[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
x 7 4 j@ Aj 0, V 3 3 @2)ur 7,1, @@'bv The Conservation Foujidation for the Council on Environn-)ental Qualltv, HT392 'WI: of Commerce (office of Coajstal Zone Managen-ient), Department of Defense .C55 Corps of Engineers), Department of, Interior (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), 1980 ur"Mp,@Mectjon Agi@ncv, and Federal En-i6rgency Management Agencv (Fedeyal c. 2 PER Molliogwr7ctuyl). Coastal Environmental Management Guidelines for Conservation of Resources jUvzqTq OSO ;o AAxedold and Protection against Property of CSC LibrarY Storm Hazards U . S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER Prepared by 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE The Conservation Foundation CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413 John Clark, Project Director John S. Banta, Senior Associate Jeffrey A. Zinn, Associate for Council on Environmental Quality Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management Department of Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Environmental Protection Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Insurance Administration Contract Number EQ7AC004 Washington, D.C. 1980 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Many people provided valuable assistance in the preparation of this manual. Among their colleagues at The Conservation Foundation, the authors wish to thank in particu- lar: William K. Reilly, president, and vice presidents J. Clarence Davies and John H. (arzAnd research assistants Denise Woods and Julie Bauman. A special appreciation is due to Laura O'Sullivan for her dedicated efforts in administra- tiod and preparation of the manuscript. Thanks are also to be extended to the many state and local planning officials who reviewed drafts of the manuscript; to the American Society of Planning Officials (now the American Planning Association) and, especially, Chuck Thurow; and to consultants Jon A. Kusler and H. Crane Miller. This effort benefited immeasurably from the cooperative spirit of federal officials, nota- bly Katherine Gillman of the Council on Environmental Quality; Larry Zensinger and John Gambel of the Federal Insurance Administration; George Phippen of the Army Corps of Engineers; Mike Flaherty of the Environmental Protection Agency; Larry Shanks and Al Sherk of the Fish and Wildlife Service; Richard Gardner, Robert Kifer, and Dallas Miner of the Office of Coastal Zone Management; Timothy Maywalt of the Water Resources Council. To these people, and to the many others not named here who provided sound advice, counsel, and insight, the authors are most grateful. Design and production by Sallv A, janin Associates. DISCLAIMER The opinions, findings, conclusiorfs, or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Council on Environmental Quality, Office of Coastal Zone Management, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Environmental Protection Agency, or Fed- eral Insurance Administration. Contents Introduction 1 PART I Chapter 1: Coastal Uplands 9 Ecological Features 9 Hazards 12 Management Policies@ 14 Chapter 2: Coastal Floodlands 17 Ecological Features 18 Hazards 19 Management Policies 20 Implementation Guidelines 31 Chapter 3: Saltwater Wetlands 49 Ecological Features 49 Hazards 52 Management Policies 52 Implementation Guidelines 66 Chapter 4: Banks and Bluffs 73 Ecological Features 73 Hazards 74 Management Policies 74 Implementation Guidelines 78 Chapter 5: Dunelands 81 Ecological Features 81 Hazards 82 Management Policies 83 Implementation Guidelines 87 Chapter 6: Beaches 91 Ecological Features 91 Hazards 92 Management Policies 95 Implementation Guidelines 101 Chapter 7: Coastal Waters and Basins 105 Ecological Features 105 Hazards 108 Management Policies 109 Implementation Guidelines 119 PART 11 Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service 125 Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service 127 Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 128 Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 133 Administration (Coastal Hazards Initiative) Department of Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 135 Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 138 Environmental Protection Agency 142 Federal Emergency Management Agency 145 Water Resources Council 147 References 158 0 Introduction Coastal communities have more than their can be approved for flood insurance by fair share of environmental management the Federal government. responsibilities. If you are an elected of- This book is designed to help you cope ficial, zoning officer, tax assessor, county with such problems. It offers a comprehen- engineer, city attorney, planning director, sive set of physical management policies or concerned citizen who must deal with for coastal communities and a description development in coastal jurisdictions, you of relevant Federal and State programs. face many complicated problems-beach Our aim is to help communities create erosion, perhaps, or wetland conservation, effective .programs that conserve resources saltwater intrusion, estuarine pollution, or, and, at the same time, protect property and possibly, hurricanes. life against natural hazards. The policies For example, as a planner for any of the are stated in simple terms, and are sup- 68 coastal jurisdictions in California, you ported by background materials, imple- must, by State law, protect water quality in mentation suggestions, and references to estuaries, which will mean devising strat- relevant laws and regulations. egies to control erosion from croplands and housing developments. You will need a special zoning provision, grading ordi- As experienced planners and managers al- nance, or performance standards for major ready know, the measures best suited to land clearing/ grading activities in the conserving ecological resources are often watershed. the same as those needed to preserve the Or, as a conservation commissioner in natural landforms that serve as barriers to one of Massachusetts' coastal towns, you storms and flooding. Accordingly, many are responsible under State law for issuing communities have found that a combined permits for use of wetlands. You face dif- approach to hazards and resource manage- ficult decisions about which permits to ment simplifies the process of zoning and grant, which to deny, what sorts of con- permit reviews and leads to more predict- ditions to impose to minimize disruption. able decisions on what constitutes accept- If you are a county official on the North able development. The recommended pol- Carolina coast, attempting to formulate a icies in this guidebook have been written comprehensive local approach to coastal with this simplification and coordination zone management, you may be over- in mind. For example, in the building whelmed by Federal and State regulatory code, the same setback requirement that programs. protects beachfront homes from erosion If you are chairman of the planning and storm waves could also preserve turtle commission in a southwest Florida county, nesting sites on the backbeach. Similarly, a you may have to come up with a zoning zoning restriction on development of amendment to make development in the mangrove swamps could not only con- floodplain safer so that your community serve an ecologically vital area, but main- I tain a physical defense against storm environmental policies are selected and waves. used. How strongly is your community The policies proposed will enable com- committed to resource conservation and munities oriented toward conservation to protection against hazards? To what extent reach for the highest standards of envi- will it trade environmental harm for the ronmental and hazards protection. At the benefits of economic growth? How much same time, the policies are designed to involvement does it desire on the piart of help the community with a lesser con- State and Federal agencies? servation bent accomplish a moderate level Although your community has consider- of protection. In giving serious consider- able freedom to choose the level of devet- ation to each recommended policy, you opment most compatible with its own in- will become aware of the full conse- terests, there is a minimum of protection quences of your community's actions and required by Federal and State regulations. will be better able to make informed For example, your banks may be unwilling choices. By familiarizing yourself with the to give mortgages for beachfront homes highest goals for resource conservation, exposed to erosion and hurricane threat you will be most conscious of any envi- unless the owner has insurance protection ronmental losses or storm risks resulting against these hazards. The insurance poli- from trade-offs to accommodate residen- cies are written only by the Federal Emer- tial, commercial, or industrial growth. gency Management Agency, which insists, Conservation and dev 'elopment are not among other requirements, that your com- inevitably at odds. In general, well- munity pass an ordinance to prohibit planned development will add to the gen- development on sand dunes in high-haz- eral prosperity of a coastal community, ard zones. Some owners of expensive while bad development will sooner or beachfront lots may have the money to later have a negative effect. The simulta- build without a loan and may be unwill- neous achievement of development and ing to build back from the dune, regard- resource protection goals may require that less of the risk. They would oppose the communities greatly modify some tradi- ordinance. Other owners, who need the tional development patterns. However, bank's help and are willing to set their with innovative management, many com- homes back, may support an ordinance. munities can achieve a desirable balance Local officials must decide whether to without serious sacrifices to either devel- pass an ordinance so that the community opment or conservation. as a whole will be eligible for insurance. There are plenty of examples of poorly In making their decision, they may con- controlled development that has had a sider the environmental benefits of pro- serious negative effect on the value of our tecting the dunes and beaches, as well as coastal resources. Demands for retirement any State dune and beach protection re- and vacation housing and other invest- quirements. Used in conjunction with pub- ments in waterfront land have been in- lic hearings, conferences among various tense. Developers have encouraged and government departments, or other inter- satisfied these demands and, in so doing, changes, the four recommended policies have frequently imposed high capital and on dunelands and the five on beach devel- servicing costs on coastal communities. opment in this guidebook can help lead to These costs are felt by the public in higher a decision that best reflects the general lo- taxes. In addition, poorly managed devel- cal interest. opment can be destroyed quickly, at great Many shoreline development proposals cost to the community, in floods, severe will evoke conflict, and local officials may storms, and hurricanes. Thus, our primary find themselves caught in a crossfire be- goals, conservation of coastal resources and tween those who want to develop and maintaining nature's systems, can also in those who don't. If your community has a the long run save the taxpayer money. strategy based on common goals and pre- arranged coastal development policies, the officials should find it easier to make de- Each community has a unique set of at- cisions that preserve long-term benefits for titudes, social goals, and political styles residents as well as local commercial in- that will determine the way in which terests and their special clientele-vaca- 2 tioners, retirees, recreational boaters, or in- ment recognizes that many types of coastal dustry. landforms in their natural state perform Recognizing the difficulty of devising important ecological and hazard-protection such community strategies, we have at- services and that each type requires a dif- tempted to make the policies and manage- ferent approach and different develop- ment recommendations in this book work- ment criteria. The material is in topo- able and practicable. In our initial assess- graphical order, from uplands to coastal ment of policies, we worked closely with waters, not in order of importance or pro- the American Society of Planning Officials gram priority. The presentation is stan- (ASPO, now the American Planning Asso- dardized for all places so that, with a little ciation), which interviewed planning of- familiarity, you can locate any subject ficials and prepared a summary report of -ecological features, hazards, manage- management problems and needs in 18 ment policies, implementation guide- communities. Many of the planners after- lines-for any of the seven places. The wards gave their time to help evaluate our book is a reference work; it is not meant to management policies through many drafts be read sequentially. and revisions. - It should be noted that this book is The ASPO report concluded that two about physical management policies only. major factors influenced local management Accordingly, it considers sand-dune pro- decisions for coastal areas subject to fre- tection but not hurricane evacuation, man- quent floods. The first factor was a dra- agement of beach structures but not public matic or troubling event-for example, access to beaches. We discuss pollution large-scale destruction of beachfront prop- from land runoff and other diffuse (non- erty by a storm, or conflict over develop- point) sources because its control relates ment of a barrier island. The second factor closely to physical management issues and was conformance to State and Federal because effective measures to deal with requirements-wetlands protection pro- this kind of pollution are often in the grams, in palicular (though wetlands pro- hands of the community officials to whom tection was not strongly perceived by most this book is addressed. On the other hand, planners as an integral part of manage- we discuss control of water pollution from ment strategy for flood protection). Also industrial and municipal treatment plants frequently mentioned were State coastal (point sources) only briefly because this management requirements and the Na- kind of pollution has little relation to tional Flood Insurance Program. storni and flood hazards management. There is, of course, no single approach that works everywhere. Each community We have focused this guidebook on seven has a unique environmental setting, and Places of Concern: coastal uplands, coastal needs a unique coastal strategy. The ar- floodlands, saltwater wetlands, banks and rangement of policies by place of concern bluffs, dunelands, beaches, coastal waters should enable you to select those that and basins. (See Figure 1.) This arrange- match your particular needs and local EDGE ZONE SALTWATER WETLANDS DUNELANDS BEACH 100 YEAR BANK FLOODIVIARK ONE YEAR FLOODIVIARK BARRIER ISLAND 4- UPLANDS FOCEAN- eFLOODLANDS ILCOASTAL BASIN Figure 1. Coastal places of concern 3 environmental goals. The community with leashed in major storms. (In a direct hur- an abundance of wetlands or dunes, for ricane strike, most barriers, natural or example, will need detailed elements in its man-made, may offer little protection.) strategy to deal with these places. Human activities that remove or degrade The policies apply to the entire coast- protective landforms-for instance, by line, including bays, sounds, and tidal riv- removing beach sand, bulldozing dunes, ers, inland to the limit of saltwater influ- or destroying mangrove swamps-dimin- ence. Of greatest concern are the places ish the degree of natural protection the where water and - land interact directly coast affords against storm damage. -the coastal floodplain, broadly defined, We recommend six objectives for com- including floodlands (land areas subject to munities to consider in developing Man- periodic ocean storms), saltwater wetlands, agement Policies: banks and bluffs, dunelands, and beaches. 1. Manage coastal watersheds for least alter- The coastal water basins and the uplands ation of natural patterns of stormwater runoff. draining directly into them are also dis- Coastal watersheds should be protected as cussed. While we focus on seacoasts, many much as possible from soil erosion and of the principles and policies are appro- accelerated runoff. This will reduce flood- J priate for the Great Lakes. ing of coastal neighborhoods and also pro- tect the quality of biologically productive coastal waters. The guidebook is divided into two major 2. Preserve ecologically vital areas, such as parts. Part I addresses principles and poli- dunes, coral reefs, wetlands, and edge-zones (bor- cies for ecological and hazards manage! ders of distinctive vegetation between different ment, and practical ways in which Federal areas-e.g., between wetlands and floodlands). programs and laws affect implementation. Development should be located outside vi- Part U describes the current regulations tal areas; further protective measures may and program structure of the Federal agen- also be needed. cies with major responsibility for these 3. Preserve the integrity of coastal geologic areas of environmental management. protective structures. These structures include In discussing Ecological Features for sand dunes, beaches, erodible banks: and each place of concern, we assume that bluffs. Preserving them can help to con- management should aim to enhance the serve ecological resources and offer protec- coastal ecosystem's natural carrying ca- tion against hazards. Preservation of scenic pacity-that is, its capacity to provide beauty is another important consideration. resource benefits. For example, because of 4. Protect the configuration of coastal water their sheltered position and great biologi- basins @ against adverse alteration. Discourage cal productivity, saltwater marshes and es- dredging and construction projects that tuaries provide habitat for more than 80 would cause harm to marine life from percent of the commercially valuable fish pollution and loss of habitat, or that would and shellfish of the Gulf and Atlantic adversely affect currents or tidal flushing coasts. Human activities that destroy or in coastal basins through alteration of ba- damage wetlands reduce the capacity of sin floors or inlets. the ecosystem to provide us with some of 5. Protect coastal waters from pollution. This the necessities of life. entails controlling pollution from shore- The discussion of natural Hazards is land runoff, from industrial and domestic based on the premise that protection be- wastes, and from dredging in coastal water gins with preservation of coastal land- basins. forms that provide natural resistance to 6. Restore damaged environments. Private wave attack, flooding, and erosion from and public means should be used to re- hurricanes and storms. These landforms store damaged essential elements of the differ significantly on our various coasts. coastal environment. On parts of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Our 36 physical management policies to- for example, there are barrier islands with gether provide a comprehensive program special features-dunes, beaches, wet- for achieving the objectives outlined lands-that protect coastal inhabitants and above. You may already be implementing property against moderate storms and ab- some of the policies-such as wetlands sorb some of the more violent energy un- preservation. Others may be less familiar, 4 either because the landforms they affect summarizes the Federal programs and reg- are of limited occurrence, or because their ulations that are most relevant to a com- importance has not been widely under- munity's coastal management programs. stood, or perhaps because they pertain to This guidebook will achieve its purpose matters on which local governments have if it helps you to see how protection of the traditionally deferred to State or Federal ecological resources of coastal ecosystems agencies. All of the policies selected for may be combined effectively with protec- discussion can, we believe, contribute sig- tion of human life and property against nificantly to conservation of coastal eco- storms, flooding, and shore erosion. Once logical resources and protection of life and you are aware of the measures that serve property against hazards. these dual purposes, your community can Each section in Part I concludes with a decide which are economically and envi- discussion of Implementation Guidelines. ronmentally necessary, as well as politi- When a community decides to implement cally and legally acceptable. the coastal management policies, it may face difficult administrative and political issues. For example, do you have sufficient expertise and information locally available to administer the program? Where can financial help be found to deal with ero- sion? State and Federal programs can help to solve some of these problems. You can also use such policies and institutions as zoning and subdivision regulations, land acquisition, public works planning, tax and other financial incentives, technical assistance to land developers and users, and so on. These measures, even if used throughout the community, may need spe- cial adaptation for beaches, estuaries, salt- water wetlands, and other environmental features of the coastal area. For example, a construction setback for the beachfront may have to include the concept of progressive shoreline recession-that is, you should include all land that will likely be lost to erosion and sea-level change during the economic life of the new build- ing. One practical issue facing all coastal communities is the integration of Federal assistance, laws, and regulations with local needs. Local governments, by participating in Federal and State programs, may not only take advantage of assistance but also influence State and Federal decisions and expenditures. Often, your own programs will need to accommodate State and Fed- eral requirements-for example, wetland protection laws. And local planning must also take into account incentive programs, such as the carrot-and-stick National Flood Insurance Program. By understanding how these programs operate, you can partici- pate constructively in them and benefit from their influence. Part II, the final section of the book, 5 Coastal Uplands Coastal Floodlands Part I Saltwater Wetlands Banks and Bluffs Dunelands Beaches Coastal Waters and Basins 7 hk . Mill pop 4NO.MiZ, or' Coastal Uplands The land area designated as coastal uplands will tion because their vegetation and sods cleanse the differ greatly from one community to the next be- water. cause of natural variations in topography and soil The beneficial functions of the coastal uplands conditions. For your communt .ty's coastal pro- are diminished when the terrain is cleared of gram, the main problem presented by uplands is vegetation, paved, or altered to accelerate drain- runoff. As a place of concern, uplands include all age; when surface water bodies and watercourses watershed terrain that yields substantial storm- are filled, detoured, or channelized; or when the water runoff directly to coastal waters via natural flow pattern is significantly disrupted so streams, storm drains, or overland flow. The lower that freshwater flow to the coast occurs in surges. boundary of the uplands is the 100-year flood This section of the guidebook calls attention to the level (see p. 20), below which is the coastal need for conservation of soil and of natural floodplain. hydrologic systems in the uplands (Figure 1). Coastal uplands might be farm fields, wood- ECOLOGICAL FEATURES lands, or suburban neighborhoods. Depending on local circumstances, the uplands might extend The methodology for identifying water- anywhere from a few feet back of the water's sheds and drawing watershed divides in a edge to a mile or more. You may discover that coastal area is essentially the same as for portions of the uplands do not have a significant any other area, and requires some tech- influence on coastal waters because of distance nical expertise. For effective environmen- from the shore or particular topographic or drain- tal planning it is desirable to identify the age details. Such areas should require no special sub-watershed, that is, the smallest func- constraints for the protection of coastal waters. tional drainage basin. Some of the flow In the natural state, uplands terrain and may drain to channels, some to intermit- hydrologic systems-streams, ponds, wetlands- tent drainageways, and some directly to can hold and can detain large amounts of storm coastal waters (Figure 2). water, acting in effect as a natural sponge that The capacity of the upland watershed holds water during heavy rains or snows for later, terrain and its hydrologic system to even more gradual release. This provides an ecologi- the flow of runoff water depends on a cally compatible rate of runoff flow as well as variety of natural factors-slope, soil type, some protection against flooding for downstream vegetation, climate, and so forth (Figure 3). communities' Uplands are also important in So does the capacity to filter the water in protecting coastal waters from storm runoff pollu- transit, physically and chemically, remov- ing sediments, toxic matter, and excess nu- trients before releasing it into coastal wa- Figure 1. Planting crops in contour strips re- ters.' Whatever the local combination of duces the erosion of soil, which can be car- natural factors may be, the runoff system ried with runoff to coastal water basins. in its unaltered state is self-sustaining, (Photo by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil providing for cleansing of the water, a Conservation Service.) beneficial flow regime, and a supply of 9 Figure 2. Coastal uplands are linked to a coastal water basin by the water that moves over them and runs through lakes and streams to estuaries. (Drawing by Ruth Ann Hill.) 10 natural nutrients to coastal waters. These nate with piped or channeled discharges. values can best be preserved by maintain- The volume of fresh water entering the ing the natural quality, volume, and rate coastal water basin influences the strength of flow of freshwater discharge from the of currents, the pattern of circulation, and uplands to coastal water basins. Such pres- the rate of flushing and replenishment of ervation will ensure the optimum func- water from the sea. The volume of the tioning of coastal ecosystems-the ecolog- fresh water also governs the salinity of ical units of coastal waters, their bottoms, water in coastal basins by diluting the and adjacent wetlands and beaches. water from the sea. A decrease in total The quality of the water that runs off the runoff volume essentially shrinks the most uplands is a function of the amount of biologically productive brackish part of a sediment, nutrients, minerals, organic mat- bay, enlarging the area with higher salt ter, and other substances dissolved or sus- content. On the other hand, a large, long- pended in the water. These materials have term increase in fresh water can over- a strong influence on the coastal ecosystem whelm a smaller estuary, turning it into a because they affect such important natural virtual lake.' carrying-capacity control factors as plant The seasonal timing of the rate of fresh- production, oxygen concentration, and the water discharge to the coastal basin gov- fallout of sediments. A variety of activities erns salinity and circulation; these in turn in upland watersheds have the potential to affect the productivity, stability, and over- impair seriously the quality of freshwater all natural carrying capacity of the coastal runoff. Runoff from land surfaces may be ecosystem. The natural seasonal flow rate contaminated with industrial, agricultural, is generally optimum for the plants and logging, or household residues. Together, animals in the ecosystem, because most such diffuse sources are termed "non- species are synchronized to this natural point" sources of pollution, as distin- rhythm for critical life functions-such as guished from "point" sources, which origi- breeding, feeding, and migration for ani- ... ................ tronSpir tion @intercep i depressio sto ge 0.1 CST J.- - mill -e Coe, (Z3 Figure 3. The hydrologic cycle begins with precipitation, which may be intercepted by trees or may fall directly on the land surface. There, it may be detained by soil and vegetation zo'ecz or evaporated or transpired by plants back into the atmosphere. The soil is saturated below the water table and unsaturated above it. Depressions in the land surface-ponds or lakes-store water. (Source: National Science Foundation, "Managing Coastal Lands," Mosaic, vol. 4, no. 3 [19731, pp. 26-32.) mals, photosynthesis, growth, and decay increased flooding of a community built IN for plants. A significant change in the rate along the shores of a confined coastal of runoff flow disrupts these functions, embayment. which are related to circulation or salinity. Hurricane high-water surges often last Therefore, alteration of the rate of flow of from three to five hours, during which discharge from upland watersheds into seawater flows into bays with such inten- coastal water basins is a major potential sity that it may stop or reverse the di- source of disturbance of coastal ecosys- rection of flow down tidal rivers and tems. through estuaries to the sea. Furthermore, Of particular importance in controlling hurricanes are often preceded by many erosion in the uplands and improving the hours of heavy rains, which saturate the quality of runoff are the soil and vegeta- soil, cause advance runoff, and raise the tion of edge-zones-borders, banks, or water level in rivers and bays before the groves at the edge of a water body or surge hits. Pre-hurricane rainfalls of five watercourse. The edge-zone is an ecotone inches or more are common, and far great- or ecologic transition area of especially er rainfalls have been recorded. Ewan, high value which provides unique habitat New Jersey, for example, received 24 for many wildlife species. inches of rain in nine hours in a 1950 pre- HAZARDS hurricane rainfall.' In the New England hurricane of September 1938, four days of Storm-water runoff from the uplands may heavy rainfall in advance of the hurricane discharge so rapidly into the coastal water saturated the uplands soil and hydrologic basin that it adds to the water level. al- system, exacerbating estuarine shoreline ready forced up by a sea storm or hur- flooding.' When a storm-induced uplands ricane. Uplands runoff can thereby cause runoff peak coincides with a natural 4 -3 1 3- DESIGN RAINFALL cr 7 0 - 0 4 a 12 '6 20 24 LEGEND 300- Runoff Hydrograph Before Suburban Development Runoff Hydrograph After Suburban Development Minimum Detention Storage cc Volume Required to Offset 4 the Effect of Development D 200- 100- 0 0 10 io io @0 50 60 TIME (HOURS) Figure 4. Suburban development with paving and removal of vegetation speeds up and intensifies runoff peaks, as shown by these typical storm hydrographs (Collier County, Florida). The capacity of the uplands terrain to retain rainfall and slow down the rate of runoff to coastal waters should be maintained. (Source: Ronald L. Wycoff and R. David G. Pyne, "Urban Water Man- agement and Coastal Wetland Protection in Collier County, Florida," Water Resources Bulletin, vol. 11, no. 3 [19751, pp. 455-68.) 12 5'. 7' Figure 5. The broad riparian floodlands that border the Apalachicola River (Florida) store flood- waters and reduce their velocity, protecting downstream communities from flooding. (Photo by John Clark.) spring high tide, the damage may be stream and less water percolating through particularly severe. soil into underground reserves, streams al- The capacity of uplands to detain storm ternate between high flows that worsen waters and lessen potential estuarine flooding and low flows that worsen dry flooding depends largely on three ele- periods. Urbanization can raise peak run- ments: the surface of the watershed ter- off flows to five times the normal arnount. 6 rain, the nature of the hydrologic system Hydrologic System. The flood-prevention that stores and delivers runoff to the coast ' value of any unit of the uplands hy- and the characteristics of the basin that re- drologic system-bog, pond, marsh, or ceives the discharge. winding stream-lies in its ability to store Terrain. The natural surface of the up- storm water temporarily for delayed re- lands normally has a high capacity for lease to the coastal water basin. In a natu- retaining storm waters. Urbanization often ral watercourse, high flow volumes in the decreases that capacity, resulting in major channel may be reduced by the storage of increases in the peak volume of runoff and flood water in numerous river meanders in the speed with which runoff flows to and in broad reaches of riparian flood- watercourses. Runoff peaks increase when lands and freshwater wetlands (Figure 5). the land is stripped of vegetation, humus, This effectively lengthens and widens the and retentive soils and when the impervi- watercourse, allowing the water to spread ous surfaces of human settlements-roofs, sideways instead of piling up higher, roads, sidewalks, and other paved areas which forces it to move faster down the -rapidly shed storm water. that would channel. Thus, natural wetlands and long, otherwise soak into the ground (Figure 4). winding watercourses are prime features Storm sewers hasten the runoff process. of the natural storm-water detention ca- With more runoff passing quickly down- pability of shorelands. The storm-water 13 /116 4, 16 MONA, q, @777@` 4 @W "11, V -:To "W 4A@-11 ...... ...... al 45 A 90 Figure 6. Creative subdivision layouts can use natural factors, such as topography (gradients marked by numbers in this drawing) for environmental protection. Note how drainage flows naturally into a central detention basin (dark area at top of drawing). (Source: Joachim Tourbier, "Water Resources as a Basis for Comprehensive Planning and Development of the Christina River Basin," prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior [Newark, Del.: University of Dela- ware, Water Resources Center, 1973].) retention benefits of the natural hydro- basins such as these the effect varies great- logic system may be lost if the system is al- ly, depending on such factors as the ba- tered by drainage of freshwater wetlands, sin's particular configuration and the inlet construction of levees or dikes, channeliza- size in relation to the watershed area and tion or straightening of streams, or re- terrain surface. moval of marginal vegetation. Hydrolo- MANAGEMENT POLICIES gists emphasize that along natural stream- banks, flooding is a routine process and Your community's program to protect that "flooding is ... seldom catastrophic coastal and estuarine resources should rec- because wetlands, soil, and vegetation in ognize the critical role of water flows in the stream's floodplain absorb and check integrating the total ecosystem, from the the overflow".' uplands through the estuarine system and Coastal Water Basins. The coastal waters into the ocean. It should provide for pro- that are most subject to rapid accumulation tection against destructive modification of of storm runoff and to highest floodwater the upiands watershed terrain, the uplands levels are confined coastal basins (embay- hydrologic system, and the edge-zone. ments, lagoons) that receive direct river in- In communities with active environ- flow and have constricted outlets to the mental programs, customary methods of sea. Examples of such places are the shal- managing watersheds and controlling soil low bays that lie behind sandy barrier is- erosion can be applied to the coastal up- lands along parts of the Atlantic and Gulf lands. These include measures to reduce coasts. The trapped water may cause severe soil erosion, to discourage adverse artificial shore flooding and dangerous backflow land drainage, and to protect streams, that can cut through the sandy barrier stream banks, and upland freshwater wet- strips that enclose the basins. Even among lands. @Therefore, inclusion of uplands as a 14 place of concern in coastal management is less. In developed urban areas, the zone programs does not add new elements to generally extends inland less than 1,000 the active community conservation pro- yards. By contrast, Oregon's coastal area is gram. It does call for additional attention narrow, extending only to the high water to soil erosion controls and for greater em- mark (uplands management is left to other phasis on retention of water in the soil than coastal zone programs). If your state's and in the @uplands hydrologic system designated coastal zone is less than ade- (Figure 6). quate for protecting coastal ecosystems, For uplands hydrologic systems, all com- your community may wish to identify a ponents should be conserved in as near wider area for management. the natural condition as possible. The com- Your community's program for manag- ponents needing protection include: (1) all ing coastal uplands should include five the drainageways-creeks, streams, swales, specific policies recommended in this sloughs, and other permanent and tem- guidebook. The policies also apply to porary surface channels; (2) all the floodlands, however. Therefore, to avoid marshes, swamps, and other permanent repetition, they are identified and de- and temporary wetland storage units, in- scribed in the following section. cluding tidal freshwater wetlands; (3) all the ponds and lakes and other stillwater areas that are connected, permanently or intermittently, with the shorelands system; and (4) riparian floodlands that provide floodwater storage during heavy rains. It is particularly important to preserve the edge-zone of water bodies and water- courses for ecologic benefits and geologic stability. This requires some control of land use adjacent to the water's edge, at least through a construction setback that will preserve an adequate buffer strip of natural soil and vegetation. As a practical matter, a comprehensive plan for controlling land use throughout the coastal watershed may be difficult to implement. Several units of government may be involved, and, furthermore, a com- prehensive plan may evoke resistance from property owners and development interests. The component parts of such an overall management program, however, are mostly traditional and familiar con- servation practices-soil erosion control, stream bank setbacks, storm-water deten- tion, freshwater wetland protection. Community action to manage coastal watersheds may be required in states that are participating in the Federal Coastal Zone Management Program. Some states will require many controls over a broad coastal fringe, while others will require fewer controls within a narrow fringe. For example, California's designated coastal area is broad: "In significant coastal estu- arine, habitat, and recreational areas," it extends inland to the first major ridge line paralleling the sea, or five miles from the mean high tide line of the sea, whichever 15 Volt, Al, --fie- 1A Z7 :0, -WMW )@!0111-11' Coastal Floodlands Coastal floodlands are the part of the broader straints on watercourse modification, soil erosion, coastal floodplain lying above the yearly reach of and wetland alteration. These considerations are the itides. The floodlands are sporadically struck included in the following 10 recommended poli- by storm waves and flooded by storm tides, Dam- cies. Numbers I through 5 apply to coastal up- age in floodlands may be caused not only by lands as well. Numbers 6 through 10 apply flooding, but by the direct impact of storm waves particularly to coastal floodlands. in "high hazard" areas and by the scouring away of beachfronts in "erosion prone" areas (Figure 1). 1. Alteration of Freshwater Wedan&- The most devastating effects are produced by hur- Discourage draining, filling, excavation, or ricanes, which strike the U.S. Coast about twice a other alteration of freshwater wetlands. year, with accompanying storm surges that can 2. Protection of the Edge-Zone. Protect elevate coastal waters from 10 to 15 feet. the edge-zone bordering coastal waters Coastal floodlands attract many users. Flat and from alteration. accessible to coastal transportation, the floodlands 3. Alteration of Watershed Terrain: Dis- draw industry and commerce. Because of their courage clearing, grading, and surfacing high amenity values, they are attractive for rec- that would adversely alter the water reten- reational development and for homesites. Con- tion potential of the watershed terrain. sequently, floodlands are often cleared, graded, 4. Soil Erosion. Reduce to the minimum fifled, and built on without regard to their ecologic erosion and runoff pollution from construc- and hazard-resistance functions. The result is an tion, agriculture, and logging. increase in danger to life and property from sea 5. Alteration of Watercourses: Discourage storms and hurricanes, land subsidence (as a re straightening, deepening, diking, or other sult of wetland drainage and groundwater "min- adverse alteration of natural channels of the ing"), and loss of edge-zone, the valuable and hydrologic system. physically distinct margin that occurs along the 6. Land Drainage and Excavation: Avoid water's edge in much of the coastal floodlands. land drainage or other excavation that To protect the hazard-resistant natural features would adversely alter the hydrology of and ecological resources of the floodlands, your floodlands. community may need construction setbacks, pro- 7. Construction in Floodian&- Encourage visions for elevation of structures, and restraints the use of piling supports or similar tech- on excavation and groundwater pumping, plus re- niques to elevate structures built in floodlands. Figure 1. Motels at Buxton, N.C., on Cape 8. Floodwater Poflution: Prevent pollution Hatteras after 1973 storm. The layers of from floodwater runoff through proper 2 white sand in background were deposited location and design of facilities where during the storm. Several feet of sand cov- polluting substances are stored. ered the road. (Photo by Paul J. Godfrey, 9. Groundwater PumpirW. To prevent National Park Service Cooperative Research subsidence and aquifer contamination, limit Unit, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.) the use of groundwater resources. 17 ALAN Figure 2. The transition area, or edge-zone, that lies at the border between land and water provides especially valuable habitat. (Photo by John Clark.) 10. Restoration of Hoodlands Environ- from the geological and botanical features ment Encourage private and community of this transition area, particularly where programs for restoration of beneficial flood- there are shrub lines or forest hammocks lands functions. of special habitat value. Animals may use ECOLOGICAL FEATURES the area for nesting, feeding, resting, and hiding. For example, on Kiawah Island The floodlands, topographically, are an (South Carolina) you can find raccoons, extension of the uplands terrain. Except blue herons, pelicans, bald eagles, terns, when flooded, they share with the up- bears, and foxes using the floodland areas lands the natural properties of being able just behind the sand dunes.' to retain runoff waters and remove pol- The transition area of extremely high lutants. The natural storage-and-release ecological value bordering Boodlands is mechanisms of floodlands absorb seasonal often a very narrow and distinct edge- rains and slowly release accumulated wa- zone (an "ecotone"). The edge-zone is of- ter into coastal water basins. The terrain ten obvious to the eye-for example, as a and its hydrologic system also filter the band of especially high, close-growing water in transit by removing sediments trees or other distinct vegetative assem- and assimilating excess chemicals. In this blages. Certain plants, such as saltbush or way, the floodlands naturally help solve beach plum, prosper only in edge-zone the problerns of persistent soil erosion and areas. Other species, such as wax myrtle or washoff of fertilizers, biocides, and other palmetto, which are tolerant of saltspray toxic substances. Estuaries, the termini for and of occasional saltwater inundation- storm runoff from the shorelands (uplands and in the subtropics, hardwood ham- and floodlands), are particularly vulner- mocks-may also be included in the edge- able to excess sediments and polluting zone. Edge-zone habitats support a rich substances. variety and density of fauna and provide Important ecological features are found unique breeding, roosting, and feeding op- in the transition area at the lower edge of portunities for many species (Figure 3). floodlands, adjacent to wetlands or water The vegetated edge-zone may also help to bodies (Figure 2). Many species benefit stabilize the shore, cleanse and regularize 18 the flow of storm water into the coastal ba- sin, and provide a good visual screen. Throughout the floodlands above the edge-zone, there may be a variety of sen- sitive ecological features that need special consideration. In this guidebook, we con- sider those that are important to the coast- al system (for example, streamside wet- lands). We do not consider features that have no direct impact on the coast (for example, isolated ponds). Of most concern is the hydrologic system, which collects, conditions, stores, and conveys water to i the coastal basins. The functions of all -bogs, marshes, L parts of this vital system swamps, connected ponds, streams-need to be.preserved intact. In the floodlands is and through the edge-zone, the system non-tidal; just below the annual hi h- 9 water mark, the lower boundary of the klPiljk@k-,XwA@p6-% t, Lim U-111-1 floodlands, the waters are tidal. But some- times the gradation from fresh non-tidal Figure 4. Many homes in Baytown, Texas, water, to fresh tidal water, to coastal wa- are now regularly surrounded by seawater as ters is gradual and nearly imperceptible. a result of land subsidence. The Corps of Engineers will vacate the area of residents HAZARDS and create a park. (Photo from U.S. Army Coastal flooding is distinctly different Corps of Engineers, Galveston District.) from riverine flooding. When a river floods, the runoff and subsequent damage Mounting flood losses can be expected generally follow the river's course. The as residential, commercial, and industrial real damage of coastal flooding, unlike riv- uses are increasingly located on flood- erine flooding, does not occur in easily prone coastal sites. A U.S. Army Corps of identified runoff channels, but over broad Engineers study reported that 75 percent areas that alternately flood and drain dur- of all loss of life in Florida hurricanes has ing hurricanes and intense winter sea been due to tidal inundations., Moreover, storms. the study showed that very f )@w Florida coastal communities were locato@d on land high enough to escape parti,[email protected] flooding during a severe hurricane. The study found that a 10-foot storm tide would flood 50 percent of the coastal areas devel- oped on land less than 20 feet above sea level-and in the Florida Keys would flood 90 percent of the land area.' The characteristics of coastal landforms affect the intensity of storm impacts on coastal communities. Three ch,racteristics that have a major effect on the i\,itensity of potential storm hazards are "elevation, drainage, and topography. Elevation. In many coastal areas the land is rising or falling in relation to the sea. Land subsidence-which accounts for an apparent rise in the sea level-is a factor Figure 3. Birds like this osprey are important of particular importance in managing inhabitants of the edge-zone. (Photo by John floodlands (Figure 4). Rapid/ subsidence Clark.) may result from human actions-for exam- 19 ple, excessive pumping of groundwater. fertility (by penetration into the earth) or Natural subsidence, by contrast, is a slow groundwater quality (by penetration into process that may be caused by the drying subsurface aquifers). and shrinking of geologic deposits, the de- MANAGEMENT POLICIES cline of water tables, and movement of large geologic deposits. When subsidence Your overall management objective for is rapid, regardless of the cause, structures coastal floodlands should be to allow for built above the floodlands may sink to un- the development desired provided that it safe elevations. is consistent with conservation of coastal Drainage. During a storm, any part of the ecosystems and protection of life and floodlands not reached by the flood can property from the threat of periodic flood- retain water in its soils and hydrologic sys- ing. You will need to consider the siting, tem, thereby reducing the probable height density, design, and construction of resi- of the floodwaters (Figure 5). Stream chan- dential, commercial, and industrial facil- nels and other watercourses can contain ities, and sewage plants. Houses need to floodwaters; so can lakes, ponds, and, par- be elevated above the forecasted "100-year ticularly, wetlands. The absence of these flood" mark, the elevation expected to be features leaves only the natural retention reached by a flood having a 1 percent capacity of the soils and vegetation of the probability of occurrence in any year; terrain. nonresidential structures need to be flood- Topography. Topography, or the configu- proofed (Table 1). Within the "high haz- ration of the land surface, affects the ard" portion of coastal floodlands, where intensity of storm impacts because the noi- wave forces are severe, additional con- mally dry depressions of floodlands can straints on design and location of struc- temporarily retain considerable amounts of tures are needed. floodwaters from both ocean and upland The policies suggested below will en- sources. On the other hand, if salt water is sure relatively safe and environmentally held long enough, it can damage soil compatible new development or redevel- v" r"T I @-7 14-0 7 W@_ ;7 9V_ a," 0.1 'IN Figure 5. This natural wetlands storage area is permanently set aside to provide tlood-retention capability along the Charles River near Millis-Medfield, Mass. (Photo, taken in March 1969 during spring runoff, from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New England Division.) 20 Table 1. The widely used ex- FLOOD PROBABILITY pression " 100-year flood" sug- gests to some people that a Event Probability of Occurring at flood is expected to occur (Annual Probability) Least Once in once in 100 years. That is mis- leading. It would be more ac- 10 yrs 25 yrs 50 yrs curate to state that a flood 10-year (.10) .65 .93 .99 larger than a defined mag- 25-year (.04) .34 .64 .87 nitude (e.g., 12 feet above 50-year (.02) .18 .40 .64 mean sea level) had a one 100-year (.01) .10 .22 .39 percent chance of occurrence each year; that is, there is a one percent chance that it will be exceeded. There could be opment. To deal adequately with the risks two or more occurrences of of hurricane and storm flooding in a that magnitude in a given year. It is important to note that the coastal area, however, your community probability is the same every should include evacuation planning and year regardless of the time of flood warning systems in its coastal man- the previous occurrence of an agement program (Figure 6). event of that magnitude. (Source ot Table: Gilbert F. Recommended Policy 1: Alteration of White, et al., Natural Hazard Freshwater Wetlands. Management in Coastal Areas, Discourage draining, filling, National Oceanic and At- excavation, or other alteration of mospheric Administration, U.S. freshwater wetlands. Department of Commerce, Freshwater wetlands are ' by definition, Washington, D.C., 1976.) flooded all year or for a significant part of the year. Water gives wetlands their spe- in the potential of flooding during storms. cial character and value. If they are Draining of wetlands may also have drained and dried out, even partially, that other far-reaching adverse effects, such as character and value is lost. Once drained lowering the water table or destabilizing for building sites, wetlands may undergo runoff flow into estuaries. By reducing the gradual irreversible subsidence, thereby capacity of the hydrologic system to store causing sinking and fracturing of founda- storm water, draining wetlands also raises tions, streets, and sewers, and an increase the risk of riverine and estuarine flooding. 41 Z 41 71, Figure 6. Before and during a hurricane like Camille, escape roads may become impassable; therefore, advance flood-warning systems and evacuation planning are critical. (Photo courtesy .@OL@ Alvin Samet, National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, Florida.) 21 The Corps of Engineers predicts from a Recommended Policy 2: Protection study of the Charles River Basin in Mass- of the Edge-Zone. achusetts that if 40 percent of the wetlands Protect the edge-zone bordering in that area were lost, flood levels in the coastal waters from alteration. middle and upper river would increase from two to four feet and could cause 12 There has been a great loss of coastal million dollars in increased damage in one floodlands edge-zone because of a general flood.' lack of appreciation of this zone's ecologic Your community should, therefore, try value and its role in resisting storm and to preserve its wetlands, not drain them. erosion hazards. The edge-zone that lies at In addition, because of the potential ad- the lower edge of the floodlands has of- verse consequences of reducing wetland ten been flattened because a homeowner benefits, you should generally avoid fill- wants to build and landscape right to the ing, excavation, or other surface alteration water''s edge or a farmer wants to open up of freshwater wetlands, whether for as much land as possible for planting or dumps, home sites, landscaping, or ag- grazing. When edge-zones are cleared of riculture. Wetlands should not be used as vegetation, graded, built on, or otherwise sites for solid-fill roads, causeways, or obliterated or seriously altered, the result other structures that would obstruct water may be the loss of critical wildlife habitat flow. Unavoidable roadways through wet- and natural visual screen and an increased lands or over wetland swales should be potential for water pollution, bank ero- elevated on structures, pilings, or columns, sion, and damage from storm surges and rather than placed on fill. waves. It is important to note that struc- Wetlands can, however, be used for tures placed in this lowest, most haz- light-duty, pile-supported structures such ardous, part of the floodlands are ex- as boat houses, boat shelters, fences, duck tremely vulnerable in moderate to severe blinds, footbridges, observation decks, and floods, particularly when the edge-zone's so on. If properly designed, these should vegetation is removed. have no major detrimental effect on wet- Because of variations in landform, flood- land functions. lands may have edge-zones of greater or Although there are important ecological lesser value; therefore, you have to evalu- differences between freshwater and salt- ate each case. The most concentracted eco- water wetlands, management requirements logical values would be expected where for the two are quite similar. Therefore, the edge-zone is a dense strip of scrub or the more detailed management recommen- bush that grades quickly upward to a dations in the Saltwater Wetlands section stand of mixed hardwood trees, which (pp. 52-64) are largely applicable to then grades quickly into open field or into freshwater wetlands. a different or less-dense type of forest. Slope Slight Erosion Moderate Erosion Severe Erosion M Vt (m)] Ift (m)] [ft (m)l 0 30 (9) 35 (11) 45 (12) 10 55 (17) 65 (20) 80 (24) 20 80 (24) 95 (29) 115 (35) 30 105 (32) 125 (38) 150 (46) Table 2. Minimum filter strips for cropland water-quality restoration, recommended to the U.S. Agricultural Research Service for soils with varying eroijon problems (arbitrary scale). For exam- ple, a 10 percent slope with a slight erosion problem would require a 55-foot filter strip. (Source: Paul Pacobson and Walter Weiss, Farming Terraced Land, revised by R.C. Barnes, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture Leaftet No. 335, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973.) 