    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

    		Recommendations for Minimizing the

    		Impacts of Hydroocarbon Development

    				on the

    		Fish, Wildlife, and Aquatic Plant

    		Resources of the Northern Bering Sea

    			and Norton Sound

    		MITIGATIVE MEASURES

    HD
    9567
    .N67
    S73
    1981						Habitat Division

    				Alaska Department of Fish and Game

    							1981

                        Funding for this project was provided by a Section 308d
                        Coastal Energy Impact Grant frowthe National Oceanic and
                        Atmospheric Administration of the Department of Commerce
                        through the Coastal Energy Impact Program and administered
                        by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs.

                                 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MI   NIMIZING THE

                                 IMPACTS OF HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENT

                                                 ON THE
                                 FISH, WILDLIFE, AND AQUATIC PLANT
                                RESOURCES OF THE NORTHERN BERING SEA

                                           AND NORTON SOUND

                                          MITIGATIVE MEASURES

                                            Prepared by:

                             Suzanne J. Starr, CEIP Project Coordinator
                                  Mark N. Kuwada, Habitat Biologist
                                 Lance L. Trasky, M/CHM Project Leader

                                  Marine/Coastal Habitat Management
                                          Habitat Division
                                  Alaska Department of,Fish and Game
                                       Anchorage, Alaska 99502

                                                For:

                          Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs
                                    Coastal Energy Impact Program
                           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                     U.S. Department of Commerce

                                              June 1981

                                                     TABI F OF COMENTS

                    Introduction   ...............  ................ I............................     1.
                    Site Preparation    ..........                                                     2
                                                                                                       2
                                                              re; .......      ....................
                          Recommended Mitigativ M asu            .......... ....................       3
                                 General Measures    ............................................      3
                                 Non-Permafrost Soil.s - Erosion-, Runoff and
                                   Sedimentation.                                                      4
                                 Non-Permafrost Soils@    - Preserving Natural
                                   Water Drainage Systems....,.........      ......................    6
                                 Protection of Permafrost      ....................................    9
                    Noise and    Disturbance   ... ..............................................      12
                          Description   ...................................................            12
                          Recommended Mitigative Measures        ...............................       13
                                 General Measures    .........................................         13
                                 Facility Siting.        ...............................      I ...... 13
                                 Helicopters and.Fixed-Wing Ai.rcraft        .......................   14
                                 Boats ......................................................          16
                                 Sei smi c -ExplForati-on.,. .. .................  ..................  16
                                 Human Presence   ............................................         19
                    Drilling   Muds and:Cuttings     ............... :............................     21
                          Description   ...................                                            21
                          Recommended Mittgative Measures        ................................      22
                                 General Measures     .........................................        22
                    Oil Pollution    ......................................................            25
                          Description   ........                                                       25
                          Recommended Mitigative          asures ...................  ...............  27
                                 Prevention of Oil Spil.ls    ....................   ...............   27
                                 Production Facilities     ....         ..........................     28
                                 Onshore Facilities    ........................................        29
                                 Transportation   ............................................         30
                                       Pipelines  ............................................         30
                                       Tanker Docks and Fueling, Facilities        .................   32
                                       Tankers  ..........  ...................      ...............   33
                                 Oil Spill Containment and Cle       anup .......................      34
                                 Monitoring  ...................................      ..............   40
                    Dredging and Filling, Gravel Mining, and
                       Gravel  Island Construction     ...............    I..................    ..... 41
                          Des  cription .....................................................          41
                          Recommended Mitigative.Measures        ..............................        43
                                 Dredging and Gravel Mining - General Measures            ...........  43
                                 Dredging for Channels     ..........     .........................    46
                                 .Dredging for Pipeline Laying       ...............................   48
                                 Dredging in Streams     ..........  ....................    ......... 50
                                 Gravel Mining in Marine-Areas..       ...I... .......I .............  50
                                 Gravel-Mining in Upland Areas       ............................      51
                                 Gravel Mining,in an Annual.Floodplain         ................   .... 52
                                 Filling - General Measures.,      ..............................      57
                                 Dredge Disposal.    * .............................................   58
                                 Gravel Pad and Road Construction         .........................    60
                                 Gravel Islands   ....................    .........................    61

                     Sho.reline.Alteration     .............................         ...................     63
                            Description   ...................................................                63
                            Recommended Mitigative Measures-,             .............................      64
                                  General Measures      ..........................................           64
                                         Bulkheads   ..................     .............................    65
                                         Riprap and Other Revetments         ...........................     68
                                         Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties           ......................   69
                                         Piers and Docks     ...........                              ...... 71
                                         Bridges and Causeways       .....                                   72
                                         Small Boat.Harbors      ...................................         73
                                         Pipelines   .......  *** . ****'* ...                   ....   **'** 74
                                         Coastal Roads    ...... I .......I ...........................      75
                     Formation Water     ......... : ..............................................          78
                            Description   ......................                                             78
                            Recommended Mitigative Me       asu res  ...............................         80
                                  General Measures      ............................................         81
                     Cooling Waters and Water Withdrawal            ....................................     82
                            Description                       .........   :............  ................... 82
                            Recommended Mitigative Measures           .....                                  83
                                  Cooling Waters - General Measures           .........................      83.
                                  Closed Cycle Cooling Systems..                                             84
                                  Open Cycle Cool@ing.Systems.....*****'*"'*******"'****             ...  -86
                                  Water Withdrawal for Purposes
                                     Cooling.
                     Interference with Sub 1 t nc , Commercial, or
                        Sport Harvests    .................        .......I...........................       92
                            Description   .....                                                ............  92
                                                       e Me u e       ...........................
                            Recommended Mitig                                                             ... 93
                                  Noise and Disturbance.      .............     ........................     93
                                  Competition for Resources        .....................   ...............   q4
                                  Competition for.Space..         ...................................        94
                                  Phys.ical Destruction or Restriction
                                     of Fishing Gear                                               ......... 95
                                         Vessel Traffic     ............................        ...........  95
                                         Pipelines   ...............      I............................      98
                                         Oil Pollution - Avoidance and
                                           Tainting    ...........................................           99
                     Secondary Development       ............................       ....................     100
                            Description   ....................................................               100
                            Recommended.Mitigative Measures           .................................      102
                                  General Measures      ...........    ..............................        102

                                             INTRODUCU ON

                 As part of a Coastal Energy Impact Program (CEIP) study of the northern

                 Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, mitigating measures were proposed for

                 various impacts which might occur as a result of oil and gas development.

