Connecticut 0 400 1 1 New York 13 5,421 1 7 New Jersey 25,806 322,358 2 4 Delaware 6,997 87,965 2 2 Maryland 12,222 145,646 2 4 Virginia 489,626 1,767,765 3 5 North Carolina 187,533 1,532,741 4 5 South Carolina 12,661 53,496 1 3 Georgia 30,431 58,016 6 6 Florida 714,194 7,078,804 10 17 Alabama --- ---0 0 Mississippi ---- 0 1 Louisiana 53,704 67,830 4 5 Texas 62,281 652,458 5 6 California 0 1,346 3 6 Oregon 3,300 12,772 3 4 Washington 36,633 629,536 6 9 TOTAL 1,913,141 13,777,812 62 101 Table 42c. NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES -- VISITS BY REGION Visits for Consumptive Total No. Refuges No. Coastal Region Wildlife Recreation Visits Reporting Refuges Maine to Virginia 651,404 3,690,813 21 39 North Carolina to Texas 1,060,804 9,443,345 30 43 Pacific 39,933 643,654 11 19 1 includes hunting, fishing, clamming, crabbing, and other Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. National Wildlife Refuge--Public Use Report--Visits--FY '78. 130 42d. ENDANGERED SPECIES The conservation of species threatened with extinction is a primary golof the National Wildlife Refuge System. This table displays the states wihhave a coastal refuge reporting the occurence of a given endangered species. In contrast, table 40 gives the state-by-state breakdown of en- I ~dangered species in the coastal counties. Because the National Wildlife Refuge list of endangered species is not an exhaustive list of species actually on the refuges, the comparison of the lists shows the absence of I ~many endangered species that occur in coastal counties from the coastal National Wildlife Refuges. Additionally, some of these species may not U ~occur within a coastal National Wildlife Refuge. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 42d. ENDANGERED SPECIES (Cont.) Table 42d. ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES REPORTED ON NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES. States with the Species on a Species Coastal National Wildlife Refuge American Alligator (T-Threatened) GA, FL, LA, TX American Alligator NC, SC American Crocodile FL Atlantic Ridley Turtle MA, GA, FL Attwaters Greater Prairie Chicken TX Bald Eagle (T) OR, WA Bald Eagle ME, MA, RI, NJ, DE, MD, VA, NC, SC, GA, FL, TX, CA California Brown Pelican CA, OR, WA California Least Tern CA Columbian White-tailed Deer OR, WA Delmarva Peninsula Fox Squirrel MD, VA Dusky Seaside Sparrow FL, Eastern Brown Pelican NC, SC, GA, FL, TX Eastern Indigo Snake (T) FL Everglade Kite FL Florida Manatee FL Florida Panther FL Green Sea Turtle (T) FL IHawksbill Turtle FL Humpback Whale CA Jaguarundi TX Key Deer FL Leatherback Sea Turtle MA, FL Light-footed Clapper Rail CA Loggerhead Sea Turtle (T) MD, VA, NC, SC, GA, FL Mississippi Sandhill Crane MS Ocel ot TX Peregrine Falcon ME, MA, NJ, DE, VA, NC, GA, FL, LA, TX, CA, OR, WA Red-cockaded Woodpecker MD, VA, NC, GA, FL Red Wolf LA, TX Santa Cruz Long-Toed Salamander CA Whooping Crane TX Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Memorandum from the Associate Director, Wildlife Resources, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, June 7, 1979. 132 43. PRIVATE CONSERVANCIES Private groups hold over 100 coastal properties for the purpose of pre- servation. The coastal properties of The Nature Conservancy and the Audubon Society are listed here. The largest single property is The Nature Conser- vancy holding on Santa Cruz Island, California which is 55,000 acres and provides habitat for seven endangered or threatened species. West coast sanctuaries account for seventeen of these sanctuaries while sanctuaries in Maine number thirty four. One of the outstanding properties held by The Nature Conservancy is The Virginia Coastal Reserve. This reserve is 35,000 acres of 13 barrier islands off the eastern shore of Virginia. These islands are shown below. .3VI' THE VIRGINIA COASTAL RESERVE. These 13 barrier islands make up the reserve which is owned by The Nature Conservancy. (from The Nature Conservancy). 133 43. PRIVATE CONSERVANCIES (Cont.) Table 43. PRIVATE CONSERVANCY HOLDINGS -- NUMBERS AND ACREAGE BY STATE. The Nature Conservancy Audubon Society State Number Acres Number Acres Maine 28 2,878 6 906 Connecticut 4 117 1 200 New York 12 432 1 267 Maryland 1 16 1 58 Virginia 2 33,760 -- -- North Carolina 3 7,306 1 3,500 South Carolina 1 23,777 1 250 Florida 12 5,060 6 4,149 Louisiana -- -- 1 26,800 Texas 2 2,383 9 10,617 California 7 61,315 2 2,700 Oregon 3 608 -- -- Washington 5 431 -- -- TOTAL 80 138,083 30 49,553 Total 110 Sanctuaries 187,636 Private Sanctuary Acres Source: The Nature Conservancy, 1800 North Kent Street, Arlington, VA, 22209; The National Audubon Society Sanctuary Director, Miles Wildlife Sanctuary, West Cornwall Road, Sharon, CT, 06069. 134 4.ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES The Estuarine Sanctuaries system operated by the Coastal Zone Management ~~~fi c of The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Department of Commerce) is the only federal program directed exclusively to the nation's estuaries. The five listed below are the only seacoast sanctuaries in the coterminous United States. The authorizing legislation for Estuarine Sanctuaries was passed in October, 1972. The Sanctuaries are established H~~and added to the system for the purpose of providing "living laboratories"~ for scientific research, and public education to be operated by the individual states. Table 44. FEDERAL ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES -- LOCATIONS AND SIZES. 