22 .. ........ Ji A", !Z7 Figure 7. A strip of natural vegetation, or buffer strip, should be required between open fields and water bodies for wildlife habitat and water quality protection. (Photo by John Clark.) The best way to protect the edge-zone is nitrate and other agricultural chemicals. A to set it aside as a "buffer area" or 'I)uffer wide buffer is particularly important in strip" and prescribe only non-altering uses areas where the land surface slopes steeply of it through special performance stan- toward the water.' All setbacks should be dards. In addition to conserving critical increased where needed to include values wildlife habitat and lowering flood hazard in addition to water quality, such as wild- and erosion potential, the unaltered buffer life habitat. strip of natural vegetation and soil just You can find many uses for buffer strips above the wetland or water's edge (i.e., that are compatible with conservation of above the one-year flood mark) provides a edge-zones. Buffers can often be special visual screen and an "anti-pollution" zone, croplands-for example, close-growing or "filter strip," to intercept runoff and crops (grasses) that have matted root sys- helps to purify water by soil infiltration tems and require no fertilizers or pes- and vegetative "scrubbing".' Where the ticides. The area can be set aside as open lower floodland slope is moderately steep space or used for certain types of rec- or the edge-zone relatively narrow, the reation. For example, light-duty structures natural edge-zone may need to be pro- often are acceptable, if they can fit into the tected by a wider buffer strip? natural landscape and can be accommo- For agriculture, the width of a buffer dated with little clearing, grading, paving, strip should vary according to soil and and excavation. You can incorporate such water-table characteristics, slope, climate, requirements in local zoning or subdivi- and type of vegetation used. You must also sion regulations, though some cornmuni- consider the nature of the farm opera- ties use other techniques, such as special tion-time of harvest, amount of cul- permits with environmental review. tivated area, type of crop, amount and type The policies for edge-zone protection in of fertilizer and biocide, tillage techniques, coastal uplands should be identical to and so forth. Table 2 gives some rec- those for coastal floodlands. Specifically, ommended minimum setbacks for agricul- setbacks providing for protection of the ture based on water quality requirements. edge-zone, with additional buffers if nec- Setbacks should be required along all essary, along freshwater wetlands, water- watercourses and coastal shorelines (Figure courses, and lakes and ponds of the up- 7). A setback distance of 150 feet, in com- lands should be required and follow the mon use for the protection of streams and guidelines suggested above. It should be other water areas, will often be sufficient noted that edge-zone buffers will often be for soil-erosion control. Additional width needed most along shores not protected by will be required to provide for removal of wetlands. 23 Recommended Policy 3: Alteration materials, ranging from lattice concrete of Watershed Terrain. blocks to perforated bricks to standard Discourage clearing, grading, and paving bricks with spacing lags. surfacing that would adversely alter These surface-management techniques the water retention potential of the are also valuable in protecting the re- watershed terrain. charge potential of groundwater resources. Aquifers are naturally recharged by rain Clearing coastal watersheds of vegetation percolating through from the land surface and covering them with an impervious or laterally from a lake or stream. Using surface causes major alterations in the impervious surfacing, removing vegeta quality, volume, and rate of storm-water tion, and draining land in recharge areas runoff. The higher the amount of paved will divert waters that otherwise would surface, the more rapidly the runoff surges filter into groundwater aquifers. into coastal waters. In single-family devel- Since the needs for terrain management opments zoned at one dwelling unit per in coastal uplands are identical to those for acre, impervious surface can run as high as floodlands, the above suggestions should 15 to 20 percent of the gross land acreage be implemented uniformly throughout all (with five-acre single-family zoning, the parts of the coastal watershed under your average will be 3 to 5 percent).' local jurisdiction. Conventional techniques can provide Recommended Policy 4: Soil Erosion. most of the protection from runoff needed Reduce to the minimum erosion and by coastal-water ecosystems. In site prep- runoff pollution from construction, aration, grades should be designed to di- agriculture, and logging. rect runoff along natural drainage courses and through natural terrain where the As shown in Table 3, construction sites vegetation can cleanse and filter the water. generally pose a higher potential threat of In paving, surfaces should cover a minimal sediment runoff than the sites of other ma- area, and permeable surfaces rather than jor land activities! Runoff flow from con- solid paving should be used insofar as pos- struction sites often carries enough sedi- sible to permit water infiltration and re- ments, toxic materials, nutrients, coliform duce the costs of artificial storm drains. bacteria, and other undesirable matter to Gravel or crushed rock is the simplest pollute coastal waters. form of permeable paving. It is inexpen- Solutions to soil-erosion problems are sive, widely used, and usually acceptable well known and widely implemented. for private driveways and other surfacing, Erosion-control techniques can be divided needs. There are also other suitable paving into three functional types: (1) entrapment of eroding sediments with vegetated buf- fer strips and sediment-detention ponds; Sediment (2) diversion of runoff from likely erosion Produced areas through grading, diversion cuts, and (tons / scl grassed waterways (swales); and (3) pre- Activity or Use mi/yr) vention of soil movement and erosion, including the use of such methods as re- Construction 48,000 seeding, mulching, and placing of special Cropland 4,800 netting over exposed soils.' Grassland 240 Vegetated buffer strips and such systems Forest 24 as sediment basins can provide sound ero- Disturbed forest 24,000 sion control for on-going construction op- (not clear-cut) Active surface mines 24,000 erations by detaining runoff, trapping Abandoned mines 2,400 sediment, and preventing increased tur- bidities in adjacent water bodies. Your community should implement controls of Table 3. Sediment produced by major land- this sort for all watercourses. use activities. (Source: Midwest Research In- In agriculture, soil erosion can be con- stitute, Methods for Identifying and Evaluating trolled by technical improvement such as the Nature and Extent of Non-point Sources of Pollutants, EPA Con. No. 68-01-1839, improved soil treatment, tillage methods, 1973.) and timing of field operations or control 24 be undertaken to facilitate navigation, to assist in flood control, or to create arable BEFORE CUTTING land. Channelization often lowers the 1% water level in streams and in the riparian 4 - CONTROL water table, increases the rate of runoff TO BE CLEARCUT- and of stream flows, and causes an. in- I I creased potential for flooding by speeding 12m 2-Do 12m 2400 12M JULY 9,1955 JULY 10 JULY 11 the delivery of storm runoff to coastal water basins. Channelization may also in- crease bank and bottom erosion and cause 14 a greater sediment load than in an un- 12 - AFTER channelized stream. Dredge spoil is often CUTTING CLEARCUT deposited on adjacent banks. If this hap- pens, the vegetation is covered and edge- zone habitat eliminated." Insofar as there may be significant envi- 4 - ronmental effects, alteration of streams or 2 - CONTROL other watercourses should be discouraged. Where channel deepening appears jus- o 12w 24M 12w 24M @2oo tified, and there is no practicable alter- JULY il, 1958 JULY 12 JULY 13 native you should conduct a complete assessment of ecological effects, including consideration of estuarine flood hazards Figure 8. Effects of clear cutting on runoff and ecological consequences, before ap- shown by before (control) and after (clear- proving a project. Preservation - of the cut) storm hydrographs. (Source: K. G. Rein- watercourses and water bodies of the hy- hart, A. R. Eschner, and G. R. Trimble, Jr., drologic system is a general environmental Effects on Streamflow of Four Forest Prac- objective, the values of which go far be- tices in the Mountains of West Virginia, U.S. yond coastal needs. Forest Service Research Paper No. NE .I (Upper Darby, Pa.: U.S. Department of Ag- Recommended Policy 6: Land Drainage riculture, 1963].) and Excavation. practices such as terracing, contouring, or Avoid land drainage or other water control." excavation that would adversely alter In forest-harvest activities, both clear-cut the hydrology of floodlands. areas and logging roads cause increased Artificial drainage of watersheds may ad- rates of water runoff and soil erosion (Fig- versely affect coastal ecosystems by accel- ure 8). In clear-cut areas, terracing, com- erating runoff surges to coastal water bas- posting, mulching, and fertilizing help ins, particularly estuaries, via the drainage species planted for erosion control to pros- canals. Also, the intrusion of salt water up- per and, by aiding the restoration process, stream in canals during high-water surges reduce sediment output. Logging trails may increase the flooding of low-lying and roads should be properly located and areas or contaminate groundwater and hu- designed and immediately reseeded to man and agricultural water supplies with speed the restoration process. salt." Drainage of coastal floodland parcels Recommended Policy 5: Alteration by excavation of drainage ditches and ca- of Watercourses. nals that discharge directly (without reten- Discourage straightening, deepening, tion or treatment) to coastal waters gen- diking, or other adverse alteration of erally should be avoided. However, if natural channels of the hydrologic need be, a developer can design drainage systems to include the necessary protection system. functions. Stream channelization-e.g., widening For individual parcels, systems should AFTER CUTT ING CLEAR CUT @C..TR. and deepening the stream channel, be provided with holding basins that al- straightening watercourses to eliminate low sediment to settle and that are of suffi- natural meanders, clearing stream banks, cient capacity to hold the discharge during and constructing dikes or bulkheads-may unusually heavy rainstorms. The basic 25 Figure 9. The proposed water management sub- systerp in this conceptu- al sketch simulates nat- LEGEND ural conditions. (Source: David G. Pyne, "Urban Spreader Waterway Ronald L. Wycoff and R. Major Waterway Water Management and Water Level Control Coastal Wetland Protec- Structure tion in Collier County, Flo Detention Area Florida," Water Re- (Lakode) sources Bulletin, vol. 11, DEVELOPMENT AREA --- Swales no. 3 [19751, pp. 455- 68.) CYPRESS PRESERVATION AREAS US Rt. 41 LIMITED DEVELOPMENT AREA - - Salt Marsh and PRESERVATION I Mangrov AREA f f Tidal Bay principle is: new drainage facilities should floodlands (or uplands) should be sta- be designed as far as possible to approxi- bilized with vegetation before runoff is al- mate closely the natural system of water lowed to be released." They should be de- drainage and to maintain the water table signed to maintain natural groundwater at its historic level. Accordingly, artificial levels through the use of high-level weirs drainage facilities should release water or structures or systems with equivalent from a developed area in a manner ap- performance. proximating the original, natural, local sur- Canals excavated for purposes other face-flow regime by the use of either (1) a than drainage-e.g., for boat access or for spreader pond onsite, or structure with landfill-will have consequences similar equivalent performance, or (2) an adequate to drainage canals and should be con- natural retention-filtration and flow area, trolled accordingly. Canals built for resi- such as a "grassed swale" or vegetated dential areas are vulnerable to pollution buffer strip (Figure 9). from runoff and septic tanks and may pass Drainage canals should generally be dis- the contaminants directly into estuaries, charged into existing natural tributaries causing problems there with turbidity, nu- rather than into new drainageways cut trient input, dissolved oxygen, and mi- through floodlands. Canals should have crobial'activity (Figure 10). gently sloping sides (preferably not Artificial lakes dug in low-lying flood- greater than 6:1). They should also be the lands either as an amenity or to furnish minimum depth necessary to maintain landfill are often troublesome. A frequent reasonable flow and to inhibit cattails and problem is that after flooding by storms, other rooted weed growth (four feet), and theEe lakes may continue to hold salt no deeper than seven or eight feet (Florida water-except what escapes to pollute the specifications). Canals excavated in the water-table aquifer. Lakes too deep may 26 Figure 10. Canals in residential developments are vulnerable to pollu- A. tion, which may be "m passed directly into es- tuaries. (Photo of Sanibel ]@_J@!Z_l el Island, Florida, by John Clark.) Figure. 11. A house ele- vated on piles for pro- tection against coastal flooding (Sanibel, Flor ida). (Photo by John Clark). X@l A- 1@ become stagnant (lack of internal circula- protection against flood damage-espe- tion) and unable to purify themselves dally when foundation anchors are in- naturally. Lakes too shallow tend to choke stalled. The additional cost over grade- up with cattails and sediment. The best level (slab) construction 'is generally 12 to less than the typical policy is to avoid such lakes. If you have 14 percent, slightly I no alternative, strict performance stan- cost of a basement. Dirt fill and slab may dards should be applied-lakes should be cost more than posts or piles once the fill deep enough (more than four feet) to goes over five or six feet." Pile elev ation discourage growth of rooted aquatics and may thus be the best option whereve ir the cattails, and shallow enough (less than required elevation is six feet or more eight feet) to permit the maintenance of above grade, as well as in high-hazard acceptable water quality through wind-in- areas, where anchoring is required and duced turnover. A wide buffer strip of dirt fill is not allowed (Figure 11). The natural soil and vegetation around the ground level area under the first floor of edge of such lakes is recommended. structures elevated on piles can be used for Recommended Policy 7. Construction in appliances, utilities, parking cars, storing Floodlands. boats, etc. There is also an aesthetic incen- Encourage the use of piling supports or tive: in shore locations, elevated structures similar techniques to elevate often have a better view. structures built in floodlands. Ideally, all structures should be built back from the beach and out of the high- Elevated pilings or post supports, familiar hazard area in a safe place. A 10-foot storm features in many coastal areas, provide wave pushed by an average winter storm 27 is said to hit with a force of one ton per One way you can reduce pollution from square foot. A study by the Galveston Dis- floodwate@ runoff is to locate new facilities trict of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with pollution potential out of the flood- showed that non-elevated, wood-frame lands, particularly the lower floodlands. structures were vulnerable for 1,000 to Potential pollution sources that already 2,000 feet back from the shore if they were exist-e.g., garbage dumps, chemical ware- on land lower than 10 feet above mean sea houses, sewage treatment plants-should level and that in lower areas structures be identified as non-conforming uses and closer than 500 feet to the shore would be relocated to high ground when possible. completely destroyed in a severe storm." At the least, these facilities should be Recommended Policy 8: Floodwater floodproofed. Federal pollution regula- Pollution. tions require some facilities- e.g., commer- Prevent pollution from floodwater cial feedlots-to be located above the 25- runoff through proper location and year flood level or to be floodproofed so design of facilities where polluting that public waters are not contaminated substances are stored. during floods." Floodwaters wash a variety of materials Recommended Policy 9: Groundwater into coastal basins. These materials may be Pumping. natural nutrients that are beneficial to To prevent subsidence and aquifer aquatic life or harmful pollutants asso- contamination, limit the use of ciated with general land runoff or supplies groundwater resources. stored at commercial and industrial sites. Control of groundwater use is urgently The effects of harmful substances are par- needed in many communities to prevent ticularly severe where the floodlands drain depletion of aquifers and costly subsidence into small embayments or lagoons with re- of land or contamination of aquifers. The stricted rates of flushing." In general, you issue is of particular importance for coastal should assume that the retreat of flood- floodlands, where overpumping of water waters from a developed area in the lower (or oil) can lead to subsidence of the parts of the floodplain (one to 10-year floodlands and to greater endangerment of flood levels) has a short-term negative im- life and property (Figure 12). Subsidence pact on the ecosystem. of the surface results when land loses the aquifer recharge area before pumping original land surface aquifer sands and undercompacted cla1v clay sand before after water sands and decline in pressure level under-compacted, causes loading with ater-saturated detvatering ofclaYs and aquifer recharge area claYs wbefore pumping volume reduction after pumping -1 --------------------------------- Original artesian level ------ -------------- original land surface present land sioJace decline in artesian level (pie@ometric level) _aquf@r sands and clavs pumping + pressure decline = loading = claY deivatering and volione reduciion = land surface subsidence Figure 12. Near Houston, Texas, overpumping of the groundwater aquifer resulted in shrinkage of underground clays, which caused the land to subside from its original elevation (before pumping) to a lower elevation (after pumping). This lowering of the surface greatly increased flooding hazards in much of the area around Houston. (Source: Diagram adapted from Bostwick H. Ketchum, ed., The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone [Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1972].) 28 Table 4. This table of Number of hurricane landfalls, 1900-1972 27 landform characteristics associated with hurricane Area (square miles) of salt-water flooding, Hurricanes vulnerability on the Texas Carla and Beulah 3,164 coast shows that over 1,300 square miles of Area (square miles) of fresh-waterflooding, Hurricane Beulah 2,187 coastal area has sub- sided more than one foot, Area (square miles) of fresh-water flooding by thereby increasing the hurricane rainfall (floodplains), northern part of flooding hazard. (Source: Coastal Zone only 2,073 Texas Coastal and Ma- rine Council, Pictorial At- Area (square miles) below elevation of 20 feet (MSL): las of Texas Coastal Haz- subject to salt-water flooding by tidal surge 5,787 ards, Austin, Texas, 1977.) Number of active or potential hurricane washover channels 137 Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: greater than 10 feet per year (long term) 47 Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: from 5 to 10 feet per year (long term) 50 Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: from 0 to 5 feet per year (long term) 104 Number of miles of bay and lagoon shoreline erosion 403 Area (square miles) of land subsidence: greater than 5 feet 227 Area (square miles) of land subsidence: from 1 to 5 feet 1,080 Area (square miles) of land subsidence: from 0.2 to 1 foot 5,422 Number of miles at known active surface faults 96 Number of miles of Gulf shoreline 367 Number of miles of bay-lagoon shoreline 1,100 Area (square miles) of bays and lagoons 2,075 Area (square miles) of land in map area 18,000 subsurface support provided by ground- public utilities (water, sewer, gas) and water. In heavily industrialized areas regular flooding of roads may be the first around Galveston Bay, Texas, the land has signs of subsidence. While only a few sunk as much as eight feet below sea level coastal communities appear to have been and many houses are in jeopardy (Table 4). troubled with this type of subsidence so Subsidence has drastically increased the far, others may be in the future. flooding danger and made the area espe- Uncontrolled pumping can also lead to cially prone to disaster in hurricanes. saltwater contamination of groundwater Dikes have been built and pumps installed supplies-a separate, but related problem. to help ward off flooding problems, but The natural head pressures on coastal aqui- such structural protection measures treat fers normally prevent salt water from only the "symptoms" of unmanaged intruding into the fresh water, but over- groundwater pumping-an increase in rel- pumping may cause intrusion. Ground- ative sea level and flooding-and do not water resources of coastal communities are solve the problem. The disruption of local being increasingly jeopardized as aquifers 29 are pumped for industrial and domestic ing groundwater and surface-water re- water use. For example, on Long Island, sources. U.S. EPA programs under the Fed- overpurnping for municipal supplies and eral Safe Drinking Water Act may aid industrial operations caused the freshwater communities concerned with this issue. head to drop as far as 35 feet below sea Recommended Policy 10: Restoration of level, and resulting intrusion of seawater Floodlands Environment. forced Long Island communities to limit Encourage private and community water use and eventually to abandon programs for restoration of beneficial many supply wells." Along California's floodlands functions. populated coast there has been significant seawater intrusion in at least 12 localities. Restoration of floodlands for conservation Currently, the big users of groundwater in of ecologic resources and for rehabilitation coastal areas are municipal water districts of storm-resistant landforms is required in and industry; there is very little demand many coastal communities where uncon- for groundwater use in irrigation. trolled drainage, diversion of water sys- To protect groundwater and land re- tems, and land development projects have sources from seawater intrusion and land led to widespread adverse impacts on subsidence, your community must have watershed drainage systems, which, in sound and comprehensive water manage- turn, has degraded coastal ecosystems. Ad- ment policies. In a total management pro- verse alterations to water and drainage gram, groundwater, surface water, and re- systems are common, the result of filling used water supplies will be inventoried in or draining marshes, bogs, and swamps, and used in a coordinated plan of "con- and/or diversion, obliteration, or chan- junctive" management. Generally, this nelization of natural drainageways. In type of management is accohiplished at some instances, the flow systems of small the local or regional government level, op- watersheds no longer retain runoff ade- erating within a framework of powers and quately because of disruptive site grading. duties established by State statutes. The A high priority should be given to rem- State laws and regulations ought to protect edying such damage through restoration groundwater aquifers from injury and au- programs that (1) reestablish vegetative thorize enforcement both by individual cover and renew the hydrologic balance, property owners who are affected and by (2) conserve soil resources by reducing soil public officials and management districts erosion and providing soil stability, (3) de- charged with the responsibility of manag- ter runoff and reduce damage from floods nr 111011 ME, SP A_ J 7Z@ Figure 13. Many types of detention structures are used to correct flow in disrupted streams. (Photo courtesy Bernard Yokel, Rookery Bay Marine Laboratory.) 30 Figure 14. Retention ponds that store runoff for slow release should be designed to simulate the natural system. (Source: Adapted from OVERFLOW PARKING Joachim Tourbier and PAVED WITH LATTICE .'CONCRETE BLOCKS Richard Westmacott, ASPHALT PARKING LOT .. OR OTHER SEMI- ':PERMEABLE PAVING Water Resources Pro- tection Measures in Land D11 M Development-A Hand ICONCRETE SIDEWALKI 6@:..' book: Water Resources as a Basis for Com- Prehensive Planning and Development of the Chris- tina River Basin. A Proto RETENTION type Project, Phase 11 POND DI DROP INLET WITH SEDIMENT TRAP [Newark, Del.: University DS DOWN-PIPE & SEDIMENT TRAP -4. -STORM SEWER of Delaware, Water Re DIRECTION OF SURFACE RUNOFF sources Center, 19741.) by lowering runoff flow peaks, (4) mini- on-site in any combination of the follow- mize the sediment carried into streams, ing: gravel-filled channels, gravel-filled and (5) enhance aesthetic considerations seepage pits, runoff retention ponds (Fig- and recreational uses. ure 14). In general, existing artificial land-drain- Reservoirs installed on a river can even age facilities should be redesigned to ap- the flow. Floodwaters can be retained. proximate closely the natural system of And in drought periods, reservoirs can re- water drainage and to maintain the water lease water. You should make sure that the table as close to its historic level as pos- minimum flow to the coastal ecosystem sible. This can be accomplished through during dry season is that which prevailed partial or complete refilling of canal sec- under natural conditions." tions, installing elevated sills or weirs, and A damaged or obliterated edge-zone can restoring the edge configuration to pro- be repaired rather easily by rebuilding and vide an appropriate buffer zone (Figure regrading the soil base and replanting 13). with appropriate species. As to subsided Increased flood volume and flood peaks land, because it appears that there is no caused by urbanization. can be counter- practicable way to re-elevate it, fill is per- acted through artificial detention works so haps your only solution. that a natural rate of downstream flow is IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES maintained. For this a thorough knowl- edge of the hydrology of the drainage ba- If your community decides to pursue the sin is required, plus understanding of asso- 10 policies just recommended for manag- ciated factors such as seasonal precipita- ing floodlands, it faces a difficult question. tion, soils, slopes, vegetation, stream flows, How can the policies be translated into ac- and land-use patterns. A project to main- tion? This section of the guidebook is in- tain or restore the pattern of flow can be tended to assist in answering that question designed on the basis of this information. for Policies 1 through 8. (Management Artificial detention should be equivalent concerns for Policies 9 and 10 have been to any natural detention capacity elimi- addressed in the discussion of those poli- nated. cies.) There are many design techniques for The following discussion focuses on two returning rainfall to the soil, by collecting principal kinds of local action: first, modi- water and letting it seep through gravel fying local plans, regulations, and pro- into the groundwater. Runoff can be held grams to respond to the special needs of 31 floodlands; second, seeking assistance is why you need standards for new devel- available under Federal programs that af- opment. fect floodlands. To implement the policies There'are places within the floodplain, in these ways, you should be prepared to however, where excluding development is address four principal management needs: especially important from the twin per- First, excluding development from key spectives of avoiding hazards and pro- areas within the floodlands, in accordance tecting ecological values. Two of these with Policies 1 (Alteration of Freshwater places-freshwater wetlands and the edge- Wetlands) and 2 (Protection of the Edge- zones bordering wetlands and coastal wa- Zone). ters-are located in floodlands. Two of the Second, avoiding adverse alteration of recommended policies for floodlands (Pol- floodlands terrain and natural water sys- icies I and 2) call for excluding develop- tems. Floodwater retention, a key factor in ment from wetlands and edge-zones. mitigating the severity of coastal floods, While achieving ecological objectives, can be significantly influenced by man- these policies also exclude development made alterations of terrain and water- from most "high hazard" and "erosion courses. Alteration of terrain also changes prone" areas in floodlands. the amount of "diffuse source" water pol- Regulatory techniques that you already lution-erosion sediment, fertilizers, pest- use throughout your community are often icides, and the like-that reaches coastal sufficient to protect the vital areas of waters. Soil-conservation programs and floodlands. These areas may be designated controls on land clearing, paving, drain- in local subdivision regulations as pre- age, and channel alteration are among the ferred sites for floodwater detention. The measures needed to protect against these edge-zone can be protected in most cases problems, which are discussed in Policies with a simple setback or buffer require- 3 (Alteration of Watershed Terrain), 4 (Soil ment in zoning, subdivision, or building Erosion), 5 (Alteration of Watercourses), controls. Requiring notation of flood-haz- and 6 (Land Drainage and Excavation). ard or wetland areas on recorded subdivi- Third, establishing standards for new sion plats may also be feasible in some development in floodlands, in accordance situations." with Policies 7 (Construction in Flood- Your efforts to pass or enforce regula- lands) and 8 (Floodwater Pollution). Thou- tions prohibiting development in wetlands sands of American communities already (or even in large edge-zone areas) may have regulations intended to protect prop- encounter vigorous objections from affect- erty against future flood hazards. These ed property owners, who may raise politi- regulations respond, in part, to the most cal objections (in essence, that preserving far-reaching federal initiative affecting wetlands doesn't justify the resulting pri- floodlands: the National Flood Insurance vate economic loss) or legal ones (that the Program. To implement Policies 7 and 8, prohibition exceeds a locality's constitu- however, additional requirements are nec- tional or statutory powers). Anticipating essary. such objections, you should consider ways Fourth, defining the boundaries of to make the burden of regulation as light floodlands for management purposes. as possible, while still achieving the nec- Since your community will be establishing essary protection, and also devise non- development standards for floodlands, you regulatory methods of protecting vital will have to define the boundary of that areas. 21 area with some precision. One way to make prohibitions less bur- I. Excluding development from key areas densome is through special zoning des- within the floodlands. ignations such as planned unit develop- If avoidance of hazards and ecological meni (PUD), transfer of development protection were the overriding objectives rights (TDR), or cluster-development pro- of floodplain management by local gov- visions. With such designations, you may ernments, you might decide to exclude ur- be able to permit the same (or nearly the ban development from the entire flood- same) amount of development that would plain, including the floodlands. In fact, be permitted if the vital area were not pro- public and private needs make total exclu- tected. None of the development would be sion impractical in most communities. That in the vital area, however. Instead, it 32 would be clustered on the remaining, governments, although local ordinances higher portions of the developer's prop- are usually respected by Federal agencies. erty. Although such special zoning des- Second, you may find it difficult to define ignations can be extremely useful, they the precise areas from which development may be unworkable in some situations is to be excluded. -for example, where the total quantity of The following Federal actions may help permitted development is excessive." you overcome these problems: Public-works programming is a non- Federal permits for discharges of dredged or regulatory device that can be used to help fill material. Freshwater wetlands are pro- protect vital areas. If public roads, sewers, tected from harmful discharges of dredged and other facilities are permitted in flood- or fill material by Federal regulations. lands, they may not only be vulnerable to These regulations, established under Sec- damage themselves but may also encour- tion 404 of the Federal Clean Water Act, age further development nearby. Careful are administered by the U.S. Environmen- planning can often reduce these risks. The tal Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. opportunity may be limited, however, Army Corps of Engineers. The regulations when several units of government share require a permit before discharge of responsibility for providing facilities and dredged or fill material into any wetlands, services in the same area" and fail to co- with few exceptions. Permits are issued or ordinate their programs. Previous financ- denied by the Corps of Engineers. States ing arrangements for local public facilities may, however, after meeting certain U.S. may also limit your community's ability to EPA requirements, administer a portion of protect vital areas. In particular, special tax the Corps permit program. Details of this assessments may have given property program, which applies to all wetlands, are owners a legitimate expectation of access discussed in the Saltwater Wetlands section to sewers and other facilities that they (see p. 67). have helped to buy. Nonetheless, public- Executive Order 11988, "Floodplain Manage- works considerations should be and gen- ment." The Floodplain Management Ex- erally can be an integral part of local ecutive Order, issued by the President in floodplain management. 1977, requires Federal agencies to "take Local programs of information and edu- floodplain management into account ... cation, to create awareness of flood haz- and require land and water resources use ards and environmental needs, are another appropriate to the degree of hazard in- useful device to protect vital areas. Private volved" for actions in identified floodplain citizens as well as public officials often areas. The Order specifically prohibits any benefit from such programs. Federal agency from conducting, support- Finally, your community should con- ing, or allowing an action in a floodplain sider acquisition of vital areas. This is a unless there is no practicable alternative common technique to provide protection location or action and, in addition, the without imposing on individuals the fi- Federal agency: nancial burdens that sometimes result -designs or modifies its action to mini- from regulation. The principal disadvan- mize potential harm; and tage of acquisition, of course, is its cost. -prepares and circulates a notice ex- Even if private donations reduce or elimi- plaining why the action is proposed nate the original purchase cost, acquisition to be located in the floodplain (the can create continuing costs as a result of "A-95" review, discussed below, may lost tax revenues and expenses for mainte- be used for this purpose). nance and management. In some cases, the The U.S. Water Resources Council oversees time required for acquisition may also an information exchange system based on prove to be a significant disadvantage." regulations issued by each Federal agency Your community should anticipate two that conducts or supports activities in problems, in addition to those already floodplains." mentioned, when it tries to exclude devel- The agencies likely to undertake or opment from edge-zones and wetlands. support substantial projects-other than First, the policies and regulations it adopts for flood or erosion protection-that some- will usually not control the actions of State times must be located in floodplains in- and Federal agencies and of other local clude: 33 -U.S. EPA, which has a construction local governments are given an opportu- grants program assisting new sewage nity to comment. Where there is no re- treatment plants; gional clearinghouse, the Federal actions -U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm- are reported to a State clearinghouse. ers Home Administration, which as- Instituted as a coordinating mechanism sists a variety of public facilities in ru- at the order of the Federal Office of Man- ral areas; agement and Budget, the A-95 process gets -U.S. Department of Transportation, its name from the file number for the 1%44 Federal aid highway programs; order-OMB Circular A-95. Each Federal -U.S. Department of Commerce, Coast- agency must establish its own procedures al Energy Impact Program and other for reporting actions to the clearinghouses. economic development programs. As a means of communication between Whenever your local government pre- different levels of government, the A-95 pares to comment on proposed federally process works with varying effectiveness, aided actions affecting wetlands or edge- depending on the area of the country and zones, it should consider whether the ac- the Federal agency concerned. tions comply with the letter and the spirit Federal agency definition of "wetlands." Lo- of this Order. calities trying to implement a wetlands Executive Order 11990, 'Wetlands." At the protection policy often find it difficult to same time the Floodplains Executive Order define the term "wetlands." You may find was issued, the President issued the Wet- it appropriate to use the following defini- lands Executive Order. The Floodplains tion established by the U.S. Army Corps of Order requires that the Wetlands Order be Engineers and U.S. EPA in 1977: taken into consideration in establishing Those areas that are inundated or saturated floodplain review procedures. The Wet- by surface or ground water at a frequency lands Order applies to all wetlands and and duration sufficient to support, and that directs "each agency, to the extent per- under normal circumstances do support, a mitted by law, [to] avoid undertaking or prevalence of vegetation typically adapted providing assistance for new construction for life in saturated soil conditions. Wet- located in wetlands unless the head of the lands generally include swamps, marshes, agency finds bogs, and similar areas.' (1) that there is no practicable alter- The reference to "normal" circumstances native to such construction, and is intended to frustrate attempts to cir- (2) that the proposed action includes all cumvent protection by clearing an area practicable measures to minimize of vegetation or temporarily draining or harm to wetlands which may result diking an area shortly before public re- from such use." view. In many respects, the Wetlands Order Adoption of a definition is not, how- resembles the Floodplains Order. Commu- ever, the final step in locating wetlands. nities implementing Policies I and 2 Problems of delineating boundaries re- should note one important difference, main. For convenience, these problems however. If construction does become nec- are considered later, in the section on essary in wetlands, the Wetlands Order re- Saltwater Wetlands (see p. 70). quires that the agency take "all practicable Federal assistance for land acquisition. As- measures to minimize harm to wetlands. sistance in land acquisition may be ... Your community should pay particu available under numerous Federal pro lar attention to this requirement when it grams. For the most part, these programs comments on proposed Federal and fed- are directed at lands with specific re- erally aided construction that affects wet- sources or recreational potential. Many lands. are keyed to State plans or priority lists, A-95 Process. Opportunities to comment e.g., the Land and Water Conservation on proposed Federal actions often arise Fund. Some communities also apply under the A-95 process. Most Federal pro- general assistance such as Community posed development or assistance actions- Development Block Grants from the grants, loans, construction projects, Federal Department of Housing and Ur- etc.-must be presented by Federal agen- ban Development (HUD). More com- cies to regional "clearinghouses," where plete current information will be found 34 in the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assis- coastal floods because of weak root struc- tance.21 tures. Local subdivision controls can set stan- 2. Avoiding adverse alterations of dards for drainage and artificial lakes in floodlands terrain and natural water new residential subdivisions. These con- systems. trols can also require that subdivision maps provide notice of the flooding and Several of the policy-implementation drainage characteristics of particular res- guidelines recommended in other parts of idential areas.' this section will help your community to Promoting soil conservation is far more avoid disruptions of floodlands terrain and difficult. Apart from construction, excava- natural water systems by establishing stan- tion, and other activities that are typically dards for development or setting up a pro- subject to local regulation, it is usually pos- cess to exclude it from edge-zones and sible to promote soil conservation only wetlands. Beside these development-re- through voluntary education and aware- lated plans and regulations, most commu- ness programs. Such programs are well nities will also need to adopt measures established in many rural counties, and that specifically and directly address dis- also in some urban areas, where chemical, ruptions of terrain and water flow. What fertilizer, and sediment problems are com- you will need are: mon. -Measures to discourage alteration of In attempting to prevent disruption of floodland surface (Policy 3); floodlands terrain and natural water sys- -Measures to reduce erosion and run- tems, your community is likely to en- off pollution from construction, ag- counter problems. First, policies of one lo- riculture, and logging (Policy 4); cal government usually have little effect -Measures to discourage stream chan- on other governments, including some nel alteration (Policy 5); drainage and flood-control districts re- -Measures to control land drainage and sponsible for regional stormwater drainage artificial water bodies (Policy 6). programs. Second, although your commu- Your community can respond to these nity is likely to find numerous State and needs in a variety of ways. For decades, Federal programs generally oriented to- many communities have had grading and ward its goals, the programs overlap and land-alteration controls. More recently, may not easily mesh with your local ac- many have also established procedures for tions. Obtaining and using the resources identifying the environmental impacts of available from these programs is some- various activities-e.g., environmental im- times difficult. pact statements or assessments, environ- In addition to Federal programs men- mental site plan review (for new develop- tioned in other parts of this section, the ment), community impact reviews, or the following may help your community to like.2' protect floodlands terrain and natural wa- Even without formal environmental ter systems: analysis, communities often become aware Regional Water Quality Planning (208,plan- of the short-term construction impacts, ning). Section 208 of the Federal Clean such as erosion or clevegetation of the Water Act provides funds to States and edge-zone, that are likely to result from designated regional agencies to prepare new development. Problems of this kind water-quality plans. One of the several can usually be prevented or reduced by objectives of these plans is to provide an standard construction practices like reseed- outline for future Federal investment in ing or sodding. Conditions requiring these sewage-treatment facilities. Many practices can be imposed when your com- communities have first encountered sec- munity grants building or site-alteration tion 208, which was enacted in 1972 and is permission. administered by U.S. EPA, while planning You may also prohibit the planting of or seeking lands for new treatment facili- particular species of trees along flood evac- ties. uation routes. Some Florida communities, An equally important, but less well for example, prohibit the replanting of understood, objective of "208" planning is Australian pines, which pose hazards in control of "nonpoint" sources of pollution. 35 These include the agricultural and forestry these projects require permits from the activities mentioned in Policy 4, as well as Corps under Section 404 of the Federal a number of other problem activities. The Clean Water Act (see p. 68). The U.S. EPA 1977 Clean Water Act Amendments re- and the Fish and Wildlife Service have emphasized nonpoint pollution control in substantial influence on the granting of the regional water-quality plan. these permits and may also be able to pro- After 208 plans are completed and ap- vide useful information and technical ad- proved by U.S. EPA, they are likely to vice to a community seeking to under- have considerable future influence, par- stand the interaction of hazards and eco- ticularly on programming of facilities logical factors in the design of small pro- funded in part by U.S. EPA. Your com- tective works. munities may therefore find it wise to co- Large Corps projects require both a con-, operate actively in the process of im- gressional directive to study the need for plementing these plans. (For further de- protection and, if protection is recom- tails, see the discussion of the U.S. EPA in mended, congressional authorization for Part 11.) the project itself. When specifically au- Rural Clean Waters Program. The U.S. De- thorized by Congress, these projects are partment of Agriculture (USDA) may soon exempt from permit requirements of Sec- play an important role in implementing tion 404 of the Federal Clean Water Act if section 208 of the Federal Clean Water Act. U.S. EPA guidelines are met. This exemp- The 1977 Amendments to the Act au- tion reduces the number'of review pro- thorize $600 million for USDA to help re- cesses in which localities can make their duce diffuse or "nonpoint" sources of views known. As a practical matter, you pollution resulting from poor soil-con- will find the greatest opportunities for servation. practices. Although this USDA presentation of local views during the program would not provide funds to local- study process, and at the time of congres- ities, it would supplement local efforts by sional authorization. (For further details paying rural land users a substantial por- see the discussion of the U.S. Army Corps tion of the costs of land-management prac- of Engineers in Part II.) tices that protect the water system-for in- Regulatory Program for dredged and fill ma- stance, contour farming, or maintaining terial. Federal permit requirements may buffer strips on erosion-prone land. (For prove helpful if your community is trying further details, see the discussion of the to control the construction of artificial ca- Soil Conservation Service in Part II.) nals. If the canals are to be both navigable Federal Flood Control Projects. Flood-pro- and connected to navigable waters, per- tection projects by the U.S. Army Corps of mits are required from the U.S. Army Engineers can sometimes fit in with the Corps of Engineers. Other canals, notably implementation of the recommended poli- agricultural drainage canals not connect- cies on stream channelization and other al- ing to navigable waters, do not require teration of the water system. Different this permit. Nor is the permit required for administrative processes are established for storm-water detention basins or "real es- small and large projects. tate lakes." (Corps regulations contain a The Corps undertakes small projects in special provision intended to prevent the these categories: beach-erosion control, re- construction of navigable channels in the habilitation of flood-control works, flood guise of drainage canals or detention ba- control, navigation, snagging and clearing sins.") for flood control, snagging and clearing Some localities have established their for navigation. In most cases, the Corps own standards for the design of canals and undertakes these projects in response to basins outside Corps jurisdiction. The applications from States, or from local gov- Corps and localities often cooperate in ernments after State review.10 An envi- advising individuals of applicable Federal, ronmental impact statement is prepared. State, and local requirements. During project review there are several op- Coastal Zone Management Program. Fed- portunities for the presentation of local erally assisted coastal zone management views: at the application stage, the impact- programs have been completed in some assessment stage, and the regional "A-95" coastal States and are nearing completion clearinghouse review. In addition, some of in others. These programs may be of assis- 36 tance in dealing with a number of coastal opportunities that will be encountered in development and conservation issues. To trying to implement the policies recom- find out what help will be available, your mended in this guidebook. community will need to know: Second, the act requires Federal agency 1. If your State is participating in the activities significantly affecting the coastal national coastal management effort zone to be consistent with approved State and whether the program has re- coastal zone programs. For example, if the ceived formal approval from the Gov- Corps of Engineers proposed to channelize ernor and the U.S. Secretary of Com- a stream or build a dam that directly af- merce. fects the coastal zone, the agency must 2. The anticipated or existing role of lo- first determine that its project is consistent cal governments in implementing the with the State's coastal zone management program. Some States include local program. Where local plans are an element coastal programs as elements of the of the State coastal zone management pro- State program. gram, your community may also have a 3. The boundaries of the State coastal significant, though indirect, influence over zone, as defined by the program. (Al- Federal agency decisions affecting the though some of the places described coastal floodplain. (For further details, see in this manual will be within the the discussion of the Office of Coastal coastal zone boundary, others may Zone Management in Part 11.) not be.) National Environmental Policy Act, Environ- 4. The policies established by the pro- mental Impact Statements. Since 1969, the gram and the means established to National Environmental Policy Act implement them. (NEPA) has required Federal agencies to 5. The location or nature of "areas of consider environmental consequences be- particular concern" identified by the fore making decisions. To this end, an program, and any provisions estab- environmental impact statement (EIS) lished for their management. must be prepared, first in draft and then The State coastal zone management pro- in final form, before an agency undertakes gram may provide: a convenient focal actions "significantly affecting" the envi- point for identifying other State programs ronment.' that complement the Federal assistance Your community is likely to encounter and management programs discussed here; EIS procedures when it seeks Federal fi- a means of identifying particular legal nancial assistance (for instance, for sew- constraints and tools that may affect local age-treatment facilities construction actions to protect environmental quality grants). You ought also to be aware of the and avoid hazards; technical data needed opportunity the EIS procedure gives you to identify management boundaries within to influence other Federal actions. The the State"s coastal zone (or "coastal man- administrative process differs somewhat agement area"); technical or regulatory from agency to agency, each of which backup in management decisions for the writes its own detailed regulations. In ev- protection and development of the coast; ery case, however, there must be an op- and control of other governmental actions, portunity for public agencies and individ- particularly Federal agency actions, that uals to comment on a draft statement may adversely affect local coastal re- before the final environmental impact sources. statement is prepared. The Council on Two elements of the Federal program Environmental Quality has issued regula- are of particular interest: tions governing the procedure, and the First, it contains requirements for par- Office of Federal Activities in U.S. EPA ticipation by the public and by local gov- plays a key role in overseeing it. ernments. The State must conduct hear- The purpose of the EIS review process is ings and solicit local agency comment on to produce well-informed, environmen- elements of the State program. In addition tally sensitive decisions by Federal agen- to enabling local governments to call for cies, through analysis of the likely effects more effective State programs, these hear- of proposed actions and alternatives. The ings and comments may contribute to local regulations guiding the NEPA process em- awareness of some of the problems and phasize coordination and integration of 37 various Federal requirements for environ- gested, but not required, by the NFIP mental review. EISs should include in- regulations are needed. First, in circum- formation necessarV to implement the stances where protection of ecological fea- Wetlands and the Floodplains Executive tures requires it (e.g., in freshwater wet- Orders (see pp. 33-34 and 69). The public lands) structures should be elevated on review required under the orders can be pilings rather than on fill. Second, certain included in public hearings and comment activities that are likely to cause serious on the EIS. The EIS should also consider pollution if there is a flood (e,g., the whether a proposed Federal action is con- production and storage of toxic chemicals) sistent with other Federal and State re- should be excluded from floodlands. quirements, such as those established by In addition to the NFIP, two other Fed- the State coastal zone management pro- eral programs are particularly likely to af- gram or by the Federal Clean Air or Water fect the efforts of coastal communities to Acts. establish standards for development in A number of States have adopted "little floodlands: the Flood Plain Management NEPAs" based on the Federal model. Services program of the Corps of En- These may provide an additional opportu- gineers and the Coastal Zone Management nity to obtain environmental review. A Program. A description of the NFIP and few cities have also set up this kind of pro- the Corps program follows; the Coastal cess. In most cases, States and cities at- Zone Corps program follows; the Coastal tempt to follow procedures similar to the Zone Management Program is discussed Federal ones. on pp. 36, 70, 78, and 88. 