Symposium on coastal zone management, the University of West Florida

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

Property of cSC Library

No portion of this document may be reproduced without the
expressed permission of the individual authors

This document was financed through an Institutional Grant
under Title IX of the Higher Education Act, 1965

Printed at The University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida, 1977

The coastal areas have always been a source of sustenance
for the human community. They have provided food,
freedom of movement and aesthetic satisfaction as well as
ingress to the great land masses of the world. They have also
been a force of uncontrollable natural power which has
often devastated human settlements.
The magnitude of the mutual impact of the coastal zone
and the human community, while great in the past, is
increasing rapidly. Energy demands argue for more offshore
oil production. ,Populations require more food, recreation
and services as cities disgorge increasing amounts of
residential and industrial waste into the coastal areas. Never
before have so many overlapping, and often conflicting,
demands been placed on the coastal zones. Regularly the
complex and powerful forces of the sea and weather
demonstrate the dynamic nature of the coastal areas. Often
these forces are in direct conflict with human demands for
resources and stability.
The management of the coastal zones is becoming an
activity of great human concern. In a very real sense,
however, the management of the coastal zones is a reflection
of the human communities' ability to manage itself. The
effort on the part of the human community to meet the
challenge of management has varied both in form and
success. In the United States this effort has involved the
activities of' federal, state and local governments as well as
private interest and industry. Sometimes this effort has been
creative and effective; often it has been plagued by an
appalling lack of communications and planning.
It is our hope that this symposium has highlighted some
of the more difficult problems facing the management
process at various levels of government. We further hope
that by highlighting these problems we have encouraged the
development of creative and balanced management of the
coastal zone in the United States.

LUTHER W. SKELTON
Editor

program agenda ~~~VII

coastal resource Mainagmn"*.

biographical Information *....

Symposium on Coastal Zone Management
The University of West Florida

Sunday, August 8, 1976

9:00 - 11:00 Registration
Howard Johnson's Motor Lodge
14 Via DeLuna Drive
Pensacola Beach, FL 32561

12:00- 1:00 Lunch

Presentations and Discussions

1:00- 1:10 Introduction

1:10 - 1:40 William F. Tanner, Ph.D.
Dept. of Geology
Florida State University
Paper: "Our Mobile Coast."

1:45 - 2:15 Arthur J. Butt
Department of Environmental
Regulations
Paper: "Coastal Development Along
Estaurine Shorelines."

2:20 - 2:50 David R. Worley
Bureau of CZM Planning
State of Florida
Paper: "Remote Sensing Application
in Florida's CZM Program."

2:50 - 3:20 Panel Discussions
(Questions from the Floor)

3:20 - 3:40 Break

3:40 - 3:45 Introduction

xiii Program Agenda

3:45 -4:15 John G. Cowley
President, Florida Shore and Beach
Preservation Association, Inc.
Paper: "Beach Preservation and
Restoration."

4:20 - 4:50 Michael C. Applegate
Department of Environmental Regu-
lations
Paper: "The Management of Coastal
Wetlands: Perspective, Enforcement
of State Regulations Governing
Dredging and Filling of Wetlands."

4:55 - 5:25 George W. Allen
Corps of Engineers
CZM Liaison
Department of the Army
Paper: "The Role of the Army Corp
of Engineers in the Coastal Zone."

5:30 - 6:00 Panel Discussions
(Questions from Floor)

6:30 - 7:30 Social Hour

7:30 Dinner

Monday, August 9, 1976

7:00 - 8:00 Breakfast

Presentations and Discussions

9:00 - 9:10 Introduction

Program Agenda ix

9:10 - 9:40 Patrick W. Ryan
Director
Louisiana State Planning Office
Paper: "Louisiana Coastal Zone
Management Program Development."

9:45 - 10:15 Daniel Penton
Bureau of CZM Planning
State of Florida
Paper: "Coastal Zone Planning."

10:20- 10:15 John Hall
Area Supervisor
National Marine Fisheries Service
Paper: "An Application of Coastal Re-
source Management and Conser-
vation."

11:00 - 12:00 Panel Discussions
(Questions from Floor)

12:00 - 1:30 Buffet Luncheon

Presentations and Discussions

1:30 - 1:35 Introduction

1:35 - 2:05 Sneed Collard, Ph.D
Department of Biology
University of West Florida
Paper: "The Surface Fauna of the
Outer Continental Shelf of the Eastern
Gulf of Mexico and its relationship to
oil production."

2:10 - 2:40 Luther W. Skelton, Ph.D.
Coordinator, CZM Program

x Prograin Agenda

University of West Florida
Paper: "A Range of Policy Strategies
for Offshore Oil."

2:45 - 3:15 Jerry D. Ham, Ph.D.
Assistant Director
Oil and Gas
ERDA's Fossil Energy Program
Paper: "Energy Research and Devel-
opment Administration's perspective
on Outer Continental Shelf Develop-
ment."

3:30 - 4:00 Panel Discussions
(Questions from Floor)

4:00 - 4:30 General Discussion

4:30 - 5:30 Light Dinner

ifl NdIC

The symposium was divided into four very general Dr. Jerry D. Ham, began this section. Dr. Ham is Assistant
discussion topics and there were three presentations in each Director for Oil and Gas in ERDA's Fossil Energy Program.
group. In most cases, the presentations were formally Following Dr. Ham's discussion was a presentation by Dr.
prepared papers. Following each group of presentations was Sneed Collard of the Faculty of Biology at the University of
an open discussion during which the entire symposium was West Florida. Dr. Collard discussed- some of the problems
invited to participate. associated with offshore oil production. The last
The first group of presentations focused on aspects of presentation in this section was presented by Dr. Luther
coastal mobility and management. We were fortunate to Skelton who is the Coordinator of the Coastal Zone
have had Dr. William F. Tanner of the Department of Management Program at the University of West Florida.
Geology at Florida State University lead off our program Dr. Skelton discussed policy strategies for offshore oil.
with his presentation on beach mobility. Arthur J. Butt of We have attempted to reproduce the discussions which
the Florida Department of Environmental Regulations follow each of these sections as accurately as possible. In
elaborated the topic in excellent detail and David Worley of some cases, it has been necessary to shorten and /or clarify
the Florida State Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning some of the discussion, but in all cases we have tried to
described some of the complex techniques which are used to protect the essential meaning.
evaluate and plan coastal zone activity. Finally, a word must be said concerning the selection of
The second group of presentations dealt with the symposium participants. Every attempt was made to secure
administration in the coastal zone. John G. Cowley, head of the participation of both practicing administrators and
the Santa Rosa Island Authority, began this section. Mr. academicians. We feel that the communication linkages
Cowley represented the position of the Florida Shore and developed out of their dual participation has been of great
Beach Preservation Association in his presentation. He was value and should be encouraged, where appropriate and
followed by George W. Allen of the U. S. Army Corps of possible, in other major discussions of natural resource and
Engineers who discussed the Corps' role in Coastal Zone environmental policy.
Management. Mike Applegate of the Florida Department of
Environmental Regulations represented aspects of State-
level administration.
The third section of the program centered on planning
and was introduced by Patrick W. Ryan, Director of the
Louisiana State Planning Office. Mr. Ryan discussed the
development of the Coastal Zone Planning effort in
Louisiana. He was followed by Daniel Penton from the
Florida Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning who discussed
Coastal Zone Planning in Florida. John Hall, Area
Supervisor of the National Fisheries Service completed this
section with a discussion of coastal resource management
and conservation.
The final section of the symposium was devoted to
Coastal Resource Management, particularly offshore oil.

Coastal mobility refers to the actual motion of the coast
itself. The first group of papers and the ensuing discussion
considers this mobility and its effects upon the environment,
coastal development planning and management.
Dr. Tanner, in the first presentation describes very clearly
some geological reasons for coastal mobility. He
concentrates on beach mobility and outlines a range of
management options for beach erosion. Neither the
management options nor the process itself can reasonably be
ignored by the responsible planner.
Arthur Butt concentrates on the estuarine shoreline, that
area along a coast where the mutual effects of river currents
and tides are most pronounced. Mr. Butt defines clearly a
very difficult value conflict between coastal development
interests and commercial fishing interests with regard to the
estuarines. He discusses this conflict with regard to
Escamnbia Bay.
David Worley discusses the use of remnote sensing in
Coastal Zone Planning. He outlines how this technology has
been instrumental in forming the base line data for the
Coastal Zone Plan in Florida and how it has been used as an
environmental sensor. Of importance in this regard has been
the application of color water-penetration imagery to aid in
analysing adversely affected health of coral in the
environmentally critical coral reefs.
The discussion surrounding this section of the symposium
focused on beach erosion, which perhaps indicates how
important this issue is to economic and environmental
interests alike. Much concern was expressed over the
techniques available for mitigating or reversing erosion and
the long range effects of these techniques. Of particular
interest seemed the discussion of the replacement of sand on
beaches which have eroded. This process occurs naturally as
a result of unrestricted river flow but is interrupted as a
result of damming because sand which would ordinarily
replenish eroded beaches is trapped in inland reservoirs.

Coastal Mohilit v 3

William F. Tanner
Geology Department, Florida State University

"Our Mobile Coast"

Introduction relatively small and slow, and should not provide for
profound changes in sea level within the life time of any one
The coastline is not a fixed line; in most places, it moves individual.
in a complicated fashion. For the last few decades this Much more important than sedimentation and tectonics is
movement has been visible as coastal erosion. During times the growth and melting of the great ice sheets which have
of severe storms, such as hurricanes, this movement can be characterized the surface of the planet for the last few
spectacular. millions of years. Two of these ice caps still exist today: one
However, coastal erosion is not the only process at work. in Antarctica, and the other in Greenland. Two more, which
There are three main groups of processes which provide that were fully developed as recently as 20,000 years ago, were
the coastline will not be fixed in space and time. Coastal located in North America and Europe. The European and
zone management must be predicated on at least a general Canadian ice sheets have now melted, but it is quite likely
understanding of these processes, and how they affect the that they will return again, in view of the fact that the most
shore. recent melting was only one event in a long sequence.
The three groups of processes are (1) sea level changes, (2) The total fluctuation of sea level, in response to changes
land level changes (uplift and depression), and (3) coastal in the ice cover, has been roughly 200 meters, up and down.
erosion and deposition. That is, if the two remaining ice caps were to melt, sea level
would rise by roughly 70 meters (about 220 feet), and if the
other two ice caps were to return, sea level would drop by
Sea Level Changes approximately 130 meters (about 400 feet). The second
possibility (sea level drop) is much more likely than the first
The surface of the world -- although certainly not "level" (sea level rise): the two existing ice caps have not melted for
in the popular sense -- tends to maintain a constant surface the last few millions of years, but the other two ice sheets
shape. This shape is a reflection, among other things, of the melt and then grow again at much more frequent intervals.
shape of the basin which holds the ocean waters. Sediment The last big melting started a little after 20,000 years ago,
delivered to that basin, such as the material carried by the and was more-or-less complete at about 5,000 or perhaps
Mississippi River, has the long-term effect of reducing the 6,000 years ago. During this part of earth history,
volume within the basin, and therefore of raising sea level. tremendous quantities of meltwater poured into the oceans,
This effect, by itself, is extremely important geologically, raising MSL* roughly 130 meters in a little more than 13,000
but operates at such a slow rate that any one person would years. This is an average rise of one centimeter per year.
not see any alteration of the shore line in his life time. Such a rise would mean a horizontal movement of the
Tectonic movements within the solid earth, such as those shoreline of 2.29 m/year, on a slope of 0�15', or a
responsible for mountain-making, also reshape the ocean horizontal movement of 4.58 m/yr, on a slope of o 7.5',
basin, from time to time, thereby modifying its volume and which are rather common slope values. It is likely, however,
hence the position of sea level. The magnitude and rate of that at times the rise of MSL was even faster, but the
this process are not known very well, but apparently are maximum value is not known.

*Mean Sea Level

4 Coastal Mobility

For the last 5,000 years, MSL has been almost stable, with Every uplift of this kind must be countered by a down-
fluctuations of two to four meters. These fluctuations were warp of some kind, some where -- perhaps under the ocean
in the larger part of the range during the first half of the surface, thereby changing the shape of the ocean basin, and
interval, and have been smaller in the second half. During hence changing sea level. If the land movement is upward,
the first half of the present century, MSL rose a small the compensating movement must be downward, and if the
amount, but that rise appears to have stopped. It would not latter occurs in the ocean, sea level will drop a small
be economically wise, with present knowledge, to base our amount.
plans on the possibility of future large changes in MSL, Not all vertical motions of the continents are upward,
although such changes are certainly in store for us, perhaps however. Some are downward, perhaps compensating for
centuries or even millenia in the future. uplift elsewhere. The Mississippi River delta plain is located
As sea level rises, and large water masses are placed on the in an area of subsidence. At the moment, this downward
edges of the continents, increased weights are added to adjustment appears to be due to the compaction of the
continental rocks. The latter adjust downward under this tremendous volume of river sediment which has been
weight, and the result is another change in the shape of the deposited there, but land movements must also be
ocean basin. Changes in this category may account for one considered, perhaps in the form of uplift in the headwaters
or more of the fluctations of MSL during the most recent of the Mississippi system, thereby providing for greater
5,000 years. erosion, and hence more sediment to be dumped into the
Gulf of Mexico.
The combination of downward adjustment due to
loading, and downward adjustment due to compaction of
Land Level Changes sediments, produces the result that the shoreline in eastern
Louisiana is now migrating landward. This migration is
The rock masses which make up our continents are, quite obvious in the Chandeleur Islands, where no one lives,
geologically, constantly moving. Such movements may be less obvious in the delta country proper. Not only is the
very rapid, by geological standards (perhaps 5 or more shoreline moving landward, but land areas behind the shore
centimeters per year), or very slow. By human standards, are sinking, which should be of considerable importance to
uplift and depression are relatively slow. Such movements the planner, especially in areas such as New Orleans.
of the rock basement may be spectacular at times of major Outside of the Mississippi River delta plain, most of the
earthquakes, when displacements of a meter or more may be eastern half of the United States is, by-and-large, stable.
observed in a few seconds. Japan, the Andes Mountains of There are relatively small up and down movements here and
South American, and the West Coast of North America there, but they are typically only a fraction of a millimeter
have been subjected to such movements for a long time, per year (at present), and hence should not be made the basis
mostly upward. Therefore it is not surprising that old for short-range planning.
shorelines can be identified, in these areas, hundreds of Geological history is filled with examples of changes in
meters above present MSL. As in the case of water level rise rates, and it is certainly conceivable that vertical movements
due to melting of ice, a rise of one centimeter in one year, on in the eastern United States will be faster at some future
a slope of 1/8 of a degree, means a horizontal translation of date; there is now no rational basis for making any such
the shoreline -- seaward -- by more than 4 meters. predictions.

Coastal Mobility 5

Erosion and Deposition belt, which runs primarily in one direction. Because we see
only the sand, and one grain looks pretty much like any
other grain, we do not ordinarily note that the conveyor belt
is moving. But moving it is, and the effects can be
The changes reviewed up to this point are erratic and, in catastrophic.
the eastern part of the United States, generally small at It must be kept in mind that this particular conveyor belt -
present (exception: Louisiana). Erosion of our beaches is along sandy shores -- never runs empty. This means that, as
quite a different matter. the system continues to operate, at least one of two actions
Erosion and deposition are the two end effects for a single will be required: either new sand is dumped onto the
process: sediment transportation. Where a sand beach is conveyor belt, in the source area, or sand will be obtained
marked by breaking waves sufficiently large to be of interest from the beach itself, to keep the belt fully loaded. When
to tourists, one can be sure that the sand is geologically in the latter happens, we say that the beach is eroding.
motion. That is, the grains of sand which make up the beach Somewhere there must be a deposit, where the conveyor
in front of a given motel today are not the same grains of belt track ends. At first glance it would appear that the
sand which were present in the same area 25 years earlier. amount eroded, along one part of the belt, will equal the
Only if there are no breaking waves can one be reasonably amount deposited along another part. However, we must
sure that the sand is not in motion. "Zero energy" coasts now recognize that onshore and offshore motions, at least at
are known, but they don't make popular tourist resorts. the present, represent losses to the system, and therefore
Along most moving beaches, the motion is predominantly that we can have serious erosion without compensating
in one direction, although there may be excursions in other growth of land elsewhere.
directions from time to time. It is common for beach sand to This seems to be the situation today, throughout most of
move the length of the beach (in one direction or the other), the world. Perhaps 70-80%o of our coast is eroding, and part
but transportation also occurs in the landward and/or of the rest is stable. Only a small fraction is aggrading. Most
seaward directions. of the sand, lost by erosion, is carried into deeper water,
The quantity of sand moved, and the rate at which it from which it is not being returned.
moves, depend on the wave climate: wave height, wave
period and wave approach direction. Small waves which
approach head-on, or nearly so, move relatively little sand.
Large waves, which approach at an angle, move a great deal Erosion Rates
of sand.
In the Mississippi-Alabama-Florida region, small waves
approaching from the south provide for only small The preponderance of coastal erosion, over coastal
transport quantities and rates. Very large waves, growth, is our present "crisis of beach erosion." Where
approaching from the southeast, on the other hand, can do vertical movements of the land are rapid, this erosion may
a tremendous amount of damage; this was the pattern be offset, or perhaps -- as in Louisiana -- it will be
during Hurrican Camille. compounded. In more-or-less stable area, however, beaches
Excluding onshore and offshore transport for the generally are retreating. The beach at Cape San Blas, on St.
moment, the beach can be though of as a giant conveyor Joseph Peninsula, has been retreating at an average rate of

6 Coastal Mobility

11.2 m per year since about 1875. This is more than one erosion. It is, indeed, the culprit in some cases, but cannot
kilometer since the Civil War. The Cape San Blas lighthouse be responsible for the pronounced recent erosion of the
has had six different locations or potential locations, and at shores of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in southern Brazil,
least two of these locations are now out in the Gulf of for example, where the most permanent structure has been a
Mexico (one of the six was an error in judgment, which was grass hut.
rectified before construction was completed). The erosion Sea level rise is also widely blamed for beach erosion, or
rate from 1770 to 1870 was, apparently, about the same, and at least for coastal retreat. At times of marked rapid MSL
perhaps a bit faster. This is not a record rate, but may well rise, there must be retreat of the shoreline. However, MSI. is
be the fastest in the Florida Panhandle. essentially stable now, and has been for a few centuries, and
At other places in the Panhandle, erosion rates vary from hence cannot be responsible for the present beach erosion
"very small" (e.g., undetectable) to values greater than 1.0 crisis.
m per year. Depression of the land surface may lead to beach retreat,
In one study of 135 km of open Gulf beaches in the as in Louisiana today, but cannot explain beach erosion in
Florida Panhandle, 34% of the total was judged to be more- essentially stable areas.
or-less stable (erosion not more than 20 cm/yr), and 14% A change in the wave climate, from lower energy levels to
was aggrading. Outside of the so-called stable areas, the higher, may cause increased beach erosion, but at the
ratio between eroding and aggrading beaches was roughly 4- moment we do not have enough data to state whether or not
to-l (km vs km). The deposition, however, took place in we now live in a time of more energetic waves, and we are
restricted localities, and generally did not involve seaward certainly not able to predict such changes for the next 20 to
growth of the beach, but rather lengthening of spits and 30 years.
points. The maturing of the sand-transport system may also be
Rates of erosion and deposition do not hold constant with responsible for increased beach erosion. In this concept,
time. Studies in three different areas, controlled by carbon- erosion is something of a symptom of "beach senility." A
14 dates, show that deposition rates peaked more than 500 more precise statement of this idea is founded on physical
years ago, and that erosion has been replacing deposition reasoning, as well as observation, but the "aging" analogy
subsequently. The shift from deposition to erosion has not is adequate here. If this concept is correct, we can say that,
been synchronous from place to place. In one study area in general, coastal erosion is going to grow more severe --
(Pacific coast of Mexico), the deposition rate has been barring another major change in MSL.
declining for more than 1,000 years; projections indicate
that the shift to erosion will take place at some time perhaps
100 years into the future.
The "a-b-c " Model

(Causes c/f Erosion In this construct, the shoreline is divided into cells, or
compartments, each of which is thought to act more-or-less
independently of its neighbors. Wide inlets, river mouths,
Human activity is widely held to be responsible for beach and major capes, among other features, commonly separate

Coastal Mobility 7

adjacent cells. but is hardly the basis for sound planning.
Within any one cell, five critical points can be identified, Another approach, very close to the first, is to
designated "a" through "e." The point "a" is the drift acknowledge the problem, but to classify beach damage as
divide, such as on a cape, which separates two cells. Erosion an "act of God" and therefore simply one of the risks which
occurs throughout the "a" to "c" segment, with a people must run.
maximum value at "b." All of the material eroded in the A third approach is to attempt to eliminate, or at least
:'a-b-c" segment passes the "c" point, except for sediment greatly reduce, the incident wave energy, thereby cutting the
lost to the system (such as by being transported offshore). erosion problem down to manageable size. This may not be
Deposition marks the "c-d-e" segment, with maximum desirable from a tourist point of view (most tourists are not
deposition at the point "d." The end of the cell is located at interested in wave-less beaches), but in any event is
"e" which is probably also the end of the adjacent cell; this 'financially out of reach.
dividing line commonly is found near bay heads. A fourth approach is to try to stop the transport of sand,
The amount of erosion in the "a-b-c" segment should usually by building a set of structures known as groynes.
balance the amount of deposition in the "c-d-e" segment, These may be temporarily successful, but generally create
except where there are losses and gains to the system (mostly even worse problems along some other part of the beach.
losses, today). It is not always possible to get records A fifth procedure is to surrender the beach entirely, and
suitable for confirming the balance, but fortunately in many to try to defend the adjacent city or town by building a sea
instances depositional features in the "c-d-e" segment wall. This has been the recourse in various places, such as
permit the investigator to make a statement about that Atlantic City, N.J., Jacksonville Beach, Fla., and
balance. In general, such areas have passed from "excess of Galveston, Texas. It is expensive, and it has the obvious
deposition" to "excess of erosion." That is, the "c" point disadvantage of permanently degrading the esthetic value of
has been shifting farther from "a" and toward "e." the coast.
Although the "a-b-c..." model cannot be applied to all A sixth method is to nourish the beach artificially. This
coasts, it is extremely useful in many areas, particularly requires dredging of suitable sand from some location where
where barrier islands are present. By use of the model, based the dredging will not in itself be injurious, a point which has
on a few historical data, one can project future erosion and been missed in some previous studies. The volumes of sand
deposition sites, and even make reasonable estimates as to needed are very large, commonly tens or hundreds of
rates. thousands of cubic meters, per year, for a few kilometers of
beach. At present prices, this might mean as much as
$1,000,000 per year for one strip of beach. Furthermore, in
Erosion Defense certain areas, adequate volumes of sand are not available
within economic transport distance. Nevertheless, this is
probably the most widely-favored method at the moment,
There are several different ways of approaching the beach especially by those who don't have to pay for it.
erosion problem. One is to ignore it, unaware that beach A seventh approach is to provide a buffer zone, located
erosion is actually taking place, and considering the seaward of all construction, where the sand is considered to
occasional destructive hurricane as an unusual event that be expendable. If this zone is sufficiently wide, storm
probably won't be repeated. This is the prevalent attitude, activity can be absorbed without appreciable damage to the

8 Coastal Mobility

adjacent structures. The mechanism for establishing such a
buffer zone is known as a "coastal set-back law." In theory
it is a perfect solution, because the buffer zone can be made
very wide (100 meters or more), and further it can be shifted
landward from time to time, so that it never gets
dangerously narrow. In practice, few legislatures or
regulatory bodies wish to provide a meaningful width to the
zone, because of the unpleasant choice which they then must
face: either pay for the expensive land involved, or
undertake to confiscate it without payment.
From one point of view, actual confiscation is not
necessary; but if the land owner, who holds a water-front lot
70 meters deep, is told that no buildings may be erected
within 100 meters of the beach, the result is, for all practical
purposes, the same as confiscation.
It can be seen that none of the solutions are really
attractive. All of them are expensive, either in terms of
immediate monetary outlay, or in some other way.
Nevertheless, along eroding coasts, erosion is -- with the
present wave regime -- inexorable. Planners should be fully
aware of this process, and should be doing everything they
can to make the socio-economic impact as light as possible.