1'2 I ~Name and Location Acreage Sapelo Island 7,400 McIntosh County, Georgia South Slough 4,200 Coos Bay, Coos County, Oregon Rookery Bay 8,500 Collier County, Florida I ~Apalachicola River/Bay 193,000 Franklin County, Florida I ~Elkhorn Slough 1,510 Monterey County, California 1 1 ~Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Estuarine Sanctuary Program 2Additional Federal Estuarine Sanctuaries are located in Hawaii, 3 ~~(5900 acres) and, Ohio (637 acres). 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~135 I ~44 ESTUARINE SANCTUARIES (Cont.) Wol. *%6~m~d Land &a 81 Qeiwj. elm. 411,1 L."l*t U64.. Wooid 0`4I-1 P~odelnw klofy Wa pUped federlAln Ilad GM...-a-f Is, Notnl Eoaino Selagvuo.lyc I Depu-now. of hate'st fieoSurces) La-e# A0916ch-cole Uin, �s.uEnwomnbullj thgooprod Lease "'eklws =3 1u"i~m-lery bmeideieis of preo.md Nausea, )~~~~~~~~~xu'e10ttol(oiina ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C "fonI- Under ftdv "NwAad - e I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' mol siw7 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RKACIT I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o APALACHICOLA BAY ESTUARINE SANCTUARY. This sanctuary is the nation's largest. It occupies over 300 square miles in the Florida panhandle. (from Florida Department of Administration, Division of State Planning, Bureau of Land and Water Management, April, 1977. The Apalachicola River and Bay System: A Florida Resource. ) I ~~~~~~~~~~~~136 JX RECREATION The nation's ocean beaches and waters and its estuaries, sounds and bays comprise an enormous recreational asset. Millions of saltwater fisher- I ~men spend billions of dollars and many days fishing every year. Millions of others swim or boat in the coastal area. The continued ability of these people to enjoy the coast depends upon their ease of access to aesthetically pleasing areas where they can find waters whose quality exceeds certain minimal requirements and which contain a reasonable abundance of desirable fishes. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 45. RECREATIONAL FISHING Twenty-two million fishermen spent 4.5 billion dollars on saltwater recreational fishing in 1975. As can be seen in the accompanying figure, a dramatic increase in these expenditures has occurred since 1955. Tables 45a, b, and c describe participation and economic aspects of recreational fishing (Tables 37 and 38 summarize the catch of these fishermen.) Table 45a. SALTWATER RECREATIONAL FISHING -- PARTICIPATION AND EXPENSES. Number of Number of days Fishermen' Expendituresf of Participation Passenger Miles 1955 4,557,000 488,939,000 58,621,000 2,904,001,000 1960 6,292,000 626,191,000 80,602,000 3,404,945,000 1965 8,305,000 799,656,000 95,837,000 4,138,307,000 1970 9,460,000 1,224,705,000 113,694,000 5,459,276,000 1975b 16,307,000 3,450,358,000 207,212,000 a 1975c 22,687,000 4,508,311,000 260,617,000 a 1975d 25,372,000 240,019,000 Table 45b. SALTWATER RECREATIONAL FISHING -- PER CAPITA ACTIVITY. Expenditures Per Days of Participation Automobile Miles Participant Per Fisherman Per Fisherman 1955 107 12.9 637 1960 100 12.8 541 1965 96 11.5 498 1970 129 12.0 577 1975b 212 12.7 a 975C 199 11.5 a 1975d a 9.5 a I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ FISHING ON BIRD SHOAL, NORTH CAROLINA. (Following Page) This angler is trying his luck on Bird Shoal. This island near Beaufort, North Carolina, was preserved by the efforts of The Nature Conser- vancy in conjunction with the local citizenry. (Photo by Irving Hooper) 138 I 45. RECREATIONAL FISHING (Cont.) I I I~~~~~~~~~~139 I I I I I I I I 139 :YPlg~�xs�TI�l�;�~-- -v 45. RECREATIONAL FISHING (Cont.) Table 45c. SALTWATER RECREATIONAL FISHING -- CONSTANT DOLLAR EXPENDITURES (ADJUSTED TO THE 1972 DOLLAR). Expenditures Expenditures Per Fisherman 1955 801,802,000 175.9 1960 911,884,000 144.9 1965 1,075,963,000 129.6 1970 1,340,526,000 141.7 1975b 2,711,479,000 166.3 1975c 3,542,877,000 156.2 1975d a a The definition of a fisherman varied from year to year. This table outlines those differences. A fisherman Previous to includes 1975 1970 1970 1955 those over: 9 yrs. old 12 yrs. old 12 yrs. old 12 yrs. old participating: 1 dy. or more 3 dys. or more 3 dys. or more 3 dys. or more spending: $0.00 or more $7.50 or more $5.00 or more $5.00 or more fishing in including including including excluding all saltwater Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska states: and Hawaii and Hawaii and Hawaii and Hawaii a not available b excluding sea run fishes c includes sea run fishes d clamming, crabbing and shell collecting e a fisherman had to meet either the participation or spending requirements. f in dollars of the year indicated Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; 1970 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, Resource Publication Number 95, 108 pp; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1975 National Survey of Hunting Fishing and Wildlife Associated Recreation. 98 pp; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 140 45. RECREATIONAL FISHING (Cont.) SALTWATER RECREATIONAL FISHERMEN expenditures I 3500 - Current 3000 - :CO ' constan: (1972) . 