Recommendations for minimizing the impacts of hydrocarbon development on the fish, wildlife, and aquatic plant resources of the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound mitigative measures

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Recommendations for Minimizing the

Impacts of Hydroocarbon Development

on the

Fish, Wildlife, and Aquatic Plant

Resources of the Northern Bering Sea

and Norton Sound

MITIGATIVE MEASURES

HD
9567
.N67
S73
1981 Habitat Division

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

1981

Funding for this project was provided by a Section 308d
Coastal Energy Impact Grant frowthe National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration of the Department of Commerce
through the Coastal Energy Impact Program and administered
by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MI NIMIZING THE

IMPACTS OF HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENT

ON THE
FISH, WILDLIFE, AND AQUATIC PLANT
RESOURCES OF THE NORTHERN BERING SEA

AND NORTON SOUND

MITIGATIVE MEASURES

Prepared by:

Suzanne J. Starr, CEIP Project Coordinator
Mark N. Kuwada, Habitat Biologist
Lance L. Trasky, M/CHM Project Leader

Marine/Coastal Habitat Management
Habitat Division
Alaska Department of,Fish and Game
Anchorage, Alaska 99502

For:

Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs
Coastal Energy Impact Program
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce

June 1981

TABI F OF COMENTS

Introduction ............... ................ I............................ 1.
Site Preparation .......... 2
2
re; ....... ....................
Recommended Mitigativ M asu .......... .................... 3
General Measures ............................................ 3
Non-Permafrost Soil.s - Erosion-, Runoff and
Sedimentation. 4
Non-Permafrost Soils@ - Preserving Natural
Water Drainage Systems....,......... ...................... 6
Protection of Permafrost .................................... 9
Noise and Disturbance ... .............................................. 12
Description ................................................... 12
Recommended Mitigative Measures ............................... 13
General Measures ......................................... 13
Facility Siting. ............................... I ...... 13
Helicopters and.Fixed-Wing Ai.rcraft ....................... 14
Boats ...................................................... 16
Sei smi c -ExplForati-on.,. .. ................. .................. 16
Human Presence ............................................ 19
Drilling Muds and:Cuttings ............... :............................ 21
Description ................... 21
Recommended Mittgative Measures ................................ 22
General Measures ......................................... 22
Oil Pollution ...................................................... 25
Description ........ 25
Recommended Mitigative asures ................... ............... 27
Prevention of Oil Spil.ls .................... ............... 27
Production Facilities .... .......................... 28
Onshore Facilities ........................................ 29
Transportation ............................................ 30
Pipelines ............................................ 30
Tanker Docks and Fueling, Facilities ................. 32
Tankers .......... ................... ............... 33
Oil Spill Containment and Cle anup ....................... 34
Monitoring ................................... .............. 40
Dredging and Filling, Gravel Mining, and
Gravel Island Construction ............... I.................. ..... 41
Des cription ..................................................... 41
Recommended Mitigative.Measures .............................. 43
Dredging and Gravel Mining - General Measures ........... 43
Dredging for Channels .......... ......................... 46
.Dredging for Pipeline Laying ............................... 48
Dredging in Streams .......... .................... ......... 50
Gravel Mining in Marine-Areas.. ...I... .......I ............. 50
Gravel-Mining in Upland Areas ............................ 51
Gravel Mining,in an Annual.Floodplain ................ .... 52
Filling - General Measures., .............................. 57
Dredge Disposal. * ............................................. 58
Gravel Pad and Road Construction ......................... 60
Gravel Islands .................... ......................... 61

Sho.reline.Alteration ............................. ................... 63
Description ................................................... 63
Recommended Mitigative Measures-, ............................. 64
General Measures .......................................... 64
Bulkheads .................. ............................. 65
Riprap and Other Revetments ........................... 68
Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties ...................... 69
Piers and Docks ........... ...... 71
Bridges and Causeways ..... 72
Small Boat.Harbors ................................... 73
Pipelines ....... *** . ****'* ... .... **'** 74
Coastal Roads ...... I .......I ........................... 75
Formation Water ......... : .............................................. 78
Description ...................... 78
Recommended Mitigative Me asu res ............................... 80
General Measures ............................................ 81
Cooling Waters and Water Withdrawal .................................... 82
Description ......... :............ ................... 82
Recommended Mitigative Measures ..... 83
Cooling Waters - General Measures ......................... 83.
Closed Cycle Cooling Systems.. 84
Open Cycle Cool@ing.Systems.....*****'*"'*******"'**** ... -86
Water Withdrawal for Purposes
Cooling.
Interference with Sub 1 t nc , Commercial, or
Sport Harvests ................. .......I........................... 92
Description ..... ............ 92
e Me u e ...........................
Recommended Mitig ... 93
Noise and Disturbance. ............. ........................ 93
Competition for Resources ..................... ............... q4
Competition for.Space.. ................................... 94
Phys.ical Destruction or Restriction
of Fishing Gear ......... 95
Vessel Traffic ............................ ........... 95
Pipelines ............... I............................ 98
Oil Pollution - Avoidance and
Tainting ........................................... 99
Secondary Development ............................ .................... 100
Description .................................................... 100
Recommended.Mitigative Measures ................................. 102
General Measures ........... .............................. 102

INTRODUCU ON

As part of a Coastal Energy Impact Program (CEIP) study of the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, mitigating measures were proposed for

various impacts which might occur as a result of oil and gas development.

These mitigating measures represent an attempt to prevent, minimize, or

ameliorate impacts to fish and wildlife populations and their associated

habitat, while allowing development to proceed at the most efficient

pace commensurate with those concerns. These measures are additionally

designed to be ut ilized as a quick means of reference for future planning

or developmental considerations. For further information regarding

anticipated impacts'of oil and gas development, the reader is referred

to the compl ete report "Recommendations for Minimizing the Impacts of

Hydrocarbon Development on the Fish, Wildlife, and Aquatic Plant Resources

of the Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound".

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SIT PREPAPATION

Extensive site alteratio n (clearing, grading, filling and gravel pad

construction) is often necessary to prepare an area for the construction

of buildings, the building of access roads, the laying of pipelines and

the establishment of utility right-of-ways.

During site preparation, habitats of local organisms are often altered

or destroyed. Species of wildlAfe that are sensitive to disturbance

will be displaced from the area. The impacts on fish and wildlife will
be most severe if site preparation occurs.in vital fi-sh and wildlife
habitats where breeding, nesting, pupping, rearing, staging, wintering,

denning, or calving occurs. In addition to destroying habitat,, site

preparation leads to other environmental problems. Natural drainage

systems may be altered. The removal or compaction.of.ground vegetation
exposes soils to erosion and permafrost.degradation. Runoff containing

eroded soils and contaminants from a construction site can be carried
into coastal waters, thereby degrading water quality, blocking light

penetration, and inhibiting the growth of algae and aquatic plants.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

Generai Measures

1. Vital fish and wildlife habitats shoul d be avoided as sites

for oil and gas facilities.

2. Before.site preparation begins the envir onmental, geologic and

hydrologic aspects of the construction site.should be studied.

Facilities should be sited where the impacts of the facility

on the environment and the environment on the facility are

minimized.

3. Site preparation activities should be scheduled at times when

the impacts on critical fish and wildlife life processes such

as nesting or pupping will be minimal.

4. Development plans should include procedures for control-ling
erosion, runoff, and sedimentation, for preserving natural

water drainage systems, and for protecting permafrost.

.5. Wetlands, tideflats, and wet tundra areas should not be drained,

filled, or polluted.

6. The destruction of native vegetation cover should be avoided.

7. Size of facilities should be minimized,, and facilities should

be consolidated where possible.

8. Dust should be controlled at construction si.tes. Dust accumulation

around,roads and construction sites can cause early snow melt

and vegetation changes. These changes can lead to changes in

drainage patterns. -Dust should be controlled by watering, not

oiling. Runoff from oiled surfaces can pollute local waters

and the hard surface created by oiling lengthens deterioration

time following project abandonment.

Non-Permafrost Soils Erosion, Runoff and Sedimentation.

1. Clear only the minimum area needed for'construction of facilities.

Other parts of thesite should not,be disturbed. Any remaining

vegetation will reduce erosionand runoff in adjacent areas.

2. Finish grades so that the flow of water is directed along

natural drainage courses and through natural terrain.

3. Vegetative buffers should be Ieft along all shorelines, sloughs,

bays, rivers, streams, and other surface waters in order to

trap sedimentation and pollutants and to control stormwater

flow. The width of the buffer should.be determined by slope

of land, severity of erosion, and vegetation type.

4. Cleared'areas should be revegetated as rapidly as possible

after site preparation activities in order to stabilize

exposed soils.

5. Where possible natural vegetation should be used to revegetate

cleared areas. It is adapted to local climatic conditions

and it reduces the loss of wildlife habitat because birds and
mammals are ada pted to It. Nurseries should be established to
provide arctic adapted speci'es for revegetation.

6. On a site that has been cleared but on wh.ich construction will

be delayed, temporary vegetation (i.e.,-rapidly growing grains

and grasses) may b e planted@on exposed soi-Is to prevent erosion.

Newly seeded areas can be protected until. vegetation becomes

established by laying down netting, preferably jute or other

biodegradable material.

7. Stormwater runoff may be diverted away from exposed soils by

cutting parallel troughs across slopes to intercept the downward

flow of surface waters. On stee p slopes, bench terraces can

be constructed to achieve the same purpose. Both of these

methods are used to di2vert stormwaters into sediment basins or

Anto vegetated buffer strips so that sediments can be removed.

8. Sed.iment basins or detention ponds may.need to be constructed

in order to detain runoff and trap sediment thus decreasing

the siltation and contamination of coastal waters.

9. Vegetated waterways (swales) should be used to carry stormwaters

away from construction sites instead of concrete storm drains.

10. Erosion in waterways (e.g., channels, ditches) may be reduced

by planting grasses along their courses. The establ.ishment of

grasses is an effective way of removing sediments from the

water.

ll.. Structures sited.on slopes.of.unstable materials should be

built on fill or supported on piles.

12. Riprap material used to stabilize ri.ver banks and.prevent

erosion should be of sufficient size so that it cannot be

carried into the stream by normal or flood currents..

Non-Permafrost Soils Preserving.Natural.14ater Drainage Systems..

1. Areas that have high water tables shoul-d not bedrained.

Excavation in these areas should be limited to such structures

as ponds,,artificial lakes, or other containment projects

which preserve the natural water system. These artificial

basins should be designed to function as natural systems,

which means they should-be fairly shallowand have gentle

slopes. Improperly designed basins may become polluted

within a few years.. Vegetative buffer strips should surround

the basins for restoration of runoff water quality.

2. Areas that are regularly flooded should not be drained or

altered. Elevating structures on piles will cause the least

disturbance to the flood plain.

3. There should be no excavation, filling, land clearing, grading,

channelization,. or removal of natural vegetation, and no
discharge of pollutants into wetlands or wet tundra areas.'

4. Upland sites should be selected for facilities unless they are

water-dependent. If facilities are water-dependent, then the

non-water dependent p'aris of the facility (e.g., parking

areas) should be located outside of the wetland area.

5. Excavation in wetlands should be avoided except for essential

public purposes (i.e. electrical lines, pipelines, and water

lines that cannot feasibly be rerouted). Excavation should be

limited to as small an area as possible.

6. Solid-fill roads or other structures which obstruct the natural

flow of water should not be built in wetlands. The excavation

of fill for these structures causes additional adverse impacts.

if the construction of roads or other types of access through

wetlands is unavoidable, they should be placed on pilings

rather than on fill.

7. If drilling for oil and gas is unavoidable in.wetlands,

ecological disturbance can be reduced by using directional

drilling to drill several wells from one site.

8. Wetlands that are altered during the construction of facilities

should be restored to their natural state after the project is

completed.

a. The original soil should be saved and replaced after

project completion.

b. The area sho uld be restored to its original topographic

configuration

C. The area should be revegetated with native species.

9. When the movement of heavy construction equipment through

wetlands or wet tundra is unavoidable, culverts.and bridges

should be used to minimize degradation of the natural drainage

patterns. Winter movements are desirable because the substrate

is frozen, fish and wildlife are generally absent, and damage

is minimized.

10. Construction areas should be graded so that the flow of

surface waters i.s along natural drainage courses.

11. Site preparation activities in wetlands and wet tundra should

be scheduled during,winter when the least biological damage

will occur.

12. Tributary streams should not be altered.

13. The use of permeable surfacing materials such as gravel,

rocks, and shells, over groundwater recharge areas is more

desirable than the use of impenetrable surfacing such as

asphalt. Impenetrable surfaces such as paved parking lots and

roads prevent groundwater recharge and accelerate storm runoff.