Coastal Mobility 9

ArthurJ. Butt
(and Michael Applegate)
Department of Environmental Regulation

Coastal Development
Along Estuarine Shorelines

There are an estimated 17,000 to 20,000 miles of cordgrass and black needlerush marshes. These shore types
estuarine* shorelines along the Gulf Coast of the United may suffer beach losses in excess of 20 feet per year;
States. In Florida alone, there are over 8,000 miles of tidal however, greater losses can occur as a result of a single
coastlines, more than any other of the 48 contiguous states hurricane. Hurrican Eloise of last September resulted in a
(Collier, 1975). In recent years, the monetary value of loss of 360,000 to 400,000 cubic yards of low, bluff lined
Florida's shorelines has increased rapidly and continues to sand along only a few miles of protected beach. Average
do so as a consequence of population increases of 5,000 shore erosion, however, is approximately two to three feet
people a day. As a result, various special interest groups are each year.
competing for the right to develop or otherwise use the The inland sheltered shorelines are of three general types;
dwindling stretches of undeveloped shore to accommodate one-five foot sandy banks, grass marshes bermed as
this growth. Aside from the ecocatastrophies caused by Soil described above, or open marshes. The latter constitutes the
Conservation guttering of all of the meandering streams that major type. Erosion occurs in these areas, however, it is
are too little for the larger regulatory agencies to bother limited to moderate losses of two-three feet per year, and
with, the DOT** has an allegiance to rectalinear surveying; usually along exposed shorelines only.
the private land developers and non-developers have cut up It should not be understood that shoreline erosion is a rule
coastlines and swamps on paper to sell to starry-eyed private rather than an exception. Where existing shorelines are
investors who hope to win a piece of Paradise by speculating subject to erosion or are otherwise unsuitable in their
in land. The purpose of this talk is to present the mystique existing conditions, the shore has been stabilized by
and demise misfortunes of waterfront development along construction of seawalls, or bulkheads. As the value of
the Gulf Coast, and the impact such development has upon waterfront land increases, the protection of the shoreline
our natural resources. It is hoped that some light may be becomes proportionately more important.
shed upon the status of presently undeveloped shorelines Presently, the bulkhead line for the state is the mean high
before they succumb to the rigid and unnatural contours of water line, except when land loss is excessive and involves
subdivision plots. "artificially induced erosion" over a short period of time.
There are two general shoreline types along the estuarine In such cases, shore reclamation can be accomplished. This
systems of the northern Gulf Coast; open and exposed type of shore protection, however, is often exploited by
beaches characterized by shallow sand flats and inland waterfront property owners in order to "improve" their
sheltered estuaries characterized by vegetated shorelines. property by filling a marsh or expand their real estate
The former shorelines are normally located along open bays seaward. As a result, extensive wetlands have been
and sounds and respond strongly to the forces of wind, destroyed or rendered less productive.
waves, currents and tides. Shore types in the areas Another major objective of coastal zone construction is to
correspond to: sand and clay banks, typically one-five feet check or impede existing erosion conditions. These shore
or higher, scarps in excess of five feet, or sandy berm fringes protections typically protect only the land directly behind
overlying peat soil along low flat uplands or lower smooth them and represent a hidden cost burden to the owner, for it

*A water passage where the tide meets a river current.
**DOT--Department of Transportation

10 Coastal Mobility

may cost as much as $1,000 to protect just 50 feet of It is estimated that 90 percent of the total harvest of
waterfront. If the seawall is not built properly with seafood comes from continental shelf fisheries, and two-
wingwalls and other protective features (e.g. rip-rap, tie thirds of the species involved depend on estuaries for their
backs, dead men, back fill, etc.) the structure may last only existence. This value is even higher in the Gulf of Mexico for
a short time, resulting in financial loss. To shortcut ever the standing crop of zooplankton (a primary constituant of
increasing prices, about one-third of the walls are the food chain) and is second only to that of Peru (Austin
improperly built and last from only six months to three and Jones, 1974). Ninety percent of the commercial catch in
years. Usually, such structures aggravate the erosion the Gulf is made up of fish and shellfish which spend some
problem along natural or "unprotected" beaches. Once one part of their life in these estuarine waters (Thompson, 1967;
protective measure has been taken to stabilize the lot, it Gunter, 1967).
neccessitates continued shore protection measures in a The chief fisheries of the Gulf are: menhaden, mullet,
domino effect until the whole shoreline has to be flounder, croaker, seatrout, oysters, blue crabs, stone crabs,
bulkheaded. The exposed sand-clay banks supply the bulk and shrimp. Shrimp are the most important species landed
of sand for the stretches of beach within the estuaries. As along the coast. Most of these animals enter the lower
more of the beaches are bulkheaded, more and more of the salinity nursery grounds to develop and escape predation
source material for sand beaches is cut off resulting in the from more salinity-tolerant predators.
loss of the water-upland interfact--the intertidal zone. As a The State has recognized the importance of these waters
result, property owners lose that magical stretch of white as necessary to maintain a balanced system for the
beach they invested in, experience unexpected hidden costs continued propagation and management of fish and
of continual wall maintenance, and the public loses that wildlife. Florida has established water classification types
shoreline guaranteed to them under the state constitution. ranging from public water supplies (Class I) to waters used
Barrier islands characterize much of the southern Atlantic for utility and industrial usage (Class V). This classification,
and Gulf state shorelines. Along Florida and most of the however, has failed to stop continued degradation of our
other Gulf states these islands are typically long, thin stips coastal waters. For example, Class II waters for shellfish
of white beaches that separate river waters from open harvesting are degrading to Class III waters (recreational
oceanic waters. This mixing zone is one of the most and resource management) and these to Class IV for
productive areas in the aquatic environment. Tidal marshes agricultural and industrial supply. Escambia Bay is a good
fringe much of the coasts, and submerged vegetation example to study. Industrialization and growth have
blankets much of the clear, shallow-water bottoms. resulted in the destruction of one of the most significant
Southern Florida has dense mangrove swamps with the estuaries along the northern Gulf states. All of the 1500
more northern coastlines consisting of black rush and acres of submerged grasses that once supported well-
smooth cordgrass marshes. The submerged vegetation balanced fisheries have been destroyed (McNulty, et al
consists primarily of turtle grass, widgeon grass and cuban 1972). The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission
schoalweed in higher salinity waters, and tape grass in freshr iin 1970 estimated a decrease in fishing value in the bay of 80
schoalweed in higher salinity waters, and tape grass in percent since 1952. Over the past six years, the bay has
fresher waters. Such grasses thrive in clear waters as found suffered mass mortalities of fish and shellfish and now the
in the sounds, bays, and bayous behind the protective production of shrimp and oysters is almost zero as
barrier islands. compared to production in the 1950's. Escambia Bay is not

Coastal Mobility 11I

atypical in its growth; on the contrary, it represents a conditions. The systems must be maintenance-dredged at
general pattern that is occurring all along the Gulf Coast, increased expense. As local water conditions deteriorate,
particularly, in the now productive estuaries of Mississippi, channelization across islands is thought to help flush the
Louisiana, and Texas. bays and sounds. When dug, such canals result in higher
Relative to the United States, Florida's commercial salinities and greater saltwater intrusions. Between
marine landings in 1972 ranked seventh among the same freshwater runoff and increased salinity introduction, the
over the past 20 years; however, the average price is twice estuarine system must now cope with rapid fluctuating
the average U. S. PRICE (Prochaska, 1976). Pensacola stresses establishing conditions for "anastrophes" or mass
fishermen must now travel to Louisiana or as far as Yucatan mortalities of aquatic life. Stresses that were once seasonal
to catch much of the tonnage that they once collected in these are maintained year round. Continued stressful conditions
bays. tend to lower an animal's resistance to diseases. This is
The inshore bays and bayous have become developed or typified by the presence of "fin rot" on fishes associated
are rapidly undergoing present modifications, as discussed with polluted waters and an increased incidence of
above. As a result, aquatic production in many of these parasitism.
areas has declined. Many of the largest remaining nursery We now have laws to prevent the destruction of entire
grounds are now located in the lower bayous and sound estaurine systems, and our presentation was not intended to
waters just inside barrier islands. As land increases in value, be a preservationists'plea. We note in closing, however, that
new and viable real estate resources are being sought for the the laws are effective only when they are enforced without
ever growing population. The barrier islands with their consideration for special interest groups. To date, this has
white beaches, clear and quiet sounds, and close proximity not been the case.
to Gulf waters makes them very attractive to development.
As development encroaches along the coastal plains and
wetlands, upland clearing and drainage of lowlands occurs
to facilitate development of otherwise "useless" land. The Conclusions and Recommendations:
result is a lower water table and increased runoff into the
estuarine systems. As exemplified in Santa Rosa Sound,
there has been a general lowering of the salinity followed by Water-front property can be expected to experience
a general reduction in water quality. We are destroying what continued development. Detailed shoreline analyses for each
we moved here to enjoy. coastal county should be made. Vegetated fringes, sandy
With the development of coastal areas and specifically berms, swamp forests, resistant clay bluffs and peat
barrier islands, people look for ways to improve their marshlands all function as natural barriers to shoreline
original designs. To facilitate the fast growing sport of deep erosion. Such areas should be designated areas of
sea fishing, new and quicker means of access to and environmental concern. Most of these areas are well within
channelization across barrier islands allows quicker access flood-prone areas or transitional zones, and developmental
to deeper waters. reviews by both state and federal agencies should be
What do such activities change in an aquatic critical. In areas where shoreline protection or natural
environment? Dead-end canals typically result in stagnant erosion barriers prove unsuccessful or are unfeasible due to
or slow circulating pools, resulting in poorer water ecological or economic conditions, setback regulations may.

12 Coastal Mobility

provide the only solution. Such setbacks are generally
unpopular due to the obvious reasons of condemnation or
''grandfather"' rulings. The alternative is unacceptable
ecological, economic and visual chaos, as each property
owner does ai he pleases without regard to the effect it may
have on adjacent or downshore property. Natural beach
segments must be planned as units rather than as individual
disasters. In areas where shoreline protection measures are
essential, building codes should be established to maximize
the efficiency and longevity of protective structures and to
prevent the present exploitation of unknowing property
owners.
As long as there is coastal development in and near
wetlands, there will be local degradation of water
conditions. Therefore, certain precautions can be made to
minimize the impact and allow the aquatic environment
more time to adjust. "Green belts" should be implemented
to reduce sedimentation along natural drainage patterns or
newly constructed ditches. More productive waters with
submerged grasses need to be classified as areas of
environmental significance. Not only are these nursery
grounds sources for today's resources, but they must also
serve as such for our children, and theirs. The state needs to
reevaluate the water classification as presented in Chapter
17-3 FAGC. Reclassification of water bodies will help assess
statewide water changes. Our nursery grounds are rapidly
dwindling with the advancing forces of man's alterations.
Soon, we will have to make a decision: surrender our
fisheries to ultimate shore development, or preserve that
which remains in hopes of maintaining our natural
resources. The latter is our constitutional right in Florida
and surely is in the public interest.

Coastal Mobility 13

DavidR. Worley
Technical Services Administ ration
Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning
State of Florida

Remote Sensing Application As Utilized
In Florida's Coastal Zone Management Program

Introduction decided to use physical characteristics selected on the basis
of terrestrial areas influencing the adjacent waters in
The Florida Coastal Coordinating Council (FCCC)* was combination with boundaries of selected Census
established by the Florida Legislature in 1970 (Florida Enumeration Districts. Physical characteristics involve
Statutes 370.021 1) to carry out the following primary defining an area by such factors as drainage basins, coastal
charges: swamps and coastal marshes, selected fresh-water swamps
and marshes, flood zones, etc. Defined in this way,
(1) To, "... develop a comprehensive state plan for the Florida's coastal zone has an inland boundary varying from
protection, development and zoning of the coastal zone, two to twenty-five miles from the coastline, with the
making maximum use of any federal funding for this seaward boundary being the limit of Florida's territorial sea.
purpose. " Within this coastal zone, the Council staff has proposed a
(2) To, ..... conduct, direct, encourage, coordinate, and state zoning system for land and water areas which
organize a continuous program of research into recognizes three basis categories of management areas:
problems relating to the coastal zone." Preservation (no further development)
(3) To, ..... review upon request, all plans and activities Conservation (limited development permitted)
pertinent to the coastal zone and to provide Development (suitable for intensive development)
coordination in these activities among the various Preservation areas would protect ecologic units of
levels of government and areas of the state." sensitive flora and fauna as well as areas of dunes, marshes,
(4) To, .".... provide a clearing service for coastal zone swamps. Conservation areas would include those lands with
matters by collecting, processing and disseminating soils and topography suitable (or suitable with minor
pertinent information relating thereto." corrections) for intensive development.
Areas throughout the coastal zone have been designated
Mindful of these legislative charges, the staff of the one of these three zoning categories by the FCCC after
Coastal Coordinating Council recognized the necessity for a consideration of the following eight factors:
planning/management methodology that would illustrate (1) Soils suitability of the area.
the need for a flexible coastal management plan and provide (2) Ecological significance of the area.
a basis for a multiple range of data input. The first task was (3) Susceptibility of the area to flooding, both from
to define the State's coastal zone and then develop a runoff and hurricane-driven tides.
planning/management process for that area. Lengthy (4) Historical and archaeological significance of the
research revealed that the most practical method for area.
defining the coastal zone is to use physical features in (5) Unique features that may warrant protection.
combination with boundaries of areas for which socio- (6) Water quality standards.
economic data is readily available. On this basis, it was (7) Present land cover and/or use.

*The Florida Coastal Coordinating Council is now the
Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning, Florida Department of
Natural Resources.

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(8) Geological factors to the extent possible with eight county sets (four maps each, i.e., Preservation,
existing information. Conservation,Development,Composite) were prepared in -
There are twenty-nine subcategories that constitute house at a map scale of 1 inch to 1 mile. These in turn, were
coastal phenomena within the FCCC zoning categories. photographically reduced to 1 inch to 2 miles, resulting in a
Many of these subcategories are considered representative final printed map format size of 22 inches by 26.
of coastal phenomena essential to Florida's coastal The basic purpose of this atlas was and continues to be a
environment, such as: freshwater marshes and swamps, means to provide decision makers and concerned citizens
saltwater marshes and swamps, marine grass beds, beach with an overview of the components that make up the
and dune systems and buffer zones such as adjacent coastal environment of Florida. At the same time, this
woodland-upland areas to the wetland-marine systems. The Council would have a means by which the FCCC
proper management of such coastal phenomena has become planning/management approach could be disseminated and
critical in Florida as pressure on these coastal resources has evaluated by potential users. As a reflection of the FCCC
continued to grow with increased population, wealth, methodology, the atlas delineates those areas already
mobility and leisure time. developed by our rapidly expanding coastal population but
To date, only the photographic remote sensors have been at the same time indicates those areas physically suited to
utilized in support of FCCC planning/management accommodate further development where such activity will
methodology. To illustrate how these sensors have been have a minimum detrimental effect on the environment.
utilized the following products are described reflecting their Following the proposed FCCC methodology format, the
use on the broad application format to and including Atlas contains an inventory of coastal phenomena still
specific application as needed for data support relatively undisturbed, i.e., Preservation subcategories, and
requirements. recommends that essential, indicated segments of these be
"preserved" in order to insure the maintenance of living
marine resources, the aesthetic qualities of the coast and the
The Florida Coastal Zone Management Atlas physical integrity of the shorelands. Additionally, a buffer
or "caution zone" between development and the
This document was received from the printer in December preservation areas are designated for "Conservation" where
1974 and widely distributed during 1973 and 1974. To date, limited development with controls can occur, but whenever
over 600 full atlases and more than 1500 county sets have possible such conservation lands would be considered as a
been sent to governmental officials at all levels, planning land bank for future generations.
groups, developers and real estate interests, consultants, Response to the Atlas has been widely favorable and the
environmentalists and private citizens. Panchromatic planning approach used has been accepted and is being
imagery with a range of dates from 1965 through 1971 and a implemented by planners throughout the state in private and
photo scale of 1 inch to 2000 feet was the primary data public capacities.
source used for the inventory requirements, with
supplemental data and ground truth verification utilized
when necessary. Standard photo-interpretation procedures Florida Keys Coastal Zone Management Study
and cartographic application for map compilation were used
in preparing the FCCC methodology base maps. Thirty- In April 1973 Council members approved the

Coastal Mobility 15

development of a Florida Keys coastal zone management a map scale of I inch to 2000 feet. The maps were then
plan. Because of the many unique features and problems photographically reduced and printed at a map scale of I
involved in planning for the Keys, and because of the inch to 4,000 feet. The format size was the same as the
development pressures in the region, it was felt that it would previous Coastal Zone Atlas, 22 inches X 26 inches.
make an excellent area for the development of a pilot
management plan. Beginning in May, the full Council staff
began work on the Keys study. The study format consisted
of the following major sections. Present Remote Sensing Application
of the following major sections.
1. Biographical Analysis.
2. Socio-Economic Analysis. The FCCC and the state's regional planning councils which
3. Environmental Quality Analysis. include coastal counties are now working jointly on a Level
4. Planning Analysis. II analysis of the 1972 CZM atlas following the format
5. Summary and Conclusions. developed by FCCC for the Florida Keys Management
This study was completed and published in July, 1974, and study. FCCC is doing this biophysical analysis in-house
widely distributed to local, regional, state and federal using color infrared imagery (photo scale: 1:80,000) which
agencies. This study represented a major extension of the the state purchased in 1973. Panchromatic imagery (photo
FCCC methodology that had previously been developed for scale L:24,000) is available as a supplementary data source
the Coastal Zone Atlas of 1972, particularly in terms of for a majority of the coastal counties with exposures dated
remote sensing and mapping requirements, while the 1972 1974 and into 1975. Ground truth checks are being made in
Atlas was essentially a Level II (U.S.G.S. Land Use addition to the supplemental data used.
Classification System) data analysis, the Keys study required The state regional planning councils are using 1:24,000
a Level III analysis. Two primary base maps were required: photo quads, supplemental imagery and other data sources,
(1) a land cover or vegetation map of upland and adjacent as well as ground truth checks in order to provide data for
marine vegetation and (2) a land use inventory mapping the social-economic analysis phase for input into the jointly
effort with a minimum Level II analysis. prepared coastal zone management plan. Land use, land
In a joint funding and mapping effort between the FCCC ownership, primary and secondary support services, are
and the State Department of Transportation, Topographic some of the data that are currently being generated in part
Office, color infrared imagery was obtained (photo scale: through the use of remote sensing imagery.
1:24,000) for stereo analysis and the primary base maps Map preparation for all in-house work by the regional
preparation. Thematic maps then generated from the councils and FCCC will have data delimited at map scales of
completed primary base maps were the standard FCCC I inch to 2,000 feet. The regional coastal zone management
methodology maps, i.e., Preservation Conservation, atlases will be printed at this scale or photographically
Development and Composite maps, and a Land Availability reduced up to 50%, depending upon complexity of data
Map, all of which were basic to the Biophysical Analysis representation. Atlas formats will again be 22 inches X 26
Section. Land Use maps and support services maps were inches.
generated for the Social-Economic Analysis section. The Another important on-going remote sensing application is
remainder of the analysis sections were then developed from the use of a color water-penetration imagery (photo scale:
these data sections. Work maps were prepared in-house with 1:24,000) to provide a synoptic overview of the Coral Reef

16 Coastal Mobility

Tract off the Florida Keys. This mapping effort is a
preliminary step to a coordinated federal, state, regional,
local effort for long term study of the Reef Tract in an
attempt to obtain some answers as to what is affecting the
health of the coral; i.e., is degradation being caused from
natural occurrences or man's activities in and adjacent to
the Reefs, or a combination of both influences?

Future Remote Sensing Requirements

Implicit in the FCCC planning/management
methodology, whether a Level II or Level III analysis is
used, are the requirements for continuous data updating and
a rapid means of data dissemination. Systems for
acquisition and dissemination of remote sensing
information are less than adequate, or non-existent at the
state/regional/local governmental levels, particularly for
the data presently in demand, as well as known future
requirements. The problems facing remote sensing users
who seek information are many and varied, given their
respective data requirements, data display and/or
dissemination format, in-house expertise, access to
necessary funding, etc.
In Florida, governmental agencies are awakening to the
fact that these varied problems exist and that expansion of a
centralized capability for remote sensing activity is necessary
if various program requirements are to be met. The focus of
the interest is presently with the State Department of
Transportation and its Topographical office. In the last two
years, by working through inner-local agreements, data
derived from a variety of remote sensors, including
photographic, thermal and SLAR have demonstrated the
need for remote sensing application. Gradually, a multiple
remote sensing program will be in demand as greater
numbers of present and potential users learn what segment
of remote sensing technology can benefit their own
program's data requirements.

Coastal Mobility 17

John G. Cowley
President
Florida Shore and Beach
Preservation Association
Tallahassee, Florida

The Economics of Erosion Control

I want to make one point at the outset. Perhaps it should The situation is similar in many other parts of Florida.
be the title of my talk today. Instead of the wide, magnificent beaches that are featured in
And that is when you think of coastal zone management, our tourist brochures, we see in all too many places a narrow
please don't forget to consider fully the role and importance strip of sand with hardly room for a beach blanket.
of our beaches. The one big exception is right here in extreme Northwest
I say this because it's my distinct impression that all too Florida. By and large, our beaches are wide and beautiful --
many professionals in coastal zone management and the way they should be. But let me emphasize that we are the
planning seem to quickly skim over beaches in their scheme exception. The erosion problem statewide is serious. Our
of things. At least, very little seems to get said about beaches beaches are disappearing. Some areas are losing beach at the
in the context of coastal zone planning. rate of 10 to 15 feet a year.
Yet in Florida, our beaches are perhaps our most Along the upper east coast of Florida, The Florida
important single coastal asset. Certainly they are from an Department of Natural Resources says 90 miles of beach are
economic standpoint. Repeated surveys have shown that in a critical state of erosion.
beaches are the number one attractor of tourists to Florida. Along the lower east coast, it is 137 miles. Along the lower
And we all know that tourism is our number one industry in Gulf coast, it is 90 miles. And there are large stretches of the
the Sunshine State. Beaches are also the number one defense Panhandle coast that also are in a bad state.
against damage to coastal property from storms and It's not just an esthetic problem. It's also an economic
hurricanes. And that in itself is a tremendous economic problem for the whole state. Let me tell you why.
value. Tourism is far and away our number one industry, our
Beaches are also the most significant geographic feature number one revenue-producer. Last year, more than 27
of our coastline. Some 1160 miles of our shoreline is million tourists came to our state. They spent over 9 billion
composed of sandy beaches. dollar. They contributed 414 million dollars in direct state
So I don't think I am being unreasonable when I ask that taxes and generated another 386 million in collateral fees
our beaches be given full and fair consideration in coastal and revenues -- a total of some 800 million dollars for our
zone planning and management. state treasury.
If this sounds overly defensive, so be it. The fact is, I'm The point is that tourism is very important to our
very concerned about the state of our state's beaches. And economy.
I'm hopeful that the new emphasis on coastal zone What does this have to do with our beaches? Simply this:
management will help alleviate the problem. Our beaches are Florida's number one tourist attraction, the
According to the State Department of Natural Resources number one reason tourists come to Florida in the first
and the Corps of Engineers, some 500 miles of Florida place.
beaches are in a critical state of erosion. Much of this This is borne out in every tourist survey taken over a
serious erosion is taking place in heavily-populated resort period of many years by the State Department of
communities. Commerce.
At Miami Beach, at high tide, there is virtually no beach Two out of three tourists say they come to Florida to
remaining. The ocean laps right up to the seawalls of luxury enjoy our beaches. No other recreational activity comes
hotels. close. That includes fishing, golf, tennis, nightclubbing and
Jacksonville Beach is almost gone. visiting attractions such as Disney World.

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On the average, these visitors say that they use our absorbing the brunt of the hurricane force.
beaches about five times during their stay in Florida. Let me give you a good example of what I mean.
It's no accident that the majority of our resort centers are Last September, Hurricane Eloise lashed the Panama
located near a beach. City area causing an estimated 150 to 200 million dollars
Our beaches are, in truth, "the goose that lays the golden worth of damage.
egg of tourist dollars in Florida." As hurricanes go, Eloise was strictly average. Compared
The point is that if we want tourists to continue coming to to some of the storms that have hit our state, Eloise was a
Florida in ever-increasing numbers, we'd better hurry up weak sister.
and do something about our eroding beaches. We'd better But Eloise demolished or damaged a high percentage of
hurry up and restore those postage stamp size beaches in hotels, motels and other structures along the Gulf Coast.
some of our major resort areas and make them once again And the reason was that the beach there had become so
into the wide, magnificent beaches we see in the tourist eroded that it offered little protection to coastal properties.
brochures.. Most of the damage to the buildings occurred not because of'
Otherwise, it's possible the tourists may stop coming in the wind but because the storm surge from Eloise
the volume we need to sustain a healthy economy. undermined the foundations of the buildings.
If we want to expand tourism, it's not enough for us just This wouldn't have happened with a good beach system.
to increase the advertising budget for tourism. I talked to an engineer with the Corps of Engineers who
Advertising puffery is no substitute for a beautiful beach surveyed the damage and he told me this:
if the beach is what brings the tourist to Florida in the first He said, if the beach restoration project proposed several
place. years ago for the Panama City area had been completed
Our beaches, themselves, can and should be Florida's best prior to Eloise, damage to coastal properties probably
advertising. would have been a tiny fraction of what it was.
The Department of Commerce estimates that during 1976 In other words, with a comparatively small investment in
tourists will spend 10.2 billion dollars in Florida and beach restoration, we could have saved many millions of
generate almost 900 million dollars in direct and collateral dollars in property losses. That's a good investment.
tax revenues. That's a lot of money. We might as well face it. Florida is a hurricane prone
And our beaches play an important role in generating it. state. Over the past hundred years, an average of two
Shouldn't we then be good businessmen -- as well as good hurricanes a year have struck Florida. And we've had as
stewards of our natural resources -- and allocate a small many as five hurricanes in a single year.
portion of this 900 million dollars into product So you'd think we'd want to take all possible precautions.
improvement -- into rebuilding our eroding beaches? And a good beach is the best defense against hurricane
And if that isn't enough economic justification for damage.
spending more to save and rebuild our beaches, let me give I'd like to emphasize that the Panama City area isn't
you another important economic reason -- hurricane alone in being especially vulnerable to damage from
protection. hurricanes.
The simple fact is that our beaches are our best protection There are many resort cities in this state which are
against hurricane damage. needlessly exposed to severe hurricane damage--simply
A good dune and beach system is nature's way of because of badly eroded beaches.

Coastal Mobility 19

A concrete sea wall or similar fixed structure is poor And the prognosis for that beach holding up against
protection against hurricane waves. And they're expensive erosion is good. Part of the project involved construction of
to build. a specially designed jetty at the entrance of Haulover Inlet.
A good beach, on the other hand, is the best and cheapest That seems to have solved the primary erosion problems.
protection we can provide against hurricane damage. Artificially pumping sand to rebuild an eroded beach may
Despite the growing erosion problem--despite the great not appear to be a strikingly imaginative solution to our
economic importance of our beaches to Florida--we're disappearing beaches. But the fact is that it works very well
doing precious little to preserve and protect our number one if it is done right.
natural resource. In fact, beach erosion is taking place at a In the near future, Miami Beach will be rebuilt in just this
faster rate than the state's beach restoration program. way. And so will the beaches of Duval County and other
Since the creation of the State Bureau of Beaches and areas which have suffered severe erosion. Construction on
Shores in 1966, 10 years ago, the State of Florida has spent both projects is scheduled to get underway next year.
the grand total of $11,864,613 in state matching funds for It's expensive. But it's a good investment. It's a good
beach erosion projects. investment because it enhances recreational opportunities
That's an average of a little more than a million dollars a for our citizens ... it enhances Florida's attractiveness to
year to protect Florida's number one tourist magnet--not to tourists ... and it provides vital protection against hurricane
mention our best hurricane insurance. damage.
It's a pittance when you consider that the Department of Beach restoration, however, is only part of the effort to
Commerce estimates that tourism will generate, this year, preserve and rebuild our beaches.
about 900 million dollars in state taxes and fees. Even more important are the efforts to use "preventive
What's worse, the level of state support is declining. medicine" to reduce erosion to a minimum.
We're spending only 1.9 million dollars this year on erosion It needs to be emphasized that we can't eliminate erosion
control--a reduction of one-third from the amount allocated entirely. It's a natural process. The wind and tides and
two years ago. current shift sand back and forth through the year and over
It doesn't make sense. It's not logical. It's not realistic. the years.
Happily, our beaches can be saved. Eroded beaches can The problem has been man-made interference with the
be rebuilt. And erosion can be reduced. The technology is forces of nature which creates unnecessary erosion has been
available. And so are the conservation techniques. the unfortunate tendency to build homes and hotels too near
A good example of what can be done in the way of beach the water. In the process, dunes have been flattened,
restoration is the beach at Bal Harbour, just north of Miami vegetation destroyed, and seawalls built and as a result the
Beach. Two years ago, the beach at Bal Harbour looked coastline's natural resiliency to the erosion process has been
exactly like Miami Beach. It was almost non-existent. The destroyed.
ocean washed against the seawalls. We can't undo what's done. It's not feasible to tear down
Bal Harbour is a wealthy community. It was able to all the buildings that have been constructed too close to the
sponsor a major beach nourishment project which pumped water along the coast of Florida. But we can do the next best
sand along the shoreline and artificially built a magnificent thing -- prevent it from happening in the future.
new beach over 200 feet wide. Today Bal Harbour has one Largely, at the prodding of the Florida Shore and Beach
of the finest beaches in the State of Florida. Preservation Association, the 1971 Legislature adopted

20 Coastal Mobility

landmark legislation known as the Setback Line Law. This So we are now singing a song of economic benefits to try
act gives the Department of Natural Resources the to achieve the same ends.
responsibility for establishing a safe buffer between new It's a valid argument if our representatives in the
construction and the sea. Legislature will only pull out their pocket calculators.
The setback line ranges from about 100 feet inward from Good beaches are important to the tourist economy.
mean high water to over 500 feet. Its location depends They're important for recreation of our own citizens.
entirely on local conditions. It is based on a complicated -- And they're important from the standpoint of hurricane
but sensible -- formula which considers such factors as protection.
"historical storm and hurricane tides, predicted maximum The benefit to cost ratio is enormous.
wave uprush, erosion trends, the dune or bluff line and
existing upland development."
Needless to say, some property owners aren't happy at the
restrictions to developing their coastal lands. But the new
setback line is doing a good job or preventing unnecessary
future erosion and we think the Department of Natural
Resources is doing a good job in its implementation.
The effectiveness of the line was proven in Hurricane
Eloise. Properties located behind the line suffered only
superficial damage. And that was from wind and rain, not
tidal surge.
In closing, I'm happy to report that we're making
progress in our fight to protect our beaches from the ravages
of erosion.
At long last, we're headed in the right direction.
Of course, we still have a long way to go before Florida's
beaches look as good as the picture postcards.
We have a lot to learn from research. We have much
rebuilding to do to undo the damage of our past follies.
But with the right kind of support from the State of'
Florida for erosion control programs ... and with the right
kind of decisions in coastal zone planning ... Florida can
once again enjoy the most beautiful beaches on-the North
American continent.
I make no apologies for emphasizing the economics rather
that the esthetics of our beaches.
Frankly, our experience in promoting erosion control has
been that sheer beauty doesn't do much to generate needed
state support.