                 These mitigating measures represent an attempt to prevent, minimize, or

                 ameliorate impacts to fish and wildlife populations and their associated

                 habitat, while allowing development to proceed at the most efficient

                 pace commensurate with those concerns. These measures are additionally

                 designed to be ut ilized as a quick means of reference for future planning

                 or developmental considerations. For further information regarding

                 anticipated impacts'of oil and gas development, the reader is referred

                 to the compl ete report "Recommendations for Minimizing the Impacts of

                 Hydrocarbon Development on the Fish, Wildlife, and Aquatic Plant Resources

                 of the Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound".

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                                                                                                        2

                                             SIT PREPAPATION

                 Extensive site alteratio n (clearing, grading, filling and gravel pad

                 construction) is often necessary to prepare an area for the construction

                 of buildings, the building of access roads, the laying of pipelines and

                 the establishment of utility right-of-ways.

                 During site preparation, habitats of local organisms are often altered

                 or destroyed. Species of wildlAfe that are sensitive to disturbance

                 will be displaced from the area. The impacts on fish and wildlife will
                 be most severe if site preparation occurs.in vital fi-sh and wildlife
                 habitats where breeding, nesting, pupping, rearing, staging, wintering,

                 denning, or calving occurs. In addition to destroying habitat,, site

                 preparation leads to other environmental problems. Natural drainage

                 systems may be altered.   The removal or compaction.of.ground vegetation
                 exposes soils to erosion  and permafrost.degradation. Runoff containing

                 eroded soils and contaminants from a construction site can be carried
                 into coastal waters, thereby degrading water quality, blocking light

                 penetration, and inhibiting the growth of algae and aquatic plants.

                                                                                                    3

                                    Recommended Mitigative Measures

                Generai Measures

                     1.   Vital fish and wildlife  habitats shoul d be avoided as sites

                          for oil and gas facilities.

                     2.   Before.site preparation begins the envir onmental, geologic and

                          hydrologic aspects of the construction site.should be studied.

                          Facilities should be sited where the impacts of the facility

                          on the environment and the environment  on the facility are

                          minimized.

                     3.   Site preparation activities should be scheduled at times when

                          the impacts on critical fish and wildlife life processes such

                          as nesting or pupping will be minimal.

                     4.   Development plans should include procedures for control-ling
                          erosion, runoff, and sedimentation,  for preserving natural

                          water drainage systems, and for protecting permafrost.

                     .5.  Wetlands, tideflats, and wet tundra areas should not be drained,

                          filled, or polluted.

                     6.   The destruction of native vegetation cover should be avoided.

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                                                                                                    4

                     7.   Size of facilities should be minimized,, and facilities should

                          be consolidated where possible.

                     8.   Dust should be controlled at construction si.tes. Dust accumulation

                          around,roads and construction sites can cause early snow melt

                          and vegetation changes. These changes can lead to changes in

                          drainage patterns. -Dust should be controlled by watering, not

                          oiling. Runoff from oiled surfaces can pollute local waters

                          and the hard surface created by oiling lengthens deterioration

                          time following project abandonment.

                Non-Permafrost Soils   Erosion, Runoff and Sedimentation.

                     1.   Clear only the minimum area needed for'construction of facilities.

                          Other parts of thesite should not,be disturbed. Any remaining

                          vegetation will reduce erosionand runoff in adjacent areas.

                     2.   Finish grades so that the flow of water is directed along

                          natural drainage courses and through natural terrain.

                     3.   Vegetative buffers should be Ieft along all shorelines, sloughs,

                          bays, rivers, streams, and other surface waters in order to

                          trap sedimentation and pollutants and to control stormwater

                          flow. The width of the buffer should.be determined by slope

                          of land, severity of erosion, and vegetation type.

                                                                                                       5

                      4.   Cleared'areas should be revegetated as rapidly as possible

                           after site preparation activities in order to stabilize

                           exposed soils.

                      5.   Where possible  natural vegetation should be used to revegetate

                           cleared areas.    It is adapted to local climatic conditions

                           and it reduces the loss of wildlife habitat because birds and
                           mammals are ada pted to It. Nurseries should be established to
                           provide arctic adapted speci'es for revegetation.

                      6.   On a site that has been  cleared but on wh.ich construction will

                           be delayed, temporary vegetation (i.e.,-rapidly growing grains

                           and grasses) may b e planted@on exposed soi-Is to prevent erosion.

                           Newly seeded areas can be protected until. vegetation becomes

                           established by laying down netting, preferably jute or    other

                           biodegradable material.

                      7.   Stormwater runoff may be diverted away from exposed soils by

                           cutting parallel troughs across slopes to intercept the downward

                           flow of surface waters. On stee  p slopes, bench terraces can

                           be constructed to achieve the same purpose. Both of these

                           methods are used to di2vert stormwaters into sediment basins or

                          Anto vegetated buffer strips so that sediments can be removed.

                      8.   Sed.iment basins or detention ponds may.need to be constructed

                           in order to detain runoff and trap sediment thus decreasing

                           the siltation and contamination of coastal waters.

                                                                                                         6

                       9.   Vegetated waterways (swales) should be used to carry stormwaters

                            away from construction sites instead of concrete storm drains.

                       10.  Erosion in waterways (e.g., channels, ditches) may be reduced

                            by planting grasses along their courses. The establ.ishment of

                            grasses is an effective way of removing sediments from the

                            water.

                       ll.. Structures sited.on  slopes.of.unstable materials should be

                            built on fill or supported on piles.

                       12.  Riprap material used  to stabilize ri.ver banks and.prevent

                            erosion should be of  sufficient size so  that it cannot be

                            carried into the stream by normal or flood currents..

                 Non-Permafrost Soils     Preserving.Natural.14ater Drainage Systems..

                       1.   Areas that have high water tables shoul-d not bedrained.

                            Excavation in these areas should be limited to such structures

                            as ponds,,artificial lakes, or other containment projects

                            which preserve the natural water system. These artificial

                            basins should be designed to function as natural systems,

                            which means they should-be fairly shallowand have gentle

                            slopes. Improperly designed basins may become polluted

                            within a few years.. Vegetative buffer strips should surround

                            the basins for restoration of runoff water quality.

                                                                                                   7

                    2.   Areas that are regularly flooded should not be drained or

                         altered. Elevating structures on piles will cause the least

                         disturbance to the flood plain.

                    3.   There should be no excavation, filling, land clearing, grading,

                         channelization,. or removal of natural vegetation, and no
                         discharge of pollutants into wetlands or wet tundra areas.'

                    4.   Upland sites should be selected for facilities unless they are

                         water-dependent. If facilities are water-dependent, then the

                         non-water dependent p'aris of the facility (e.g., parking

                         areas) should be located outside of the wetland area.