Water that normally filters through the soil remains on the

surface. Increased runoff from paved areas results in pollution,

causes erosion,and increases flooding-

14- Stormwater should be retained by constructing detention ponds

which collect runoff and then slowly release filtered and

purified water to the coastal system.

Protection of Permafrost

1. Site specific studies.should be conducted to define the type

of permafrost terrain present.and the degree of potential
instability that must be considered in site diesign.

2. Construction on well-drained....coarge sediments presents fewer

problems than:construction on poorly-drained, fine-grained

sedimepts.-

3. Construction in permafrost areas should use the latest available
technology to prevent drainage alterations, 'channelization of

flows,. ponding, and permafrost degraga tion.

4. Where gravel pads are required, impact on.drainage patterns

can be reduced by buildi:ng circular pads or orienting one

corner of square pads upslope.

5. Gravel pads'shou,ld be of sufficient depth to insulate the

underlying permafrost.

6. Artificial materi,al, such as styrofoam insulation, can be used

i.n conjunction with gravel to provide insulation to the permafrost

.-layer and to reduce.gravel needs. However, the long term

impacts of artificial materials have not been adequately

tested.

7. Temporary structures should be built on piles. Gravel pads

should.only be used where weight or-stability requires their

use. Use of piles reduces permanent environmental damage and

reduces commitment of surface area for temporary structures.

8. Refrigerated piles can be used in marginal permafrost to

assure the permanently frozen state of sediments around the

piles. Pfles should be spaced far@enough apart to allow

thawing between them or drainage patterns will be altered.

9. To minimize environmental damage, construction of facilities

should be minimized. Unnecessary duplication of roads such as

construction of roads between facilities where access to the-

facilities.from main roads has already been provided, and the

use.of pipeline construction pads where existing roads could

be used, are examples of activities that should be avoided.

10. Facilities should be consolidated so that the area of disturbance

is reduced.

11. Vehicular travel and movement of construction equipment

should.be restricted to adequately constructed roads. Off-
r,oad travel- should only be allowed after the tundra surface is
sufficiently frozen and snow:depths are adequate to prevent-

surface damage.

12. Where possible,,off-road travelshould be restricted to low-

surface-pressure vehicles. Impacts of off-road travel by

tracked or tractor-type vehicles can be lessened by:

a. Traveling only where and when there is sufficient snow

cover-to protect the.vegetative surface and avoiding

steep slopes and sn ow-free areas.

b. Using the s ame route each year when activities extend

over several:winters. Use of the same route for more

than two years, provi.ding that the peat layer continues

to insulate against summer thaw, is less damaging than a

series of parallel roads across theterrain.

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NOISE AND DISTUMANCE

The intense level of support activity associated with offshore oil

exploration, development and production causes various degrees of disturbance

to fish and wildlife in the coastal environment. Disturbances are

primarily caused by an increase in helicopter, fixed wing aircraft and

boat traffic; an increase in human presence; the operation of heavy

machinery during site preparatio n and construction.of onshore facilities;

and by seismic exploration.

When birds or mammals are disturbed they may either abandon'or discontinue

using favored habitats. The impacts from noise and disturbance can be

especially severe if they take place during critical periods in the life

cycle of birds, mammals and fish. These critical periods include activities

such as breeding, nesting, pupping, staging, wintering, denning, and

calving. Interference with these activities may result in lower populations

of animals. Breeding success may be reduced as well as resistance to

disease,, predators,,and climatic conditions.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

GeneraT Measures

1. Facilities should be sited away from highly sensitive habitats.

2. Noise generating activities such as helicopter and boat

traffic,blasting or construction should be scheduled at times

and places when there.will be minimal impacts on fish and

wildlife. Schedule activities in sensitive areas to non-

sensitive times..

Facility Siting

1. Site facilities with high levels of visual and acoustical

disturbance away from biologically producti.ve.areas (sound

levels decrease with distance).

2.- Facilities should be sited a minimum of one mile away from

critical habitats such as seabird colonies and peregrine

falcon nesting cl.iffs.

3. Site fatilities where physical barriers such as irregular.

terrain will prevent sound and visual impacts.from occurring

over a wide area.

4. Provide vegetative buffer zones around@facilities. Indigenous

vegetation should be left during the site clearing wherever'

.possible.

5. Use machinery that producesll:ess noise, i.e. modify the

design of equipment to reduce noise; equip machinery with

parts such as mufflers that will reduce noise.

6. Conduct activities with high levels of,acoustical and visual

disturbance during periods of least biological activity.

Hel'icopters and Fixed-Wing Aircraft

1. Helicopters and fixed wing aircraft should maintain a vertical

distance of at least 1,500 feet, and a horizontal distance of

one@mile from sensitive areas during critical life history

stages.

2. Under no circumstances should flights over sensitive areas be
less.than*500 feet. VFR flights over sensitive areas such as

seabird colonies, should be cancelled when ceilings below 500.

feet have been reported by flight service stations or other

pilots. Wildlife observed while flying at 500 feet should be

avoided by a one-quarter mile horizontal distance.*-

3. During all phases of oil and gas development, aircraft,

especially helicopters, should follow fixed flight.paths which

avoid sensitive areas during critical times.

4. Ifflights over sensitive habitats cannot be avoided during

..,Critical periods, the number of aircraft flying over these

areas should be minimized,

Rapid, linear flight over animals causes less disturbance than
circling. Under no circumstances should helicopters unnecessarily

hover or circle over animals.

6. If flight over a bird nesting cliff during the breeding season

becomes necessary due to weather or other unavo idable circumstances,

aircraft should approach the.cliff as di'rectly.as possible..

An approach from behind the cliff may result.-in the sudden

appearance and sound of an aircraft directly above the nesting

site, causing panicked flight by the attending adul,ts and

fatal damage to-the eggs or young.

7. Helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft landing areas shouldbe

located at a.sufficient distance from sensitive areas so that

minimum altitudes can be attained before aircraft overfly any

sensitive area s.

8. Orientation classes should be conducted for all new pilots to

aquaint them with the long term effects of aircraft disturbance
on wildlife populations and State laws relating to harassment

of wildlife.

9. In order to establish effective aircraft operattan restrictions

in sensitive areas, specific studies need to.be conducted on

the effects of aircraft disturbance on a variety of mammals

and birds found in the Norton Sound-Bering Sea region.

Boats

1. Boats engaged in oil and gas exploration, development, and

production should maintain a distance of at least one mile

from sensitive areas during critical periods.

2. Oil support activities (such as gravel supply barges, supply

boats, and tankers-) should avoid all marine mammal concentrations

during critical periods.

3. Sirens o-r horns should not be used near bird colonies or

marine mammal haulouts.

.4. Navigational aids such as foghorns or flashing lights should

not be placed in or near seabird colonies or marine mammal

haulout areas.

Seismic Exploration

1. -Seismic exploration should be-conducted using only non-explosive

techniques which-do not physically ham fish and wildlife.

2. If a situation arises where non-explosivetechniques cannot be

used, and underwater bl-asting.is necessary to protect.human

life, prevent environmental damage, or protect property,
blasting programs should be designed to reduce energy transmitted
to the surrounding waters. Techniques such as blast curtains,
small delayed charges, jetted charges, etc. will minimize
environmental, damage from blasting.

3. To protect ringed seals and marine fish, under-ice pressur es
from explosive detonations on the ice should no t exceed 3 psi.

4. Terrestrial blasting should be: 1) conducted during nonsensitive
periods; 2) limited in favor of mechanical methods wherever
possible and desirable; and 3) conducted with reduced charges,
timed delays or muffle'd in other ways to reduce noise transmission

to surrounding areas.

5. Where possible, there should be coordination of seismic programs
among operators to minimize duplic ation. Overlapping or
duplicate seismic programs by various companies can intensify

and prolong the disturbance in an area.

6. Onshore seismic activity should be conducted during the winter

months when overland travel causes the least damage to the

tundra. Winter is also the period of lowest biological sensitivity
for most wildlife species. Vehicular traffic should be restricted

to the immediate area of operations.

7. No seismic surveys should be conducted in the shorefast ice

zone after March 20. Ringed seals begin pupping and rearing
young after this date. Along the Beaufort

seal abundance in areas where seismic exploration has occurred

is only one-half to one-third that of undistu

8. In the shorefast ice zone, seismic.shot lines should be spaced

at intervals of no less than two miles, or the areas of seismic

exploration should be as restricted as possible.

9. Seismic surveys should maintain a minimum distance of one mile

from sensitive habitats during sensitive periods. Explosives

should not be used within two miles of peregrine falcon nests

during the period of April 15 to August 31.

10. Explosives detonated near a fish bearing waterbody should be

detonated at. a sufficient distance so that induced water

pressures within the waterbody do not exceed 2 psi. The

following table provides. minimum stream setbacks for various.

substrate types and charge sizes.,

CHARGE WEIGHT - POUNDS

Substrate 1 2 5 10 25 100 500 1000

Rock 53 75 118 167 269 529 1182 1671

Stiff Clay 42 60 95 134 211 423 945 1337

Gravel 41 59 93 131 207 474 927 1310

Clayey Silt
Bense Sand 37 52 82 116 184 368 823 1163

Medium t o
Dense Sand 32 46 72 102 162 324 724 1024

Medium
Organic Clay 21 29 46 66 104 207 463 655

Soft Organic
Clay 19 28 43 67 87 194 435 615

These,charge weights are for single detonations separated by

at least 8 milliseconds from the next charge (i.e. if 1000

pounds of charge are detonated in 10 detonations of 100 pounds

each, separated by at least 8 milliseconds, the distance for

100 pounds can be used as the minimum distance from the waterbody).

The State of Alaska prohibits the use of high explosives for

seismic work in lakes, steams, and marine waters of the State.

Human Presence

1. Human visitation, to sensitive habitats during critical times

should be restricted in order to maintain populations of

wildlife.

2. All human activities should be prohibited within one mile of

peregrine falcon nesting cliffs between April 1 and August 15.

3. Orientation classes for all employees, including management

and supervisory personnel, should be required so as to inform.

personnel of the dangers, adverse biological consequences, and

legal ramifications of animal feeding.

4. Al'l managem ent personnel should be taught proper garbage

disposal methods in order to eliminate animal feeding.

5. Construction camps, garbage dumps and incinerators should be

fenced and buildings skirted in order to minimize human and

animal conflicts.

6. All. edible garbage must be thoroughly incinerated or buried to

prevent conflicts between humans and animals.

7. Regulations to minimize human and animal contacts must be

developed and enforced. An effect,ive regulation and enforcement

program must be administered by personnel beyond the influence

of contractors or unions. Companies should have policies

which penalize violators.

8. Specific research on animal harrassment should be in cluded as

part of.the design criteria for any oil and gas development

plan wherever these activities will impact a sensitive area or

a new species.

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DRILLING nJDS AND CUTTINGS

DrilllAg muds arespecial mixtures of clay, water (or oil) and chemicals

which are circulated:into the drilling hole of exploratory or production

oil and gas wells to'cool and lubricate the drill bit, to remove formation

cuttings from the hole, and to prevent blowouts.by holding back foemation

pressures exerted by oil and gas accumulations. Drill cuttings are

composed of bottom sediments and pieces of pulverized rock underlying

geolog-ic.formations..During the course of drilling, muds are recirculated

after cuttings and other debris are remov6d. These materials along with

some drilling muds are then discharged into surrounding waters.

Drill,ing muds and their chemical components' (caustic soda, preservatives,

viscosifiers, emulsifiers, completion chemicals and thinners) have been

shown to be acutely.toxic to fish and marine invertebrates. E ven if

concentrations found in marine waters are not toxic, the heavy metals in

drilling muds may accumulate in animal tissues and, overtime, become

toxic. Other potential impacts arise through an accumulation of muds

and cuttings omthe bottom. Organisms which are incapable of moving out

of a disturbed-area may be smothered. Mobile species might not be

smothered, but could be affected by a destruction of habitat or the

of food material. Diesel oil added to muds to enhance the

drilling of deep wells can adhere to mud particles and settle to the

bottom causing pollution of the substrate. Filter feeding animals, such

as clams, filter out the oil from the sediments and concentrate it;

thereby cau sing these organisms to develop an unpalatable oily taste.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

-General Measures

1. Wherever possible, drilling muds should be retained and used

for drilling other wells.

2. Drilling muds should not be discharged into critical habitat

areas for marine species.

3. Drilling muds should not be discharged.into any nearshore area

seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour line, or any body of

freshwater, including lakes, streams, or rivers.

4. If artificial islands are used to develop oil reserves, clean

dri.11 cuttings can be used as a material source to supplement

Aravel in island construction.

5. Drilling muds and clean drill cuttings should be discharged

near the ocean bottom rather than near the surface in order to

decrease the areal extent of outfall and to prevent stratification

of toxic components within the water column.