Coastal Mobility 21

Coastal Mobility and Management:
Panel Discussion

Bruce Johnson: (Bureau CZM Planning, Florida) Question material could still be present and start color on the upper
to Dr. Tanner: beach years from now. (From a color point of view now, if
Dr. Tanner, what is your professional opinion concerning they are lucky enough to have pretty good wave activity
the material that is being processed in Panama City Beach as with high tides in the next month or so, we could have it all
a result of harbor deepening and harbor dredging in Bay washed out in short order, but it will not bleach. Thank you.
County. Shirley Gade: Question to Arthur Butt
Dr. Tanner: As far as I know, none of that is being obtained Mr. Butt, I don't know if I heard all of your statement, but
by harbor dredging. The only dredge operation that we have when you were showing the wetland marsh areas and
observed down there have been from dredging immediately tidepools, you made the statement that we have a protective
on or immediately offshore of the outer bar. This is a mix of legislation for development of the backpart of that area.
quartz sand and some peaty material and some humate. The Which legislation are you referring to?
quartz sand is apparently just a little bit coarser than the Arthur Butt: The legislation analysis referred to is Florida
quartz sand that was removed from the beach during Statute 253 and 17-4, 17-3 Florida Administrative Codes
Hurricane Eloise and for this reason should be at least as related to dredging and filling activities and water quality
stable.as the original sand was. I doubt that the size maintenance. Chapter 17-4 (Seventeen-four) dredge and fill
difference is great enough really to make a whole lot of gets into the application for permits of dredging or filling
difference, but at least it isn't so fine that it should be lost within wetlands or within the sovereignty or jurisdiction of
instantly. The peat will be bleached and broken up and the state are waters or areas of less than the mean high water
spread out very quickly. It composes as a guess, perhaps two line. Water transitionals require permits from the state and
or three percent of the total. The humate is a different if a project is deemed environmentally significant or
matter. Again, it composes one or two or maybe three detrimental to the propagation and management of wildlife,
percent of the total. We do now know yet, because as far as then the department, particularly in Class II waters will
I know, there is no experience whatsoever for putting recommend denial of the project unless the economic
humate on the beach. I have never heard of this under any implications could outweigh the public interest of
circumstances and in this case apparently, it was an propagation and management of wildlife.
accident. The humate, however, is although less resistant Shirley Gade: Does the Cabinet determine this or does
that quartz sand, much tougher than peat, and other organic DER?
mucks. It does not bleach in natural exposures of humate Arthur Butt: The applications are based upon a two-form
that are 30 or so years of age; or this is, if they were exposed platform. There is a short-form application and a long-form
by dredging or cutting operations 20-40 years ago. There has depending upon the size of the operation. The short-form
been no detectable bleaching over that period of time. On application is based in the district level and the long-form
the other hand, the humate is not tough in the sense that application is reviewed in Tallahassee. A denial or approval
quartz sand is, and, therefore, wave action when it gets to it, can be ascertained at either one of the local levels. If an
will break it up and when it gets it small enough, particles of individual, I believe, does not like the determination by the
it will be carried away. How fast that will occur will depend department, he can petition the Cabinet. Mike Applegate
on what combinations of tide, high tide levels and the storm will present a little more on this legal aspect further along in
waves we happen to have in the next year. Without storm the program.
wave activity combined with high tides, some of this Tom Bell: Question to Dr. Tanner:

22 Coastal Mobility

Dr. Tanner, In relation to the dam on the Apalachicola, will point. There are some other factors that enter into it, but
that have any or some adverse environmental effects? those are the main ones.
Dr. Tanner: I am a geologist, and I speak as a geologist and Joan Ren: Question to Dr. Tanner.
I make no pretense of being able to evaluate what the Dr. Tanner, I noticed, in the paper, that there is going to be
biologist for example should be evaluating. Geologically, some rather major renourishment programs in Duval
they have already done all the damage to the Apalachicola County and in the Miami area. Is there any precedent for
that they can do. this type of project and if so, how successful would it be for
Jane Marques: Question to Dr. Tanner: the renourishment of the beaches?
Dr. Tanner, since the area around the Gulf of Mexico has Dr. Tanner: Yes. This is not a new project. This has been on
only two tides per day, in contrast to the area along the the way for quite some time. I think you have Army Corps
North Atlantic Coast where there are four tides per day, will of Engineer representatives here for these two days, and
our area suffer less beach erosion than in that area? they can certainly give you data on the programs that they
Dr. Tanner: You will find that the mixed tide that we have, have taken part in and this is our number one agency for this
particularly in this part of Florida's coast considering the purpose. I'm not sure when the first beach renourishment
various small tidal range that we have, I don't think makes a program was undertaken, but we have been doing it in the
great deal of difference. The primary factors that enter into United States for a number of years. In a small way, for 40
the amount of erosion are first the wave climate. This is the years to my knowledge. In my opinion, they are extremely
size of the waves at the angle at which they approach. The successful although not completely so. I can give you an
wave that approaches head on so that it breaks analogy that I think will wrap is up beautifully. Its like
simultaneously all up and down the beach with some asking somebody if eating dinner ends hunger and the
exceptions doesn't cause any erosion problems. It's the answer is, well, only momentarily. After erosion takes place
breaker that comes in from an angle so that it breaks on one next year, then you need another renourishment program.
part of the beach, and then this break point slides along the Furthermore, we have serious problems as to the quantity of
beach and drives sand in the direction in which the break sand available for nourishment. In many parts of the state
point is moving. This is primarily the important factor. we do not have enough sand to carry on successful
However, there are some other things involved. One is nourishment programs. What we will do next after this is a
whether or not we have any new sources of sand to nourish more difficult problem.
the system. When we started putting dams on rivers, we
began cutting out maybe our number one source of sand
because this sand is trapped in the reservoirs behind those
dams; and it may take quite a while like say 10, 50 or a 100
years before we recognize that we have had a serious loss
there. If I wanted to run for President, on a platform of just
one plank that pleases me very much from a narrow
professional point of view, it would be on a platform of
dynamiting all of the dams in the United States. I recognize
that that would have some bad effects in other ways so I
won't really run on that, but I hope you understand my

It is one thing to understand the delicacies and natural emphasis on restoration and maintenance. Some
caprice of a mobile coast and quite another to live on one. consideration was given to restoration of vegetation and to
The difficulties of living in a coastal area are often focused, the policy which might be adopted by state and federal
with no small degree of frustration, on the administrator, agencies regarding the authorizing of industrial permits on
whether that person is a representative of a major federal restored land.
agency involved in Coastal Zone Management or leader of a
local government. The administrator is frequently required
to share the difficult burden of a community, firm or
individual attempting to protect an investment made in good
faith, but also made with little real understanding of the
coast. The administrator faced with such a problem is often
forced to deal with past financial commitments, and
presently occuring environmental deterioration which may
be its result.
John Cowley is very much concerned with many of these
problems in the first paper of this section. Mr. Cowley also
emphasizes the importance of beaches and Coastal Zone
Management and he indicates that the cost benefit ratio
suggests that much more money should be spent on beach
restoration. Mr. Cowley points out the great economic
importance of tourism in the State of Florida and the
dependence of that industry upon beach upkeep.
Mike Applegate and Arthur Butt in their paper very
clearly outline another aspect of coastal zone
administration; the relationship between state and federal
administration of Coastal wetlands. They clarify aspects of
the state's perceived role regarding the administration of
public law 92-500, particularly section 404 which, as
interpreted, assigns new and important environmental
responsibilities to the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.
George Allen describes the official attitude of the U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers toward Coastal Zone
Management quite well. He also expressed the very
interesting and important role change which the corps is
experiencing as a result of the increasing environmental
concern on the part of the general public.
The discussion surrounding this section again focused
primarily on beach erosion and restoration with particular

24 Administration of theCoastalZone

George W. Allen
South A tantic Division
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Atlanta, Georgia

The Role of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
In the Coastal Zone Management Program

Mr. Webster defines management as the judicious use of to develop an argument based on semantics when the
means to accomplish an end. Coast Zone Management is an objectives are so important. Very simply, the objectives of
effort to manage the coastal zone, but the definition of the this program are to organize, plan and instill logical and
coastal zone is more complicated than the definition of orderly development in a very important but limited area,
management. The wide range of what is considered the where heretofore such development could best be described
Coastal Zone is best exemplified in the diverse methods that as on the first-come, first-served basis.
the states have developed to describe their own coastal zones What is the mission of the Corps of Engineers in the
for the purpose of their proposed management. Some states Coastal Zone as assigned to it by governmental authority?
utilize methods involving geographic elevations, others Lt. General W. C. Gribble, Chief of Engineers, perhaps
appear to consider socio-economic involvement, and others condensed the assigned responsibility into a concise package
merely use political boundaries. There are reasons for such in a recent publication.
choices, of course, for administrative procedures relating to "During June, 1975, both the United States Army and the
certain practical and very real problems must have Army Corps of Engineers commemorate their two-
recognized parameters of applications. hundredth anniversaries. And for the past century and a
The Corps of Engineers is not the principal administering half, the Corps, at the direction of Congress, has planned
agency of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. Its for the wise use and proper development of America's water
activities are not confined to any one state: therefore, its resources.
consideration of what constitutes the Coastal Zone must be "Since 1814 the Engineers have been charged with
broad enough to encompass the areas which will be within improving rivers and harbors, with the responsibility for
the legal definition of the Coastal Zone as developed by the both the coastal work and the nation's emphasis on
many states with which the Corps becomes involved in environmental and developmental needs of the nation."
coastal programs. The key to the entire environmental situation, as it exists
For the purpose of this program the Corps of Engineers today, lies in the last portion of General Gribble's
considers the Coastal Zone as the band of dry land and statement: "...serving the people of the United States and
adjacent ocean space in which land ecology and use directly responding to their needs."
affect ocean space ecology, and vice-versa. The Coastal In order to understand the position relative to the Corps
Zone is a band of variable width which borders the and our environment within the Coastal Zone one must
continents, the inland seas, and the great lakes. recognize that public agencies are prime examples of cause
Functionally, it is the broad interface between land and and effect. Over and over again can be seen the political
water where production, consumption and exchange application of Newton's Third Law of Mechanics, For
processes occur at high rates of intensity. Ecologically, it is every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
an area of dynamic biochemical activity with but limited In some respects reaction can be seen by immediate
capacity for supporting various forms of human use. response to action. The Continentals on Bunker Hill needed
Necessarily, this definition is not specific, but it does their first fortifications, and the Engineers built them in
include all of those lands on our continental margins, and immediate response. When Camille visited the Mississippi
the adjacent waters, in such a manner that it will include the Gulf Coast, the Corps of Engineers was on the scene while
specific definitions as developed by the administering states the debris was still flying about. However, reaction to social
within their program. The Corps of Engineers does not wish changes or new social demands appears to be much slower.

Administration oftheCoastal Zone 25

In 1802 the Corps of Engineers, as it exists today, was program. These meetings were called for the single purpose
formed by congressional act. President James Monroe had of informing the public of what was being considered, and
two objectives in mind for the new organization: advancing to provide that public with an opportunity to present its
the continental frontiers and protecting the nation's sea views on the proposed program. During that time this
coasts. The Corps did both. This period of the 1800's was speaker was an administrator of a state resource agency, the
the nation's Expansionist Period. The American public and president of a large conservation organization, and active in
Congress needed and demanded the exploration of the conservation programs throughout the Southeast. When
continent, and the Corps of Engineers responded notice of such a meeting was issued, the bushes would be
accordingly. They guided, surveyed and mapped while they shaken and the woodwork pounded to arouse attention
broke trail for the westward migration. They surveyed the among those individuals and organizations who should have
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. They extended the National been interested and informed of such programs. When the
Road from Cumberland to the Ohio. They made the Ohio, meeting was held, seldom was the time when there would be
Missouri and the Mississippi safe for navigation. They over three or four interested sportsmen or conservationists,
opened harbors in the Great Lakes and maintained the and many times this speaker would be the sole representative
lighthouses. of conservation interests.
In the late 1800's the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers On the other side of the aisle would be forty or fifty
developed and administered Yellowstone National Park. farmers, industrial leaders, chamber of commerce officials
They moved on from Yellowstone and established, and usually a congressman or two. It was a most
administered and protected Yosemite, Sequoia and General disheartening experience, and one to which many of us
Grant National Park. Even as late at 1933 there were a became well accustomed. Obviously the public pulse was not
number of national monuments, battlefields and historic beating for the interests relative to the total resource
areas under the protection of the Corps of Engineers. As the management problems. Certainly, no other group or
national park objectives became more acceptable and individual is as responsive to the interests of the public as is
widespread, the military was withdrawn and the National a congressman when surrounded by his constituents, and in
Park Service assumed total control. most cases he would be there to receive the plaudits of the
The history of the Civil Works Program of the Corps of crowd and not the disparagements of a minority.
Engineers is but a reflection of public interest in In 1969 the sudden love affair of the public for the
management of the nation's resources. There has been environment resulted in the National Environmental Policy
much said about the "new" image of the Corps relative to Act, and the affair has not cooled down as of this date.
resource planning. This "new" image has been brought Shortly thereafter; Lt. General Clarke, then Chief of the
about by the continued application of the Corps' initial Corps of Engineers issued a policy statement on the
policy, to reflect the needs and desires of the people. environmental considerations relative to Corps projects.
Those of us who have worked within the parameters of The objectives of the policy were as follows:
coastal zone interests for any period can remember only too
well how "good" the "good old days" were when related to (A) To preserve unique and important ecological,
Coastal Zone Management. aesthetic and cultural values of our national heritage;
Many were the public meetings that would be called for (B) To conserve and use wisely the natural resources of
the purpose of reviewing a new coastal development our nation for the benefit of present and future generations;

26 Administration oftheCoastal Zone

(C) To enhance, maintain and restore the natural and the back pasture. This is up to you and me because the
man-made environment in terms of its productivity, variety, Congress has not, of course, authorized the Corps to build
spaciousness, beauty and other measures of quality; political fences or shape national policy by decreeing
(D) To create new opportunities for the American people policies of "no growth".
to use and enjoy the environment. It is difficult, therefore, to specifically point to any single
This policy, among other things, emphasized the "new posture" relative to environmental matters by the
determination and evaluation of alternatives and strongly Corps of Engineers. Increased public participation has been
encouraged broad public participation in Corps planning. due to increased public interest, and the desire to express
Roland Clement, who describes himself as a field this interests. Be it building national parks, exploring
ornithologist, a generalist in environmental science, is an frontiers, building waterways or flood protection, the
individual of high-standing in the conservation community activities of the Corps have always been a reaction to the
and served as vice-president of the National Audubon public and national demand. The increased and
Society. He was also a member of the Corps of Engineers demonstrated efforts of the Corps in environmental matters
environmental advisory board. After two years with this is due to a continued effort to respond to the stated and
board, Mr. Clement arrived at a conclusion that has been demonstrated desires of the American people. In this
held by many environmentally concerned Corps personnel. respect, the passage of the Coastal Zone Management Act
After 200 years of serving a public demand for materialistic of 1972, was a demonstrated desire of these people, and the
growth, the Corps had to react overnight to the social Corps of Engineers will respond to that demand in the
readjustment of the nation which suddenly realized that manner directed by the Congress of the United States. This
materialistic objectives were not necessarily those which being the case, what is the direct interest of the Corps of
brought about the fullest life or the greatest happiness to the Engineers in the coastal areas of the United States?
individual or perhaps to the entire nation. This interest may be expressed in terms relative to one of
To quote Mr. Clement, "Two years of Corps' watching three planes of interest; monetary investment of federal
has convinced me--and most of my colleagues--that the funds; social well-being of the residents of the coastal area;
Corps is more scape-goat than culprit in the current and the environmental concern of the area.
environmental controversy. The general confusion that While it would appear to be rather prosaic and mundane
plagues public discussion of these matters seems to be a to consider the economics in relation to environment in
result of naive political outlook, more specifically, of a some circles, the facts of life still dictate that dollars and
failure to identify the 'structural' causes of what disturbs us. cents must contribute to the final outcome of projects, even
We seldom inquire into an agency's congressional though they be called public works.
mandates, for example, or into what is possible and what It is of interest to note that the Corps of Engineers, in the
impossible, especially given the defined statutory procedures Coastal zone contained in the Gulf and South Atlantic
and the 'public demands' the Corps was organized to states, from North Carolina to and including Texas, has a
satisfy. Those who do not realize the distortions of public responsibility for over 1.5 billion dollars in public works
demand inherent in our present form of government are developed through their programs. The coastal counties of
doomed to belabor scape-goats to the end of their days. this area include approximately 75,000 square miles and
Correcting these abuses calls for the much more demanding over 10.5 million people. Applied arithmetic will show that
task of building fences to keep the neighbors' cows out of this is an investment of approximately $150.00 per person,

Administration of the CoasatalZone 27

and $21,536.00 per square mile. It must be kept in mind that and harbors, the Corps of Engineers has contributed
these expenditures were made at the request of the American towards the total development of an area, sometimes in a
taxpayer. Naturally, such investments must be protected direct manner, and certainly more often in an indirect
and preserved, providing of course that the public desires to manner. The development of the coastal area is due to the
maintain them. There is every indication that not only do fact that it provides water transportation to the ports of the
they wish to maintain existing projects, but the demand for world.
additional projects to satisfy what they believe as their needs There are those who would state that many people are in
of the area continues to increase each year. the coastal area's primarily for the aesthetic enjoyment they
The impact of management programs on the coastal area receive. This may be true. However, the thing that makes
in relation to the continued existence of this large investment the coastal areas so desirable to many individuals is the fact
is obvious. Protection or preservation of previous that in this area they can "have their bread and eat it too."
investments is a concern of the Corps in relationship to the The sign-painter or the bank executive in Houston, Mobile
Coastal Zone Management Program. The compatibility of or Pensacola does not find it necessary to work all week,
developed projects to Coastal Zone Management Programs then drive hundreds of miles to sail his boat, hunt for
of the States will result in a more fulfilling program from waterfowl, or catch a fish. He can do it in his front yard for
both points of view. This will involve trade-offs and all practical purposes.
compromises on the part of all interested parties, but with Such circumstances contribute towards the social welfare
the stated objectives of the Coastal Zone Management Act of the people involved, and the Corps of Engineers is closely
of 1972 in mind, it can be done and it will be done. associated with the very basics of the situation that made
The second plane of interest that can be used when this geo-social niche possible. It is responsible for its actions
considering the Corps' interest in the Coastal Zone concerns and therefore is very interested in any activity that would
the social well-being of the people of the area. A healthy and have an effect on these developments.
viable community, regardless of its location, requires The third plane of interest upon which the Corps of
diversity of interests. As with man who cannot live by bread Engineers bases its concern for Coastal Zone planning and
alone, a community cannot live in a satisfactory manner on administration is the most reasonable and logical, that of
industrial development alone, but neither can it exist as a total concern for the overall environment of the Coastal
pristine wilderness and still be considered as a community of Zone. The concept of total concern for the overall
man. environment is full of popular appeal. It embodies the
Social necessities must be provided in the form of sewage principles that all worthwhile objectives must contain, but it
treatment plants, school systems, law enforcement agencies is most difficult to achieve. John Muir stated the problem
and other such public services. So also must there be social very succinctly when he said, "When you try to pick out
amenities which make life worthwhile. It is about as difficult anything by itself you find it attached to the Universe."
to have an enjoyable picnic in the middle of an active steel Total absorption of interests includes total absorption of
foundry as it is to have a school system supported by a ideals, philosophies, economics, social equity and the entire
whooping crane rookery. spectrum of human activities. Practically, it is next to
Common to both industrial efforts and recreational impossible to combine such a potpourri into a totally
pursuits is a system of communication and transportation. satisfactory unit, but the Coastal Zone Management
By the development of its waterways, improved channels Program has been directed to do this, and the Corps of

28 Administration of the Coastal Zone

Engineers, while not the administering agency, has been soil type determination, socio-economic situations and
directed to cooperate in every way possible. water quality considerations.
The first step in this journey is to develop a generally Granted, much of this information is retrieved from
acceptable series of definitions in order that everyone existing records, but it is compacted into a single document,
involved be headed in the same direction. We must readily available to anyone who is attempting to understand
determine what it is that we are trying to do. the Coastal Zone system.
Our concern for the continued existence of the natural Once this understanding of the Coastal Zone system is
processes of the Coastal Zone is essentially the recognition reached, the next step in the development of the
of man's ability to protect himself from the results or management process is the utilization of this understanding
impacts of his own activities as related to the utilization of in plan development.
coastal resources. Logical and rational decision making, The Corps of Engineers will be the first to admit that in
relative to these areas, can only be achieved after a thorough the Coastal Zone the environmental unknowns exceed the
consideration of the means at his disposal for exercising environmental knowns to a considerable degree. In their
such admrinistrative power. A management process should particular sphere of specialization, that of coastal
be developed to achieve a set of instituted objectives. Such engineering, the Corps has entered into the sequential
objectives should be directed towards maintaining and engineering and development efforts with close observation
improving coastal usefulness by improving the parameters and considerations of their previous activities in a studious
of the natural system he desires to use as a foundation for attempt to avoid adverse consequences that may have
his activities. Consideration of the present and future should developed in the past. In some situations the consequences
be done in a manner most benefiting the economic, social can be avoided, in others they cannot. Astute coastal
and environmental objectives. If we utilize the best-use planning must consider the positive and negative effects of
concept, it is possible to develop a basic definition of coastal its developments upon the total environment of man.
zone management in the process of (I) understanding the The Corps of Engineers was the first public agency to
coastal zone as a system, (2) utilization of this enter the field of public works in the coastal areas. Its
understanding in the development of a viable plan for its records and reports relative to the Southeastern States and
best use; and (3) application and enforcement of the plan. their coastal areas go back to 1815 when the first Civil
Where does the Corps of Engineers fit into the above Works Commission in this area was a coastal survey of the
process? The recognition of the Coastal Zone as a system Carolinas, south of the Cape Fear River, and a coastal
can only be done by developing a composite of accumulated survey of the area around Mobile and Pensacola. Thus, the
data from its components. Many of these parts are presently Corps of Engineers is a good source for material collected
available through data obtained in the development of over the years that is of inestimable benefit to planners. As
Corps of Engineers projects in the Coastal Zone. an example, some of the states have already utilized old
As an example, the environmental impact studies relative coastal charts and records in determination of coastal
to the ICWW maintenance dredging through North variations over the years.
Carolina points out the many eco-types and eco-systems Research and resulting developments relative to the
through which the waterway extends, the situation relative establishment of coastal marshlands from dredge material is
to endangered species, and to the extent and location of a program of the Corps of Engineers. This program has
nesting sites and rookeries. It contains sediment analysis, opened a cornucopia of opportunities for marshland

Admininistration of the CoasltalZone 29

development and management.
The state of Florida and the Corps have cooperated in
disposal area locations to make such areas suitable and
desirable for nesting sites of the brown pelican. In so doing
the nesting range of this endangered bird has been extended
into areas where heretofore there were not nesting activities
on record.
The Corps research with Clemson University on the
feasibility of using dredge materials for the manufacture of
ceramic building material has lead to development of the
industrial manufacturing of brick and other such building
material in areas where appropriate clays were not available.
Such projects as these have developed a potential for
coastal management that should be considered in the
planning processes. The data needed is already available for
utilization by interested parties.
The third phase, that of application and enforcement, is
primarily a state responsibility, but this phase can be
successfully developed only through the cooperation of all
private and public bodies involved in the Coastal Zone
activities. The Corps of Engineers can assure the involved
states of this cooperation. Certainly there will still be
specific actions within the management program that will be
retained within the federal sphere of responsibility, even
though the state program is fully effective. In such programs
the Corps of Engineers can promise these states that the
Corps appreciates their program objectives, and every effort
within reason will be made to remain within the parameters
set forth in the states' program.
Lastly, and perhaps to the greatest extent of all other
reasons, the Corps is sincerely interested in the state Coastal
Zone M'anagement Program. Hopefully it will result in a
specific and detailed management effort into which the
Corps of Engineers can mold its coastal programs to the
benefit of all concerned. In so doing, Ithe Corps of Engineers
can continue to serve its primary function, to respond to the
desires of the people within its. spheres of' assigned
respoflsebility.