3. Establishing standards for new The National Flood Insurance Program. Estab- development in floodlands. ished in 1968, the National Flood Insur- ance Program (NFIP) prqvides Federal Thousands of American communities have flood insurance to owners of property in adopted regulations to reduce the likeli- participating localities.' Some 14,000 local- hood that new structures in floodands will ities participate in the program, which is be seriously damaged by future floods. administered by the Federal Emergency Typically, communities require that new Management Agency (FEMA). The agency or rebuilt structures within the floodlands works with a liaison official in each State be elevated above anticipated flood levels government and directly with localities as or, for some commercial structures, flood- well. proofed." The requirements may be in- At the heart of. the program for each cluded in building codes, or zoning or participating locality is the Flood Insur- subdivision regulations, or in separate ance Rate Map (FIRM), which shows the "floodplain regulations," depending on boundaries of flood-hazard areas and an- State law and local convenience." ticipated flood levels within them. (Figure For many coastal localities, particularly 15 illustrates a typical FIRM for a coastal those with large areas of floodlands, area.) adopting these regulations is often politi- To limit future flood damage (and thus cally unpopular. Enforcing them may to keep the cost of insurance and disaster prove more difficult still. Yet the regula- relief within reasonable bounds), localities tions exist, sometimes because local of- that want to participate in the program are ficials have perceived and responded in- required to adopt regulations controlling dependently to the threat of flood hazard construction within the flood-hazard areas and sometimes because they wish to par- identified on the FIRM. These local regula- ticipate in the National Flood Insurance tions must satisfy a number of FEMA Program (NFIP), which establishes certain requirements. For example, the regulations minimum requirements to be adopted by must require most kinds of new develop- participating communities." ment in the flobdIands to be elevated If your community has adopted local above the anticipated level of the "100- regulations in compliance with NFIP regu- year flood." lations, you may believe that nothing At present, many participating commu- more is needed for adequate protection of nities do not have a FIRM and are there- floodlands. However, to implement Poli- fore unable to enter what is called the cies 7 and 8, two kinds of standards sug- "regular" phase of the program. (FEMA 38 KEY TO SYMBOLS 01 ZONE B ZONE DESIGNATIONS- WITH DATE OF IDENTIFICATION is, 12/2)74 Q Base Flood Elevation Line -513 Sase Flood Eleyation (513'MSL) 9TH ST. 02 Elevation Referernoe Mark RM7 x River Mile - M1.5 EXPLANATION OF ZONE DESIGNATIONS A flood in..nsnce mal, displays the zone designations for a comm,nitV oording to areas of designated flood hazards, The zone designations used by F, A are: Zone Symbol Category W. A Arm .1 special flood hazards (SFHI and with.., > base flood slevations determined. Al through A30 Arm of special flood hazards ISFH@ with We. :lood alevations. Zones are =signed atcordilg to 03 lo.d hazard factors, and let. of S1. id-tifica. t.... W AD Arm of si-ial flood hazards that have shallow flood damhs (less than two feef) anci/or -PVict. W able flow pethe. em, flood alevetions ar not d-mi.ecl. Q V Arm of sl-is4 flood hazards, with v@locity, that ATLANTIC .1. inundated by title$ flood,. Zones are amigned otording to flood hazard f-ors and datax I SFH > alf iden,tilicat,on. OCEAN 8 Arm of moderate flood hazards. C Arm of minimal flood he-,&. 0 Area of undetermined. but possible, flood hazards. 04 CONSULT NFIA SERVICING COMPANY OR LOCAL INSURANCE. AGENT OR BROKER TO DETE MINE IF PROPERTIES IN THIS COMMUNITY ARE ELIGIBLE FO: FLOOD INSURANCE. W1 INITIAL IDENTIFICATION DATE: APRIL 17,1970 INTERIM MAP REVISION EFFECTIVE JULY 1, 1974 TO CHANGE ZONE DESIGNATIONS MAP REVISED DECEMBER 26,1975 TO REFLECT CURVILINEAR FLOOD 13OUNDARY 1Z I 0 05 Fed" Imurance Adirlia*vation FLOOD HAZARD BOUNDARY MAP H -01-05 FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAP 1 -01-05 MAP INDEX CITY OF OCEANCITYN.J. (CAPE MAY CO.) COMMUNITY 11110.345311013 Figure 15. A Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). (Source: Federal Insurance Administration, Fed- eral Emergency Management Agency.) 39 9 COFIPORATE LIMITS I I ATLANTIC CEAN ZONE V6 @EL 10FT MSQ -7/70 1 I I - - - JOINS 02 oll"", c CORPORATE rS z .50 @i Z 0 z FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY APPROXIMATE SCALE Fedml Imumace Admirimtsom 1.00 0 imo =oo 3000 FEET CITY OF OCEAN CITY,N.J. I CIE MAP REVISE (CAPE MAY CO.) FLOOD HAZARD BOUNDARY MAP H -02 CEMSe R 26,1975 FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAP I - 02 41 CoFtpos T 0 < EDERAL EMEHGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY APPROXIMATESCALE Fedmi I munce Adrilinistnition low 0 1000 20M 3W0 FEET L10 F-@ CITY OF OCEAN CITY, N.J. I #AAP REVISED FLOOD HAZARD BOUNDARY MAP H -03 DECEMBER 16, 111, (CAPE MAY CO.) FLOOD INSURANCE RATE MAP 1 -03 42 k, I JOINS 03 /0 Z NEV6 s (EL FT MSL? mil. ATLANTIC OCEAN I I I - - --To-iNs o5 - JOINS G4 Penna. - Rodil s.o.h.. R.R. ZONE V6 (EL 10 FT MSL) -7/70 expects to complete the last FIRMs in worked closely with the NFIP. For local- 1983). Instead, communities without ities concerned with floodlands manage- FIRMs remain in an "emergency" phase, ment, FPMS personnel in Corps district of- which relies on less-precise maps (called fices are often able to provide helpful Flood Hazard Boundary Maps) and im- advice on the interpretation and applica- poses looser regulatory requirements on tion of technical data. (For additional de- construction in the community. During tails, see the discussion of the U.S. Army the emergency phase, a limited amount of Corps of Engineers in Part IQ subsidized insurance is available to owners of flood-endangered structures. Additional 4. Defining boundaries of floodlands for insurance, without Federal subsidies, be- management purposes. comes available when the community en- When a community establishes the bound- ters the regular phase of the program. ary of its coastal floodlands, it specifies the Although localities have never been for- areas within which it is concerned about mally required to participate in the NFIP, coastal flooding. On one side of the line, the effect of Federal law during the period in the floodlands, regulations and other 1973-77 came close to requiring participa- measures to respond to flood risks are re- tion. In 1977, congressional action re- quired. On the other side, above the flood- moved specific sanctions that would have lands, they are not. So drawing the line established a cut-off date after which most correctly is important. sources of home mortgage financing Unfortunately, drawing the line is also would be unavailable in nonparticipating difficult. A small fringe of shoreland may communities. Even so, the law still offers flood one year and a large area the next, powerful incentives for local participation depending on the force of storms. The in the NFIP, and thus for adoption of floodland boundary, therefore, is usually regulations meeting FEMA requirements. based on yearly probabilities. In effect, you If your community chooses not to partici- must ask, What areas are likely to be pate, property owners can no longer buy flooded and how often? What is enough to Federal flood insurance, nor are they eli- make flood precautions worthwhile? gible for most types of Federal flood disas- If your community participates in the ter relief after future catastrophic floods. National Flood Insurance Program, it must In evaluating the local effects of the take certain precautions within the "100- NFIP, you should keep in mind the point year flood" mark, which is the elevation already touched upon above: the NFIP is a expected to be reached by a flood having a property insurance program and its re- 1 percent probability of occurrence in any quirements accordingly focus on pro- year. But that is only one standard. Flood- viding property protection. As it happens, ing well above this point does occur. Some property protection regulations can some- communities have experienced 500-year times also protect the environment and floods or even 1,000-year floods in con- provide open space and other public bene- secutive years. So your community may fits. Nevertheless, property protection re- decide to take precautions against floods mains the principal concern of the NFIP greater than the 100-year flood, particu- requirements; localities implementing the larly when locating hospitals, schools, fire- management policies for floodlands will houses, and emergency evacuation struc- need to take a number of other initiatives. tures. The Federal Floodplains Executive (For additional details, see the discussion Order 11988 requires this approach in Fed- of the Federal Emergency Management eral decision making. The U.S. Army Agency in Part 11.) Corps of Engineers uses a higher mark in Flood Plain Management Services. Since its flood projects for urban and urbanizing 1960, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers areas. So does U.S. EPA in reviewing plans has conducted a comprehensive Flood for sewage treatment facilities." Plain Management Services program After a probability level is selected, (FPMS)." This program has provided there remains the difficulty of determin- many coastal communities with reports ing the precise elevation and boundary of and maps detailing anti@ipated flood. risks the resulting floodlands (Figure 16). and possible responses. Storm-surge projections over land are dif- Since 1968, the FPMS program has ficult to make because the shape and size 45 1. Field survey steps: (a) level transit, (b) read rod at bench mark (B.M.) MSL (Mean Sea Level), (c) add 4' to B.M. = 4'MSL, (d) subtract 2' to find 2'MSL ground. 2. Interpolation: The floodplain limit is found by interpolating the distance between known elevations A-MSL and B-4'MSL 3. Scaling steps: (a) locate base points (A-A, B-B) identifiable on map and field. (b) scale distance between points an map, (c) measure distance in field from same points. After the regulatory flood profile is known, field survey (1), interpolation (2), and scaling (3) are three independent techniques for locating the floodplain on the ground. Scaling is the only method for locating the floodway. The floodplain limit in all 3 drawings is at an elevation of 2' MSL. The field survey is the most accurate method. Scaling is a common substitute for a field survey. Figure 16. How floodplains and floodway boundaries of tidal rivers are surveyed in the field. (Source: ASPO Planning Advisory Service, Regulations for Flood Plains, No. 277, Chicago, Ill., 1972.) of major landforms in floodlands have a Engineers working with flooding have direct relation to flow patterns, water ele- developed methods of flood prediction vation, and total extent of the floodwaters. that depend in part on experience, but also Alteration of these landforms, including on complex hydrologic, meteorologic, and excavations, artificial fills, and structural topographic calculations, and on other in- barriers, can alter flood patterns and flow formation. These methods have been ap- velocities." plied with various refinements to predict 46 flood hazards for many coastal commu- differentiate erosion-prone areas ("E" nities and are presently being standard- zones). In addition, you may find the ized by the National Flood Insurance Pro- NFIP data useful in determining elevation gram to produce more uniform and "true levels for frequent floods. (The map also to experience" results in calculating or includes the floodway, the riverine ana- rev ising Flood Insurance Rate Maps. logue of the coastal high-hazard area, The methods of determining a flood- which is not considered in this book.) lands boundary still leave a gap between Community participation in the prepara- local experience with past floods and the tion of the FIRM begins when early visits experts' predictions of the future, some- are made to the site for what are called times producing results that local residents "time and rate" studies. Your community find unrealistic. Even when the methods may wish to outline its policy objectives work well, the resulting boundary is estab- and needs at that time. When the map is lished according to probable future hazard completed, there are also opportunities for and may, therefore, include areas that technical comment and appeals. have never experienced flooding'in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps past. When this happens, building stan- provides assistance under FPMS in deter- dards for elevation and erosion control are mining boundaries for frequent floods, often difficult to "sell" to local residents. and boundaries that relate to the Corps' Your community should be aware that Regulatory Program, which is discussed in rough calculations, based largely on ex- the Saltwater Wetlands section (see p. 67). perience, can identify areas subject to fre- Older studies of coastal flood hazards done quent flooding (roughly a 10-year, or 10 by the Corps include references to the percent probability, flood). These areas are Standard Project Flood, a very large likely to be not only "high hazard" (where flood-about half the maximum possible. there is a special danger from waves and This concept is not used in FIRMs of the rushing water), but also ecologically im- NFIP, and is derived by a different meth- portant (vital wetlands or edge-zones, for od from that used to determine the 500- example). The correlation between fre- year flood in FIRMs.` quent flooding, high hazard potential, and U.S. Geological Survey. Frequent-flood ecological importance is approximate. But boundaries based on physical data-soil there is a close interrelationship among characteristics, vegetation, etc.-can often these three in particular parts of the flood- be derived (very roughly) from maps and plain. Since the frequently flooded areas data of the U.S. Geological Survey." For are likely to include edge-zones and wet- some areas of the edge-zone, other Federal lands, mapping of frequently flooded areas agencies, such as the U.S. EPA, the Fish can help in efforts to protect edge-zones and Wildlife Service, and the National and wetlands against development. Map-, Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ping frequently flooded areas does not, can supplement the information from the however, provide the information needed Survey-for instance, from the National for building-elevation standards. Wetlands Inventory (U.S. Fish and Wild- Because of the cost of calculating 100- life Service)' or remote sensing experi- and 500-year flood elevations and map- ments (U.S. EPA, research division)." ping the resulting boundaries, most local- ities must rely on State and Federal pro- grams that determine flood-hazard boun- daries. In particular, you should be aware of the following Federal processes: The National Flood Insurance Program. Boun- dary information in the Flood Insurance Rate Map (not the Flood Hazard Boundary Map, which some communities are still us- ing) will include two upper boundaries, the 100-year and 500-year predicted floods. The map will also show numbered actuar- ial risk zones, will differentiate coastal high-hazard areas ("V" zones), and may 47 jf @ 41 "M @, AN-- 47, itV. "t` %7 11 X@ 5, If ME 4" A I vo re--W &TV Saltwater Wetlands 'o*r Saltwater wetlands-marshes a nd mangrove 12. Wetland Hydrologic Alteration: Dis- IF swamps-are a vital component of the coastal courage activities that alter the natural environment. They support waterfowl, nourish water systems of wetlands, such as drain- marine life, cleanse the waters of the coast, dimin- ing and diking. ish storm flooding, and beautify the shore. These 13. General Welland Construction: Re- services increase in value as coastal communities quire structures to be designed so that they grow. The more intensely developed an area, the do not degrade wetland functions, more crucial is the need for wetland preservation 14. Welland Roadway Crossings: Require through land-use controls and special regulations roadway crossings through wetlands to be (Figure 1). elevated above the wetland surface. The wetlands discussed in this section, salt- 15. Pollutant Discharge into Wetlands. water wetlands, are both influenced by tides and Restrain the alischarge of pollutants into washed by salty coastal waters (more than 0.5 wetlands. parts per thousand salt). Saltwater wetlands are 16. Restoration of Wetlands. Whenever most simply defined as places along the shore possible, restore degraded wetlands to func- where vegetation grows that 'can tolerate satu- tion naturally. rated salty soil. They extend landward to the ECOLOGICAL FEATURES yearly limit of normal tidal flooding (Figure 2). (Freshwater wetlands-including the tidally in- Saltwater wetlands provide an especially fluenced coastal type that occur inland of the valuable habitat for a variety of important saltwater front as well as the regular, nontidal in- coastal species. Waterfowl and shorebirds terior types-are considered in the discussion of are well known and highly valued inhabi- Floodlands.) tants of wetlands, as are alligators and The Federal government and many States muskrats. Less evident but equally impor- regulate wetland use. Your community's coastal tant inhabitants are crabs, shrimp, and the management program should protect and restore tiny juvenile stages of commercial and wetlands to the maximum extent possible, follow- sport fishes, along with numerous forage ing policies 11 through 16: species of fish and invertebrates! 11. Welland Surface Alteration: Restrain The vegetation of saltwater wetlands, activities that alter the surface of wetlands, particularly red mangroves and cord grass such as excavation, filling, clearing, paving, (Spartina), also provides the primary pro- and grading. ductivity that is the base of the aquatic food chain. Using the sun's radiant en- Figure 1. Wetlands are especially valuable to ergy, the plants convert inorganic com- urbanized areas where they are particularly pounds (nutrients) and carbon dioxide, rare and always subject to development. which are dissolved in water, into leaves (Photo of Ballona Wetlands by John Clark). and other plant tissue where energy is 3 49 '40 N wk A 14,1 @@A A 2:,- LZ V Figure 2. The inner limit of saltwater wetlands is often marked by the highest elevation of salt- tolerant wetlands vegetation, indicated above by broken white line. (Photo by M. Fahay.) MARSH PLANT S M A R S H 40' _ilk ANIMALS SEA WATER NUTRIENTS ORGANIC INORGANIC 0 A/VIC C4 FLOATING PLANTS ANIMALS -40@ Figure 3. The wetland ecosystem recycles energy through a process that returns inorganic nu- trients to the marsh plants. (Source: J.S. Rankin, Jr., "Salt Marshes as a Source of Food," in Connecticut's Coastal Marshes, The Connecticut Arboretum, Bulletin No. 12 [New London: Connect- icut College, 1961].) 50 stored. When leaves fall into the water, cleanse it of contaminants is of major they are broken down by bacteria and be- importance, particularly in areas under- come small particles of "organic detritus." going heavy development in the uplands This detritus provides food for shrimps, and floodlands. Dissolved nutrients from fiddler crabs, worms, shails, and mussels, freshwater runoff and spring tide flows which in turn provide nourishment for are also absorbed and stored temporarily larger fish, birds, and mammals higher on for later release in periodic pulses as either the coastal food chain (Figure 3). dissolved nutrients or organic detritus or Wetland vegetation removes silt, toxic both. chemicals, and excess nutrients from coast- Lower wetlands collect and store dis- al waters. The silt settles out on the marsh solved mineral nutrients washed down surface, while the nutrients and toxic from the upper wetlands. Here, too, the chemicals are removed as water passes nutrients are used for plant growth and through plants. Under optimum condi- stored in plant tissues, which in turn tions a marsh can handle a considerable decay and are washed as particles into load of pollutants; for example, a marsh of coastal waters, where they provide organic 1,000 acres may be capable of purifying detritus to nourish the food chain of the the nitrogenous wastes (i.e., nitrates in coastal-water ecosystem. About half the sewage) from a town of 20,000 people! plant tissue created in the grass marshes Ecologically, saltwater wetlands are di- and mangrove swamps of the lower wet- vided into upper wetlands (those above lands is flushed out into coastal waters .3 mean high water) and lower wetlands (be- If wetland vegetation were eliminated, low mean high water) (Figure 4). The up- the food supply, and thus the carrying per wetlands contain salt-tolerant plants capacity of the coastal ecosystem, would be that prosper in soil sporadically flooded by greatly reduced. Research has demon- tides. Upper wetlands are usually grass- or strated a direct positive relationship be- rush-vegetated high marshes or meadows, tween acres of marsh and abundance of except in tropical regions, where they may fish (judged by the harvest of fish per acre be mostly swamps dominated by black and of "fishable" coastal waters edged with white mangroves. The capability of upper marsh). In one typical case-a North Caro- wetlands to receive the flow of runoff and lina estuary studied by Dr. Richard Wil- g IA N@e rwi V, Iol A @T VIf SILO 7@; Figure 4. The upper wetlands (foreground) are often clearly distinct from the lower wetlands (background) in saltwater wetlands. (Photo by John Clark.) 51 liams-the life-support capability of the to be determined, dissipate and reduce the estuary declined 50 percent after destruc- velocity of storm waves. The black man- tion of the associated marsh.' groves of the upper wetlands, located in Saltwater wetlands often are not vege- the bank behind the red mangroves, prob- tated all the way to the low-tide mark, but ably further reduce the severity of storm become tideflats in their lower reaches. surges. These flats are often rich sources of basic Salt marshes, which are prevalent in the nutrients for the ecosystem and are feed- protected waters of most estuaries, also ing areas for shore and wading birds may provide some frictional dissipation of when exposed at low tide or for fish and flooding, particularly in the broad crustaceans when covered at high tide. stretches of vigorous cordgrass, spike- Moreover, in many estuaries, the flats pro- grass, or black-grass marshes, and espe- duce a high yield of clams or bait worms. cially in minor storms. The band of reed Recent research has shown that tideflats grass (Phragmites) or of shrub-like plants are an important means of storing energy such as the saltbush (Iva), which often lie in the estuarine ecosystem. If the flats and in the edge-zone directly behind the their biota were not present to capture vi- marsh, may also assist in checking the tal dissolved chemical nutrients (such as storm surge. In addition, the high marshes phosphates, nitrates, nitrites, and ammo- (upper wetlands) of the smaller, more con- nia) essential to the food chain, the, nu- fined estuaries may have some capacity to trients would be swept out of the marsh absorb floodwaters and to reduce the lev- zone with the ebbing tide.' els of minor floods. HAZARDS Wetland vegetation stabilizes estuarine shorelines and prevents erosion. Man- Saltwater wetlands can help to protect grove trees actually can extend the land's communities from sea storms. Mangrove edge by trapping sediments and building swamps, paticularly, are credited with the seaward (Figure 5). Salt marshes function natural capacity to reduce the severity of in a similar manner in many instances.' coastal hazards from waves and flooding. MANAGEMENT POLICIES The red mangroves of the lower wet- lands, which are found on the front line of Your community should develop clear estuarine shores in south Florida, bear the guidelines for conserving and using its brunt of storm surges and, to an extent yet wetlands and include these in all land-use W @Adventi ti ous roots Prop roots Figure 5. Mangroves can extend the land's edge by trapping sediments in their prop roots, which grow seaward. (Drawing courtesy William Hammond.) 52 %@A V 0; Z, A W re A; 4W. Jz. 7 7@ @xi -T eo@ F,11 v V@ 0% L @L Figure 6. Advanced equipment, operating correctly, can provide trenches for utility lines without causing permanent damage to the marsh. (Photo by Norrel Wallace, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) plans and review procedures. Decisions to low development that is prohibited by the convert wetland areas to real estate-by policies of State or Federal agencies. filling them to create waterfront lots or Recommended Policy 11: Wetland dredging them to make canals-are often Surface Alteration. the subject of extensive controversy. A Restrain activities that alter the surface number of other activities also signifi- of wetlands, such as excavation, filling, cantly degrade coastal wetlands without eliminating them. These activities include clearing, paving, and grading. ditching, draining, impounding, diking, or From the ecological perspective, to keep otherwise , interfering with normal tidal saltwater wetlands functional, you must circulation. Also, pollution from dis- preclude virtually any alternation of the charges of domestic and industrial wastes wetlands and their natural drainageways. may cause serious deterioration of wetland From the hazards-protection perspective, functions. to preserve the capacity of wetlands to It should be the goal of your community dampen the force of storm waves or re- to ensure that wetlands remain function- duce flood heights, you must give wet- ally intact; that is, whatever use you make lands a high degree of protection from al- of saltwater wetlands should not alter teration. them in ways that degrade their natural Accordingly, as a general rule, all ex- functions. A key requirement is not to al- cavation, paving, or surfacing in wetlands iov 53 Figure 7. Canal-side lots on long, ar- tificial dead-end canals dug out of the mangrove forest at Marco Island, Col- lier County, Fla., have caused harmful lop loss of wetlands and serious degrad- ation of water quality. (Photo from Al" Marco Island Development Corpora- tion.) 1. 1W r OL should be avoided. Nor should filling or help, localities resolve the complex tech- grading be permitted: covering wetlands nical issues that arise when wetland devel- with soil disrupts their function as com- opment is proposed. These agencies will pletely as excavation or paving does. Re- have to consider your proposals anyway, moval of natural vegetation through land before giving Federal or State permits for clearing 4nd grading should also be wetland use. Accordingly, your local de- avoided, since vegetation is a most impor- cisions should take account of Federal and tant elementin wetland functions. State policy, which will normally require This "no-alteration" ideal must be tem- you to make every effort to avoid wetland pered with appreciation that wetlands of- alteration. Recently, the U.S. Army Corps ten ring the shores of coastal communities of Engineers issued guidelines for the city and that access through them may be nec- of Sanibel ' Florida, which give specific essary for many purposes. Access can often standards for approval of wetlands devel- be provided without significant alteration opment under Section 404 of the Clean through the use of appropriate develop- Water Act. ment techniques, standards, and restora- Waterfront development that involves tion work. For example, utility lines can dredging wetlands, tideflats, and estuarine often be successfully installed in a marsh bottoms and using the "spoil" to fill and by use of a special trenching machine and elevate the land is very difficult to rec- by effective refilling and replanting of the oncile with protection of wetland func- disturbed surface. The State of New Jersey, tions. It causes more ecological disturbance which routinely gives permits for subsur- than any other type of coastal residential face utility crossings in coastal marshlands development. This is particularly true (but for little else), has found that trenches when canals are dredged and the dredge can be dug and the surface restored, leav- spoil is piled on adjacent wetlands or other ing the marsh functionally intact. Thus, low-lying land to gain elevation and to you can usually allow temporary works to create lots for canal-side homes (Figure 7). install transmission lines (pipelines, elec- The canals often collect storm-runoff pol- tric lines, water lines) that cannot feasibly lutants, which foul wetlands and con- be rerouted-provided that the wetland taminate estuarine waters. Septic tanks soils and surface are restored (Figure 6). installed in filled canal-side lots often Federal and State agencies can often leach nitrogen and other substances into 54 the canal waters so rapidly (often in less der existing roadways with larger ones; (2) than 24 hours) that there is inadequate some existing filled marshes were to be re- time for the purifying action of the soil to graded to intertidal level and planted with cleanse the discharge adequately.' cordgrass; and (3) a hydrologically isolated One way waterfront development might marsh section was to be reconnected and be handled, in subdivisions where the refurbished." wetlands are privately owned, is by clus- Recommended Policy 12: Wetland tering home sites on dry land above the Hydrologic Alteration. wetlands in a planned unit development, Discourage activities that alter the perhaps with an allowance for greater natural water systems of wetlands, than normal density on upland property such as draining and diking. through "transfer of development rights".' For example, Collier County, Florida, Saltwater wetlands depend on wet soils transferred all the development rights and regular flooding. Usually, if they are from a mangrove-edged small coastal is- drained with excavated channels or per- land to a mainland property of the owner? manently impounded with levees-for If a project has apparent public value mosquito control, for example-their char- but reasonably involves some loss of wet- acter is completely changed and their lands, you may consider approval con- value diminished. Far-reaching hydrologic tingent upon "compensatory mitigation," effects due to artificial drainage include: which requires the developer to offer (1) elimination of surface waters; (2) lower- some form of compensation for the losses ing of the water table; and (3) elimination he occasions-for example, construction of of periodic flooding. Even relatively minor an equal acreage of new wetlands within artificial drainage changes may subvert the same ecosystem, or perhaps restoration natural processes and cause wetlands to of some adjacent damaged wetlands to full deteriorate and become disfunctional" function. Acceptance was won for locating (Figure 8). Such changes may also increase an extension of the Nassau Expressway the vulnerability of human life and prop- alongside New York's Kennedy Interna- erty to storms. tional Airport by including the following Drainage of wetlands and low-lying major wetland mitigation directives: (1) floodland edge-zones may also create sub- circulation to the wetland system was to sidence, a lowering of the land surface due be restored by replacing small culverts un- to compaction, drying, and shrinking of 41 R@ a WW_V'@ W 21, Z _Z, 7-7-W Figure B. One of the few remaining wetlands in Los Angeles is seriously degraded by ditching, filling, and bulkheading. (Photo by John Clark.) 55 the surface peats and organic soils. (Local- management, a system of strategic ditch- ized "spot" subsidence occurs when the ing to connect still-water areas to the cir- weight of a structure is too great a burden culation system of the marsh (Figure 9), or for the soil on which it is built.) Sub- (2) diked impoundments with tide gates sidence, which is considered to be ir- that are closed only during the seasons of reversible, greatly increases the danger of maximum mosquito breeding (Figure 10). flooding during hurricanes. The use of levee and dike structures in Recommended Policy 13: General wetlands for mosquito control, wildlife Wetland Construction. management, flood control, or navigation Require structures to be designed so improvement produces both immediate that they do not degrade wetland and long-term ecological changes. The rel- functions. atively recent appreciation of the value of Although protection of wetlands is gen- wetlands has necessitated a closer look at erally incompatible with typical residen- the side effects of many previously ac- tial, commercial, and industrial develop- cepted projects such as impoundments. ment, a variety of special-use structures Some old impoundments will still be ac- can be built in wetlands provided they are ceptable; others will be found too damag- designed in accordance with performance ing to wetlands. standards to prevent degradation of wet- Your community should, therefore, dis- land function. courage drainage or impoundment of wet- You can permit light-duty, pile-elevated lands in favor of other alternatives. Two structures that do not require roadway ac- effective alternatives now in use for mos- cess or alteration of the site through clear- quito control are (1) open-marsh water ing, filling, grading, paving, and so forth. Figure 9. Open-marsh water management plant to eliminate mosquito breeding in many depres- sions (cross-hatched areas on drawing) by ponding (diagonal lines) and ditching. (Source: F. Ferrigno and D.M. Job- bins, "Open Marsh Water Management," in Pro- ceedings of the 55th An- nual Meeting, New Jersey Mosquito Extermination Association.) TIDAL CREEK SPOIL RADIAL DITCH ERIPHERAL BAND DITCH BAND DITCH 56 Figure 10. Seasonal im- poundment on Gumbo Is- land, Fla. Water manage ment devices: (a) spill- way, the low, grassed- over section of dike; (b) culverts with flash boards; (c) culverts with flap-gate; (d) electric Pump, served by under- water cable. (Photo cour- @:4 tesy National Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion.) IF, C Appropriate performance standards would In many cases, the shoreline can be pro- ensure that removal of wetland vegetation tected by grading and planting salt-marsh or interference with surface water and grasses, mangroves, or other vegetation. groundwater flow is minimized. Owners This artificial marsh barrier is likely to of wetlands could be allowed to construct prove the least expensive method of pro- catwalks, piers, boathouses, boat shelters, tection, and it has the added benefit of fences, duck-blinds, footbridges, observa- creating a more biologically productive tion decks, shelters, and other similar shoreline. Many owners will also find it structures in conformity with the stan- more aesthetically appealing than heavy dards (Figure 11). structures (Figure 13). Structures built around the edges of From the engineering viewpoint, soils wetlands present a different set of prob- of wetland areas present obstacles to de- lems and solutions. Except in unusual cir- velopment that often can be overcome cumstances, bulkheads should be placed only by costly construction methods." Ei- landward of the wetlands-i.e., upland of ther organic muck must be removed by ex- the one-year flood level, which marks the cavation and replaced with fill or deep wetlands' upper edge. In addition to dam- piles must be driven beneath the rock to aging wetlands, bulkheads extending into provide a solid base for structures. water areas may adversely alter water cir- In sum, you should limit construction in culation, increase scouring of the bottom, wetlands to light-duty structures not used reduce the surface area of the estuary, and for permanent occupancy. Where there is preempt such vital habitat areas as tideflats already some unavoidable commitment to and shellfish beds (Figure 12). In particu- more intensive use, such as home sites, im- lar, you should withhold approval of bulk- plementing the Federal flood insurance heads built for retention of wetlands -fill, requirement for elevation of homes above since filling the marsh is in any case un- the expected 100-year storm surge level acceptable," would tend to minimize the damage if the 57 lk I zv Figure 1. Walkway, observation platform, and tower in the interior wetlands of Sanibel, Florida. (Photo by Richard Workman, Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation.) :""V J- Ilk, q c k to J. q, i,@ 7!,. 0 v 4 jid; 4 Figure 12. Proper location of bulkheads above the annual flood line and behind marshes and other wetlands will preserve vital habitats while providing protection against erosion and floods. (Photo by Thomas Barnard, Virginia Institute of Marine Science.) 58 elevation is on piles, without fill (see Recommended Policy 14: Wetland discussion in Floodlands section). Accom- Roadway Crossings. panying constraints on permitted density Require roadway crossings through and performance standards to restrict oth- wetlands to be elevated above the er excavation, grading, filling, and paving wetland surface. of the wetland site would add more pro- Although there are engineering tech- tection (Table 1). niques that can reduce the impacts of road- A development permit shall be granted for devel- the floodproofing regulations of this Plan it opment or site alteration in the Mangrove Forest is necessary to drive pilings below the level Zone only if the applicant has demonstrated that of the aquiclude, such penetration shall be the proposed development or site alteration: sealed according to the best technology available to avoid saltwater intrusion; Geology 5) will not involve the use of a septic tank or other mechanisms or devices that could re- 1) will not result in the permanent lowering of sult in the discharge of sewage or other the natural elevation of any portion of the waste within the mangrove forest; parcel proposed for development by exca- 6) will not result in the discharge of treated or vation, ditching, dredging, digging, filling or untreated sewage or other human waste other disturbance of sand, silt, soil, sedi- from a boat into the waters of the City of ment, accumulated detritus, or other geo- Sanibel. logic or biologic component of the mangrove forest except for that activity necessary to: Vegetation a) maintain freshwater levels in the interior wetland; 7) will not involve the necessary removal of b) protect the health, safety and welfare of any native vegetation which exists as a nat- the City from disease-carrying insects; ural buffer to storm surge, stabilizes soils or c) manage the mangrove forest as a viable provides wildlife habitats, including but not natural community. limited to Red mangrove, Rhizophora.man- gle; Black mangrove, Avicennia germinans; Hydrology and White mangrove, Laguncularia race- mosa; 2) will not restrict, impede, impound or other- 8) provides for the removal of exotic species wise interfere with the tidal flow or influence of plant which outcompete or otherwise dis- in the mangrove forest, or similarly interfere place native species including the Brazilian with drainage in the mangrove forest; pepper or Florida holly, Schinus terebinthito- 3) provides for the gradual and dispersed lius; the Cajeput or Punk tree, Melaleuca drainage of surface runoff such that runoff quinquenervia within the boundaries of the from within the boundaries of the parcel parcel proposed for development or site al- proposed for development will approximate teration; natural rates, volumes and direction of flow; 9) provides that all landscaping will only in- included shall be a requirement for contain- volve the use of native species of plant or ment on site of the runoff from a 5 year non-competing species of plant. intensity storm and further, coverage with impermeable surfaces shall be minimized Wildlife and in any event shall not exceed 1% of the 10) will minimize any interference with the use of gross area of the parcel proposed for de- the mangrove forest for feeding, foraging, velopment; resting, nesting, shelter and breeding by in- 4) will not disturb, break or penetrate the aqui- digenous and migratory birds, shellfish, fish clude or clay layer at the bottom of the and other indigenous wildlife. Such interfer- freshwater lens, permit saltwater intrusion or ence shall include the destruction or diminu- otherwise endanger the integrity of the tion of organisms or material upon which freshwater lens. If in order to comply with wildlife feed. Table 1. Example of wetlands performance standards from the City of Sanibel (Florida) ordinance governing land use (Section 3.9.4: Development in the Mangrove Forest Zone). 59 way crossings in coastal wetlands, a better bed as a viaduct or column-supported solution is to route highways on adjacent causeway with minimum alteration of the uplands. Roadways built on the wetland wetlands below. The method to use is end- surface not only obliterate wetland areas, on construction, in which the supporting but also may dam water movement, dis- piles or columns are driven progressively rupting normal tidal flows or land drain- from equipment based atop the roadbed, age (Figure 14). Another frequently en- and preformed concrete decking is used countered effect is the creation of "mud for the roadway's surface. This procedure waves," undulating out from and parallel should make it unnecessary to operate to the highway fill. The waves are created heavy equipment on the surface of the by the pressure of the roadbed fill on the marsh or to dig canals through the marsh soft organic soils beneath. Marshes over to bring in floating cranes and pile driv- 100 yards away from roads have buckled ers. In many circumstances, crossing the and otherwise been disrupted by mud wetlands on elevated structures may be waves." cheaper than routing a roadway around The construction of solid-fill causeways the wetland. The cheapest alternative, and excavation of barge-access channels however, is not always the best one. often create spoil-disposal problems (Fig- Bridges, too, should be designed so as ure 15). These problems are likely to be not to impair the circulation regime and particularly severe when the method of tidal flow of wetlands. The number and construction is to dig out ("muck" out) size of supports can be minimized by deep layers of organic muck and replace streamlining them, and by building abut- them with a solid-fill base. Wetlands are ments back from the water's edge (Figure not suitable disposal sites, and acceptable 16). Essentially, the cross-sectional area of sites are becoming scarce and expensive. a watercourse should not be effectively re- The remaining alternatives are to transport duced by abutments, support piers, pilings, spoil either well inland or to the ocean. and so forth. To meet Federal flood-protec- Enlightened traffic engineering can of- tion regulations, you will have to be sure ten avoid these problems altogether by that the cross-sectional area of a waterway routing roadways across high ground, and is in no case reduced to less than that avoiding wetlands. Where there is no fea- which can adequately accommodate the sible or prudent alternative to crossing 100-year maximum flood waters." wetlands, a solution is to elevate the road- Spurs and feeder roads that provide ac- Figure 13. A marsh-grass buffer strip (shown 10 years after planting) con- trols shore erosion and eliminates the need for bulkheads. (Photo from 4 Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin.) r 4, AA 60 Figure 14. A roadway blocking wetlands circula- tion. (Photo by M. Fahay.) Now WOM Figure 15. Barge-access channels and spoil V, mounds preempt wetlands and interfere with natural circulation at New Topsail Beach, N.C. (Photo by M. Z-A Fahay.) 77,@- "A'Al 61 All @Nk Z Figure 16. Bridge abutments that encroach on watercourses reduce water flow and degrade the coastal ecosystem. (Photo by John Clark.) cess to the coast from major highways pulp-mill effluent), thermal discharge, and should generally be aligned perpendicular sewage. When polluted, tideflats, like wet- to the coastline. This will minimize the lands, may become odorous and unattrac- blockage of natural drainage patterns (Fig- tive. ure 17). You should allow only essential Most wetlands can function as a "land service roads to run parallel to the coast, treatment" system, absorbing and assim- and these should have sufficient water ilating storm-runoff pollutants. Experi- passes and culverts to provide as nearly ments have also shown that wetlands have natural a pattern of runoff and tidal flow some capacity to assimilate municipal sew- as possible. age. But there are serious technical dif- Recommended Policy 15: Pollutant ficulties in introducing the right amount Discharge into Wetlands. of sewage so that the excess nutrients and Restrain the discharge of pollutants other pollutants in the water flowing over into wetlands. the wetlands do not overwhelm the capac- ity of the wetlands and cause health haz- Wetlands can assimilate a reasonable ards as well as ecological problems. Any amount of contaminants. But there is a pollutants introduced to wetlands should limit. Wetlands must be protected against not exceed the calculated receiving capac- gross pollution from both land runoff and ity of the system, and should not degrade sources emptying directly into the estu- surface water or groundwater below State ary-in particular, pollution from toxic water-quality standards .17 substances and oil. A polluted marsh is Recent experience suggests that natural offensive to the senses, a healthy one an wetlands can most practicably serve as a fi- aesthetic resource. Excessive nutrient pol- nal stage in the sewage treatment process." lution may cause wetlands to breed an However, considerable engineering modi- abundance of mosquitoes and other pests." fication-dikes, water-level gates, injection Tideflats also may be adversely affected by devices, etc.-may be required. The need pollutants-e.g., sulfite waste liquor (from for controls so increases the cost that in 62 many cases you may find it less costly to projects, both private and public. All proj- develop a completely artificial treatment ect reviews should examine the possibili- system. ties. Dikes and levees that damage wet- Recommended Policy 16: Restoration of lands can be removed and ditches refilled. Wetlands. Damaged wetlands can often be restored Whenever possible, restore degraded by reworking or supplementing the base wetlands to function naturally. soils and by replanting with appropriate species. Often, acceptable soil material will There are many opportunities to restore be available from dredge spoils. In pro- wetlands in conjunction with development tected water bodies-estuaries -where Exrnore 2A r _-,!Ittre N .%S. Q&d Jamesville sion Silm Beach M,d Little machipongo, ella Field 4-@Mtft Inlet is BOG ISLA NLX.-`@' 9 B,idgeto.n Gn 8A Y,..' J A M-h 39 Meg I )-d 16 Great Machip-go Inlet Outlet Bay M.d fl.t. f Cobb Island J@Obb Bay 13 Little C@hb 1,1..d sandsh?al he ton 27 n Cape Charles Wreck ),land 4P @.d fl.t. SOUTH BA Y@, O.d bys Zz. Ship Shoal Island "P, nWon 0 Myrtle 1,1ard 4 Smith Island Cedar @e ATLANTIC OCEAN M Srnith Isla 0- Kip, k L..9 P.W John Md.. Smith Island CA CHARLUES Figure 17. Major roadways should be located inland from wetland shorelands (for example, Route 13), while feeder routes to the shore should run on higher ground between the wetlands, generally parallel to water flows. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey "quad" map.) 63 wave energy is weak, an artificial salt gation, or if State or Federal funds become marsh may be an effective method of available for restoration, you will have the shoreline protection, since wave forces can information available to make a proposal. be absorbed and sediments trapped by the The local offices of the Corps of Engineers, planted vegetation (Figure 18). This use of Fish and Wildlife Service, National Marine planted marsh strips has been successful in Fisheries Service, or Environmental Protec- the Chesapeake Bay area." In Florida, man- tion Agency can provide valuable assis- grove species lend themselves well to tance on this type of program. shoreline protection in estuaries and may You must be especially careful that res- be incorporated into plans for the protec- toration as a form of compensatory mitiga- tion of private waterfront property." tion is used for its intended purpose-i.e., There are professional experts, familiar to compensate for wetland losses incurred with wetland replanting techniques, who by projects for which no practicable alter- can hel you with the various technical native exists and that are water dependent, P that is, which cannot accomplish their pur- problems you must consider (Table 2). pose (e.g., housing, recreation, transporta- They can also help you to determine the tion) if located in uplands. Because the appropriate clean-up techniques for reju- compensatory benefits must be evaluated venating polluted wetlands. on highly technical grounds, there is a A useful first step is to maintain a list or danger that development proponents will map of local coastal wetland units that are gain approval from lay reviewers for com- in need of restoration. Then if you wish to pensation plans that are inadequate. To consider a development project in the avoid this outcome, you will need tech- vicinity, contingent on compensatory miti- nical assistance. j 4 4 AM, @A & 44 14 Figure 18. Under certain conditions, marsh grasses can be planted successfully to stabilize sediments and create a salt marsh habitat. (Photo by John Clark.) ZA 64 Siting Considerations Design and Construction Considerations � Locate new marshes in low energy areas, such as, Use available coarse grained material to protect exposed sur- -in the lee of barrier beaches, islands and shoals; faces of the new marsh. -in shallow water areas where wave energy is dissipated; Be aware of possible deflocculation effects when dredged sed- -within the convex portion of river bends; iments are obtained from highly saline areas and disposed in -land extensions and embayments where marsh currently ex- low saline areas. ists; -within zones of active deposition; Provide protection against wave erosion by creating a rim of -away from areas with long fetch exposure in the direction of coarse material on the windward face of the marsh. Design prevailing winds; criteria of the rim are: -away from major tidal channels and uncontrolled inlets; -elevation above level of normal wave runup, -away from headlands where wave energy is concentrated. -coarse material of substantial width. 0 Plan the final grade of the protection rim or dike so that drain- � Take advantage of high water energy areas (e.g., inlets) to age of rain runoff and wave overwash will be towards the obtain coarse grained materials, but only if the inlet will not interior of the fill. become hydraulically unbalanced. 0 Configure the marsh such that exposure to erosion forces is � Take advantage of on-going sedimentation processes, such as minimized. littoral drift for sand nourishment, to aid in stabilizing new 0 Plan for special action to repair storm damage during the initial marshes. period of marsh stabilization. Table 2. Siting, design, and construction considerations for building artificial wetlands. (Source: Lynn E. Johnson and William V. McGuiness, Guidelines for Material Placement in Marsh Creation, CEM Report 4165-519, Center for the Environment and Man, Inc., Hartford, Conn., 1975.) Ch IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES sider the array of familiar local tools. This subsection provides suggestions on These are diverse, including plans, poli- two principal opportunities for local ac- cies, property acquisition, tax incentives, tion: first, modifying local plans, regula- and so on. Two tools-regulations and local tions, and programs to respond to the spe- public-works programming-are particularly cial needs of saltwater wetlands; second, useful. seeking assistance available under Federal programs. To implement the six policies in Several types of local regulations are com- these areas, your community should be monly used to prevent disruption of wet- prepared to address four principal man- lands: agement needs: In many communities, permit requirements First, preventing or limiting disruptive are established by local zoning or building activities in saltwater wetlands. Of the six regulations, or by separate wetland regula- wetland policies, the first four deal with tions." Some of these regulations prohibit development-related activities that can dis- wetland alteration without permits, which turb wetlands: Policy 11 (Wetland Surface may be granted only after consideration of Alteration), Policy 12 (Wetland Hydrologic public need for the proposed develop- Alteration), Policy 13 (General Wetland ment, potential pollution and other envi- Construction), and Policy 14 (Wetland ronmental effects, and private hardships Roadway Crossings). The policies recom- incurred if permission is denied. Alter- mend that you avoid these activities or, in natively, regulations may allow develop- some circumstances, conduct them in ways ment in wetlands, subject to strict stan- that minimize unavoidable disturbances. dards, if preventing development alto- How you can best do this is an important gether is impracticable. Pile-elevated struc- management issue. tures may be allowed, for example, if they Second, controlling pollution of salt- occupy only a small percentage of the site water wetlands. From a management and if any destroyed vegetation is re- standpoint, the measures needed to imple- placed.' ment Policy 15 (Pollutant Discharge into Subdivision regulations may prohibit exten- Wetlands) are basically the same as those sion of new subdivisions into saltwater for controlling pollution of coastal waters, wetlands, and may require recorded plats as discussed in the Coastal Waters section to note the special flood hazards and natu- (see p. 119). ral characteristics of these areas." The reg- Third, restoring former wetlands. Im- ulations may, in addition, establish special plementation of Policy 16 (Restoration of drainage and road-design standards for Wetlands) is sometimes a public expense, wetland development." (Under some State sometimes a requirement of private devel- laws, these types of controls can only be opment. imposed by special wetland regulations, Fourth, defining the boundaries of salt- not by subdivision regulations.") water wetlands. Since your community Grading, excavation, and tree-removal regula- will be trying to prevent or limit disrup- tions are also commonly used." tive activities in saltwater wetlands, their Septic-tank controls, in addition to their boundary will have to be defined with pollution-control effect, can also be an some precision. effective tool to control development in 1. Preventing or limiting disruptive wetlands: wetlands are generally not ap- activities in saltwater wetlands. propriate for septic service without exten- sive filling and site modification, which in A local government setting out to prevent itself is likely to be unacceptable." disruptive activities in saltwater wetlands, and to minimize unavoidable disruptions, A second type of tool, local public-works pro- should anticipate substantial Federal and grams, can protect wetlands in at least two State influence. With the possible excep- ways. First, appropriate constraints can tion of beaches, saltwater wetlands are help to assure that your locality's own subject to more far-reaching Federal and projects do not disturb wetlands. Second, State protection than any other place in public-works programs can help guide pri- the floodplain. vate development away from wetlands to Nevertheless, you will need first to con- other locations. 