                    5.   Excavation in wetlands should be avoided except for essential

                         public purposes (i.e. electrical lines, pipelines, and water

                         lines that cannot feasibly be rerouted). Excavation should be

                         limited to as small an area as possible.

                    6.   Solid-fill roads or other structures which obstruct the natural

                         flow of water should not be built in wetlands. The excavation

                         of fill for these structures causes additional adverse impacts.

                         if the construction of roads or other types of access through

                         wetlands is unavoidable, they should be placed on pilings

                         rather than on fill.

                    7.   If drilling for oil and gas is unavoidable in.wetlands,

                         ecological disturbance can be reduced by using directional

                         drilling to drill several wells from one site.

                                                                                                   8@

                    8.   Wetlands that are altered during the construction of facilities

                         should be restored to their natural state after the project is

                         completed.

                         a.   The original soil should be saved and replaced after

                              project completion.

                         b.   The area sho uld be restored to its original topographic

                              configuration

                         C.   The area should be revegetated with native species.

                    9.   When the movement of heavy construction equipment through

                         wetlands or wet tundra is unavoidable, culverts.and bridges

                         should be used to minimize degradation of the natural drainage

                         patterns. Winter movements are desirable because the substrate

                         is frozen, fish and wildlife are generally absent, and damage

                         is minimized.

                    10.  Construction areas should be graded so that the flow of

                         surface waters i.s along natural drainage courses.

                    11.  Site preparation activities  in wetlands and wet tundra should

                         be scheduled during,winter when the least biological damage

                         will occur.

                                                                                                    9

                      12. Tributary streams should  not be altered.

                      13. The use of permeable surfacing materials  such as gravel,

                           rocks, and shells, over groundwater recharge areas is more

                           desirable than the use of impenetrable surfacing such as

                           asphalt. Impenetrable surfaces such as paved parking  lots and

                           roads prevent groundwater recharge and accelerate storm runoff.

                           Water that normally filters through the soil remains on the

                           surface. Increased  runoff from paved areas results in pollution,

                           causes erosion,and  increases flooding-

                      14-  Stormwater should be retained by constructing detention ponds

                           which collect runoff and then slowly release filtered and

                           purified water to the coastal system.

                Protection of Permafrost

                      1.   Site specific studies.should be conducted to define the type

                           of permafrost terrain present.and the degree of potential
                           instability that must be considered in site diesign.

                      2.   Construction on well-drained....coarge sediments presents fewer

                           problems than:construction on poorly-drained, fine-grained

                           sedimepts.-

                      3.   Construction in permafrost areas should use the latest available
                           technology to prevent drainage alterations, 'channelization of

                           flows,. ponding, and permafrost degraga tion.

                                                                                                        10

                      4.   Where gravel pads  are required, impact on.drainage patterns

                           can be reduced by  buildi:ng circular pads or orienting one

                           corner of square pads upslope.

                      5.   Gravel pads'shou,ld be of sufficient depth to insulate the

                           underlying permafrost.

                      6. Artificial materi,al,   such as styrofoam insulation, can be   used

                           i.n conjunction with gravel to provide insulation   to the permafrost

                          .-layer and to reduce.gravel needs. However, the long term

                           impacts of artificial materials have not been adequately

                           tested.

                      7.   Temporary structures should   be built on piles. Gravel pads

                           should.only be used where weight or-stability requires their

                           use. Use of piles reduces permanent environmental damage and

                           reduces commitment of surface area for temporary structures.

                      8.   Refrigerated  piles can be used in marginal permafrost to

                           assure the permanently  frozen state  of sediments around the

                           piles. Pfles should be spaced far@enough apart to allow

                           thawing between them or drainage patterns will be altered.

                      9.   To minimize  environmental damage, construction   of facilities

                           should be minimized. Unnecessary duplication     of roads such as

                           construction of roads between facilities where access to the-

                           facilities.from main roads  has already been provided, and the

                           use.of pipeline construction pads where existing roads could

                           be used, are examples of activities that should be avoided.

                      10.  Facilities should be consolidated so that  the area of disturbance

                           is reduced.

                      11.  Vehicular travel and movement of construction equipment

                           should.be restricted to adequately constructed roads. Off-
                           r,oad travel- should only be allowed after the tundra surface is
                           sufficiently frozen and snow:depths are adequate to prevent-

                           surface damage.

                      12.  Where possible,,off-road travelshould be restricted to low-

                           surface-pressure vehicles.   Impacts of off-road travel by

                           tracked or tractor-type vehicles can be lessened by:

                           a.   Traveling only where and when there is sufficient snow

                                cover-to protect  the.vegetative surface and avoiding

                                steep slopes and sn ow-free areas.

                           b.   Using the s ame route each year when activities extend

                                over several:winters. Use of the same route for more

                                than two years, provi.ding that the peat layer continues

                                to insulate against summer thaw, is less damaging than a

                                series of parallel roads across theterrain.

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                                                                                                  12

                                          NOISE AND DISTUMANCE

                The intense level of support activity associated with offshore oil

                exploration, development and production causes various degrees of disturbance

                to fish and wildlife in the coastal environment. Disturbances are

                primarily caused by an increase in helicopter, fixed wing aircraft and

                boat traffic; an increase in human presence; the operation of heavy

                machinery during site preparatio n and construction.of onshore facilities;

                and by seismic exploration.

                When birds or mammals are disturbed they may either abandon'or discontinue

                using favored habitats. The impacts from noise and disturbance can be

                especially severe if they take place during critical periods in the life

                cycle of birds, mammals and fish. These critical periods include activities

                such as breeding, nesting, pupping, staging, wintering, denning, and

                calving. Interference with these activities may result in lower populations

                of animals. Breeding success may be reduced as well as resistance to

                disease,, predators,,and climatic conditions.

                                                                                                    13

                                     Recommended Mitigative Measures

                GeneraT Measures

                     1.    Facilities should be sited away from highly sensitive habitats.

                     2.    Noise generating activities such as helicopter and boat

                           traffic,blasting or construction  should be scheduled at times

                           and places when there.will be minimal impacts on fish and

                           wildlife. Schedule activities in sensitive areas to non-

                           sensitive times..

                Facility Siting

                     1.    Site facilities with high levels of visual and acoustical

                           disturbance away from biologically producti.ve.areas (sound

                           levels decrease with distance).

                     2.-   Facilities should be sited a minimum of one mile away from

                           critical habitats such as seabird colonies and peregrine

                           falcon nesting cl.iffs.