6. Mud discharge rates should not exceed a maximum of 50.bbl per

hour, in order to limit toxic.concentrations-of drilling muds

to a small area near the outfall.

7.- Muds,should not be discharged at low tide or slack water when

tidal flushing and dilution is a t a minimum.

8.*- Drilling muds should be diluted prior to discharge. The

minimum dilution factor should be 25 parts receiving water to

1 part drillAng fluid.

9. Muds containing high levels (as determined by Environmental

Protection Agency or Department of Environmental Conservation

water quality regulations) of hydrocarbons, surfactants,

bactericides, detergents, trivalent chromium salts, carcinogenic

compounds and other toxic additives should not be discharged

into the aquatic environment. Instead, these muds should be

hauled ashore and disposed of at an approved upland site,

pumped down the well bore, or disposed of in some other environ-

mentally acceptable manner.

10. During winter drilling in the shorefast ice zone, drilling

muds should be dispersed on the ice surface rather than under
the. ice in poorly mixed, subsurface waters where toxic build up

may occur..

11. Clean drill cuttings may be discharged without restriction,

except in areas-which are important for the rearing of Juvenile

marine species, such as larval king crab; orjn areas where

such discharges will result in a direct physical loss of

productive habitat, such as Fucus kelp and eelgras's beds,

wetlands, tideflats, or estuaries. The presence or absence of
juvenile marine species and the relative productivity of an'

area should be determined during benthic and engineering

surveys conducted prior to rig placement.

12. Heavy..metal accumulations in sediment.and animal tissues near
production platforms with multiple wells,'should be monito red

to insure that no toxic build-up occurs.

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OIL POWff ION

Oil pol lution, either acute or chronic, may occur during any phase of

petroleum development. Acute-oil spills are those that result from a

single infusion of oil into the marine environment, usually through an

accidental spill. Chronic oil pollution is that which occurs over a.n

extended pe riod of time. Development drilling, production, transportation,

and oil processing operations have been chiefl y responsible for most of

,the world's major and minor oil spills, whereas offshore exploratory

drilling has contributed a lesser amount of o1l to the environment.

Petroleum spilled along the coast is potentially harmful to all coastal

environments and the marine organisms which inhabit them including

seabirds, waterfowl, fish marine mammals, shellfish, and plankton. Oil
can affect marine life'by': 1) direct kill of organisms through coating

and asphyxiation, 2) direct kill through contact poisoning, 3) direct

kill through exposure to water soluble toxic components of oil at some

distance in space and time from the spill, 4) destruction of the sensitive

juvenile forms, 5) destruction of the food sources of higher organisms,

6) incorporation of sublethal amounts of oil and oil products into

organisms, resulting in reduced resistance to infection, physiological

stress or failure to reproduce, 7) disease due to exposure to carcinogenic

components of oil, 8) chronic low level.effects that may interrupt any

of the numerous biochemical or behavioral events necessary for the

feeding, migration, and spawning of many species of marine life and 9)

changes in biological habitats. Oil polluted marine waters can affect

humans by reducing recreational opportunities, tainting the flesh of

commercial and subsistence species of marine fish and crustaceans (salmon,

bottomfish clams, and crab) and reducing commercial fisheries production.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

Prevention of Oil Spills

1. Exploratory Drilling Because of effective U.S. Geological

Survey regulations and enforcement, exploratory drilling

operations on Federal OCS lands have a relatively good safety

record and a low incidence of oil spills. Exploratory drilling

operations would be acceptable with the following measures:

a. USGS standards for both'drilling operations and safety be

adopted and enforced on both State and Federal lease

tracts.

b. A second dril-ling rig with-@imilai`- -t,@iVahflities should be

available in Alaskan waters to drill a relief well i,n the

event of an uncontrolled flow of oi.1 from a well due to a

blowout or accident such as a rig fire. The rig requirement

can be satisfied.by an operational drilling platform

in Alaskan.waters, even if it is being used to drill

another well, but must be capable of being on site and

operational within 7 days after an uncontrolled flow has

occurred.

C. Drilling platforms must be inspected to insure that they.

are-capable of operating under the meteorological and

geophysical conditions that are present. Soil conditions

at all drilling-sttes should be inspected and certified

as being capable of supporting rig weights.

d. Only temporary drilling struct ures should be used during

the exploration phase of oil development. After drilling,

all. structures should be removed and the site restored

unless,those structures will be used in the development

of the field.

e. Because of severe winter ice conditions, exploratory

drill.ing from conventional jack-up rigs,.drillships, and

semi-submersible drilling rigs should be restricted to

the ice free months of June.through October.

f. Hazardous operations with high oil spill risk factors,

such-as testing and well completions, should be conducted
only'during periods when the ability to contain and

cleanup a spill are maximized. This would typically be

during calm open water periods.

Production Facilities

1. Production platforms must be.specifically designed and tested

to operate safely under extreme conditions involving moving
pack ice, maximum sustained wind speeds of 90 knots (100 mph),.
extreme wave heights of 32 meters (105 feet), and earthquakes

of at least 6.5 on the Richter scale.

Onshore Facilities

1. Oil storage facilities should be sited a sufficient distance

away from any open body of water so that even in the event of

an uncontrolled spill, oil would not enter the water.

2. If facilities must be sited in wetlands oradjacent to a body

of water, provisions must be made in design and construction

to prevent t he spread of hydrocarbons and to facilitate cleanup

above and below ground. Such measures would require that oil

storage and processing,facil-ities be bermed and.underlaid by

natural or artificial impermeabl-'e barriers to prevent spilled

oil from escaping the area and entering adjacent ground and

surface waters.

3. Facilitie's which store-large amounts of fuel should be sited

away from sensitive fish and wildlife concentrations, such as

,seabird rookeries and wetlands..

4. Oil storage and processing facilities should not be located on

geophysically unstable sites. This would.include sites with

unstable substrate, sites which could be affected by storm

surges, and'active fault zones..

5.. Stationary.,fuel storage facilities for construction activities
should not be placed within the floodplain of a fish stream,

and vehicle refueling should not occur in these areas.

6. Effluent,from refineries, oil treatment facilities, and petrochemical

plants should be treated to reduce concentrations of aromatic

hydrocarbons,to below one ppm. Effluents shou.ld not contain

any biologically significant amounts of heavy metals or carcinogenic

compounds which mi.ght build up to toxic levels in sediment

over the life of the project.

7. Hydrocarbon contaminated effluents should only be discharged

into areas where there is sufficient water volume, strong

tidal currents,-and a-rapid exchange of water to quickly

dilute the effluent. Under no circumstances should they be

discharged into any body of freshwater, estuary, or area

exhibitingsluggish circulation.

.8.7 Alier-na-ie---met,h-,o-ds:to@@dispose of:--contaminated.waste water, such

as pumping it into reinjection wells or into impermeable

formations underground, should be used whenever possible.

9. Alarm systems and security, measures should be developed for

all.facilities handling oil to prevent spills caused by

carelessness, vandalism, or sabotage.

Transportation

1. Pipelines

a. Avoid construction of pipelines in geophysically active

areas; i. e., across faultlines, in areas of current

scour, in gas charged sediment areas, and areas prone to

liquifaction.

b. Submarine pipelines should be buried deep enough so that

they will.not be broken by ship anchors, gouging ice

..keels, or by fishing trawls.

C. Submarine pipeline locations should be prominently

marked on nautical charts and maps. Sonar targets
Ishould be placed on the pipeline at strategic intervals

.to aid.in precise location..

d. Pipelines should be consolidated--to the@gre-at'est-extent

possible.in order to minimize habitat disturbance and

risk.

e. Pipeline.design and installation should reflect future

developmental considerations such as increased volume

during maximum production phases, and the ability to

accomodate feeder pipelines from other developing fields.

f. Sensiti-ve alarm systems and automatic shut-off valves

should be%requ,ired.on all pipelines in order to minimize.

the amount of oil that would escape in the event of a

pipeline rupture.

g. The number of stream crossings should be minimized.

Attempt to make crossings downstream from sensitive

habitats such as spawning areas. Uninterrupted movement

and safe passage of fish should be provided for. Any
artificial structure or any stream channel change.that
will restrict fish movement should be provided with an

adequate fish passage structure or facility.

Ii. Pipeline routes should avoid areas of productive or

critical benthic habitat such as larval king crab settling.

areas, larval shellfish release areas, salt marshes, and

important clam beds.

i. Pipelines should be designed or sited in a manner that

will not impede crab passage or migration.

2. Tanker docks and fueling facilities, which must be located in

marine waters, should be designed to include:

a. Automatic shut-off systems to stop the flow of fuel from

storage areas in the event that a dock is damaged or

..destroyed.

b. Redundant safety systems with exceptional safety factors

incorporated in the oil transfer pipes, hoses, and other

equipment, to@eliminate the risk of failure and subsequent

oil spillage.

C. Redundant safety measures and additional crews should be

required during operations with historically high spillage

rates, such as the loading or unloading of tankers.

These measures will help to prevent spills which often

occur due to fatigue or carelessness.

3. Tankers

a. Only U.S. Coast Guard inspected load on top or segregated

ball-ast tankers whi-ch meet Coast Guard standards should

be allowed-to transport oil in Alaskan coastal waters.

Tankers destined for operation in western Alaska should

be specifically designed to withstand ice infested waters,

with-reinforced double hulls, multiple screws, and redundant

__.st
eeri ng@. systems.,

b. Mandatory vessel traffic corridors and a vessel traffic

control system should be-implemented.

C. All tankers and other large vessels should be required to

use certified pilots.who are familiar with local hazards,

weather, wind,, wave, ice, and tidal.conditi.ons.

d. No d-ischarge of ball.ast.or bilge water should be permitted

in the Bering Strait.because of sensitive wildlife populations;

or east of Cape Nome due to sluggish ci.rculation regimes.
-Ballast'water treatment facilities should be av ailable at

the tanker dock.

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e. Tankers should be required to maintain a distance of at
least 15 miles from established seabird colonies.

f. Ocean going tugs reinforced against ice should be available
to rescue any tanker which loses poweror steerage before
it runs aground.

g. At least one ice breaking vessel should be continually
stationed in the Bering Sea.

h. Tanker routes should only be established after conducting
a careful scientific study and analysis to determine:
1) the safest routes through seasonal Ice fields, storm
paths, and hazards to navigation, and to 2) avoid sensitive
fish and wildlife habitat which might be affected by a
spill.

--"Oil Spill Containment and Cleanup

1. An effective oil spill containment and cleanup organization
should be developed for a region before any drilling begins.
This organization should have sufficient oil spill containment
and cleanup equipment at its disposal to: 1) protect all
identified critical habitats, and 2) effectively contain and
cleanup the maxi mum probable projected spill.

2. An effective oil spill response organization should have an

oil spill contingency plan,which would.detail:

a. Activities associated with oil field development, including

offshore activities involving the handlIng or storage of

oil or hazardous substances.

b. Conditions under which t1he organization has a clear

capability to contain and cleanup spilled oil; and conditions

under which hazardous operations should be suspended.

c. Operational procedures, communications networks, detection

and monitoring devices, equipment inventories, response

times"and disposal sites.

d. Contingencies and equipment to handle all oceanographic

and meteorological conditions which can be expected to

occur in an area of drilling.

e. Provisions for under ice and broken ice containment and

cleanup.

f. Locations of additional containment and cleanup equipment,

the location of ports and airfields for transferring

emerge,ncy.equipment,.the availability of transport and

support vessels, and approximate response times to various

spill sites.

g. Provisions for periodic revisions to the contingency

plan, as necessary to.accomodate operational changes and

allow the incorporation of new. technology.

3. Oil spill containment and cleanup equipment should be stationed

at strategic points in order to decrease the response time to

any point within the lease area to a maximum of six hours

after a spill has occurred.

4. Small scale containment equipment, sorbent material, and oil

spill response training should be made avai-lable to coastal

villages Which might be impacted by a spill.

5. All tanker terminals, harbors, and ports which are utilized

for oil- related activ-ities should have sufficient contai-nment

equipment available on site to handle the largest spill which

mi.ght occur in those areas.

6. Anchor points',for.oil exclusion booms. should be identified or

placed.near the mouths of all important fish streams, lagoons,

bays, and estuaries..

7. Because existing oil spill containment and cleanup equipment

is.in many areas inadequate,, satisfactory,field'demonstrations

of equipment and organizational-capabil@ities.should be conducted

prior to any approval of drilling permits, operation of facilities,

or any.shipment.of oil by tankers.. Where existin.g equipment

Js inadequate t o effectively contain and clean up oil in

broken ice, development of effecti-ve equipment for containment

and cleanup of oil in ice should be made a requirement of

permit approval.