2500- O i- AL 2000- 0 O / V) 1500- Z - ,- / 1000- --' 500 - 19'55 19'60 19'65 1970 19'75 YEARS Dramatic increases in fishing expenditures have occurred during the 70's even accounting for inflation. (By Ruth Ann Hill) 141 46. BOATING, SWIMMING, WATER SKIING Swimming represents one of the most popular forms of recreation at the shore. On the average, Americans swam almost five days each at the coast, and the Department of Commerce expects us to spend even more time swimming in the future. Pleasure boating and water skiing are also very popular activities. The figures here describe recreational activity in Bureau of Economic Analysis zones contiguous to the shore rather than at the shore. Since these zones are often large, these figures include some activity in noncoastal areas. Table 46. COASTAL RECREATION -- BOATING, SWIMMING, AND WATER SKIING (DAYS IN THOUSANDS). Water Boating' % In- Swimming2 % In- Skiing % In- Region Days crease3 Days crease Days crease New England ME-CT 5,551 20 35,052 13 2,203 20 Mid-Atlantic NY-DE 10,688 23 71,421 14 4,189 26 South Atlantic MD-FL 12,664 19 42,661 14 6,622 16 Gulf AL-TX 5,539 18 19,371 12 2,962 14 Pacific CA-WA 14,603 21 63,626 16 8,826 13 TOTAL 49,045 21 232,232 14 24,803 17 other than water skiing 2 other than pool swimming 3% increase expected 72-78 Source: Modified from Robert J. Kalter, Recreation Activities in the Nation's Estuarine Zone. In Estuarine Control & Assessment, Volume I. EPA. Report Number 400/1-77-007A March, 1977. Office of Water Planning and Standards, pp. 83-94. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Zones Contiguous to Shore. 142 46. BOATING, SWIMMING, WATER SKIING (Cont.) SUNBATHING represents an immensely popular form of recreation. This is Miami Beach (Photo by Miami Beach Visitor and Convention Authority). 143 1 X. HURRICANES I ~~~Hurricanes are powerful storms with winds exceeding seventy three miles per hour- that lash the coasts and the interior of the United States. In addition to their winds and rains, they may be accompanied by storm surges I ~which can completely wash over low-lying areas. Since Galveston was de- vastated by a hurricane in 1900 which killed 6,000 people, the trend has been toward reports of increased property damage, and decreased loss of life. I ~The two major hurricanes in 1979 caused $2.6 billion in property damage and claimed ten casualties. Hurricane season typically extends from early June through October, with a few storms in November, although one aberrant hurricane struck the coast in February. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 47. HURRICANES Table 47. DAMAGES AND DEATHS FROM MAJOR HURRICANES IN THE UNITED STATES -- 1954-1979. Name of Time Damages Deaths Region Hurricane (Month-Year) (Millions) (Number) of Losses Carol Aug 54 $461 60 Northeast Hazel Oct 54 281 95 Southeast/ Northeast Diane Aug 55 832 184 Northeast Audrey Jun 57 150 390 Gulf Donna Sep 60 387 50 Southeast/ Northeast Carla Sep 61 408 46 Gulf Betsy Sep 65 1,420 75 Southeast! Gulf Beulah Sep 67 200 15 Gulf Camille Aug 69 1,421 256 Gulf/ Northeast Celia Aug 70 453 11 Gulf Agnes Jun 72 2,100 122 Northeast Carmen Sep 74 150 1 Gulf Eloise Sep 75 550 21 Gulf/ Northeast David Sep 79 320 5 Southeast/ Northeast Frederic Sep 79 2,300 5 Gulf Source: Dacy and Kunreuther (1969), The Economics of Natural Disasters, Years 1954-1965; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hurricane Reports, 1966-1978; Platt, R. and McMillan, G. (1978), Paul Hebert, National Hurricane Center, pers. comm. 145 47. HURRICANES (Cont.) a18- 16- 4- 14 Probability of Occurence I In a Glven Year f / Maxlmum 10/ Surge ut of ive Adi nistrat ion accobany hurrice is I sows 100. Floridpaprobabilitment of loc eNce o f oasto e o 46- Texas Louisiana IMIAIr Florida I Ga ISCI NC probability of storm surges of a givenheight at a given location. The Texas-Louisiana border, the southern tip of Florida, and the coast of South Carolina are most likely to have the highest storm surges. The solid lines are based on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and University of Florida probability estimates of annual occurrence of a storm surge on an open beach area; dotted lines based on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration data, probability of occurrence is 1 out of 100. Note: Greater heights are possible in bays and estuaries. Furthermore, about 3 feet should be added to account for wave runups, also, the effect of the astronomical tide must be taken into consideration. (from U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Office of Coastal Zone Management, November 1976. Natural Hazard Management in Coastal Areas) 146 47. HURRICANES (Cont.) 2200 .15500 2000 - DAMAGE DEATHS -5000 I ~~~~~~~~~~(Adjusted' .3 1957-59 base)- loo .450 I ~~~~~~1600 - -4000 Z ,1400 - 30 el, fz ~~~~~~35000. I~~~~~g 1 00-< 25 -000L 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ * * I I S S I a * , ~ , , * , , ,Z I~~~~~~~o 00L U~~~~~~ZU "147~~~~~~~ I~~~~~L 0 503 47. HURRICANES (Cont.) 5 .... 3 A I.. -4-, , r": , �-. z I \ 2- 10 36020 3 1 \ ..,..2 1 2. GRE T HURRICANEI . 6 21 . a hurricane (winds exceeding 73 miles per hour) or great hurricane (winds in exce\ 20 Al se. 32 Zone Management, November 1976. Natural Hazard Management in Coastal Areas) * 148 148 47. HURRICANES (Cont.) HURRICANE BEACHED FREIGHTERS. Hurricane Camille beached these large freighters at Gulfport, Miss. (Photo by U.S. Coast Guard). 149 Xi PORTS Port facilities are vital facilities for export and import. Walk to any major port and see the huge amounts of material going in and ioorfrmVnzea Potalopoiemnjosawelaout--grain from Kansas, coal from West Virginia, oil from Saudi Arabia, commercial link, and so public port authorities oversee some aspects I ~of their development. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for providing and maintaining access to ports. Since there exist considerable economies I ~of scale in shipping (It is less expensive to ship I ton of say coal in a large boat than in a smaller boat) many harbors are being dredged and maintained to greater depths than previously. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 48. PORT EXPENDITURES-PORT AUTHORITIES Port development has been funded by both public and private funds. The public funding is typically through local or state port authorities. These quasi-public agencies receive funding through bonds based on municipal col- lateral, and on collateral based on their own revenue (75%), and from federal, state, and local sources. Their revenue comes from fees charged for port use, I ~and services, as well as rent. The Maritime Administration (part of the Department of Commerce) collects information on public expenditures at 110 ports by survey. These figures indicate that almost five billion dollars have I ~been spent on construction and modernization of pier and wharf facilities in the 33 years preceeding 1979. It is widely believed that private expenditures are equal to or greater than this sum, but specific figures are not available. It is worth noting that the recent trend has been towards the construction of new facilities particularly for bulk and container cargoes rather than towards modernization and rehabilitation of existing facilities. Oil facilities have been privately constructed, and are not reflected here in public expenditures. I ~ ~Nationally, the port of New York has benefited from more public invest- ment than any other port (over 700 million dollars). Baltimore is second nationally. (1946-1978) On the Gulf coast, New Orleans Louisiana leads with I ~over 180 million dollars in port authority expenditures, and Long Beach, California leads on the Pacific Coast with over 230 million spent by its_ I ~port authority. 48. PORT EXPENDITURES--PORT AUTHORITIES(Cont.) Table 48. PORT DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES BY PUBLIC PORT AUTHORITIES (IN THOUSANDS) -- 1946-1978. 1966-19722 1973-19782 1946-1978 3 State Total % % Total X X Total Port Expenditures New MR' Expenditures New MR Expenditures Maine Portland 4,048 0 100 1,047 64 36 9,082 Searsport - - - 35 New Hampshire Portsmouth - - - 2,298 100 - 4,706 Massachusetts Boston 69,930 92 8 8,093 - 100 135,498 Fall River - - - 1,756 33 67 3,139 Rhode Island Providence - - - - - - 4,030 Connecticut New Haven 1,692 72 28 6,700 83 17 17,212 New London 870 0 100 - - - 1,470 New York/New Jersey Port of New 109,516 90 10 110,250 96 4 705,444 York & vicinity Delaware Wilmington 9,168 20 80 25,215 Maryland Baltimore 131,046 92 8 59,715 74 26 274,680 Cambridge - - - - - - 1,190 Virginia Newport News 20,900 73 27 1,483 81 19 48,635 Norfolk - - - 23,675 76 24 108,129 North Carolina Morehead City 19,473 100 *1 10,230 100 0 36,800 Wilmington 17,353 95 5 9,352 82 18 40,613 South Carolina Charleston 9,296 100 0 30,750 91 9 66,497 Georgetown 1,585 100 0 375 100 0 3,460 Port Royal - - - - 1,500 Georgia Brunswick - - - - - - 3,047 Savannah 19,600 100 0 44,279 90 10 94,526 Florida Fort Pierce - - - 69 0 100 1,789 Jacksonville 32,670 63 37 13,730 100 0 54,903 Miami 6,910 100 0 13,015 98 2 26,207 Palm Beach 535 25 75 7,911 93 7 10,870 Panama City 3,139 100 0 - - - 3,889 Pensacola 2,500 100 0 1,641 96 4 11,141 Port Canaveral 1,300 100 0 8,295 100 0 10,825 Tampa 47,557 96 4 36,548 100 * 89,130 152 48. PORT EXPENDITURES-PORT AUTHORITIES(Cont.) Table 48. PORT DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES BY PUBLIC PORT AUTHORITIES (IN THOUSANDS) -- 1946-1978. 1966-19722 1973-19783 1946-19783 State Total % % Total % % Total Port Expenditures New MR Expenditures New MR Expenditures Alabama Mobile 6,301 17 83 55,192 40 60 95,750 Mississippi Gulfport - - - 12,252 100 0 18,452 Pascagoula 10,050 71 29 3,036 0 100 27,111 Louisiana Baton Rouge 3,170 31 69 - - - 46,269 New Orleans 37,304 64 36 51,852 80 20 187,480 Texas Beaumont - - - 11,413 63 37 34,708 Corpus Christi 5,106 76 24 17,106 89 11 61,104 Freeport 1,215 94 6 - - - 6,983 Galveston 19,400 81 19 40,100 90 10 84,174 Houston 14,941 50 50 44,774 93 7 116,953 Port Arthur 13,584 100 *1 2,264 88 12 12,010 Port Isabel - - - - - 33 California Hueneme 6,801 84 16 - - - 6,899 Humbolt Bay - - - - - - 560 Long Beach 41,455 51 49 39,723 49 51 236,197 Los Angeles 33,424 89 11 36,088 86 14 170,436 Redwood City - - - - - - 1,694 San Diego 11,081 100 0 - - - 35,864 San Francisco 32,786 56 44 27,870 50 50 92,510 Ventura - - - - - - 1,398 Oregon Coos Bay - - - 9,000 44 56 9,705 Portland 17,245 95 5 60,600 77 23 105,679 Washington Anacortes 120 100 0 - - - 1,470 Bellingham 3,238 4 96 400 0 100 6,648 Everett 3,883 91 9 6,000 100 0 11,543 Gray's Harbor 9,721 97 3 2,720 100 0 12,823 Olympia 106 0 100 2,247 0 100 3,650 Port Angeles 721 95 5 - - - 1,101 Seattle 66,314 86 14 36,947 54 46 136,876 Tacoma 22,187 96 4 24,000 88 12 53,333 Vancouver - - - - - - 1,105 Sources: * Less than 1%. 'Modernization and Rehabilitation. 2Department of Commerce, Maratime Administration March 1974. North American Port Development Expenditure Survey. 3Department of Commerce, Maratime Administration December 14, 1979. North American Port Development Expenditure Survey (Unpublished Final Draft), provided by Bob Wardwell, MARAD. 153 49. PORT EXPENDITURES-CORPS The Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for maintaining access to the nation's ports. This requires the expenditures of money--approved project by congress--on navigation projects. The figures presented here are the expen- ditures made to September 30, 1978. Paralleling the pattern of expenditures of port authorities, the Port of New York has had the highest construction expense. Along the Gulf coast, Baton Rouge/New Orleans, Louisiana has had the highest construction expense, but on the Pacific Coast, Portland/Vancouver, Oregon and Washington has had the highest construction expense. Table 49. EXPENDITURES OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS -- NAVIGATION PROJECTS. Operation & State Port Construction Maintenance ME Portland 9,588,710 1,915,357 Searsport 572,568 12,912 NH Portsmouth 5,384,043 481,859 MA Boston 25,313,083 6,358,852 Fall River 5,550,091 1,395,947 