                     3.    Site fatilities where physical barriers such as irregular.

                           terrain will prevent sound and visual impacts.from occurring

                           over a wide area.

                                                                                                   14

                     4.   Provide vegetative buffer zones around@facilities. Indigenous

                          vegetation should be left during the site clearing wherever'

                         .possible.

                     5.   Use machinery that producesll:ess noise, i.e. modify the

                          design of equipment to reduce noise; equip machinery with

                          parts such as mufflers that will reduce noise.

                     6.   Conduct activities with high levels of,acoustical and visual

                          disturbance during periods of least biological activity.

                Hel'icopters and Fixed-Wing Aircraft

                     1.   Helicopters and fixed wing aircraft should maintain a vertical

                          distance of at least 1,500 feet, and a horizontal distance of

                          one@mile from sensitive areas during critical life history

                          stages.

                     2.   Under no circumstances should flights over sensitive areas be
                          less.than*500 feet. VFR flights over sensitive areas such as

                          seabird colonies, should be cancelled when ceilings below 500.

                          feet have been reported by flight service stations or other

                          pilots. Wildlife observed while flying at 500 feet should be

                          avoided by a one-quarter mile horizontal distance.*-

                     3.   During all phases of oil and gas development, aircraft,

                          especially helicopters, should follow fixed flight.paths which

                          avoid sensitive areas during critical times.

                                                                                                   15

                     4.    Ifflights over sensitive habitats cannot be avoided during

                         ..,Critical periods, the number of aircraft flying over these

                           areas should be minimized,

                           Rapid, linear flight over animals causes less disturbance than
                           circling. Under no circumstances  should helicopters unnecessarily

                           hover or circle over animals.

                     6.    If flight over a bird nesting cliff during the breeding season

                           becomes necessary due to weather or other unavo idable circumstances,

                           aircraft should approach the.cliff as di'rectly.as possible..

                           An approach from behind the cliff may result.-in the sudden

                           appearance and sound of an aircraft directly above the nesting

                           site, causing panicked flight by the attending adul,ts and

                           fatal damage to-the eggs or young.

                     7.    Helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft landing areas shouldbe

                           located at a.sufficient distance from sensitive areas so that

                           minimum altitudes can be attained before aircraft overfly any

                           sensitive area s.

                     8.    Orientation classes should be conducted for all new pilots to

                           aquaint them with the long term effects of aircraft disturbance
                           on wildlife populations and State laws relating to harassment

                           of wildlife.

                     9.    In order to establish effective aircraft operattan restrictions

                           in sensitive areas, specific studies need to.be conducted on

                                                                                                        16

                            the effects of aircraft disturbance on a variety of mammals

                            and birds found in the Norton Sound-Bering Sea region.

                  Boats

                      1.    Boats engaged in oil and gas exploration, development, and

                            production should maintain a distance of at least one mile

                            from sensitive areas during critical periods.

                      2.    Oil support activities (such as gravel supply barges, supply

                            boats, and tankers-) should avoid all marine mammal concentrations

                            during critical periods.

                      3.    Sirens o-r horns should not be used near bird colonies or

                            marine mammal haulouts.

                      .4.   Navigational aids such as foghorns    or flashing lights should

                            not be placed in or near seabird colonies or marine mammal

                            haulout areas.

                  Seismic Exploration

                      1.  -Seismic exploration   should be-conducted using only non-explosive

                            techniques which-do not physically ham fish and wildlife.

                      2.    If a situation arises  where non-explosivetechniques cannot be

                            used, and underwater  bl-asting.is necessary to protect.human

                                                                                                 17

                         life, prevent environmental damage, or protect property,
                         blasting programs should be designed to reduce energy transmitted
                         to the surrounding waters. Techniques such as blast curtains,
                         small delayed charges, jetted charges, etc. will minimize
                         environmental, damage from blasting.

                    3.   To protect ringed seals and marine fish, under-ice pressur es
                         from explosive detonations on the ice should no t exceed 3 psi.

                    4.   Terrestrial blasting should be: 1) conducted during nonsensitive
                         periods; 2) limited in favor of mechanical methods wherever
                         possible and desirable; and 3) conducted with reduced charges,
                         timed delays or muffle'd in other ways to reduce noise transmission

                         to surrounding areas.

                    5.   Where possible, there should be coordination of seismic programs
                         among operators to minimize duplic ation. Overlapping or
                         duplicate seismic programs by various companies can intensify

                         and prolong the disturbance in an area.

                    6.   Onshore seismic activity should be conducted during the winter

                         months when overland travel causes the least damage to the

                         tundra. Winter is also the period of lowest biological sensitivity
                         for most wildlife species. Vehicular traffic should be restricted

                         to the immediate area of operations.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                           18

                                          7.         No seismic surveys should be conducted in the shorefast ice

                                                     zone after March 20. Ringed seals begin pupping and rearing
                                                     young after this date. Along the Beaufort

                                                     seal abundance in areas where seismic exploration has occurred

                                                     is only one-half to one-third that of undistu

                                          8.         In the shorefast ice zone, seismic.shot lines should be spaced

                                                     at intervals  of no less than two miles, or the areas of seismic

                                                     exploration should be  as restricted as  possible.

                                          9.         Seismic surveys should maintain a minimum distance of one mile

                                                     from sensitive habitats during sensitive periods. Explosives

                                                     should not be used within two miles of peregrine falcon nests

                                                     during the period of April 15 to August 31.

                                          10.        Explosives detonated near a fish bearing waterbody should be

                                                     detonated at. a sufficient distance so that induced water

                                                     pressures within the waterbody do not exceed 2 psi. The

                                                     following table provides. minimum stream setbacks for various.

                                                     substrate types and charge sizes.,

    								CHARGE WEIGHT - POUNDS

    Substrate			1		2		5		10		25		100		500		1000

    Rock				53		75		118		167		269		529		1182		1671

    Stiff Clay			42		60		95		134		211		423		945		1337

    Gravel			41		59		93		131		207		474		927		1310

    Clayey Silt
    Bense Sand			37		52		82		116		184		368		823		1163

    Medium t o
    Dense Sand			32		46		72		102		162		324		724		1024

    Medium
    Organic Clay		21		29		46		66		104		207		463		655

    Soft Organic
    Clay				19		28		43		67		87		194		435		615

                                                                                                          19

                            These,charge weights are for single detonations separated by

                            at least 8 milliseconds from the next charge (i.e. if 1000

                            pounds of charge are detonated in 10 detonations of 100 pounds

                            each, separated by at least 8 milliseconds, the distance for

                            100 pounds can be used as the minimum distance from the waterbody).