8. Recognize the limited capabilities of existing equipment and

the limited amount of equipment avai:lable. With present

operational and technical oil spill containment and cleanup it

can be most effectively used to protect the most sensitive

fish and.wildlife concentrations or habitats from oil spills.

9. Dispersants In the event that weather conditions or the

location of a spill make mechanical containment or cleanup

impossible, dispersants should be considered as an option to

protect --f i sh:@ and wi-ldl i fec-Tosources, der-certa1mcircumstances.
-,un

However, there are several drawbacks to the use of.dispersants.

The primary problem is that insufficient data is available on

the effectiveness and toxicity of.dispersants to make an

objective.decision regarding their use in Al.askan waters.

Certain dispersahts and dispersant-oil mixtures-can be more

toxic than the original parent oil, thereby precluding their

use in most@cases. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

has published a list of approved dispersants; however, the

presence of a.dispersant on this list only signifies EPA's

acceptance of the method.used to test the dispersant and is

not Pecessarily an endorsement of its innocuous natu re. The

second problem is that, dependent upon type, dispersants will

only work.under certain te mperatures and.sea conditions. If

these conditions do not exist during a spill then dispersants

will not work. Third, there has to be a means of delivering

the,dispersants to the spill site. Vessels, fixed wing aircraft,

and helicopters are a,ll feasible, but weather and visability
must meet minimum standards to be effective, especially in' the

case of airborne systems. Fourth, dispersants only remove the

threat of mechanical damage (i.e., coating and abrasion) to

fish,.wildlife, and habitat.,and may actually increase the

amount of toxicity re,lated.damage resulting from a spill-

In light of the aforementioned problems, dispersants should

only be considered as an option to protect fish and wildife

resources-or--habitats Under the following circumstances:

a. Only after consultation with the Departments of Fish and

Game and Environmental Conservation. To effectively'

utilize dispersants, approval for their use, and the

conditions under.which they-can be used will have to be

determined in advance of any spill.

b. When mechanical means of oil spill containment and cleanup

are. not feasi bl e.

c. When oil spill trajectories clearly indicate that the

threat of physical damage and fish and wildl-ife mortalities

at the projected impact site clearly exceed the toxic

.effects of using dispersants at the spill site or at some

point along the spill trajectory.

d. Dispersants should:only be used to protect sensitive

species and habitats from the physical effects of oil

spi-Ils and should never.be used simply to remove visible

components of oil pollution. Dispersants increase toxicity

and solubility wit hin the water column and may adversely.

affect larval. marine organisms and fish if used improperly.

Species sensitive to physical damage from oil spills

include: seabirds, waterfowl, seal pups, intertidal

spawningherring, and pelagic juvenile marine species.

Sensitive habitats include: eelgrass, Fucus beds, salt

marshes, stream deltas, and depositional shorelines.

e. Dispersahts should,onlybe used on large oil slicks in

open water-areas which present a definite threat to fish,

wildlife, or sensitive habitat on shore. If a spill is

far offshore and is breaking.up, it should be allowed to

dissipate naturally unless it can be contained or cleaned

up by mechanical means.

f. Do.not use dispersants in spawning areas.during seasons

when large concentrations of commercial or ecologically

important fish or shellfish eggs or larvae are in the

water column.

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g. Do not use dispersants on spills of light hydrocarbon

products.such as gasoline or light diesel fuels'. These

products naturally dissipate.rapid.ly and dispersants

would increase-environmental damage by distributing them

in the water column. Use only on crude and bunker oils.

Ii. Only non-toxic disp ersants, or low@toxicity dispersants

with a very low application rate (one gallon of dispersant

to 100 gallons of oil), should be used on Alaskan spills.

Monitoring

1. Ambient hydrocarbon levels should be recorded in the water

column and sediments prior to any developmental activity or

facility operation which will discharge hydrocarbons or other

hazardous substances into the marine enIvironment. Ambient

levels should further be monitored regularly to insure that

discharge standards are not exceeded.

2. Tissue samples of species which commonly occur and are harvested

in an area of oil development should be obtained periodically

to insure that hazardous bioaccumulations of hydrocarbons,

heavy metals,,or other hazardous substances do not occur.

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DREDGING AND FILLING, GRAVEL MINING, AND GRAVEL ISLAt,11) CONSTRUCTION

Dredging, filling.and gravel mining take place during development and

production of petroleum resources and are conducted to 1) create and

maintain navigational channels (dredging), 2) lay pipelines for the

transportation of oil and gas dredging), and 3) obtain a source of

material for fill or construction (dredging and gravel mining). Filling

consists of taking materials produced by dredging and gravel mining and

depositing them in another area either onshore or offshore. Disposal of

dredge material, road and gravel pad construction, and gravel island

building are types of filling.

The most obvious result of dredging, gravel mining, and filling is a

destruction of habitat. Dredging and gravel mining may destroy, drain

or drastically alter submerged bottoms, coastal wetlands and tidelands

and can accelerate coastal erosion. Gravel mining in floodplains can

alter stream courses, and change stream flows. Filling changes aquatic

habitats to terrestrial habitats, and can alter circulation and surface

drainage patterns@. Long term damage done by dredging and filling is

most likely in nearshore areas such as estuaries and wetlands. Long

term damage by gravel mining is most likely to occur on streams and in

the nearshore area. Waterfowl nesting and staging areas, fish spawning

and rearing areas, and important commercial and recreational harvest

areas are located in these highly productive habitats.

Dredging and filling can adversely affect plants and animals living in

coastal habitats. Alteration of circulation patterns.can displace

plankton to different environments. The suspension of bottom sediments

causes the water to become turbid (cloudy) limiting the amount of light

entering the water column and thus reducing phytoplankton growth rates.

Suspended bottom particles can clog the breathing apparatus of fish and

the feeding mechanisms of filter feeding animals such as clams, mussels

and sponges. As the sediments settle out and collect on the bottom,

eggs.on spawning grounds and plants and animals that are non-mobile may

be smothered. Benthic an d epibenthic organisms (animals living on the

surface of the bottom substrate) are destroyed as they are swept into

dredging equipment. Other organisms are displaced or driven out of the

area by the dredging and mining activities.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

Dredging and Gravel Mining - General Measures

1. Dredging and gravel mining should.be avoi ded in highly sensitive.

fish and wildlife habitats.

2. Before major dredging projects are planned, site specific studies

should be conducted in the area under consideration to determine

local,ocean ographic and hydrological conditions including: circulation

patterns, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. The.biological

productivity of the area should also be evaluated and the location

of vital habitats identified. This information should be used to

plan and schedule dredging so that minimal environmental damage

occurs.

3. Detailed plans for dredging and gravel min.ing operations should be

submitted to resource management agencies well in advance of

proposed activities so that operational delays can be eliminated

and site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect

local fish and wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

4. Activities which are likel y to require dredging, such as the construction

of nearshore facilities and onshore pipeline routes, should be

sited where minimal dredging would be required

5. . Dredging and mining activities should be scheduled to avoid breeding

periods and other critical life history stages of sensit.ive species.

6. Dredging should be,conducted in a manner which will prevent the

release and spread of silty bottom sediments with a high biological.

oxygen demand into the water column. "Silt curtains" or "diapers"

may be used to retain sediment laden waters near the dredge site.

However, silt curtains are only effective in still waters.

7. Hydraulic dredges should not be used in areas which support large

populations of larvae.or juveniles of commercially or environmentally

important marine species which can be entrained or injured in the

pumps and dredge lines. In areas with large populations of larval

or juvenile marine organisms, a clam shell dredge produces fewer

impacts.

8. Silt levels from dredging operations should be at ambient levels by

the time they reach sensit ive habitats.

9. Operating controls for dredges should be established which will

reduce adverse environmental impacts.

10. Because in some cases gravel may be scarce, quarry rock and alternate

materials should be used for construction whenever possible.

11. Where possible, gravel from abandoned structures such as tailing

piles, drill pads or airstrips, should be reused to avoid impacts

to watercourses and aquatic habitat.

12. Upland and offshore gravel sites are preferred over floodplains and

nearshore areas. Impacts resulting from transportation of gravel

and othersecondary impacts associated with mining.operations need

to be considered when selecting a site. The site selected should

be that which would result in the least total impact.

13. Gravel mining sites should not be located within the annual floodpl.ains

of fish streams or rivers, unless feasible alternatives are non-

existent. Gravel mining in floodplains can result in channel

ch anges,.channel blockages., siltation, and fish entrapment.

14. Gravel mining should not occur on spits protecting lagoons, in the

lagoons themselves, or in nearshore areas.

15. Gravel mining in wetlands should be avoided.

16. Development of a.minimal number of upland, intensive-use gravel

sites is preferable to a proliferation of small sites; minimization

of sites reduces access road requirements and limits the area of

habitat disturbance.

17. A mining site should meet the long.term requirements for all

activities in a given area; sites slated for one-time use by a

single project should be avoided.

18. Deeply mined gravel pits should be converted to water reservoirs

where the need exists. This will provide a dependable winter

supply of water,,and wil.1 preclude the need for water removals from

biologically sensitive habitats such as fish overwintering areas,

Dredging for Channels.

1. Appropriate choices sho uld be.made for the location and design

of channels. Plans should include: 1) proper alignment of the

channel to minimize erosion and maintenance dredging; 2)

minimum dimensions for length, width, and depth of channel to

limit destruction of productive marine habitat and maintain

natural circu lation patterns; 3) appropriate choice of dredge

type which will minimize siltation (usually suction dredge);

4) establishment of beneficial operating controls for dredging

operations which will minimize short term impacts on fish and

wildlife; 5) proper disposal of spoil in upland sites; and 6)

time of year in which dredging operations would encounter the

least-amount of biological acti-vity.

2. Existing natural channels should be utilized to the greatest

extent possible. New channels s hould be located so as to

prevent the loss of vital areas and to avoid erosion of shorelines..

3. Channel dredging can be avoided in most vital ha bitats by

limiting dredging to natural channels. Depositional areas

will require continual maintenance dredging. All vital habitats

should be identified during the planning phase of each dredging

operation and a buffer zone of several hundred feet or more

shoul-d-be@maintained between those areas and dredging operations.

Buffer zone boundaries should be determined on a case-by-case

bas i s.

4. Minimize the length, depth, and widt h of the channel to maintain

the natural pattern of water circulation, to avoid major

salinity alterations, and to protect vital habitats. Excessively

wide channels may lead to an u Innecessary loss of vital habitat

areas such as clam beds or eelgrass beds. In general, a

navigation channel needs to be no wider than about three or

four times the width of the.largest vessel for which it is

designed. Similarly, channels do not need to be deeper than

about 4 feet beneath the deepest draft vessel at low water,

provided that traffic moves at moderate speeds to reduce

stirring up the bottom where fine sediment has accumul'ated.

In many cases it is not unusual to add to this 4 foot depth an

additional'foot or so to accommodate siltation or slumping.

This will further reduce the frequency of maintenanc e dredging.

5. To avoid excessive slumping of the adjacent bottom into the

channel and repeated maintenance dredging, channel sides

should be dredged out to a final stable slope, or "angle of

repose" during the initial operation. The exact cut will

depend on local geohydrological conditions.

6. Projects which would cause accelerated shore erosion should be

avoided, or operated in such a m anner as to eliminate erosion-

induc.ing;effect,s. Dredging,too clos-e to the shore in shallow-

water areas may cause severe shoreline recession, both from

channel, slumping and from direct erosion of banks, and should

be avoided.

7. Dredging near the toe or face of a bluff should be avoided as

it exposes the bluff to increased erosion.

8. New channels should not be created between freshwater aquatic

systems and coastal waters.

9. Avoid alteration of natural water channels through straightening,

deepening, or diking.

Dredging for Pipeline Laying

1. Pipeline routes should avoid highly productive, economically

valuable, or unique habitats.

2. If important habitats cannot be avoided when planning pipeline

routes, avoid dredging during such sensitive periods as fish

migration and spawning, and waterfowl nesting and staging.

Onshore pipeline laying should be conducted during the winter

when the ground is frozen and impacts caused by construction

equipment are minimized.

3. Limit dredging to the smallest area necessary for pipeline

placement.

4. Avoid permanently blocking surface drainages during pipeline

installation. Elevated pipelines and roads.should be adequately

culverted. Soil over buried pipelines should be contoured to

original slopes, and banks at stream crossing should not be

altered. Care should be taken to prevent sIumping in permafrost

soils or altering drainage patterns.

5. Whenever pos.sible, "double ditching", the removal of topsoil

and vegetation first and replacement of it last, should be

used. This promotes more rapid restoration of vegetation.

6. Limit equipment and activities to the pipeline right-of-way

7. Use hydraulic dredges instead of jet systems when bottom

sediments are silty and siltation is likely to affect important

habitats. Hydraulic dredges are capable of pumping dredged

spoils up to one mile from the site, thus protecting habitats

adjacent to the dredged area.