30 Administration of the Coastal Zone

Michael Applegate
(and Arthur Butt)
Department of Environmental Regulations

Management of Coastal Wetlands
Perspective Enforcement of State Regulations
Governing Dredging and Filling of Wetlands

By rights of sovereignty, the State of Florida owns all promulgated to carry out these constitutional mandates.
submerged lands below the line of mean high water of The Environmental Reorganization Act (Chapter 75-22 of
navigable water bodies except for those lands conveyed by a the Laws of Florida) as outlined in Chapter 403 of the
submerged land deed or specifically through Spanish grant. Florida Statutes and implemented by Chapter 17-4 of the
As many of you may know, the State of Florida in its Florida Administrative Code, provides for certain water
infancy promoted the sales of submerged swamp and related projects which do not require a permit for the State.
overflowed lands for the purposes of promoting These include: 1) bulkheads on artificial water bodies, 2)
development and growth. Many of these lands were private docks and boat shelters with less than a total of 500
conveyed to the railroads in the 1870's for as little as 25� per square feet over water surface area, 3) mooring dolphins, 4)
acre. For example, in the Hamilton Disston Railroad Deeds, the repair or replacement of existing bulkheads as long as
4 million acres of sovereignty lands were sold for one million they remain within one foot waterward of or behind the
dollars. Subsequently, many acres of wetlands have been existing structure, and...5) the installation of boat ramps on
conveyed into private ownership. Current demand for artificial water bodies, 6) replacement or repair of existing
waterfront property has escalated values of even marginally docks (in original configuration), 7) maintenance of existing
developed property to as high as $400 per waterfront foot. dikes and ditches, 8) maintenance dredging to maintain
Therefore, land speculators and waterfront taxpayers navigability of previously permitted projects*, 9) repair of
place a high premium on the highest and best use of their storm water runoff pipes, 10) the installation of overhead
land. The highest and best use frequently does not coincide transmission lines which will not create a navigational
with the preservation of coastal wetland resources, since hazard and 11) the construction and maintenance of swales.
development often requires land alteration consisting of All projects must adhere to water quality conditions
dredging upland canals or access channels or filling to meet established under 17-3 of the Florida Administrative Code.
local, State, and Federal building requirements. Those water related projects not specifically mentioned
According to a recent article in Newsweek, about two- above require permits from the Department of
thirds of the coastal wetlands of the Gulf of Mexico have Environmental Regulation.
been destroyed by developmental exploitation. This State Permit Requirements and Federal Permit
destruction has invariably caused the demise of our requirements are generally overlapping with certain
commercial fisheries which depend so greatly on the coastal exceptions. Those items listed above as not requiring
wetlands and estuaries. permits by the State of Florida do require permits from the
Increased population and growth in the State of Florida Corps of Engineers if the project requires dredging or filling
have created the necessity for more stringent coastal within waters of the United States.
regulations. It is unclear at this writing what the waters of the United
Consequently, the State of Florida has provided in its States include. Previously Corps' jurisdiction was governed
Constitution for the preservation of its natural resources by the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, which included
and beauty. Laws enacted by the State have been navigable waters used for commerce.

*Projects permitted previously by the Trustees of the
Internal Improvement Trust Fund

Administration of heCoastalZone 31

Public Law 92-500 enlarged the jurisdiction to wetlands Had environmental laws and proper coastal management
contiguous to navigable waters of the United States. and planning been available prior to the sales of such lands,
Presently Congress is debating the implementation of these sour deals could have been avoided.
Phases 11 and III of a plan to expand the Corps jurisdiction Presently, the enforcement of Florida's dredge and fill
to all tributaries and certain lakes. Phase I has been laws is accomplished in several ways: I) through permitting
implemented and extends from coastal waters and wetlands 2)through informal administrative enforcement 3) through
to inland navigable waters and freshwater wetlands subject civil or criminal litigation 4) through education.
to periodic inundation by saline water. Permits for dredging or filling coastal wetlands may be
Dredge and fill permitting and enforcement jurisdiction obtained upon application and environmental review and
extends throughout the waters of the state and the adjacent approval. Projects of small size require a "short form"
transitional zone and on sovereignty lands. application and a $20 nonreturnable application fee. Short
Waters of the state may generally be defined as waters form permits can be granted from the District Office of the
traversing the lands of more than one owner and, of course, Department of Environmental Regulation.
the sounds, bays, bayous and Gulf (within the three mile Citizens wishing to take an active part in the permitting of
limit). Dredging is the excavation by any means of projects may request a public hearing in accordance with the
submerged lands or the transition zone of a submerged land. Administrative Procedures Act, Chapter 120 of the Florida
Filling is the deposition by any means of materials onto Statutes.
submerged lands or the transitional zone. Larger projects require an extensive biological, ecological
The transitional zone is determined by certain vegetative and often hydrological, review prior to permitting. Both
species found on the lands lying between submerged lands projects require water quality certification in areas deemed
and true uplands. environmentally significant.
Sovereignty lands, as have been mentioned, are those Permits from the Army Corps of Engineers are generally
submerged lands lying waterward of the high water line of required in addition to the state permits.
the navigable waters of the state. When an unauthorized coastal construction project is
Frequently, citizens from out of state buy a piece of noticed, informal measures are initially taken to notify the
Florida waterfront from uninformed or unscrupulous land owner of the necessity for permits or restoration.
salesmen. Such purchases bought in good faith and Generally, citizens are surprised that authorization for
accompanied by high hopes for making a retirement home their project was required by law, and are usually willing to
or making a fruitful investment, often are soured by the apply for a permit or to restore the damaged area.
land's unsuitability for development and the purchaser's too More formal procedures are required when a violator is
late education concerning Florida's environmental laws. reluctant to cooperate on an informal basis.
The recent land fraud cases in south Florida are In such cases, administrative procedures are initiated with
representative of such speculation. Much of the lands a warning letter from the district, and, if that fails, a case
involved were submerged lands bought, sight unseen, by report is prepared and forwarded to the Office of Counsel
people from out of state. As people moved south to occupy for review.
their "paradise," they found their lots in the midst ofa Additionally, criminal charges may be initiated at the
giant savannah unsuited for the construction of roads, local level through an information to the State Attorney.
sewers, septic tanks or even proper foundations. Criminal conviction of Chapter 403.161 could result in a

32 Administration oftheCoastalZone

maximum fine of $25,000 per day per violation, however, water related projects, yet there are certain projects which
such high fines are rarely implemented. are exempt. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers requires
The Office of Counsel may decide to issue a Notice of permits for dredging and filling in the the waters of the
Violation (N.O.V.) and Corrective Orders requiring the United States.
respondent to initiate restorative measures. The N.O.V. Some discrepancies exist in permit requirements of the
normally includes a fine to pay for the cost of processing the State of Florida and the Corps of Engineers.
case. Enforcement of violations of Florida Statutes may be
However, a civil case may be initiated if there are through informal conferences, formal administrative
sufficient conditions meriting such actions. procedures, criminal prosecution, and/or civil prosecution.
Civil conviction could result in a maximum fine of Education is thought to be the best enforcement tool.
$10,000 per day per violation as well as restoration. Progress must be made in advancing this valuable
Is restoration successful? Oftentimes a site is so changed enforcement tool.
by fill or dredging and subsequent restorative measures that
it is artificially reverted to a secondary pioneer status.
Ecological succession in such cases may take several
pathways over a period of years prior to the development of
the original climax community. Since this is the case, we Thanks are due to Mr. George E. Hoffman, Jr. for his
cannot yet be sure if restoration is successful ecologically; review of this paper and to Mrs. Karen Martin and Mrs.
however we are certain that a quasi natural area in an Susan Davis for their patience and kind assistance in typing.
environmentally significant area is better from an
environmental standpoint than most developments.
Finally, and most importantly, education through public
information is paramount to effective coastal management
and to effective law enforcement. 1. Article II, Section 7, Constitution of the State of
Therefore, it is necessary to "get the word" to the public. Florida, Florida Statutes, Index 1975 Supplement, page
This can be accomplished through increased dissemination 4.
of knowledgeable information from local and regional
planning bodies, new releases, publications and a better 2. Federal Register, 1975, Permits for Activities in
state public information system. navigable waters or ocean waters, Volume 40, number
144, Part IV.
Summary
3. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Section 404,
Evolution of population and growth in Florida has Public Law 92-500, 86 Stat. 816. United States Code,
resulted in regulations governing construction projects in 1344
waters of the State, sovereignty lands and transitional zones.
I nforcement of the laws are implemented in many ways. 4. Florida Administrative Code, Chapter 17-3,
P'rmits from the State of Florida are necessary for certain Supplement number 25, pages 7-12A.

Admninistrition of the Coatal Zone 33

5. Florida Administrative Code, Chapter 17-4,
Supplement number 62, pages 13-16JJ.

6. Florida Statutes, 1-380. 1975, Chapter 120, Pages 477-
488.

7. Florida Statutes, 1-380, 1975, Chapter 253, pages 1190-
1249.

8. Florida Statutes, 381-959, 1975. Chapter 403, pages
132 to 163.

34 1 dilin is 'ration oJ/lhe Coa,'sal /loe

Administration of the Coastal Zone:
Panel Discussion

Shirley Gade: Question to Mr. Cowley: forces of nature will gradually take it away and you will be
Mr. Cowley, Using the example of Bal Harbor, you back where you started, and I think all of these communities
mentioned that the restoration was about 200 feet in depth, that have used this type of beach nourishment have built
but you never mentioned what the length of Bal Harbor into their budget plans for maintenance of the beaches.
was, and also, what other part of the country this might take Bruce Johnson: Question to Mr. Cowley:
place in. Also, isn't there usually an ideal of accretion and How do you feel about introducing legislation to expand the
attrition on one side and I wonder who is losing out next to setback line to cover an estuarine beach of selective
Bal Harbor, and you never mentioned what the cost of such recreational potential? Now we have suggested that
an operation would be. legislation three years in a row and I wondered if your
Mr. Cowley; I am not sure that I can answer it fully. I've association would back that sort of thing.
been to Bal Harbor and I would estimate that the length of Mr. Cowley: Mr. Johnson had reference to an annual
the beach is approximately one mile, perhaps a little bit meeting of our Florida Shore and Beach Preservation
more. The techniques in building the protection at the inlet-- Association which is going to be held probably right here in
I'm not familiar with them. It is a new type of cone-shaped October. We have not, to my knowledge, considered any
protection structure there. Usually, when you have a support of this issue so far, but this may be a good subject
problem like this, they use what they call a nourishment for you to bring up at our meeting. We don't want to
program. They will construct a pumping station which will proliferate our work too much. We have been concentrating
pick up the sand that is deposited on one side of the groin with a good deal of success on beaches. Now I can see where
and pump in over on the other side so that it will flow down our support of some of your work might help, particularly if
the beach. If you don't do this, you will pick up an excess it is going to assure us of a continuing supply of sand for the
amount of sand on one side of the groin and you suffer an beaches or something along that line, but I think that you
extreme loss of sand of the other side. In many cases they can find that our association will be extremely interested in
have done this by pumping the sand that is accumulated anything that will improve the preservation and protection
back down and letting it deposit back on the beaches. I of our public beaches.
don't think that this is the type of protection they have used Bruce Johnson: Does your organization take any stand on
at Bal Harbor. This is something new. Of course, I'm not the impression of public right of access to the beach?
an engineer as you all know, but I do know that so far they Mr. Cowley: We haven't taken a stand on that as yet. There
are very pleased with the way it has performed. As to the has been a serious problem, however, in obtaining funds,
cost, I wish I had that information. The last information I especially federal funds to restore some of the upland
had was somewhere in the neighborhood of six to eight owners to give access to the public. I think, that in Bal
million dollars. The one in Jacksonville is in the Harbor, they required public entrances to the beach every so
neighborhood of $20 million, if I'm not mistaken. Maybe many 100 feet; however, I'm not sure about the details.
Mr. Allen will know that. It's being done by the Corps of Frankly, our association has been trying to stay our of
Engineers. anything controversial where we would not be needed. We
Shirley Gade: Is it a continuous beach nourishment have to work closely with the legislature, and we would like
program? to keep our working relations with the legislature as smooth
Mr. Cowley: Yes, all types of beach nourishment program as possible. If we go too far aficld, and gel caught into an
work requires maintenance. If you don't maintaini it, the argument as to who is going to use the beaches, alter they

Admiiini.5trattion of'the Coatial Zone 35

are restored, we are going to be getting out of our field. in the future on all coastal zone areas are required by law to
I don't want to discourage you from bringing that up, conform to the State's Coastal Zone Management Program.
Bruce; you are certainly welcome to do it. I'm just saying, We now venture into the field of federal consistency which
that what we are trying to do is to rifle in on our objective, we better back away from. However, if all of a sudden this
the beaches, and not to use a shotgun, and perhaps get industry, we will say for instance, violates even what you
bogged down with some political problems. might consider a reasonable industrial utilization, the first
Sneed Collard: "I was wondering if I could ask you about question might be "How did the marsh get classified as an
the beach restoration program -- is any effort being made to industrial area?" Somebody in the state fell asleep when
restore vegetation? they were supposed to be down there looking at the marsh.
Mr. Cowley: Yes indeed, that is one of the primary subjects There are so many ramifications to this thing. Are you going
of our annual meetings each year. How to vegetate the sand to be issuing the permit at this time or are we going to be
areas and consequently restore the dune areas because we all issuing the permit at this time? Who is going to have the
know dunes are built by vegetation and either vegetation or authority? I mean, that this is all in the mill. Well, lets
some type of protection that will cause the sand to assume that we retain the authority for permits. We
accumulate, and in addition to having our annual meetings, certainly wouldn't issue a permit based on a map. We would
like we are going to have here in October, we have a seminar still continue, I am sure, to go directly to the source of the
each year at the University of Florida and the Coastal Coastal Zone Program. Now, how is that done? I am afraid
School of Engineering down there and there are a number of that what we would do is stand back and tell you, the State
experts in this field that have put a lot of stress on the government, to make up your mind about what you want to
importance of revegetating you might say, the beach areas do with it and then let us know about it because the ultimate
to build up the dune preserves, which are your primary purpose of the Coastal Zone Management Act when you get
protection. Now, like everything else, all of this takes money right down to the nitty-gritty, is to let the States handle their
and this has been the problem. I remember we did some own coastal zone in the best way they feel it is to be handled.
beach restoration along the Sound here a number of years We (The Corps) are not a big brother in this deal. We have
ago and we have pumped in quite a bit of sand out of the got enough problems of our own without asking for more of
Sound and put it up on the beaches and we rolled it up in them, and I still think that the ultimate decision would be
sort of a dune and we put snow fence in there and planted with the State. Does that answer your question?
sea oats in and along the entire length of it and then L ether Skelton: to Mike Applegate:
fertilized it. Once it became vegetated I would say that it I-ow would you handle that Mike?
maintained that beach 10 to 12 times longer than it would Alike Applegate: We have had recent experience in that; a
have if it had not been vegetated. It is very important. ten-acrearea up onEscambiaBay.lt was outof ourjurisdiction
It is very important. actually because of indices that were not right with our laws,
John Hall: Question to Mr. Alien: but in any event, a man came in for a Federal 404 permit to
How would the Corps of Engineers handle the problem of fill a wetland area and the flood plain and there was marsh
industry trying to come into a region that has been restored %vegetation there, and there was a public uproar. Once the
in regard to the permitting of land? public announcement had beeai made and the project
Mr. Allen: The first most direct answer to how would the became so controversial, then I think that the public
Corps handle it: With a great deal of confusion. Our permits pressures on the State on an instance such as an industry in a

36 Adiministr-ation ofthe('oastcl Zonie

marsh would be such that they would never get a permit.
John Hall to Mike Applegate:
This is how it stands right now, but I am talking about after
the Coastal Zone Management Plan is approved a~nd
effected by the State.
Mike Applegate: If a marsh area were to be designated as an
industrial area, I don't believe that designation would
exceed the present environmental laws that the State has.
Am I wrong?
Darryl Segraves. Question to Mr. Cowley or Mr. A lien:
Are there any proposed dredge and fill operations for the
Port St. Joe area, and if so, what is the extent of such a
proposal?
Mr. Cowley; I'm afraid I can't answer that, so I'll pass the
buck down here.
Mr. Allen: To the best of my knowledge, the answer is
"No." Now I may be wrong on that, but there is something
that you should appreciate on this beach nourishment,
beach erosion problem, and that is the local participation
that is involved. There are a lot of times your representative
may recommend that the Corps go ahead and make such a
project, and the locality involved has to put up a
considerable wad of money, sometimes greater than the
community can afford. I mean it is just physically
impossible to do it. In such a case, I believe they go to the
legislature and get a State appropriation for this problem if
the community itself cannot handle it, and these are all the
millstones of democratic action and they grind slowly, but if
it is going to be a severe problem, I am quite sure that
eventually, at the request of local interest, things are going
to be done.
Mr. Cowley: I might elaborate on this just a bit. The federal
government in most cases will put up anywhere from 60 to
75 percent of the cost of these erosion projects. The State of
Florida will put an additional amount, but the States
requires that the local community match whatever amount
the State has to put up and sometimes this will cause a
-project to bog down. Now, I have not heard of one in the
Port St. Joe area.

planni ng

Planning is a subtle and often dangerous profession-- urban planning in the coastal zone. In the process, the
frequently for the planner. Of all aspects of public extreme dependence of the human community on
administration it involves the most delicate balance of the environmental balance was indicated in the case of New
various dimensions of management and the allocation of Orleans, Louisiana.
value. Patrick Ryan is well aware of this balance and the
fact that planning may in some cases be a severe political
process involving who gets what, when and how. In his
paper, Mr. Ryan indicates that much more than the present
is at stake and that the future may be quite difficult to
evaluate, especially when projects of very important short-
term benefit may lead to long-term disaster. A case in point
is the fact that the state of Louisiana is losing sixteen and
one half square miles of land per year and suffering
pronounced salt water intrusion of delicate estuarine
systems as a result of flood control measures which serve
important social and economic objectives.
Dan Penton echos this concern with the long and short
term view in planning as he reviews the Florida Coastal
Zone Planning effort. Mr. Penton sees this effort as a
necessary balance of development and environmental
interests which is multidimentional in approach. He
describes the use of test studies in the development of a
general planning procedure which must adjust to particular
demands of particular situations.
John Hall focuses on the management and planning of
one natural resource---fish habitats. He develops case
histories which demonstrate that planning and resulting
management involve a great deal of negotiation. He
indicates persuasively the danger of a "piecemeal approach
to planning." Finally he outlines a range of potential
research efforts regarding fish habitats which could be of
value in negotiating planning directors.
The discussion of this section concentrated to some extent
on the interrelation of federal, state, and local agencies in
planning and management. It highlights the extreme
complexity of the federal process and opened the question
of "one stop shopping" for development permits.
For a time the discussion centered on the problems of

38 Planning

Patrick W. Ryan
Director, Louisiana State Planning Office

Louisiana Coastal Zone Management
Program Development

The opportunity for me to talk with you today on what is management setup or administrative arrangements and
happening administratively in coastal zone management has authorities and boundaries which would have been the
come at a key time, because the Louisiana Legislature operating force in Louisiana. We felt that this would be
adjourned last week and we have our marching order for the healthier to do this year rather than next year so that we
coming year. could gear up for the management phase. However, the
I see that most of you are from Florida and only a few are Legislature felt that they would rather wait another year so
from Louisiana, so I thought that before we get too serious, we will have to do it without the guts of the legislation.
I might tell you a story about some of the people we have to We formed what we called a study management team
deal with on occasions in Louisiana. Many of them are from composed of four agencies: State Planning, Louisiana Sea
south Louisiana and live in the coastal zone, so when you Grant Program, the Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries
get involved in public participation programs you have to Commission and the Louisiana Coastal Commission. The
learn a few of their stories. Wildlife and Fisheries Commission is our present marine
It seems that Alphonse and Gaston were building a house and coastal management agency which reviews and
outside of Breaux Bridge, which is in the heart of the Cajun comments on Corps of Engineers applications, does marine
country, and Old Alphonse told Gaston, he say, "Gaston, research, and in essence, has an army of biologists and
go down there to the lumber yard and get us some 2x4's." enforcement individuals out in the field maintaining the
Old Gaston he go down there to the lumber yard and told coastal environment. We also have the Louisiana Coastal
that man, "Pardon me, I need some 2x4's." The man say, Commission, a commission that in the past has dealt
"OK, how many 2x4's you want?" Gaston said, "Goshdog, primarily with water resource activities surrounding the
I forgot to ask Alphonse that." So he went on back down Gulf Intercoastal Waterway. These four agencies have
there and asked Alphonse, he say, "Alphonse, how many of worked over the past couple of years toward evolving the
them 2x4's you want?" Alphonse say, "We going to need coastal management program, and along with the legal
about 150 of them 2x4's." So Gaston he went on back there research section at Sea Grant, we proposed a bill to the
to the lumber yard and he said, "Pardon me, I need 150 of Legislature.
them 2x4's." The man said, "All right, how long do you This bill could have done several things. One, it would
want them 2x4's?" "Goshdog man, I forgot to ask have placed the administration, what we call Section 306, in
Alphonse that." So he went to ask Alphonse, and you the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. We
know, Alphonse told him. Gaston went back once more to felt that this was important and Governor Edwards also felt
the lumber yard and the man said, "How long do you want that this was important because of the administrative and
them 2x4's?" Gaston said, "Pardon me, he said I want economic impacts of creating a new agency in government.
them 2x4's a long time; we're building a house, you know." Louisiana has recently completed a reorganization of state
As you can see, things can get a little confused down there government and is in the process of consolidating agencies.
in Louisiana. What I might do briefly today is tell you what So in that spirit, we recommended that Wildlife and
has happened relative to the development of our coastal Fisheries should be strengthened to handle the 306 Program
zone management program. I suppose that administratively, and that the planning agencies and research agencies would
as far as folks from Washington are concerned, we are going be involved in continuing planning aspects. As of now, the
into our third year, as are most states. We presented a bill to State Planning Office has been designated as contact for
the Legislature this year which would have established the Section 305 of the planning program. The designation for

tlannlin. 39

306 will move from State Planning to Wildlife and Fisheries, permits must be consistent with the state's activities in its
which is where we feel it ought to be. So that was one programs, to the maximum extent practical.
significant point. I suppose I have encountered one question more than any
Another point I would like to make is that our Wildlife other: If we set up a program in Louisiana, will that mean
and Fisheries Commission has perhaps the largest review that the Corps of Engineers are going to back off? The
load of any state in the nation. Louisiana receives around language in the amendments in Congress at the present time
3,000 permits a year for review and comment and around would clarify this point and specifically give the authority to
3,000 Corps of Engineers permits. In fact, 60 percent of all the Corps to delegate this type of authority to a state which
permits issued by the Corps of Engineers in the United Sates has an adequate program. We worked out a tentative
are issued in Louisiana. This is because our 10 million acres arrangement with the Corps in which they allow the state to
of coastal wetlands comprise 25 percent of the nation's provide the initiative, leadership and actual decision on local
total. So Louisiana, we feel, does have a great deal at stake and state matters, while they maintain the national type
in how its coastal resources are handled. As a matter of activities. We feel that is the way it should be. The Corps
fact, we in Louisiana call our program the Coastal requires a permit for any construction in the marsh, even for
Resources Program rather than Coastal Zone Management. such as a fishing camp, a boat dock, or a duck blind. Cease
We don't want the terminology to frighten our citizens. and Desist orders issued by the Army appear almost weekly
A great deal of activity exists on the Louisiana coast. In in newspapers across the state. This angers local people who
fact, as far as the fishing industry goes, we are the number would rather deal with state and local government. Solving
one state in the nation in pounds of fish and shellfish this problem will be difficult because traditionally we have
production. It is because of the Mississippi River's extensive had no support from state and local government. This is
estuarine system that the delta has built up over the years. why we need strong guidelines for the agency to utilize.
This is an extremely productive area. It is also an extremely These are some of the things we are building on.
active area as far as oil and gas is concerned. We have been We plan to establish a permit authority within the
interested in the new federal amendments, particularly those Wildlife and Fisheries Commission. Presently this authority
dealing with outer continental shelf development, because exists nowhere in Louisiana law. We can only comment on
oil and gas production is moving further offshore. In the permits. Of course, policy has been that the Corps turns
past we had a great deal of oil and gas development activity down any permits about which the state or local
in the coastal marshes. Now production is moving offshore governments comment adversely and agrees with those
into federal waters where we have absolutely no taxing which do not conflict with the national interests; however,
authority but at the same time are called on to support these the people in Louisiana would prefer a state and local
industries. So this is one of the reasons that we have been so permitting system rather than a federal system. I feel that if
interested in it. we pass substantive legislation in this coming year, we will
I might mention that we had recommended in our have worked out a liveable arrangement with the Corps. The
legislation that the state have a permitting authority similar Corps has agreed to work with us but wants to refrain from
to that of the Corps or Engineers for dredge and fill any agreement until a permitting procedure has been
operations. We had hopes that we could make a federal established and approved by the Legislature. This year we
consistency provision of Section 307 of the federal act work, passed a commission-type bill. In essence, it is a study
which means that any federal activity, project or program commission with the charge to come back next year to

40 Plann

present the Legislature with a substitute bill dealing with and Fisheries Commission is final member of the
boundary permits and agency designations. commission. The balance of local government appointees
Let me just move over to the map and I will explain. This versus the governor's appointees was a problem. Local
dark black line is a boundary recommended in our government wanted the majority but the governor refused to
legislation which is approximately five foot contour; in have an imbalanced commission.
Louisiana this is generally a break between the wetlands and Louisiana's highly productive wetlands environment is
the nonwetlands environment. We based this delineation on quite different from those of other states. The Mississippi
research done through Louisiana Sea Grant. They considered River, which drains more than one half the continental
all of the different biophysical characteristics of the area-- United States, has over geologic time built an extensive delta
saltwater content, species distribution, salt characteristics in southeast Louisiana. However, levees built in recent years
and other breakdowns such as salt, brackish, intermediate to control flooding have resulted in deterioration of this
and fresh marshes and swamps. Based on the language of delta and the extensive marsh system. This controlled river
the federal act, we have delineated what we feel is a situation is causing Louisiana to lose 16.5 square miles of
boundary acceptable to the federal government. A major land a year. In addition, the system has robbed estuaries of
point of controversy in the Legislature was the vast area their freshwater flow, which causes saltwater intrusion into
included, about ten million acres. We had excluded New previously fresh or brackish areas.
Orleans even though it is within the boundaries, and we had The legislation has proposed a one-half mile boundary
excluded what we call "fastlands," which are the areas that from the Supreme Court decision laying out the land from
are levied off, drained, and developed. In essence, this which the state's ownership three-mile limit would be
excludes most municipalities. We are primarily aiming our measured. The legislators agreed to the three miles, which
bill at the wetlands in this area on the map. This area is the would have been maybe one half inch on this map.
Atchafalaya Basin, the largest inland swamp (hardwoods) However, federal law does not refer to mileage, rather to the
and delta in the United States. The area goes as far as the measurable amount of seawater and intertidal basins. This
inland delta, but this area here is 77 percent dryland. For limit inevitably would have left out 90 percent of the viable
this reason, we use Interstate 10 as the cutoff. This is most coastal wetlands in Louisiana. Robert Knecht from the
of the wetlands and swamps in the Atchafalaya Basin. Lake National Office of Coastal Zone Management came to
Charles is here, and below are a series of game management testify before the Legislature, and Congressman John
areas and federal refuges along the coast. Over here are the Breaux also testified, but our Legislature was not convinced.
Rockefeller Refuge and Marsh Island. Legislators were not concerned with using contours as
The bill that received final passage set up a study measurement. They asked, "Why not the three footer, the
commission composed of the ten coastal parishes, or four footer, why not the two foot contour; why the five
counties, which are the Gulf-fronting parishes including foot?" Our answer was that the five foot is the one mapped
New Orleans. Each parish has one representative from their and that it approximates the wetlands, drylands, and
police jury (governing body of a parish) on the commission. boundaries. However, the mileage concept was, in the end,
The governor has ten appointees who include interest groups what the Legislature agreed on.
such as Oil and Gas, Outdoor Recreation, Ports and Negotiating the boundary of the coastal zone is going to
Shipping, Municipalities, and Industry and be our biggest task this coming year, that is, determining the
Environmentalists. The director of the Louisiana Wildlife area to be included in order to meet federal requirements. It