CT New Haven 4,205,246 6,564,471 New London 622,994 278,034 RI Providence 25,417,022 3,687,995 NY/NJ Port of NY & vicinity 198,761,688 104,964,671 DE/PA Delaware R. 57,879,028 191,964,671 DE Wilmington 1,954,725 16,792,568 MD Baltimore 38,071,275 20,783,208 Cambridge 195,974 53,728 VA Norfolk/Newport News 40,665,225 40,822,404 NC Morehead City 6,527,364 16,842,494 Wilmington 1,840,958 2,575,374 SC Charleston 10,037,813 53,630,099 Georgetown 7,061,755 23,489,069 Port Royal 1,786,100 4,863,540 GA Brunswick 4,235,968 19,842,149 Savannah 42,222,721 82,560,940 FL Fort Pierce 356,056 2,225,915 Jacksonville 47,265,962 29,480,251 Miami 24,412,096 2,115,476 Palm Beach 6,904,021 2,796,616 Panama City 1,638,045 3,760,538 Pensacola 1,469,693 3,555,612 Port Canaveral 7,341,910 11,561,432 Tampa 57,704,688 10,456,731 154 49. PORT EXPENDITURES-CORPS (Cont.) Table 49. EXPENDITURES OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS -- NAVIGATION PROJECTS (cont.) Operation & State Port Construction Maintenance AL Mobile 15,698,837 40,705,964 MS Gulfport 904,775 18,102,275 Pascagoula 6,572,985 13,818,331 LA Baton Rouge/New Orleans 114,222,690 249,534,627 TX Beaumont/Port Arthur 56,136,815 78,394,758 Corpus Christi 38,870,873 37,770,855 Freeport 2,566,959 20,116,667 Galveston 29,096,392 40,734,104 Houston 35,760,382 62,003,392 CA Hueneme 978,426 15,225 Humbolt Bay 9,342,509 27,932,343 Los Angeles/Long Beach 34,896,831 3,176,894 Redwood City 1,672,722 3,452,270 San Francisco 2,091,647 40,046,543 San Diego 26,409,734 1,478,264 Ventura 1,711,539 5,336,584 OR Coos Bay 29,193,673 31,765,842 OR/WA Portland/Vancouver 48,189,597 146,292,913 WA Anacortes 1,047,607 427,886 Bellingham 2,570,683 62,966 Everett 1,775,744 3,653,303 Gray's Harbor 5,030,851 48,867,436 Olympia 464,782 584,652 Port Angeles 470,873 47,327 Seattle 7,497,942 38,151,837 Tacoma 2,435,500 1,279,534 Source: Adapted from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Chief of Engineers. FY 1978 Annual Report, Volume II -- Field Reports. 155 50. PORT COMMERCE Enormous amounts of commerce pass through coastal ports. Incoming oil, and automobiles, and outgoing grain. Many other materials and products pass through these ports. It is worth noting that regionally, the ports with the largest construction expenditure (Table 49) or port authority expense also have the largest reported commerce--New York, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Long Beach, California. Table 50. COMMERCE AT SELECTED PORTS -- 1977. State Port Tons - 2,000 lbs. ME Portland 18,326,110 Searsport 1,497,184 NH Portsmouth 3,499,854 MA Boston 25,975,275 Fall River 5,285,473 CT New Haven 11,119,383 New London 3,074,590 RI Providence 8,642,484 NY/NJ Port of New York & vicinity 185,292,125 DE Wilmington 2,917,774 MD Baltimore 44,756,359 Cambridge 109,406 VA Norfolk 43,862,200 Newport News 8,730,346 NC Morehead City 2,904,715 Wilmington 9,504,953 SC Charleston 10,629,971 Georgetown 1,798,340 Port Royal 173,488 GA Brunswick 1 889,696 Savannah 9,875,678 FL Fort Pierce 180,727 Jacksonville 15,108,032 Miami 3,504,543 Palm Beach 681,978 Panama City 1,393,065 Pensacola 3,105,287 Port Canaveral 2,807,463 Tampa 45,619,951 156 50. PORT COMMERCE (Cont.) Table 50. COMMERCE AT SELECTED PORTS -- 1977 (cont.). State Port Tons - 2,000 lbs. AL Mobile 35,943,893 MS Gulfport 1,094,796 Pascagoula 23,832,891 LA Baton Rouge 70,008,229 New Orleans 162,991,985 TX Beaumont 48,918,843 Port Arthur 30,753,732 Corpus Christi 46,871,695 Freeport 15,332,518 Galveston 9,563,626 Houston 104,291,267 CA Hueneme 1,875,743 Humbolt Bay 1,644,573 Los Angeles 31,325,506 Long Beach 32,985,424 Redwood City 410,293 San Francisco 1,931,693 OR Coos Bay 7,599,421 OR/WA Portland 21,400,262 Vancouver 2,832,673 WA Anacortes 8,968,313 Bellingham 1,718,417 Everett 4,589,002 Gray's Harbor 2,646,192 Olympia 536,458 Port Angeles 3,283,012 Seattle 16,432,876 Tacoma 10,699,337 Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Chief of Engineers. FY 1978 Annual Report, Volume I--Summary and Highlights, pp. 95-98. 157 I I I I I I I I. I I I U I I -I ~I :I15 I 51. COASTAL AREAS Here, we compare the area of coastal features to one another. This information is summarized from earlier tables. One potentially important classification that is not presented here, nor is it available elsewhere, is the area of nonfederal coastal parks. The areas in the accompanying figure are shown to be mutually exclusive, but this is not the case. Many acres of wetlands and estuaries are also re- corded in other categories such as parks. If we could eliminate the dupli- cation of acreage in several categories, the percentage of uncommited area would increase. Table 51. COMPARATIVE COASTAL AREAS. % of Square % of Maritime Miles Acres Lower 48 Counties United States 3,615,123 2,313,678,720 120.0 -- Lower 48 3,022,261 1,934,247,040 100.0 -- Maritime Counties 182,569 116,844,291 6.0 100.0 Maritime County Farms 50,039 32,025,073 1.7 27.4 Salt to Brackish Marshes 7,061 4,519,238 0.23 3.9 Coastal & Tidal Marshes 13,999 8,959,562 0.46 7.67 Outer Continental Shelf 875,000 560,000,000 29.0 479.3 Leased OCS 15,619 9,996,196 0.517 1.78' Oil, Gas, Salt & Sulphur Producing OCS 6,412 4,104,086 0.212 0.733 Coastal National Parks 5,363 3,432,418 0.177 2.9 Coastal National Wildlife Refuges 1,644 1,051,910 .054 0.9 Estuaries 23,980 15,347,000 0.793 13.1 percent of Outer Continental Shelf 159 51. COASTAL AREAS (Cont.) LA G I~~~~~~~~~ 3 B C F G E LAND USE IN THE COASTAL COUNTIES. the large rectangle represents the area of the coastal counties of the lower 48 states (Listed in Table 19). The subunits within this rectangle represent the area committed to various features as follows: A. Farms (Table 20) B. Salt to brackish Marshes (Table 29) C. Coastal Marshes not in B (Table 29) D. Coastal National Parks (Table 41) E. Coastal National Wildlife Refuges (Table 42) F. Estuaries (Table 26) G. Other Note that many of these features overlap. That is, there are many acres of marsh within the National Wildlife Refuges, for example. If we could remove the overlap, the area of G would increase. 