8. Use silt curtains (polyethylene sheets hanging from float

lines to the water's bottom) to trap silt and sediment. Silt

curtains,.however, are effective only in still waters.

Dredging in Streams

1. Dredging should occur only during low water periods in order

to minimize siltation.

2. Dredging should not occur in known or suspected fish spawning

or nursery areas. Wherever possible dredging should occur

below spawning areas.

3. Dredging operations must foll ow procedures that will minimize

the resuspension of instream materials.

4. Dredging should occur during periods of lowest biological

activity.

Gravel Mining in Marine Areas

1. Gravel mining should be avoided in highly sensitive fish and

w-ildIi-fe -habitats.

2. Gravel should not be mined from spit s, beaches, deltas of

rivers that support fish, lagoons, estuaries, or barrier

islands.

3. Gravel mining sit e selection should be based on a study which

considers not only gravel availability but also. concentrations

of biological resources; commercial, recreational and subsistence

harvest activities; and effects of siltation on downstream

habitats.

4. Silt control measures should be practiced in areas of biological

productivity or where silt could be carried into productive

habitats.

5. Organic overburden from offshore mining areas should be backfilled

into previously mined areas to speed recolonization of the

area by marine life.

Gravel Mining i n Upland Areas

1. Detailed mining plans should be submitted to resource management

agencies well in advance of mining operation to expedite

permitting. Site specific mitigating measures sh ould.be

developed if necessary to protect local wildlife resources

from unnecessary impacts.

2. Where mining occurs in areas which support critical life

history stages (esp'. grizzly bear denning., raptor nesting, and

moose and muskox wintering) operations should be timed to

avoid those life history stages.

3. Impacts of roads and other support activities and structures

should be considered during site selection.

4. Sites should be located so as to prevent mass wasting into

fish streams.

5. Vegetation removal should be limited to the area necessary for

one years operation.

6. Mined areas should berevegetated and restored to original

contours or used for water storage.
Gravel Mining'in an Annual Floodplain.

Annual floodplains are the least desirable location for gravel mining.

mining in offshore marine areas or in uplands is preferable. In an area

where the only feasible gravel source is within an annual floodplain,

the following guidelines should be followed to minimize impacts.

1. Floodplains of streams which do not support fish populations

should be considered as gravel sources.before those streams

that support anadromous or non.-anadromous fish. Because of

increased risk of hydrological changes in the stream, floodplains

of anadromous fish streams should be considered last.

2. Where mining must occur in active floodplains, braided rivers

should be considered as primary gravel sources; other river

configurations, listed in order or likelihood of causing the

least physi cal change, are split, meandering, sinuous, and

straight.

3. When small quantities of gravel are required (approximately
50,000 m3 or less), select sites that will scrape only unvegetated

gravel deposits.

4. When l'arge quantities are required (in excess of 50,000 m3),

select larger rivers cont aining sufficient gravel in unvegetated

areas, or select terrace locations on the inactive side of the

floodplain and mine by pit excavation

5. Consider length, location and other impacts of access roads in

site selection. Mined areas should be on the same side of a

stream as the access road to minimize stream crossings.

6. Work should be scheduled to avoid peak biological events such

as local fish migration and spawning, bird and mammal breeding,

nesting, and rearing-of-young. Critical habitats such as

spawning and overwintering areas should be avoided.

7., Riffle areas should be avoided except in the following situations:

a. When more rapid site recovery is desirable.

b. When the riffle is an unproductive aquatic habitat because

of cementation or infiltration by fine sediments.

C. Where deepening the thalweg may reduce or eliminate

aufeis development.

d. In a long riffle, excavation may be acceptable near the

middle of the riffle.

8. Vegetated areas should not be disturbed when sufficient

quantities of gravel can be obtained in unvegetated areas of

f1oodp I a ins.

9. Material removed from unvegetated and exposed (de-watered)

bars of a watercourse should only beremoved to the existing

ice or water level. Following mining, bars should be sloped

to enhance drainage.

10. Where removal must occur in vegetated areas, preference

should be given to locations in dominant, homogeneous

vegetative communities.

11. If mining in vegetated areas, all overburden and vegetative

slash and debris should be saved for use-during site rehabilitation

to facilitate vegetative recovery. This material should be

piled or broadcast in a manner so that it will not be washed

downstream.

12. Material sites within the active floodplain should not disturb

th e edge of active channels or form new high-water channels

through the site.

13. Site configurations should avoid use of long straight lines.

Sites should be shaped to blend with physical features and

surroundings.

14. Gravel, mining should occur in such a manner, that the flow-of

the watercourse is not rechanneled, blocked or diverted.

15. When scraping in active or inactive floodplains, maintain

buffers that will contain active channels to their original

locations and configurations.

16. Banks of watercourses should not be altered.@ Undercut and

incised vegetated banks especially should not be altered.

17. Stream crossings should be selected at points where no alteration

of the banks is necessary.

18 Equipment should not enter or cross an active (_open flowing)

channel of the watercourse.

1.9. Movement of equipment through willow (Salix) stands should be

avoided whenever possible.

20.. Mining should occur in such a manner that berms, potholes,

and/or depressions that could cause fish entrapment are not

created.

21. Pit mining if required, should be located in areas where there

is a low probability of diverting active stream channels into

the min,ed,a:rea. Such areas include terraces, inactive floodplains,

or stable islands with adequate buffers.

22. Pit excavations should be separated from the active floodplain

by a buffer designed to maintain this separation for two or

more decades.

23. If pits are left in floodplains, an outlet should be con structed

to provide escape for fish trapped during high water. A pit

connected to a fish stream, if properly designed, can provide

for fish rearing and overwinterihg. Where a pit is adequately

protected from flooding, and will not be used for fish habitat,

waterfowl and shorebird habitat can be created by providing a

diversity of water depths.

24. Pit outlet channels should be deep enough to allow fish passage

during low flow conditions and be as narrow as possible. All

outlet channels should be at the downstream end of the pit,

angled downstream, and connected to a non-depositional area of

the main channel. Outlet channels should be constructed at

the end of site rehabilitation to minimize siltation in the

river.

25. Where.gravel washing operations are required in floodplains,

wash water should be recycled with no effluent discharge to

the active floodplain. If settling ponds are required, they

should be designed to provide adequate retention time for

site-specific conditions. Outflows should be constructed to

avoid fish entrapment.

26. Upon.completion of material removal the mining site should be

graded smooth with all berms and potholes removed, and all

depressions filled.to prevent'.entrapment of fish. Stored

material should not be stockpiled in the fl.oodplain.

Filling General Measures.

1. Filling (dredge disposal, gravel pad and road construction,

and gravel island building) should be avoided in highly sensitive

fish and wildlife habitats.

2. Activities which are.likely to require filling, such as the

construction of near shore facilities and onshore pipeline

routes, should be sited where minimal dredging and filling

would be required.

3. Detailed plans for filling operations should be submitted to

resource management agencies well in advance of proposed

acti vi ties so - that %@permi tti,ng -del ays can be el i mi nated and

site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect

local fish and wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

4. Filling activities.should be scheduled to avoid breeding

periods and other critical life history phases of sensitive

species.

5. Easily erodable material (i.e. silt) should not be used for

construction of offshore facilities. The grain size of these

materials is too small to withstand ocean currents and waves

and are likely to result i.n increased water turbidity and

burial of downstream habitats.

6. Because gravel sources may be scarce, quarry rock and alternate

materials should be used for construction whenever possible.

7. Solid fill structures such as gravel islands and causeways

should not be located in areas where they will disrupt local

circulation patterns, adversely affect water quality, or

interfere with fish or marine mammal migrations.

8. Do not construct long continuous fill causeways or docks. Use

piling structures or provide sufficient breaches to allow

normal fish passage, and for maintenance of water quality.

9. Use fill material compatible with the area.. In areas where

there is a high ambient silt level such as the Yukon River
Delta, silt mayte acceptable 6r structures. In areas with

low turbidity - use only clean material and armor to prevent

erosion and siltation.

Dredge Disposal

I When the spoil removed in a dredging operation is compatible

with existing material (i.e. mud on mud, sand on sand), direct

disposal of the dredge spoil onto the bottom may be acceptable.

However, the spoil should not contain toxic pollutants,

should spread in a thin layer (less than two inches) whic h

will allow marine organisms -to burrow through it9 shoul.d not

be deposited in ridges that significantly impede water flow,

and should not cover vital habitat areas, i.e., wetlands,

tideflats, estuarine waters, productive benthic habitats or

Fucus and eelgrass beds.

2. In someareas, littoral zone disposal of material dredged from

rivers or nearshore channels may be required if deep water

disposal would create a.deficit budget in longshore sediment

transport. Such disposal should be planned to avoid impacts

to sensitive species and habitats.

3. Dredged material should not be deposited in wetlands, but

rather in a designated area where there will be a minimum of

environmental alteration.

4. Dredged material shou:ld be.,dispo.sed of at a sufficient distance

inland to prevent reintroduction ofmaterials into the waterway.

5. In water depths in excess of 2 meters (6.5 feet), water

column turbidity can be reduced by vertically discharging the

dredged slurry through a diffuser (a 90-degree elbow) at a

depth of 0.5 to 1 meter below the water surface. Use of a

diffuser minimizes areal coverage over the disposal area but

maximizes mounding of the fluid mud and dredged material. The

simple open-ended pipeline, discharging above and parallel to

the water surface, creates the grea test water column turbitity

@@but-produces a relatively thin, widespread fluid mud layer.

Gravel Pad and Road Construction

1. Gravel pads and roads should not be contructed in vital fish

and wildlife habitats.

2. All linear gravel structures, such as roads and construction

pads, should be adequately culverted to prevent artificial

ponding or water starvation.

3. Facilities and associated developments should be designed to

reduce number and size of pads needed and the amount of gravel

needed.

4. Avoid building pads, especially roads, near waterways to

lessen erosion potential.

5. Pads and roads should be of sufficient thickness to prevent

permafrost melting. Artificial insulation should be incorporated

in fill to reduce gravel requirements.

6. Berms and drainage ditches in non permafrost areas should be

instal,led to control the rate of runoff from unvegetated

surfaces.

7. Pads should be built in such a way that drai nage patterns in

surrounding areas will not be altered.

8. Dust should be controlled on pads by watering, not oiling.

Dust accumulation on snow and vegetation leads to accelerated.

spring snow melt and vegetation changes.

9. Roads across wetlands or wet tund ra should be aligned per-

pendicular to the direction of sheet flow.

Gravel Islands

1. Vital fish and wildlife habitats should be avoided as sites

for gravel islands.

2. Construction of gravel islands,should be scheduled to avoid

breeding periods, migrations, and other critical life history

stages.

3. Barge routes for transportation of material to construction

site should be planned to avoid marine mammal and bi rd concentrations.

Bubbles from the barges wake.can persist for several hours,

causing a "behavioral" barrier to migratory movements and

barge traffic disrupts resting and feeding birds.

4. To reduce turbidity and siltation, use of coarse-grained

gravel is preferred over use of'fine-grained.construction

materials such as silt, sand, and in some cases gravel.

5. Shorelines of artificial islands should be protected from

erosion using the methods found in the Shoreline Alteration

section of this report. Erosion c an cause siltation and

environmental damage to downdrift areas as well as necessitating

continual replenishment of eroded material.

6. Caisson retained islands require less gravel fill, can be

moved, and should be considered for use during exploration and

production drilling over solid fill gravel islands.

7. Gravel islands should not be sited in locations where significant

interference with local circulation and subsequent changes in

salinity, temperature, and sediment transport may occur.

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SHORELINE ALTERATION

Shoreline alteration involves the construction of coastal structures in

order to stabilize the shoreline (rip rap, breakwaters, groins, jetties,

bulkheads) and to provide transportation access between or across land

and water (piers, causeways, bridges).

Fish, wildlife and aquatic plants may be adversely impacted by the

construction and placement of structu res along the coastline. These

structures can lead to an alteration of tidal circulation, disruption of

shoreline sediment transport, and an alteration or destruction of habitat.

Highly productive habitats such as waterfowl staging areas, eelgrass

beds an d herring spawning areas would be affected by shoreline alteration.

Shoreline alteration, proceeding one project at a time, can ultimately

alter or destroy the entire natural shoreline of a coastal system.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

General Measures

1. Structures that will alter the coast should not be built along

the shoreline unless there are no alternatives.

2. Only water-dependent facilities should be placed along the

coastline. All other facilities should be located inland if

possible.