Planning 41

will be a year of negotiations between the state and federal Legislature it failed because we did not have the meaningful
authorities on the federal-state consistency question, as well approval of the key elected leadership, both local officials
as a year of developing guidelines to qualify for loans and and state legislators. Apparently we did not work hard
grants under the Outer Continental Shelf Program. It will enough, so we will be going at it again.
also be a year of negotiating between state and local One of the series of negotiations we have been involved
governments. There was a tremendous battle in Louisiana in this year has been with federal agencies, the Army, Air
with local government officials who did not want to be Force, Navy, Coast Guard, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Fish
dictated to. We referred to the language in the federal law and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Service, and
which permits local implementation but requires state Environmental Protection Agency. These meetings have
criteria and guidelines and state enforcement of those been sponsored by the Southwest Federal Regional Council,
guidelines. The local governments cannot receive more a conglomerate of federal agencies brought together to
authority than the federal law allows. The state has to be in address specific programs to assist the states. Willard Lewis,
the program for the maintenance and enforcement of the regional director of the Department of the Interior,
guidelines to prevent local governments from any violations, chairs these meetings. The Department of the Interior
Another point that is important is that the local assumed the lead role since the Department of Commerce
governments are very lucky to have received end-of-the-year had no regional offices. Since that time, the Department of
funding with OCZM. We will be able to provide funds Commerce has set up offices in the federal regions, and Rick
directly to these coastal parishes so they can begin the Montoya of the Department will assume these duties for
development of their own parish coastal management Willard. These meetings have succeeded in identifying
program. Identifying their issues, goals and problems and federal ownership in Louisiana by size and by classification
solutions to those problems at the local level, we feel, is of ownership and have clarified the federal decision making
extremely important. Presently there is a little money role in Louisiana. The initial data gathered showed that the
available for them, and the interest in the situation is Corps controlled around 250,000 acres of land in Louisiana.
changing. We feel that this is very important. Previously When the information was compiled and presented, even the
they felt left out, not that they were left out. We had co- Corps of Engineers was surprised to find that they
sponsored public participation in interest group meetings and controlled almost 400,000 acres.
elected official meetings all over the coast. Anyone can From our meetings we have learned that federal agencies
agree that this program is a good idea, but when a bill is seem to want to work with states. They have been very
written, i.e., put in the form of a proposed piece of cooperative, and I would suggest that it might be helpful to
legislation, it is often opposed. I would suggest that you in other states to work with the federal regional council in their
Florida who are working toward the same goals as we are in respective federal regions.
getting a program initiated should get ideas down on paper In the development of our program we have utilized the
and begin negotiating on legislation. I recommend this assistance of various state agencies and state universities in
because elected officials are attracted and interested in these gathering technical information. The Louisiana State
plans. A most extensive public participation effort, which University Sea Grant is doing a good deal of work in the
includes slide shows and presentations all over the state, biophysical and environmental characteristics and the
have been going on for quite some time, and these have been writing of guidelines. We are also getting the legal research
well-received. However, when Ihe bill reached the from the Sea Grant Legal Program. The University of

42 Planingj,

Southwestern Louisiana has worked with us on agriculture
and forestry research, and we are also doing a
characterization of the development of oil and gas industries
in the south central part of the state around Morgan City,
Louisiana, an area which is becoming an exporter of oil and
gas technology, particularly offshore. Other universities
from which we are receiving assistance are Nicholls State
University and the University of New Orleans. UNO, until
recently a branch of Louisiana State University, has an
excellent planning school, the only one in the state, and a
group there has done a characterization of the history and
suggestions for future expansion of interface between
growth in the urban areas and the wetlands. They are also
studying the effects of shell dredging in Lake Ponchartrain
on fishing and recreation, as well as the effects that
hurricane protection devices such as levees and locks would
have on productivity in Lake Ponchartrain and Lake
Maurepas.
These are the areas the State Planning Office is and has.
been working in toward coordinating the coastal
management effort. We are trying to involve local, state and
federal agencies, as well as universities, interest groups, and
individuals. If last year and the legislative sessions were an
indication of what lies ahead, this should be an exciting
year.
I appreciate being with you. If there are any questions, I
would be happy to answer them. Thank you.

Planning 43

Daniel Pen ton
Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning
State of Florida
Tallahassee, Florida

Coastal Zone Planning

I want to give you a brief overview of how Florida has social return." I think that statement alone is a guiding
addressed the Coastal Zone Management program and then principle that we in Florida have operated under. We are not
concentrate on where we are now and the kind of problems an environmental program, we are not a development
that we are facing as we approach the finalization of the program, but we are a balanced, rational program for the
State Coastal Management Plan and prepare for allocation of our coastal resources. The second comment
implementation of that plan. As George Allen indicated regards the concept that the coastal zone authority should be
yesterday, anybody can plan and some people can plan well, organized to prevent domination by State agencies charged
Very few people have the inclination or the guts to with narrower responsibilities. As we enter into the phase of
implement what they plan. I think our agency does. I won't trying to define the State's existing management authorities
take the credit for this since I am a newcomer compared and work out a relationship which will successfully meet the
with the originators of the planning methodology and requirement of the federal CZM program, we find that is the
approach. The intent of the people who founded the CZM single greatest problem we face. Very few agencies are
program in Florida was not to develop a plan for the sake of willing to come forth and give up their legislative
planning, rather, from day one, the intent was to set up a responsibilities. They are very prickly about this and it
management system that could be rationally realized and causes no end to the excitement that we face on a daily basis.
effective in managing the coastal resources. You've heard In the presentation by Dave Worley you had an indication
people mention the Stratton Commission report off and on, of the state statutes which established, in Florida, the
yesterday and last night. The formal name of that group was Coastal Coordinating Council; the first effort at the state
the Commission on Marine Science Engineering and level in Florida to address CZM and planning. This was
Resources. It was a blue ribbon committee established by Chapter 370.0211 of the Florida Statutes and it set out four
Lyndon Johnson; I believe the date was around 1966. In primary legislative directives and programs which have
1968, and 1969 they issued a report called Our Nation and resulted in programmed efforts on our part. These planning
the Sea. This report is the single document that you can efforts were directed toward'development of the State CZM
point to which turned the federal government around in Plan, utilizing available federal money as appropriate. We
dealing with environmental resources and resource were directed to conduct a continuous program of research
management. Reading through the report you can see the concerning coastal problems. We were directed to
basis, not only for the CZM Act, but for the National coordinate this program with all levels of government and
Environmental Policy Act and a full disclosure of federal we were directed to make available coastal management
agencies and the accountability of federal agencies. You can information to any member of government or the public,
also see some of the 1976 amendments which were added to upon request. This has formed the basis for the internal
the CZM Act expressed in this document. I would like to organization of our agency. As a result of some funding
mention a couple of comments from the Stratton changes at the State level, the research effort, conducted
Commission to give you some indication of the thoughts of over the last four or five years, has been cut back
the people who actually coined the term "Coastal Zone consistently. Our state legislature does not have a great deal
Management," and the intent behind their program. "The of understanding or tolerance for the funding of research
principles for the state coastal zone authorities were projects. Some of the causes behind this have been the
designed to include the concept of fostering the widest number of research projects in the past which were poorly
possible variety of beneficial uses so as to maximize net justified and poorly executed. As a result we all suffer.

44 Planning

We've seen the research/technical assistance program swing Management Atlas. It had some errors in it because of the
from primarily research to primarily technical support data material that we were working with, but for the first time
management, which is reflected in the maps that we have people could see what we had in the coastal zone and how
generated and in all the visuals that you have seen off and the existing legislation, rules and regulations of state and
on this year. After our methodology was established, which federal agencies impacted upon these resources. Shortly
was basically a modified overlay system, we began to map thereafter, we published the Recommendations for
the Coastal Zone in a manner that depicted the situation on Development Activities in Florida's Coastal Zone. This
the landscape and the way management and legislative again, was an attempt to pull together in a single document
actions affected these resources. The second thing that was the existing policies that were implemented on a day to day
done was to define a planning boundary. This boundary was basis by state agencies. This had never been done before.
a combination of the biophysical situation as well as some Many of the state agencies knew what their policies were but
aspects of a political delineation, in that we used the census they never bothered to write them down and we felt that it
enumeration districts that most closely approximated the was impossible for a developer, for another state agency, or
realistic physical environment that we were dealing with, interested citizens to adequately react to a given
The first test case or pilot study that demonstrated this development activity unless he knew what existing state
methodology was done in this area. It was the Escarosa policies were determining those activities. All of these
Study, which was a detailed, primarily biophysically efforts, were well received, but in 1972-1973 the force of the
oriented study dealing with Santa Rosa and Escambia environmental awareness that swept the country was
Counties. This area was picked because it had most of the beginning to diminish at the state level. We were peaking out
natural elements that we felt the coastal management on our economic assets.The building boom was beginning to
program should address. It has also experienced some of the top out; we were beginning to get too many condominiums
most severe problems that a coastal environment could and the mood of the legislature began to shift. It made us
experience. We, at the outset, determined that it was realize that there were missing elements in the data that we
inappropriate to re-create data. We preferred to utilize data were gathering which inhibitied a comprehensive
where it did exist and delve into the generation of new data presentation. We had not, up until that point in time, had
only when there was a defined need. The first report on that the opportunity to consider environmental quality and socio-
effort was the Escarosa Study. Then, in 1971, a report to the economic considerations and to plug these into our basic
1972 legislature was completed and was called the "Coastal methodology. So we decided we would pick a test study
Management in Florida-1971." That study demonstrated area, in the same manner as the Escarosa area was chosen,
that the methodology was appropriate, it did work, and we to test the expanded methodology. The Florida Keys were
felt that it was time to move on to a State-wide basis. As of chosen as the study area. The reason behind this choice was
1972 there was not one single source that one could go to that the keys were subject to a great many development
that showed the physical situation in Florida, what we had pressures, they were an extremely fragile and unique area as
in the way of coastal resources, and what we could afford to far as the state was concerned and something had to be
give up. There was not one single document that gave you done. In 1974 we published the Florida Keys Coastal
the comprehensive picture. Consequently, in 1972, Management Study. It indicated problem areas, it indicated
utilizing some old and new aerial photography, among other a great deal of state and federal jurisdictional overlap, it
tools, we published the 1972 Florida Coastal Zone indicated certain development potentials, it indicated certain

Planning 45

development constraints and it created an uproar. We like to was passed by the 1975 Florida Legislature. We feel that a
feel that we have been fairly successful because, based viable state coastal management plan has to be a type of
primarily on that report, the Governor and Cabinet two-tiered approach. There are certain areas where the state
designated the Florida Keys as an area of critical state already exercises jurisdiction; areas such as submerged
concern. We've been catching it over that ever since. bottoms, certain wetland areas (the state has water quality
In 1974 the monies made available under the 1972 Federal certification responsibilities as a result of 92-500 federal
Coastal Zone Management Act were first brought into the laws) but there are certain adjacent areas which are
state of Florida. At that point in time we expanded our staff important to intelligent coastal management and which are
to accommodate the additional requirements in meeting the outside the states normal regulatory responsibility. We feel
federal program and established a formal mechanism of that the best, most efficient way to expand rational control
working with local governments. In the cases that we and management over these adjacent areas is through local
handled, the biggest problem was that we didn't have government. We don't feel that the state legislature is of any
enough money or staff to work directly with the 38 coastal mind to create a greatly expanded state authority for
counties and some 250 coastal cities within our planning managing these adjacent areas and local government does
boundary. The next best alternative was to work through the have the necessary tools for effective management
regional planning councils as instrumentalities of local programs. The one thing that we are hoping that the
government. This has been fairly successful the first two legislature will do is readdress the Local Government
years and we're now finishing up our second year and Comprehensive Planning Act, especially the coastal
approaching our third year. In the first two years the protection element, and put in some additional language
regional planning councils developed base line data on - and some specific requirements for consistency between the
socio-economic considerations, land use, land ownership, developing state coastal management program and the
support services, etc. They are working at the present time coastal protection element. I can give you some sort of
on an environmental quality analysis. They are assisting us overview of how we see the draft plan developing, and give
in the development of areas of particular state concern and you some idea of the steps that we need to go through from
they are also working on power plant siting, deep water this point in time. I realize that I haven't addressed some of
ports, and outer continental shelf activities. the impacts that were generated by the 1975 Environmental
As we enter into our third year, we are regrouping now Reorganization Act, but from 1974 up through May 1975,
from a standpoint of data collection and trying to develop a the state agencies and the citizens at large were just
state coastal management plan that we can submit to the beginning to understand how the state permitting and
Governor and Cabinet, then to the Governor as Chief management system operated. The legislature decided it was
Planning Officer, and then to the legislature as required. In time to change. Perhaps in two or three years we may again
the third year, the regional planning councils will continue understand how the state management and permitting
to be involved, but the extent of the involvement will be system works. It has created quite a problem for us. We've
somewhat different from what it has been in the past. Their had to revamp our governmental authorities organizational
primary responsibility will lie in increasing the citizen charts and quite frequently when we talk with management
awareness of the state coastal management program and agencies or regulatory agencies at the state level, they don't
assisting local government in meeting the requirements of know what their legislative responsibilities are. That has
the Local Government Comprehensive Planning Act that created something of a problem. Our draft state plan will

46 Planning

consist of four or five chapters and I will list these briefly to together a draft plan, then the fun really starts and I can give
give you some idea of the content. The first chapter will be you sort of a step by step walk through on this. This is where
dealing with the coastal management program in Florida, we get into the political arena with both feet and I think it is
the historical overview and the intent and federal appropriate to remember the story that Abraham Lincoln
requirements behind it. The second one will be the proposed remembered in one of this biographies. It was 1863, the dark
standards, policies and criteria that need to be established to years as far as the union was concerned, in the Civil War,
have an effective state management plan, and within that, and they had just received information that the Union had
we would have a discussion of recommended priority uses in won one of those rare battles. The soldiers around the War
the coastal zone, as required by the federal legislation. A College were ecstatic, one soldier was esctatic and he ran
discussion of areas of particular state concern is also after Lincoln and said, "Mr. President, I feel very patriotic
required. The third chapter will deal with the existing roles and politically inclined." Lincoln was a little disconcerted
and responsibilities related to coastal management and with the apparent incongruity of the term politically
we're presently working with a consultant group at the inclined. He said, "I mean I either want to run for office or
University of West Florida to develop a compendium of steal something." I think this is the attitude we have to keep
state and federal laws, local ordinances, and court cases in mind when we move to obtain state approval of the plan.
which relate to coastal management. The intent behind this We're beginning the third contract year under the federal
is to understand what tools are available to us now that can program, and by January 1977 we will have a draft set of
be brought to bear on managing coastal resources and not state policy recommendations on coastal zone management
go out and set up an independent coastal management and a status report on how we intend to go through the
agency that duplicates activities already ongoing. We think development process as far as the Legislature and the
that this is a more intelligent use of the resources. The Cabinet are concerned. This will be submitted internally for
fourth chapter would be a proposed state managerial departmental view and then it will be submitted to the
networking and, in essence, is how the coastal management Governor and Cabinet for their review and instructions
plan would be implemented at the state level. I have alluded prior to preparing a final draft of the state plan. After we
to a two-tiered approach, with the state assuming certain have received the Cabinet's instructions, suggestions, and
roles in those areas which have traditionally been considered criticisms, and have taken those into consideration, then we
sovereign responsibility, and the local governments will develop the first draft of the state comprehensive
assuming the adjacent responsibilities. The last chapter coastal management plan and this would include published
would deal with continuing program development. We copies with pertinent supportative data. Then we will hold a
don't want this plan to be static. We want it to reflect the series of public meetings, public workshops and finally
real life situation and we feel the only way we can do this is public hearings as required by state and federal guidelines.
to establish a standardized method of updating the plan on a Our intent behind having public meetings and public
regular basis. This means updating not only the policy workshops is to attempt to reach those people who we
recommendations that have been developed jointly with haven't reached in the past. We have gone out of the way in
citizens groups, regional planning council, and state the two years that we have been in the federal program to
agencies, but also maps and the supportative technical solicit all coastal community users input into the program.
documentation that are important to local and regional We have tried conscientiously to take their comments into
planners as well as other state agencies. After we pull account on a rational systematic basis. Miost people don't

Planning 47

get concerned until we get right down and say, hey, we are problem for us is the time schedule for the 1976 Coastal
going to regulate you or its going to impact you directly. Management Amendments. I think these amendments are
We're going to try and flush out a lot of people from the good; they are needed; they increase the funding level and I
woodwork before we get to the formal public hearing so that think all these things are fine, but they throw us into
the public hearing would be nothing more than a somewhat of an awkward period. I would like to point out
perfunctory occurance. Concurrent with the public meetings the things that were specifically mentioned in the
we will be submitting our coastal management plan to the amendments which directly impact upon the planning
A95 clearing house process in an attempt to get as much process. They listed nine things in the amendments which
public input at one time as we can and make the appropriate have to be specifically addressed by the state during the
modifications to the draft plan. Then we will have what planning phase and six of these have already been done, in
would be referred to as a "second draft"' document that reaction to the guidelines established by the office of
would again go to our departmental review. At that point, Coastal Zone Management. I think we have a good start on
it will be placed as a formal item on the Cabinet agenda and the other three, but they will take some additional effort.
will be submitted to the Governor and Cabinet for their The first one is management boundaries. This requires
adoption. We hope that we have taken care of all the defining those boundaries which you intend to manage;
concerns raised by the Governor and Cabinet as a result of permissible land and water uses, areas of particular state
their first review and there won't by any hitches there. After concern, means by which you intend to implement state
we have received adoption from the Cabinet, the plan will be coastal management controls, priority uses of the coastal
submitted directly to the Governor as the Chief Planning lands and waters, including those of lowest priority uses,
Officer for the State of Florida. We assume that he needs to and the organizational structure for implementation. I think
vote in the affirmative on the Cabinet action, so therefore, we have a good hand on all of these and there is no real
when its submitted to him as a planning officer there won't problem. Now there are three additional things which
be any unforeseen problem. At that point, the Governor requires some additional work from the standpoint of our
determines whether or not additional state legislation is planning efforts and these include planning for beach
needed, and if so, submits that plan to the legislature and protection and public access and other selected
recommends the action that they need to take in order to environmentally significant areas, energy facility sighting,
give us an implementation system at the state level. He will and associated impacts, and shoreline erosion. All of these
also, at that point, send an information copy of the draft things are included in our program planning efforts but not
plan to the Office of Coastal Zone Management. I don't as distinct efforts, so they will require some additional
know how long it will take the legislature to act. I don't attention.
know the kinds of actions they are likely to take. I've given In general, that is the status of our coastal management
up betting on the legislature. I lost a lot of money last year. program. I know that we have a long road ahead of us and
When we get the necessary legislative action to implement there is one main thing that I hope to get across to the
the program, it will be returned to the Governor and then decision makers. We have to learn to live in a way that will
passed on to the Office of Coastal Zone Manmagement; and benefit the social environment as well as the natural
the Secretary of Commerce with the Governor's environment. Remember one principle, "Nature Bats
certification that the required elements of the Federal Act Last."
are met. Now one thing that is creating somewhat of a

48 Planning

John R. Hall
National Marine Fisheries Service
Southeast Region
St. Petersburg, Florida

An Application of Coastal Resource
Management and Conservation

Introduction Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act. As an indication of the
regional work load under the Act, the Southeast Region
receives each month, an average of about 470 public notices
Under the Reorganization Plan Number 4 of 1970, the advertising permit applications for work in waters of the
U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries became the National United States. We are further involved in meetings with
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and was transferred from applicants, and in planning processes leading to new federal
the Department of Interior to the Department of projects (channel deepenings, dams, for example) and
Commerce. The NMFS is a branch of the National Oceanic maintenance of older ones (Pensacola Harbor, Mobile Bay,
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) which includes Tampa Bay, for example). Other agencies seeking responses
agencies such as the National Ocean Survey (NOS), are the Coast Guard, Bureau of Land Management, Forest
National Weather Service (NWS), and the Office of Coastal Service, Federal Highway Administration, Nuclear
Zone Management (OCZM). Regulatory Agency, and the Environmental Protection
One of the goals of the NMFS is to restore, maintain, Agency. The EPA for example, solicits commentary on an
enhance and utilize in a rational manner, fisheries resources average of 150 National Pollution Discharge Elimination
of the United States. Achievement of this goal is in large System Permits (NPDES) each month. Added to these totals
measure charged to the Environmental Assessment Division are requests for review of Environmental Impact
(EAD), an organization of which I am a part. Statements, statements at public hearings, coordination
with various state agencies, and review and commentary on
Coastal Zone Management plans. On an annual basis, over
Mission, Responsibilities, and Work Opportunities 14,000 opportunities for response are made available in the
Southeast Region alone. Obviously, we cannot respond to
each work opportunity with equal alacrity and detail, and
The Environmental Assessment Division's major mission priorities must be set. The potential irreversible impact of a
is protection of fishery habitat. This is accomplished by project on the Nation's living marine and estuarine
reviewing, evaluating, and providing comments and resources is a major criterion determining a priority work
recommendations on projects controlled or initiated by situation.
constructing, licensing, and permitting agencies. This task is Following determination of a priority work situation, two
undertaken by a total of 55 biologists and other requirements must be met:
professionals stationed throughout the country in five
regions. The Southeast Region has 12 EAD biologists: 3 in To specifically identify problem areas in relation to
the regional office in St. Petersburg, Florida; 3 in Beaufort, protection and/or enhancement of fishery habitat and,
North Carolina; 2 in Panama City, Florida; and 4 in
Galveston, Texas.
Xn accordance wihurmisinnTo formulate constructive, innovative, and attainable
In accordance with our mission, numerous requests for
recommendations designed to accomplish a resolution of
commentary, suggestions, revisions, and recommendationss deti
concerning water development projects arrive each day. The
primary user of our responses is the U.S. Army Corps of To fulfill the first requirement, we call upon personal
Engineers who seeks our response under provisions of the knowledge, experience, and training. We will also involve

Planning 49

personal contact, coordination with other arms of the revised application reducing the proposed losses of
Service, or other agencies, such as the Fish and Wildlife waterbottoms and marsh to 40 and 5 acres respectively. The
Service (FWS), and searches of the literature. The second fuel oil facility was deleted from the revised proposal.
requirement involves the constructive interaction between Recognizing these concessions, the Corps urged speedy
our interests in protecting habitat and those described in the commentary by the NMFS and other agencies. A
request for commentary and recommendations. Eventual discomfiting aspect was that a draft EIS of questioned
resolution of a problem may involve negotiations, and thoroughness had been circulated and the final EIS had not.
occasionally a certain amount of verbal combativeness. In It also appeared that the facility was a small portion of a
some cases it does not. As an indication of the former long-term, large-scale, harbor deepening. Wary of a
process, two abbreviated case-histories are presented. piecemeal approach to planning, it was almost unanimously
concluded that the role of the facility in the Port's long-
range plans should be discussed, and in June 1975, and
Case Histort' I: Coal handling, spoil disposal, and
maintenance of estuarine resources interagency workshop was formally proposed. By October
1975, the workshop had not been scheduled and the Corps
In 1972, a prospering Mississippi seaport disclosed an sent telegrams to commenting agencies requesting final
interest in providing a site for a 526-acre combination coal recommendations. The almost uniform reply was that a
and fuel oil handling facility. The harbor was a successful joint workshop would be held, that the final EIS was not at
shipping center and the labor, finances, and social climate hand, and that current plans clearly depicted irreversible
were generally favorable to such a project. losses of 45 acres of estuarine habitat.
An industrially zoned upland site was available but the In December 1975, the workshop was held. The Port
facility would also require filling of about 180 acres of described its long-range plans in relation to the project. The
estuarine waterbottoms and 50 acres of saltmarsh, and developers of the coal handling facility described their
dredging of 10 acres of saltmarsh. These activities required a needs. The EPA, NMFS, FWS, and state agencies described
Department of the Army permit, and an application was their concerns. A face-to-face encounter allowed each party
made and circulated for review. Due to the size, location and to make its position, responsibilities, and needs known. It
potential impact on the human environment, an was agreed that problems associated with the permit
environmental impact statement was later prepared and application could be resolved.
circulated for review in early 1974. Responses to the One month later, in a space of one hour, the losses of 45
statement were mixed. Local sponsors were aware that the acres of waterbottoms and marsh were reduced to 10 acres
facility could possibly be shifted to another location and of marsh. The 40 acres of fill was eliminated since the
urged that the permit be given priority status. They also transfer of the coal to ships could be successfully and
notified their congressman who similarly urged resolution of economically undertaken from a system of trestles and
the application. piers. It was also agreed that 15 acres of new saltmarsh
Meanwhile, the Corps had been evaluating responses to would be created from uplands adjacent to the facility. The
the original application and the draft EIS. Facing a basic capabilities of the coal handling facility were
questioning analysis regarding the necessity of losses of unchanged. The originally proposed filling and dredging of
some 240 acres of waterbottoms and wetlands, the Corps 240 acres of marsh and waterbottoms were eliminated.
initiated discussions with the applicant that resulted in a Following circulation of a letter from the Corps outlining

50 Planning

these conditions, uniform responses of no objection were permanent destruction of 1 18 to 150 acres of marshlands.
received and the permit was issued. The final EIS filed with Telephone and written communications by several state
the Council of Environmental Quality included the and federal agencies noted their understanding that the
alternative plan after which the permit was issued. bridge could not be built from itself but reiterated that an
environmentally less damaging spoil disposal solution
should be sought. Another workshop was convened with the
Case History 2: The bridge across the bay: Economics and development of additional alternatives: (a) disposal in a
ecology interact borrow pit six miles from the bay and 150 feet in elevation;
(b) use of the material to create a marina and convention
By public notice dated October 8, 1973, the Corps of facility in the bay near the city; and (c) use of nearby sites
Engineers identified a project to dredge and fill in Mobile that were already diked or upland and held by various state,
Bay, Alabama. Dredging was to take place to a depth of 9 federal, and private property owners.
feet below mean low tide to construct a barge work channel Following joint field investigations, an upland location
139 feet wide and 6.9 miles long. The purpose of the work near the site was purchased by the Federal Highway
was to allow construction of a four-lane bridge for Administration, enclosed by dikes, and spoil from the work
Interstate Highway 1-10. Approximately 863,000 cubic channel was pumped inside. Construction of the bridge
yards of material would be removed by hydraulic dredge began immediately following this action. Losses of wetland
and was proposed to be placed on any of three wetland sites habitat were reduced to that removed by construction of the
in a state park. Review of the notice and field inspections work channel. These losses were not regarded as irreversible
revealed that the dredging would remove about 18 acres of since the channels would probably fill in over a reasonable
coastal marsh and 200 acres of shallow waterbottoms. length of time. It was also recognized that the work channel
Disposal of dredged material would bury some 200 acres of became the only access route across upper Mobile Bay at
marsh. low tide. Generally too shallow for commercial traffic, the
Faced with these losses, a joint FWS and NMFS letter was channel is used by fishermen and hunters utilizing the
issued in December 1973. The response detailed the value of estuarine resources safeguarded by the habitat protection
the habitat to be impacted and recommended that effort.
construction be undertaken by building from the bridge It is apparent that many of the problems, philosophies
itself, thus, obviating requirements for either dredging or and viewpoints governing actions described in these case-
disposal of dredged materials. histories will affect coastal zone management. The CZM
On March 7, 1974, participants at an interagency Act provides that competitive interests be given a voice.
workshop discussed construction and disposal alternatives. Management decision however, should be made on facts
The following disposal alternatives were considered: (a) and informed opinion. Writing in the May-June 1976 issue
refilling the work channel after construction, (b) open-water of Fishersies, Robert H. White-Stevens quoted Sir Peter
disposal in the bay and (c) use of Corps of Engineers' sites Medewar:
used for maintenance dredged materials from Mobile
Harbor. The highway department however, concluded that "There is a strange ambivalence abroad today in
disposal on the park represented the most economical scientific and philosophical circles as if the
method of handling the spoil although this would entail insufficiency of precise evidence and man's reasoning

Planning 51

has curiously bestowed a paradoxical validity to 5. It is most probable that navigation channels act as
nonsense." passageways for subadult fish and shellfishes, especially in
We shall probably never overcome an insufficiency of areas such as Mississippi Sound. Accordingly, are there
precise evidence. However, answers to the following acceptable or totally unacceptable dredging periods based
questions should diminish some of the uncertainty in the on seasonal passages of estuarine dependent organisms?
decision making process.