                            The State of Alaska prohibits the use of high explosives for

                            seismic work in lakes, steams, and marine waters of the State.

                 Human Presence

                       1.   Human visitation,  to sensitive habitats during critical times

                            should be restricted in order to maintain populations of

                            wildlife.

                       2.   All human activities should be prohibited within one     mile of

                            peregrine falcon nesting cliffs between April 1 and     August 15.

                       3.   Orientation classes for all employees, including management

                            and supervisory personnel, should be required so as to inform.

                            personnel of the dangers, adverse biological consequences, and

                            legal ramifications of animal feeding.

                       4.   Al'l managem ent personnel should be taught proper garbage

                            disposal methods in order to eliminate animal feeding.

                       5.   Construction camps, garbage dumps and incinerators should be

                            fenced and buildings skirted in order to minimize human and

                            animal conflicts.

                                                                                                  20

                     6.   All. edible garbage must be thoroughly incinerated or buried to

                          prevent conflicts between humans and animals.

                     7.   Regulations to minimize human and animal contacts must be

                          developed and enforced. An effect,ive regulation and enforcement

                          program must be administered by personnel beyond the influence

                          of contractors or unions. Companies should have policies

                          which penalize violators.

                     8.   Specific research on animal harrassment should be in cluded as

                          part of.the design criteria for any oil and gas development

                          plan wherever these activities will impact a sensitive area or

                          a new species.

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                                                                                                   21

                                        DRILLING nJDS AND CUTTINGS

                  DrilllAg muds arespecial  mixtures of clay, water (or oil) and chemicals

                  which are circulated:into the drilling hole of exploratory or production

                  oil and gas wells to'cool and lubricate the drill bit, to remove formation

                  cuttings from the hole, and to prevent blowouts.by holding back foemation

                  pressures exerted by oil and gas accumulations. Drill cuttings are

                  composed of bottom sediments and pieces of pulverized rock underlying

                  geolog-ic.formations..During the course of drilling, muds are recirculated

                  after cuttings and other debris are remov6d. These materials along with

                  some drilling muds are then discharged into surrounding waters.

                  Drill,ing muds and their chemical components' (caustic soda, preservatives,

                  viscosifiers, emulsifiers, completion chemicals and thinners) have been

                  shown to be acutely.toxic to fish and marine invertebrates. E  ven if

                  concentrations found in marine waters are not toxic, the heavy metals in

                  drilling muds may accumulate in animal tissues and, overtime, become

                  toxic. Other potential impacts arise through an accumulation of muds

                  and cuttings omthe bottom. Organisms which are incapable of moving out

                  of a disturbed-area may be smothered. Mobile species might not be

                  smothered, but could be affected by a destruction of habitat or the

                              of food material. Diesel oil added to muds to enhance the

                  drilling of deep wells can adhere to mud particles and settle to the

                  bottom causing pollution of the substrate. Filter feeding animals, such

                  as clams, filter out the oil from the sediments and concentrate it;

                  thereby cau sing these organisms to develop an unpalatable oily taste.

                                                                                                    22

                                    Recommended Mitigative Measures

                -General Measures

                      1.   Wherever possible, drilling muds should be retained and used

                           for drilling other wells.

                      2.   Drilling muds should not be discharged into critical habitat

                           areas for marine species.

                      3.   Drilling muds should not be discharged.into any nearshore area

                           seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour line, or any body of

                           freshwater, including lakes, streams, or rivers.

                      4.   If artificial islands are used to develop oil reserves, clean

                           dri.11 cuttings can be used as a material source to supplement

                          Aravel in island construction.

                      5.   Drilling muds and clean drill cuttings should be discharged

                           near the ocean bottom rather than near the surface in order to

                           decrease the areal extent of outfall and to prevent stratification

                           of toxic components within the water column.

                      6.   Mud discharge rates should not exceed a maximum of 50.bbl per

                           hour, in order to limit toxic.concentrations-of drilling muds

                           to a small area near the outfall.

                                                                                                   23

                      7.- Muds,should not be discharged at low tide or slack water when

                          tidal flushing and dilution is a t a minimum.

                      8.*- Drilling muds should be diluted prior to discharge. The

                          minimum dilution factor should be 25 parts receiving water to

                          1 part drillAng fluid.

                      9.  Muds containing high levels (as determined by Environmental

                          Protection Agency or  Department of Environmental Conservation

                          water quality regulations) of hydrocarbons, surfactants,

                          bactericides, detergents, trivalent chromium salts, carcinogenic

                          compounds and other toxic additives should not be discharged

                          into the aquatic environment. Instead, these muds should be

                          hauled ashore and disposed of at an approved upland site,

                          pumped down the well bore, or disposed of in some other environ-

                          mentally acceptable manner.

                     10.  During winter drilling in the shorefast ice  zone, drilling

                          muds should be dispersed on the ice surface  rather than under
                          the. ice in poorly mixed, subsurface waters where toxic build up

                          may occur..

                     11.  Clean drill cuttings may be discharged without restriction,

                          except in areas-which are important for the rearing of Juvenile

                          marine species, such as larval king crab; orjn areas where

                          such discharges will result in a direct physical loss of

                          productive habitat, such as Fucus kelp and eelgras's beds,

                                                                                                   24

                          wetlands, tideflats, or estuaries. The presence or absence of
                          juvenile marine species and the relative productivity of an'

                          area should be determined during benthic and engineering

                          surveys conducted prior to rig placement.

                    12.   Heavy..metal accumulations in sediment.and animal tissues near
                          production platforms with multiple wells,'should be monito red

                          to insure that no toxic build-up occurs.

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                                                                                                      25

                                              OIL POWff ION

                 Oil pol lution, either acute or chronic, may occur during any phase of

                 petroleum development. Acute-oil spills are those that result from a

                 single infusion of oil into the marine environment, usually through an

                 accidental spill. Chronic oil pollution is that which occurs over a.n

                 extended pe riod of time. Development drilling, production, transportation,

                 and oil processing operations have been chiefl y responsible for most of

                 ,the world's major and minor oil spills, whereas offshore exploratory

                 drilling has contributed a lesser amount of o1l to the environment.