3. If coastal construction is necessary:

a. structures should not.be placed in vital coastal habitats

such as wetlands, tideflats, estuaries, lagoons, or

shellfish beds;

b. natural drainage patterns of shorelands should not be

altered. Channelization or diversion of coastal streams

away from tideflats and wetlands can lead to increased

pollution, altered salinity levels, and decreased biological

productivity in estuarine waters;

C. coastal structures should not be built in intertidal and

subtidal areas which provide valuable habitat for aquatic

organisms;

d. channel erosion should be minimized by routing shipping

into deeper channels and establishing speed limits;

e. construction activities should adhere to water quality

standa rds and should be scheduled to avoid critical

periods of breeding, feeding, and migration of coastal

species;

f. large coastal structures should not be built in areas

used for marine mammal harvest;

g. coastal structures should not be constructed in areas

where rapid coastal erosion or deposition is occurring.

Coastal engineering studies should be conducted as part

of each project,to identify these areas and to insure

that construction will not aggravate the probl,em; and

h. during.construction of coastal structures, turbidity

should be kept to a minimum and turbidity control devices

should be used when necessary.

Bulkheads

1. Bulkheading shoul.d be avoided by siting development away from

eroding shorelines.

2. The construction of bulkheads to prevent coastal erosion

should only be used when there is no alternative. Whenever

possible use natural erosion protection such as planted marsh

grasses rather than building bulkheads to minimize erosion on

unstable shores or banks. Riprap causes less impact than

bulkheads and should be a second choice for erosion prevention.

3. Bulkheads should not be built where they disrupt.wetlands or

other vital habitats such as clam beds. Even if bulkheads are

not placed in vital areas such as estuaries, wetlands, or

tideflats, they should be located far enough away to avoid

altering sedimentation and water circulation in these important

habitats.

4. Bulkheads should be plated inland from all wetlands. Bulkheads

and similar structures used to prevent shoreline erosion in

wetland areas should be built above the annual' flood mark.

Exc eptions to this requirement may be made when bulkheads are

constructed onLshorelines which are devoid of vegetation or

cannot be revegetated. Erosion is usually severe on unvegetated

shorelines , thus requ,iring bulkheading for stabilization. It

is recommended that bulkheads built on unvegetated shorelines

not extend outward from the mean low-water mark.

5. Bulkheads should not disrupt the outward flow of groundwater

or runoff, and should be designed to be permeable to the

natural flow of both groundwater and runoff. Wooden bulkheads

should be built with "weepholes" backed by filter screens to

allow the passage of water through the structure.

6. In cases where bulkheads must be used, establishing a buffer

strip of vegetation between the bulkhead and the water will

protect coastal habitat and help reduce undermining of the

bulkhead. When possible, existing shoreline vegetation should

remain undisturbed.

7. Bulkheads should be designe.d so that reflected wave energy

does not erode intertidal or subtidal areas.

8. Bulkheads should be constructed on a gently sloping shoreline

rather than a steep one to reduce erosion.

9. During constructi on of bulkheads, it is generally desirable to

drive supporting pilings in rather than jetting them in because

jetting causes siltation and affects water quality. However,

there may be instances (i.e., bird nesting) where the disturbance

from pile driving may outweigh the effects of siltation2 and

jetting may be more desirable.

10. In appropriate cases, dredging should be done after the bulkhead

is installed and then the area behind the bulkhead should be

backfilled. This will preven tmaterials from slumping into

the channel and will reduce the need for frequent maintenance

dredg,ing.

11. Fill material should not be excavated from shallow water and

productive wetlands.

12. Riprap should be placed in front of a bulkhead to minimize its

impacts on wave refraction.and toe scour.

13. Bulkheads should not be constructed with sharp angle turns

because thismay create flushing or shoaling problems.

14. Vertica Ily designed bulkheads (espec ially when they protrude

to minus tide levels) should be avoided in salmon rearing

areas. Stair-step design bulkheads or riprap revetments with

a slope of less than 450.provide more protective habitat for

salmon fry.

15. Bulkheads should be used only for erosion control and not to

create real estate by filling. Do not use bulkheads for

cosmetic purposes.

Riprap and_Other Revetments,

1. Armor unit revetments should be made of clean, non-polluting

material. Any material contaminated with grease, phenol,

lead, or other toxic elements should not be used.

2. Revetments with facings that are highly irregular (such as

riprap) and have a shallow slope, have a greater ability to

support marine life and are preferred over steep-sided smooth

revetments.

3. Riprap should be used rather than bulkheading wherever possible,

although planting suitable vegetation to prevent erosion is

more desirable than riprap.

4. When compared to bulkheads, riprap is more permeable to the

flow of groundwater and runoff. The water can move unimpeded

through the filter cloth and crushed rock backing of riprap

structures. Other advantages of riprap are@that it provides

attachment for marine life, it can be built to conform to the

natural configuration of the shoreline, and it is less expensive

to build then most other erosion prevention structures.

Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties

1. The use of groins to stabilize or widen beaches should be

avoided if at all possible.

2. If groins are built the following recommendations should be

followed to minimize the impacts:

a. Place the shoreline end of the groin above the normal

storm-tide line to prevent scouring.

b. Fill the area.around the groin with sand, thus allowing

drifting sand to bypass the groin and replenish downdrift

.eroded areas.

C. Place polyethylene mat (filter cloth) under the base of

the groin to protect the structure from.slumping due to

erosion.

d. In some cases, excessive amounts of trapped sand can be

mechanically transported around the groin to replenish

eroding areas.

e. Groins which capture all littoral drift, thus encouraging

or aggravating downbeach erosion, should not be constructed.

Permeable groins or groins designed to include several

weirs are preferable.

3. Dredging to bypass or remove accumulated sand from behind

jetties should be scheduled for times of low productivity.

Care should be taken in choice of downdrift sand release sites

to avoid movement of sand into productive fish and shellfish

areas or important plant communities.

4. Jetties should not be built at the mouths of productive anadromous

fish streams. Changes in an inlet following construction of a

jetty can affect runs of migratory fish.

5. In the co nstruction of breakwaters, the use of riprap or

dumped stone is biologically more desirable than breakwaters

wi2th flat faces since either of the former provides more

,habitat for aquatic species.

6. The base of breakwaters should be protected from erosion so

that scouring does not affect structural integrity and, therefore,

aquatic organisms in the area.

Piers and Docks

1. When utilities, pipelines and roads cannot be routed around

vital habitats, they should be elevated on piers rather than

placed on solid fill causeways.

2. Piers crossing marshy areas should be elevated high enough to

avoid continual shading of the area under the piers.

3. Pilings should-be driven in rather than jetted in. Jetting

affects water quality in the construction area.

4. In marine and estuarine areas, construction of docking facilities

on a series of ice resistant mono-pod type legs should be

considered-as an alternative to solid fill causeways.

5. Spacing of pilings should allow free flow of tidal currents

and littoral drift.

Bridges and Causeways

1. The location of bri-dges and causeways should avoid vital

habitat areas. Whenever possible these structures should be

located upland away from wetlands and water basins.

2. Bridges or causeways built across water areas should be elevated

on pilings to minimize the disruption of natural water flow

and to avoid alteration of vital habitat areas. Solid fill

causeways should be avoided.

3. When fill or abutments must be use d in areas subject to flooding,

they should be designed so that the floodwaters will not be

raised more than 0.3 meters (I ft) above the natural flood

level.

4. Culverts should be sufficiently large, and enough culverts

should be used, to permit a natural rate of water passage

through solid-fill causeways. To provide adequate fish passage,

culverts should protrude sufficiently above the water so that

the entire passageway is well lighted and that water velocities
do not exceed 0.5 fps under'all tide and wind conditions.

5. Bridged breaches should be used in causeway design instead of

culverts where tidal flow, littoral transport or fish migrations

,wi-11-be affected.

6. When building causeways or bridges in wetland areas, heavy

equipment should be operated from the construction site (i.e.,

roadbed) rather than from the wetland area.

7. Environmental disturbances should be minimized during construction.

Matting and/or vehicles designed to prevent soil compaction

are recommended for use in wetland's.

Small Boat Harbors

1. Small boat harbors should onl y be located on bodies of water

with a high rate of flushing.

2. Small boat harbors should be designed to minimize the extent

of excavation, shoreline alteration, and disturbance of vital

habitat areas.

3. In order to e-liminate channel excavation, floating docks

should be used whenever possible. When it is not appropriate

to.use floating docks, piers bui lt on pilings should be constructed

over wetlands to provide access to deep waters. The piers

should connect to land above the annual flood level.

4. The natural coastline should be preserved by placing boat

slips farther out into the water and connecting them to the

piers. This will eliminate the adverse impacts of

dredging and bulkheading.

5. Small boat harbors should not be constructed in wetlands.

Piers and docks can be designed to extend over the wetlands to

deep waters on pilings.

6. The construction of bulkheads, groins, and jetties shou ld be

avoided when building small boat harbors.

7. Support facilities for small boat harbors, including storage

areas and buildings, should be located inland away from the

coastline.

Coastal Pipelines

(See additional recommendations for pipelines in the Oil

Pollution section)

1. Pipelines should not be placed in vital habitat areas such as

wetlands, eelgrass beds, or clam beds.

2. When habitat disturbance is unavoidable, construction activities

should be limited to the shortest time and smallest area

possible.

3. Pipelines should be built during periods of low biological

productivity.

4. After the pipeline is laid, the construction area should be

restored to as close to its original state as possible, using

original substrate and native species wherever feasible.

Coastal Roads

1. Build roads perpendicular rather than parallel to the coast.

2. Coastal roads should not cross wetlands.

3. Stream crossing should be designed to allow fish passage

during any flow. Bridges are preferred. If culverts must be

used, the following guidelines should be followed:

a. Culverts placed in rivers or streams frequented by fish

should be instal'led so that at least one-fifth of the

diameter of round culverts or six inches of elliptical or

arch culverts is set below the lowest elevation of the

natural stream bottom.

B. Culvert dimensions necessary to pass fish upstream are

dependent upon the velocity of the water within the

culvert when the fish are present; the.time of year these

velocities occur; the length of the culvert which must be

negotiated by the fish; and the species, size, and age

class of fish present and their upstream swimming capabilities.

Table 1 represents the maximum watervelocities through

different culvert lengths which can be successfully

negotiated by several Alaskan fish species. To avoid the

possibility of restricting fish passage, velocities

through culverts should not exceed 0.5 fps.

C. Alternative drainage structures, other than culverts,

should be installed if fish passage cannot be assured

through culverts.

d. All culverts should be aligned with the natural stream

channels.

e. All bank cuts, slopes, fills, and exposed earth work

attributable to culvert installation should be stabilized

to prevent erosion during and after the project.

f. No culverts should be built in fish spawning or rearing

areas. Roads crossing streams at such critical habitats

should be re-routed or a bridge installed instead of a

culvert.

TABLE I

Maximum water velocities through different culvert lengths
which can be successfully negotiated by several Alaskan fish species.

1,ength of Group I Group II Group III Group IV Group V
culvert In Upstrewn migrant Adult spring Adult moderate Adult Kigh Juvenile
feet salmon fry and spawning slow swimmers: performance slow swimmers
fingerlings when swimmers: pink salmon swimmers: and other
upstream grayling chum salmon king salmon adult slow sw1mmers:
migration takes longnose suckers coho s'almon. grayllng, longnose
place at mean sockeye salmon suckers, broad
annual flood steelbead. whitef ish'. burbot,,
sheefish., humpback
whitefish, Northern
pike, Dolly VarderV
Arctic Char,, upstream
migrant salmon
fry and firgerlings
when migration not at
man annual flood

30 1.0 3.7 6.8 9.9 2.0
110 1.0 3.1 5.8 8.5 1.8
50 1.0 2.6 5.0 7.5 1.7
60 0.9 2.3 4.6 6.6 1.6
70 0.8 2.1 4.2 6.o 1.4.
8o 0.8 1.9 3.9 5.5 1.3
90 0.7 1.7 3.7 5.1 1.2
100 0.7 1.6 3.4 4.8 1.2
150 0.5 1.5 2.8 '3-7 1.2
200 0.5 1.5 2.4 3.1 1.2
>200 0.5 1.5 2.4 3.0 1.2
.feet/second

Source: Alaska Boards of Fisheries and Game and Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Proposed Regulations Governing Fish and Game Habitat Protection

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FRATION !,,IATER

Crude oil as it comes from the ground.is generally composed of natural

gas, petroleum, and water. The water, called formation or produced

water, is contaminated with hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and hydrogen

sulfide. Before crude oil is deli-vered to a refinery, the water must be

separated from the oil and gas. Once separated, it is treated with heat

or chemicals and discharged back into marine waters, sometimes in the

same location for several years. Formation waters may also be reinjected

into disposal wells or pumped back into the production well to maintain

pressure. Discharged formation waters can retain up to 50 ppm of oil as

small droplets and up to 35 ppm of dissolved hydrocarbons.