66 In the absence of essential public facili- tions are resulting in excessive develop- ties, particularly sewers, development of ment of wetlands, nonregulatory methods wetlands is difficult. So programming (e.g., land acquisition, nonregulatory in- these facilities for other locations helps to centives) may be needed." direct new development to more suitable Third, where development affecting sites. Sometimes, however, sewers, water wetlands cannot easily be avoided, your lines, or other public works do have to be community may have trouble deciding built near wetlands. If these facilities are what sorts of performance standards or supported by tax assessments against "ben- other measures are needed, and how much efited" property, wetlands property should money should be spent to assure proper be excepted from the assessment; prevent- siting and development. At present, you ing development of wetlands is difficult if will find that scientific advice offers only owners have been forced to pay for devel- limited help in making these choices, since opment-related benefits." there is still no scientific consensus on methodology or standards. Your commu- If your community uses local regulations nity should, therefore, remain alert to and public-works programming to protect continuing research in this area. Mean- saltwater wetlands, it may encounter.the while, it should anticipate wide differ- following problems: ences of opinion among reputable ex- First, it may find that its policies, pro- perts." grams, and regulations do not apply to projects proposed by a State or Federal A community facing limits on its own agency, or by another local government. abilities to protect saltwater wetlands can For example, special drainage districts, often obtain important assistance from which provide drainage and flood protec- Federal or State agencies. Federal permit tion structures for many low-lying coastal requirements, for example, may relieve areas, may be beyond control of your local your community of the need to make some government. And the State highway de- difficult decisions-or at least let it share partment may not be bound by local rules the responsibility for these decisions. In when it acquires rights-of-way. Port ex- other instances, Federal or State agencies pansion, too, is sometimes outside the con- can provide invaluable technical assis- trol of local government." tance. The following Federal programs, Second, market prices of privately and a related State program, should be owned wetlands may be reduced, and particularly influential. owners may contend that your locality's Federal Regulations on Dredging and Filling of regulations exceed its statutory or constitu- Wetlands. Most development in saltwater tional authority. In responding to this wetlands requires a permit from the U.S. charge, you may be able to rely on special Army Corps of Engineers, with review by public rights, sometimes called the "public the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency trust," which apply to saltwater wetlands. (U.S. EPA), the Fish and Wildlife Service Because of these rights, strict regulation of (FWS), and the National Marine Fisheries saltwater wetlands appears less likely to Service (NMFS). Regulations issued by the exceed legal limits than similar restriction Corps in July 1977 present an integrated of many other places in the coastal flood- picture of the permit program." plain." Nevertheless, specific legal limits Although the Corps has integrated its remain uncertain in many situations, and various permit authorities into a single legal challenges may present difficult is- permitting process, the authority to re- sues to resolve. quire permits, and to establish conditions Where wetlands have been subdivided on permitted development, comes from a and sold as residential lots, the owner's number of Federal statutes. Two of these hardship claims present especially difficult are especially important: issues. Local regulations adopted to protect First, the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. wetlands should include provision for This statute requires permits for most de- case-by-case review to identify such hard- velopment in "navigable waters." The ship situations and should specify stan- Corps traditionally treated "lower wet- dards for any development permitted to lands" as "navigable" and thus subject to alleviate the hardship. If hardship situa- the permit requirement. The remaining, 67 "upper" wetlands were usually exempt. in Corps administrative proceedings, ask- The most common type of permit required ing the Corps to deny Federal permits or by this act is called a "section 10 permit," a to impose protective conditions. In effect, reference to section 10 of the 1899 act. you can ask the Corps to use Federal Second, the Clean Water Act. Many key authority to impose conditions that your elements of this law were enacted as part community may not have clear legal au- of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act thority to impose on its own. Also, com- Amendments of 1972, sometimes called munities may, in effect, ask the Corps to "P.L. 92-500." The 1972 law added to the take or share responsibility for decisions permit requirements in several ways: that local officials find politically difficult. -It directed the Corps to consider water Federal Fish and Wildlife Coordination. Local- quality in granting or denying per- ities will often find the U.S. Fish and mits for discharges of dredged or fill Wildlife Service (FWS) playing an impor- material. tant role through environmental assess- -It required permits for discharges into ment and other review procedures that "waters of the United States." In ef- precede Federal projects and U.S. Army fect, this extended the areas within Corps of Engineers permits in wetlands which permits are required. In the and navigable waters. The FWS is a small case of saltwater wetlands, its practical agency of the Department of the Interior result has been to extend a permit with numerous field offices in different re- requirement to all parts of the wet- gions staffed with experts in the biological lands, "upper" as well as "lower." sciences. Perhaps best known for its role -It gave U.S. EPA an important role in managing wildlife refuges around the developing guidelines and in admin- country, since 1958 FWS has also played a istering the permit program. behind-the-scenes role providing technical These permits required by the Clean evaluation of Corps' and other agencies' Water Act are often called "404" permits, a engineering proposals for structures or reference to section 404 of P.L. 92-500. changes in navigable waters and adjacent Some important activities do not require wetlands. these types of Corps permits. "Normal" ag- In evaluating proposed public projects ricultural and forestry activities, as well as (including some projects proposed by local some road-construction projects, are ex- governments), the FWS often suggests de- empt from the permit requirements. sign modifications to benefit fish and If your community is trying to protect wildlife, emphasizing the scientific ad- saltwater wetlands, and finds the Corps vocacy role assigned to the FWS by Con- permit program a potential ally, you can gress. FWS comments are usually offered seek Corps help in several ways: in participation procedures open to local First, informal consultation with Corps government, that is, the environmental officials can be an important source of assessment process under NEPA (see p. 37) technical information and will also make and similar public hearing and re- them aware of your local problems and view procedures associated with specific concerns. The Corps has 36 well-staffed programs. If you are concerned with tech- District offices, and it is usually fairly easy nical questions regarding the impacts on to track down the specific person respon- fish and wildlife of proposed Federal ac- sible for processing the permits for any tions, you can often find informal coun- community. selors among FWS regional or field per- Second, local policy positions are given sonnel. great weight by the Corps, and local ac- State Dredge and Fill Regulations. Dredging tions on a project can be most influential. and filling and other uses that can alter Although the Corps is not formally bound saltwater wetlands are regulated by most by local decisions, your community may States. State controls are an important link be able to influence a Corps decision by in the overlapping State, Federal, and local denying local zoning, subdivision, or interests in saltwater-wetland manage- other approvals-or by granting such ap- ment. Unfortunately, the controls vary too provals with conditions that protect the widely from State to State to be sum- wetlands. marized here. You should determine what Third, your community can participate type of program is run in your State and 68 be alert for possible future changes such as -New development must be located the following: landward of the reach of mean high 1. The coordination of Federal and State tide. permitting procedures in saltwater -New utilities and sewers must be wetlands. Successful tests in Florida floodproofed. and the San Francisco Bay Region are -Man-made alteration of mangrove pointing the way to integrated ap- stands that would increase potential plication and hearing procedures in flood damage is prohibited. other States and regions. -New mobile home subdivisions are 2. The substitution of State for Federal prohibited. Section 404 authority in certain fresh- Executive Order 11990, "Wetlands." Some of water wetlands (see p. 33). This may the most disruptive activities in wetlands provide help in defining boundaries have been public development projects between saltwater and freshwater -sewers, roads, and other facilities. Many wetlands. of these projects have been conducted or 3. The implementation of "Section 208" financially assisted by the Federal govern- Regional Water Quality Plans of the ment. federal Clean Water Act (see p. 35). If your locality is concerned about a fed- These plans and their implementa- erally conducted or assisted project in wet- tion often require local support for lands, you should be aware of Executive success. With considerable variation Order 11990, the "Wetlands Executive Or- in implementation strategy, the "208" der," issued in 1977. The order applies to program is likely to offer both man- the following Federal activities in both agement opportunities and technical freshwater and saltwater wetlands: information on local water quality 1 .acquiring, managing, and disposing problems. of Federal lands and facilities; 4. The coordination of State dredge-and- 2. undertaking, financing, or assisting fill regulation with State coastal zone construction and improvements; management. 3. conducting other activities and pro- The National Flood Insurance Program. The grams affecting land use, including, National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) but not limited to, water and related can also sometimes help communities to land resources planning, regulating, protect their saltwater wetlands. This help and licensing activities. becomes available as soon as your commu- The order does not apply to Federal per- nity gets a Flood Insurance Rate Map mits issued to private parties for work in (FIRM)-that is, when your community wetlands on non-Federal property. leaves the "emergency phase" of the NFIP Before a Federal agency can proceed and enters the "regular phase" of the pro- with an activity that would damage wet- gram, which provides specific information lands, the order requires the agency to on local flood hazards. This information find that: may correlate with wetlands management 1. There is no practicable alternative to needs. such construction. Since many saltwater wetlands are sub- 2. The proposed action includes all prac- ject to frequent or especially dangerous ticable measures to minimize harm to flooding, they may be included within the wetlands as a result of such use. "coastal high hazard" zones-also known Public review and comment is required, as "V" (for velocity) zones- established by and usually the environmental impact the FIRM. statement (EIS) procedures of the National Inclusion of saltwater wetlands in the Environmental Policy Act will be used to "V" zone can help strengthen local protec- satisfy this requirement (see p. 37). You tive measures because, if your community may also have an opportunity to comment wants to enter or stay in the regular phase in "A-95" and public-participation proce- of NFIP, it must, under Federal regula- dures of particular grant or expenditure tions, impose the following requirements programs (see p. 34). on future development in "V" zones: If your community believes that the -New structures must be elevated or Wetlands Executive Order is being ig- anchored on pilings or columns. nored, it should make appropriate com- 69 ments in EIS, A-95, or other procedures, benefits. There is, however, growing in- and may have other legal remedies avail- terest in programs to restore damaged wet- able. But if you feel that the judgment of lands, particularly in connection with new an agency on practicable alternatives or public-works programs, or large private measures to minimize harm is incorrect, development projects. the normal channels of administrative ap- There are three restoration problems peal used by that agency will probably be that Federal programs may help you to the only means open to you to try to solve: change the decision. First, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Coastal Zone Management Program. A state comments on Federal projects in the flood- coastal zone management (CZM) program plain (see p. 68) if they affect wetlands. The developed under the Federal Coastal Zone Service is required by law to advise on Management Act of 1972 may also help a mitigation, including possibilities for res- community seeking protection of wetlands toration of damaged wetlands. Field offices (see p. 36). A program may, for example, of the Service may be able to provide you establish State policies and an implementa- with informal assistance in evaluating pro- tion strategy affecting wetlands. posed wetland restoration. The legal and technical information nec- Second, you may lack the information essary for local protective action may be and technical skills necessary to evaluate conveniently brought together in the CZM opportunities for restoration. The State program. In some cases-for instance, in coastal zone management program may, Oregon and California-the implementa- however, be able to provide some assis- tion strategy may involve local govern- tance, particularly if the State program has ment directly. In others, it may include a identified wetlands as areas for preserva- State regulatory or assistance program that tion and restoration. helps to carry out Policies 11 through 14. Third, restoration is very expensive. As discussed in more detail in the Flood- However, when the Federal government lands section, many actions of Federal pays for projects such as dams and flood- agencies must be "consistent" with the control works, the Fish and Wildlife Co- State CZM program once it has received ordination Act requires that it pay for miti- Federal approval. For example, a Corps de- gation, which may include restoration of cision to permit dredging in wetlands damaged wetlands. When wetlands have would have to be consistent with an been damaged as a result of coastal energy approved State CZM program, as well as activity, the Coastal Energy Impact Pro- with Corps regulations. gram may be a source of funds for restora- Coastal Energy Impact Program. If your tion. State and community are receiving grants 4. Determining the boundaries of under this Federal program (a part of the saltwater wetlands. Coastal Zone Management program), you may find that some funds are available to If your community's policies or regulations correct destruction of wetlands or other- treat saltwater wetlands as distinct places wise mitigate the results of coastal energy- of concern, you will need to define the development activities-past as well as wetlands boundary. There are several pos- present." sible ways to do this. You could, for exam- 2. Controlling pollution of saltwater ple, define the boundary by reference to wetlands. the tides, or to the salinity of the waters, to soil types, or to vegetation. See Coastal Waters section (p. 119). In practice, it is usually best to define 3. Restoring former wetlands. the boundary of saltwater wetlands by ref- erence to vegetation, since the distinction Restoration of wetlands typically consists between salt-tolerant wetland and upland of dismantling dikes, tidegates, and drain- vegetation is easily observed. (Similarly, age canals that interfere with water flows, the vegetative change between adjacent and rehabilitating the soil base. Commu- saltwater and freshwater wetlands is dis- nities occasionally undertake restoration tinct.) Often, the upper boundary of salt- projects on their own, but their efforts are water wetlands is identified by a very limited by costs and uncertainties about abrupt change in plant species. For exam- 70 ple, in many areas, the upper edge of the saltwater wetlands, any such line is likely saltbush, or high-tide bush, clearly marks to be helpful. Because of manpower limita- this boundary. tions, however, the Corps usually fixes You are likely to discover, however, that these lines only on a case-by-case basis, so Federal and State governments have al- it is unlikely that such a line will have ready drawn boundaries, for one purpose been fixed for all of your community's or another, around saltwater wetlands or saltwater wetlands. through them. Some communities have In addition to defining the wetlands found it convenient to adopt one of these boundary, you will need to establish a established boundaries. Before fixing a procedure for drawing the boundary in a vegetation-based boundary, therefore, you specific location. There are two principal should know what types of pre-existing choices. You can try to draw boundaries in boundaries may be available as alterna- advance, by surveying, inventorying, and tives. Three types are most common: mapping. Alternatively, you can rely on First, a boundary between public and private case-by-case identification. Advance deter- property often passes through saltwater mination is the ideal, because it removes wetlands. In all States, this boundary is uncertainties that can affect both the com- fixed by reference to the tides, although munity and private landowners. Advance the particular tidal reference varies from determination is expensive, however, and State to State. Thus, the boundary may be is often impractical because of staff limita- "mean high water" or "mean higher high tions. For these reasons, case-by-case deter- water" or "mean low water." If you use mination is the more common approach. this line as a boundary for saltwater wet- lands in your local management program, you are likely to face two limitations. First, the line will probably be more difficult to locate than one based on vegetation (al- though vegetation may be used to help confirm tidal marks). Second, because the line is likely to pass through the wetlands, it will exclude parts of them from the protection they need. In a locality where neither of these limitations applies-that is, where the property line has already- been precisely located and where public property includes all saltwater wetlands as indicated by salt-tolerant vegetation-you will probably find it most convenient to use the property line as your saltwater wetlands boundary. Second, there may be a pre-1972 boundary of Federal jurisdiction. For many years, until 1972, the jurisdiction of the Corps of En- gineers over development activities was limited to "navigable waters." During those years, the Corps often had occasion to fix the boundaries of its jurisdiction, particularly in places where someone wanted to build bulkheads or undertake other development. It is possible, though not likely, that a boundary fixed by the Corps during this period will prove help- ful to a locality in establishing the bound- aries of its saltwater wetlands. Third, there may be a post-1972 boundary of Federaljurisdiction. Since post- 1972 Federal jurisdiction is broad enough to include all 71 . . ... .... ... Fill PP7 V, Ilk IMP TO ,F,7177,77, 7 77, 72 Banks and Bluffs The banks and bluffs that border many coastal ECOLOGICAL FEATURES waters are attacked by currents and waves, which Banks and bluffs occur in many formations may cause slumping and sliding. Water seepage and sizes. The formation will vary with AMEW from above may further weaken their stability. composition, which can range from clay, Because of this, bank and bluff tops can be haz- sand, or unconsolidated rocks and sand to ardous sites for development. consolidated rock. Sizes range from the Many wildlife species breed and sometimes live low banks along the shores of Maryland or in natural bank and bluff habitats or in the edge- Texas to the bluffs of the Great Lakes and zones immediately behind them.' This gives banks the high cliffs of the Pacific Northwest. and bluffs their ecological value. Because the same The Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay measures that help protect against the dangers of states have extremely serious problems erosion and earthslides also preserve ecological with banks that are being undercut by values, banks and bluffs offer special opportunities waves, while the Pacific Coast states have for coastal environmental management. serious problems with sliding bluffs and To protect banks and bluffs and minimize haz- cliffs (Figure 1). As used here, low banks ards, your community will need to enforce are formations of 1 to 5 feet, high banks construction setbacks and controls on such factors are 6 to 20 feet, and bluffs are higher than as water seepage and physical alteration. Beyond 20 feet.' The exposed surface of the bank this, engineering techniques (structural retention) or bluff is called a "face." The top is the or natural means (vegetation) can be used to pre- "crown." The bottom is the "toe." Bank vent damage and restore already damaged banks and bluff faces are vegetated only with and bluffs. In managing these places of concern, hardy grasses and shrubs that can with- you should pursue the following three policies: stand constant wind, spray, and slope ero- 17. Alteration of Rink- and Bluff-Top sion. This vegetation reinforces slope sta- Danger Zones. Avoid adverse uses of bility. It also provides habitat for some land adjacent to banks and bluffs. types of nesting birds and burrowing ani- 18. Alteration of the Slope: Discourage mals. activities that physically alter the face or toe of banks and bluffs. Often, the most ecologically valuable 19. Erosion Protection for the Toes of part of the bluff or bank system is an up- Banks and Bluffs. Encourage the use of per edge-zone (an ecotone) where the top natural means of protection or properly de- of the bluff changes abruptly into the in- signed bulkheads to protect bank and bluff land landscape. When characterized by a toes from erosion. strikingly different mix of trees . and 4 bushes, the edge-zone provides habitat Figure 1. At Malibu, on the California coast, conditions not found elsewhere on the plastic sheeting is used futiley in a last ditch coast and therefore attracts a special com- attempt to save the Getty Museum from land munity of birds and wildlife. Bluff or bank slides. (Photo by John Clark.) tops that merge gradually inland, with a 73 barely perceptible edge-zone, may be of behind the crown of the bluff should be lesser ecological value. considered as potentially unstable. Indeed, HAZARDS this instability is a special concern because not only does the exposed face slide, but Bank and bluff recession is usually caused the land surface atop the bluff, stretching either by wave action at the toe or ground- inland for perhaps a quarter of a mile or water seepage into the face. The sequence more, may also move. Indicators of the of events is: (1) attack by waves and/or slide area include fractures in the earth, groundwater; (2) erosion, with material slope failure, snapped trees, and leaning deposited at the toe; and (3) removal, trees, fence posts, or power lines, all of transportation, and deposition of this ma- which are indicative of recent earth move- terial along the shoreline.' ment. Bluffs are protected from normal tides and waves by a beach berm and debris MANAGEMENT POLICIES such as piles of logs. But storm surge, storm waves, and tsunamis hitting high on A coastal community must give serious the beach can pull the barriers away, loos- attention to protecting its banks and bluffs ening the bluff and exposing it to future with local land-use measures because there hazards until the barriers reform. If waves is very little in the way of Federal or State are large enough, some forms of debris intervention. Your community should de- (logs, for instance) can accelerate the ero- velop criteria for construction and other sion process by digging at the bluff face. uses near the bank or bluff crown and on While erosion of the toe is the most com- its face. It should also support general pro- mon cause of mass slippage, other causes grams of erosion and slide prevention. include the added weight and lubrication of water seeping into the bluff structure or Recommended Policy 17: Alteration of the addition of weight from material de- Bank- and Bluff-Top Danger Zones. posited along the upper edge of the slope.' Avoid adverse uses of land adjacent to Banks are eroded by similar, but less vio- bank and bluff tops. lent, processes. If the bluff is actually the seaward end How you use the land immediately behind of a large slide, then the whole'slide area the crown of a bank and bluff is especially Ar 4, I A I *t- FV,-, ii @A-a4- 4", W, --, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2. Because of careless development, the cliff sof the California coast cave in regularly, blocking the highway (which runs below bottom of picture) and destroying structures. (Photo by John Clark.) 74 Figure 3. With sufficient knowledge and care, shoreline homes can be safely built behind bluffs or banks. (Photo by M. Fahay.) important. If you keep this area natural, bulkheading, and protect the valuable slope stability generally is fostered. If you edge-zone habitat. The best policy is to re- allow great alterations by clearing, build- quire a setback that provides a wide buffer ing, or plowing, the whole bank or bluff strip of natural vegetation and soils im- may be destabilized. mediately behind the crown of the bank Losses of bluffs and high banks to slides or bluff. The buffer will both provide for are often caused by adding weight to the slope stability and protect an ecologically area behind the crown or by cutting into valuable edge-zone. Use of this area it. For example, a deposit of fill during should be light, i.e., limited to what is highway construction can initiate slippage. compatible with maximum protection of When the bank or bluff face slips or caves the bank or bluff slope. in, structures built close to the edge are Along shores where there has been a imperiled and valuable property is lost long-term rise in the water level-for (Figure 2). example, the Chesapeake Bay and the Where land is cleared to the edge of the Great Lakes-erosion and bank recession slope for building, landscaping, crop can be expected to continue to increase in plantin& or other purposes, the risk of severity. You can address this problem by bank erosion by accelerated infiltration of determining a predictable rate of reces- surface water is increased. The combina- sion, drawing a future "recession line" tion of weight and the lubrication of the (the expected location of the crown 50, 60, soil (particularly clays) by water may result or 70 years in the future), and then locat- in slumping. Septic-tank seepage and ing structures far enough behind the line storm-water ponds in the edge-zone may to be safe for their predicted economic also cause problems. To protect existing lives (Figure 3). structures from slippage, the saturation of Coastal slides and erosion have long banks and bluffs can be reduced by divert- been recognized as problems in siting ing water away from the crown areas with buildings. For example, in the 1790s drain tiles or similar systems. George Washington reportedly studied the As one of its key management objec- erosion of the Long Island coast. He or- tives, your community should make sure dered that the Montauk Point lighthouse that all new structures are placed behind at the eastern tip be built at least 200 feet the vulnerable areas of -banks and bluffs. back from the edge of the cliff so the This will minimize the threat to upland lighthouse would last 200 years. At the property, reduce the need for and cost of present rate of erosion, it will last just 75 I vttk. KEY Sand Clay A Soil Horizon Figure 4. With the sea level rising gradually along the U.S. coastline, erosion of estuary banks is a relentless process. Strong waves undercut the bank, causing earth and trees to slump into the water, where they eventually are carried off by tides and currents. (Source: V.G. Bellis, M.P. O'Connor, and S.R. Riggs, Estuarine Shoreline Erosion in the Albemarle-Pamlico Sound Region of North Carolina, Publication No. UNC-SG-75-29 [Raleigh, N.C.: University of North Carolina, Sea Grant Program, 1975].) about that long; as of 1978, fewer than 40 Your best alternative is to encourage feet remained between the base of the slope conservation pracfices and to dis- lighthouse and the edge of the cliff.' courage activities that destabilize the slope through removal or unnecessary distur- Recommended Policy 18: Alteration of bance of bank or bluff vegetation or phys- the Slope. ical alteration. Many communities along Discourage activities that physically the Oregon coast have implemented cori- alter the face or toe of banks and servation practices in areas that are already bluffs. inhabited. For example, on the slopes of Disturbing the face or toe of a bluff or Tillamook Head, property owners who al- bank may cause destabilization, slides, and low brush and grass to flourish have had cave-ins. Removal of the vegetation that little trouble with slippage or destruction helps to stabilize the face, or excavation of stairs or structures. Even in the very soft along the face, increases the chance of terrace sands of Lincoln City, attempts at slumping. When the bank or bluff slumps, planting to stabilize slopes have helped structures are imperiled, adjacent land is ease erosional problems. Extensive plant- lost, the ecological edge-zone is disrupted, ing of grass on unconsolidated sands along sediment is added to the coastal basin, and the beach at Salishan is also helping to any marsh fringe that is there may be hold steep slopes.' obliterated. Removing the rubble and de- With precautions, owners can install bris that accumulates at the toe often re- appropriate stairways and other minor fix- sults in a greater potential for erosion and tures on slopes and use properly designed subsequent slides. and located retaining structures. It is the 76 building of homes or commercial struc- from bank erosion, which is the case, for tures on cliffsides or the faces of banks example, in parts of Puget Sound. Where and bluffs that should generally be pro- such "feeder bluffs" exist, you may find hibited. that it is better to relocate endangered Recommended Policy 19: Erosion buildings than to secure the bluff with Protection for the Toes of Banks structures that cut off the supply of sand and Bluffs. to the beach. In any event, you should Encourage the use of natural means of avoid placing bulkheads out in the water protection or properly designed and backfilling them to gain land at the bulkheads to protect bank and bluff expense of wetlands or productive shal- toes from erosion. low-water habitat (Figure 5). Riprap (stone work) is often the easiest Structural means of protecting against ero- and least costly technique for toe protec- sion are often used as a remedy where tion. Its advantages are augmented by its wave action along the shore is strong and high permeability and other ecological the bank or bluff is undercut by the toe benefits. Groundwater and runoff can (Figure 4). Usually, bulkheads or seawalls move unimpeded through the structure, built specifically for the purpose are including both filtercloth and crushed- placed at the base of an eroding slope to rock backings used with advanced riprap stop the undercutting and stabilize the structures such as revetments. slope. A major exception may be made In many cases, the costs of stabilizing where the beach exists only because of low banks can be reduced by regrading continual depositing of sand and gravel the shoreline and planting salt-marsh '571 41 a 7M, "Lg,VO _*A pl 17 V@I Figure 5. Attempts to extend the land into water bodies with fill and bulkheads should be avoided; there will be continuous maintenance needs and often washouts, with damage to roadways and structures. (Photo from Apalachicola Bay, Florida, by John Clark.) 77 grasses, mangroves, or other vegetation in time" of new buildings-perhaps 30, 67, the tidal zone and by revegetating the face or 100 years. of the bank. A vegetative retainer may be Fourth, there will often be "noncon- ecologically and aesthetically preferable to forming" buildings (located within cur- an engineered structure because it creates rently predicted recession lines). Also, a more biologically productive shoreline there will often be "unbuildable" lots (no and a more pleasing appearance. longer large enough to permit construc- tion of a residence). Some communities IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES prohibit construction or reconstruction in such situations. Strict regulation of this To implement the policies on banks and sort is likely to raise objections from prop- bluffs, your community will have to ad- erty owners and may require nonregu- dress two principal management needs: latory management approaches, as dis- First, establishing a setback from the cussed in the Floodlands section at p. 33. recession line, in accordance with Policy Without strict regulation, however, com- 17 (Alteration of Bank- and Bluff-Top Dan- munities will almost inevitably be asked in ger Zones). the future to provide public funds for Second, establishing standards for pro- expensive shore protection works. tective structures, in accordance with Poli- cies 18 (Alteration of the Slope) and 19 In establishing a setback from the reces- (Erosion Protection for the Toes of Banks sion line, your community should consider and Bluffs). two Federal programs: 1. Establishing a setback from the The National Flood Insurance Program. In recession line. areas defined by the National Flood Insur- ance Program (NFIP) as erosion zones ("E" To implement Policy 17, your community zones), Federal regulations require a "set- must assure that future development is set back for all new development ... to create back, not just from the present edge of a safety buffer consisting of a natural vege- banks and bluffs, but from an anticipated tative or contour strip." The regulations re- future edge-the recession line. If erosion quire the community to limit this setback data and analysis are available, the reces- area to open-space uses and temporary and sion line can readily be determined and portable structures. In participating com- the setback requirement can then be incor- munities, owners of threatened structures porated in zoning, subdivision, building- in "E" zones may obtain inexpensive in- code, or other local development controls. surance against flood-related erosion dam- Establishing a setback from the recession age. Setback lines may be more acceptable line presents four principal problems to if it is understood that they are required communities: by Federal regulations which are part of First, to calculate a recession line, you an attractive insurance package. The Fed- must have extensive data. The location of eral regulations can thus provide strong the line depends on natural processes but support for community efforts to establish it can be affected by protective works and setback lines. other shorefront alterations. You need a In practice, the NFIP has had difficulty high level of technical expertise to delin- defining "flood-related" erosion damage eate it. Perhaps State agencies can supply for insurance purposes. Since it is difficult the necessary data. Michigan, for example, to distinguish "flood-related" erosion, has calculated a recession line for portions which is covered by the NFIP, from other of its Great Lakes shores! erosion, which is not, the NFIP is clarify- Second, you will need to change the ing its eligibility criteria for insurance cov- recession line from time to time. A setback erage. established in 1940 or 1950 may no longer Coastal Zone Management. State coastal be adequate in 1980. The line may have to zone management programs (see p. 36) are be repositioned every 5 or 10 years. required to identify erosion-prone areas. Third, your community must decide This may help you with your local regu- how long the setback should provide pro- latory efforts. In Michigan, for example, the tection. Often, the location of the line is State identifies two classes of erosion-prone fixed by reference to the "expected life areas according to the rate of erosion. In 78 areas where erosion is severe, Michigan provides technical information to facilitate establishment of locally enforced setbacks. In the absence of local cooperation, Michi- gan law permits the State to enforce mini- mum standards. 2. Establishing standards for protective structures. Your community may wish to build, or al- low property owners to build, seawalls or other protective structures. Demand for such structures is often intense, even though many are not cost effective (they cost more than the value of the protected property in the long run), and many have side effects that will injure adjacent shore- line areas. Standards for privately built structures can be incorporated in local building codes. Your community standards should be compatible with the standards of the Corps of Engineers permit program (see p. 67), which evaluates permit applications for structures in navigable waters. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service may be able to help you minimize environmental damage caused by such structures (see p. 68). It is important to remember that these structures are unlikely to provide protec- tion against the greatest storms. In some cases, they will provide light protection against seasonal high waters, but with se- vere storms and flooding they will wash out. In setting standards for shoreline protec- tive structures, your community may want to consider the Small Beach Erosion Control Projects program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In addition to the beach erosion control projects that it is authorized to con- struct on an individual basis by the Con- gress, the Corps of Engineers has a general authorization to undertake construction of small restoration and protection projects.' When periodic beach nourishment is part of the best plan for an area, this practice can be recommended for funding by the Corps. The individual Corps of Engineer District offices are the points of contact for help in these matters. You can also contact them for technical information on shore and streambank erosion and for assistance in dealing with it? 79 4w` 11 :Alf CA hj5l 47 "k3-- WI,A IF Jr, 80 Dunelands Dunelands-the area of dunes, sand ridges, and bance of dunes and dune vegetation by flats between the beach and higher ground-are a restraining traffic over dunelands. unique natural habitat, they are also highly 22. Location of Structurm- Build all struc- susceptible to storm damage. At the ocean's edge, tures landward of active dunes. land has a quality of impermanence. Some sandy 23. L)une Restoration: Encourage private shorelines are continually eroding and receding. and public projects to restore and stabiliw Often, however, the damage is more sudden-just dunes. one hurricane may carve away an entire lot and ECOLOGICAL FEATURES all that is on it. While the risk of building directly on the beach Dunelands include the active dunes, sand AMW is obvious, the risk of building in the dunelands ridges, troughs, and flats lying behind the behind the ocean beach, where buildings are di- beach berms that mark the upper limit of rectly in the path of storm-driven waves, may not the "dry beach." Bounded at their seaward be apparent. Active dunelands, like beaches, are edge by the upper line of the beach at the uncertainly balanced between the erosive forces of annual highest tide mark, or a coinciding storm winds and waves, on one hand, and the "vegetation line," the dunelands extend restorative powers of tides, winds, and currents, landward as far as the land is subject to ac- on the other, making dunelands a risky place in tive gain or loss of sand because of the sea which to have a home (Figure 1). or sea wind. The duneland area may be Dunelands need to be protected so that they quite narrow or may extend many hundreds may continue to buffer the force of storm seas, of feet. store and yield sand to protect beaches and An active dune is one that is mobile, or in shorelands, and furnish turtle and bird nesting the process of visibly gaining or losing sand. areas and valuable habitats for certain wildlife The active dune is vegetated mostly with species. Your community's major management grasses; the stabilized dune, with shrubs and needs for dunelands will include setbacks, con- woody vegetation. There are various forms struction standards, excavation restraints, and of dunes and sand ridges (flatter, dunelike traffic control, as recommended in the following features). In the most common formation, four policies: one or more long dunes or ridges run par- 20. Excavation in Dunelands. Prohibit ex- allel to the beach (Figure 2). The dune clos- cavation and removal o active dunes and est to the beach is termed the "foredune," or beach ridges. the "frontal" or "primat-/' dune; those be- 21. Alteration of Dunm Prevent distur- hind it are called "secondary," "rear," or "back" dunes. Secondary dunes may be ac- tive or stabilized. In some places, there is an Figure 1. Dunes should survive all but the 11 largesi storms. Even with maximum care to erosion scarp- (a formation characteristic of trap and hold sand with fencing, these homes receding beaches) rather than a dune or at Avon, New Jersey, could be damaged by sand ridge. Duneland areas that do not have a hurricane. (Photo by John Clark.) pronounced dunes or ridges and are peri- 5 81 Barrier Flats Beach Dune Marsh (poorly developed) Beach Dune (distinct) Barrier Flats *4* Marsh Figure. 2. These cross-sections of a barrier beach illustrate changes in vegetation due to dif- ferences in dune structure. The "poorly developed" dune is rebuilding from a storm or is being kept flat by erosion and overwash. (Drawing by Michael Mow from Stephen P. Leatherman, Barrier Island Handbook [Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts, Environmental Institute, National Park Service Cooperative Research Unit, 1979].) odically flooded by the sea and covered or more per century), which is slowly with sand are called overwash areas; nor- pushing the sea onto the land (Table 1). mally, they lack est ablished plant commu- While dunes and sand ridges provide a nities. useful barrier to storm waves and surges, A specialized group of hardy plant and their primary function in protecting against animal species occupies the dunelands envi- hazards is to replenish sand that is slowly ronment, either temporarily or permanently. eroded by waves or instantly tom away by Many birds and small animals rest, nest, or large stonns and hurricanes. In this way, feed there. For example, sea turtles nest in dunes foster long-term stability of the shore- the dunelands and back beach, as do least front by retarding beach recession. The resil- tems and plovers. There are some perma- ient and mobile character of the dune make nent occupants such as ghostcrabs. Some it an optimum natural structure for protect- species of mammals range out onto the ing the beach and man-made structures dunelands from their primary inland habi- built behind the dunelands. tats.' Dunes offer short-tenn protection as well. The plant species of dunelands are well Much of the sand carved from the dunes by adapted to the shifting sands of the mobile storm waves is deposited immediately on dune ridges. The foredunes, directly ex- the submerged, nearshore portion of the posed to the full force of the wind, with beach. This deposit builds up the lower shifting formations that result from that ex- beach and the bar that lies submerged be- posure, have the least vegetation. The back- low the low-water mark. The additional dunes are less exposed and offer a more sta- sand helps to break the storm waves, thus ble environment for vegetation. dissipating their energy and weakening HAZARDS their attack on the beachfront. After a storm has passed, the dune is re- People are often inclined to build on dune- stored with new beach sand carried to it by lands to gain a seashore ambience. Occupa- the wind and secured by dune vegetation. tion of this narrow strip of a hundred or a Most dune plants grow rapidly and spread few hundred feet, however, may exact high by fonning runners or underground root costs in property losses and human lives; the systems. As vegetation increases, the dune enormous sums of private and public becomes more stable and has no significant money spent to stabilize and safeguard the loss or gain of sand until severe storm coast are rewarded too rarely with long-term waves again carve away the protecting success. The problem of beach recession is beachfront' (Figure 3). intensified by a relentless rise in sea level You should treat dunes as fragile re- along the U.S. coastline (one-half to one foot sources; they are vulnerable to loss of the 82 vegetation that binds them together and to erosion of their surface. Construction in Change in Sea Level durtelands, traffic over them, or removal of their sand-fil.1 invites erosion and storm (cm (ft/ damage problems. Northeast Coast decade) century) Portland, Me. 1.62 0.53 MANAGEMENT POUCIES Portsmouth, N.H. 1.65 0.54 One of your community s management ob- Boston, Mass. 1.07 0.35 jectives for dunelands should be to keep ac- Woods Hole, Mass. 2.68 0.88 tive dune and overwash areas intact and un- New London, Conn. 2.29 0.75 disturbed. This means minimizing the dis- New York City 2.87 0.94 turbances to vegetation and to the durieland's Sandy Hook, N.J. 4.67 1.50 Atlantic City, N.J. 2.83 0,93 sand system. Public access to the beach, a so- Annapolis, Md. 2A7 0.94 cial-equity issue, is not addressed directly in Hampton Roads, Va. 3.20 1.05 this guidebook. Physical access, however, must be considered in duneland manage- ment. You must have provisions for travers- Change in Sea Level ing the dunelands by vehicle or on foot, and this access must be controlled to pre- Southeast and (cm (ft/ vent damage. For example, off-road vehicles Gulf Coast decade) century) should be prohibited from dune systems Charleston, S.C. 1.80 0.59 that are sensitive to vehicle-induced erosion. Fort Pulaski, Ga. 1.98 0.65 A second management objective is to Fernandina, Fla. 1.25 0.41 place permanent development well inland Mayport, Fla. 1.65 0.49 of the active part of the dunelands. A con- Miami Beach, Fla. 1.92 0.63 Key West, Fla 0.73 0.24 struction. setback can be adjusted to the Pensacola, Fla. 0.40 0.13 particular circumstances, but your commun- Eugene Is., La. 9.05 2.97 ity will do best by ensuring that any new Galveston, Tex. 4.30 1.41 development is placed entirely landward of active dune ridges. Wherever a beach is receding because of erosion, it is important Changein Sea Level to predict the position of shoreline some (cm / (ft/ years ahead and to establish a recession line West Coast decade) century) to govern the setback distances. The setback -13.05 -4.28 line should be far enough landward of the Juneau, Alaska predicted recession line to provide for the Sitka, Alaska - 2.04 -0.67 Ketchinkan, Alaska 0.30 0.10 future location of the beach and dune sys- Seattle, Wash. 2.59 0.95 tem. Astoria, Ore. - 0.91 -0.29 Crescent City, Calif. - 1.34 -0.44 Recommended Policy 20. Excavation in San Francisco, Calif. 1.92 0.63 Dunelands. Los Angeles, Calif. 0.43 0.14 Prohibit excavation and removal of La Jolla, Calif. 1.92 0.63 active durtes and beach ridges. San Diego, Calif. 1.43 0.47 Dunes and sand ridges have often been demolished in the course of development, leaving beachfront communities unpro- Table 1. Apparent trends in sea level for the tected and leading to depletion of beaches. United States. (Source: Modified from S.D. Dune deposits have even been used as a Hectis, "On the Classification and Trends of source of beach fill, although the U.S. Army Long-period Sea Level Series," in Shore and Corps of Engineers has warned that dune Beach, April 20, 1972). deposits "must be used with caution to avoid exposing the area to flood hazard."' Because the total sand storage capacity of be considered unacceptable, except on rap- dunelands is a vital component of duneland idly accreting shores. Removal of dune sand and beach stability, in most circumstances from the active duneland system for fill, any significant reduction of the duneland construction aggregate, or other uses should sand stores by grading or excavation should normally be prohibited (Figure 4). 83 0- 6@r FOR 77 Figure 3. Dune grasses capture sand blown by the wind and bind it with their roots to build sand dunes. (Photo of Ocean Shores, Washington, by John Clark.) 7-1@ I'@l-"@,@l),!4?i@4,03,@,@top@,.,,,@@iRi@@$,!@',,Ot,@',@140424114 It RItQ@11-'O A j'@ M, Lk N IT "'V Al Figure 4. Excavation of sand dunes to obtain fill, level the land surface, or provide a view should be prohibited in most cases to protect the shoreline, structures, and human life during storms and floods. (Photo by John Clark.) 84 Recommended Policy 21: Alteration of view of the sea. This forecloses the protec- Dunes. tive values of the dune, not only for the Prevent disturbance of dunes and dune owners of the structure but also for neigh- vegetation by restraining traffic over boring property owners. dunelands. To ensure that structures are property lo- Dunes and beach ridges protect beachfront cated, your community should: (1) prohibit property and, therefore, your community homes or other buildings on active dune should preserve them in their best func- areas and (2) prohibit alteration of active tional condition. This requires protection of dunes when a site is being prepared and the vegetation that binds the dune together. developed. At the very least, you should have performance standards that do not per- Vegetation that grows on shifting dunes is adapted to withstandin the rigors of wind, mit any alteration of dune structure or func- . 9 sand, and salt, but not human feet, vehicles, tion. Building on dunes or lowering them or herds of grazing animals. Even slight al- will often not be necessary to obtain a view, terations of dune formations, such as minor since structure-elevation requirements im- erosion or displacement of vegetation, may posed as a condition of Federal flood insur- lead to significant dune loss. Once a frontal ance usually result in first floor windows dune is worn down by vehicles or foot traf- being elevated above the dune top. fic or by consequent loss of vegetation, it Where beaches are receding because of may be eroded by wind or wave action and erosion, your community should extend its no longer serve its unique protective role. preservation policy to the dunelands of the You can protect dunes by limiting access future. That is, if the shoreline will recede, to the beach to elevated steps and board- say, 150 feet in the next 50 years, the walks over dunes and sand ridges. Traffic community should plan as though the anywhere on the frontal dune system dunelands are now 150 feet inland of their should be prohibited. You can also use con- present position. This is done by: (1) predict- trol points, where dune damage from vehic- ing a recession line, (2) placing the setback ular and pedestrian access to the beach is fine at an appropriate distance behind it, confined and minimized. In instances where and (3) requiring all new development and damage from livestock has occurred, fences public facilities to be located behind the set- may have to be erected to keep grazing ani- back (Figure 5). mals off the dunes. In addition, duneland . A less satisfactory but still useful solution, habitats of shore species should be protected in cases where parcel configuration does not by temporary restriction of any entry during permit the suggested setback, is to allow critical nesting or breeding seasons. buildings to be erected in the area of active There is much room for local ingenuity in dunes but to apply tight performance stan- meeting duneland problems. For example, dards so that design and construction activi- Howard T. Lee of the Texas Coastal and Ma- ties will not result in any significant func- rine Council reports: "... regarding pedes- tional alteration of the dunelands.' Struc- trian traffic in dunes, a very elemental rea- tures should be elevated above the dune- son for such traffic is the need for privacy. lands on deep anchored piles, and filling The City of Port Aransas has greatly re- and general clearing, grading, and paving of duced that need on Mustang Island by plac- the site should be prohibited (Figure 6). ing portable toilets at intervals along the beach. It costs a bit of cash, but it does serve Recommended Policy 23: Dune Restora- a need and seems to be effective." tion. Encourage private and public projects to Recommended Policy 22- Location of Struc- restore and stabilize dunes. tures. Revegetation programs and simple struc- Build all structures landward of active tures such as snow fences are inexpensive dunes. and effective methods by which individual Because dunelands, offer the best ocean view property owners or groups in your commu- and the most convenient beach access, they nity can help to restore dunelands. Replace- are often proposed as the site for residential ment dunes should be built above the high- building projects. Buildings will be placed tide line, and on slopes that face the ocean. astride a dune, or the dune bulldozed away In some areas, through the use of fencing, to make a site level or to provide a better dunes four feet high or more may be built 85 SL @,LA' V A 'it Figure 5. Folly Island, South Carolina, where the sea is predicted to recede within 50 years to a position somewhere between the two recession lines marked on the photograph. Many or all of the homes will be destroyed. The recession line was calculated by the Corps of Engineers. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) 86 in less than a year, whereas in other places Third, establishing a setback from the this growth may take several years! You recession line, in accordance with Policy 22 should beware of building dunes too high. (Location of Structures). Attempts to build dunes to unnatural Fourth, restoring dunelands, in accor- heights or in unnatural configurations can dance with Policy 23 (Dune Restoration). be counterproductive. Such structures may interfere with rather than facilitate natural 1. Controlling excavation in dunelands. geologic processes! Your community may control excavation in Many community dune restoration proj- active dunelands in two principal ways: ects have proved effective and economical, -Local zoning and building regulations and have aesthetically enhanced the local can require special permits for excava- beach environment. For example, on Sanibel tion accompanying construction in and Captiva Islands, Florida, three man- dunelands? made dune lines were successfully planted -Local regulations can control sand min- with sea oats, railroad vine, and sea cu- ing that would increase the vulnerabil- cumber. After a year and a half, the plant- ity of adjacent properties to hazards. ings established a first-line defense against In seeking to control duneland excava- major flooding and property damage. The tion, your community may encounter two dunes withstood heavy storms during the problems: winter of 1978, holding the beach and First, in some coastal areas, identifying ac- protecting adjacent property! tive dune areas may be difficult. Some EMPLEMENTATION GUrDELR*-TB communities are content to protect the first or primary dune; others protect adjacent sec- Each of the four policies for dunelarlds ondary-dune ridges as well. For accurate presents a different management issue. definition, you will need technical assistance First, controlling excavation in dune- from a geologist or engineer familiar with lands, in accordance with Policy 20 (Excava- beach processes." This help may be available tion in Dunelands). from your State or through the Corps of En- Second, controlling vehicles and pedes- gineers. trian traffic on active dunes, in accordance Second, property owners may argue that with Policy 21 (Alteration of Dunes). strict regulation of sand mining exceeds lo- Figure 6. Houses built in the coastal high-hazard area of the beachfront may be severely damaged by wave impact even though they are elevated on pilings to the flat-water level of flooding. (Drawing by Ruth Ann Hill.) 87 cal statutory or constitutional authority. This control regulations. This may be com- is especially -likely to be a problem in the plemented by State regulations pro- absence of good data to identify environ- hibiting destruction of dune vegetation mental and hazards-protection needs, and such as sea oats or dune grasses." thereon establish the need for strict con- -Local traffic-control regulations may pro- trols.11 hibit vehicle traffic from dunes, limit it to Two federally sponsored programs may the "wet sand" area of the beach only, prove helpful to your community: and establish speed limits." National Flood Insurance Program. The Na- -Local policy may assist duneland owners tional Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) (see in excluding trespassers, whether on foot p. 38, 47) has established special require- or in dune buggies, from private land. ments for high-hazard areas-those areas Two types of problems may arise when identified on a Flood Insurance Rate Map your community tries to regulate dunelands: (FIRM) as subject to frequent and dangerous First, it will be necessary to coordinate lo- flooding. These areas, referred to as -V" cal policies and regulations with State regu- zones, often include dunelands because the lations (and Federal regulations for public strong natural forces and exposure to the sea lands), which often address one or more as- that result in dune creation also make pects of this issue-for example, speed limits duneland areas likely to bear the brunt of on the wet sand beach, or protection of key ocean stonns and hurricanes. duneland plant species. The NFIP requires that fill (often taken Second, off-the-road vehicles, such as from dunes) not be used to elevate build- dune buggies, may be difficult to control. ings in "V" zones. Your community - can Local regulations should provide clear guid- meet this requirement with a provision call- ance for vehicle users and enforcement ing for elevation of new structures on pil- authorities. In practice, however, clear rules ings. This kind of provision should be ap- are often politically difficult to fashion as plied behind active dune areas and should well as difficult to enforce. Mumm be coupled with a requirement for revegeta- Except for Federal public-lands manage- tion after surface alteration. ment, no Federal programs directly address Another requirement for "V" zones "pro- the use of dunelands. A State coastal zone hibit[s] man-made alteration of sand dunes management program may be a helpful ... which would increase potential flood non-local source of advice. damage." This requirement can provide im- portant support for communities trying to 3. Establishing a setback from the reces- protect their dunes. sion line. Coastal Zone Management. State coastal zone The recession fine identifies an area likely to management (CZM) programs (p. 36) may be severely eroded over a given period of include policies for dunelands or may iden- time (e.g., 30 years). Where the data and tify active duneland areas as "areas of analysis are available to your community, a particular concern." If so, special technical setback from the recession line is relatively assistance or State regulations may be avail- easy to incorporate in local building, zoning, able to support your local efforts to conserve and subdivision controls. This management dunelands. In addition, if the State CZM issue is similar in most respects to establish- program has been approved by the U.S. ing a setback for Banks and Bluffs (see p. Department of Commerce, the activities of 78). One special problem in the application Federal agencies must be "consistent" with of the National Flood Insurance Program the program. (NFIP) requirements may arise because the higher dunes (above the estimated 100-year 2. Controlling vehicles and pedestrian traf- flood elevation) may be omitted from the fic on active dunes. Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). On some In its efforts to protect active dunes, your FIRMs, however, these dunes will be des- community might deal with pedestrian and ignated as erosion ('T") zones (see p. 47). vehicle traffic in the following ways: In any event, all parts of these dunes that -Pedestrian access to the beach across ac- are subject to predictable flood-erosion tive dunes can be limited to wooden forces, regardless of elevation, should be walkways or similar structures in either treated as if they were located in hazardous dune-protection or regular development- -V" zones. 88 You should also recall that all new habit- able structures in dunelands should be ele- vated in accordance with the recommen- dations for floodlands (see p. 27), preferably on pilings. 4. Restoring dunelands and adjacent beaches. Even where dunes have been significantly damaged, specific restoration projects are not always needed. If Policies 20 through 23 are implemented, and if existing development does not stand in the way, the natural sys- tem itself will restore dunes and beaches. Sometimes, however, beach and durteland restoration projects are needed, in keeping with Policy 23. Your community may un- dertake these projects, but that is costly; of- ten you may want to seek other solutions. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is the principal source of Federal assistance to a locality that wants to restore dunelands and beaches. The Corps may nourish beaches or build protective structures. A relevant Corps program is the Small Beach Erosion Control Projects, discussed at page 79. If Corps assis- tance for restoring a recreational beach is obtained under this program, the beach must be open to the public. In some places, special Federal or State programs also provide assistance for dune- land and beach restoration. The State office of coastal zone management should be able to help you identify these opportunities. 89 AD . . .... .. .. F ad poll Beaches Beaches serve as the main protective bulwark for sive process of continuously pumping sand from property along the shores of oceans and large the ocean bottom onto the beach. This remedy is sounds (Figure 1). Most beaches can absorb heavy so costly ;t is not available to most communities. surface use, including the vehicle traffic so com- Since the main threat to the beach is usually mon in parts of Washington, Texas, and the Caro- from development on land next to it, beach linas. But beaches are also fragile. If you al- protection requires coordinated management of low removal of sand, improper building, or block- the beach itself and the land behind it. Your ing of sources of sand replenishment like "feeder community needs a beach-management program bluffs," the beach may be severely damaged or to limit building, prevent excavation, and control obliterated. Many prime beaches have been (Fig- beach protection and inlet structures, as covered ure 2). Miami's once wide and beautiful beach in the following five recommended management has been reduced to fragments. The probable cost policies: for repair is about 60 million tax dollars. 24. Beach Excavation: Avoid removing sand Beach problems are caused by human actions. from all parts of the beach system, includ- Normally, if nothing is built on or next.to the ing the shallow nearshore zone. beach, it will remain as long as the process of 25. Location of Structures. Locate all struc- natural replenishment continues. It may shift tures inland of the beach. with the seasons, yield sand temporarily to storm erosion, slowly recede landward with rising sea 26. Beach Protection Structures.- Maintain levels, or accrete seaward with natural shifts in natural beach processes by discouraging the flow of ocean currents, which bring more structures, that adversely affect littoral sand (Figure 3). Mobile and responsive, the sand transport. beach will remain over the years. But if you try 27. Inlet Alterations. Design inlet stabiliza- to restrain these natural movements with bulk- tion projects to protect downstream heads or groin fields so as to hold the beach, you beaches and to minimize estuarine flood- may start an unending chain reaction of prob- ing. lems that can be solved only by the very expen- 28. Beach System Restoration: Encourage effective restoration of seriously eroded beaches. Figure 1. The city of Sanibel, Florida, has en- acted a strict set of ordinances to conserve its beaches for recreation and for property protection. (Photo by John Clark.) ECOLOGICAL FEATURES Figure 2. The groins and bulkheads of Miami' The beach per se is the unvegetated face of Beach have not stopped erosion: the sand is the shoreline (usually sand) that extends so depleted on many parts of the beach that from the upper edge of the beach berm (the there is only water at high tide. A restoration lower edge of the durielands) seaward to the project now underway is costing over $60 mil- low-water mark (Figure 4). But the beach 6 lion of tax money. system as a whole includes the submerged 91 ---- --- --- --- 7 '-' 77, TK@ 71 7_1@V,2@11 IW_ PY 01, :Jv, U@, 7 7 T 7", 77 M,777 TT `C @4, 10 'g,i, @V_7 , -, =711. - 7- Figure 3. Barrier beaches in their natural condition remain wide and ample because they respond to storms or sea-level changes by accumulating sand and "rolling" landward. (Photo by John Clark.) nearshore zone as well. The typical beach tiles, and other animals nest and breed on S tem is comprised of the following parts: the berm and open beach, as well as feed YS Backshore: The dry beach, lying adjacent to and rest there. For example, sea turtles and below clunelands (or banks and bluffs) (including such endangered species as log- that is washed by waves at least once a year gerhead and green turtles) come ashore dur- during normal storms and highest tides; it is ing the spring and summer to lay their eggs made up of benns (ridges) and flats formed above the high-water line. Terns and other by wave deposition of sand or gravel on the seabirds frequently lay their eggs on the up- backshore. per beach. Foreshore: The wet beach, lying adjacent to Beaches provide a unique habitat for and below the backshore berms, and extend- burrowing species such as mole crabs, co- ing to the low-water mark. quina claims, razor dams, and others. There Bar: An offshore ridge that may emerge at may also be a complex community of crusta- low tides but is submerged at least at high cean organisms that attract shore birds. The tides and often permanently. shallow waters of the nearshore zone pro- Nearshore Zone: The submerged beach vide habitat for shellfish of many kinds and extending seaward as far as the force of a wide variety of forage species, which in waves reaches to the bottom, often the point turn attract fish and birds that feed on them. at which depths reach about 40 to 50 feet.' Ecologically, the beach is a unique envi- HAZARDS ronment occupied by animals that have adapted to the constant motion of the sand, The ocean beach is too hazardous a place to gravel, or shell. Many important birds, rep- serve as a building site. In its natural form, 92 COASTAL AREA BEACH NEARSHORE ZONE IE BACKSHORE FORESHORE > Seacliff, Berms Dunes, Etc.,` Breakers V, High-Water Level re Ber Ed e ore S /043e Low-Water evel Figure 4. The anatomy of a typical beach front. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hawaii Regional Inventory, The National Shoreline Study [Honolulu: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division, 19711.) it exists in a state of dynamic tension, and so forth-and in the duneland area be- continually shifting in response to waves, hind the beach. When storm waves carve winds, and tide and continually adjusting away a beach, they take sand out of storage. back to equilibrium. In the optimum natural state, however, Each part of the beach is capable of receiv- there is enough sand storage capacity in the ing, storing, and giving sand, depending on ocean beach berm (or in the dunelands be- which of several constantly changing forces hind it) to replace the sand lost to storms; is dominant at the moment. This keeps the consequently, the effects are temporary, slope or profile intact through balancing the with the beach gradually building up again sand reserves held in various storage (Figure 5). In large sounds (e.g., Puget components in the beach system-dry Sound) with beaches, the situation may dif- beach, wet beach, submerged offshore bar, fer in that beaches are narrower, dunes are Figure 5. When houses T77 10 are built sufficiently back V from the beach, there is no need for bulkheads W EU " 4V1111,_., V-IN V 3vI '24 g and groins; the natural _"4 processes work to hold -'10 40 r, NPOV -", - 'A @1. the beachfront intact. (Photo by John Clark.) - - - - - - - - - - - @A T 4 @k 4V S Du 93 Dune Crest Berm M. H. W. Profile A Normal wave action A L.W. S 10 N M.H.W. N'. Prof ile 8 - Initial attack of storm waves M.L.W. ACCRETION Profile A Storm Tide M.H.W. 0 S 1 0 Crest Lowering Profile C - St wave floc ...... . ..... M.L.W. of foredun* Crest I Recession- ACCRE ION Profile A OS #V A%- M.H.W. M.L.W. Profile 0 - After storm wave attack, normal wave action ACCRETIO Profi s A Figure 6. This schematic diagram shows how storm waves attack a beach and dunes. As the dune is attacked by storm waves, eroded material is carried out and deposited offshore, altering the beach's underwater configuration. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Shore Protection Guidelines," in National Shoreline Study, vol. 1 [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 19731.) r Crest R e c @es s i.. on... 94 absent, berms are intermittent, and angle of repose) by protecting both the replenishment comes from "feeder bluffs" natural processes that supply the beach with and streams. sand and the sand-storage capacity of the A beach disturbed by improperly de- beach elements. Because groins, jetties, and signed bulkheads and Broins may have only bulkheads often result in a loss of sand to a small remaining area available to store the beach system as a whole, structures to sand. If sand is shunted to sea because of protect beaches and inlets should be care- groins or bulkheads, for example, the re- fully chosen. serve sand in storage may be reduced to a Special attention must be given to the level no longer capable of replacing sand problems of receding beaches, often caused losses from severe storms. The beach system partially by human activity and partially by becomes unstable, slumps in places, and at- the natural trend of a rising sea level (Figure tempts to reestablish its old equilibrium pro- 7), which amounts to one foot per century file, or "angle of repose." But with less sand, for some beachfronts.1 As the sea level rises, the equilibrium angle of repose can be the shoreline is forced inland because,there established only at a position inland of the is little to anchor it permanently in place. previous beach profile. When this occurs, To preserve the attributes of your commu- erosion cuts away the land. nity's beaches, you will have to undertake a The natural forces at work are immense. careful and comprehensive examination of The power of man to hold the beach at a conservation needs, natural processes, build- higher than natural angle of repose to pro- ing practices,' and corrective engineering tect property is limited. Structural solutions proposals that affect the whole beach sys- to beach erosion and protection of duneland tern. These considerations will require tech- property from the hazards of sea storms may nical expertise in beach processes and be expensive and are often temporary or beachfront engineering, counterproductive. Clearly, the key to the natural protection provided by the Recornmended Policy 24: Beach Excavation. beachfront is the sand held in storage and Avoid removing sand from all parts of yielded to storm waves to dissipate the force the beach system, including the shallow of their attack (Figure 6). nearshore zone. MANAGEMENT POUCrES A major management objective is to main- tain the beach slope intact by not disturbing The general goal for your community's sand reserves held in the beachfront and the ocean-beach management program should adjacent, submerged, nearshore zone. Tak- be to maintain the beach slope (profile or ing sand from any part of the beach-dry A Figure 7. Severe beach erosion is threatening homes at Surfside, Texas, near Freeport. Beach property, pre- -0- viously located some distance from the Gulf of Mexico, now is in the surf. The Galveston Dis- trict, Corps of Engineers, is engaged in a study of controls for erosion. (Photo from U.S. Army JF" MIR, Corps of Engineers, Gal- N7 veston District.) 4111110- A* 95 beach, wet beach, bar, or nearshore Buildin8s should be placed well back of the zone-can lead to severe erosion and reces- future beach recession line. Continued se- sion of the beachfront. Therefore, beach vere beach recession is certain and predict- conservation should start with the premise able along much of the U.S. coast (Figure 8). that any removal of sand is adverse, It is unwise to allow development of prop- whether for construction fill, concrete ag- erty that will certainly be lost to the sea, gregate, or any other purpose. especially when the security of development Many communities and States recognize so often creates lot-owner demands for the serious consequences of removal of sand protective works, which may further imperil from the beach per se, but do not under- the whole beach system. Therefore, your stand the effects of dredging sand immedi- community should be certain that-structures ately seaward of the beach. When sand is are located behind a setback line that accom- mined from the nearshore zone of the beach modates the predicted long-term (50 to 70 system, a submerged depression is created. years) recession rate of the ocean beach (see Nature's response is to replace the lost ma- Dunelands section for details). terial via wave and current transport. This Public rights are another compelling rea- takes sand from the beach, eroding its struc- son to bar building on beaches. The beach ture and depleting its stores. The result may up to the mean high-water line (mean be a perpetual cycle of dredging sand off- higher high water for the Pacific coast) in shore and placing it on the beach, while the most States is in public domain; therefore, new supplies are carried back into the sea to owners of adjacent land do not have the fill in the depressions caused by the mining. right to use this part of the beach exclu- For these reasons, large-scale excavation of sively for private purposes. In some states, sand from any part of the beach system, public rights are extended to the berms and whether above or below water, should be other parts of the "dry beach" above mean prohibited. This means from the backshore high water. For example, by legislative ac- of the beach seaward as far out as wave en- tion, Texas has declared that the public may ergy penetrates to the bottom, which could have access to the beach all the way to the be as far as a mile or more offshore (often to beginning of permanent vegetation (above depths of 40 to 50 feet). the toe of the first dune). Recommended Policy 25: Location of Struc- Some local governments provide a similar tures. beach setback. Whatcom County, Wash- Locate all structures inland of the beach. ington, for example, requires in all subdivi- sion and site-development plans that a mini- With rare exceptions, no residential, mum of 30 feet of land above mean high D", commercial, or industrial structures should water (or mean higher high water) be set be built on beaches, including the whole aside for community recreation and open backshore to the annual high-water mark. space-' Whatcom County Planner Roger Movement of dune (erosion) - approximately 100 times V' Profile after rise In sea level Profile before rise in sea 1(vel Present mean sea level Nk --------- - W a t e r Previous mean sea level Figure 8. The diagram shows the recession of a beachfront (Bogue Banks, N.C.) in response to a relative rise in sea level for a beach with a slope of 1 percent. The beach recedes a distance of 100 times the increase in sea level (d). For example, it relative sea level rose one-half foot, the beachfront would recede 50 feet. (Source: Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., and Robb Turner, How to Live with an Island: A Handbook to Bogue Banks, North Carolina [Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources, 1975].) ,i.us ;a_n_@_e_@a_ 96 AV AOL@ 'AOL P, IT, -'.777 Figure 9. A tsunami suddenly striking a developed part of the California coast, such Figure 10. A naturally sloping beach dis- as these Malibu homes, could cause severe sipates wave energy. Seawalls or building property damage and loss of lives. (Photo by foundations, however, reflect the energy al- Jack McDowell.) most completely, creating a scouring action near the toe of the wall and causing the Almshaar believes that many other commu- undermining and eventual collapse of the structures. (Drawing by Albert R. Veri.) rUties would find, this beneficial, but warns that the setback should be more in most cases. of parallel groins may force sand to move further offshore with the littoral drift, from Recommended Policy 26: Beach Protection one groin tip to another, instead of moving Structures. along close to the beach. Bulkheads tend to Maintain natural beach processes by accelerate beach loss because they reflect the discouraging structures that adversely force of waves downward and back into the affect littoral sand transport. sand, which causes the beach to be scoured When dunelands or bluff tops are occupied, away.5 roads built, and investment capital commit- Thus, improperly designed structures in- ted along a beachfront, it may seem nec- tended to stabilize the beach may achially essary to retard the natural recession of the reduce the reserve of sand to a level no shore with groins (linear rock or concrete longer capable of replenishing losses caused structures built perpendicular to the beach) by severe storms. In such cases, storm waves and bulkheads. If improperly designed, may remove enough beach to erode under however, these structures may be short-lived and around the structures, causing the beach and may create or intensify long-term prob- line to move inland as the berm regains its lems! By providing a false sense of security, equilibrium slope (Figure 10). Shorefront they may set the stage for a larger-scale structures may also prevent the wind from disaster than would occur without them carrying beach sand up onto the dunelands. (Figure 9). If the sand supply is thus cut off, frontal Groins, sewalls, and other approaches to duries may gradually deteriorate. You shore protection sometimes have complex should, therefore, generally discourage the and unanticipated secondary effects. A row construction of shore-protection structures 97 .. ..... .... ....... .. ... ... lair, Figure 11. The small groin shown at the very tip of Gasparilla Island (Florida) has been success- ful in collecting sand and preventing the island from eroding further. A short distance away the beach has receded 700 feet in 30 years, possibly because of dredging the inlet and disposing of the sand offshore in the ocean. (Photo by John Clark.) R 77 IN- INK' Figure 12. At Ocean City, Maryland, condominiums are still built on the beach, even though existing structures are being undermined by winter waves. (Photo by Steven Leatherman.) N@ 98 in favor of setbacks and other nongtructural deposited in the dmdged channel. It is dear remedies. that both inlet deepening and inlet Sometimes, beachfront development has stabilitzation projects affect the sand supply already progressed so far that it is too late moving along the beach with littoral drift; for nonstructural remedies alone. Some either can lead to a major imbalance of sand commendable engineering structures have along the beach system. been devised to supplement natural pro- Where moving sand must cross an inlet, cesses, and to reduce further damage, where the total amount of sand in motion in both development is quite intense (Figure 11). directions is important. Jetties, structures But there are many examples of failure of that stabilize the location of the channel and the structural approach. Miami's beach has shield vessels from waves, affect sand move- been all but eliminated by the extensive ment at inlets. A deepened inlet might re- seawalls and groin fields that accompanied sult in eroded, narTower beaches on the urban encroachment. The beachfronts of downdrift side of the jetty because the sand Captiva, Gasparilla, Treasure Island, and that normally would pass the inlet is de- other barrier islands on Florida's west coast tained. Some of this sand is impounded at are in precarious condition. Ocean City, the updrift jetty, while additional sand is ei- Maryland, is fighting a losing battle against ther lost into deep water at the inlet's sea- the sea (Figure 12) with bulldozers attempt- ward end, where it forms offshore bars, or is ing to restore the backshore by using fore- deposited in bars inside the estuary. The shore sand after each winter storm (Figure term "net littoral drift" refers to the dif- 13). ference between the volume of sand mov- Unfortunately, extensive areas of the coast ing in one direction along a beach and that are already occupied and must somehow be moving in the opposite direction (caused by maintained safely until setbacks and other shifts in the direction of attacking waves). protective land-use plans can be imple- An example of sand movement across an mented. Policy 28 addresses this problem. inlet is available for Corson Inlet, on the Recommended Policy 27: Wet Alterati New Jersey coast: Design inlet stabilization pro" to ons. Southward-moving sand 600,000 cu. yd/year protect downstream beaches and Northward-moving minimize estuarine flooding. sand 450,000 cu. yd/year Inlets affect the stability of adjacent beaches Net littoral drift 150,000 cu. yd/year by interrupting littoral drift-lateral move- The total sand moving across the inlet, ment of sand with shore currents-and by 1,050,000 cubic yards per year, is the amount trapping the passing sand. When inlet chan- that could be lost to beaches north and nels are artifically deepened by dredging, south of the inlet if sand building up in the the sand moving along the coast may be inlet were dredged and removed. Losses in Figure 13. Ocean City, IL k@l Maryland, uses bull- A@ dozers to push beach @Q r sand against failing foundations and bulk p heads each winter in a futile attempt to correct % the mistake of building Al- V 4 too close to the ocean; a toy hurricane striking here will cause extraordinary damage. (United Press International Photo.) A;, ORR 'T J, 99 Figure 14. Inlet stabiliza- ')rUpdfift !horeline tion and dredging proj- 11" Updrift Shoreline _5- Littoral Barrier ects ty (Offshore Breok@atoi, pically cause g 4 ape on,.m. problems for beaches oral Sorrier ... downdrift of the inlet, be (Jetty) S@b L cause the jetties and _11.od . .............. sand dredging stop the natural flow of sand past flood ehb the inlet. The U.S. Army t Shoreline Corps of Engineers is ex- perimenting with various bypass structures with drift Shoreline which to solve this prob- lem by impounding the TYPE IL JETTIED INLET AND sand at the updrift jetty TYPE 1. JETTIED INLET OFFSHORE BREAKWATER for transfer by pump or I'll dump truck to the beach updrift ing Z0.0 Updriff Shoreline Shoreline 7101'r : to S t a 9 1 below the downdrift jetty. Littoral Sorrier Low Sill (Weir) (Source: U. S. Army (Shore, connected I I Corps of Engineers, Breakwater) ....... Breokoter "Impoun ing.11 Shore Protection Manual (Vicksburg, Miss.: U.S. <Impounding. Army Coastal Engineer- floo-Abne ing Research Center, 1973].) Downdrift Shoreline 7..-ndrift Shoreline TYPE M. SHORE TYPE 1Z. SHORE CONNECTED CONNECTED BREAKWATER BREAKWATER (impounding Zone at Seaward (Impounding Zone at Shoreward End of Breakwater) End of Breakwater) 4 Wafts, 1965) these amounts could spell disaster to the ally do not have such competence available beaches north and south of the inlet.' This to them. If that is the case in your commu- problem can be partially solved by provid- nity, you should contact the U.S. Army ing artificial sand "bypass systemsr' which Corps of Engineers, the appropriate State impound the moving sand in special basins agency, or private consultants for engineer- for pumping across to the downstream side ing evaluation. In any event, complex and of the inlet, as illustrated in Figure 14. expensive projects of this type are usually The dimensions of inlets, which control carried out by the U.S. Army Corps of En- the water flow in and out of bays, are an- gineers. other element of critical importance. For Recommended Policy 28: Beach System Res- example, if the inlet is narrowed, the extent toration. of hurricane-surge penetration into the bay Encourage effective restoration of may be reduced. At the same time, however, seriously eroded beaches. the flow of storm waters out of the bay will I be impeded, thereby increasing floodwater Many coastal communities clearly need elevations in bayfront communities. If your beach-restoration programs. Sand replenish- community decides to stabilize, deepen, or ment, or artificial beach nourishment, is the otherwise artificially interfere with natural main hope for restoration of most badly processes in inlets, you should make sure eroded beaches, with structures playing a the project design includes the correct bal- secondary role. Rebuilding beaches artifi- ance to minimize surge entry and maximize cially, by replacing lost sand, permits the release of storm waters accumulating in bays natural process to continue. Beach nourish- and other estuarine basins. This requires ment provides (1) -a beach sui[table for rec- practitioners with special competence in reational purposes, (2) an effective check on coastal engineering. Local jurisdictions usu- erosion in the problem area, (3) a supply of un n Upd,,11 11o, Law 'n @. 100 I sand to adjacent beaches, and (4) a practica- eml funds and expertise will normally be re- ble, if expensive, answer to beach erosion quired. If Federal money is used, your where large quantities of sand are available. community will have to use its own re- However, beach nourishment usually does sources to provide parking lots and points of not permanently restore the beach. This kind access to the beach (in many cases at inter- of technique provides only a temporary vals of one-half mile). solution, often at great expense, and addi- D"LEMENTATION GUMELU-4FS tional replenishment may be required at regular intervals. If it does not produce the Although beaches are physically different desired result, beach nourishment may from banks and bluffs and dunelands, the easily be discontinued. management needs are nearly identical. Sources of sand for beach fill are often Each of the management needs that your scarce. In light of present knowledge, any community must address to implement Poli- removal of sand from the beach system itself cies 24 through 28 has been discussed in the will threaten the beach profile because of sections on Banks and Bluffs and the reduction of storage-whether the sand Dunelands: is taken from dunes, the beach per se, or First, controlling excavation, in accordance from the longshore bar or nearshore zone. with Policy 24 (Beach Excavation) is dis- Therefore, you should not try to solve an cussed at page 87. erosion problem in one part of the beach Second, establishing a setback from the system by using sand from some other part recession fine, in accordance with Policy 25 of the same system. Since dunes, adjacent (Location of Structures), is discussed at page beaches, nearshore areas, and estuaries are 78. generalty considered off limits for sand re- Third, establishing standards for protec- moval, there are two appropriate sources of tive structures, in accordance with Policies supply for beach nourishment: (1) the open 26 (Beach Protection Structures) and 27 (In- ocean or broad non-estuarine bays beyond a let Alteration), is discussed at page 79. depth of about 40 feet' or (2) areas around Fourth, restoring beaches, in accordance inlets or other places of accretion, where the with Policy 28 (Beach System Restoration) is supply is constantly replenished by natural discussed at page 89. forces (particularly suitable in conjunction Following are several problems, and re- with navigation dredging). sponses to them, that you may also encoun- Often, strategically placed and properly ter when implementing the recommended designed groins will be required to hold the policies for beaches: sand pumped onto the beach (Figures 15 First, there may be little understanding of and 16). Such groins will not have the same how difficult and expensive it is to control Z", adverse impact of groins placed on a natural the natural forces that alter beaches. As a re- beach insofar as the sand pumped onto the sult, people often want to continue building . .. .... . .. beach is sufficient to prevent "downstream' in hazardous adjoining areas. Also, they of- sand starvation. ten demand expensive protective works that Another partial, but more permanent, ap- ultimately prove futile because of relentless proach to restoration is the removal of im- changes in sea levels. Your community can properly designed barriers such as bulk- respond to this problem in a number of heads, groins, and other structures that ways. It can decline to build protective deplete the sand supplies. You can replace works on public beaches. (The National those structures, if necessary, with a beach- Park Service is now declining to do so in nourishment project. some oceanfront areas.) Or, if your commu- Whatever approach is taken, very few nity does build such works (or arranges for communities can afford to engage in large Federal agencies to help build them), it can restoration projects on their own. Groins make sure that the economic and envi- may cost $500,000 each; seawalls, $200 to ronmental costs of the works are taken into $500 a foot. In 1975 prices, the cost of sand account by officials and citizens. used for beach nourishment ranged from Second, because most beaches are publicly about $1.50 to $2.00 a cubic yard-for sand owned, major beach-protection projects are pumped by a dredge over a short likely to be formally proposed by govern- distance-to as much as $5.00 a cubic yard if ment rather than by private property own- the sand is hauled by truck.' State and Fed- ers. Thus, coordination with other public 101 -M-A. AMA* Y z :7 -AL j Figure 15. The North Beach at Corpus Christi, Texas, in the summer of 1977, during the dredging and spreading operation of a beach restoration project by the Galveston District, Corps of Engineers. Sand for the base was dredged from Corpus Christi Bay, with cover sand trucked in. (Photo from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Galveston District.) V---7 102 All _@V Y_@ Figure 16. The North Beach at Corpus Christi following beach restoration. The new beach is 1.25 miles long and 300 feet wide. (Photo from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Galveston District.) programs, including coordination of local ficulty in obtaining the expertise necessary policies with State and Federal agency for intelligent analysis of Federal, State, and activities, is especially important in beach private proposals for beach protection, inlet management. Coordination can be achieved alteration, and other beach modifications. in a number of ways, depending on the The Corps of Engineers or your State particular State or Federal activity affecting department of navigation can sometimes your community. The Federal environmen- help to explain various alternatives, al- tat impact assessment process (see p. 37) pro- though these agencies are sometimes propo- vides opportunities to comment on pro- nents of particular projects. The U.S. Fish posed Federal activities and on important and Wildlife Service may be able to inter- regulatory actions by agencies such as the pret the impacts of different proposed alter- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The "A-95" natives on natural systems, particularly review process (see p. 34) provides another where proposals require Corps of Engineers forum for most local governments to make permits or are undertaken by the Corps it- similar comments. State coastal zone pro- self. A State coastal zone management pro- grams (see p. 36) can be an important means gram may also be of assistance by providing of coordinating local and State/Federal poli- policies and standards by which to analyze cies for beaches. Finally, the procedures of or formulate proposals for beach protection. many Federal programs allow local com- ments. Under some Federal programs, a State official serves as a conduit for such comments, and you will often find it benefi- cial to work closely with that official. Third, your community may have dif- 103 "W'00ove op 104 Coastal Waters and Basi*ns The shallow waters and estuaries that fringe the 31. Diffuse Sources of Pollution: Require U.S. coast are vulnerable to pollution and to the highest standards for control of storm- physical disturbance (Figure 1). In an affirmative water runoff and other diffitse sources of program of conservation to protect these waters, pollution. your community will have to consider the 32. Structures in Coastal Waters: Avoid in shoreland watershed adjacent to the coastal water coastal waters the use of structures that basin. The flow of water from the land is a pri- would adversely impede coastal water cir- mary factor controlling the condition of coastal culation. ecosystems. 33. Sites for Removal and Deposit of The policies of this section emphasize the con- D!redged Material. Select locations for servation of estuaries-protected sounds, bays, la- removal and deposit of dredged material to goons, and tidal rivers-rather than the open sea, avoid adverse effects on basin floors and because estuaries are richer in resources and more critical areas such as grass beds. vulnerable to damage from pollution and other 34. Dredging Performance. Require sea- environmental disturbance. The dense settlements sonal, locational, and operational controls so often located on estuarine shores produce high on coastal dredging projects. volumes of waste and cause extreme alteration of 35. Channel Location and Design: Select natural systems. routes and designs for navigation channels To conserve marine resources, while providing that minimize adverse effects on basin opportunities for swimming and boating, your floors. community will find it necessary to control ma- 36. Coastal Basin Restoration. Encourage rine construction, discharge of pollutants, and the restoration of polluted coastal waters dredging and other alteration of the basin floor. and basin floors. The following policies are designed to facilitate ECOLOGICAL FEATURES these management objectives: 29. Disposal of Effluents.- Require the high- The term estuary has a variety of definitions, est levels of waste treatment for industrial but as used here estuary (Figure 2) means an and municipal effluents released into es- enclosed coastal water body that has a tuarine and nearshore coastal waters. measurable quantity of salt (greater than 0.5 30. Siting of Heavy Industry: Locate in- parts per thousand salinity, the threshold of dustrial facilities inland if they have a high human taste) and a free connection to the potential for disturbance of coastal ecosys- sea. "Enclosed" is used in a relative sense tems. and includes all "protected" coastal water bodies, ranging from open bays with wide 7 C Figure 1. Shallow estuaries along the coast mouths to nearly landlocked salt ponds with are especially vulnerable to the effects of narrow water passages to the sea. Estuaries development of all kinds, particularly pollu- serve as mixing basins where ocean water is tion-prone development such as oil drilling. diluted with fresh water from streams and (Photo by John Clark.) with runoff from adjacent watersheds. 105 Where it is important to distinguish be- phytoplankton), and algae of the basin tween estuarine basins and indented floors. This chain provides food for the ani- nearshore oceanic basins, you can use the mal life. Of particular importance is wet- following rule of thumb: An enclosed lands detritus, small floating particles of coastal water body, or estuary, is one that plant matter from decomposing cordgrass or has a shoreline length greater than three mangrove leaves or other plant tissues, times the width of its outlet to the sea. Some Detritus is consumed by a wide variety of deep, wide sounds that have nearly oceanic shrimp and other small estuarine life forms conditions may fall into an in-between cat- which in turn serve as forage for birds and egory- fish.' Estuaries are the richest of all coastal wa- All aquatic plants are nourished by nu- ters. They not only produce an abundance trient minerals dissolved in the water, of fish and shellfish but also serve special particularly compounds of nitrogen and needs of the migratory nearshore and oce- phosphorous, which are supplied from anic species that require shallow protected within the ecosystem through a continuous habitat for breeding or as sanctuary for their internal recycling process. However, nu- young (Figure 3). trients continuously trickle out of the system Second only to the estuary in envi- and are replaced by minerals from land run- ronmental concern is the nearshore zone, off and other sources. the band of shallow waters adjacent to the Sunlight is the basic force driving the ocean shore. Inshore, it is bounded by the ecosystem. It is the fundamental source of beach; offshore, it extends seaward as far as energy for the aquatic plants. It must be able the force of waves reaches to the bottom, to penetrate coastal waters so as to foster the normally where water depth reaches 40 to growth of both the rooted plants, such as 50 feet. sea grasses, and the suspended algae (or Life in coastal waters is supported by a phytoplankton). Increased turbidity, from food cycle-or food chain-beginning with the addition of suspended matter to the plants such as mangroves, marsh grasses, water, reduces fight penetration and de- floating micro-plants (collectively called presses plant growth. Estuarine waters are rN K @V 7E Figure 2. Estuaries such as this mangrove lagoon behind Sanibel Island, Florida, are shallow water bodies protected from ocean waves. In an estuary, salt water and fresh water mix, greatly enhancing the estuary's productivity for seafood. (Photo by John Clark.) 106 normally more turbid than ocean waters, water circulation transports nutrients, pro- more laden with silt and more rich in sus- pels plankton, supports and spreads "seed" pended life.' stages (planktonic larvae of fish and shell- Of the various gases that are found dis- fish), flushes away the wastes of animal and solved in coastal waters, oxygen is of the plant life, cleanses the system of pollutants, most obvious importance to the fauna. controls salinity, shifts sediments, mixes Coastal waters need a high oxygen con- water, and performs other useful work. The centration to provide for optimum eco- specific pattern of water movement found system function and highest carrying capac- in the estuarine portion of any coastal sys- ity. tem is a result of the combined influences of The entire dynamic balance of the estuary runoff volume, tidal action, wind, and, to a revolves around and is strongly dependent lesser extent, external oceanic forces? on water circulation. Vertical and horizontal Salinity, or salt content, of the water is a "bo, Figure 3. The Chesapeake EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Bay riverine spawning areas SUSQUEHANNA NORTHEAST Striped Bass RIVER.. RIVER ELK,:; are a prodigious producer of Egg RIVR ntic Striped Bass, a Atla saltwater angler's favorite ies. (Source: R.J. Man- BOHE A spec (@)Dliam ItIVER:.