                 Petroleum spilled along the coast is potentially harmful to all coastal

                 environments and the marine organisms which inhabit them including

                 seabirds, waterfowl, fish marine mammals, shellfish, and plankton. Oil
                 can affect marine life'by': 1) direct kill of organisms  through coating

                 and asphyxiation, 2) direct kill through contact poisoning, 3) direct

                 kill through exposure to water soluble  toxic components of oil at some

                 distance in space and time from the spill, 4) destruction of the sensitive

                 juvenile forms, 5) destruction of the food sources of higher organisms,

                 6) incorporation of sublethal amounts of oil and   oil products into

                 organisms, resulting in reduced resistance to infection, physiological

                 stress or failure to reproduce, 7) disease due to exposure to carcinogenic

                 components of oil, 8) chronic low level.effects that may interrupt any

                 of the numerous biochemical or behavioral events necessary for the

                 feeding, migration, and spawning of many species of marine life and 9)

                 changes in biological habitats. Oil polluted marine waters can affect

                                                                                                   26

                humans by reducing recreational opportunities, tainting the flesh of

                commercial and subsistence species of marine fish and crustaceans (salmon,

                bottomfish  clams, and crab) and reducing commercial fisheries production.

                                                                                                             27

                                        Recommended Mitigative Measures

                  Prevention of Oil Spills

                       1.    Exploratory Drilling     Because of effective U.S. Geological

                             Survey regulations and   enforcement, exploratory drilling

                             operations on Federal OCS lands have a relatively good safety

                             record and a low incidence of oil spills. Exploratory drilling

                             operations would be acceptable with the following measures:

                             a.   USGS standards for both'drilling operations and       safety be

                                  adopted and enforced    on both State and Federal    lease

                                  tracts.

                             b.   A second dril-ling rig with-@imilai`-  -t,@iVahflities should be

                                  available in Alaskan waters to drill a relief well i,n the

                                  event of an uncontrolled flow of oi.1 from a well due to a

                                  blowout or accident such as a rig fire. The rig requirement

                                  can be satisfied.by an operational drilling platform

                                  in Alaskan.waters, even if it is being used to drill

                                  another well, but must be capable of being on site and

                                  operational within    7 days after an uncontrolled flow has

                                  occurred.

                             C.   Drilling  platforms must be inspected to insure that they.

                                  are-capable of operating under the meteorological and

                                  geophysical conditions that are present. Soil         conditions

                                                                                                  28

                               at all drilling-sttes should be inspected and certified

                               as being capable of supporting rig weights.

                          d. Only temporary drilling struct   ures should be used during

                               the exploration phase of oil development. After drilling,

                               all. structures should be removed and the site restored

                               unless,those structures will  be used in the development

                               of the field.

                          e.   Because of severe winter ice  conditions, exploratory

                               drill.ing from conventional jack-up rigs,.drillships, and

                               semi-submersible drilling rigs should be restricted to

                               the ice free months of June.through October.

                          f.   Hazardous operations with high oil spill risk factors,

                               such-as testing and well completions, should be conducted
                               only'during periods when the  ability to contain and

                               cleanup a spill are maximized. This would typically be

                               during calm open water periods.

                Production Facilities

                     1.   Production platforms must be.specifically designed and tested

                          to operate safely under extreme conditions involving moving
                          pack ice, maximum sustained wind speeds of 90 knots (100 mph),.
                          extreme wave heights of 32 meters (105 feet), and earthquakes

                          of at least 6.5 on the Richter scale.

                 Onshore Facilities

                      1.   Oil storage facilities should be sited a sufficient distance

                           away from any open body of water so that even in the event of

                           an uncontrolled spill, oil would not enter the water.

                      2.   If facilities must be sited in wetlands oradjacent to a body

                           of water, provisions must be made in design and construction

                           to prevent t he spread of hydrocarbons and to facilitate cleanup

                           above and below ground. Such measures would require that oil

                           storage and processing,facil-ities be bermed and.underlaid by

                           natural or artificial impermeabl-'e barriers to prevent spilled

                           oil from escaping the area and entering adjacent ground and

                           surface waters.

                      3.   Facilitie's which store-large amounts of fuel should be sited

                           away from sensitive fish and wildlife concentrations, such as

                          ,seabird rookeries and wetlands..

                      4.   Oil storage and  processing facilities should not be located on

                           geophysically unstable sites. This would.include sites with

                           unstable substrate, sites which could be affected by storm

                           surges, and'active fault zones..

                      5..  Stationary.,fuel storage facilities for construction activities
                           should not be placed within the floodplain of a fish stream,

                           and vehicle refueling should not occur in these areas.

                                                                                                  30

                     6.   Effluent,from refineries, oil treatment facilities, and petrochemical

                          plants should be treated to reduce concentrations of aromatic

                          hydrocarbons,to below one ppm. Effluents shou.ld not contain

                          any biologically significant amounts of heavy metals or carcinogenic

                          compounds which mi.ght build up to toxic levels in sediment

                          over the life of the project.

                     7.   Hydrocarbon contaminated effluents should only be discharged

                          into areas where there is sufficient water volume, strong

                          tidal currents,-and a-rapid exchange of water to quickly

                          dilute the effluent. Under no circumstances should they  be

                          discharged into any body of freshwater, estuary, or area

                          exhibitingsluggish circulation.

                     .8.7 Alier-na-ie---met,h-,o-ds:to@@dispose of:--contaminated.waste water, such

                          as pumping it into reinjection wells or into impermeable

                          formations underground, should be used whenever possible.

                     9.   Alarm systems and security, measures should be developed for

                          all.facilities handling oil to prevent spills caused by

                          carelessness, vandalism, or sabotage.

                Transportation

                     1.   Pipelines

                                                                                                           31

                            a.    Avoid construction of pipelines in geophysically active

                                  areas; i. e., across faultlines, in areas of current

                                  scour, in gas charged sediment areas, and areas prone to

                                  liquifaction.

                            b.    Submarine pipelines should be buried deep enough so that

                                  they will.not be broken by ship anchors, gouging ice

                                ..keels, or by fishing trawls.

                            C.    Submarine  pipeline locations should be prominently

                                  marked on  nautical charts and maps. Sonar targets
                                  Ishould be placed on the pipeline at strategic intervals

                                  .to aid.in precise location..

                            d.    Pipelines should be consolidated--to the@gre-at'est-extent

                                  possible.in order to minimize habitat disturbance and

                                  risk.

                            e.    Pipeline.design  and installation should reflect future

                                  developmental considerations such as increased volume

                                  during maximum production phases, and the ability to

                                  accomodate feeder  pipelines from other developing fields.

                            f.    Sensiti-ve alarm systems  and automatic shut-off valves

                                  should be%requ,ired.on all pipelines in order to minimize.

                                  the amount of oil that would escape in the event of a

                                  pipeline rupture.

                                                                                                    32

                          g.    The number of stream crossings should be minimized.