160 52. ELEMENTS OF SEAWATER This table gives some of the elemental components of standard seawater. These elements are in these concentrations the salts in saltwater. Salinity, the concentration of salts in water, comprises 35 parts per thousand in normal seawater. The concentration of salts varies as seawater is diluted by freshwater runoff, especially in estuaries and nearshore waters. The concentration of some of these elements, or the form that the elements take can be altered as a function of biological or industrial processes. Methodological advances have very recently cast doubt on the con- centration of elements which are found in small quantities such as Arsenic, Selenium, and Tin. This is especially true of transition elements, heavy metals, and metalloids. Revisions are currently underway, and should appear in about 1982 in Chemical Oceanography. Table 52. CONCENTRATION OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER. Total concentration Total concentration micrograms per liter micrograms per liter Element of seawater (ppb) Element of seawater (ppb) Hydrogen 110,000,000 Gallium 0.03 Lithium 180 Germanium 0.05 Boron 4,440 Arsenic 3.7 Carbon 28,000 Selenium 0.2 Nitrogen 150,000 Bromine 67,000 Oxygen 880,000,000 Krypton 0.2 Fluorine 1,300 Rubidium 120 Neon 0.12 Strontium 80,000 Sodium 10,770,000 Zirconium 0.03 Magnesium 1,290,000 Niobium 0.01 Aluminum 2 Molybdenum 10 Silicon 2,000,000 Silver 0.04 Phosphorous 60 Cadmium 0.1 Sulfur 905,000 Tin 0.01 Chlorine 18,800,000 Antimony 0.24 Argon 4.3 Iodine 60 Potassium 380,000 Xenon 0.05 Calcium 412,000 Cesium 0.4 Titanium 1 Barium 2 Vanadium 2.5 Tungsten 0.1 Chromium 0.3 Gold 0.004 Manganese 0.2 Mercury 0.03 Iron 2 Thallium 0.01 Cobalt 0.05 Lead 0.03 Nickel 1.7 Bismuth 0.02 Copper 0.5 Thorium 0.01 Zinc 4.9 Uranium 3.2 Source: Peter G. Brewer, 1975. Minor elements in seawater In J.P. Riley and G. Skirrow [eds.] Chemical Oceanography Volume I T2d edition. 161 3 53. CONVERSION FACTORS Conversion factors for common units are presented in these tables. The units across the top of the table are the starting units, and the units in the column on the left are the final units. The body of the table is the factor by which the starting unit is multiplied to obtain the final product. For ex- ample, how many square miles are there in 1,000 acres? From Table 50b. mul- I ~tiply 1,000 by 1/640 and find that 1,000 acres is 1.56 square miles. Conver- sion of metric units is simply a matter of 'moving decimal points as the unit prefixes change. For example, 59 centimeters is 0.59 meters. I ~Table 53a. LENGTH CONVERSION FACTORS. Centi- Kilo- meter Inch Foot Yard Meter meter Mile U ~ ~Cm. 1* 2.54* 30.48* 91 *44* 100* 1O5 l.609x105 In. 0.394 1* 12* 36* 39.37 3.973x104 63,360* Ft. 3.28X10-2 1112 1* 3* 3.281 3.28x103 5,280* Yd. 1.094x10-2 1112 1112 1* 1.094 1.094x103 1,760* Meter 0.01* 2.54x10-2* 0.305 _ 0.914 _ 1* 1,000* 1.606x103 Km. 1X10-5* 2.54xlO05* 3.05x104 9.14x104 1 *10-3 1*1 1.609 I ~~Mi. 6.214x10-6 1/12 1112 1/12 6.214xlO04 6.2l4xlO-1 1* Table 53b. AREA CONVERSION FACTORS. 3 ~~~~~Ft2 Yd2 Acres Hectares Kin2 7 Mi27 Sq.ft. 1* 9* 43,560* 1.076x10-5 1.076x107 2,788x107 Sq.yds. 1112 1* 4,840* 1.196x104 1.196x106 3.098x106 Acres 2.296xlO05 2.066xlo04 1* 2.471 247.105 640* Hectares 9.297x10-6 8.36lxlO-5 0.4047 1* 100* 258.999 Sq km. 9.297xlO-8 8.361xlO07 4.047xlO03 0.01* 1* 2,590 3 ~Sq~mi. 3.589x10-8 3.228x10-7 1/12 3.86xlO_3 0.386 1* 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~162 53. CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont.) Table 53c. VOLUME CONVERSION FACTORS. Liter Gallon (U.S.) Cubic Foot Barrel (oil) Liter 1* 3.785 28.316 158.987 Gallon 2.642xlO-1 1* 7.481 42* Cubic foot 3.532xl0-2 1.337x10-1 1* 5.682 Barrel(oil) 6.290x10-3 2.381x10-2 0.1777 1* Table 53d. MASS CONVERSION FACTORS. Gm. Lbs. Kg. Short Tn. Metric Tn. Gm 1* 453.6 1,000* 9.070x105 106* Lbs 2.205x103 -1* 2.205 2,000* 2.205x103 Kg 10-3* 0.4535 1* 9.070x102 1,000* Short Tn. 1.103xlO-6 5x10-4 1.103x10O-3 1* 1.102 Metric Tn. 1x10-6* 4.536x10-4 1x10-3 9.070x10-1 1* Table 53e. HYDROCARBON WEIGHT AND ENERGY EQUIVALENTS Weight equivalents 1 Barrel of Crude Oil (Domestic) = 295 pounds (42 gallons) 1 Barrel of Gasoline = 259 pounds (42 gallons) 1 Barrel of Liquified Petroleum Gas = 190 pounds (42 gallons) Energy equivalents 1 Barrel of Crude Petroleum has the energy value of 5604 cu. ft. of Natural Gas-Dry 1 Barrel of Crude Petroleum has the energy value of 0.228 short tons of Anthracite Coal 1 Short Ton of Anthracite Coal has the energy value of 4.379 barrels of Crude Petroleum 1 Short Ton of Anthracite Coal has the energy value of 24,541 cu. ft. of Natural Gas-Dry I 1 Barrel of Gasoline has the energy value of 0.90 barrels of Crude Petroleum 1 Barrel of Gasoline has the energy value of 5070 cu. ft. of Natural Gas-Dry 1000 cu. ft. of Natural Gas-Dry has the energy value of 0.178 barrels of Crude Petroleum 1000 cu. ft. of Natural Gas-Dry has the energy value of 0.041 short tons of Anthracite Coal * Exactly Source: ASTM-IP Petroleum Measurement Tables 163 -I 53. CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont.) Table 53f. METRIC PREFIXES. Prefix Factor by which unit is multiplied gi ga 109 mega 106 kilo 103 hecto 102 deka 10 deci 10l1 centi 10-2 milli 10-3 micro 10- 6 nano 10-9 pico 10- 12 164 54. STATE