\\ sueti, "Effects of Civilization 2 a.: S. SAFRAS on Striped Bass and Other RIVER Va Estuarine Biota in Chesa- peake Bay and Tributaries," @CHESTER in Proceedings, Gulf and RIVER Postlarva 1/41' long Caribbean Fisheries In- stitute, 14th Annual Session, Miami, Florida, 1961.) Y6ung fish long CHOPTANK PATUXENT RIVER RIVER 05 Sb# NANTICOKE W RIVER POTOMAC RIVER 11, 'AT R 'RI E IC ICO RIVER P OCOMOKE RIVER RAPPAHANNOC RIVER MATTIP0 RIVER z: PAMUNKE RIVER j C ICKAHOM Y:w HIS RIVER, IVEI Chesapeake Bay KNOWN SPAWNING AREAS OF THE STRIPED BASS AND SOURCE OF EGG COLLECTION PUMP. - Hollis and Davis (1955) JA ES " : i UVE4 Tresselt 0952) Pearson 0938) SCALE IN MILES h k C esa=e Biological 0 3 10 J5 20 2S ratory 107 critical factor for estuarine species. Gen- and industrial construction is located in the erally, there is a gradient in salinity that floodplains of bays and other estuaries. Not starts with a high concentration in the only are more people and property exposed, ocean, decreases inward through the es- but there is a reduction of the coastal envi- tuary, and drops to near zero at some dis- ronment's natural resistance to floods. tance up estuarine tributaries. Some coastal Lowering dunes, eliminating wetlands, and species tolerate a wide range of salinity, stripping watersheds accelerates runoff to whereas others require a narrow range to the coastal basins.' five and reproduce successfully. Some spe- The greatest threat of flooding is posed by cies require different salinities at different hurTicanes, which frequently cause surges of phases of their life cycles, conforming to seawater eight feet or more above the nor- regular seasonal rhythms in the amount of mal high-water level. Such enormous surges land runoff. of seawater are pruduced by the combined The floors of coastal basins are important. effects of a hurricane's low atmospheric They provide the basic form and structure pressure and high winds, the shape of the of the basins, and govem the flow of water coast, and the slope of the ocean bottom through them, as well as harbor the richest near shore.' An extreme example of what habitat areas of coastal waters-dam beds, can happen is Hurricane Camille, which in coral reefs, submerged grass beds, and so 1969 viftually destroyed Pass Christian, Mis- forth. Estuarine floors are usually biologi- sissippi, with a record surge of 24 feet above cally richer and more vulnerable to adverse normal sea level. In 1975 Hurricane Eloise impacts than are nearshore ocean floors. raised water levels more than 15 feet along Many commercially or recreationally valu- 60 miles of coast in the Florida Panhandle able species depend on the basin floor for (Figure 4). habitat, and forage about within the bottom In estuaries, inundation from a rising sediments for their food.' The community of water level, rather than direct wave action, life of the basin floor is also a major element is the principal threat. The flood waters in ecosystem stability. The bottom species come principally from seawater driven are highly diverse-including worms, lob- through the estuarine mouth, or inlet, by sters, clams, oysters, shrimps, and fish. the force of the hurricane. As mentioned in Ecologically healthy estuaries have dean the discussion of Beaches, the form of an in- and firm bottoms and undisturbed habitats let is a key factor in protection against haz- with a high resource canying capacity. The ards. Inlet channels, if they are n=ow, slow system's capacity is reduced when function- the surging water entering estuarine basins ing grass beds, shellfish beds, coral reefs, but also hold back the outward flow of rain- and other vital areas of the basin floor are water and storm runoff that fill the basins. seriously altered or degraded. Carrying The normally heavy rains that accompany capacity also suffers when sediments accu- hurricanes and sea storms not only fall into mulate on the bottom of the basin, causing the estuary itself but also often produce shoaling gind lowered water quality. Disrup- heavy storm-water runoff that flows into the tion of tidal curTents, or other circulation estuary from adjacent uplands. These, two forces that seriously reduce flushing, may al- sources-rain and runoff-added to the low a buildup of pollution, cause salinity ocean surge level may, during the later part changes adverse to the biota, or result in in- of a storm, elevate bay waters higher than creased silt fallout. Similarly, any significant the ocean waters outside. The result can be alteration of water circulation may adversely extreme flooding of shore communities as influence the pattem of distribution of life well as possible breaks through barrier is- in the marine basin, and the movement of lands from bay water rushing seaward after floating planktonic life. the hurTicane peak passes. The flooding of estuarine shores dimin- ishes according to the basin's capacity to re- HAZARDS ceive and store both storm-water discharge The danger to life and property from from the shorelands and storm surges from estuarine flooding is exacerbated by the the ocean. This capacity is related to the intensity of development in the coastal depth, width, and shape of the basin. Under zone. Mounting losses due to floods can be normal conditions, estuarine configuration expected when new residential, commercial, changes slowly. Suspended sediment from 108 Figure 4. Hurricane Eloise high water marks, Panama City (Florida) beaches. (Source: Walter W. Burdin, "Surge Effects from Hurricane Eloise," Shore and Beach, Vol. 45, no. 2 [April 1977], pp. 3-8.) upland areas and the sea is deposited in the other dramatic effects, pollution causes a basin. Waves and currents may alter bottom pervasive and continuous degradation, configurations, as sediments are scoured off evidenced by the gradual disappearance of the basin floor in open areas to accumulate fish or shellfish or a general decline in the in sheltered areas. Biological activity also af- carrying capacity of the system. The most fects the structure of the basin floor through likely sources of pollution are chemicals or the growth of reefs or the colonization of organic waste.' These contaminants create a the bottom by shellfish or marine grasses. hostile environment that drives away fish, Development in the basins or on adjacent prevents shellfish from reproducing, or un- wetlands subjects this natural process to dermines the food chain. rapid and severe changes. A second management objective for your community should be to maintain the natu- ral characteristics of basin configuration, cir- MANAGEMENT POLICIES culation, and tidal flushing to achieve maxi- Ecologically, development activity anywhere mum resistance to hazards and maintain the in coastal areas-floodlands, banks and optimum carrying capacity of the ecosystem. bluffs, dunelands, beaches, or water basins Activities that alter the configuration or -can be a potential source of damage to the composition of the basin floor create distur- coastal waters ecosystem. bances, that often have far-reaching effects. One of the important objectives of your The major adverse effects stem mainly from community's coastal management activities dredging, which is undertaken to create and should be to prevent pollution of coastal maintain canals, navigation channels, turn- waters. Aside from outright fish kills and ing basins, harbors, and marinas, as well as 109 to lay pipeline or to obtain material for fill centrate these substances within their cell or construction. structure, the presence of metals from indus- A third management objective is to main- trial-waste discharge, even in small con- tain the natural pattern of land drainage centrations, can have deleterious effects.' into coastal waters. When portions of the While the addition of large quantities of coastal watershed system are altered or heat from industrial cooling water con- short-circuited, the natural flow pattern is stitutes a form of pollution that can put disrupted and estuaries may be overbur- stress on the ecosystem, a more important dened by surges of fresh water. This not effect of cooling-water systems that require a only disturbs the ecosystem, but increases large intake of water from estuaries is the flood hazards. The most confined estuaries entrainment of fish and shellfish larvae (particularly lagoons) need a maximum of with the intake water followed by mass protective controls: buffer strips above wet- mortality in passage through the plant." An- lands; control of sewage and storm-drainage other problem is that plants use chemical effluents; safeguards against runoff of soils, biocides to clean out their cooling water sys- fertilizers, and biocides from the coastal up- tems and discharge of the biocide in es- lands; restrictions on industrial siting; and so tuaries can be seriously damaging. There- forth. fore, your community should try to ensure Because they are navigable waters, coastal that power plants with large intake needs waters and basin floors are managed mostly (called a "once-through" cooling system) or by Federal and State authorities. Neverthe- that discharge large quantities of toxic sub- less, because the resources to be protected stances are not located on estuarine shores and the hazards to be minimized are of (Figure 5). particular interest to the people that live in One of the major constituents of munici- the surTounding area, your community and pal sewage and many industrial wastes is other local governments may need to influ- decomposable organic material, primarily ence decisions on projects that affect coastal carbohydrates from sewage plants and paper waters. manufacturing, proteins from animal matter, and miscellaneous fats and oils. These Recommended Policy 29: 'Disposal of decomposable organics are not necessarily Effluents. detrimental by themselves but exert a sec- Require the highest levels of waste ondary effect by reducing dissolved oxygen treatment for industrial and municipal in the water. The lower the concentration of effluents released into estuarine and dissolved oxygen, the lower the carrying nearshore coastal waters. capacity of the system." Marine animals may Industrial sources of pollution are mainly be killed by a sudden drop in the water's "point source" effluents discharged from concentration of oxygen, but the usual effect pipes or canals. Some municipal waste prod- is to reduce their health or, if they are mo- ucts frequently discharged into coastal wa- bile, to drive them away as the waste ters are also toxic to marine organisms. Toxic spreads through the water. Disposal of materials may have a short catastrophic im- sludge from sewage plants into coastal wa- pact or a more subtle chronic interference ters may create additional oxygen problems, with growth and reproduction processes. often serious enough to disable an eco- The lower limits of water quality are known system. In addition to the depletion of dis- for many species. Below those levels, mobile solved oxygen, municipal waste discharges animals either vacate an area or survive in may introduce pathogenic organisms, reduced health and abundance. Migratory settleable materials, heavy metals, and in- fish are particularly affected by chemical organic nutrients." contamination of water and typically aban- Although industrial wastes have heavily don coastal areas with "bad" water.' damaged estuarine and nearshore ecosys- The salts of heavy metals-such as lead, tems in the past, recent Federal water pollu- mercury, copper-are relatively soluble and tion control legislation administered by the stable in solution, and consequently will U.S. Environmental Protection Agency persist for extended lengths of time. Many (EPA) holds promise of preventing or @of these salts are highly toxic to the aquatic greatly reducing damage in the future. biota, and since many marine organisms Many municipal waste discharges contain have the ability to accumulate and con- significant amounts of industrial wastes, 110 which may add to the variability and In many bays, embayments, lagoons, and complexity of the wastes discharged. Tech- tidal rivers, circulation is sluggish and nology exists to provide thorough treatment pollutants may build up to a level that can for nearly every kind of municipal and cause damage, even with efficient treatment industrial waste, and there is no technical of effluents. An ever-present threat to the reason. for your community to allow treat- estuarine ecosystem is the chance of a cata- ment insufficient either to protect the envi- strophic oil spill or release of other haz- ronment from damage or to permit op- ardous materials. The large volumes of timum ecosystem function. Potential ef- petroleum and chemical products traris- fluent dischargers unwilling to meet these ported through the estuarine zone by ships, standards may be required, through zoning barges, pipelines, and railroads present a or other controls, to locate away from the continuing potential for accidental bulk coast. spills of oil or chemicals." Industries with high waste output, such as power plants Recommended Policy 30: Siting of Heavy with large estuarine water intakes, chemical Industry. plants with irremediable toxic discharges, Locate industrial facilities inland if they and oil-transfer terminals, should not be lo- have a high potential for disturbance of cated on estuarine water bodies unless there coastal ecosystems. is no practicable altemative-that is, the pri- The carrying capacity of the coastal eco- vate and public costs of protection of eco- system is limited by water quality. The ef- logical resources from pollution would be fect of any pollutant depends on where it exorbitant (Figure 6). goes, how concentrated it is at the point of In some coastal areas that have undergone discharge, how rapidly it is assimilated or intensive development, only a few locations flushed out of the environment, and ideally suited for industrial use in relation to whether it can be dissolved in the water col- waste discharge still remain. Your commu- umn or is chemically fixed to sediments. All nity can identify, inventory, and reserve of these conditions depend on water move- these prime locations as important industrial ment and circulation patterns, which, in resources. Many such sites in growing turn, are governed by the relationship of metropolitan areas have been and continue tide and river flow to estuarine shape and to be taken over by housing and commercial size.13 establishments, which am not really depen- ORGANISMS NOT ENTRAINED BUT DEPENDENT ON SUSCEPTIBLE ORGANISMS STRIPED BASS IMMATURE AND MATURE ADULTS YOU NG@OF THE-YEAR I20DAYS I YEAR) STRIPED BASS EGGS AND LARVAE STRIPED BASSPREY ANCHOVIES PREY SPECIES AND IND ROAKER OR YOUNG OF MENCHADEN EGGS) ALEW FES CRUSTACEA M Z Z ENHADEN PLANKTON '0 WHITE PER :H "Opp CROAKER SHRIMP V AND SPOT BLUE CRABS MACROPLANKTON MUD CRABS (WATER PLEAS, COPEPCIDS MYSIDS' ETC SHRIMP AND MUD CRAB PHYTOPLANKTON LARVAE AND YOUNG ORGANISMS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ENTRAINMENT Figure 5. Small fish. and planktonic forms are subject to high mortality when swept into power plants with the flow of cooling water. (Source: State of Maryland, Record of the Maryland Power Plant Siting Act, Vol. 1.) @O Atil- Mlk UF WEI& Figure 6. Modifying older industrial plants, such as this paper mill in South Carolina, to protect estuaries from pollution is often difficult because the plants were built near the water expressly to make disposal of wastes easy. (Photo by John Clark.) dent on waterfronts. To ensure that prime Land-alteration activities, principally those sites with the lowest pollution potential are associated with site preparafion for develop- available when needed for industrial use, ment and for cropland, as well as controls you may have to apply special land-use con- on shoreline and water-basin alterations, are trols, restricting the development of these among the most important causes of non- sites to wateifront-dependent industry. point source pollution. Specific constraints Recommended Policy 31: Diffuse Sources should be imposed on project location, de- of Pollution. - sign, and drainage engineering throughout Require the highest standards for the coastal watershed (see Coastal Uplands control of storm-water runoff and and Floodlands sections for details). Poorly other diffuse sources of pollution. designed urban storm-water systems may have quite adverse effects on coastal waters, Sources of diffuse (or nonpoint) pollution especially estuaries. that principally affect coastal areas are septic If your community is extensively devel- tanks, dumps, landfills, concentrations of oped, it may have large-scale, storm-water boats, and, particularly, storm-water runoff sewer systems that collect runoff and pipe it -OC from adjacent watersheds. These sources, directly into coastal waters. This not only in- working either separately or together, may troduces high loads of pollutants (if not cause serious eutrophication or toxicity treated) but causes accelerated discharge to where the pollutants concentrate in con- the coast. Where this discharge augments fined estuarine water bodies. Clearly, your the ocean storm surge in estuaries, the addi- community should locate dumps, sanitary tional elevation of water may increase flood- landfills, septic tanks, and similar sources ing. The flow of runoff in storm sewers may away from watercourses, and, to the extent be stopped or reversed by storm surges from possible, out of floodplains, to prevent the ocean and the torrential rains that typi- leaching of pollutants into coastal waters. cally accompany hurTicanes. or heavy winter Also, you will have to enforce standards to storms. Consequently, with runoff ob- prevent pollution from boat and marine structed, low-lying areas may flood even wastes. more, with damage to shops, homes, and 112 A 's Orr A%V Figure 7. Piers built on pilings, unlike those built on solid fill, permit circulation of water in estuaries to continue with the least interference. (Photo of Apalachicola Bay, Florida, by John Clark.) other structures that might otherwise be signed so as not to interfere significantly above the peak surge height of the storm or with water flows. In particular, this applies hurricane. to piers, docks, wharves, bridge abutments, For protection of coastal waters, the best and dredge spoil mounds. Restricting flows storm-water system is one that most nearly can block the rapid outflow of storm waters simulates the natural system, that is, one that accumulate in estuaries, thus increasing that has feahn-es to detain storm runoff and the risk of floods. Solid-fill piers, docks, to provide the maximum of soil filtration for causeways, and other structures may ad- natural purification of pollutants. Ideally, versely alter tidal circulation by restricting your community should preserve and en- the flow to narrow watercourses, thus creat- hance the use of existing natural drainage- ing eddies and turbulent backwaters, which ways-creeks, sloughs, swales, and so forth increase the deposit of sediment. Therefore, -to the maximum (see Floodlands section to the extent possible, encourage the use of for details). While this approach is not fea- elevated, pile-supported structures, which al- sible in urban centers, it is quite possible in low freer flow of tidal curTents (Figure 7). developing areas along much of the coast. Reducing the capacity of the estuary to For example, St. Mary's County, Maryland, contain runoff waters during stonns by fill- encourages the use of natural drainage ing around its edges may also be dangerous. swales for all new subdivisions along the Bulkheading shorelines to extend the land, Patuxent River and requires artificial grassed for example, reduces the water surface, may (sodded) swales for all connector drains. increase potential flooding hazards, and de- Recommended Policy 32: Structures in prives beaches of the sand and. gravel origi- Coastal Waters. nating from "feeder bluffs." Surges of storm Avoid in coastal waters the use of water flowing rapidly from coastal water- sheds and tributaries before and during the structures that would adversely impede "landfall" of a hurricane may cause water to water circulation. rise higher in a bay than in the ocean. If the If your community is placing structures in bay surface is shrunk by bulkheading, there estuarine basins, the structures should be de- will be less capacity to hold runoff, thereby 113 increasing the potential inundation of flood- doing so, you should remember that when 15 Iands. dredging occurs in coastal water basins, care It has become increasingly evident in re- must be taken not to damage, directly or in- cent years that "nonstructural" floodplain directly, vital habitat areas such as grass management, rather than the use of flood- beds, shellfish beds, coralreefs, and produc- control structures, is the better approach to tive basin-floor habitats. Adequate protec- preventing losses from floods. Because many tion often requires a surrounding buffer homes now situated in coastal areas are sub- strip of several hundred feet (or thousands, ject to flood damage, however, proposals are in some cases) from which dredging should still made for areawide engineering solu- be excluded. Therefore, an important part of tions, such as sealing off a whole bay system your community planning should be to by a tide gate at the inlet or building exten- identify all vital habitat areas so that all in- sive artificial barrier-dune structures. These terests will be advised of protected locations structural solutions are expensive, may cause and required safeguards. Community pro- ecological damage by blocking circulation, grams for ecological resource conservation and can foster a false sense of security, should set particularly high standards to which promotes the occupancy of hazardous protect ecologically vital areas, which are shore areas. In developing its coasts, your essential to the survival and well-being of community should reserve frequently certain valuable species or to maintenance of flooded areas for uses that do not expose life the system's ecological carrying capacity. and property to risk-open space, wildlife To protect beaches from erosion, dredge habitat, shelter belts, buffer strips, non- removal of sand for beach fill, construction residential recreational structures, and sci- fill, or aggregate should be limited to off- entifically controlled silviculture. shore areas beyond the limits of the active Recommended Policy 33: Sites for Re- beach system. (See Beach section for details.) moval and Deposit of Dredged Material. This will prevent destabilization of the Select locations for removal and deposit beach. In most cases, sand should not be re- of dredged material to avoid adverse moved from. estuaries because the potential effects on basin floors and critical for ecologic disruption of the estuary is too areas such as grass beds. high. In any case, the grain size of sand from estuaries is usually too small to be use- In the years before the Federal agencies in- ful in restraining ocean curTents and waves, volved in construction became conscious of which is a requirement of beach fill. ecological necessities, spoil-the term com- When the spoil removed in a dredging monly used for sediments and other ma- operation is coarse and dean-that is, it con- terial excavated by dredges-often caused sists of sand or gravel without much clay, serious loss of estuarine resources. It was of- mud, or organic matter-it may be used for ten deposited on vital bottom habitats such many beneficial purposes. But to be fully as grass beds or shellfish beds. Large-scale acceptable, the spoil should not contain toxic spoil banks or landfill deposits in water ba- pollutants, it should not be deposited in sins restricted water flow and tidal ex- ridges that significantly impede water flow, change, causing particular damage where nor should it cover vital habitat areas or one portion of an estuary was isolated from productive benthic habitats. Generally, you another by long, uninterrupted spoil banks. should make certain that spoil is deposited Circulation was blocked, stagnation set in, in confined disposal sites, taken to a safe and large portions of the estuarine area ocean site for disposal, or put in nonsen- W were degraded, and sometimes eliminated, sitive upland areas. The disposal site should as productive units of a coastal ecosystem." be large enough, initially, so that it can last These problems have been greatly reduced for the life of the project. in recent years by activities of the U.S. Army Millions of cubic yards of spoil are pro- Corps of Engineers, the Fish and Wildlife duced each year in dredging new naviga- Service, National Marine Fisheries Service, tion channels and maintaining existing and the U.S. Environmental Protection ones. Although some spoil is polluted, or Agency. useless muck, some is clean and suitable for Your local government can assist Federal creative engineering projects, such as cre- agencies by monitoring private dredging ation of artificial islands to increase breeding projects and advising on Federal works. In habitats for birds and to expand wetlands 114 along the island fringe. If properly located say, as a marsh fill. Mitigation proposals and designed, these islands may increase must be carefully studied, however. If they ecosystem carrying capacity. However, they are an excuse for deliberate degradation of must be planned with the utmost care, natural marsh or bird habitat, they should Clean spoil from channel dredging can be viewed skeptically and questioned thor- also be deposited as estuarine breakwaters to oughly. It has not yet been proved that a protect marina sites. Properly designed, the man-made marsh ever attains the durability breakwaters will allow adequate circulation and productivity of a natural one. Restora- around the marina area and create useful tion or upgrading a previously degraded habitats as additional benefits. system by building islands or marshes may The following criteria are suggested for be possible, but improving on a natural area the design of spoil islands: (1) avoid all ex- by such construction is normally not pos- isting vital areas, including grass beds, shell- sible. fish beds, and wetlands; (2) use coarse sand or other material not susceptible to rapid erosion (fine, organic sediments or polluted Recommended Policy 34: Dredging Perfor- spoil should not be used); (3) locate the Spoil mance. island in a protected area away from heavily Require seasonal, locational, and used boat channels to minimize erosion operational controls on coastal dredging from boat wash; (4) vegetate the island with projects. both upland plants and marsh grasses as The season when dredges are allowed to op- soon as possible; and (5) shape the island so erate, and their mode of operation, should as to facilitate water movements-for exam- be controlled to reduce the spillover of silt ple, make it elliptical in shape and parallel and of foul, dredged materials into biologi- to water flows. cally productive areas. Each of the two major Dredge spoil deposits are often proposed types of dredges-mechanical and hydrau- for mitigation, that is, as compensation for lic-has a different locus for pollution prob- some damage done elsewhere in a project- lems (Figure 8). A-FRAmE BOOM SPUD DIPPER STICK LE" SPUD WCHANICAL DREDGE DIPPER BUCKET A-F AME ISCHARGE LINE A':@,I LADDER @_H ENGINE/ (PUMP SPUD SUCTION LINE 7,17 VIA -- --41A HYDRAULIC DREDGE CUTTERHEAD Figure 8. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Dredging and Water*Quality Problems in the Great Lakes: Summary Report [Buffalo, N.Y.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Buffalo District, 1969].) 115 Mechanical dredges cause the greatest tions. The stagnant waters in artificially disturbance at the point where dredging oc- deepened areas act as sediment traps: the af- curs. To contain turbid water near the fected area becomes unproductive, bad qual- dredge site, preventive "silt curtains" or ity water may spread to neighboring areas, "diapers" may be suspended in an arc and debris and anaerobic sediments are around the dredge to prevent the silt and flu@hed out during storms." chemicals released from escaping. While it Dredging typically has more adverse con- makes sense to use such devices, they can- sequences at one time of year than another. not be taken as a panacea because they only Therefore, the schedule of dredging oper- work well in shallow still waters (1 knot ations should avoid biologically critical peri- current or less) near shore." ods. Dredging operations should be sus- Hydraulic dredging, on the other hand, pended near known spawning and nursery creates problems at the end of the delivery areas during periods when the young of a pipe, where the spoil is discharged as a species are passing through critical stages of slurry (80 percent water) and must be con- development. Dredging should also be sus- fined behind dikes while the silt settles out. pended along migration routes during Although these conditions are temporary, known periods of migration of such species lasting for the period of dredging and a few as salmon or striped bass. days after its completion, the sum of envi- ronmental impacts created during entire Recommended Policy 35: Channel Loca- work periods is often of sufficient mag- tion and Design. nitude as to require that steps be taken to Select routes and designs for navigation eliminate or control their extent. If the channels that minimize adverse effects dredged material is clean sand, precautions on basin floors. may be unnecessary. In the past, many activities associated with Depressions or "deep holes" dredged in navigation in estuarine basins have signifi- the bottom may affect the mixing and flush- cantly altered the basin floor, thereby ing of estuarine waters, eventually causing disturbing the natural pattern of water adverse changes in temperature, salinity, or flows. These activities have included: chang- dissolved oxygen and sediment accumula- ing flow through inlets and passes by Figure 9. Channel cuts lo- cated too close to the shoreline can cause (A) slumping and (B) erosion of the shore. (Source: Adapted from John Clark, Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Considerations for Man- agement of the Coastal Zone [Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Founda- tion, 1974].) V "A B T 116 constricting them with bulkheads or deep- dose to the shore in shallow-water areas ening them by dredging; impeding water where it may cause severe recession of the flow in the estuary with "spoil banks" of shoreline (Figure 9). Recession occurs when disposed dredged material; and diverting the bank or beach is destabilized by channel water flow by channel dredging. Major slumping and by direct erosion. The pres- deepening of harbor inlets and channels ence of a channel may increase the fre- across bays and up tidal rivers has often quency and speed of boat passage and thus significantly altered water-circulation pat- the intensity. of erosion of the shoreline terns, causing complex ecological effeds from boat wakes. In addition, the deepening throughout the basin and accelerating the of the shoreline will cause higher wave im- Row of storm surge into the eshury. Far pact, decreasing the dimipation effect that more care is now taken by Federal and State shallower water bottoms have on incoming reviewers to avoid adverse impacts and to waves. The solutions are: (1) use natural reject unnecessary or damaging projects. channels to the extent possible, and (2) care- In considering the probable impact of a fully choose artificial channel routes. Also, channel project, you must recognize that, in to avoid excessive slumping of the adjacent addition to the cost of the initial work, there bottom into the channel and repeated main- are continuing costs for periodic mainte- tenance dredging, channel sides should be nance dredging. Projects that are essential to dredged out to a final stable slope or "angle the public, and for which there are no alter- of repose" during the initial operation, the native solutions, should be designed with exact cut depending on local geohydro- care and built under stringent environmen- logical conditions.' tal controls. To reduce the side effects, you One of the most obvious adverse effects of must start with appropriate choices of loca- channel dredging is the direct removal of tion and design of the work: suitable align- vital habitat areas such as grass beds, shell- ment of the channel, minimum dimensions, fish beds, coral reefs, and other productive judicious choice of methods to be used in marine habitats. Therefore, an important construction (e.g., choice of dredge type), part of planning includes the advance use of appropriate performance controls on identification of all vital habitat areas. To a dredges, proper disposal of spoil, selection large extent, vital-area disturbance can be of an appropriate time of year for construc- avoided by limiting dredging to existing tion, and so forth.' natural estuarine channels (Figure 10). The adverse environmental impacts asso- Of all the forms of estuarine life affected ciated with many navigational dredging by dredging, oysters are perhaps the most projects can be reduced greatly by rninimiz- immediately vulnerable because they are ing the length, width, and depth of the sedentary creatures. The oyster chooses its channels. Excessively wide channels may home for life when it is a tiny larva, one- lead to unnecessary loss of adjacent vital third inch long. Oyster larvae hatch from habitat areas, such as shellfish or grass beds. floating eggs in early summer to drift about In general, a navigation channel needs to be with the current until they find on the bot- no wider than approximately three or four torn a suitable firm object to which they can times the width of the largest vessel for attach themselves for the rest of their lives. which it is designed. Similarly, operable A deposit of silt from dredging one-tenth channels do not need to be deeper than inch thick on shell or rocks is enough to about four feet beneath the deepest draft discourage young oysters from attaching vessel at low water, provided that traffic themselves. And once they have found a moves at moderate speeds so as not to stir clean solid surface for attachment, they have up the bottom where fine sediment has no chance at all to escape a dredge or a suf- accumulated. In many cases, you can add to focating blanket of silt. The Chesapeake oys- this depth an additional foot or so to accom- ter industry has suffered more damage than modate siltation or slumping and to reduce any other from these effects: in 1880, 72"mil- the frequency of maintenance dredging. lion pounds of oysters were harvested from Projects that would cause accelerated Chesapeake Bay; by 1920, the yield had shore erosion should be avoided or modi- dropped to 31 million, and recently it has fied in such a way as to eliminate the ero- dropped to around 8 million. It should be sion-inducing effects. For example, you will noted, however, that this loss cannot be 21 have to make sure that dredging is avoided blamed entirely on siltation. 117 "N AIL 1; AS MOOM1111 10177M.." % q T" "k v'. J@' %VAlk"R01@01k"Ok %31 4k 51 3'- M, Z" el 111MAWAM?"10 Figure 10. The natural beauty and ecological richness of estuarine habitats is conserved by avoiding needless dredging projects. (Photo by John Clark.) If your community is one where naviga- mize slumping of adjacent lands or mud tion dredging is an important concern, you flats." may want to provide specific standards on Recommended Policy 36: Coastal Basin Res- dredging. This can be done with aid from toration. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Encourage the restoration of polluted Fish and Wildlife Service, or another source coastal waters and basin floors. of technical assistance. The following are The water quality of coastal basins can be re- examples of community standards devel- stored in part by controlling the sources of oped by the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Plan- pollution. However, in many coastal basins ning Council (Long Island, New York): there are extensive existin accumulations of Designate the maintenance width of navi- 9 gation channels serving boat ramps at ap- polluted silt, sometimes many feet thick. proximately 30 ft., marinas and other rec- Much of the silt in estuaries is caused by up- reational facilities at up to 100 ft., and land soil erosion from poor farming prac- major commercial facilities at up to 200 ft., tices. In other areas, urban runoff has caused u less wind, current, or other unique local eutrophication and the buildup of organic n conditions necessitate the greater separa- ooze on the bottom. There are various op- tion of boating traffic. portunities, and methods for removing this 'Locate new navigation diannels so as to pro- silt or mitigating its effect, The major ob- vide at least a 500 ft buffer zone between stacle is high cost. boating traffic and sensitive natural areas Corrective dredging, the principal ap- (e.g., wetlands, wildlife sanctuaries), rap- proach, is expensive and difficult to imple- idly eroding shorelines, or bathing beaches, unless smaller buffer zones can ment, however, the ecological benefit to be shown to be unavoidable and/or ap- public waters and natural resources, as well A propriate. as aesthetics within a community, may over- Limit slopes on navigation channel sides, ride the consideration of expense. Your based on slumping characteristics, up to a community should inventory its coastal ba- maximum slope of I on 3. Adjust channel sins to identify those areas seriously locations and widths, if possible, to mini- degraded by sediment and should get in 118 touch with appropriate agencies for possible tures in Coastal Waters), 33 (Sites for Re- financial assistance in cleanup projects. moval and Deposit of Dredged Material), 34 One example of the timely implementa- (Dredging Performance), 35 (Channel Loca- tion of a strategic plan is the restoration of tion and Design), and 36 (Coastal Basin Res- Tillamook Bay, Oregon: toration). What are the oppoAunities to restore a dy- Third, removing pollutants from basin ing estuarine ecosystem through selective floors, in accordance with Policy 36 (Coastal dredging or current manipulation? Prac- Basin Restoration). tically no attention has been given to op- porturutes to restore an estuary that has been damaged. In Oregon, renovation and 1. Controlling discharges of pollutant& revitalization have been proposed for such Although Federal and State governments estuaries as Tillamook, Nestucca, and Siletz Bays. A 1972 project by the U.S. Army Corps bear principal responsibilities for controlling of Engineers in Tillamook Bay, which point-source discharges of pollutants, your cleared the channels of the Wilson and community can also contribute to pollution Trask Rivers, may have successfully pio- control-for example, by working on re- neered the concept of renovation. Large gional plans to reduce diffuse ("nonpoint") scale efforts are now needed.' sources of pollution, discussed in the sec- The 1973 project was undertaken after mas- tions on Floodlands and Saltwater Wetlands. sive flooding, which qualified the local area You can control the location of new pollut- for federal disaster relief funds. Because it ant sources, through land-use plans and has prepared a plan ahead of time, the regulations, and you can establish and op- community was able to obtain available erate systems for municipal wastewater funds and direct them on short notice to collection and treatment. solving an environmental problem identi- If new treatment facilities are needed, you fied far in advance. will likely work closely with state water- While many coastal ecosystems remain quality agencies and U.S. EPA, which pays seriously degraded by blockage of water most of the cost of most new municipal flow, there are other encouraging examples wastewater treatment facilities in the United of systems that have been vastly improved States. In some other situations, however, by restoration of circulation. For example, the community trying to control pollutant Great South Bay and Moriches Bay on Long discharges from existing sources is likely to Island were greatly disturbed by organic find itself principally playing the role of pollution until the reopening of Moriches watchdog, calling local problems to the Inlet enhanced circulation. Similarly, Es- attention of Federal and State officials. cambia Bay, Florida, was heavily polluted In their watchdog role, communities will and almost destroyed ecologically until a rely mainly on provisions of the federal railroad bridge that blocked circulation was Clean Water Act and related state laws. Two rebuilt to allow water to flow under it more provisions of the Clean Water Act have al- freely, ready been discussed: Section 208, which EMPLEMENTATION GUIDELENES deals with regional water quality planning (see p. 35), and Section 404, which controls Although local plans, regulations, and pro- discharges of dredged or fill material into grams can be of some use in implementing wetlands and other waters (see p. 68). Other the eight policies on coastal waters, greater principal provisions are described in Part R opportunities for local action appear to lie in of this manual. Some special opportunities Z76". seeking assistance available under Federal for local action may also arise under the and State programs. Your community following provisions of the Clean Water should be prepared to address three prin- Act: cipal management issues: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys- First, controlling discharger, of pollutants tem (NPDES). Most point sources of pollut- into coastal waters, in accordance with Poli- ants require an NPDES permit, which is is- cies 29 (Disposal of Effluents), 30 (Siting of sued by U.S. EPA or, with. its approval, by Heavy Industry), and 31 (Diffuse Sources of State agencies. Complex conditions are often Pollution). included in the permits. Communities with Second, controlling alteration of basin sufficient expertise will sometimes find it floors, in accordance with Policies 32 (Struc- beneficial to review conditions carefully 119 during the comment period prior to permit fer to Federal and State judgements on these issuance. matters. Oil and Hazardous Substances. The Clean Increasingly, however, localities are be- Water Act sets fines and penalties for oil coming aware of the impact that these spills and discharges of other hazardous sub- activities have on water circulation, erosion, stances. In addition, it authorizes the Coast and water pollution. Accordingly, some are Guard or EPA to clean up spills and charge trying to influence Federal and State judge- the polluter for the work. ments. Your community can help protect local The applicable Federal controls, admin- waters by notifying the Coast Guard of sus- istered primarily by the U.S. Army Corps of pected oil spills. While spills of toxic chemi- Engineers, have already been discussed in cals may be more difficult to identify, they, the Saltwater Wetlands section (see p. 67). too, may have a great impact on coastal fish- That discussion also describes ways that a lo- eries. cal govemment can influence Federal de- Vessel Sewage. Setting standards for "on- cisions. If your community seeks to do so, it board marine sanitation devices" (toilets) is a may encounter the following problems: responsibility of the U.S. Coast Guard. Once First, evaluating the environmental con- Coast Guard regulations are issued, the sequences of dredging, filling, and offshore Clean Water Act bars alternative state or lo- structures requires extensive,data and special cal controls. expertise. For some critical estuarine areas, A community experiencing problems the Corps has even constructed complex with vessel sewage should consult with the models of the basin floor to simulate natural Coast Guard, which has considerable discre- forces and evaluate the long-term con- tion in setting standards. One provision per- sequences of channel alterations. Typically, mits the Coast Guard to designate waters therefore, if your community wishes to in- where discharges are prohibited because of fluence Federal decisions, it will have to local pollution problems, or to protect drink- seek technical advice. This may be available ing-water supplies. Application of this pro- from State navigation, coastal management, vision may be influenced by your commu- and fisheries agencies as well as from the nity, since the prohibition can be enforced Corps, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Ser- only if adequate altemative facilities are lo- vices, and the EPA 404 coordinators. cally available. This provision can be an Second, your community will have to effective method for dealing with diffuse choose the means by which it wants to in- pollution from vessels, in accordance with fluence Federal and State decisions. After a Policy 31. community has taken formal action prior to Public Participation. Your community should a Federal agency decision, it needs to inform remain alert to changes in the Clean Water Federal decision makers of its position. Act. One way to stay aware of these changes Some Federal procedures-for instance, is through the public-participation proce- those of the Cozps-give great weight to of- dure emphasized in the Act. In the construc- ficial local plans and policies. One technique tion grants program for new sewage-treat- for putting local views before Federal of- ment facilities, there may be special public ficials is public participation, using proce- hearings or other procedures intended to in- dures like the environmental impact state- volve local residents in the decision process. ment process (see p. 37). The A-95 process In the Section 208 planning process, the law of formal State and local comment on cer- requires participation of local govemment tain Federal agency grant and assistance N officials. Citizen-suit procedures also provide proposals is a second avenue open to some J,- local officials and other local residents access localities. Your community should also seek to the courts to present evidence of viola- out the official or agency in State govem- tions of the law. ment that is designated in Federal regula- tions for comment or review in a particular proceeding. In controversial situations, Fed- 2. Controlling alteration of basin floors. eral agencies often tum to those State Most localities make little effort to control sources for further advice and interpretation. dredging, filling, and building offshore For instance, the regulations of the Corps structures, any of which can alter basin identify the governor as the "official" floors. Typically, your community would de- spokesman when there is disagreement 120 among State agencies in a permit proceed- ing for the dredge and fill regulatory pro- gram. If the State has an approved coastal management program, that, too, serves as a means for Federal agencies and the State, perhaps including local governments, to notify one another of planned activities. 3. Removing pollutants from basin floom Local governments will occasionally have an opportunity to participate in projects for re- moval of pollutants from basin floors, as de- scribed in the discussion of Policy 36 (see p. 121 Part 11 This section of the guidebook summarizes the Federal programs and regulations that are most relevant to coastal environmental management in your community. The discussions are arranged by agency: Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva- tion Service Department of Commerce, National Ma- rine Fisheries Service Department of Commerce, National Oce- anic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management Department of Commerce, National Oce- anic and Atmospheric Administration (Coastal Hazards Initiative) Department of Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Environmental Protection Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency Water Resources Council 123 Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service* RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND Conservation Service representative. The DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (RC&D) SCS office is listed in telephone directories under U.S. Government, Agriculture, Soil Speeding up resource programs in mul- Conservation Service. Assistance is avail- tiple-county areas as a base for economic able without regard to race, creed, color, development and environmental protec- sex, or national origin. tion is the aim of resource conservation and development (RC&D) areas authorized RIVER BASIN INVESTIGATIONS by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962 (Public Law 703, 87th Cong.). The Soil SCS directs Department of Agriculture wa- Conservation Service (SCS) is responsible ter resource activities that require coopera- for helping local sponsors of these rural- tion with other agencies and with State urban areas and for helping to coordinate governments. Public Law 566 provides the assistance of other Federal and State broad authority for cooperation between agencies in meeting sponsor objectives. USDA and State governments and other Each RC&D area has its own unique Federal agencies in river basin planning, goals, but most aim to: surveys, and investigations. 1. Develop land and water resources for SCS helps survey river basins at the re- agricultural, municipal, or industrial quest of cooperating State or Federal agen- use and for recreation and wildlife. cies. Surveys help in coordinating up- 2. Provide soil and water resource infor- stream watershed projects, for which SCS mation for a variety of land and has responsibility, with measures taken water uses including farming, ranch- downstream to solve problems of water re- ing, recreation, housing, industry, source use and development. Surveys and transport 'ation. identify water and land resource problems, 3. Provide conservation measures for analyze the economic base and envi- watershed protection and flood ronmental setting of the area, and suggest prevention. alternative ways to solve problems and to 4. Accelerate the soil survey where it improve the local economy and environ- complements RC&D measures, ment. 5. Reduce pollution of air and water. Cooperative river basin surveys and in- 6. Speed up conservation work on pub- vestigations, although authorized by Pub- lic land and on individual farms, lic Law 566, are not directed specifically ranches, and other private holdings. toward developing watershed projects. Further information on RC&D: Contact your They provide a basis for coordinating re- local conservation district or local Soil source conservation and development and are helpful in guiding upstream watershed activities. The Forest Service and Econom- This description has been supplied by the Soil ics, Statistics and Cooperatives Service also Conservation Service. participate in these studies. 125 Technical Description: Program regulations tributaries to insure effective water man- in 7 CFR 621 and in the internal SCS agement. Watershed projects are based on Directives System. Consult the list of SCS local initiative and responsibility; State re- State Conservationists for names, ad- view and approval of local proposals and dresses, and telephone numbers for furth- opportunity for State financial and other er information. assistance; and Federal technical and FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT financial assistance. ASSISTANCE PROGRAM State agencies and qualified local orga- nizations can sponsor a watershed project. State and local governments need tech- These include soil and water conservation nical data and assistance in identifying districts; municipalities; counties; water- flood hazards and preparing programs for shed, flood control, conservancy, drainage, flood plain management. Despite substan- and irrigation districts; and associations of tial efforts to control flooding, the nation's water users or similar organizations not flood losses are continually increasing, operated for profit. partly because of unwise use of flood SCS administers the watershed program plains. for the Department of Agriculture. It also SCS assists State and local governments administers watershed work, authorized by carrying out flood hazard evaluations, by the Flood Control Act of 1944 (Public inventory of natural and beneficial values, Law 534), in 11 major watersheds compris- and public participation in flood plain ing about 30 million acres. areas. Other optional study features in- A watershed project under Public Law clude local flood plain management op- 566 is limited to an area no larger than tions, floodway determinations, and study 250,000 acres. Such a project can be multi- followup. The studies are requested by lo- purpose. cal communities and coordinated by the The Federal government gives technical responsible State agencies. A report is pre- help in planning and installing the project pared that delineates floodprone areas. measures, pays the full cost of building The report provides State and local plan- flood control measures, and shares the cost ners with a basis for planning and regulat- of other measures. It lends to sponsoring ing use of flood plains. organizations to finance their share of the Technical Description: Program regulations cost up to a maximum of $5 million per are contained in 7 CFR 621 and in internal project for a maximum of 50 years at a SCS Directives System. For further infor- reasonable interest rate. It also advances mation, consult the Conservation District, funds to develop water supply for future whose address and telephone number can municipal or industrial use amounting to a be found in your telephone directory. Ad- maximum of 30 percent of the cost of a ditional information may also be obtained multiple-purpose reservoir and defers pay- from SCS State Conservationists. ment for a maximum of 10 years without WATERSHED ACTIVI .TEES interest. Major obligations of local sponsors in- Rural and urban residents in hundreds of clude acquiring land, easements, and communities have learned that by work- rights-of-way; awarding contracts for con- ing together through watershed projects struction on private land or electing to they can help solve their land use and delegate contracting to SCS; sharing the water problems. With Federal help they construction cost of measures if appropri- can reduce erosion, siltation, and flooding; ate; and operating and maintaining the supply water for growing domestic and project when completed. industrial needs; provide for recreation; recharge ground-water reservoirs; provide RURAL CLEAN WATER PROGRAM for water quality management; and meet (RCWP) water conservation needs. Watershed projects under Public Law The Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP) is 566, enacted in 1954, establish soil and a voluntary program authorized in 1977 by water conservation measures on private Congress to apply best management prac- and public land and construct dams and tices (BMP's) on privately owned rural other water control structures on upstream land in selected areas. Landowners in eli- 126 gible project areas may enter into 5-10 year for FY 1979 and $400 million for FY 1980. contracts until September 30, 1988, to re- The administration included $75 million ceive cost share and technical assistance to in the FY 1980 budget for RCWP. apply these practices to help control water Technical Documents: The National Rural pollution. Clean Water Program Manual is in eight Areas eligible for RCWP projects: Each State parts. Part 500 contains the program ob- has developed 208 Water Quality Manage- jective, description, and general program ment (WQM) plans that identify rural administration; Part 501 provides guidance areas within the States that are contribut- for the development, review, and approval ing to water pollution. From these areas, of an RCWP application; Part 502 contains the Governor selects potential RCWP guidance for project operation after an projects. With the assistance of a State Ru- area has been approved as an RCWP pro- ral Clean Water Coordinating Committee ject-administration of grant agreements (SRCWCC) and following public meetings, by the administering agencies, prepara- the Governor decides in which order these tion, administration, and application of applications will be developed. The Gov- practices in the RCWP water quality plans ernor recommends an administering and contracts is included in this part; Part agency for the potential RCWP projects 503 contains guidance about financial and authorizes RCWP applications to be management, including the accounting completed. system and use of grant funds by Funding: The National Rural Clean Water administering agencies; Part 504 gives the Coordinating Committee (NRCWCC) will requirements for reporting, monitoring, review all RCWP applications for the pur- and evaluating RCWP accomplishments; pose of recommending those projects to be Part 505 is made up of exhibits of agree- funded each fiscal year. Project approval ments, reports, and forms; Part 506 is the will be contingent upon funds appro- appendix, which includes a glossary of priated for the RCWP each fiscal year. The terms, and other reference material; Part Clean Water Act authorized $200 million 507 is a topical index. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service* THE COMMERCIAL FISHERIES ing projects are funded up to 75 percent RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACT level of Federal participation, whereas OF 1964 (PUBLIC LAW 88-309 projects to alleviate resource disaster and AS AMENDED) for establishment of new commercial fish- eries may be financed with 100 percent Authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to Federal funds. This Act has been extended cooperate with the 50 States, the Common- by Public Laws 92-590 and 95-53 for an wealth of Puerto Rico, and the Govern- additional 7 years or to June 30, 1980. ments of the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa, and the Trust Territory THE ANADROMOUS FISH ACT OF of the Pacific Islands in carrying out re- 1965 (PUBLIC LAW 89-304 AS search and development of the Nation's AMENDED) commercial fisheries. Projects eligible for funding include research, development, Authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to construction, and coordination. Cost-shar- enter into cooperative agreements with States and other non-Federal interests for the conservation, development, and en- This description was supplied by the National hancement of the anadromous fishery re- Marine Fisheries Service. sources of the Nation and the fish in the 127 Great Lakes that ascend streams to spawn fishery agencies, colleges, universities, pri- and the control of the sea lamprey. The vate companies, and other non-Federal in- program is administered at the Federal terests in 31 States bordering the oceans level jointly by the National Marine Fish- and the Great Lakes may participate under eries Service and the U.S. Fish and Wild- the Act. All projects must be coordinated life Service. Federal funds up to 50 percent with the State fishery agency concerned. may be used to finance project costs. State Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 5. Provide for the consideration of the national interest in the planning for and siting of facilities that meet The preservation, protection, develop- more than local requirements. ment, and, where possible, the restora- 6. Include sufficient legal authority tion and enhancement of this nation's and organizational arrangements to coastal resources, is the goal Congress implement the program and to en- intended when the Coastal Zone Man- sure conformance to it. In arriving agement Act (CZMA) was passed in 1972. at these elements of the manage- To achieve this, Congress required that ment program, States are obliged to States wishing to participate in the na- follow an open process which in- tional program would have to develop volves providing information to and management programs that would: considering the interests of the gen- 1. Identify and evaluate those coastal eral public, special interest groups, resources recognized in the Act as local governments, and regional, requiring management or protec- State, interstate, and Federal agen- tion. cies. 2. Reexamine existing policies or de- 7. Provide a planning process for en- velop new policies to manage these ergy facilities likely to be located in, resources. These policies must be or which may significantly affect, specific, comprehensive and en- the coastal zone, including, but not forceable. limited to, a process anticipating 3. Determine specific uses and special and managing the impacts from geographic areas that are to be sub- such facilities. ject to the management program, 8. Contain a procedure for assessing based on the nature of identified public beaches and other public coastal concerns. areas, including State owned lands, 4. Identify inland and seaward areas tidelands and bottom lands, which subject to the management program. require access or protection, and a description of appropriate types of access and protection. *This description has been supplied by the 9. Describe a method for assessing the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- effects of shoreline erosion and tration, Office of Coastal Zone Management. evaluating techniques for mitigat- 128 ing, controlling, or restoring areas CZM programs (Subpart 1, 923.80-85). adversely affected by erosion. Under the final regulations, adoption of The results of applying the policies local coastal programs will be considered and procedures of an approved State as part of routine implementation rather coastal management program would be than amendments to the programs unless four-fold, as indicated by the findings the local plan might result in a signifi- and policies of Sections 302 and 303 of cant change in boundaries, uses subject the CZMA: to management, criteria or procedures for *Increased protection of valuable, natu- designating or managing critical areas, or ral coastal resources; consideration of the national interest in *Better management of development in the planning or siting of energy facili- coastal areas in order to avoid or ties. [15 CFR 923, CZMP: Development mitigate losses to life and property, and Approval Provisions] and to give priority to water-depen- 307 Regs: Final regulations for Federal dent uses; Consistency were modified and pub- *Enhanced access to and enjoyment of lished in the Federal Register on June 25, the amenities of the coastal zone; and 1979. [15 CFR 930, Consistency for %Better coordination of governmental Department of the Interior OCS Prelease activities at all levels in order to make Sale Activities and for other Federal government more responsible to the Activities Directly Affecting the Coastal public, and more efficient and effec- Zone] tive in its delivery of services. ESTUARINE SANCTUARY The coordination of governmental ac- PROGRAM tivities is enhanced by the Federal Con- sistency provision of Section 307 of the The national concern for estuaries was Act. After a State's program is approved embodied in the Coastal Zone Manage- by the Secretary of Commerce, Federal ment Act of 1972, which was amended in activities in that State's coastal zone must 1976. The Estuarine Sanctuary Program be performed in a manner consistent was established to make 50 percent with that State's program. Early contact matching grants to coastal States for the and coordination between State and Fed- purposes of acquiring, developing, or eral agencies are strongly encouraged by operating estuarine areas to be set aside this provision and the Federal Consis- "to serve as natural field laboratories in tericy regulations. which to study and gather data on the The CZMA authorizes up to 80 percent natural and human processes occurring grants for operation of coastal manage- within the estuaries of the coastal zone." ment programs, and authorizes grants for To protect representative estuarine sys- cooperative interstate planning related to terns, the goal of the national program coastal management, grants for research will be to establish a system of estuarine and technical assistance in support of sanctuaries from the eleven biogeographic coastal management programs, and regions within the Nation's coasts. 