                                Attempt to make crossings downstream from sensitive

                                habitats such as spawning areas. Uninterrupted movement

                                and safe passage of fish should be provided for. Any
                                artificial structure or any stream channel change.that
                                will restrict fish movement should be provided with an

                                adequate fish passage structure or facility.

                          Ii.   Pipeline routes should avoid areas of productive or

                                critical benthic habitat such as larval king crab settling.

                                areas, larval shellfish release areas, salt marshes, and

                                important clam beds.

                           i.   Pipelines should be designed or sited in a manner that

                                will not impede crab passage or migration.

                     2.   Tanker docks and fueling facilities, which must be located in

                          marine waters, should be designed to include:

                          a.    Automatic shut-off systems to stop the flow of fuel from

                                storage areas in the event that a dock is damaged or

                              ..destroyed.

                          b.    Redundant safety systems with exceptional safety factors

                                incorporated in the oil transfer pipes, hoses, and other

                                equipment, to@eliminate the risk of failure and subsequent

                                oil spillage.

                                                                                                    33

                          C.    Redundant safety measures and additional crews should be

                                required during operations with historically high spillage

                                rates, such as the loading or unloading of tankers.

                                These measures will help to prevent spills which often

                                occur due to fatigue or carelessness.

                     3.   Tankers

                          a.    Only U.S. Coast Guard inspected load on top or segregated

                                ball-ast tankers whi-ch meet Coast Guard standards should

                                be allowed-to transport oil in Alaskan coastal waters.

                                Tankers destined for operation in western Alaska should

                                be specifically designed to withstand ice infested waters,

                                with-reinforced double hulls, multiple screws, and redundant

                            __.st
                                  eeri ng@. systems.,

                          b.    Mandatory vessel traffic corridors and a vessel traffic

                                control system should be-implemented.

                          C.    All tankers and other large vessels  should be required to

                                use certified pilots.who are familiar with local hazards,

                                weather, wind,, wave, ice, and tidal.conditi.ons.

                          d.    No d-ischarge of ball.ast.or bilge water should be permitted

                                in the Bering Strait.because of sensitive wildlife populations;

                                or east of Cape Nome due to sluggish ci.rculation regimes.
                                -Ballast'water treatment facilities should be av ailable at

                                the tanker dock.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               rA

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               I          'j,                                  I                                          I
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Jy

                                                                                                   34

                          e.   Tankers should be required to maintain a distance of at
                               least 15 miles from established seabird colonies.

                          f.   Ocean going tugs reinforced against ice should be available
                               to rescue any tanker which loses poweror steerage before
                               it runs aground.

                          g.   At least one ice breaking vessel should be continually
                               stationed in the Bering Sea.

                          h.   Tanker routes should only be established after conducting
                               a careful scientific study and analysis to determine:
                               1) the safest routes through seasonal Ice fields, storm
                               paths, and hazards to navigation, and to 2) avoid sensitive
                               fish and wildlife habitat which might be affected by a
                               spill.

             --"Oil Spill Containment and Cleanup

                   1.     An effective oil spill containment and cleanup organization
                          should be developed for a region before any drilling begins.
                          This organization should have sufficient oil spill containment
                          and cleanup equipment at its disposal to: 1) protect all
                          identified critical habitats, and 2) effectively contain and
                          cleanup the maxi mum probable projected spill.

                                                                                                      35

                      2.   An effective oil spill response organization should have an

                           oil spill contingency plan,which would.detail:

                           a.    Activities associated with oil field  development, including

                                 offshore activities involving the handlIng or storage of

                                 oil or hazardous substances.

                           b.    Conditions under which t1he organization has a clear

                                 capability to contain and cleanup spilled oil; and conditions

                                 under which hazardous operations should be suspended.

                           c.    Operational procedures, communications networks, detection

                                 and monitoring devices, equipment inventories, response

                                 times"and disposal sites.

                           d.    Contingencies and equipment to handle all oceanographic

                                 and meteorological conditions which can be expected to

                                 occur in an area of drilling.

                           e.    Provisions for under ice  and broken ice containment and

                                 cleanup.

                           f.    Locations of additional containment and  cleanup equipment,

                                 the location of ports and airfields for transferring

                                 emerge,ncy.equipment,.the availability of transport and

                                 support vessels, and approximate response times to various

                                 spill sites.

                                                                                                       36

                           g.   Provisions for periodic revisions to the contingency

                                plan, as necessary to.accomodate operational changes and

                                allow the incorporation of new. technology.

                      3.   Oil spill containment and cleanup equipment should be stationed

                           at strategic points in order to decrease the response time to

                           any point within the lease area to a maximum of six hours

                           after a spill has occurred.

                      4.   Small scale containment equipment, sorbent material, and oil

                           spill response training  should be made avai-lable to coastal

                           villages Which might be  impacted by a spill.

                      5.   All tanker terminals, harbors, and ports which are utilized

                           for oil- related activ-ities should have sufficient contai-nment

                           equipment available on  site to handle the largest spill which

                           mi.ght occur in those areas.

                      6.   Anchor points',for.oil exclusion booms. should be identified or

                           placed.near the mouths of all important fish streams, lagoons,

                           bays, and estuaries..

                      7.   Because existing oil spill containment and cleanup equipment

                           is.in many areas inadequate,, satisfactory,field'demonstrations

                           of equipment  and organizational-capabil@ities.should be conducted

                           prior to any  approval of drilling permits, operation of facilities,

                           or any.shipment.of oil by tankers.. Where existin.g equipment

                                                                                                       37

                           Js inadequate t o effectively contain and clean up oil in

                           broken ice,  development of effecti-ve equipment for containment

                           and cleanup  of oil in ice should be made a requirement of

                           permit approval.

                      8.   Recognize the limited capabilities of existing equipment and

                           the limited amount of equipment avai:lable. With present

                           operational and technical oil spill containment and cleanup it

                           can be most effectively used to protect the most sensitive

                           fish and.wildlife concentrations or habitats from oil spills.

                      9.   Dispersants    In the event that weather conditions or the

                           location of a spill make mechanical containment or cleanup

                           impossible, dispersants should be considered as an option to

                           protect --f i sh:@ and wi-ldl i fec-Tosources, der-certa1mcircumstances.
                                                                -,un

                           However, there are several drawbacks to the use of.dispersants.

                           The primary problem is that insufficient data is    available on

                           the effectiveness and toxicity of.dispersants to    make an

                           objective.decision regarding their use in Al.askan   waters.