Research Efforts Of Value To The Management Process 6. Studies should be undertaken to describe various
physical modifications that would increase marsh
1. Comparative productivity values of differing productivity. Cutting shallow channels through marsh
substrata and waters should be determined. For example, vegetation, such as Juncus, to increase tidal flushing could
how much biomass or productivity would be lost by filling become a fishery management practice.
an acre of sand, mud, or marsh? Can this be turned into
pounds of fish or shellfish or into dollars? Also, by knowing
comparative values, mitigative measures can be specifically 7. Are there long-term effects (or problems) of placing
proposed. A counterbalancing might involve, for example, 3 oil and gas well drill cuttings and/or drilling muds in
acres of mud bottom being replaced by 2 acres of oyster reef estuarine and marine waters although petroleum residues on
on another mud bottom. Perhaps 1.5 acres of grass bed the cuttings and muds are within water quality criteria
could be created on a sand substratum.Perhaps 3.7acres of limits?
estuarine pond could be established on a comparable
acreage of fastlands adjacent to the shore.
8. We should know annual and seasonal average and
minimum freshwater flows needed to sustain or enhance the
2. Comparisons should be developed that more fully present levels of production of oysters, shrimp, and other
describe contributions to estuarine productivity by marsh estuarine-dependent organisms. Answers to these questions
plants such as Spartina patens, Distichilus sp. and Juncus could exert a powerful influence on coastal zone
sp. to that of Spartina alterniflora at various elevations in management decisions, mainly because of the competitive
relation to tidal inundation. Also, the elevation at which requirements of industry for the same fresh water.
optimum growth and density of each species occurs should In conclusion, we see the evolution of mutual
be determined. Again, answers describing pounds of fishes consideration by both developmental and environmental
or recreational or commercial dollars based on their interests. We are reminded that state and federal legislation
existence and perpetuation may be required. has set forth the rules and thus the roles of this mutuality.
The National Marine Fisheries Service acknowledges the
3. Can impoundments of high marsh or upland be used challenges of this undertaking and will carry out its mission
as tools for mitigation and enhancement? in an informed and equitable manner. By doing so, the
concept of restoration, enhancement, and rational
4. Can successional phases of a community be managed utilization of the fisheries resources of the United States will
to produce greater output of desirable species or become a functional reality and a significant aspect of
commurities? coastal management.

52 Planning

Planning:
Panel Discussion

George Alien question directed to Pat Ryan: trying to work out arrangements with the Corps and the Fish
Pat, how does your CZM program handle, at the present and Wildlife Service to protect this natural habitat here. in
time, such problems as the proposed use of the Bonne Carre the Bonne Carre Spillway, after every flood, they let people
Spillway for the release of waters through Lake Borne to go in there and haul out filled material. Again, there is a
enhance water quality. tremendous buildup of fill in there, but it's a situation that
Pat Ryan: For those who are not from Louisiana, we are just going to have to live with and do the best we can
periodically folks up North have to contend with a lot of with because without opening Bonne Carre or the
rain and snow; but we in Louisiana have to contend with the Atchafalaya Basin, you are going to flood New Orleans. It is
water from that rain and snow. Periodically, we have flood also the reason they put locks or darns up on Old River.
stages that require some outlet in addition to the Mississippi Without that setup, the Mississippi River would have
River. Basically, there are two outlets. One is the changed its course and gone down the Atchafalaya Basin
Atchafalaya Basin that I mentioned to you. The Corps built isolating Baton Rouge and New Orleans. You would also
it as a result of the 1927 flood and put locks on the have had a tremendous influx of saltwater up the river. So
Atchafalaya River. The other outlet is the Bonne Carre this is what the situation is with the flood control structures.
Spillway which is utilized to run flood waters from the They are required--in fact, even with them open, New
Mississippi River through Lake Pontchartrain out to Lake Orleans really is on the brink of flooding. If a situation
Borne. They have had to use these-in fact, they used both of would arise where flood waters were coming down from the
them recently in the 1973 flood that we had. What this does North and a hurricane were coming from the South, New
is change the salinity and productivity in the Lake Orleans would be wiped out. There are just not enough
Pontchartrain area. We felt that this short-lived decrease in control mechanisms to handle that much water. As a
production due to the large amounts of freshwater from the geologist at Louisiana State University told me, he said,
Mississippi River would, in the long-run, be beneficial due "Man, it is really a very' dangerous situation. If that
to the addition of nutrients. One of the disadvantages the circumstance were to ever happen, there would be a
spillways have is the fact that they (use the Atchafalaya tremendous loss of life and everything else in that area." So,
Basin for example) reduce in capacity because when you let basically, the reason the Atchafalaya Basin is so productive
the water out into the basin, the rate of flow slows down, is because of the annual overflow that spills in there. We feet
and a lot of silt drops out causing tremendous siltation in the the same, as a result of Bonne Carre utilization for the
basin areas. This causes two problems. One, from the Corps' spillway, about the park and range system. It does
standpoint, is that it reduces the ability of the floodway to temporarily knock back the productivity of those people
handle flood waters. And, from the fisherman's-hunter's who require the salinity balance, but in the long-run, we feel
standpoint, it fills up a lot of the natural lakes and swamps it is beneficial.
and areas that have traditionally been outstanding hunting Dr. Skelton: You know, yesterday, the first presentation we
and fishing areas. In fact, there is a gradual filling of the had was Dr. Tanner's. He mentioned, in passing, that New
basin from north to south; and as it fills, it changes from a Orleans was sinking into the Gulf. At other times, several
wetland habitat to an upland habitat and is then available people who talked here at the symposium have mentioned
for things like agricultural production. So they pull the trees the same thing. Now, as Planning Director of the State of
out and put in beans. This is something that is causing a lot Louisiana, what do you have in mind?
of people concern. The Atchafalaya Basin Commission is Pat Ryan: We've got a number of sinkage problems in

Planning 53

Louisiana. In Baton Rouge, some areas have sunk six feet in looking at various studies that have been completed
industrial areas. This is the result of extreme high rates of regarding the cost of development, both to the homeowner
freshwater pumping in the industrial areas. It just changes and the public.
the hydrostatic pressure holding the area up, and it sinks Geraldine Bachman: Well, what about responsible
when you pull that water out. New Orleans sunk two feet in developments? Are they grouped in various categories?
the past thirty years--again, from the freshwater pumping Pat Ryan: Well, we hear most from Harold Cook with the
below the city. They don't have too much freshwater to New Orleans East or Eden Isles type of development. They
pump out below it, but they get a lot of their water out of are trying to work with us, as best they can, to minimize
the Mississippi River. They have that type of subsidence damage, and they realize the obvious opposition they can
problem in the outlying areas. New Orleans was built on a run into. The greatest problem is the New Orleans area.
natural levee; and as the population has expanded, they Too, around Morgan City area, where there is a lot of oil
have gotten further and further away from the natural levee. and gas development, the city has not space for expansion
Because of expansion, marshes have had to be drained for without ring leveeing, pumping out and filling.
subdivisions. Sometimes these areas will catch on fire Amy Ferdinand: You mentioned a seawall in the Lake
because they are such high organic heat-generating areas. In Borne Area that we were discussing. How is this compatible
order to develop this area, the houses have to be built on with the Bonne Carre Spillway? Would it back the waters up
pilings. However, the driveways and sidewalks are not built in the Lake Pontchartrain?
on pilings. Therefore, everything sinks, but the house. If Pat Ryan: Well, there are provisions to open the gates to let
you drive around Metarie, you will notice that the older the flood waters escape. The Corps of Engineers handles
houses look like they were constructed on hills. However, both of them. They would naturally not create a dam that
they were built flat and everything else around them has could not handle the flood waters.
sunk. Because of the sinking problem, gas lines will become Bruce Johnson: I've got a question, and I'd like to make a
dislodged causing minor explosions. This has happened comment. First the quesion. Pat, I understand you to say
several times in the outlying areas of New Orleans. Gas and that you have a supplement to your grant this year, and you
water lines cannot withstand the sinking. Movement of the were able to fund some parishes. Could you give us a sample
earth is also causing problems with the streets and sidewalks amount for a typical parish because we are now looking at
buckling. Dan Earl of LSU conducted a subsidence study, the same problem.
and he estimated an annual maintenance cost of $600 per Pat Ryan: We are talking about approximately $15,000 with
year (per house) to maintain these homes built on unstable the parishes putting up the matching funds. We feel by
soil or wetlands areas of the state. You will see where some providing the matching funds and participating in the
people have boards leading to their garage because their planning phase of the program, the parishes will feel more a
driveways have sunken and they cannot afford to part of our program. Twenty-two parishes are included in
reconcrete. The price of developing wetlands, I think, is the coastal area. However, I don't believe all will
becoming prohibitive. participate.
Geraldine Bachman: Does the managerial program include Bruce Johnson: Have you got enough money for 15 x22?
regulations and guidelines about where building can occur? Pat Ryan: The amount of money distributed to each parish
Pat Ryan: Yes, we are designing so-called development will depend on the wetland area in each parish. We are going
guidelines with the University of New Orleans. We are to base the distribution primarily on the acreage of wetlands

54 Planning

in the parishes. Some parishes only have a small area. we've got to bite this business." They have a way of sort of
Geraldine Bachman: With regard to funding local getting down to rock-bottom issues there in the legislature.
governments, I think that is one of the best ideas you can Bruce Johnson: I wanted to elaborate on just one point that
have when you are trying to develop your program. In the Dan Penton touched in our program. He mentioned the
new amendments, there is a new provision on 305 called organizational structure to implement the plan, and this is
"Partial Implementation." It is, or it can be coded, 305 and the real toughy in the whole program. We got our feet wet in
1/2. It is implementation money to implement certain parts this in the Florida Keys in the very memorable public
of the program before the whole program is approved. It is hearing down there that started about 7:30, a public meeting
like contingent approval for certain segments. You can get actually, and went well past midnight to standing room only
implementation money for that and it seems one idea to-feed audiences; We were presenting our findings. We had
into the process in doing rules and regulations would be to researched the various agencies controlling part of the
try to get some of that early implementation money for local marine and terrestrial resources in the Florida Keys. So we
governments to develop and implement their programs. I looked at them and went out and got the largest piece of
know that in the state of Washington, that is the program paper we could find, and we started plotting the name of the
that has been approved into 306 now. The money thatthey agency, what they did, and what their authorities were.
were passing through the local governments was really an Then we went out and got another sheet, and we
important incentive to the state to get the program on line. scotchtaped that to the other sheet. The thing ended up like
It was so important that they had local government pqople a window shade. It would go from the top of the ceiling to
in Washington DC lobbying to get that program approved, the floor; there were 42 agencies from the federal level down
because they wanted that money at the local government to the local government level that were separately
level. I think that could be a very good handle, and I think controlling, or managing part of the puzzle down there. We
that when you all come to Washington and give your views unrolled that in front of all these people and a "Conch" (for
on the new provisions, that might be something you could those of you not from Florida, Pat Ryan's got his "cajuns"
think about. we've got our Florida "Conchs") from the back of the room
Pat Ryan: I will agree with that. It is amazing when you jumped up and shouted, "Never have so few been governed
have money available how this will change people's by so many," and he stormed out. This has been a real
opinions. problem since the 1960's and continuing in the 1970's.
Geraldine Bachman: It is a way to get at the whole political Congress and the state legislatures, in other states and
participation, or whatever we want to call it, effort, because especially in Florida, have been spewing out agencies to
the local government (that is really where the people are)-- solve a special problem that comes up. It's a reaction.
and the local people, when they can begin to see how they Nobody has taken a big step backwards and looked at what
are going to benefit, that when they really start backing we've done. So they're all stepping on each other. We try to
Coastal Zone Management. consider each executive director. He is looking down a
Luther Skelton: You don't mean sort of a payoff? tunnel. There are so many things going on, yet he has got to
Geraldine Bachman: No, I don't! mind his own business. As a result, he has tunnel vision. We
Pat Ryan: There was a lot of talk about the carrots, and they try to take a picture of what he is seeing at the end of the
even mentioned bribes in the legislative testimony. One guy tunnel, put it on a wall and then we get a mosaic. In effect,
said, "Look, we want to know how big the bribe is before we see some guy saying the same thing three times. Well,

Planning 55

thats the guts of coastal management--to weed something development, rather than having discouraged it.
out and to take an overview position. Let's streamline this Pat Ryan: Well, there is a tremendous amount of
confusion, and get a role for local government for regional controversy over the Federal Flood Insurance Program in
overview, state, and federal roles and put it together.That's Louisiana. I'm not sure if it is a result of the extent that the
all I have to say. communities are using the Block Grant Funds to offset these
Phillip Tallon: I am here representing the Florida Area types of development costs. In fact, I sort of doubt that they
Office of the United States Department of Housing and could be. We've had a number of problems with it and with
Urban Development, and we have a number of programs in the Flood Insurance Program, particularly the mapping of
HUD that may be related to some of the things you talked what is and what isn't a flood area. They've utilized a lot of
about here and this is what Bruce said, I guess HUD is core data and information. We feel there is better
taking some steps backwards in as much as we've done away information available that would provide the people in
with a lot of our individual consolidating programs. We Louisiana with less hardship in development. Federal Flood
have a new program that was created a few years ago called Insurance people were in our office a while back. They're
"Community Development Grant Program." It covers all kind of frustrated with their efforts to get something going
the previous things that were separately covered under in the state; the Department of Public Works is the one that
Urban Renewal, Open Space and Public Facility Grants and handles the flood insurance effort from the state standpoint,
Loans and things of that nature. But I wanted to ask Pat and they're sort of not doing it--not going after it too strong
something. I'm not familiar with the situation in Louisiana, and hard because it is against their basic philosophy. They
but I have heard that you have some special provisions wanted us to get involved in the thing, and we told them
under the "Federal Flood Insurance Program" which is "Well, we would be happy to help you if you would pay us
administered out of Federal HUD, particularly as far as to help you," but they didn't seem to have any money for
New Orleans and some of these other very low areas are us to help them with, so we just kind of told them to come
concerned. New Orleans, I understand, or at least a good back when they had funds. I can't see the Block Grant
portion of it, is below sea level. And I was wondering if Program subsidizing homes that are in flooded areas or
you know of any situations in which any of the HUD flood-prone areas, and this is the thing that they're having a
communities have used development Block Grant Funds to difficult time with--laying out what are the flood-prone
cover any of these subsidence costs that are involved in areas and what aren't the flood-prone areas. This is the area
development, either existing development or future that we've got the problem with at the moment. We've done
development in relation to insuring development in low- a great deal of mapping in soil-data and flood data
lying areas, or so-called high-hazard flood areas, under the information that's contrary to the maps put out by HUD.
Federal Flood Insurance Program? And the reason I'm So, I don't deal directly with the administration of either the
asking that is because I understand that in some places and Flood Insurance Program or the HUD Community Block
in Florida in particular, which Iguess has the bulk of the Grant Program. We are participating in the 701 Statewide--
communities involved and certified under the Federal Flood as far as the land use and housing--Program; but I know
Insurance Program, the coming about of the Federal Flood that there are severe problems with it, and we're trying, if
Insurance Progam has had an impact on the shoreline and HUD can come up with some funds to help. HUD wants to
the coastal areas, which is just the opposite from what was develop guidelines and manuals for communities to go by in
originally anticipated in that it sort of spawned some implementing their flood insurance program which don't

56 Planning

exist right now. There is just a lot of confusion you know, Insurance Program and the Block Grant Program as a local
on behalf of the people. program and decisions on how communities are going to use
Luther Skelton: I echo that a little bit. I was in charge of the it are made locally and the community decides if they want
program in the state of Missouri when I was Director of to use it to correct some subsidence program or something
Planning for the Department of Natural Resources there. else. You would have to figure out your role in relationship
One of the problems we had was that, frankly, we didn't get to that.
enough federal financial support to the state to make it Pat Ryan:~ One of the reasons the states are not that much
worthwhile to really get into the Flood Insurance Program. involved in this is because money is poured down to the local
We couldn't afford it. And I think that is one of the community and the states look at it as a local matter. I see
problems that you all are going to have to get through weaknesses in that. I don't think it ought to be moved from
somehow. There is going to have to be some federal support a local problem to a state problem at all. However, having a
for the states in order to make it worthwhile in terms of time 100'percent local program with zero state involvement, is
and people. not going to work either. I think the state could provide
Phillip Talton: The Block Grant Program has really just HUD and the communities with the needed data and
gotten off the ground. Even though it's about two years old, mapping type things neither one of them have now.
we're really in the first implementation year, and we're Phillip Talton: Well, this sort of points out the need for state
beginning to see what communities are really doing. They agencies like yours and the other that are here.
really just got their funds a short while ago. In the state of Pat Ryan:~ It is going to take some money because no state
Florida, the bulk of the funding seems to have gone either agency anywhere in the United States will go out and spend
into housing rehabilitation efforts--which you all are not too their money to do it for you--unless they dearly love that
concerned with here--or into things like drainage and public kind of thing.
facilities, utilities and to a certain extent, into canal activity Phillip TalIon: And the regional agencies to get involved;
and things of that nature in the coastal areas. And they are doing that thing here in Florida.
presuming this program will continue, and it will get Pat Ryan: About tunnel vision: HUD has just gotten a new
additional funding after the third year--and who knows brand of tunnelitis. The 701 program used to be a
what will happen if we get a democratic administration-- we comprehensive program. Well, Congress beat them about
really might take off. We may see more funding going into the head and shoulders so they decided to concentrate on
these kinds of things. land use and housing. I have a Ph.D. Sociologist doing
Luther Skelton: It has to be one of the more important studies involving human resources. I advised her that under
programs, federal programs involved in coastal zone our HUD grant she could no longer work on human
management. There is no question about that, but I'm resources--she must concentrate on doing housing work.
reminded of Bruce's view of the projected Federal "But," she said, ''It's important to the overall
Organization Chart on the wall, and how you (HUD) fit in comprehensive view." I advised her that because of our
the mosiac, and I guess we're all trying to figure that out. HUD funding, she would have to work on housing or she
You know it is one of the things we've got to communicate would be out of a job.
more about--so that some kind of coherent view of the Jeff Fisher: I would like to ask Dan Penton a direct question
Federal coastal zone direction emerges. that relates to what Mr. Johnson was saying-by the way, I
Phillip Tal/on: One final thing. We view the Flood happen to be a "Conch" and I was at that meeting that

Planning 57

night-what specific mechanisms are being contemplated or presently does, going through three or four agencies to get a
are going to be tried to get all these state and federal local permit to build?
agencies with specific or narrower roles in coastal zone Dan Penton: No what we envision especially as it relates to
management to relinquish some authority and to get Federal actions, is that with an approved coastal
something done in a management sense? management plan, Federal actions, for example in the Corps
Mr. Penton: We have about four or five suggestions or case, they won't issue a dock permit or a dredge and fill
alternate ways of approaching the problem. One is that, at permit for a project that is found to be inconsistent with the
the present time, we are identifying the existing, regulatory adopted and approved state plan. What we anticipate and
authorities at the state level--those that will require the least would like to see in Florida would be a one-stop effort from
amount of legislative tinkering to realize the comprehensive the standpoint of a coastal management certification and
plan. It appears that the state level of the Department of permitting that would be issued at one point in time based
Natural Resources with their coastal construction setback, on one application. Without coastal management
their land ownership responsibilities and marina permitting certification being separate at the state level, you may get a
or releasing; the Department of Environmental Regulations, permit from the Department of Environmental Regulations
from the standpoint of their permitting program and water for a marina, but it its on sovereignty waters, you've got to
quality certification program; and, the state Division of go back to the Department of Natural Resources and get a
State Planning, which has the authority as a result of 1972 lease to use that land or buy it or what have you. And so, in
legislation to develop a comprehensive land and water Florida, the Environmental Reorganization Act--which was
management plan for Florida, are all involved. Now we can intended to streamline the permitting system--really didn't
either opt to go with either one of those programs and build do anything except shuffle people around. It is still the
the coastal management program around that; we can biggest mess you've ever seen from the standpoint of an
operate from the standpoint of an interagency agreement or individual application. A similar problem but in another
legislation to that effect, saying these people will meet area--fisheries--John Hall, maybe you would like to feel
together and reach broader-based coastal management this. What is going to be the agreement among state and
decisions as a unit. I suppose, we could establish a separate federal agencies in managing fisheries? Another question
coastal management agency which I don't think will ever relates to your research items. I'm wondering about
happen in Florida. It is against our basic philosophy of offshore fisheries' resources that might be affected by
creating additional layers of red tape. But basically, what coastal activity. I noticed that all your research ideas related
we're striving for is to have a management system that to estuaries, bays and marshes. What about snappers and
utilizes what we have at hand and makes each of these groupers and other valuable offshore fisheries--codfish in
agencies, which has narrower responsibility, cooperative the northeast.
through a vehicle of intergovernmental agreements, John Hall: Well, the way I look at it, if we can streamline
interagency agreements or a specific legislative act to, in any of these processes its fine with me. I've got a territory
effect, broaden their vision to incorporate economics for the that runs from the East Pearl River in Louisiana all the way
social environment as well as say water quality. There's got through Mississippi and Alabama, both coasts in Florida
to be some balancing there, that that's our primary and Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. That's all right, I
approach right now. have an assistant; a part-time secretary. If we can find some
Mr. Fisher: Will a citizen have to operate the way he ways to handle these permit problems as they relate to

58 Planning

fisheries and other forms of natural resources, that's fine with up our minds what kind of percentage of population change
me. If coastal zone management is going to do this, I'm all we are going to describe. So it's a tough, tough problem. I
for it. Just in day-to-day operations, I find that this is a envision a greater role on the part of NOAA offshore, using
terribly complicated process, just trying to deal with people, vessels. The National Fisheries Service, for heaven's sake,
because I don't think we're ever going to get away from has laboratories and a lot of people who deal specifically
situations where a permit will be required. And once we get with these resources, and I think we ought to get their
into situations like this, tradeoffs of industrial municipal efforts involved in this too.
recreational activities for long-term naturally producing Luther Skelton: I had a question to tack on to some of the
resource systems, we've got a serious conflict of interests. I concepts that were mentioned here, John. You know it
:hink those interests must be strongly represented. I also almost appears that commercial fishing is at about the stage
have a slight problem in trying to get it all under one roof. of advanced food gathering in a historical sense. Now, as it
Once it all gets under one roof, a person can find the makes a transition from a hunting and gathering economy in
pressure point in that roof, the whole building might come a highly diverse eco-system, sort of skimming off the top, to
down. I do appreciate the way things work right now with an intense farming system, and that system becomes
the separation of power, because, frankly speaking, the extensive enough to begin to interfere with eco-system
state takes certain actions that we find incomprehensible. As diversity, how will you preserve system stability. I wonder if
a result, we'll strongly argue for permit activity at a federal you give this problem any consideration as you are
level, and, in some cases, it happens. Most of the time, developing your economic tradeoffs. Do you do that?
things go rather smoothly. So, I'm just a little bit worried John Hall: We are talking about tradeoffs. We have seen in
about the pressures and implementation of it. Then your the past situations where a developer will come in and he will
second question dealt with who is going to take care of the say, "O.K., State, I've got 400 acres here and 300 acres in
resources offshore. Well, we've got this 200 mile legislation, Mangrove. If you will let met develop 150 acres, I'll give
200 mile extended jurisdiction business. I'm not too familiar you 150 acres in Mangrove, which you can maintain for the
with how we're going to implement the regulations and joy of the people of the state." The way it works out, the way
permitting involved in that. I would suspect that there will the legislation reads it, you do have defacto control, so we
be a concerted attempt to try to license people in these areas don't consider it as a tradeoff. Instead, if we see a situation
and share the resources. One of the problems we have is that like in this coal handling facility where the actual physical
we really don't know what the populations are of fishes. We constraints of the facility require that they had to fill in 10
have rough estimations but we don't know how many acres of salt marsh, well, we said "O.K. We're going to
kingfish there are, how many mackeral, how many red lose the productivity of a productive salt marsh grass for
snapper. So when you're talking about managing some time." And we said, "Why don't you build us some
something, you had better find out what you've got first. out there on these uplands? We are not going to build it on
And I think there is some step made in this direction with these lowlands. We'll just build some marsh in this area."
regard to depleting resources like the blue fin tuna; we're They agree because the technology exists for building
getting an idea of what it looks like, but things like the red marshes, and after a few years, we are very hopeful that the
snapper; there aren't many red snappers out there. There is productivity will return.
so darn much natural variation in population to begin with George Allen: All this talking we were doing about one-stop
that we run into some serious problems just trying to make shopping for the permit application (i.e. one permit which