50 percent grants for acquisition of lands The basic goal is to preserve as much to establish estuarine sanctuaries, to pro- . of each protected estuary's watershed as vide public access to the coast and to pre- possible-thereby protecting the entire serve islands or other important coastal ecosystem within this sanctuary-so that resources. both information can be gained which Technical Documents will aid in future management decisions concerning the coastal zone, and natural 3051306 Regs: Final CZM program devel- learning centers will be provided for opment and approval regulations were educational institutions and members of published in the Federal Register, March the public. Secondary benefits include: 28, 1979. The regulations, which took the preservation of habitats for estuarine effect April 30, 1979, were mailed to dependent flora and fauna, including State CZM program managers under a endangered species; and low intensity cover memorandum which highlights recreation, as long as that activity does major revisions. Of particular interest is not detract from the major purposes out- the procedure for amendments to State lined above. 129 The estuarine sanctuary process is mile coral reef area south of Miami. administratively broken down into three The procedures for considering an area phases: preacquisition, acquisition, and are designed to determine the desirabil- operations. The preacquisition grant may ity of and public interest in the designa- be used for land appraisals, refinement tion of a sanctuary, and initiation of the of boundaries, and for the development process does not presuppose that a sanc- of management plans and/or programs tuary will be designated. Provisions are for research and education. The acquisi- made for public input and comment tion grant is to cover the actual and throughout the designation process. The related costs of land acquisition. Finally, nomination procedure and types of the operation grants are for those costs nec- sanctuaries which may be recommended essary for monitoring the sanctuary, are described in the marine sanctuary protecting the health of its ecosystem, regulations. and for the establishment and mainte- The first step in reviewing a nomina- nance of an educational program. tion or recommendation is the deter- Technical Documents: The sanctuaries are mination of feasibility. The public and acquired and managed by the individual Federal and State agencies will be in- coastal States within the policies of the volved early in this process by means of Estuarine Sanctuary Guidelines [15 CFR requests for information and comment, 921, Estuarine Sanctuary Guidelines]. consultations, and public workshops. An- These guidelines also include detailed nouncement of the workshops will be descriptions of the eleven biogeographic given through press releases and Federal regions into which the Nation's estuaries Register notices. When a workshop has have been divided. been scheduled for a nomination/ recom- MARINE SANCTUARY PROGRAM mendation, the site is considered an ac- tive candidate for designation. Title III of the Marine Protection, Re- If a particular site is determined to be search and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 au- feasible for further study, NOAA will thorizes the Secretary of Commerce, with begin preparation of a draft environmen- Presidential approval, to designate ocean tal impact statement (DEIS) assessing the waters as marine sanctuaries for the pur- impact of the proposed designation and pose of preserving or restoring their regulations. Notices of feasibility and in- conservation, recreational, ecological, or tent to prepare the DEIS will be given in esthetic values. Marine sanctuaries may the Federal Register and in press re- be designated as far seaward as the outer leases. Consultation with interested and edge of the Continental Shelf and in affected groups will continue through coastal waters where the tide ebbs and DEIS preparation. flows, or in the Great Lakes and their When the DEIS is completed, notice of connecting waters. Marine sanctuaries its availability and the full text of the are built around the existence of distinc- proposed designation document and reg- tive marine resources whose protection ulations will be published in the Federal and beneficial use requires comprehen- Register. sive, geographically-oriented planning At least 30 days after notice has ap- and management. peared in the Federal Register, a formal As of January 1980, two sanctuaries public hearing will be held in the af- had been designated: fected coastal area. The public hearing 1. The Monitor Marine Sanctuary. This provides a forum in which all interested sanctuary serves to protect the parties can present their views on the wreck of the Civil War Ironclad, the adequacy of the DEIS, the proposed regu- U.S.S. MONITOR. It was designated lations, and desirability of creating a in January of 1975 and is an area sanctuary. Written comments on the reg- one mile in diameter southeast of ulations and the DEIS are accepted for 60 Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. days from the date of the notice. After 2. Key Largo Coral Reef Marine Sanc- the close of the comment period, a final tuary. This sanctuary, designated in environmental statement is prepared and December of 1975, provides protec- the public has the opportunity to com- tive management of a 100 square ment again. 130 Finally, Presidential approval is re- Coastal Zone Management for final ap- quired before the Secretary of Commerce proval. designates a sanctuary. Several types of grants or loans are The governor of the affected State may now available. These include Outer Con- veto a marine sanctuary in state waters tinental Shelf (OCS) Formula Grants, within 60 days of designation. Environmental and Recreational Loss There are seven active candidates for Grants, Planning Grants, and OCS Partic- marine sanctuary status: The Flower Gar- ipation Grants. Credit Assistance, rang- den Banks in the Gulf of Mexico, the ing from direct loans to bond guarantees waters around the northern Channel Is- to repayment assistance, is also available lands and Santa Barbara Island, Monterey under the CEIP. Bay, the waters around Point Reyes and Types of CEIP Assistance the Farallon Islands of the California coast, Looe Key in Florida, Gray's Reef OCS Formula Grants for public facilities off the coast of Georgia, and a site at St. and services can pay up to 100 percent of Thomas, Virgin Islands. [Tech. Doc: 15 the costs of planning for and develop- CFR 922, Title 111, Marine Protection, Re- ment of new or improved public services search and Sanctuary Act of 1972] and facilities required as a result of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas COASTAL ENERGY IMPACT activity. Public facilities and services in- PROGRAM clude police and fire protection activities and equipment, schools, water supply, The Coastal Energy Impact Program 'roads, docks, navigation aids, waste (CEIP) directs the Federal government to collection and treatment, parks and rec- assume some of the responsibility when reation, and health care. Previously energy development projects, undertaken funded projects include hospital con- to meet the Nation's energy needs, strain struction, road improvements, a hurri- existing facilities and cause financial cane protection system, and oil spill pre- stress to nearby communities. The pro- vention programs. gram was enacted by Congress in 1976 Environmental and Recreational Loss and is administered by the U.S. Depart- Grants are awarded to help prevent, re- ment of Commerce's National Oceanic duce, or ameliorate unavoidable losses to and Atmospheric Administration environmental and recreational resources (NOAA) through its Office of Coastal from coastal activity in a State's defined Zone Management. coastal zone. OCS exploration or produc- The program is intended to help tion, coal and liquefied natural gas termi- communities and their local government nals, deepwater ports, and associated officials cope with the burden caused by support installations are examples of such development activities by providing coastal energy facilities. Regulations de- them with grants and loans. With Coastal fine "unavoidable" losses as those which Energy Impact Program funds, commu- cannot be traced to any identifiable party nities may plan for the need for more or otherwise not preventable because of schools or more roads, for example, and facility siting needs. Environmental and apply for*financing for these public recreational resources include air and facilities and services. The program also water quality, important animal habitats, is designed to prevent or keep to a wetlands, beaches, parks, or public access minimum any damage or loss to the to these areas. Environmental and rec- coastal zone environment with its natu- reational grants paid for a freshwater ral and recreational resources. siphon to reduce the damage to a Coastal communities receive CEIP freshwater marsh caused by saltwater funds through their respective States by intrusion resulting from coastal energy proposing projects for funding to the activity, an oyster bed reseeding project, single State agency designated to co- and a freshwater intake to prevent drink- ordinate the CEIP program. These State ing water loss due to energy develop- agencies, using an intrastate allocation ment, among other projects. process, review and forward local fund- Planning grants assist local govern- ing applications to the Federal Office of ments to plan the economic, social, or 131 environmental consequences of new or ational and management decisions relat- expanded energy facilities such as power ing to the development of OCS oil and plants, refineries, and nuclear fuel gas resources. Specifically, these grants processing plants as well as OCS and are for state participation in the formula- other coastal dependent energy activities tion of the OCS leasing program, review- affecting the coastal zone. CEIP funds ing OCS DEIS/FEIS documents and for- pay for as much as 80 percent of the costs mulating recommendations concerning (requiring 20 percent matching funds exploration, development and produc- from the grantee) of these planning tion plans. activities. Funds from this grant category helped finance a harbors study, an out- Applying for CEIP Assistance door recreation master plan, and an OCS lease sale impacts study. Who Can Apply: Local governments with Credit assistance is available to finance general jurisdiction over coastal land new or improved facilities in commu- accommodating or adjacent to energy nities experiencing unplanned and un- development activity may receive CEIP budgeted demands upon their public ser- assistance through their State govern- vices and facilities from coastal energy ments. Local governments seeking this activity. The assistance is either direct assistance should direct their inquiries to loan or a loan guarantee. the State agency designated to handle Direct loans are available from the CEIP matters. These agencies will supply Coastal Energy Impact fund and can be grant applications and relevant State and made for periods of up to 30 years. Loan Federal regulations and advise on the interest rates range from a low of 5 proper way to make an application. percent on certain environmental and Reminders: Applicants should be sure recreational projects to a rate equaling that proposed CEIP projects show the that of comparable U.S. Treasury Securi- relationship of the project to an identifi- ties. The interest rate varies according to able coastal energy activity. Project need project need, applicant's financial con- must result as a consequence of coastal dition, and State statutory interest rate energy activity, and the proposal must ceilings on municipal obligations. show how the project meets this need. It Bond guarantees for principal and in- is particularly important to distinguish terest also are available from the Coastal between projects proposed as a result of Energy Impact Fund. The interest paid general coastal energy development and on such obligations, however, is to be those required by OCS development as included in the gross income of the this bears directly on the amount and bondholder to comply with Chapter One type of funding available to these of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954. projects. An interest subsidy sufficient to lower All applications are subject to NEPA the interest rate to that available on and the requirements of the Office of direct loans may be paid to the borrower. Management and Budget Circular A,95 Repayment assistance is a special and requiring public comments. unique feature of the CEIP. Under this CEIP funded construction project ap- provision a borrower may receive special plications must contain Environmental assistance if revenues securing the loan Impact Assessment data as prescribed in or guaranteed bond prove insufficient to CEIP guidelines available from your repay the debt because the expected State CEIP agency, all necessary State employment or population increases did and Federal permits, and a Preliminary not materialize. The forms of this assis- Engineering Report in accordance with tance may include: modification of loan CEIP guidelines. terms (including interest rate reduction Technical Documents: The new Regula- and principal postponement), refinanc- tions can be located in the May 21, 1979, ing and supplemental loans, and grants and January 21, 1980, issue of the Federal to meet the debt service on the loan. Register. OCS participation grants are available for the first time, FY 1980, to help states participate in the Federal policy, oper- 132 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION ON North Carolina, South Carolina, OCZM Georgia) United States Department of Commerce GulflIslands Region National Oceanic and Atmospheric (Florida, Alabama, Mississipp', Administration Louisiana, Texas, Virgin Islands, Office of Coastal Zone Management Puerto Rico) 3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W. Pacific Region Washington, D.C. 20235 (California, Bay Conservation State Programs Office Development Commission, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Hawaii, North Atlantic Region North Mariana Islands, Guam, (Maine, New Hampshire, American Samoa) Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Great Lakes Region Island) (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, South Atlantic Region Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin, (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania) Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Coastal Hazards Initiative) * COASTAL HAZARDS INITIATIVE evacuation when threatened by a severe hurricane. The potential for a catastrophic disaster Developers have capitalized on the as the result of a hurricane and associ- lure of sunshine, surf, and sand to build ated storm surge is growing. This threat housing for new residents at a dizzying increases even though there have been pace. In many locations, the community significant improvements in recent years planners have not made adequate pro- in our capabilities to monitor, predict, vision for emergency protective action and warn of hurricanes. In fact, it is easy in connection with natural disasters. to visualize the kind of situation, where- Bridges, ferries, and exposed coastal in two or three times the number of lives highways that allow adequate transporta- lost at Galveston in 1900 (6,000) would tion during normal times, may become be lost, even with a very accurate fore- clogged choke points during an at- cast. This seeming paradox of better tempted quick evacuation to avoid the warnings but greater risks results direct- threat of a hurricane. Rising tides and ly from the fact that many rapidly grow- floods from intense hurricane rainfall ing population centers in the coastal can disrupt such lines of transportation zone do not have adequate means of many hours in advance of hurricane landfall. People depending on them as evacuation routes are then trapped to *This description has been supplied by the become potential victims of the storm National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- surge and high winds. And the problems tration. become worse if the normal population 133 is swollen by vacationers (typically the coastal areas. The effort will be expanded case during the hurricane season) or if to consider otner natural @tazatas in tne the evacuation orders are issued at night. coastal areas of the country later. Until the hurricane hazards are given Factors responsible for the magnitude proper attention in long-term planning of the threat can be summarized as fol- and coastal land use management pro- lows: grams, this threat of catastrophic loss of 0 overdevelopment or development in life and property will continue to grow. the wrong place (lack of adequate land use controls); The Initiative's Goal: To Reduce the Loss * inadequate "risk" information (lack of Life and Property from Hazards in of localized storm surge forecast ca- pability); Coastal Areas 0 inadequate evacuation routes/maps/ � Avoid/minimize development in plans (due in part to failure to per- high risk areas. ceive the magnitude of the threat); � Where development in high risk 0 lack of public awareness (lack of areas exists or is increasing, develop information and relevant, exper- comprehensive emergency evacu- ience-80 percent o 'f the present ation plans to minimize risk to life coastal population has not experi- and property. enced a major hurricane); � Establish requirements for disclosure lack of authoritative and effective of more precise description of risk communications with the public (in- areas. adequate intergovernmental plan- � Seek establishment of more appro- ning /coordination). priate building standards. � Establish and clarify responsibilities and authorities. The NOAA Initiative: Key Aspects � Establish and maintain coordinated Risk Assessment Program (to insure system of cooperation and commu- a clearer understanding of the risks): nication between all parties and par- -compilation of meteorological/ ticipants concerned and involved. oceanographic data (frequency, in- tensity, nature, location); General Objectives and Discussion -development and application of localized storm surge models; This effort builds upon the basic tech- -identification of priority coastal nical competence of the National Weath- areas for which detailed risk er Service; the National Ocean Survey, assessment will be developed; and the Environmental Data Information -preparation and dissemination of Service; the financial assistance (to State risk assessment information and and local government) and coastal man- products. agement framework of the Office of Storm evacuation maps and planning Coastal Zone Management program; and (emphasis on high risk areas): the financial assistance to technically -provide technical mapping data, competent universities and technical as- information, and assistance; sistance of the Marine Advisory Service -provide model plans and ap- of the Sea Grant Program. proaches at various levels of gov- The intent is to focus this combination ernment and for different geo- of NOAA technical and financial assis- graphic areas. tance in a way which effectively supports Expanded public awareness (hazard the priority activities of the Federal risk awareness and evacuation and Emergency Management Agency, and other planning measures to protect State and local government activities in life and property): cooperation with other Federal agencies -site specific public service an- and hazards mitigation organizations. nouncements for high risk areas; The initial emphasis is on the protec- -reformatting existing products to tion of life and property from the impact make them more useful or mean- of hurricanes and related storm surge in ingful; 134 -expansion of education and in- -to interact with FEMA and other formation programs. Federal agencies. � CZM Coastal Hazards Assistance Pro- Sea Grant research and technical gram (increase coastal hazards em- assistance support: phasis in State Coastal Zone Manage- -increase the level of activity at Sea ment programs and support the Grant institutions concerning development of State and local gov- coastal hazards and facilitate the ernment capability in dealing with identification of priority projects Federal agencies and others). and exchange of research results. � Emphasize coastal hazards in State Post disaster survey activities: CZM programs. -photo missions with NOAA air- 10 Increase NOAA technical assistance craft; to States: -installation of water level measur- -coastal and evacuation mapping; ing equipment. -accelerated storm surge modelling; Cooperation with other agencies: -localized risk assessment informa- -facilitate where possible, through tion. CZM, Sea Grant and other NOAA � Encourage and facilitate cooperation programs full coordination and and coordination at Federal and State cooperation between all levels of levels. government toward common pro- � Support development of State ca- gram goals to minimize loss of life pability: and property damage due to coast- -to develop state policies and pro- al hazards. gram; -to coordinate administration of State programs; Department of Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has have adjusted bound4ries for permit issu- major responsibilities for protection and ance to State lines to simplify coordina- management of the coastal zone. It is in- tion with similar State permit require- volved in virtually all construction pro- ments. jects in navigable waters and adjacent Localities are most likely to work with wetlands. In some cases, it undertakes the District Engineer or his staff when projects for hazard protection or shore- requesting advice or assistance from the line restoration. For construction or de- Corps (in New England and Honolulu a velopment in or adjacent to navigable Division office serves this role). The Dis- waters, and having an impact on them, it trict Engineer makes final decisions on sets conditions in special permits re- most questions. quired by Federal law. The Corps operates at three decision- Among the responsibilities of the Dis- making levels: the Office of the Chief of trict Engineers' offices are: Engineers, in Washington, D.C.; 11 U.S. -to prepare and submit analyses of Army Engineer Divisions; and 36 Dis- water-resource needs and develop- tricts which serve as the field offices of ment studies pursuant to specific the Corps. Boundaries of the Divisions congressional resolutions; and Districts are based on natural sys- -to perform engineering studies and tems, using watersheds and river basins. design facilities; On an experimental basis, some Districts -to construct dams, dikes, jetties, 135 groins, etc., if found feasible and so -(Small) Flood Control, Coastal Pro- authorized by Congress; tection Works for Public Shores, Re- -to operate and maintain water-re- habilitation sources projects for navigable waters -Emergency Coastal Protective Works of the United States; -Protection of Essential Public Works -to acquire, manage, and dispose of -Snagging and Clearing for Flood some types of Federal land. Control -(Small) Navigation Projects FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT Actions culminating in large construc- SERVICES PROGRAM (FPMS) tion projects are usually initiated by local interests working with Representatives The 1960 Flood Control Act required the in Congress who present proposals to Corps to provide information, technical congressional committees. The Corps planning assistance, and guidance to may be asked to investigate and furnish States, localities, and private citizens to recommendations. Once approved and help them determine the potential mag- funded large and small projects normally nitude and extent of flood hazards and require State or local support of 30 to 50 implement wi 'se floodplain management percent of project costs. Under recent plans. The program through which this cost sharing proposals by the President, is done is known as the Corps' Flood the local share would be fixed at 20 per- Plain Management Services (FPMS). On a cent for all flood-related items. contract basis, the FPMS now also under- Current information on small project take studies on behalf of the Fed- assistance is available in the Federal Cata- eral Emergency Management Agency log of Domestic Assistance, Sections 12.100- (FEMA). FPMS will provide additional 12.110 and in publications available from planning assistance to communities par- District Engineers' offices. ticipating in the NFIP if they request it. Usually the District Office of the Corps REGULATORY PROGRAM will have staff assigned to FPMS to pro- vide technical assistance. Communities The Corps also grants permits for various can check current requirements of this types of activities in the waters of the program by consulting Section 12.104 of United States. At various times, begin- the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assis- ning in the 19th century, the Corps of tance; additional information is available Engineers has been given regulatory from District Engineers' offices. authorities, mainly to protect navigable waters. Two laws remain important as FLOOD AND EROSION CONTROL the principal sources for Corps permit PROGRAMS authority: the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, and additions to the Clean Water When Congress authorizes it to do so, Act in the Federal Water Pollution Con- the Corps builds structures to protect trol Act Amendments of 1972. against hazards and has legislative direc- These two laws, and other laws bear- tion to restore areas damaged by floods ing on Corps permits like the National and erosion. These programs began with Environmental Policy Act of 1969 the Flood Control Act of 1936, subse- (NEPA), and the 1966 Historic Preserva- quently amended and expanded to en- tion Act, are integrated, interpreted, and compass several types of coastal construc- implemented in regulations issued as the tion and restoration (in addition to the "Regulatory Program," July 19, 1977. FPMS planning assistance). This ended a somewhat confusing period Key activities initiated through the of lawsuits and revisions that followed District Engineer under continuing auth- NEPA and the 1972 changes in the Clean orities, i.e., not requiring specific con- Water Act. Subsequent 1977 Amend- gressional authorization, are: ments to the Clean Water Act have con- firmed the Corps' program, while clarify- -Aquatic Plant Control ing some exemptions from the permit -(Small) Beach Erosion Control Pro- requirement, and allowing State assump- jects tion of permitting responsibilities for 136 limited geographic areas of non-navi- The Corps' dredge and fill program gable waters. works in coordination with State and lo- The most common permits issued by cal programs. For example, to dispose of the Corps are called Section 404 (or dredge and fill materials in Virginia, two "404") permits, after Section 404 of the State permits may be necessary. State law Water Pollution Control Act Amend- requires certificates of compliance from ments of 1972, and Section 10 permits, the State Water Control Board for any after Section 10 of the 1899 Rivers and discharge in State waters. For discharge Harbors Act. in wetlands, a permit is required from Though as a practical matter, applica- the local wetlands board if there is one, tions for these permits are identical, and or the Virginia Marine Resources Com- require similar information, there are im- mission (VMRC). A State coordination portant differences between the two pro- procedure meshes these requirements to- visions of law. Section 404 applies to a gether. The Corps will defer to negative larger area, "the waters of the United decision at the State level, though Fed- States." Section 10 applies to "navigable eral law requires an independent judg- waters" without the expansive additional ment before granting a,permit. In Flor- definition provided for Section 404. The ida, joint application procedures are result is an area of non-tidal and fresh- being tested to see if they simplify this water wetlands where the -404" require- coordination process. ments alone apply, and another area of The permit decisions are highly decen- navigable waters and adjacent tidal wet- tralized. The 11 Division Engineers and lands where both Section 404 and Sec- 36 District Engineers have substantial tion 10 apply. autonomy in the permit process. Applica- A second difference betwen the 1899 tions are processed by the District En- and 1972 laws lies in the' activities cov- gineer. If an application is noncontrover- ered by the permit. -404" permits set sial and meets Corps standards, the Dis- conditions for, or prohibit, discharge of trict Engineer may issue a permit. The dredge and fill material into waters and majority of applications fall into this cat- wetlands, for instance; Section 10 prohib- egory. its structures without a Federal permit. Objections from States via the govern- A third difference lies in the roles as- or, from other Federal agencies, or from signed by the law to other Federal agen- the public may cause the Division En- cies. Though the Corps is responsible for gineer to review the application. The Di- implementing the -404" permit program, vision Engineer directs the District to the U.S. EPA is given a key concurrent grant or deny a permit. In 1975 only 100 role. It must set overall guidelines for the of 15,000 permit decisions were made by implementation of the program, may the Division Engineer. consult on individual permits, and could Two elements influence the time re- veto permit issuance if it felt that its quired for a decision: the level at which guidelines were being ignored by the the permit decision is made the Corps Corps. The uneasy alliance that this pair- standards required for issuance. Condi- ing established in 1972 has been tions may be attached to a permit. smoothed, reflected in the carefully Two elements influence the time re- drafted 1977 Regulations that outline all quired for a decision: one is the level at of the different interests in the process which the permit decision is made; the and in EPA's current preparations for re- other is the Corps own standards re- view of State permit programs that may quired for issuance. Conditions may be qualify under 1977 Amendments to the attached to a permit. Clean Water Act as substitutes for the Corps program in non-navigable waters and their adjacent wetlands. 137 Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT OF Regulations-50, Part 17. The most recent 1973 complete list of protected species was published in the Federal Register, Janu- The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as ary 17, 1979 pp. 3636-3654. New regu- amended, gives the Secretaries of the In- lations implementing Section 4 of the terior and Commerce, who act through Act were finalized, in compliance with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) the Endangered Species Act amendment and the National Marine Fisheries Ser- of 1978 in the February 27, 1980 Federal vice (NMFS), broad powers to protect R,egister, pp. 13010-13026. New Section and conserve all forms of wildlife which 7 regulations are nearing publication; the may be in jeopardy. Within the Fish and interagency cooperation regulations pub- Wildlife Service, the Endangered Species lished January 4, 1978 Federal Register, Program has been carefully formulated pp. 870-876, are being used until new to meet this task. regulations are published. Section 7 of the Act requires all Fed- For further information contact: Office of eral agencies to consult with FWS or Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Wild- NMFS when any of their actions, or ac- life, Main Interior Building, Washington, tivities funded, authorized, or approved D.C. 20240. by them will affect endangered species. In cases where irresolvable conflicts arise FISHERY RESOURCES PROGRAM following consultation, an elaborate re- view process is now provided through The activities of the Fishery Resources which Federal agencies may be exempted Program are performed in three related from compliance with Section 7. program areas-coastal anadromous fish- If the Service finds that jeopardy to a eries, inland fisheries and reservoirs, and species will result from a federally au- the Great Lakes fisheries. The first and thorized activity and that Federal agen- third are relevant to this manual. cies cannot accept any of the,,reasonable Coastal Anadromous Fisheries and prudent alternatives offered by the Service, then the involved Federal agen- Many important commercial fish species cy, the Governor of the State in which are anadromous: the adults migrate from the action was to occur, or the permit the sea upstream to spawn in fresh or license applicant may apply to the water. Often, these anadromous fish spe- Secretary for an exception. cies such as Atlantic salmon and chinook Technical Documents. All proposed and salmon encounter great difficulties dur- final listings, delistings, or reclassifica- ing migration, such as dams and other tions are drafted by FWS or NMFS and barriers, polluted streams, and low water published in the Federal Register, a daily levels. publication devoted to Federal regulatory Measures to protect these fish during activities. Also, the substance of pro- migration, spawning, and early growth posed listing actions is published in af- are important to maintain the resource fected area newspapers, and is made and ensure continued benefits to the available for publication in pertinent sci- public. Fishery resources activities of entific journals. Regulations implement- management assistance, production, and ing the act appear in the Code of Federal research are integrated to help solve some of these problems. A good example of this integration is the salmon fishery of the Columbia River *This description has been supplied by the System. Fisheries assistance is provided U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. for protection and management of the 138 fishery, researchers are identifying mi- life Service to supply scientific informa- grating fish with biochemical /genetic tion and methodologies on key environ- identifiers, computer modeling is used to mental issues which impact fish and estimate the contribution of separate sal- wildlife resources and their supporting mon populations to the mixed stock fish- ecosystems. The mission of the Program. ery, and an extensive hatchery produc- is as follows: tion program contributes to enhance- To strengthen the Fish and Wildlife ment of the salmon population of the Service in its role as a primary source Columbia River System. of information on national fish and wildlife resources, particularly in re- Great Lakes Fisheries spect to environmental impact assess- Historically, the Great Lakes provided ment. some of the country's best commercial 9 To gather, analyze, and present in- and recreational fishing. Overfishing, formation that will aid decision pollution problems, and predation by the makers in the identification and sea lamprey have decimated lake trout resolution of problems associated populations and other resident fish spe- with major land and water use cies. The Great Lakes Fishery Commis- changes. sion, created to restore and improve the e To provide better ecological informa- sport and commercial fisheries of the tion and evaluation for Department Great Lakes, contracts with the U.S. Fish of the Interior development pro- and Wildlife Service for sea lamprey con- grams, such as those relating to en- trol. Control measures consist of moni- ergy development. toring adult and larval lamprey popula- tions, and chemical treatment of the lar- Information developed by the Biologi- val stage. Research is investigating chem- cal Services Program is intended for use icals to reduce lamprey populations in the planning and decision-making through artificially sterilized adult lam- process to prevent or minimize the im- preys which are released into the lake pact of development on fish and wildlife. to compete with normal lampreys for Biological Services research activities and mates. Research is also being conducted technical assistance services are based on on population status, environmental fac- an analysis of the issues, the decision tors causing negative impact on the fish- makers involved and their information ery, and general fish-life histories. Fish needs, and an evaluation of the state-of- production is devoted to restoring popu- the-art to identify information gaps and lations of lake trout, sauger, and other determine priorities. This is a strategy to recreational and commercial fish species assure that the products produced and and providing information on diseases disseminated will be timely and useful. affecting these species. Lamprey control Among the environmental issues being efforts have been very successful. In addressed by the program are coastal and 1977, natural lake trout reproduction was estuarine modifications, riverine and ri- observed in Lake Michigan for the first parian protection, and conduct of a Na- time since the program began. The total tional Wetlands Inventory. economic impact of the Great Lakes commercial fishery is approximately $160 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANT million. Total economic impact 'of the EVALUATION PROGRAM recreational fishery approaches $1 bil- The program provides ecologically sound lion. and scientifically useful information to For further information contact: Asso- minimize the adverse toxicological and ciate Director- Fisheries Resources, U.S. ecological impacts of environmental con- Fish and Wildlife Service, Main Interior taminants on fish and wildlife and their Building, Washington, D.C. 20240. habitats. Evaluation of the environment- THE BIOLOGICAL SERVICES al effects of chemicals is a Federal re- PROGRAM sponsibility, since the effects far outreach the boundaries of any State or region. The Biological Services Program was es- The Fish and Wildlife Service is the Fed- tablished within the U.S. Fish and Wild- eral organization responsible for conser- 139 vation and management of wild species, sensitive indication for the spatial distri- and so has a particular responsibility for bution and trends in contaminants. research on environmental chemicals. In Three monitoring networks are main- 1974, the Service signed a memorandum tained: (1) freshwater fish, (2) starlings of agreement with the Environmental (bird species representative of the terres- Protection Agency (EPA) to establish trial environment), and (3) mallard and their areas of expertise, avoid duplication black ducks (bird species representative of effort, and assure mutual support and of the wetland environment). All sam- information exchange. The agreement es- ples are analyzed for organochlorine pes- tablished the leadership role of the Fish ticides (e.g., DDT and dieldrin) and re- and Wildlife Service in evaluating the ef- lated compounds (e.g., PCB's). Many of fects of pollutants on wildlife, but agreed these are complex compounds that re- to a sharing of responsibilities for re- quire sophisticated analytical equipment search on fish and other aquatic life, and methodology for detection and with the Service to be particularly con- quantification. Fish samples are also ana- cerned with the effects of pollutants on lyzed for metals (e.g., mercury, lead, cad- conservation management, and recrea- mium, and arsenic). tional use of fish and fish food organ- Field Operation isms. Information exchange has been good in both fish and wildlife areas. In The primary purpose is to locate, iden- 1977, a second agreement was signed tify, and correct sources of environmen- which defined the roles of the two agen- tal contamination through field apprais- cies in water quality research. als and investigations of fish and wildlife Despite the substantial information losses. The program provides immediate base available, knowledge of effects of response to sudden changes in pollutant contaminants on fish and wildlife is far levels in the environment. Specifically, from adequate. A fundamental problem the program (1) provides review of pro- is the enormous number of contaminants posals for pesticide usage on Service that are widespread in the environment lands, (2) coordinates training of Service and the vast array of species that may pesticide applicators, (3) provides techni- be at risk. Urban, industrial, agricultural, cal assistance on pesticide use and po- and energy-related activities continue to tential effects of pollutants on key fish introduce a myriad of contaminants into and wildlife communities, (4) responds the environment. The rapid growth of to fish and wildlife die-offs related to en- the chemical industry in the past few vironmental contaminants, and (5) re- decades has been accompanied by a cor- sponds to spills,of oil and other hazard- responding increase in the quantity of ous substances when fish and wildlife hazardous substances that are processed, might be affected. A direct benefit is ear- transported, and ultimately disposed. ly recognition of detrimental environ- Each year approximately 1,000 new mental changes, which results from rapid chemicals will find their way into the assessment of contaminant problems in market place and subsequently into the the environment. The appropriate use of environment through use and disposal. pesticides and other potential contami- Monitoring nants minimizes the detrimental impact on the fish and wildlife resource. The Service participates in EPA's Nation- Research al Pesticide Monitoring Program by mon- itoring levels of environmental contam- Combined field and laboratory research inants in fish and wildlife. The primary provides an evaluation of the effects of purpose is to ascertain on a Nationwide environmental contaminants on fish, basis the levels and trends of selected wildlife, and their habitat. The multidis- contaminants in the bodies of freshwater ciplinary research focuses efforts of ecol- fish, and certain bird species over a pe- ogists, physiologists, toxicologists, behav- riod of time. Monitoring residues in iorists, chemists, and statisticians on birds was initiated in 1965, and in 1967 identifying and evaluating potentially for fish. harmful environmental contaminants, The monitoring program provides a and identifying populations, species, 140 habitats, or ecosystems that might be ad- a. Provides consultation, field evalua- versely affected. Behavioral, reproduc- tion, and planning assistance for tive, or other chronic effects may lead proposed water and related land to changes in the size, age structure, or projects to be constructed by Fed- spatial distribution of fish and wildlife eral agencies, assisted with Federal populations. funds, or constructed by non-Fed- Carefully coordinated studies are con- eral entities under a Federal license ducted to assess status of animal popu- or permit. lations in the field before, during, and b. Provides ecological input to field after pollution exposure of short or long level planning related to specific duration; to measure exposures of ani- river basin studies. mals to agents suspected of causing any c. Is responsible for insuring that ac- effects observed; and to test the effects tions initiated by the Service com- of the same agents on animals under ply with requirements of the Na- controlled laboratory conditions. tional Environmental Policy Act. The results are published in major sci- d. Coordinates review of other agen- entific journals as well as disseminated to cies' environmental impact state- resource managers at both the Federal ments in areas where the Service and State level in a form which can be has been designated by the Council used by them to make informed manage- on Environmental Quality Guide- ment decisions. lines. e. Develops methodologies to be used LAND AND WATER RESOURCE in the pursuit of the activities of the DEVELOPMENT PLANNING program, such as the Habitat Evalu- PROGRAM (LWRDP) ation Procedures, general guide- This program, largely operational in na- lines for permits, and information ture, carries out the mandated and discre- brochures of methods to preserve tionary review and consultation with fish and wildlife resources in con- other agencies. Through this program, cert with development. the Service, using the Fish and Wildlde The program is administered by six re- Coordination Act (16 U.S.C. 661 et seq.) gional offices and an Alaska Area Office. and other legislation, acts in an advisory or consultative capacity by conducting FURTHER INFORMATION surveys and investigations, and by pro- viding planning assistance and recom- For further information on FWS projects, mending conservation measures to Fed- contact: eral, other government, and private re- Region I source planning and management organ- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lloyd izations. 500 Building, Suite 1692, 500 N.E. This input is often specific to water Multnomah Street, Portland, Oregon and related land resource development 97232 projects and comprehensive studies of Region I[ the Nation's river basins. Service reports, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 500 based on results of reviews and consulta- Gold Avenue, S.W., P.O. Box 1306, Al- tion, are incorporated in requests for au- buquerque, New Mexico 87103 thorization transmitted to Congress by Region III the Federal development agencies. In the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Federal case of federally permitted or licensed Building, Fort Snelling, Twin Cities, water resource projects, the reports of Minnesota 55111 Service investigations are transmitted in Region IV the form of recommendations for issu- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Richard B. ance, modification of the proposed work Russell Federal Building, 75 Spring St., to make it more compatible with fish and S.W., Suite 1276, Atlanta, Georgia 30303 wildlife values, or denial of a Federal Region V permit or license. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, One Specifically, the LWRDP program does Gateway Center, Suite 700, Newton the following: Corner, Massachusetts 02158 141 Region VI Alaska Area Office U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, P.O. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 Box 25486, 134 Union Boulevard, Lake- East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska wood, Colorado 80228 99503 Environmental Protection Agency THE CLEAN WATER ACT CRF Part 230, in 40 FR 41291 (Sept. SECTION 404-DREDGE OR FILL 5, 1975).' The guidelines are currently PERMIT PROGRAM undergoing substantial review, and should be proposed in revised form in the near future. [p. 12, T I & 2] The purpose of the Clean Water Act The guidelines govern the determina- is to restore and maintain the chemical, tion of the environmental effects of physical, and biological integrity of the discharging dredged and fill material waters of the United States. These waters into waters of the United States, for are valuable for navigation, commerce, (1) analysis of State and COE permit recreation, habitat, and breeding and applications, (2) Federal project envi- spawning areas for many species of fish ronmental impact statements, and (3) and wildlife, and as a source of water activities conducted under best manage- and food for much of the nation's popu- ment practices must conform to the lation. Wetlands form a particularly sen- guidelines. The guidelines require sitive and important segment of these consideration of adverse environmental ecosystems. [p. 2, T 4] impacts of a proposed discharge, as well Section 404 of the Clean Water Act as alternatives to the project. regulates the discharge of dredged or Relations with Other Programs fill materials in Wetlands or aquatic ecosystems that may destroy or modify The Section 404 program may affect, habitat, increase suspended sediment and be affected by, a variety of other loads and bottom sedimentation, and al- programs. These include the Fish and ter hydrological regimes. The Section Wildlife Coordination Act, the National 404 program requires that such adverse Environmental Policy Act, the Endan- impact be evaluated before discharging gered Species Act, the Wild and Scenic dredged or fill material into waters of Rivers Act, the Migratory Bird Conserva- the United States. The program is admin- tion Act, and a number of others. Two istered by both the U.S. Environmental programs in particular are significantly Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. enmeshed with Section 404. These are Army Corps of Engineers (COE), which Sections 9 and 10 of the Rivers and has the primary responsibility for the Harbors Act of 1899 and Section 208 permit program. EPA is authorized to of the Clean Water Act. Section 9 and oversee transfer of specified parts of 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act require the program to interested States with eli- a COE permit to construct any dam gible State-level programs. [p. 2, 1 11 or dike or other structures or perform The Section 404 (b) (1) Guidelines. The other work in a navigable water of the Section 404 environmental guidelines are United States. Section 208 of the Clean intended to be the basis of decision Water Act provides an alternative to making under Section 404. Established the Section 404 program in a State hav- by EPA in conjunction with COE, they ing approved Section 404 permit pro- were issued in interim final form, 40 gram and a Statewide approved Section 208 (b) (4) program dealing with the discharge of dredged or fill material; This description has been supplied by the no Section 404 permit will be required Environmental Protection Agency. for any activity for which there is no 142 approved best management practice. [p. tem of ministerial and substantive duties. 12, T 31 [p. 17, 1 11 The Corps of Engineers' Program. The The statute itself sets requirements for COE administers several permit pro- State authority, Federal review criteria grams, among them Section 404. COE and time schedules, and State program authority under Section 404 extends to withdrawal procedures. discharges of dredge or fill material in Technical Documents: EPA regulations the waters of the United States, or only may be found in the Proposed Consoli- in navigable waters and their adjacent dated Permit Regulations, 40 CFR Parts wetlands. 