RANKS How do the Istates compare in their coastal characteristics? This table rnsthe sta tes in 17 important categories. Louisiana ranks first most often.It leads in the percentage of the shoreline undeveloped, the area I ~of estuaries, the area of wetlands, and the weight of the 1978 fisheries catch. In all cases, the states are ranked from highest (1) to lowest (21). The letters at the head of each column are interpreted below. * ~Column Ranked Based on From Table A Length of general coastline I B Length of tidal shoreline I U ~~C Percentage of privately owned shoreline 2 D Percentage of undeveloped shoreline 3 E Percentage of shoreline as beaches 4 I ~~F Percentage of noneroding shoreline 5 G Percentage of general shoreline length fronted by barrier islands8 3 ~~H Percentage of coastal county area in farms 20 I ~~~Percentage of population in coastal counties 21 f J ~~~Percentage of electrical generating capacity in coastal counties 22 K Area of estuaries 25 L Area of coastal wetlands 28 *1 ~~M Area of Coastal National Wildlife Refuges 42 a N Weight of the 1978 fisheries catch 34 0 Value of the 1978 fisheries catch 34 P Weight of the 1978 fisheries catch per fisherman 36 Q Value of the 1978 fisheries catch per fisherman 36 I ~footnotes *ties are ranked according to the average rank that the states would I ~ ~receive if they were not tied. Thus, for example if three states are tied for the first rank, they would all be ranked second. 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~165 54. STATE RANKS (Cont.) Table 54. STATE RANKS STATE RANK IN CATEGORY: State A B C D E F G H Maine 7 3 1 11 20 20 -- 18 New Hampshire 20 21 14 20* 4 16 -- 13.5* Massachusetts 8 14 9 17 2 17 13 15 Rhode Island 17 18 6 20* 6 19 -- 17 Connecticut 21 16 8 20* 7 18 -- 13.5* New York 12 12 16 16 8 21 6 21 New Jersey 11 13 17 14 10 11 5 11 Delaware 19 19 12 8 14 6 11 2 Maryland 18 8 4 18 21 15 1 4 Virginia 13 7 10 7 15 12 8 6 North Carolina 5 5 20 4 13 8 2 8 South Carolina 9 10 21 5 19 2 9 7 Georgia 14 11 11 2 9 5 4 19 Florida 1 1 5 9 17 4 10 5 Alabama 15 17 2 13 3 9 3 9 Mississippi 16 20 15 12 12 10 -- 16 Louisiana 3 2 13 1 11 13 12 10 Texas 4 6 7 6 18 3 7 1 California 2 4 18 10 16 14 -- 3 Oregon 6 15 19 15 5 7 -- 12 Washington 10 9 3 3 1 1 -- 20 166 54. STATE RANKS (Cont.) Table 54. STATE RANKS STATE RANK IN CATEGORY: State I J K L M N 0 P Q Maine 11 5 19 16 8 7 7 17 18 New Hampshire 16 *12 21 20 20.5* 21 20 18 17 Massachusetts 10 9 14 13 14 5 3 7 3 Rhode Island 1.5* 1.5* 17 21 18 13 15 8 8 Connecticut 6 3 20 17 19 19 19 20 20 New York 8 10 12 14 17 15 13 21 19 New Jersey 9 7 7 6 6 9 10 5 9 Delaware 1.5* 1.5* 11 11 9 20 21 10 16 Maryland 7 6 4 9 11 14 14 19 21 Virginia 13 13 3 7 10 3 8 3 15 North Carolina 20 17 2 8 4 6 11 4 14 South Carolina 17 16 10 4 5 17 17 15 5 Georgia 21 21 16 5 7 18 18 16 10 Florida 4 4 6 2 1 8 5 12 11 Alabama 19 19.5* 9 15 20.5* 16 12 11 2 Mississippi 18 14 13 12 16 4 16 1 4 Louisiana 12 11 1 1 2 1 2 2 6 Texas 14 15 5 3 3 12 4 13 1 California 3 8 8 10 12 2 1 6 7 Oregon 15 19.5* 18 19 15 11 9 9 12 Washington 5 18 15 18 13 10 6 14 13 167 INDEX Agriculture, 59 Boating Amphibians see Recreation endangered, 124,132 Businesses, 60 Areas Clean Water Act, 90 coastal farms, 59 coastal National Parks, 126-128 Commerce coastal National Wildlife Refuges, 129 coastal businesses, 60 coastal summary, 159-160 at selected ports, 156-157 estuaries, 83 Continental Shelf, see Outer leased Outer Continental Shelf, 78 Continental Shelf Outer Continental Shelf, 75 Constant dollar data wetlands, 84,87,88 commercial fisheries catch, 98 Audubon Society saltwater recreational fishing, bird counts, 110 140-141 coastal properties, 134 Conversion factors Barrier Islands (Major), 7-22 area, 162 development status, 20-22 hydrocarbon developed, 21-22 energy equivalents, 163 preserved, 21-22 weights, 163 undeveloped and unpreserved, 21-22 lengths, 162 individual islands, 7-18 mass, 163 lengths, 7-18 metric prefixes, 164 access, 7-18 temperature, 34 preserved by Nature Conservancy, 133 volume, 163 state characteristics, 19 Counties, see also population number of islands, 19 with barrier islands, 7-18 percent of shoreline fronted by, 19 coastal counties listed, 54-58 total length, 19 coastal county characteristics. Beach length agriculture, 59 by state, 8 energy, 72-73 Bioconcentration factors nuclear energy, 73 phytoplankton, 40 population, 53-67 shellfish, 39 DDT (or DDD or DDE) Birds in finfish, 42 coastal colonies, 110-111 in shellfish, 41 endangered and threatened, 118-120,132 168 INDEX (Cont.) Farms Dieldrin see agriculture in finfishes, 42 Finfish, see also fisheries, Dredging recreation, estuaries, permits and violations, 90-92 biocontamination, 42 Electrical Generation, see also endangered, 123 nuclear power Fish coastal capacity, 72 see finfish, fisheries, number of plants, 72 recreation, estuaries percent coastal, 72 Fisheries Elements, see also bioconcentration coastal, 96 factors, metals, pollution employment, 98 of seawater, 161 by state, 103 Employees history, 96,98 coastal, 60 constant dollar value, 98 fisheries, 98 dockside value, 96 by state, 103 employment, 98 Endangered species, 114-124,132 percent caught nearshore, defined, 114 96 Endangered Species Act, 114 retail value, 96 Energy, see also electrical generation, selected species value, 98 gas production, nuclear power, oil ports production, Outer Continental Shelf by value, 101 equivalents and weights, 163 by weight, 102 factors affecting coast 70-81 record catches by state and Erosion, see also Sea level changes year, 99 controT-project expenditures, 11 recreational, 104-109, see also defined, 10 recreation lengths, estuarine by year, 104-106 critically eroding, 10 by number of anglers, 105 noncritically eroding, 10 by number of fish, 104 not eroding, 10 by number of fish per seasonality, 9 angler, 106 Estuaries by weight of fish, 105 area by state, 83 by region, 107-109 defined, 82 surveys, 104 freshwater flow of rivers, 24-27 by state, 100 habitat loss, 83 value recreational fishes, 107-109 by leading ports, 101 sanctuaries, 135 by state, 100 Expenditures constant dollar, 98 erosion control projects, 11 dockside, 96 of port authorities, 151-153 history, 98 of saltwater recreational fishermen, per fisherman, 98 138 retail, 96 of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, weight 11,154-155 by leading ports, 102 history, 98 record by state, 99 by state, 100 169 INDEX (Cont.) Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 96 National Parks (cont.) Freshwater discharge, 24-27 by region, 127 Gas production (offshore, see also Outer listed, 126-127 Continental Shelf percent change in visitation by adjacent state, 78 by class of park, 128 federal, 78, 81 by park, 126-127 state, 78, 81 by region, 127 by year, 81 visitation Habitat loss by class of park, 128 estuaries, 83 by park, 126-127 wetlands, 84 by region, 127 Halogenated hydrocarbons National Wildlife Refuges, see see DOT, Dieldrin, PCB also reserves Hurricanes, 144-149 acquisition costs by state, damages, 145,147 129 deaths, 145,147 area by state, 129 frequency by location, 148 endangered species in, 132 recent visits by state and region damages, 145 130 deaths, 145 Natural hazards listed, 145 see erosion, hurricanes location, 145 Nature Conservancy, The surges expected, 146 coastal properties, 133-134,139 Insects Nuclear power endangered and threatened, 122-123 capacity Islands (see barrier islands) existing, 73 Laws projected, 73 Clean Water Act, 90 by state, 73 Endangered Species Act, 114 cooling water Fishery Conservation and Management change in temperature, 73 Act, 96 intake, 73 Water Pollution Control Act, 45 plant listing, 73 Mammals Ocean endangered and threatened, 116-118,132 dumping, 43-44 Mangroves seawater elements, 161 see wetlands Oil Metals, Heavy conversion factors, 163 in shellfish, 41 petroleum hydrocarbons in Metric prefixes, 164 shellfish, 41 Minerals spills, 46-51 see gas production, oil production, Outer by coast, 47 Continental Shelf by coast and location, 48 National Parks by leading causes (number area only), 51 by class of park, 128 by leading causes (volume by park, 126-127 only), 50 170 INDEX (Cont.) Oil (cont.) Ports 150-157 by location, 47 Army Corps of Engineers during OCS operations, 47 expenditures, 154-155 by sources, 50 commerce, 156-157 by year, 45 leading fisheries ports Oil production (offshore), see also by value, ll1 Outer Continental Shelf by weight, 102 by adjacent state, 78 port authority expenditures, federal, 78,80 151-153 state, 78,80 renovation, 151-153 by year, 80 iRanks Outer Continental Shelf see also gas of states, 166-167 production, oil production Recreation defined, 75 see also fisheries, energy production recreational boating by value by year, 77 region, 142 revenue to the federal government, 77 saltwater fishing leased area by year and adjacent state, 78 automobile miles, 138 PCB days fishing, 138 in finfish, 42 expenditures, 138 in shellfish, 41 fisherman defined, 140 Pesticides, see DDT, Dieldrin number of fishermen, 138 Phytoplankton per capita activity, 138 bioconcentration factors, 40 surveys, 104 defined, 39 shoreline devoted to, 7 Plants, see also Wetlands swimming by region, 142 endangered, 120-121 water skiing by region, 142 Pollution Reptiles biocontamination endangered and threatened, finfish, 42 121-122,132 shellfish, 41 Reserves ocean dumping , 43 see National Audubon Society; shellfish water closings, 38 estuaries, sanctuaries; Population National Parks, National by coastal counties, 53-58 Wildlife Refuges, The Nature by metropolitan counties, 64 Conservancy percent change, 65 Revenue by nonmetropolitan counties, 64 from OCS leases, 77 percent change, 65 Rivers by region, 65 freshwater flow, 24-27 nonmetropolitan, 65 Salinity percent change, 65 elemental components metropolitan, 65 Salt marshes, see Wetlands by state, 63 Sea level changes, 28-29, see percent change, 63 also tides percent nonmetropolitan by state, 67 Shellfish, see also fisheries, percent coastal by state, 67 recreation bed closings, 38 171 INDEX (Cont.) Shellfish (cont.) Wetlands bioconcentration factors, 39 area biocontamination, 41 most recent estimates, 84,88 endangered, 124 Wetlands Shoreline original, 84 length, 5 1780, 84 general coastline, 5 1954,. 84,87 national shoreline, 5 dredge and fill permits, 90-92 tidal shoreline, 5 loss, 84 ownership, 6 types federal, 6 area (1954), 84,87 nonfederal public, 6 defined, 85 private, 6 wildlife use uses, 7 by state, 94 nonrecreational, 7 by wetland type, 93 Irecreational, 7 Weight undeveloped, 7 see fisheries, energy, Swimming, see recreation conversion factors Temperature Whales, see mammals change in nuclear power plants, 74 Wildlife conversion factors, 34 in wetlands, 93-94 sea surface, 34-35 refuges (see Audubon Society; Threatened species, 114-124, 132 estuaries, sanctuaries; defined, 114 National Parks, National Tide Wildlife Refuges, The Nature causes, 30 Conservancy) patterns, 30-31 ranges, 31-33 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers erosion control expenditures, 11 port expenditures, 154-155 role in dredge and fill permits, 90-92 U.S. Coast Guard role in reporting oil spills, 45 U.S. Department of the Interior endangered species, 114 oil and gas leases, 75 Water freshwater flow, 24-27 quality, 36-52 sea water elements, 161 use by nuclear power plants, 73 Water Pollution Control Act, 45 Water Skiing, see recreation 172