Format-ion waters are highly toxic and their disposal into the marine

environment can be detrimental, especially if they are discharged into

shallow nearshore waters or waters which exhibit a very sluggish circulation

regime. Deeper waters, as well as larger bodies of water, tend to

dilute formation waters. In shallow depths where dilution by seawater

may not occur, benthic (bottom dwelling) organisms living near the point

of discharge may be totally destroyed. Fish and free swimming organisms

do not seem to be greatly affected by the discharge of formation waters

because of their ability to move through and out of cont aminated areas.

However, ammonia, a constituent of formation water, is known to produce

gill enlargement (hyperplasia) in fingerling chinook (king) salmon; and

mercury, a heavy metal found in formation waters, has been shown to
concentrate in fish in excess of 10,000 times the amount present in

surrounding water.

Studies have also shown that formation waters are anoxic (depleted of

oxygen) and may have higher temperatures and/or lower salinity values

than receiving waters. Waters depleted of oxygen may kill animals

directly, although the usual effect is impairment of health or, if they

are mobile,.abandonment of an area.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

General Measures

1. Wherever possible, formation waters should be reinjected back

into offshore or onshore subsurface strata in a manner that

will not pollute surface or subsurface waters.

2. Formation waters containing significant amounts (as determined

by Environmental Protection Agency or Department of Environmental

Conservation marine discharge standards) of heavy metals,

hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, or other toxic chemicals

should not be discharged into the marine environment.

3. To insure that all potentially adverse impacts are mitigated,

the following information is needed before siting a facility

that will discharge formation waters:

a. A study should be conducted on the body of water into

which the formation waters will be discharged in order to

determine the rate of flushing; the volume of the water

basin; the pattern of water movement; and the suspended

sediment load by season;

b. The type of facility that will be discharging formation

water, the rate, volume, and composition of formation

water that will be discharged; and

C. The degree to which formation waters will have to be

treated before being discharged so that they do not alter

or reduce the carrying capacity of the coastal environment.

In order to implement these guidelines, site specific studies

will have to be conducted and mitigating measures adopted on a

case by case basis. In many instances, the chemical composition

and quantity of formation water will need to be monitored

prior to setting effluent limitations. In instances where

information is not available regarding the effects of formation

waters on the various stages of animal life history, more

research will have to be done to determihe those impacts.

4. Do not discharge formation waters into any freshwater lake or

stream.

5. Facilities should not be located in vital habitats such as

wetlands, tideflats or estuaries. These highly productive

areas are important for the production and harvest of waterfowl,

crabs, clams, herring, salmon, and a variety of other fish

species.

6. Facilities releasing formation waters should be sited in areas

with good circulation and strong currents, where the discharged

effluent will be rapidly diluted and dispersed. Formation

water discharge into shallow waters with weak circulation will

cause the greatest environmental damage and is discouraged.

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COOLING WATERS AND WATER WIT[MMWAL

Large quant ities.of'water are required during petroleum development for

cooling and other fndustrial purposes and for domestic use. Cooling
waters are_used-to@reduce waste heat produced by treatment facilities,

oil refineries, petrochemical plants, LNG (Ii-quified natural gas) plants,

and power plants. Other industri.al uses.of water include drilling,

construction, and maintenance of snow and ice roads or other roads,

hydrostatic testing, and waterflooding (the injection of water into a

geologic formation to.increase pressure at the well site). Domestic

water requirements depend upon the number of people using the waterand

the-amount of water available. Water requirements-are met by drawing

water from nearby lakes, streams, springs, estuaries, lagoons, bays, or

the ocean; by collecting groundwater runoff; or by melting snow and ice.

The aquatic life-in waters used for cooling is threatened by passage

through plant cooling systems Centrainment), by entrapment on the protective

screens of water-intake structures (impingement), by the discharge of

heated water into the aquatic environment (thermal pollution), and by

the addition of chemicals to the cooling waters (chemical pollution).

These impacts can be especially severe if facilities using cooling

waters are located in the estuarine spawning and nursery areas of fish

and shellfish.

Most of theimpacts on aquatic Tife by other water withdrawal*activities

are similar to those.produced by withdrawal of coolingwaters (ie.

entrainment, impingement, thermal pollution, and chemical pollution).

However, in Arctic climates the most severe impact of water withdrawal

is the depletion of winter water reserves in freshwater lakes and streams.

-Recommended Mitigative Measures

Cooling Waters General Measures

1. Closed,cycle cooling systems should be used instead of open

.:cycle (once throu h) cooling.systems wherever possible.
9

Closed cycle cooling systems cause fewer environmental problems

than open cooling systems.

2.. Before.siting facilities which will use either closed cycle or

open cycle cooling systems, site specific studies'should be

conducted to determine the location of vital habitats in the

vicinity. Site specific oceanographic studies and bioassays

.should be conducted to.determine the natural systems ability

to absorb heat without biological damage.

3. Before choosing asite for a facility that will require a

cooling.system, a.sound and comprehensive water management

program should be developed to study: the supply of ground

water, aquifer replenishme nt sources, the potential for contamination

and depletion of waters,.and the possibilities for reclaiming

wastewater and minimizing unnecessary water.withdrawals.

4. Cooling water channels should@not be dredged through wetlands

nor should natural creeks be used as.cooling water conduits.

5. Screens on intake structures should not exceed 1 millimeter

(0.04 inches).mesh size and intake velocities at-the screens

shoul,d-not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec).

6. Outfalls should be located in areas of rapid dilution and at

an.adequate distance from the intake sothat water is not

recirculated in the system.

7. The use of'-toxic chemicals to remove encrusted sealife in

cooling systems should be avoided to prevent toxic impacts on

recieving Waters., Mechanical cleaning methods br heat treatment

should,be used instead.

8. Freshwater,la kes., streams, or wetlands should not be considered

as a water source for cooling waters, or sites for thermal

discharges.,

Closed Cycle Cooling Systems

1. The use of closed cycle cooling systems (such as cooling

towers or spray ponds) is preferred over open cycle systems

because they c ause less environmental damage.

2. Only closed cycle cooling systems should be used in estuaries

and other areas that are vital to the coastal'ecosystem or

which.have a high biological productivity. With this type of
cooling, water is'' recirculated rather than being continuously

withdrawn from or discharged into aquatic environments thereby

reducing the volume of water needed..

3. To minimize entrai.nment of organisms, intake velocities

should not exceed 7.5 cni/sec (0.25 ft/sec),at the surface of

the.intake screens and screen'mesh size should not exceed 1

mi'll.imeter (0.04 i,nches).*.

4. Toxic chemicals (such as chlorine) added to cool.ing waters to

reduce corro .sion in.cooling.towers and growth of fouling

organisms in condense'r systems, should be collected and treated

before beipgreleased to the environment. The chemicals can

be reduced by treatment such as chrome reduction or precipitation

using ferrous sulfate in a reducing pit. These hazardous

wastes shou.ld be disposed of in a landfill site designated for

hazardous wastes.,

5. Normally,*adverse effects of vaporplumes and salt fallout
from closed cycle systems are significant only in the immediate

vicinity of the plant and.may be alleviated by locating plants

appropriately with respect,to climate and geography.. Plants

should not be located'near important wildlife wintering areas

and early spring use.areas where additional snowfall could

impact wildlife populations.

6. Among various types.of closed cycle cooling systems, spray

canals appear to cause less environmental damage than evaporative

cooling towers, and should be used wherever possible.

Open Cycle Cooling Systems

1. Facilities that use open cycle cooling systems.should not be

placed in critical habitats nor in coastal areas such as
*wetlands, tideflats, and estuaries where waters for cooling

would be withdrawn from or discharged into.sens.itive habitats.

2. @Facilities .using open cycle cool-ing systems,may be located

along the open coastline provided that the fol.lowing criteria

Are used as guidelines during site selection:

a. Facilities should not be located near estuaries (e.g.,

inlets, bays). where water is transported in and out by

tidal action.

b. Facilities should not be sited in or near vital or cri-tical

habitats found along the open coastline.

C. Intake and outlet structures should be located offshore

where discharges, will be,di-luted and.cooled more rapidly,

and waters,are not withdrawn from productive nearshore

habitats.

d. Intake and outlet structures should,not be placed in

areas of high biological productivity.

e. Cooling water,intake and discharge points should be

separated as widely as possible, taking advantage of

...water-layering or other natural features to prevent

recirculation.of discharge water and the impingement of

discharge- weakened fish on intake screens.

f. Cooling waters should be withdrawn.from.depths where.

water temperatureAs low enough that when discharged near

the surface, the temperature of the surface water will

not be greatly increased.

g. The temperature differential between waste cooling water

the ambient water temperature should not exceed 1'C

3. Open cycle cooling systems should be designed to limit the

discharge of chemicals into the coastal ecosystem, provide for

minimal disruption of natural water flow,,and place intake and

outlet structures for minimal effect on aquatic organisms.

The following criteria should be used in the design of intake

structures:

a. Systems should be designed to keep the velocity of inflow

below a maximum.of 7.5 cm/sec (.0.25-ft/sec) at al-l points

ahead of the intake screens and screen size should not

exceed 1 millimeter (0.04.inches).

b. No successful.device has yet been developed to divert

fish larvae and eggs from the intakes of facilities using

open,cycle cooling systems. Much of the reported-progress

in this field is exaggerated.and deceptive. (Minimal

success has been made in diverting fish through fish by-

pass systems).

c., All containing structures.ahead of the intake screens

such as forewalls, channels, bays, and recesses should be

eliminated.

d. Intake structures should.be.located at depth and in

locations of the absolute minimum concentration of biota.

4. Monitoring,programs should be set up.following plant construction

to monitorsystem performance and the adequacy of mitigating

measures. Suggested monitoring programs include: (1) frazil

ice formation on the intake structure and outfall line; (2)

impingement of.organisms and ice on the intake screens; (3)

entrainment of organisms in the intake system; (4) biofouling

of the,intake structure; (5) sea-ice level in relation to the

intake structure; (6) intake velocities; and (7) the physical

cond.ition of fish in marine life return systems, and their

fate and behavior after leaving the outfal.1 (e.g.. predation

and,disorientation)..

5. Biocides should not be used t o remove fouling organisms or

should be re moved from cooling water before discharge. Systems

should be designed to use mechanical methods to remove fouling

organisms.

Water Withdrawal for Purposes other than Coolin2.

Primary problems associated with withdrawal of fresh water for domestic,

or industrial use are (1) entrainment and impingementof fish (both

summer and winter) and (2) dewatering of stream channels and fish overwintering

areas., Entrainment, impingement, and alteration of.circulation patterns

are the major problems associated with large withdrawals of marine

waters.

Activities requiring water for other than cooling should.be sited and

operated according to the following criteria:

1. Large quantities of freshwater for domestic or industrial uses

should not be withdrawn from any body of freshwater supporting.

fish.

2. No freshwater should be withdrawn from any body of water supporting

overwintering fish.

3. When very limited amounts of water are required, use of.several

different water sources-during the'winter will lessen impacts on

any one source.

4. When large amounts of water@are required, storage facilities should

be constructed to hold water collected during the summer for winter

use. Abandoned gravel sites can be converted for water storage.

5. Watershould not be removed from streams or lakes in excess of

recharge rates. To do@ so causes collapse of the ice cover and

stream blockage.

6. Water impoundment structures should not be built over permafrost.

Mel.ting of the underlying.permafrost layer can result causing

settlement and changes in drainage patterns.

7. Waterwells shou,ld be carefully sited so that they do not deplete

surface aquifers and dewater lakes and streams..

8. Wherever possible, water consumption should.be reduced by water

recycling. Examples include: recycling water from mud pits during

drilling, and recycl.-ing.domestic water for industrial uses.

.9. When withdrawing water from marine areas, intakes should be designed

to prevent entrainment of marine organisms or alteration of circulation

patterns.

a. Intake structures should be located at depth and in locations

of absolute minimum concentration of biota.

b. -Intake velocities should not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec)

at all po.ints ahead of the intake screens. Intake screen size

should not exceed .1 millimeter (0.04 inches).

C. All'containing structures ahead of the intake screens such as

forewalls, channels, bays, and recesses should be eliminated.

d.. In-take structures should be designed so as to not funnel

organisms into the intake (i.e. siting an intake at the end a
long solid fill breakwater, jetty or causeway that extends'

into or across a fish migration route).

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INTERFERENCE WITH SUBSISTENCE COMERCIAL., AND SPORT HARMSTS

The intense level of support activity required for offshore drilling.

could have significant effects on harvest activities in the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound-region. The mere physical presence of equipment

used during offshore oil exploration and production will create conflicts

between the oil industry and traditional subsistence, commercial, or

sport harvest groups. Fishing and marine mammal harvest areas may be

lost if numerous offshore structures take up space in those areas.