Planning 59

would satisfy the requirements of all concerned agencies)--I responsibility? And if you don't think it is, you try to do
think the permit applicant is probably the most something that steps on the state's prerogatives and see what
longsuffering, lenalized, confused individual that there is in happens. I don't believe the one-stop shop, as much as it is
the United States today. All of us sitting here are talking desired, will ever be an accomplished fact, and in some
about our bureaucratic processes and how difficult they are ways, I hope to God it never will, although it would
going to be. Woe unto us! 1 often times wonder how many certainly be convenient. Who wants to be a dictator? Do you
times we have considered the position of a man who wants Dan?
to put a fencepost or a lightpost out in his front yard and Dan Penton: I'd rather be King! George, I think maybe we
because it happens to be in front of a navigable waterway, have sort of a misunderstanding, but I know you well
he has to have a permit to dig a posthole. But, I don't think enough to know that maybe we don't. I think that in
the one-stop shop will ever work. It's a utopia that everyone Florida, for example, at the present time at the state level
hopes for. Its not practical as long as you are dealing with we've got the damnest mess you've ever seen in trying to get
human beings on boards such as we serve on. The human an application through. There is no reason for it except
prerogatives are such that I don't want John Hall telling me legislative oversight. That is the only reason. When the state
how to design a bridge, and conversely he doesn't want me of Florida issues a permit under the present system, (for
to tell him how to save an estuary. If I'm going to tell him example, DER), and if it involves sovereignty lands, DNR
how to save an estuary, I had better not do it in a public goes ahead and issues a lease, that action is always affable
forum. I had better do it over a martini at a bar somewhere and it can be affilable to the governor and cabinet for
where we can sit down and talk as individuals and not example. But somewhere, somebody in the state has to
representatives of agencies. Another thing that is against the make the decision on the total action. Whether we do it at
one-stop shop is that you eliminate the check and balance the permitting agency or somewhere else. We can have one
system, and the check and balance system is entirely what agency issuing water quality certification, another agency
this system of government is founded on. If John doesn't issuing coastal management certification, a third
like something and I do, if I try to railroad something administering dredge and fill regulations, a fourth doing
through then John tries to stop it; conversely, the other way land ownership of sovereignty lands, etc. Somebody at the
around. If that system is destroyed, we are going to find state has still got to put those together, ultimately, to make a
ourselves not only environmentally but politically in a state commitment, be it pro or con. All we are saying is that
system I don't think any of us want to live in. Now with it is easier to get that broader-based input in coastal
regard to his comment about the oil problem. management perspective, which the Straton Commission
Unfortunately, the Corps of Engineers has to write these called for, at the bureaucratic level. If therearesome
confounded environmental statements even if the projects additional considerations, let the governor and cabinet or
themselves are being built by a private enterprise. To a some elected policy board address those extraneous
certain degree, we are stuck with the job of writing the considerations to make the normal paperwork processing,
statement. Congress has so directed. Now there are so many bureaucratic input system as administerable as possible.
things that go into these environmental considerations that Geraldine Bachman: I disagree with George Allen a little bit,
we wonder sometimes, is it our prerogative to comment on too. I certainly think that more streamlining is possible, and
it? If the state is willing to do it, and its not a hindrance to we're going to try for it. It's important to many of the states
navigation, should we bother with it? Is not this the state's to do that kind of a job; we've got a project going on in

60 Planning

North Carolina to try and do that as part of their coastal specific time limit involved for returning comments (20 to 30
management program. I think this is part of what we're all days) and then a decision was made. The local government
about here. I don't think anybody would argue that it's not would make the decision. The local decision would hold
needed and it's not time to try. It's part of our act and it's a unless there was some conflict with the statewide criteria and
good place to start. I certainly agree with the checks and guidelines. If there was conflict, the state could override the
balances, and I don't think it will ever disappear from our decision. There was also an appeal procedure involved in
system. I think we have it, maybe not in the permitting any decision that local government or state government
authorities, but certainly in the different levels of made. The appeal went to the commission we talked about.
government--local, state, and federal. There will certainly There was a balanced local government interest group body.
always be an override by the Corps of Engineers at the Anyone who disagreed with the decision, either from the
national level, as happened on Marco Island. There will public or the applicant, made by the administrator or the
always be the override in our own office with relation to a local government, would appeal to this body and it would
matter of national interest and security. So I think that we make a decision. If there was disagreement with the
need that check and balance; I think we've got it and will commission's decision, then it would go to court. I think
continue to have it. But the streamline of the permitting streamlining is important, and we tried to design a system
process makes so much sense, and the time seems so right for whereby the paperwork could be quickly handled.
it, from many points of view, and many states want to try it. Luther Skelton: We approached it somewhat similarly in
I think we should try it. Missouri. We set up a concept of lead agency that would do
Pat Ryan: Let me add a comment. Louisiana permitting is a the same kind of thing in most cases. The only trouble we
major issue in coastal zone management. Really, if you look had occurred when we were faced with a commission or a
at the 3,000 permits that are issued each year, about 95-96 constitutional body that had occurred when we were faced
percent of these permits are automatically issued with no with a commission or a constitutional body that had a
problems associated with them. The remaining three to four particular statute responsibility and then the system fell flat
percent are controversial so to speak. I think that we have because of the inherent veto. It depended upon the issue.
recommended sufficient appeals and an open procedure on There were as many as six or seven possible vetoes through
all of them that the conflicting points of view would come the process. I think it's time for some experimentation. I
across. I would never recommend any system where you think, George, of the poor man who is trying to get a
have only one voice and all the battling and everything took lightpole built and has to go to 18 different people to do it.
place in the back of a smokefilled room and you never know George A lien: Well, the problem is, has any system been
whether it was a controversy or not. You just knew that the devised where you won't have to go to 18 different people.
action took place. The system we recommended in You could be just changing names of a lot of agencies.
Louisiana was that the Louisiana Department of Wildlife Luther Skelton: Well, one wonders why we need 18 different
and Fisheries would be the permitting agency and the agencies to build a lightpole.
administrator for coastal zone management. The applicant Phil Tallon: I couldn't resist commenting on this situation.
would request a permit from Wildlife and Fisheries. As soon Before I came back with the Feds, I would say for about the
as Wildlife and Fisheries received it, they would send a copy last 15 years, I've been operating at the state and local level
to the local government and to the Corps of Engineers and and just recently up in the city of Baltimore we had a very
anyone else who would wish to comment on it. There was a serious problem with this business of getting permits and

Planning 61

reviews and things like that from quite a few different
agencies--not only federal agencies--but state agencies--and I
am sure this is characteristic of just about any place in the
country. But we set up a--this involved larger projects,
larger activities--dredge and fill permit review process and a
coordinating program which made it possible for everybody
to sit around the same table. Whereas previous to this, they
were going to individual agencies and getting conflicting
reactions, and things of that nature. The magnitude of this
project was pretty extensive. It involved Bethlehem Steel's
largest steel-producing plant in the country. It involved the
development of a new containerization terminal for report
administration. It involved dredging a channel which ran
quite a ways down the Chesapeake Bay, including the
establishment of a spoil disposal area which is probably
going to create a new island in the Chesapeake Bay. It
involved a multi-million dollar sewage treatment plant that
was going to be built and it took about a two to two and
one-half year period--and it was precipitated by a demand
and I guess started with the Fish and Wildlife Service up in
Boston and came through the Corps of Engineers to force
the Port Administration to develop a plan. What the Port
Administration viewed as a plan, and what the federal
agencies viewed as a plan was about 1800 different. We did
manage to get this thing going and get it started. And as a
result of it, the more critical things were freed up, and we
managed to negotiate on both sides and enable some of
these developments to go ahead with the same type
preservation of the more critical environmental features that
people were concerned with. Now this did not end up with a
one-stop shopping permit office. The permits still came
from the same places--the same people were involved--but it
shortened the time considerably. It got everybody on the
same wavelength. Maybe that sort of thing could be done.
Luther Skelton: That technique, as well as the one John Hall
mentioned earlier as the workshop concept, is a good one
for shortening permit time.

Natural resource management has become a focus for
much of the value negotiation characteristics of what has
recently been termed the development/environment
dichotomy. Whether or not this dichotomy really exists is
moot; it does, however, resound behind much of the present
day policy dialogue.
In this section of the symposium we considered off shore
oil as a natural resource very closely related to both the
energy shortage and the environment. Dr. Jerry Ham in his
paper describes the role of ERDA (The Federal Energy
Research and Development Administration). He restates the
currently accepted federal policy which holds that off shore
oil production is a necessity in view of the present energy
shortage. Dr. Ham argues for further technological
research which can make offshore oil drilling safer
environmentally.
Dr. Sneed Collard, from another point of view, describes
the delicacy and importance of the neuston community, a
part of the marine eco-system , near the oceans surface. He
indicates that this community among others, is very
vulnerable to the effects of petroleum. Finally, he points out
that the problem of oil, spilled or leaked into the oceans,
may be the most serious problem to be dealt with by Coastal
Zone Managers.
Dr. Skelton reconsiders the question of offshore oil
production as a policy. He briefly traces the development of
the present policy, then outlines a range of policy
alternatives and projects and some of their possible
alternative futures.
The discussion surrounding this section was relatively
short due to lack of time. It was indicated that research
results appear to be mixed regarding the deleterious effects
of oil spills. In some areas there were no appreciable effects,
in others, the effects were tremendous and long term.

Coastal Resource Management 63

Jerry D. Ham
Assistant Director
ERDA's Fossil Energy Program
Washington, D.C.

Introduction

The increase in the consumption of energy worldwide, and national security, balance of payments, and public sector
in particular in the United States, over the past twenty years, energy supplies. The nation is committed to reduce
has caused the potential for serious national energy dependence on imports as rapidly as possible by increasing
shortages. our domestic production substantially. Where are these
In response to this acute problem, Congress established large volumes of domestic oil and gas coming from?
the Energy Research and Development Administration There is a consensus that most of the future discoveries
(ERDA) in January 1975. will be through exploration and development of potential
ERDA is charged with the responsibility of initiating and resources under the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). It is
coordinating with the private sector research, development, also conceded however, that the problems associated with
and demonstration (RD&D) programs, that will assure the development of potential petroleum resources in these
adequate supplies of energy for the future. ERDA is further frontier areas are complex and a great deal of care will be
charged with the responsibility of assisting the private sector exercised in their orderly solution.
in the development of these energy sources in an The technology for exploration and production of
economical, environmentally and socially acceptable offshore oil and gas reserves worldwide has been developed
manner. primarily by the U. S. petroleum industry, mainly at its own
Figure 1 displays the actual, through 1975, and the expense. Exploration and production in frontier OCS
projected, through 1990, consumption of energy in this hostile environments (deep, rough seas and ice) will require
country. Various solar, synthetic fuel, geothermal, and extension of existing technology as well as new technology.
nuclear processes currently are under development, which Many evaluations, such as the University of Oklahoma's
will reduce our dependence on a rapidly diminishing world "Energy Under the Ocean," have discussed the past
supply of oil and gas. Figure 1 shows that in 1975, 76% of performance of the petroleum industry and its suppliers in
our energy came from oil and gas. This trend will continue demonstrating initiative, resourcefulness, and financial
well beyond 1990 before these alternate processes begin to strength in developing basic technology to meet exploration
contribute sufficient quantities of energy to reduce our and development needs. The historic self-reliance of the
dependency on petroleum. petroleum industry is being taxed by the compression of
Between 1960 and 1975, the Nation's consumption of time schedules brought about by the urgent need for
energy increased from 50 quads to 75 quads. (1 quad is offshore oil and the additional research, development, and
roughly equal to the energy available from 175 million demonstration necessary to operate in the relatively
barrels of oil). By 1990 national energy consumption is unknown frontier areas.
projected to reach 115 quads per year, or more than twice ERDA has been designated by the Congress in Public Law
the consumption in 1960. Although by 1990 the percentage 93-577 as the leading energy research, development, and
of contribution by oil and gas will be reduced to 61%, the demonstration agency and has been given responsibility to
increased demand for energy will require that substantially integrate and coordinate national efforts. This requires that
larger quantities (70 quads) be available for this interim ERDA address both technical and nontechnical constraints
period, that may pose barriers to meeting energy goals. The
During 1975 our petroleum imports averaged nearly 40% legislative mandate requires ERDA to define those barriers
of our yearly consumption and 1976 will clearly exceed that that would restrict the availability of economical energy to
mark as shown by Figure 2. This has severe impacts on the American public and which would provide less than

64 Coastal Resource Management

optimum benefit to the consumer. Hence, ERDA must field tests or demonstrations of such sensor and downhole
consider transportation, resources, manpower, capital telemetry systems. If successful, these projects will
availability, public acceptability, institutional constraints, significantly advance the time at which this capability is
and environmental compatability, as well as selected available to lower the cost of drilling and reduce the risk of
technology areas. blowouts.
The ERDA offshore program currently is in the definition In another ERDA project, downhole drilling motors are
phase. During the past year, ERDA has been conducting being developed. These motors will provide much greater
joint meetings with industry, government, academic, and penetration rate and control than that obtained in a
public-interest groups to identify high priority RD&D conventional drill-string operation. This increased efficiency
projects which would help accelerate the development of is achieved by applying the drilling torque just about the bit,
offshore areas in a safe, reliable manner. Needs for RD&D rather than on top of several miles of drill pipe. Here too,
activity in drilling and instrumentation development were both cost to consumers and reduction in risk are major
identified early and programs were initiated in response to objectives.
these needs. First, this paper discusses the ongoing In other projects, work is underway to improve fluids and
projects, that is, the existing drilling activities and the drilling practice which will more effectively clean the hole
ongoing instrumentation development. This paper also and gain practical information on optimizing fluid pressure,
discusses the ERDA Offshore Technology Program weight on bit, revolution per minute (r.p.m.) and bit design
planning activities. and selection for ultra-deep drilling.
Drilling Technology OCS Program Areas

Drilling, both onshore and offshore, is clearly a high Offshore oil production in the United States largely has
priority area in need of improved technology. There are been limited to the Gulf of Mexico and the Santa Barbara
hostile "frontier" conditions in drilling deeper, higher area of California. Fifteen additional areas of the Outer
pressure, hotter, more corrosive formations. In deep, rough Continental Shelf have been identified as having good
seas, and in the Arctic, it is the drilling operations, including potential for substantial undiscovered reserves (see Figure 4).
providing a place from which to drill, that are most Each of these frontier areas has, in general, a more hostile
dangerous and expensive. Drilling is the largest element of environment than the Gulf and Santa Barbara areas. New
the cost of oil and gas to the consumer. Drilling costs have technologies are required for safe, reliable operation in these
been rising steadily from inflation and additional cost environments. New shore based support facilities will be
increments will result from different frontier area required to support the offshore development, many of
conditions, as shown in Figure 3. It is the drilling them in the Arctic.
operations, particularly exploration drilling, that causes the The urgent national need for accelerated development,
most environmental concern. The unexpected encounter of the need to provide environmental and ecological
high pressure fluids is a major contribution. safeguards, the need to supply petroleum products to the
A "breakthrough" in improving drilling cost and safety consumer at the lowest possible cost, the need to reduce oil
can be achieved if the driller can obtain real-time imports dramatically, and the need to assist affected state
information on downhole conditions while drilling. ERDA and local planning groups in the socio-economic and
is supporting, jointly with a number of oil companies, two environmental assessments required for planning and

Coastal Resource Managemenl 65

decision making all contribute requirements which together oil-spill detection and protection responsibilities and
exceed R&D requirements normally expected from activities.
Government and industry. ERDA's role lies in the
development of RD&D activities to assist in the satisfaction Data Acquisition
of these requirements. Figure 5 reflects the program areas
that have been identified and that provide the basis for In the joint meetings mentioned previously and in all of
ERDA planning in the offshore program. the literature published on offshore development, there is a
continuous theme of the lack of data and information.
Planning and Coordination Some years ago the phrase "information explosion" was
coined. A critic of this phrase said, "The information
ERDA planning and close coordination of the offshore explosion is not here yet. There is an abundance of data
oil and gas program with industry and other Federal available in the world but few people know where it is and
agencies is essential for the successful introduction of the no one has put it together to provide information." This
technology needed to enhance development of the U.S. oil appears to be part of the prevailing condition in the offshore
and gas reserves as well as striving toward National energy technology field. State and local governments need
independence. This will establish and maintain effective information to perform environmental, ecological and
lines of communications and accelerate the development of socioeconomic assessments of offshore operations and their
offshore resources in the most technically, economically and related onshore support facilities. The petroleum industry
environmentally feasible manner within the near-term time needs environmental force data (winds, tides, wave heights,
frame. sediment stability, etc.) to design safe, reliable structures
This program activity will be conducted by ERDA, other and support facilities such as pipelines.
government agencies, and industry participation in the Current planning at ERDA includes the development of a
definition and implementation of the following areas: data acquisition, analysis and dissemination system. This
Needs Assessment system would in no way duplicate existing systems, such as
Technology Transfer the NOAA Environmental Data Services, Bureau of Land
Nontechnical Considerations (viz. Ecological and Management, U.S. Geological Survey, etc. Rather, it would
Socioeconomic) identify user needs, identify and index data sources and
Coordination of Government RD&D establish procedures to provide specific summaries of
Coordination of Government, Industry, and information to the requesting user organization.
University Cooperation In the frontier areas of the Outer Continental Shelf the
The Needs Assessment area, for example will include requirements to gather the detailed data required for
conduction cost-benefit studies of drilling technology, extensive development and operation was not previously
definition of the state-of-the-art of offshore storage urgent, as it is now. ERDA planning includes sponsorship of
technology, identification and development of high-priority expansion of this frontier area data base, including the
technologies that will reduce delay times associated with development of appropriate instrumentation as required to
offshore development. Technology Transfer will include provide the diverse family of users with complete, relevant
ERDA involvement in conducting and coordinating data sets in a timely manner. Provision of these data and
symposia and publications, and definition of joint-agency information, with adequate lead time for planning should

66 Coastal Resource Management

minimize the development delays experienced in the past, chemical properties. The new project will make these raw
due to decisions or indecisions influenced by the lack of data available to any interested investigator through direct
reliable data. For example, as the industry moves into access to a user-controlled computer system for analysis and
deeper waters (beyond 200 meters), additional new interpretation of effects of oil and gas operations.
technologies are required. Figure 8 displays the range and
potential distributions of reserves and the related bottom Testing Evaluation and Demonstration
characteristics.
From the 200 meter mark (or the edge of the Continental ERDA's support and sponsorship in the OCS Test
Shelf) to the bottom of the Continental Slope, an estimated Development and Demonstration area is desirable to assist
30 to 35�01 of the potential resources reside. Much of the in the development of OCS hardware and technology that
ocean bottom in this slope area is characterized by unstable usually must go through the developmental process of
sediment deposits. Structural design is highly dependent on testing, demonstrations and evaluation before they will be
the availability of detailed, reliable data on this new ocean adopted for use offshore. Because the process of applying
bottom environment. ERDA, through Sandia Laboratories, new technology involves substantial risks and cost,
has a substantial project underway to develop companies often form joint industry groups to acquire
instrumentation and methodology for acquiring data on the information and to develop, test, and evaluate equipment
ocean floor. Sensors, packaged to embed themselves in and procedures. Small contractors cannot, in general afford
seafloor sediments when dropped from ships or aircraft, will to assume these risks and often their use of new technology
measure on site properties, such as oil strength, pore or equipment is delayed unnecessarily. ERDA's role in
pressure, movements (mud slides and motion in response to sponsoring test facilities such as laboratories, test wells,
seismic events), along with wave and current data. Data will instrumented platforms, etc., has been strongly endorsed
be partially processed, selectively stored and transmitted to and encouraged by groups with various interests. Such
the surface on command. Data from this instrumentation testing has already become a useful tool to the offshore
package will provide inputs to industry structural designers petroleum industry through the availability of facilities such
and will also be useful to other agencies such as the as the David Taylor Model Basin. This enables systems to be
Department of the Interior in the development of standards verified and performance tested under realistic operating
for regulation, certification, and inspection. For example, a conditions. It also fills an important industry need and
project has been proposed to develop and publish design established a sound basis for cooperative efforts. Currently,
recommendations for offshore structures, based on onshore Exxon is conducting tests, with a small scale test structure,
earthquake experience. As data on seafloor earthquake over a six-month winter period in the Gulf of Mexico to
induced motions are obtained, this design methodology will develop oceanographic, meteorological, and structural data
be improved. required for scale-up. This is a prime type 6f endeavor
ERDA also is starting a project that should be of great which ERDA might cosponsor over a two year, or longer,
interest and value to those concerned with long-range period so additional data can be acquired over an extended
ecological effects of offshore oil and gas development. time period, which includes hurricane seasons.
Samples of Gulf of Mexico waters and shallow sediments This program area will consist of: (!) sponsoring common
from locations both near and remote from oil operations test facilities; (2) sponsoring a certified materials testing
have been taken and analyzed for physical, biological, and program; (3) conducting equipment evaluations; (4)

Coastal Resource Management 67

conducting laboratory and field demonstrations, and (5) technological problems will be examined to determine the
coordinating joint industry programs. appropriate ERDA role and funding permitting, projects
will be initiated on a priority basis to assist in the
Basic Technology and Advanced Concepts devel opment of the high-priority energy-resource area.
In conclusion, the urgent national need for offshore oil
Basic technology is required to develop a better and gas in the near term time frame (1985-2000) has led
understanding of the behavior of materials, mechanical ERDA to plan an RD&D program to assist the petroleum
systems, and biological systems in the OCS environment. industry in the development of these vital resources.
The need for some types of advanced research, such as Particular attention will be paid to the environmental,
knowledge of the fate and effects of oil on marine biology, ecological and socio-economic aspects of offshore
is urgent to minimize environmental road blocks. Advanced development. We realize that data needs vary from region to
research is pertinent to OCS frontier areas scheduled for region and we will welcome suggestions from all Coastal
development. Two such projects are the measurement of Zone Management Groups.
Arctic environmental forces, and the development of
effective methods for cleaning up oil spills in ice-infested
waters. Other vital technological concerns related to
development of offshore petroleum resources in the Arctic,
have to do with ice formations and movement and
permafrost.
Enhanced recovery techniques may have to be applied to
the OCS to bring marginal-resource fields to a commercially
viable stage. ERDA has been very active in the basic
technology of enhanced recovery onshore. These tests
generally are less that 100 acres in size and may be regarded
as large pilot projects. Due to the variability of reservoirs,
the ERDA program incorporates a sufficient number of
tests to develop and prove technologies that are applicable
to principal reservoir types. As results from these projects
are made available, further evaluations will be conducted,
preparatory to increasing projects to commercial size (several
thousand acres). These techniques (it' feasible) may be
applied to offshore discoveries which are considered
marginal for commercial development, thus adding
previously unattainable oil to our domestic producton.