122A, 123E, and 124, published in 44 The COE generally issues individual FR 34243 (June 14, 1979). permits under Section 404 evaluated on Program Transfer to the States: The a case by case basis in compliance with requirements a State must satisfy to have the guidelines. General permits may be its program approved and the procedures issued by both the COE and the states EPA must follow in approving State pro- for certain types of activities in specific, grams are contained in both the Clean relatively small geographic areas within Water Act and the regulations. For more their jurisdiction. The activities must detailed information refer directly to the cause only minimum environmental regulations or contact Frances Peterson, harm, both individually and cumula- Aquatic Protection Branch (WH-585), 401 tively. The permit must terminate within M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460 5 years and may be modified or revoked (202-422-3400). earlier should the adverse environmental SECTION 208 CONSTRUCTION impacts become greater. The COE may GRANTS FOR TREATMENT FACILITIES also issue nationwide permits either for discharges into smaller, minor waters Under the program, EPA is authorized or for certain types of activities. [p. 18, to make grants of $18 billion to the 1 & 2] States for construction of new municipal Technical Documents. For more detailed treatment facilities. The Federal funding information on the COE section 404 share for these projects is 75 percent. regulatory program, see 33 CRF Parts The rest of the cost is divided among 320-329, especially parts 320, 323, 325, State and local governments and indus- 327 42 FR 37121 (July 19, 1977), the trial users who hook up to a municipal U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Permit sewage system. Municipalities are also Program, A Guide for Applicants eligible for grants for demonstration (EP1145-2-1, November 1977), or contact projects that utilize new methods for the District Engineer in your area. treating sewage, for developing joint sys- State Programs Under Section 404 tems for treatment of municipal and industrial waste discharges and for General Requirements: The 1977 Amend- perfecting new water purification tech- ments established a system whereby the niques. [Public Awareness Publications] State could assume a significant part of the Dredge or Fill Program. The object SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT was to return responsibility for certain decisions affecting land use to the States The 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act was and to limit duplication of effort. The designed to assure that water supply State programs are essentially to mirror systems serving the public meet mini- the Federal program and must comply mum national standards for protection with Section 404 guidelines. EPA's role of public health. both in approving State programs and The Act gives EPA responsibility for overseeing decisions made under them setting minimum national drinking emphasizes the importance Congress water regulations for all public water placed on maintaining Federal standards systems throughout the United States. and insuring that water quality and wet- The States are to play the lead role lands be protected. EPA's responsibility in enforcing these regulations. If a State in the transfer of Dredge and Fill pro- is negligent in administering the law, grams to the States is an integrated sys- however, EPA may take action. The 143 Agency also may act to prevent or halt of other materials (except dredged ma- drinking water contamination posing an terial) for the purpose of dumping is pro- "imminent and substantial" health haz- hibited except when authorized under a ard if State and local authorities fail permit issued by the Administrator of to respond. EPA. Based upon criteria outlined in sec- If public water systems cannot reason- tion 102 of the Act, the Administrator is ably meet the regulations, provision is required to establish and apply criteria made for States to grant variances and for reviewing and evaluating permit ap- exemptions but these must not pose un- plications. Such permits may be issued reasonable risk to public health and a after determining that the dumping in- schedule must be established for compli- volved will not unreasonably degrade or ance. endanger human health or the marine The Act also provides for regulating environment. Before a permit is issued, the underground injection of fluid to EPA must also give notice and opportu- prevent the endangerment of under- nity for a public hearing. ground sources of drinking water. This In addition, the Administrator is au- is accomplished by means of regulatory thorized to designate areas where dump- programs similar to that governing pub- ing may be prohibited. EPA has the lic water systems. Primary responsibility authority to revoke or modify permits, falls to the States where underground to assess civil penalties for violation of source protection programs have been permit conditions, and to initiate crimi- established. If a State has failed to as- nal action against persons who know- sume this responsibility within two years ingly violate the Act. after enactment, EPA will prescribe a Title Il requires the National Oceanic control program for that State. and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) The Act specifies that regulations will to conduct a comprehensive program of not be established that will interfere research and monitoring regarding the with oil or natural gas production unless effects of the dumping of materal into such regulations are considered endan- ocean waters. Title III gives NOAA the gered by such injection. [Public Aware- authority to establish marine sanctuaries. ness Publications] During 1977 the MPRSA was amended to require that ocean dumping of sewage MARINE PROTECTION, RESEARCH, sludge will cease as soon as possible AND SANCTUARIES ACT, AS and in any event no later than by AMENDED (P.L. 92-532) December 31, 1981. For the purposes of this amendment, the term "sewage The purpose of Title I of the Marine sludge" is defined to mean "any solid Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act or liquid waste generated by a municipal of 1972 (MPRSA) is to regulate trans- wastewater treatment plant the ocean portation for ocean dumping and to pre- dumping of which may unreasonably vent or strictly limit the ocean dumping degrade or endanger human health, wel- of any material which would unreason- fare, amenities, or the marine environ- ably affect human health, welfare, or ment, ecological systems, or economic amenities, or the marine environment, potentialities." Thus, the 1981 phase out ecological system, or economic poten- date required by interim permits under tialities. To implement this purpose and the EPA ocean dumping regulations is to control dumping in ocean waters, now a statutory date to terminate dump- Title I of the Act establishes a permit ing of sewage sludge as defined. system and assigns its administration to Wastes from a municipal wastewater the Environmental Protection Agency treatment plant which meet the EPA (EPA) and the Corps of Engineers (COE). environmental impact criteria for ocean Transportation from the United States dumping are not precluded by the of any radiological, chemical, or bio- amendment. However, at this time such logical warfare agent or high-level radio- wastes are not treated to the extent that active wastes for dumping in ocean wa- they would no longer be classified as ters, the territorial seas, or the contig- sewage sludge as defined in the amend- uous zone is prohibited. Transportation ment. Therefore, this amendment will 144 bring about the termination of all ocean 11988. The first was to prepare guide- dumping of sludges under interim per- lines to aid Federal agencies in the prep- mits from municipal wastewater treat- aration of their procedures to implement ment plant discharges by the end of the Order. Floodplain Management 1981. Guidelines for Implementing E.O. 11988 were prepared in February of 1978 (43 FR Ill. NONSTRUCTURAL 6030). The second was to provide techni- ALTERNATIVES FOR cal assistance to the agencies along with FLOODLOSS REDUCTION CEQ and FEMA, in the preparation of The Council is also active in responding implementing procedures. This ongoing to the President's Water Policy Initiatives activity has involved eighty agencies and relating to use of nonstructural ap- subagency units to date. The third was to proaches to flood-loss reduction. Under evaluate periodically agency procedures its direction, consultants to the Council and their effectiveness. The first such prepared the following four reports in evaluation is described in 1, above, under 1979: Task F. -Nonstructural Floodplain Mana8e- ment Study: Overview V. PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS -Options to Improve Federal Non- structural Response to Floods The Council has established "Principles -Floodplain Acquisition: Issues and and Standards for Planning Water and Options in Strengthening Federal Related Land Resources" (P&S). Many of Policy the activities guided by the P&S have -Improved Formulation and Evalua- floodplain management implications. tion of Nonstructural Elements for President Carter, in July 1978, directed Water Resources Plans in Flood Haz- the Council to modify the P&S to include ard Areas a primarily nonstructural plan as one al- Recommendations arising from these re- ternative whenever structural project or ports are undergoing review by affected program alternatives are considered. This agencies, the White House, and the Of- modification was complete through final fice of Management and Budget. rulemaking in December of 1979. IV. EXECUTIVE ORDER 11988 The Council was assigned three major re- sponsibilities under Executive Order Federal Emergency Management Agency* An Executive Order signed by President The Presidential action consolidated Carter July 20, 1979, formally completed five agencies and six additional disaster- establishment of the Federal Emergency related responsibilities into one struc- Management Agency, creating for the ture, FEMA, reporting to the President first time an independent government and Congress. agency responsible for all national emer- The five agencies transferred to the gency preparedness, mitigation, and combined unit-FEMA-their previous disaster response programs. affliliation, and administrative respon- sibilities are: -Federal Disaster Assistance Admin- *This description has been supplied by the istration (FDAA) from the Depart- Federal Emergency Management Agency. ment of Housing and Urban Devel- 145 opment (HUD), which coordinated -Coordination of emergency warning and funded Federal natural disaster and relief operations. -Federal response to consequences of -Federal Insurance Administration terrorist incidents. (FIA) from HUD, which managed FEMA operations are being administered flood insurance and hazard mitiga- through 10 offices in the Federal Region- tion programs. al cities. -Federal Preparedness Agency (FPA) The National Flood Insurance Program from General Services Administra- tion, a coordinator of civil plans for (NFIP) national emergencies. The NFIP is administered by the Federal -Defense Civil Preparedness Agency Insurance Administration (FIA). FIA's (DCPA) from Department of De- prime objective is to support the State fense, responsible for the civil de- and local efforts at making the NFIP fense program and planning, guid- work in their community. To accomplish ance, and financial assistance to this objective, FIA provides the commu- State and local governments for at- nity with up-to-date floodplain mapping tack and, as a secondary mission, and assists the community with utilizing natural disaster preparedness. this information. -United States Fire Administration Some of FEMA's Services Are: (USFA) from the Department of Commerce, which administers Fed- -County level seminars for building eral fire prevention programs in co- inspectors and other municipal of- ordination with State and local gov- ficials. ernments. -Planning assistance for developing FEMA's Major Objectives Are: local regulations to meet the pro- gram's floodplain management re- -To provide a single point of contact quirements. for State and local governments. -Engineering assistance with ques- -To enhance the dual use of emer- tions about the siting of structures in gency preparedness and response re- flood hazard areas. sources at all levels of government -Assistance in evaluating possible by taking advantage of related mat- flood hazard mapping errors and in ters in planning and response to initiating the required changes. activities for peacetime and attack Another responsibility is to see that the emergencies. program's Standard Flood Insurance -To provide greater effectiveness in Policy is properly promoted and written. hazard mitigation, preparedness, The EDS Federal Corporation is under planning, relief operations, and contract with the SFIP to assist with recovery assistance. these marketing-related responsibilities. Additionally, other closely related func- NFIP Publications tions merged into FEMA are: -Community preparedness programs An update on some of the brochures and for weather emergencies admin- manuals published by the NFIP: istered by the National Weather Ser- -Questions and Answers vice in the Department of Com- -How to Read Flood Hazard Bound- merce. ary Maps -And three programs in the Office of -How to Read a Flood Insurance Rate Science and Technology in the Map Executive Office of the President: -Coastal Flood Hazards and the Na- Earthquake Hazard Reduction; Dam tional Flood Insurance Program Safety Coordination; and the Federal -Elevated Residential Structures Emergency Broadcast System over- -Manual for the Construction of Resi- sight responsibility. dential Basements in Non-coastal Also, FEMA has two emergency func- Flood Environments tions not previously assigned to any -Statutory Land Use Control Enabling specified Federal agency: Authority in the Fifty States 146 -Guide for Ordinance Development Section 1362 of the National Flood Insur- (Community Assistance Series No. 1) ance Act. Section 1362 authorizes the -Coordination During Flood Insur- program to purchase severely damaged ance Studies (Community Assistance floodprone structures. The study is al- Series No. 2) most completed; FEMA will be taking ac- -Entering the Regular Program tion' on Section 1362 in the near future. (Community Assistance Series No. 3) Study on the Purchase of Floodprone Structures A study has been undertaken to examine alternative methods of implementing Water Resources Council* The U.S. Water Resources Council is per- Council's Regulation of Flood forming several significant functions in Hazard Areas to update vol- the area of floodplain management. umes I and 2, published in These include coordination, policymak- 1971 and 1972. The new vol- ing, and research activities. ume will build on the earlier ones and incorporate improve- 1. UNIFIED NATIONAL PROGRAM ments in the state of the art in FOR FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT the regulatory approach. Early in 1980, President Carter transmit- Task C. Preparation of a summary and ted the Council's Unified National Pro- analysis of agency research in gram for Floodplain Management to floodplains and wetlands. Congress. The United Program estab- Task D. Preparation of an analysis and lished a conceptual framework for flood- comparison of wetlands evalu- plain management at the Federal, State, ation procedures in use or un- and local levels. It identifies strategies der development with recom- and tools for flood-loss reduction and mendations for achieving floodplain values protection. Included in greater consistency and better it are recommendations for each level of use of such procedures. government. Among these recommenda- Task E. Preparation of a handbook to tions, the Council is called on to estab- guide local acquisition of lish a Floodplain Management Task floodplain and wetland areas. Force. This group has initiated its activi- Task F. Performance of the first WRC ties by assigning several tasks to work evaluation of the effectiveness groups. Six tasks are currently being ad- of Federal agency procedures dressed: for implementing Executive Task A. Preparation of a general guide Order 11988, as required by for local public officials and Section 5 of the Order. the interested public on flood- II. COORDINATED plain management issues, WETLANDS/FLOODPLAIN strategies to address them, and MANAGEMENT sources of assistance. Task B. Preparation of Volume 3 of the The Council has also been active in co- ordinating wetlands protection and floodplain management activities. There exists both a physical and functional *This description has been supplied by the overlap between most floodplains and Water Resources Council. wetlands; both are subject to increasing 147 development pressure; and management V. PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS techniques are often similar. In recogni- The Council has established "Principles tion of these points, the Council held and Standards for Planning Water and seminars early in 1979 to identify "com- Related Land Resources" (P&S). Many of mon denominator" issues and possible the activities guided by the P&S have mechanisms for better coordinating on- floodplain management implications. going efforts and reducing conflict. The President Carter, in July 1978, directed work under Tasks C, D and E above is an the Council to modify the P&S to include outgrowth of the seminars, along with a a primarily nonstructural plan as one al- report entitled "Emerging Issues in Wet- ternative whenever structural project or lands/ Floodplain Management." program alternatives are considered. This 111. NONSTRUCTURAL modification was complete through final ALTERNATIVES FOR rulemaking in December of 1979. FLOODLOSS REDUCTION The Council is also active in responding to the President's Water Policy Initiatives relating to use of nonstructural ap- proaches to flood-loss reduction. Under its direction, consultants to the Council prepared the following four reports in 1979: -Nonstructural Floodplain Manage- ment Study: Overview -Options to Improve Federal Non- structural Response to Floods -Floodplain Acquisition: Issues and Options in Strengthening Federal Policy -Improved Formulation and Evalua- tion of Nonstructural Elements for Water Resources Plans in Flood Haz- ard Areas Recommendations arising from these re- ports are undergoing review by affected agencies, the White House, and the Of- fice of Management and Budget. IV. EXECUTIVE ORDER 11988 The Council was assigned three major re- sponsibilities under Executive Order 11988. The first was to prepare guide- lines to aid Federal agencies in the prep- aration of their procedures to implement the Order. Floodplain Management Guidelines for Implementing E.O. 11988 were prepared in February of 1978 (43 FR 6030). The second was to provide techni- cal assistance to the agencies along with CEQ and FEMA, in the preparation of implementing procedures. This ongoing activity has involved eighty agencies and subagency units to date. The third was to evaluate periodically agency procedures and their effectiveness. The first such evaluation is described in 1, above, under Task F. 148 PROGRESS REPORT, AMENDED TO APRIL 1, 1980 IMPLEMENTATION OF EXECUTIVE ORDER 11988 FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT Prepared by Frank H. Thomas Chairman, Floodplain Management Task Force United States Water Resources Council Background It was the expectation of the agencies with consultation responsibility under the Order-WRC, CEQ and FEMA-that several major factors would have by this time significantly increased Federal floodplain management efforts under E.O. 11988. First, the Order's implementation date, May 24, 1978, is well over a year past. Second, recognizing this, the President specifically directed the agencies to expedite their implementation of the Order in a July 12, 1978 memo. Two additional progress reports were required in order to monitor progress. Third, the results of the first of these progress reports, due November 30, 1978, showed a clearly unsatisfactory effort on the part of the agencies. Cecil Andrus, Chairman of the Council, notified the agency heads in May of their status and in most cases had to request a firm schedule for completion of final regulations and procedures. Unfortunately, the expected upgrading of the Federal effort has not occurred. Agency progress is still far from adequate. Since the January 15, 1979 WRC Status Report when there were five agencies out of 32 with final implementating procedures, the number has now only risen to 16. Status of Implementation Procedures Executive Order 11988 applies to all proposed actions by all Federal agencies with the sole exception of the emergency activities specified in Section 9 of the Order. The term agency" as used here refers to 13 cabinet level organizations within the Federal Government and 19 independent agencies. The term "Subagency units," refers to individual program areas within the agencies that are anticipated to be preparing more detailed procedures of their own. For those agencies carrying out actions of a nature essentially without direct or indirect effects on a floodplain, (e.g., labor mediation and securities regulation), the publication of extensive implementation procedures may not be appropriate. To focus attention on those agencies whose activities more frequently af- fect floodplains, a survey was made of agency activities as described in the 1978-79 Gov- ernment Organization Manual. Consequently, 32 agencies and 50 of their subunits have been identified (Appendix B) as the focus of this effort to evaluate progress under the Presidential directive of July 12, 1978. The status of each of these as of January 1, 1980, is discussed in this report. How- ever, as information and experience warrant, agencies and subagency units may be added to or deleted from this list. Among the 32 agencies, 13 cabinet level departments and administrative units have been identified (Table 1). In the consultation process these units have been encouraged to first issue agency-wide procedures indicating general policy, substantive and mechanical requirements, designation of responsibility, and identification of subagency 149 units expected subsequently to issue more detailed implementation procedures. Similar broad procedures and specific subagency procedures may be appropriate for a few of the 19 independent agencies identified in this report. To date, of the 32 agencies, 20 have published implementing procedures including 16 final procedures. Of these 32 agencies, 20 have submitted the May 30 status report required by the President's Memorandum of July 12, 1978. TABLE 1 Type of Published No Progress Procedures Expected Preliminary Final Unpublished Evident Agency 32 4 16 2 10 Subagency Units 50 13 15 1 21 At the subagency level, 50 units were identified. Of these, 29 have prepared implementing procedures including 15 in final form. In addition, most of the subagencies are drafting regional and field level documents such as management directives, handbook inserts, manuals, etc. Three of these units submitted the May 30 re- ports independently, while several others were spoken for in the agency reports. Analysis of Progress to Date We are now over a year and a half past the due date for agency implementing procedures that is set in E.O. 11988 at Section 2(d). As summarized in Table 1, about one half of the procedures expected from the agencies are in final form. For the subagency units, about one quarter of the total expected are in final form. In response to Secretary Andrus' May letter calling for firm implementation schedules from the agencies, some commitments were made to propose or promulgate final procedures between June and December of 1979. Nineteen commitments were made, six for agency and 13 for subagency units. One agency and six subagencies have yet to meet their commitments (refer to Appendix B). If each of these commitments is fulfilled, the total of agencies with published procedures will be 22 and the total for subagencies will be 35. It should be noted that the data compiled here on the status of agency procedures gives no firm indication of the effectiveness of the Order's implementation at the field level. Few procedures have been in effect for very long, and the provision of adequate guidance to agency field staff is only in its initial stages. Only four of the twenty-one agencies submitting the May 30 report made reference to the effectiveness of their implementation efforts. In summary, they reported modest results and emphasized the need to await the administration of final procedures to gather useful data. Despite the status report's lack of detail on implementation, there is evidence that the Order is having an impact across the Nation. Both the Water Resources Council and the Federal Emergency Management Agency* receive inquiries daily about the applicability of the Order to specific field situations. In some of these situations, the Executive Order has clearly resulted in desirable modification of a proposed action. Impact of the Order on Agency Activities The May 30 written status reports were received from 23 agencies and subunits. These reports concerned themselves primarily with descriptions of progress in developing implementing procedures, manuals, handbooks, etc. Only 4 agencies commented on the *The President's Executive Order 12148 of July 20, 1979, established the Federal Emer- gency Management Agency (FEMA) as co-consultant on agency E.O. 11988 procedures along with WRC and CEQ. This role was previously performed by the Federal Insurance Administration which is now a part of FEMA. 150 impact of the Executive Order on their programs, not a sufficient number to permit meaningful evaluation. The status reports also included 4 agencies which indicated the Executive Order did not apply to their program activities. These agencies stated either that E.O. 11988 does not apply to their activities, or that by the nature of the activities they carry out, any effort that they might make to implement the Order would not achieve its intent. One of these agencies, however, noted that it is continuing its review of the applicability of the Order (refer to Appendix B). From our experience to date, it appears that the potential for the objectives of E.O. 11988 to be achieved can be expected to vary based on the type of Federal program under consideration. The greatest long term potential would appear to be in technical assistance and water and land use planning programs. These include the Coastal Zone Management Program and EPA 208 and HUD 701 planning programs, as well as the technical asistance programs of SCS and the Corps, and the National Flood Insurance Program. Such programs, through integration of the Order's concepts of floodplain avoidance and impact mitigation into land and water planning efforts, can provide the best vehicles for laying the groundwork for sound floodplain management. The greatest short term potential for achieving the Order's objectives may be expected from the day-to-day application of the Order's provisions through direct Federal construction and land management programs. These include programs implemented by the Corps of Engineers, GSA, the Forest Service, BLM and others. In these programs, the Order's implementation is quite straightforward, and results are more immediate and measurable over the short run. It appears that the potential for achieving the Order's objectives is somewhat less among the grant and loan and regulatory and licensing programs such as those administered by EDA, EPA, FERC, the Coast Guard and others. In these programs, the Federal agencies provide the wherewithal for others to perform actions affecting the floodplain, e.g., State or local governments or private developers. In the grant and loan programs, especially, the Federal Government does not have full control over every aspect of considering a proposed floodplain action. This effort is compensated for to some degree, and thus, the potential for achieving the Order's objectives is greater among agencies providing grants and loans for disaster relief and recovery, such. as SBA and FEMA. In post flood situations, there is an unusually high receptivity to the initiation of sound floodplain management efforts. While the Federal regulatory programs have the power to revoke licenses or permits and to demand restitution of disrupted floodplain areas, they frequently lack the resources for effective monitoring. The potential for Federal agency efforts to achieve the Order's objectives is least strong in the Federal instrumentalities, e.g., FDIC, FSLIC, etc. However, even among these agencies which have the least direct involvement in actions having the potential to af- fect the floodplain, opoportunities to achieve the Order's intent exist. For example, although the Federal agencies that guarantee, regulate, approve or insure financial transactions related to floodplain locations have a very indirect connection with persons carrying out actions impacting floodplains, they can aid in achieving the Order's intent through the transmittal of information about the nature of the risk to potential floodplain developers and occupants. It is to be anticipated that there will be similarities and continuity between the procedures developed by different agencies performing the same type of functions. The public notice, floodplain avoidance, and impact identification and mitigation provisions of the Order will logically be addressed in a basically similar manner by agencie *s performing the same types of activities. This is already becoming evident from the procedures of agencies involved in property acquisition, management and disposal, 151 construction of structures and facilities, granting of licenses and permits, provision of grants and loans, land use planning, etc. It is these similarities, in fact, that will provide WRC with a comparative framework to perform the first comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of the Federal effort to implement E.O. 11988. This evaluation is being. initiated by WRC pursuant to the provisions of Section 5 of the Order. Appendix A Implementation of Executive Order 11988, Floodplain Management May 24, 1977 Executive Order 11988 issued by the President Nov. 20-21, 1977 CEO meeting with designated agency contact to discuss the Order Feb.10,1978 Guidelines for Implementing E.O. 11988 publishd by WFIC March 6-9, 1978 WRC/CEQ/FIA Workshops for Agency contacts March 1978 - to date WRC/CEQ/FIA consultation and comment on agency draft procedures March 21, 1978 CEO Memo to Agency Heads discussing implementation and offering guidance May 24, 1978 Publication of Draft Procedure in Federal Register by only five agencies June 6, 1978 President's Water Policy Reform Message calls for ex- pedited implementation July 12, 1978 Presidential Memorandum to Agency Heads directing agen- cies to expedite implementation and submit progress re- ports by November 30, 1978 and May 30, 1978. Nov. 15, 1978 Draft regulation for consultation and comments submitted by 32 agencies, including 23 published in the Federal Register January 15, 1979 Progress Report based on consultation and status reports submitted by agencies indicates the following: - 31 Federal agencies have largest amount of program activity affecting floodplains - Of 13 cabinet level agencies, one has published final procedures and seven have published draft or interim procedures - Of 18 independent agencies, four have published proce- dures and five have published draft or interim proce- dures - Of 44 subdepartmental units, 10 have published draft or interim procedures and five have submitted unpublished drafts for consultation. April 19 - June 7, 1979 WRC/CEQ/FIA conducted comprehensive field staff training on the Order in 10 major cities nationwide. The sessions were atte@ncled by 360 staff from over 35 Federal agencies. 152 May 8 and 11, 1979 Secretary Andrus, Chairman of the Water Resources Coun- cil, informed the agency heads of the unsatisfactory rate of progress in implementing the Order and requested a firm schedule for issuing final procedures, January 1, 1980 Progress report based on consultation and May 30, 1979 status reports submitted by agencies indicates the follow- ing: - 32 Federal agencies have largest amount of program activities affecting floodplains; - Of 13 Cabinet level agencies, seven have published final procedures, three have published proposed proce- dures, and two have informal drafts; - Of 19 independent agencies, nine have published final or interim procedures, and one has published proposed procedures. - Of 50 subagency units, 15 have published final proce- dures, 13 have published proposed or interim proce- dures, and one has an informal draft. January 1, 1980 First formal evaluation of the effectiveness of agency proce- dures initiated by WRC pursuant to Section 5 of E.O. 11988. A Work Group of the Council's Floodplain Management Task Force is performing the evaluation which is to be completed in September 1980. Appendix B STATUS OF FEDERAL AGENCY PROCEDURES FOR E.O. 11988, FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT (AMENDED TO APRIL 1, 1980) Agency and Subunit Status of Procedures Department of Agriculture ............................... FINAL - Internal memo, October 30, 1978 Soil Conservation Service ....................... FINAL - Federal Register, J u ly 30, 1979 Rural Electrification Administration .......... PROPOSED - Federal Register, Aug. 29, 1978 (September, 1979)* Economics, Statistics and Cooperative Service ............................ PROPOSED - Federal Register, June 9, 1978 Farmers Home Administration .................. PROPOSED - Federal Register, Sept. 14, 1978 Forest Service ......................................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, May 4, 1979 Science and Education Administration ...................................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, June 9, 1978 Date agency committed itself to publish proposed or final rules in FederalRegister according to its May 30 Progress Report. 153 Agency Status of Procedures Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service ........................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, March 14, 1978 Department of Commerce ............................... FINAL - Federal Register, May 23, 1979 Economic Development Admnistration ..... FINAL - Federal Register, August 31, 1979 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ...................................... INFORMAL DRAFT - December 1979 (August 1979)' Department of Defense (Military Construction) ............................. FINAL - Federal Register, March 6, 1978 Air Force .............................................. FINAL - Design Manual, Dec. 22, 1978 Army ..................................................... INTERNAL DIRECTIVE - May 22, 1978 Navy ..................................................... FINAL - Design Manual, August, 1979 (Civil Works) Corps of Engineers .............................. FINAL - Federal Register, May 15, 1979 (Regulatory Programs) Corps of Engineers .............................. FINAL - Federal Register, July 19, 1977 Department of Energy ..................................... FINAL - Federal Register, March 7, 1979 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission .......................................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, August 23, 1979 Department of Health, Education and Welfare ................................................. PROPOSED - Federal Register, March 6, 1980 Education Division ................................... NONE Public Health Service .............................. NONE Department of Housing and Urban Development ............................................... PROPOSED Federal Register, Aug. 9, 1979 Community Planning and Development .... NONE Housing .................................................... NONE Neighborhood, Voluntary Associations and Consumer Protection ..................... NONE New Community Development Corporation .......................................... NONE Department of the Interior ............................... FINAL - Federal Register, June 20, 1979 Fish and Wildlife Service ......................... FINAL - Federal Register, Nov. 20, 1979 Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service ........................ ..... FINAL - Federal Register, June 2 1, 1979 154 Agency Status of Procedures National Park Service .............................. PROPOSED - Federal Register, March 14, 1980 (July, 1979)* Bureau of Land Management ................... FINAL - Federal Register, March 15, 1979 Water and Power Resource Service ........ FINAL - Federal Register, July 17, 1979 Bureau of Indian Affairs ............................ PROPOSED - Federal Register, Oct. 1, 1979* Office of Surface Mining ........................... NONE Bureau of Mines ....................................... NONE Geological Survey ................................... NONE Department of Justice ..................................... PROPOSED Federal Register, August 2, 1979 Bureau of Prisons .................................... NONE Law Enforcement Assistance Administration ...................................... NONE Immigration and Naturalization Service ................................................. NONE Department of Labor ....................................... INFORMAL DRAFT June 1979 Department of State (provided by) Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Aff airs ................................................... INFORMAL DRAFT September, 1978 Department of Transportation ......................... FINAL Federal Register, April 26, 1979 Federal Aviation Administration Federal Highway Administration FINAL Federal Register, Nov. 26, 1979 Federal Railroad Administration Urban Mass Transit Administration Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation .......................................... U.S. Coast Guard Department of Treasury .................................. FINAL Federal Register, May 24, 1978 Environmental Protection Agency ................... FINAL Federal Register,Jan. 5, 1979 Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards ....................... NONE Office of Drinking Water ........................... NONE (October 1979)* Office of Enforcement .............................. FINAL - Federal Register, June 7, 1979 Office of Environmental Review ................ PROPOSED - Federal Register, June 18, 1979 * Date agency committed itself to publish proposed or final rules in Federal Register according to its May 30 Progress Report. * A DOT Memorandum of October 1, 1979 points out that these subagency units have adopted the DOT-wide directive as their own. 155 Agency Status of Procedures Office of Solid Waste Management ......... State Plans .......................................... FINAL - Federal Register, July 31, 1979 Disposal Facilities ............................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, Feb. 6, 1978 (June 1979)* Hazardous Waste Permits .................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, Dec. 18, 1978 (December 1979)* Office of Water Planning and Standards ............................................. FINAL - Federal Register, May 23, 1979 Office of Water Program Operations ....... FINAL - Handbook, January 1979 Independent Agencies Advisory Council on Historic Preservation ......................................... NONE Action ...................................................... NONE Community Services Administration ......... NONE (July 1979)* Farm Credit Administration .......... NONE*** Federal Communication Commission ....... FINAL - Federal Register, Nov. 15, 1977 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation .......................................... NONE*** Federal Emergency Management Agency INTERIM - Federal Register, Dec. 27, 1979 Office of Plans and Preparedness ........ NONE Office of Disaster Response and Recovery .............................................. PROPOSED - Federal Register, June 13, Federal Insurance Administration ......... 1979 NONE Federal Home Loan Bank Board .............. NONE*** General Services Administration .............. FINAL - Federal Register, August 1, 1979 International Boundary Water Commission .......................................... FINAL - Federal Register, Dec. 29, 1978 National Aeronautics and Space Administration ...................................... FINAL - Federal Register, Jan. 4, 1979 National Capitol Planning Commission .... NONE National Credit Union Administration ....... NONE*** Nuclear Regulatory Commission ..................... PROPOSED - Federal Register, Oct. 6, 1978 Small Business Administration ........................ INTERIM - Federal Register, Oct. 28, 1978 Tennessee Valley Authority ............................ FINAL - Federal Register, August 3, 1979 U.S. Postal Service ......................................... FINAL - PS Bulletin, August 14, 1978 Date agency committed itself to publishing proposed rule in the Federal Register according to its May 30 Progress Report. The Office of Solid Waste Management will be reflecting the Order's requirements in the three sets of referenced procedures. In their May 30, 1979 progress reports, these agencies stated either that E.O. 11988 does not apply to their activities, or that by the nature of the activities they carry out, any effort that they might make to implement the Order would not achieve its intents. The National Credit Union Administration, however, noted that it is continuing its review of the applicability of the Order. 156 Agency Status of Procedures Veterans Administration .................................. FINAL Federal Register, Aug. 22, 1978 Water Resources Council ............................... NEPA Procedures .................................... Council of Members Approval - Nov. 13, 1979 Title I - Principles and Standards .......... Council of Members Approval - Nov. 13, 1979 - Floodplain Management Guidelines .......................... FINAL Federal Register, Feb. 10, 1978 Title 11 ....................................................... INFORMAL DRAFT Title III ...................................................... INTERNAL MEMO October iQ77 *The Water Resources Council is reflecting the Order's requirements in the referenced proce- dures. 157 tivated Lands, FAO Agricultural Develop- References ment Paper No. 81 (New York: FAO, 1965). 11, Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management, 12. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Charles Chapter I COASTAL UPLANDS- River, Massachusetts. 1. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: A 13. Albert R. Veri, William W. Jenna, Jr., and Technical Manual for the Conservation of Coast- Dorothy E. Bergamaschi, Environmental al Zone Resources (New York: John Wiley Quality by Design: South Florida (Coral Ga- & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, bles, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1977). 1975). 2. Robert V. Thomann, "The Delaware River: 14. Federal In5urance Administration, Elevated A 9fudy in Water Quality Management," Residential Structures, HUD-FIA-184 (Wash- in River, Ecology and Man, eds. Ray T. Og- ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Housing lesby, Clarence A. Carlson, and James A. and Urban Development, Federal Insur- McCann (New York: Academic Press, ance Administration, 1976). 1972), pp. 99-129. 15. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Guidelines 3. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. for Identifying Coastal High Hazard Zones 4. R. W. Schoner and S. Molansky, "Rainfall (Galveston, Texas: U.S. Army Corps of En- Associated with Hurricanes," National gineers, Galveston District, 1975). Hurricane Research Project, Report No. 3 16. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. (Washington, D.C.: Department of Com- 17. Ibid. merce, National Oceani c and Atmospheric 18. W. V. McGuinness, Jr., and R. Patchai, Administration, 1956). "Integrated Water Supply and Wastewater 5. Ibid. Disposal on Long Island," CEM-4103-456 6. Elizabeth N. Layne, The Natural Environ- (Hartford, Conn.: Center for the Environ- ment: A Dimension of Development (New ment and Man, Inc., 1972). York: National Audubon Society, 1976). 19. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. 7. Ibid. 20. U.S. Water Resources Council, Regulation Chapter 2 COASTAL FLOODLANDS- of Flood Hazard Areas, vol. 1, pts. 1-4 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Water Resources 1. Michael R. Pelton, Environmental Inventory Council, 1970); Meriel Hardin, "Massa- of Kiawah Island (Columbia, S.C.: Environ- chusetts Wetland Restriction Program," in mental Research Center, Inc., 1975). Proceedings of the National Welland Protection 2. W. T. Partington and W. R. Barada, "Flor- Symposium, sponsored by Office of Biolog- ida Hurricanes," ENFO News (Florida ical Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, Conservation Foundation, Winter Park, U.S. Department of the Interior (Wash- Fla.), July 1973. ington, D.C.: Government Printing Of- 3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Charles fice, 1978), pp. 77-84; Jon A. Kusler, River, Massachusetts (Boston: U.S. Army Strengthening State Welland Regulations, pre- Corps of Engineers, New England Divi- pared for Office of Biological Services, sion, 1971). Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Depart- 4. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: ment of the Interior (Washington, D.C.; A Technical Manual for the Conservation of Government Printing Office, 1978). Coastal Zone Resources (New York: John Wi- 21. David Godschalk, David Brower, Larry ley & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publica- McBennett, and Barbara Vestal, Constitu- tion, 1977). tional Issues of Growth Management (Chi- 5. Ibid. cago: American Society of Planning Of- 6. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal ficials, 1977). Water Pollution Control Administration, 22. Donald G. Hagmen and Dean J. Misczyn- Industrial Waste Guide on Logging Practices ski, Windfalls for Wipeouts (Chicago: Amer- (Portland, Ore.: U.S. Department of the ican Society of Planning Officials, 1978). Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control 23. Real Estate Research Corporation, The Administration, Northwest Region, 1970). Costs of Sprawl (Washington, D.C.: Council 7. Samuel M. Hamill, Jr., Environmental Profile on Environmental Quality, 1974). and Guidelines (Middletown Township, 24. Emily Jane Stover, ed., Protecting Nature's N.J.: Middletown Environmental Com- Estate (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department mission, 1974). of the Interior, Heritage Conservation 8. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. and Recreation Service, 1975); Mary Anne 9. Ibid. Guitar, Property Power (Garden City, N.Y.: 10. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Doubleday & Co., 1972). of the United Nations, Soil Erosion by 25. Federal Register, vol. 43, no. 29, pt. Vi, Water: Some Measures for Its Control on Cul- p. 6030 (February 10, 1978). 158 26. Federal Register, vol. 42, no. 138, pt. II, no. 4 (1962), pp. 614-624. p. 37122 (July 19, 1977). 4. University of North Carolina (Raleigh) 27. Office of Management and Budget, Catalog Sea Grant Program, Newsletter, July 1975. of Federal Domestic Assistance (Washington, 5. Barbara L. Welsh, University of Rhode Is- D.C.: Office of. Management and Budget). land, personal communication. 28. Charles Thurow, William Toner, and 6. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. Duncan Erley, Performance Controls for Sen- 7. Ibid. sitive Lands, Planning Advisory Service, 8. Ibid. report 307/308 (Chicago: American Soci- 9. Nino Spagna, paper presented at the Na- ety of Planning Officials, 1975). tional Barrier Islands Symposium spon- 29. U.S. Water Resources Council, Regulation sored by the Georgia Conservancy, De- of Flood Hazard Areas. cember 1977. 30. U.5. Army Corps of Engineers, Guidelines 10. U.S. Department of Transportation, Fed- for Identifying Coastal High Hazard Zones eral Highway Administration, Nassau Ex- (Galveston, Texas: U.S. Army Corps of En- pressway Draft Environmental Impact gineers, Galveston District, 1975). Statement Section 4 (f) Report & Design 31. Federal Register, vol. 42, no. 138, pt. 11, Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- p. 37122 (July 19, 1977). ment of Transportation, Federal Highway 32. Council on Environmental Quality, Guide- Administration, 1979). Report No.-FHWA- lines for the Preparation of Environmental Im- NY EIS 79 - 02D. pact Statements, 40CFR, pt. 1500 (Washing- 11. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. ton, D.C.: Council on Environmental 12. Ibid. Quality, 1978). 13. Ibid. 33. Federal Insurance Administration, Elevated 14. Larry Shanks, U.S. Department of the In- Residential Structures. terior, Fish and Wildlife Service, personal 34. Jon A. Kusler and Thomas M. Lee, Regu- communication. lations for Floodplains, Planning Advisory 15. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. Service, report 277 (Chicago: American 16. Ibid. Society of Planning Officials, 1972); Water 17. National Wetlands Technical Council, Sci- Resources Council, Regulation of Flood Haz- entists' Report (The National Symposium ard Areas. on Wetlands, Lake Buena Vista, Fla., No- 35. Federal Register, vol. 41, no. 207, pt. 11, vember 6-9, 1978), eds. John Clark and p. 46962 (October 26, 1976). Judith Clark (Washington, D.C.: National 36. Ibid. Wetlands Technical Council, 1979). 37. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Flood 18. Ibid. Plain Management Services, Engineer 19. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. Regulation 1165-2-303. 20. T. Savage, Florida Mangroves As Shoreline 38. Federal Register, vol. 43, no. 29, pt. VI, Stabilizers, professional paper series no. 19 p. 6030 (February 10, 1978). (St. Petersburg, Fla.: Florida Department 39. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Guidelines of Natural Resources, 1972). for Identifying Coastal High Hazard Zones. 21. Jon A. Kusler and Corbin Harwood, Wet- 40. Ibid. land Protection Guidebook for Local Govern- 41. U.S. Water Resources Council, Regulation ments (Washington, D.C.: Environmental of Flood Hazard Areas. Law Institute, 1977); Office of Biological 42. Maps available from U.S, Department of Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Proceedings of National Wetlands Inventory, Suite 217, the National Wetland Protection Symposium 9620 Executive Center Drive, St. Peters- (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing burg, Florida 33702. Office, 1978). 43. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 22. State of Florida, Draft Regulations for Big Environmental Monitoring and Support Cypress Critical Area (Talahassee, Fla.: State Lab., University of Nevada-Las Vegas, of Florida, Division of State Planning, Las Vegas, Nevada 89101. 1974); Charles Thurow, William Toner, and Duncan Erley, Performance Controls for Chapter 3 SALTWATER WETLANDS- Sensitive Lands, Planning Advisory Service, 1. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: report 307/308 (Chicago: American Soci- A Technical Manual for the Conservation of ety of Planning Officials, 1975). Coastal Zone Resources (New York; John Wi- 23. Kusler and Harwood, Welland Protection ley & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publica- Guidebook for Local Governments. tion, 1977). 24. Urban Land Institute, Developer's Handbook 2. Ibid. (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 3. J. M. Teal "Energy Flow of the Salt Marsh 1975). Ecosystem of Georgia," Ecology, vol. 43, 25. Kusler and Harwood, Welland Protection 159 Guidebook for Local Governments; David 2. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: Godschalk, David Brower, Larry McBen- A Technical Manual for the Conservation of nett, and Barbara Vestal, Constitutional Is- Coastal Zone Resources (New York: John Wi- sues of Growth Management (Chicago: Amer- ley & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publica- ican Society of Planning Officials, 1977). tion, 1977). 26. State of Florida, Draft Regulations for Big 3. D. Frankenberg, L.R. Pomeroy, L. Bahr, Cypress Critical Area. and J. Richardson, "Coastal Ecology and 27. Kusler and Harwood, Welland Protection Recreational Development," in The Georgia Guidebook for Local Governments. Coast: Issues and Options for Recreation, ed, 29. Real Estate Research Corporation, The C.D. Clement (Washington, D.C.: The Costs of Sprawl (Washington, D.C.: Council Conservation Foundation, 1971). on Environmental Quality, 1974). 4. Howard T. Lee, Executive Director, Texas 29. Godschalk, Brower, McBennett, and Ves- Coastal and Marine Council, personal tal, Constitutional Issues of Growth Manage- communication. ment. 5. James A. Purpura, "Establishment of a 30. Fred P. Bosselman, David L, Callies, and Coastal Setback Line in Florida," in Pro- John S. Banta, The Taking Issue (Washing- ceedings of Ocean '75 Conference, San Di- ton, D.C.: Council on Environmental ego, Cal., September 22-25, 1975 (Institute Quality, 1973). of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 31. Kusler and Harwood, Welland Protection New York, and The Marine Technolog- Guidebook for Local Governments. ical Society, Washington, D.C., 1975). 32. Ibid. 6. John S. Jagschitz and Robert C. Wake- 33. Code of Federal Regulation, Title 33, field, How to Build and Save Beaches and Chapter 11, 1978. Dunes: Preserving the Shoreline with Fencing 34. Federal Register, vol. 41, no. 206, pt. II, and Beachgrass (Kingston, R.I.: University p. 46724 (October 22, 1976). of Rhode Island, College of Resource De- velopment, 1971). Chapter 4 BANKS AND BLUFFS- 7. Robert Dolan and Patricia Dolan, "Beach- 1. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: A front Protection -III," in Coastal Ecosystem Technical Manual for the Conservation of Coast- Management: A Technical Manual for the Con- al Zone Resources (New York: John Wiley servation of Coastal Zone Resources, by John & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, Clark. 1977). 8. Peter Larson, "Artificial Dunes Holding 2. V. G. Bellis, M.P. O'Connor, and S. R. Their Own," Sanibel (Florida) Island Report- Riggs, Estuarine Shoreline Erosion in the Al- er, March 10, 1978. bemarle-Pamlico Sound Region of North Caro- 9. Charles Thurow, William Toner, and lina, publication no. UNC-SG-75-29 (Ra- Duncan Erley, Performance Controls for Sen- leigh, N.C.: University of North Carolina, sitive Lands, Planning Advisory Service Sea Grant Program, 1975). report 307/308 (Chicago: American Soci- 3. Clark 'Coastal Ecosystem Management. ety of Planning Officials, 1975). 4. John V. Bryne, Landslides of Oregon: North 10@ Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. Coast (Convalis, Ore.: U.S. Department of 11. Fred P. Bosselman, David L. Callies, and Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmos- John S. Banta, The Taking Issue (Washing- pheric Administration, Sea Grant Program, ton, D.C.: Council on Environmental Extension Service, Oregon State Universi- Quality, 1973). ty, 1973). 12. Roy Mann Associates, Inc., Sand Dunes and 5. Willard Bascom, Waves and Beaches (Garden Wetlands (Lansing, Mich.; State of Michi- City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1964). gan, Department of Natural Resources, 6. Bryne, Landslides of Oregon. Water Development Services Division, 7. State of Michigan, A Proposed Program for 1975). Michigan's Coast (Lansing, Mich.: State of 13. Texas Transportation Institute, Transporta- Michigan, Department of Natural Re- tion in the Texas Coastal Zone (Austin: State sources, Division of Land Resource Pro- of Texas, Office of the Governor, Divi- grams, 1977). sion of Planning and Coordination, 1973). 8. 33 U.S.C. Section 426e (1977). 9. 33 U.S.C. Section 426g, 701n (1977). Chapter 6 BEACHES- 1. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Chapter 5 DUNELANDS- Ocean Division, Hawaii Regional Inventory: 1. William M. Campbell and John M. Dean, The National Shoreline Study (Honolulu: U.S. Environmental Inventory of Kiawah Island, Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean prepared for Coastal Shores, Inc. (Colum- Division, 1973). bia, S.C.: Environmental Research Center, 2. S.D. Hectis, "On the Classification and Inc., 1975). Trends of Long-period Sea Level Series," 160 Shore and Beach, April 20, 1972. 15. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. 3. Whatcom County Planning Department, 16. Edward T. LaRoe, "Dredging- Ecological Whatcom County Shoreline Management Pro- Impacts," in Coastal Ecosystem Management; gram (Bellingham, Wash.: Whatcom County A Technical Manual for the Conservation of Planning Department, 1978). Coastal Zone Resources, by John Clark (New 4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Shore Protec- York: John Wiley & Sons A Wiley-Inter- tion Manual, Vols. 1-3 (Vicksburg, Miss.: science Publication, 1977). U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research 17. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. Center, 1973). 18. Edward T. LaRoe, Florida Coastal Zone 5. Albert R. Veri, William W. jenna, Jr., and Management Program, Tallahassee, Fla., Dorothy E. Bergamaschi, Environmental personal communication. Quality by Design: South Florida (Coral Ga- 19. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. bles, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1975). 20. Albert R. Veri, William W. Jenna, Jr., and 6. Willard Bascom, Waves and Beaches (Garden Dorothy E. Bergamaschi, Environmental City, N.Y: Anchor Books, 1964). Quality by Design: South Florida (Coral Ga- 7. National Science Foundation, "Managing bles, Fla.: University of Miami Press, Coastal Lands," Mosaic, vol. 4, no. 3 (1973). 1975). 8. Robert Dolan and Patricia Dolan, "Beach- 21. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management. front Protection -III," in Coastal Ecosystem 22. Long Island Regional Marine Resources Management: A Technical Manual for the Con- Council, "Navigation Channel Dredging servation of Coastal Zone Resources, by John and Spoil Disposal Guidelines, Appendix Clark (New York: John Wiley & Sons, A A," in Comprehensive Dredging Sub-plan for Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1977). Nassau and Suffolk Counties (Hauppauge, L.I., N.Y.: Long Island Regional Planning Chapter 7 COASTAL WATERS Board, 1979). AND BASINS - 23. William Q. Wick, "Estuaries under At- 1. John Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Management: tack," Water Spectrum (U.S. Army Corps A Technical Manual for the Conservation of of Engineers), vol. 5, no. 3 (1973), pp@ 12- Coastal Zone Resources (New York: John Wi- 18. ley & Sons, A Wiley-Interscience Publica- tion, 1977). 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Thomas Klock, ed., The Ocean's Reach: The Digest of a Workshop on Identifying Coastal Flood Hazard Areas and Associated Risk Zones (Boston: New England River Basins Com- mission, 1976). 7. Clark, Coastal Ecosystem Managment. 8. Ibid. 9. U.S. Department of Interior, The National Estuarine Pollution Study, U.S. Senate, 91st Congr., 2nd sess., Document No. 91-58 (1970). 10. John R. Clark and W. Brownell, Electric Power Plants in the Coastal Zone: Environmen- tal Issues, special publication no. 7 (High- lands, N.J.: American Littoral Society, 1973). 11. U.S. Department of Interior, The National Estuarine Pollution Study. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. John Clark and Charles Terrell, for the Conservation Foundation, Environmental Planning for Offshore Oil and Gas, Vol. 3: Effects Living Resources and Habitats, FWS OBS-77-14 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- partment of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, 1978). 161 DA, 4 00 3 6668 00000 8542