Increases in boat traffic will create navigational and docking problems.

Fishing gear may be lost through entanglement with seismic vessels, oil

tankers, drilling rigs.and tugs. Offshore pipelines will present a

problem if regulations do not require that they be buried beneath the

sea floor. Land based facilities may prevent access to traditional

harvest areas'. Noise and disturbance associated with various operations

will influence harvest success in surrounding areas, and competition may

arise between indigenous harvest groups and development associated

personnel over limited fish and wildlife resources.

Conflicts will also arise if spawning, nursery, or rearing areas of

harvested species or critical habitats of their food species are.used

for the laying of pipelines, are contaminated by acute or chronic oil

pollution,. or are otherwise adversely impacted by the activities of oil

and gas development.

Recommended Mitigative Measures

Mitigating measures in previous sections of this report have been proposed

in an attempt to minimize development impacts.on fish andwildlife

populations and their habitat. It is assumed that impacts which affect

species of subsistence, commercial, or sport value will also affect-

harvest levels. The following recommendations address impacts as they
directly'relate to current harvest,patterns and practices.

Noise and Disturbance

Measures.to minimize,the effects of noise and disturbancehave been

discussed previously in the Noise and Disturbance section of this report,

and are applicable toward minimizing harvest interference with the

following additions:

1. Activities which produce turbid'water conditions in important
fishing and mari*ne mammal harvest areas should@either be

scheduled during,periods when they will not affect harvest

practices,,or should be designed so as to minimize the amount

of suspended material present in the water column. Such

activities would include dredging and fi,lling,.shoreline

alteration, gravel island construction, discharge.of drilling

muds and cuttings, etc.

2. The random or.erratic operation of machinery, aircraft, boats

or ATV's should be discouraged in harvest areas.

3. Exploratory drilling on lease tracts that are located on

traditional fishing grounds should be scheduled during periods

When fishing does not occur.

Competition for Resources

1. The Board of Fish and Game should anticipate potential-harvest

conflicts and should-implement special game and.fi.sheries

management procedures or regulations which will serve to

reduce competition between new workers and indigenous user

groups.

2. In important.subsistence areas the leasee should voluntarily

,limit theoff-duty hunting, fishing, and trapping activities

of. its employees on leased lands.

3. Whe n lease.activities must be conducted in or near important

harvest areas, the developer should arrange for community

involvement in processes such as the siting.of facilities, or

the timing of activities, in order to minimize the adverse

impacts of.such operations on traditional hunting and fishing

practices in the area.

Competition for Space

I Leasees should not restrict public access to, or use of,

leased public lands except in the immediate vicinity of development

operations. Exceptions may be provided for in areas of extreme

bio:logical sensitivity.

2. Leasees should be sensitive to local industries and tradi-

tional vocations and should plan their activities to avoid

i.mpacting:them. An example would be to insure that industry

boats do not mono pol.ize,fish.processing plant docks or staging

areas.

3. The local coastal resource service area can identify separate

and distinct areas. for different kinds of economic activity

through its coastal management plan. Where there is competi-

tion for a particular coastal site, the only solution may be a

trade-off between.conflicting parties. For example, an oil

company might be convinced to locate a staging area away from

an important harvest area in exchange for an.offer of less

expensive land.or a zoning.change.

4. During the site selection process for.onshore and offshore

facilities,, leasees should'avoid traditional harvest areas or

sites-which might block access to tradit.ional,harvest areas.

Physical Destruction or Restriction of Fis hing Gear

Vessel Traffic

1. All* development related marine vessel traffic including ice

breakers should be.required to travel point to point in a

linear fashion,.avoiding areas of marine harvest during periods

when such.harvests might.occur. This would allow fishermen

and,hunters.to predict where they might safely place their

gear, or pursue marine.mammal.s without disturbance.

2. Because high-petroleum finds coupled with other forms of

economic development (such as coal or offshore gold recovery

operations) maymake non-corridor vessel traffic extremely

hazardous, permanent or recommended shipping,corridors should

be established based upon.the following considerations:

a. Maximum-safety of all vessels utilizing.limited navigational

channels. Because of shal1low waters and restrictiveice

conditions, deep draft vessels may be forced.to conform

to relatively narrow natural corridors whi,ch, without

regulation, will enhance the chances.of collision.

b. Minimum interference with tradi.tional.commerci.al or

subsistence harvest areas.

c. To provide an adequate buffer zone between vital habitat

areas and vessel traffic.

d@. Maximum public. input..

3. Shipping,corridors should:

a. Be clearly designated on marine charts.

b., Have adequate navigational aids such as buoys, beacons,

and VTS (Vessel Traffic Safety) radar.

c'.. Have a reasonable speed limit established.

d. Be regulated,,patrolled and enforced by the U.S. Coast

Guard.

All oil tankersi LNG tankers, and other large vessels opera-

ting in an area must be required to use licensed pilots

familiar with local conditions and navigationa.1 problems in

.ice infested waters.

5. A reporting@and.communications system should.be established

for tankers and other large vessels util.izi,ng the corridor

system.

6.@ Permits issued to seismic boats operating in near coastal

areas should stipulate:

a. Daylight operation only-

b. No operations.within or adjacent to areas of concentrated.

commercial or subsistence fishing gear. Operations in

these areas should only be scheduled during closed

fishing periods.

C., If seismic surveys are absolutely unavoidable during

periods when commercia.1 king crab fishing occurs, cable

length for seismic streamers should.not exceed 1/4 mile

in order to-allow for adequate control in avoiding

obstacles such as fishing gear.

d- Ship captains:should report to,the Alaska Department of

Fish and Game,, Area.Management Biologist., for consultation

on fishing gear concentrations prior to operating.

7. Commercial, subsistence or sport.fishing ve�se.1s.should not

anchor, fish pots or,trawl in zones designated as shipping

corridors.

8. The Ports and Waterways Act of 1972 should be amended to

designate mandatory shipping,corridors.

Pipelines

To the greatest extent possible, pipelines should be routed

around active bottom fishing or trawling areas.

2. Where the placement of pipelines in these areas cannot be

avoided the following techniques should be utilized:

a. Trenching trenching should be used to bury pipelines
beyond.the point where they might entangle crab pots'and

anchors., be struck by trawl doors, or be ruptured by

gouging ice keels.

b. @Pipeline route marking unburied pipelines should be

marked on navigation charts to discourage anchoring or

trawling in those areas.

Oil--Pollution Avoidance and Tainting
Speci-fic measures to,minimiz'e the impacts of.oil pollution may be found

in the Oil Pollution section of this report.

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SECONDARY Taffl-M

If commercially explo-itable quantities of oil or gas are found in an

area, a variety of support facilities are required in order to begin

development and production. Inevitably, with the establishment of

onshore petroleum facilities an additional amount of secondary devel-opment

will also be needed. Secondary development has two. major components:

indirect development, as typified by those industrial projects which

serve and support the primary projects, often through sub-contracts; and

induced development,-the construction or expansion of community facilities
and services (such as housing, utilities, transportation, schools,

recreation and commercial facilities) to serve the added population

which is attracted by employment opportunities in direct, indirect, and

induced development.

Environmental disturbances from secondary development are primarily

caused by construction a ctivities and an increase in numbers of people.

The construction of houses, buildings, roads and utility corridors will

result in a direct loss of fish and wildlife habitat. Animals which

connot tolerate disturbance will leave an area.permanently and, if no

equiva,lent habitat is available, their numbers may be reduced.

The construction of utility corridors may requir e extensive cutting and

clearing pratices which may act to remove essential vegetational habitat

or ground cover. Such practices can result in soil erosion or degradation,

water quality degradation, air quality degradation if open burning is

prescribed, and elevated noise levels. Additionally, utility corridors

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can provide access to non-native species resulting in increased levels

of predation, competition, or incidence of disease and parasites.

The impacts of road construction include all of the considerations

listed for utility corridors as well' as some additional consequences.

Roads can increase traf fic and human presence in areas not previously

subject to such intrusions,.which in turn could promote harassment,

injury,.or death as animals venture near or across such road systems.

Roads may also im pede.an,imal movements and can result in.the.parcelling

of -a species habitat.

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Recommended Mitigative Measures

The adverse impacts ofsecondary development on fish, wildlife and

habitat are a.combination of disturban ces that, for the most part, have

been-discussed previously i-n other sections of this report. Through

compliance with the mitigating measures already identified.in those.

sections, many of the impacts associated with secondary development may

be substantially minimi.zed, or in some-cases, completely eliminated.

Additional mitigatory measures which:have.not.been addressed include:

General Measures

1. Site specific environmental studies should be conducted in any

marine or terrestrial area likely to be impacted by secondary

development operations. These studies should include comprehensive

species inventories, food and habitat requirement surveys, and

site specific mitigations.

2. Avoid siting and construct ing road systems and.facilities

which parcel or separate a species critical habitat range.

3. During winter, roads should be plowed so that snow barriers

are not left alongside which might serve to impede animal

movements.

4. Salt shou Id not be used on roads during winter in order to

minimize wildlife attraction.

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5. Off-road traffic.should be-restricted as much as possible to

minimize damage to surrounding vegetation and to avoid undue'

harassment of animals Tiving adjacent to the road system.

6. During summer months (June through September) or during periods

when snowcover is inadequate to protect underlying vegetation,

only low surface pressure vehicles shouldbe allowed off of

established roads.or prepared foundations.

7. Public,access on roads or airfields should be restricted where

necessary to prevent increased human presence in critical fish

and w.il-dlife areas, and-to maintain current sport and subsistence

harvest levels in areas mad e accessible by lease activities or

onshore development. Determinations of this nature should be

made only after consultation.with the Alaska Department of

Fish and. Game.

8. utility. corridors 'Should be designed to accomodate additional

Ioads to limit further construction in undisturbed areas.

9. Utili ty,corridors should be consolidated with road systems as

much as possible to-minimize habitat disturbance.

10. Power and telephone lines should be constructed above ground

to-facilitate quick repair and.to avoid extensive trenching in

permafrost areas., Additionally, they should be constructed so

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as to utilize existing land contours and natural barriers

which will aid in minimizing.bird/powerline collisions..

11. Implementenvi ronmentaltraining programs to educate personnel

as to-the dangers of feeding, hand.l.ing or harassing wildlife.

12. Limit the off-site.and off-duty activities of workers to

eliminate.@animal and human conflicts in sensitive areas.

13. Implement spec1al game and fisheries management procedures or

regulations which will serve to reduce competition between new
workers and indigenous user groups.

14. Arrange for.an exchange of dialogue between developers and

surrounding communities. This may be accomplished by esta-

b lishing meetings or forums on a regularly scheduled basis

(bi-monthly/quarterly), in which representatives from the

private and,public sectormay di:scuss problems and issues, new

proposals, etc.

15. Edibles should be adequately stored from their initial arrival

to theireventual disposal to avoid attracting animals. All
edible:ga'rbage should be thoroughly incinerated.

16. A solid waste disposal program should be initiated which willi
a) utilize.material-s,that will not generate a large amount of

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solid waste i.n.the form of packaging; b) maximize on-site

recycling of parts or materials, including specifically pur.@-

chasing parts or materials amenable to rebuilding or recycling;
and c) schedule.support activities so that all freight carriers

return with a-load of.solAd waste.

17. Liquid waste disposal systems should, a) reduce the temperature

of effluent discharge to minimize-thermalerosion of subsurface

permafrost; b),recycle water in a cascading system if certain

processes do not require-high water quality; and c) use a

series of interconnected-lagoons so that water for industrial

use may be withdrawn from the last holding lagoon.

18. All liquid waste treatment lagoons should be lined and bermed

with-an impermiable material that will prevent leaching into

the surrounding substrate.

19. Pesticides or defoliants should.not be used for mosquito

control or-site maintainence unless it can be demonstrated

that such chemicals will not accumulate in animal tissues,

groundwater supplies, or.soil. sediments; and that such tech-

niques will not preclude habitat utilization by other species.

20. Revegetation techniques should proceed immediately following

termination@of activity in an area not subject to additional

operations.

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21. All efforts should be made to restore an area to its original

state. This would include restoration of vegetational compo-

sition, land contour, waterflow and soil 'characteristics

22. Habitat improvement techniques shoul-d be implemented concurrent

with development operations when i't has been determined what
species willbe@displaced, what their habitat requirements"
are, and if it is conc'luded that such practices will be

beneficial. Examples of habitat improvement techniques would

include the creation of additional denning, nesting, spawning

or rearing.sites; planting,additional cover to compensate for

that which is.removed;.seeding additional.vegetation for

forage in outlying areas, etc.

23. 'Whenever,it is, necessary to destroy important fish and wildlife
habitat, mitigation should be required.

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