Conclusion

As the ERDA Program Definition Phase continues many

68 Coastal Resource Management

Sneed Collard
University of West Florida
Department of Biology

The Surface Fauna of the Outer Continental Shelf
of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico
and Its Relationship to Oil Production

Whether planner or scientist, few of us know enough extends from the surface to about 200 m. in depth. This
about the complex interactions between high seas and beach zone is wind-mixed, and relatively homogenous with respect
environments to be able to make accurate predictions to temperature and salinity. Light intensities allow
regarding the form, magnitude, or impact of stress imposed photosynthesis above the compensation point. This layer of
upon one environment because of stress or perturbation in water is also called the euphotic or eutrophic zone. Animals
the other. While the open sea and the coastal zone are with which you are all familiar (jelly fish, tuna, whales) live
geographically and in many other ways distinct, the sea and in the epipelagial.
its shores are but parts of a single system. I would like to The mesopelgic zone extends from some 200 m. to 1,000
persuade planners and managers among you that what m. in depth. This layer includes the permanent thermocline
happens to the environment over the horizon may ultimately and halocline. It is a layer of marginal light (the disphotic
have more far-reaching affects on the coastal zone than zone) and it supports an unusual and important fauna.
those short-term problems that plague the more proximate Mesopelgic animals are uniquely adapted to migrate from
and highly visible beaches with which you usually work. great depths to the surface of night, where they feed upon
The sea is almost incomprehensibly vast, yet it can be the rich plankton found there. In so doing, they cycle energy
divided into workable and real zones or realms defined by and pollutants into deepwater eco-systems.
their physio-chemical, biological or even bathymetric Beneath the mesopelagic zone lies the bathpelagical layer,
characteristics. While my remarks today deal primarily with which extends from about 1,000-4,000 m. in length. This
air-water interface, or pleusal zone, surface-to-bottom zone is one of perpetual cold and darkness, and its included
water column interactions are as important as sea-to-shore fauna is bizarre in comparison to what we are used to seeing.
relationships. I shall introduce this presentation with a For purposes of this paper, suffice it to say that
brief discussion of the subdivisions of the open seas. bathypelagic animals eat mesopelagic animals, and by so
The seaward edge of continental shelves occurs at an doing further cycle energy - and pollutants - into the deep.
average depth of about 200 m. Shelf edges may occur near Beneath the bathypelagic zone lie poorly defined
the beach (e.g. the Straits of Florida) or hundreds of miles abyssopelagic and hadopelagic zones, discussion of which
offshore (e.g. TheArcticOcean). Hydobionts living in waters would not be useful here. It is obvious that the neritic realm
overlying the continental shelf are referred to as neritic. influences and is influenced by the oceanic realm. Each of
Shelf waters are turbit, green, brown, or red in color, and the vertical zones of the oceanic realm influence the entire
are extraordinarily productive. All of our major sea fisheries water column. The shore is, sooner or later, affected by
depend upon the health of the neritic zone, which serves also what happens in the ocean at all distances from shore, and
as the most immediately accessible sink for the residues of at all depths. The cycling of energy - and pollutants - in the
human activities. It may be relevant here to point out that sea, is not (as popularly thought) a matter of fallout; it is an
what leaves the beach not infrequently, finds it way back... active process, that, if interrupted, could result in disaster in
Seaward of the continental shelf and the neritic the ocean and its margins.
environment lies the enormous oceanic realm of the ocean. Keeping this almost heroically brief introduction to the
Its waters are blue as the sky, and for the same reason: it is classification of marine environments in mind, allow me
barren. now to return to the surface of the sea and the subject under
In the oceanic realm some four bathymetric zones have consideration.
been recognized. The uppermost layer, or epipelagic zone Regardless of salinity, the air-water interface of water

Coastal Resource Management 69

bodies is biologically referred to as the pleustal zone. the fragile neuston community that first suffers from the
Organisms that live on the surface of the water are referred effects of this stress. It is not my purpose here to describe an
to the epineuston; those that live partly submerged are oily disaster scenario, but I can tell you from personal
known as pleuston, and those species that live just beneath observation, that the entire surface of the world ocean is
the surface film are the hyponeuston. Organisms that live in covered with oil and tar, and that this debris is increasing in
the surface (or foam) are simply called "neuston" (e.g. area and volume. Adverse biological affects of oil pollution
bacterio neuston). notwithstanding, this material will begin to accumulate in
Species which live only at the air-water interface are the coastal zone at an accelerated rate. How will Florida
"euneustonic;" those (e.g. mesoplagic migrators) that planners react, for example, if oil is found below the Destin
regularly visit the surface are called "faculatative neuston," Salt Dome and piped ashore to a refinery in the Pensacola
and those species whose main population densities lie area? How will you prepare the coastal zone for a tanker
beneath the surface but include it comprise the breakup at the head of de Soto Canyon? Perhaps the
"pseudoneuston." Planners will soon be familiar with these greatest challenge facing coastal zone planners is for them to
terms. anticipate and take steps to mitigate what humans might do
Marine neuston investigations began less than 20 years to the surface of the offshore sea. You will not be able to
ago with the work of Zaitsev in the Black Sea. These see, or taste, or smell the results---for awhile.
investigations conclusively demonstrated that the marine
pleustal environment was unique in all respects and that it is,
without question, the most extensive and important nursery
area on earth.
Zaitsev's studies and my own in the eastern Gulf have
shown that 60-80 percent of all of the animals captured at
the surface are crustaceans. Of these, half or more are
copepods. Other common members of the neuston
community are arrow worms, coelenterates, larvaceans, and
larvae and juveniles of virtually all marine taxa. While a
technical account of neuston systematies is not appropriate
in the present forum, a single example will give you a feeling
for the abundance of organisms that occur on the surface. It
requires little imagination to understand how important
these organisms are to marine food webs. At one station off
the coast of Mississippi, I caught 849 million animals in four
minutes, and a million or more animals per minute using a
one meter net, is common.
With the recent increase in oil exploration, production
and transportation comes an increased chance of accidents.
Most at-sea petroleum related accidents, (including
deliberate overboard spilling) occur on the surface, and it is

70 Coastal Resource Management

Luther W. Skelton
Coordinator, CZM Program
The University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida

A Range of Policy Strategies for Offshore Oil

The purpose of this paper is to describe some very broad only their own methodology.2
policy strategies for the management of offshore oil in the The description of policy strategy is supported by both of
outer continental shelf of the United States. These strategies these two approaches to policy projection. We need to be
are designed to span approximately the next decade. continually aware that policy is dynamic and that it does not
The description of such strategies is not a task for move with consistency over time; that it is in many ways a
"angels treading," and I am well aware of the risk of being reflection of the human interactions which combine with
assigned the opposite role. These strategies are very general existing and potential technology to bring it about. It is as
and done in very broad strokes, but I think they can, to often capricious and truly unpredictable as our human
some extent, indicate some of our alternative futures with interactions and as filled with surprises as developing
regard to this very important natural resource, technology itself. Our view of policy strategy must be, in the
Policy strategy is not a term which is commonly used in end, an indistinct vision of a pattern of competing wills, past
the literature of political science, nor is it often used in the momentum, and technical opportunity. Broadly defined,
more recent and developing literature of policy science. It is the construction of policy strategy for the purposes of this
indeed more related as a concept to the theories and paper is an attempt to outline a series of potential patterns
activities of planning since it indicates a central concept of of events related to decisions which may be made by
projection and a corollary concept of future alternatives. commission or omission and which are constrained by
We who are involved professionally in policy science in logical patterns of past activities and potential
one or more of its many forms are often engaged in policy developments. This method is one approach in attempting
analysis or policy impact studies, or in attempts to describe to rationalize decision making. It is one tool for viewing
for ourselves and for others what policy science is. These are policy possibilities, and as are all such tools, is limited.
valuable and important endeavors because they help us
understand some of the reasons that we have the policies we Background
have. However, these endeavors, while safe and often
interesting, are also often sterile because of their lack of We are generally familiar with oil as perhaps the chief
utility and lack of projection. ' source of energy in use today. It heats us, cools us, transports
The concept of policy strategy is not missing from the us, lights our homes, runs our factories, and with other
literature of political science. Amitai Etzioni in his hydrocarbons, provides us with clothing and building
description of mixed-scanning strategy discusses a means of materials. We know that it is of limited supply but we don't
examining a potential policy direction. His method requires know what the limit really is. Those of us who are somewhat
us to use long vision and is of necessity indistinct, but it does familiar with the turbulent history of the oil industry are
project.' Braybrooke and Lindblom with their science of aware that the limited supply of oil and the unpredictability
"muddling through" use a shorter vision and show how of its discovery have left an indelible mark on the industry,
policy is incremental and disjointed, but they do project, if and upon its relations with the political system. We are

'Amitai Etzioni, The Arctive Society, A Theory of Societal 2David Braybrooke and Charles E. Lindblom, A Strategy
and Political Processes (New York: The Free Press, 1968), of Decisions (Glencoe, NY.: The Free Press, 1963).
pp. 283-306.

Coastal Resource Management 71

aware of the interrelated, very complex technologies which Energy Administration, indicates that exploitation of all our
demand a high degree of coordination between all stages of domestic sources of oil as well as development from other
production and distribution. Some have argued that this sources is imperative if we are to decrease our foreign oil
required high degree of coordination has led to a "natural dependency to 6 million barrels a day by 1985.' We are
monopoly" and that oil's particular market has required a informed that about 50 percent of the undiscovered oil in
different definition of free enterprise than the definition the United States is located either in Alaska or off of our
which fits the traditional market model of supply and shores .4
demand. We are aware that this particular market system The above is a very general description of our
has let to the development of a few multinational conventional wisdom about oil. The picture is far more
corporations which act in many ways like nations have acted complex in detail. We can be sure, however, that oil is a very
in the past. We are all aware of the energy crisis and our crucial, very valuable resource and that we all share in its
dependency upon sources of oil outside our national future. The future of oil may very well be our own, at least
boundaries. This dependency has led to a complicated series in the short run, and that future is tied closely with the oil
of international events which involve United States foreign that lies in the outer continental shelf. Because of where it
policy as it relates to the Middle East and to the conflict lies and who owns it and how we get it, offshore oil has its
between Israel and the Arab nations. own particular policy constraints.
We are aware of the necessity of becoming energy self- Oil has been mined off the shores of the United States for
sufficient and we know that this means we need new sources many years. It is not a new phenomenon nor is it without a
of oil within the boundaries of the United States. A history of heated political controversy. When World War 11
conference of Americans for Energy Independence (a group ended, offshore oil was an important energy source and
of energy experts, industrialists, citizens, and union leaders) projected to become even more important. The question of
estimates that the United States consumed 74.6 quadrillion who owns this oil was a serious issue. In 1945 President
BTU's of energy in 1973. Projecting the growth of the Truman decided that this resource was the property of the
United State's energy consumption at a conservative 2.3 United States. Many states disagreed and even though the
percent annually this group estimates a need of over 98 administration stated that the federal government was to be
quadrillion BTU's by 1985. This is a very conservative figure the only legitimate leasing agency, some states continued to
and it represents a shortfall or a deficit of energy of between lease the rights to this oil themselves. The problem was so
21 and 33 quadrillion BTU's. This deficit, after all existing intensely negotiated that it became a major issue in the 1952
and potential sources are projected (wrongly or rightly), election, during which Eisenhower promised to stern the
must be made up by a large new source such as nuclear power of the Federal bureaucracy at that very point. After
energy or by imported oil. New statistics assume that oil the election the Eisenhower administration was successful in
consumption will increase to 10 to 14 million barrels a day getting two pieces of legislation which seemed to resolve the
by 1985. Mr. Frank Zarb, administrator of the Federal problem. Oil resources within the three-mile coastal limit

'The Christian Science Monitor, Friday, June 25, 1976.
'David S. Freeman, Energy, the New Era (New York:
Vintage Books, 1974).

72 Coastal Resource Management

and in some cases (particularly the Gulf Coast) within a than the pollution of beaches and the destruction of fish and
three-league limit were the property of the state. Oil fowl. There are indications that oil spilled in the ocean may
resources further out on the outer continental shelf were the become part of the delicate food chain in the ocean with
property of the Federal Government and the leases to that extreme deleterious effects. Over 3,000 barrels of oil are
source were to be made by the Federal Department of discharged every year into the Gulf of Mexico alone as a
Interior. Most of the offshore oil was therefore legally result of offshore operations.'
retained by the Federal Government. The Department of the
Interior was not slow to grant leases as they were a welcome Policy Strategies
source of federal income.
The method of extracting this oil, as we know, involves in There are several assumptions which we can extract fromn
most cases drilling offshore. Recently, drilling has been the conventional wisdom which relates to offshore oil
conducted far offshore. The oil is then piped or shipped policy. These assumptions are public beliefs which have
ashore for refining and then the refined material is shipped momentum: (I) The total amount of oil available is limited;
for final distribution. Offshore oil production grew rapidly (2) Consumption of oil and our subsequent dependency on it
and in some states particularly Louisiana, Texas, and will not decrease over the next 10 years; (3) Unless new
California, it became an important part of the economic domestic sources of oil are found, the United States will
structure. The dangers of offshore oil mining were not remain dangerously dependent upon foreign sources; (4) it
widely recognized until the disaster at Santa Barbara in 1969 is particularly dangerous for the United States to be
when a major oil rig blew and dumped 235,000 gallons of dependent upon Middle Eastern nations for oil because oil
crude oil into the ocean and along the beach. Many can be used as an economic weapon in the conflict between
organizations, particularly environmental organizations, Israel and the Arab nations; (5) Offshore oil is perhaps the
protested the dangers of continued offshore oil drilling and greatest single potential domestic source of oil.
President Nixon appointed a special commission to
investigate the Santa Barbara disaster. The commission Policy Strategy I
recognized the danger and recommended that the oil
resource be pumped dry as the only overall solution to the National emphasis is placed on the conservation of
problem, and the only solution which would prevent further nonrenewable resources, particularly oil. A system of
leakage. On the basis of the commission's recommendation, priority exploitation is designed which encourages the
the Department of the Interior allowed unlimited drilling to exploitation of particular sources over others for a
continue.' predetermined length of time. Within this system offshore
The Santa Barbara disaster focused on the environmental oil is assigned a low priority.
dangers of offshore oil mining using existing technology. Primary Policy Controls
Subsequent research has indicated, though not proven, that The Department of Interior reduces new offshore oil
the dangers of offshore oil mining might be more serious leases for drilling to zero, but continues to encourage

'David Howard Davis, Energy Politics (New York: St. 'Freeman, Energy, the New Era.
Martin's Press, 1974).

(~xUil c~orue 4'auge~ent73

exploration of potential offshore oil fields. This exploration 3. Because of the cooperative aspect of the primary
can be encouraged either by: (I) Granting preleases to policy control there is the possiblity of a mixed future in
private corporations which require exploration, but which which the basic policy strategy fails and there is an
withhold exploitation privileges for a predetermined length exploitation of all sources.
of time, or (2) by developing government-sponsored 4. The U.S. Government involvement with private
exploration technology which matches or exceeds that of the industry increases but not from a regulatory position. The
oil industry. Federal Government and the private industry jointly
Alternative Futures develop a natural resource policy.
1. Offshore oil remains a national reserve which may or
may not have to be used for fuel depending upon the Policy Strategy 3
development of new technologies for energy sources.
2. The ecology or the coastal zone is protected from oil National emphasis is placed upon conservation of
spills resulting from exploitation. nonrenewable resources, particularly oil. Focus of
3. U.S. Government involvement in the regulation of conservation efforts emphasis is the consumer and/or oil
private industry (particularly multi-national industry) is consuming industries. Traditional mercantile market
increased as the Federal Government becomes involved in economy of supply and demand is assumed to govern so that
the management of natural resources. as demand is voluntarily decreased there will be more oil for
future use. Offshore oil is exploited on the basis of the oil
Policy strategy 2 industry's market strategy and its various negotiations with
the United States Department of the Interior, the United
National emphasis is placed upon conservation of States Environmental Protection Agency and increasingly,
nonrenewable natural resources, particularly oil. A system the independent states which charge a rental fee for pipelines
of priority exploitation is designed which encourages the crossing state lands.
exploitation of particular sources over others. Within the Primary Policy Controls
system offshore oil is assigned a high priority. 1. Federal and state publicity campaigns will focus on
Primary Policy Controls. the consumer and encourage conservation.
The Department of the Interior greatly increases the 2. Various tax breaks and penalties imposed on oil
number of offshore oil leases being granted. The Congress consuming industries encourage conservation.
and the Administration encourage the exploitation of these Alternative Futures
leases by creating tax benefits for private oil companies 1. Consumer response to the conservation campaign
based on the amount of oil extracted from offshore sources. may be limited. Oil consuming industries respond to
Alternative Futures proportion to tax benefits provided. Real conservation of oil
1. Offshore oil may be depleted faster than other may be minimal.
sources of oil leaving other, perhaps more convenient, 2. Oil industry provided great flexibility to manage
sources for future use. resource. Activities of EPA and state governments
2. Because offshore oil may be depleted relatively encourage industry to exploit land sources in preference to
rapidly the ecological damage to the coastal zone while offrshore sources except in those areas where offshore oil
significant, might be lessened. production is already well-developed.

74 Coastal Resource Management

Policy Strategy 4 This may become a major political issue.

National emphasis is placed upon discovery and Plc esblt
exploitation of new domestic sources. Discovery and
exploitation are viewed inseparably. Except for token "Between the idea and the reality lies the shadow." This
programs to appease certain groups, conservation of quote from T.S. Elliot perhaps better than any other
nonrenewable natural resources (particularly oil) is not statement defines policy feasibility. The reality of policy is a
regarded as a real possibility within the current political and great mix of actions and counter actions. Many of these
economic structures. actions are known only to the individual actors. Many are
Primary Policy Controls the product of conflict negotiations between interested
I1. Increased federal dollars and technology are injected parties. Many are accidents and errors, some serendipitous
into the oil industry to help develop new technology for and some unhappy. These actions share a shadow zone
discovery and drilling of oil. between design and fact.
2 . Environmental standards are relaxed where they To a great degree the feasibility of any policy strategy
seriously conflict with the discovery and exploitation of new depends on the present policy. In the case of offshore oil we
sources. find it rather difficult to determine exactly what the present
Alternative Futures policy actually is. Offshore oil is the last major source of
1. Offshore oil discovery and exploitation increase as oil domestic oil which can be extracted at what is called a
corporation~s are given maximum flexibility. Market "moderate cost." We know that President Nixon embraced
considerations dictate priorities of exploitation. a general policy of energy independence. He ordered the
2. Offshore oil is transferred either into immediate use Department of the Interior to triple the annual acreage
or into the reserves of multinational corporations at an leased on the federally owned outer continental shelf by
increasing rate as more oil leases are purchased. Offshore oil 1979. In 1974 President Ford ordered an increase by a factor
leases increasingly become a form of private reserve as the of 10 by 1975.' The assumption seems to be that we will
technology of oil exploitation becomes more developed. exploit our least expensive domestic sources Of oil
3 . Negative environmental impact is moderated to some (particularly the offshore sources) and when these arc
extent by the need of the oil industry to maintain good exhausted, we will exploit other more expensive sources
public relations. This moderation can be measured by the until we run out of domestic oil. All the while of course, we
extent of public information and understanding of the will be exploiting other resources such as coal and
activities. developing new energy technologies which will hopefully be
4. Multinational character of oil industry poses serious ready for us when the oil and the other nonrenewable
questions concerning national sovereignty as more natural resources are gone. This seems to be the national emphasis
resources leave the public domain of the nation and are of our policy for offshore oil. Conservation of domestic
transferred to the control of extranational organizations. nonrenewable resources does not seem to be part of this

'William R. Ahern, Jr., Oil and the Outer Coastal Shelf
(Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1973).

CoastlalRc,.oiir-e Managemient 75

policy. The argument that it might be reasonable to conserve
our resources by using foreign sources is seldom heard. If
our current policy is based on the uncontrolled exploitation
of domestic nonrenewable resources then the feasibility of a
policy strategy which emphasizes conservation of offshore
oil seems slight.
The range of potential policy strategies I have outlined is
defined to some extent by the degree of conservation of
nonrenewable natural resources, particularly offshore oil,
involved in the individual policy strategies. Based upon a
projection of the current apparent policy, it must be
assumed that the feasibility of these policies is the reverse of
their listing with Policy Strategy One being the least feasible
and number Four being the most feasible. But, of course,
policy feasibility is a "shadow zone."
In designing the above strategies I have attempted to
outline one method of thinking about a policy issue in terms
of some of the decisions which could be made and what
might happen if those decisions are made. I have based these
policy strategies and their potential alternative futures on
the conventional wisdom of what could be considered a
reasonably well-informed public. There are obvious
limitations to this methodology. It is general and, some
might argue, oversimplified. I would be the last to disagree.
It does, however, indicate some dimensions of a serious
policy problem and may provide one more way of viewing
ourselves as we go about making public policy.

76 Coastal Resource Management

Coastal Resource Management:
Panel Discussion

John Hall. Question to Dr. Collard
Do we know of any effect of oil spills on the Pleuston out
there; have we recorded these and quantified any of these
factors?
Dr. Collard: The people at the University of California at
Santa Barbara found no appreciable deleterious effects
directly attributable to oil, which was kind of strange, not
*anticipated at least. The major adverse impact of the oil spill
off Santa Barbara was largely aesthetic and the detergents
applied and the mechanical means used to clean the beaches
caused the death of the organisms largely. The same was
found in the Torric Canyon accident, but to the contrary in
Massachusetts in the Buzard's Bay oil spill, tremendous
deleterious and long-lasting effects were found both in the
plankton and the penthos. As far as adverse effect in the
open sea, I know of no studies that have ever been
attempted to show adverse effects of oil. I think the
bacterial studies now in progress will be the key to that, to
find out just what place they are occupying in the food
chain.
Mike Lopez: Question to Dr. Skelton:
In your policy alternative #1, you mentioned oil
In your policy alternative #1, you mentioned oil
exploitation. Are there any areas in particular for
exploitation that you had in mind?
Dr. Skelton: Yes, the question is how much it would cost.
And we must use the term relative expense. It would cost
more in the short-term to exploit remaining land resources.
But this could be done.

It was earlier mentioned that we hoped this symposium
would clarify some problems in the policy-making process
related to Coastal Zone Management. We feel that it has
done so, primarily by re-emphasizing the need for balanced
management and careful planning in the Coastal Zones.
Perhaps the most pronounced demand for such planning
and management is focused as a result of the conflict
between human requirements for stability in the coastal
zones and the natural dynamics of coasts. Beaches move,
hotels do not (except as a result of hurricanes and other
forces related to coastal mobility). There are no simple
management techniques which can resolve this conflict
which seems to go to the heart of the concept of
Environmental Management itself. Also of great
importance is the interrelatedness of so many of the
problems in the coastal zones. Not only are these problems
related to each other, they are also often related to values
which conflict with each other over time. Beaches are
permanently eroded because they are not replenished as they
would be naturally, if rivers were not dammed to protect life
and property.
These considerations and many others seem to point out
once again that there are no simple solutions to complex
environmental problems over time and that the demands for
careful, well informed and balanced planning and
management will continue to grow~.

George W. Allen Filling of Wetlands."
Corps of Engineers
CZM Liaison
Department of the Army ArthurJ. But(
Atlanta, GA Department of Environmental
Regulations
Mr. George Allen attended Michigan State University and Gulf Breeze, Florida
Cornell University. He was a Federal Aid Coordinator for
the CGeorgia Game and Fish Department. He was a Chief of Mr. Butt attended the University of West Florida where he
the Division of Marine Resources in the Alabama received his Bachelor of Science Degree and his Master of
Department of Conservation. He was a District Biologist in Science in Biology. He has done extensive work as a research
the Corp of Engineers in the Mobile District and he is assistant at The University of West Florida, and was
currently a division biologist for the South Atlantic Division. previously employed as a biologist in orthwest Florida for
Currently, Mr. Allen is consulting editor with the Journal of the Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust
Environmental Education of the University of Wisconsin in Fund, State of Florida. He is presently a Field Inspector for
Madison. the Department of Environmental Regulations for the State
Mr. Allen's paper was entitled: of Florida.
of Florida.
"The Role of the Army Corp of Engineers in the Coastal Mr. Butt's paper was entitled:
Zone." "Coastal Development Along Estaurine Shorelines."

Michael C. Applegate Sneed Collard
Department of Environmental Department of Biology
Regulations University of West Florida
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Dr. Collard received his B.A. degree in biology, an M.S. in
Mr. Applegate attended the University of Alabama, zoology, and a Ph.D. degree in immuno-parasitology (1968)
majoring in biology and is a graduate of the University of from the University of California, Santa Barbara; post
West Florida with a Bachelor of Science in Marine Sciences. doctoral studies were undertaken at Harvard University, the
He was employed with the Trustees of the Internal Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the University of
Improvement Trust Fund before the 1975 Environmental Jerusalem, and the Steinitz Marine Laboratory at Eilat,
Reorganization Act. Then, he was transferred to the office Israel. At the University of West Florida, Collard
of enforcement of the northwest district of the Department specializes in biology of high-seas animals, with emphasis on
of Environmental Regulation. He is presently enrolled at the mesopelagic fishes and neuston communities. Collard
University of West Florida working towards his Masters currently teaches oceanography, biological oceanography,
of Science in Biology. evolution, medical parasitology, and graduate seminars in
Mr. Applegate's paper was entitled: evolution and oceanography.
"The Management of the Coastal Wetlands: Perspective, Dr. Collard's paper was entitled:
E-nforcement of State Regulations Governing Dredging and I le c Surfaace [autna o the It )liter tonlinillnleal Shell ol i1 e

Bi(.1raPhical In/ofrincalion 79

Eastern Gull' ot' Mexico and its Relationship to Oil Dr. Ham attended the University oflTexas where he received
P'roduction.' his Bachelor of Arts degree and Master's of Arts degree in
Petroleum Engineering. He received his Ph.D. at the
John G. Cowley University of Tulsa while working full-time for the Bureau
Florida Shore and Beach of Mines, Department of the Interior, Bartlesville,
Preservation Associaton, Inc. Oklahoma. In Fall, 1971, he was transferred to
Headquarters where he was responsible for managing Oil
Mr. Cowley has been the general manager of the Santa Rosa and Gas Production for the Bureau of Mines. In January
Island Authority since 195 1. He has been a resident of 1975 he was transferred to ERDA by the Non-Nuclear
Pensacola since the early 1920's. His education was in Energy and Research Act of 1975. He is presently the
Escamnbia County schools and was supplemented by further Assistant Director for Oil and Gas for the ERDA.
studies in accounting and business administration. Mr. Dr. Ham's paper was entitled:
Cowley is the President of the Florida Shore and Beach "ERDA's Perspective on Outer Continental Shelf
Preservation Association; he has been a member since 1959. Development."
Mr. Cowley's paper was entitled:
"Beach Preservation and Restoration." Daniel Penton
Bureau of Coastal Zone Planning
John Hall State of Florida
Area Supervisor
National Marine Fisheries Service Mr. Penton attended Florida State University where he
Mr. Hall attended the University of Iowa where he received received his Bachelor of Arts degree and his Master of Arts
his Bachelor of Arts degree majoring in zoology and in Anthropology. Mr. Penton has done a great deal of
freshwater ecology. He furthered his education at the archeological field work including working at excavations in
L'Alliance Francaise School in Paris where he received his such areas as Leon County, Citrus County, Madison
second degree. He received his Master's degree at the County, and Tallahassee. In addition, Mr. Penton has also
University of South Florida, where his major field was written and presented several papers on the subject of
marine biology with emphasis on invertebrae, ecology and archeology.
behavior. Mr. Hall has written and co-authored several Mr. Penton's paper was entitled:
publications and manuscripts in his field of expertise. "Coastal Zone Planning."
Mr. Hall's paper was entitled:
"An Application of Coastal Resource Management and Patrick W. Ryan
Conservation." Louisiana State Planning Office
Director
Jerry D. Ham
Assistant Director, Oil & Gas Mr. Ryan attended Louisiana State University where he
Energy Research and Development Administration received his Bachelor of Science degree in Zoology and
Fossil Energy Program subsequently received his Master of Science in Fish and

80 Biographical Information

Wildlife Management. Prior to holding his current position his Doctorate Degree in Geology fro m Oklahoma
as Director of the Louisiana State Planning Office, Mr. University. Dr. Tanner had commercial experience with
Ryan was in charge of the statewide outdoor recreational such firms as Carter Oil, Shell Oil, and Exxon, as well as the
planning for the Louisiana State Parks and Recreation Oklahoma and Arkansas Geological Surveys. Dr. Tanner
Commission. Mr. Ryan has also been extremely active in has more than 200 professional publications and is a
professional activities and has held positions such as contributor to various encyclopedias. He has held various
President of Louisiana Wildlife Biologists Association, distinguished positions such as National Program
President, Southern Council of State Planning Agencies. He Chairman, Geological Society of America, 1964, Vice-
is currently President elect of the National Council of State President National Highway Geology Symposium, 1960.
Planning Agencies. Dr. Tanner's paper was entitled:
Mr. Ryan's paper was entitled: "Our Mobile Coast."'
"Louisiana Coastal Zone Management Program
Development."~ David R. Worley
Technical Services Administration
Luther W. Skelton Bureau of CZM Planning
Coordinator, CZM Program State of Florida
University of West Florida Tallahassee, FL

Dr. Skelton received his Bachelor of Science degree at the Mr. Worley is a Planner with the Florida Bureau of Coastal
U. S. Naval Academy. He received his Masters degree and Zone Planning Department of Natural Resources. He is
Doctoral degree in political science from the University of manager of the Remote Sensing/Cartographic secton. He
Missouri in Columbia with emphasis in Asian and received his B.S. and M.S. in Geography from Florida State
environmental studies. Prior to joining the faculty of The University. His interests are in the practical application of'
University of West Florida, he was Director of Planning for remote sensing techniques as related to resource
the Missouri Department of Natural Resources. He is management problems, in particular as required for coastal
currently Assistant Professor of Political Science and zone management application.
Coordinator of the CZM emphasis in the Masters of Public Mr. Worley's paper was entitled:
Administration program at The University of West Florida. "Remote Sensing Application as Utilized in Florida's CZM
Dr. Skelton's paper was entitled: Program."
"A Range of Policy Strategies for Offshore Oil."

William F. Tanner
Department of Geology
Florida State University

Dr. Tanner received his Bachelor of Arts degree at Baylor
University; his Masters degree at Texas Tech University and

This public document was promulgated at an annual
cost of $2,469.00 or $2.469 per copy including prepa-
ration, printing, and distribution to give details of the
symposium on coastal zone management sponsored by
The University of West Florida, August 8-9, 1976.
UWF 77807.