                           Certain dispersahts and dispersant-oil mixtures-can be more

                           toxic than the original parent oil, thereby precluding their

                           use in most@cases. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

                           has published a list of approved dispersants; however, the

                           presence of a.dispersant on this list only signifies EPA's

                           acceptance of the method.used to test the dispersant and is

                           not Pecessarily an endorsement of its innocuous    natu re. The

                                                                                                       38

                            second problem is that, dependent upon type, dispersants will

                            only work.under certain te mperatures and.sea conditions. If

                            these conditions do not exist during a spill then dispersants

                            will not work. Third, there has to be a means of      delivering

                            the,dispersants to the spill site. Vessels, fixed     wing aircraft,

                            and helicopters are a,ll feasible, but weather and    visability
                            must meet minimum standards to be effective, especially in' the

                            case of airborne systems. Fourth, dispersants only remove the

                            threat of mechanical damage (i.e., coating and abrasion) to

                            fish,.wildlife,  and habitat.,and may actually increase the

                            amount of toxicity re,lated.damage resulting from a spill-

                            In light of the aforementioned problems,   dispersants should

                            only be considered as an option to protect fish and wildife

                           resources-or--habitats Under the following circumstances:

                            a.   Only after consultation with the Departments of Fish and

                                 Game and Environmental Conservation. To effectively'

                                 utilize dispersants, approval for their use, and the

                                 conditions under.which they-can be used will have to be

                                 determined in advance of any spill.

                            b.   When mechanical  means of oil spill containment and cleanup

                                 are. not feasi bl e.

                            c.   When oil spill trajectories clearly   indicate that the

                                 threat of physical damage and fish and wildl-ife mortalities

                                 at the projected impact site clearly exceed the toxic

                                                                                                      39

                                 .effects of using dispersants at the spill site or at some

                                 point along the spill trajectory.

                           d.    Dispersants should:only be used to protect sensitive

                                 species and habitats from the physical effects of oil

                                 spi-Ils and should never.be used simply to remove visible

                                 components of oil pollution. Dispersants increase toxicity

                                 and solubility wit hin the water column and may adversely.

                                 affect larval. marine organisms and fish if used improperly.

                                 Species sensitive to physical damage from oil spills

                                 include: seabirds, waterfowl, seal pups, intertidal

                                 spawningherring, and  pelagic juvenile marine species.

                                 Sensitive habitats include: eelgrass, Fucus beds, salt

                                 marshes, stream deltas, and depositional shorelines.

                           e.    Dispersahts should,onlybe used on large oil slicks in

                                 open water-areas which present a definite  threat to fish,

                                 wildlife, or sensitive habitat on shore.   If a spill is

                                 far offshore and is breaking.up, it should be allowed to

                                 dissipate naturally unless it can be contained or cleaned

                                 up by mechanical means.

                           f.    Do.not use dispersants in  spawning areas.during seasons

                                 when large concentrations of commercial or ecologically

                                 important fish or shellfish eggs or larvae are in the

                                 water column.

                                                                                                  .40

                          g.   Do not use  dispersants on spills of light hydrocarbon

                               products.such as gasoline or light diesel fuels'. These

                               products naturally dissipate.rapid.ly and dispersants

                               would increase-environmental damage by distributing them

                               in the water column. Use only on crude and bunker oils.

                          Ii.  Only non-toxic disp ersants, or low@toxicity dispersants

                               with a very low application rate (one gallon of dispersant

                               to 100 gallons of oil), should be used on Alaskan spills.

                 Monitoring

                     1.   Ambient hydrocarbon levels  should be recorded in the water

                          column and sediments prior  to any developmental activity or

                          facility operation which will  discharge hydrocarbons or other

                          hazardous substances into  the marine enIvironment. Ambient

                          levels should further be monitored regularly to insure that

                          discharge standards are not exceeded.

                     2.   Tissue samples of species which commonly occur and are harvested

                          in an area of oil development should be obtained periodically

                          to insure that hazardous bioaccumulations  of hydrocarbons,

                          heavy metals,,or other hazardous substances do not occur.

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                                                                                                    41

                  DREDGING AND FILLING, GRAVEL MINING, AND GRAVEL ISLAt,11) CONSTRUCTION

                Dredging, filling.and gravel mining take place during development and

                production of petroleum resources and are conducted to 1) create and

                maintain navigational channels (dredging), 2) lay pipelines for the

                transportation of oil and gas   dredging), and 3) obtain a source of

                material for fill or construction (dredging and gravel mining). Filling

                consists of taking materials produced by dredging and gravel mining and

                depositing them in another area either onshore or offshore. Disposal of

                dredge material, road and gravel pad  construction, and gravel island

                building are types of filling.

                The most obvious result of dredging, gravel mining, and filling is a

                destruction of habitat. Dredging and gravel mining may destroy, drain

                or drastically alter submerged bottoms, coastal wetlands and tidelands

                and can accelerate coastal erosion. Gravel mining in floodplains can

                alter stream courses, and change stream flows. Filling changes aquatic

                habitats to terrestrial habitats, and can alter circulation and surface

                drainage patterns@. Long term damage done by dredging and filling is

                most likely in nearshore areas such as estuaries and wetlands. Long

                term damage by  gravel mining is most likely to occur on streams and in

                the nearshore area. Waterfowl nesting and staging areas, fish spawning

                and rearing areas, and important commercial and recreational harvest

                areas are located in these highly productive habitats.

                Dredging and filling can adversely affect plants and animals living in

                coastal habitats. Alteration of circulation patterns.can displace

                                                                                                    42

                 plankton to different environments. The suspension of   bottom sediments

                 causes the water to become turbid (cloudy) limiting the amount of light

                 entering the water column and thus reducing phytoplankton growth rates.

                 Suspended bottom particles can clog the breathing apparatus of fish and

                 the feeding mechanisms of filter feeding animals such as clams, mussels

                 and sponges. As the sediments settle out and collect on the bottom,

                 eggs.on spawning grounds and plants and animals that are non-mobile may

                 be smothered. Benthic an  d epibenthic organisms (animals living on the

                 surface of the bottom substrate) are destroyed as they are swept into

                 dredging equipment. Other organisms are displaced or driven out of the

                 area by the dredging and mining activities.

                                                                                                                      43

                                           Recommended Mitigative Measures

                   Dredging and Gravel Mining - General Measures

                   1.    Dredging and gravel mining should.be avoi        ded in highly sensitive.

                         fish and wildlife habitats.

                   2.    Before major dredging projects are planned, site specific studies

                         should be conducted in the area under consideration to determine

                         local,ocean  ographic and hydrological conditions including: circulation

                         patterns, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. The.biological

                         productivity of the area should also be evaluated and the location

                         of vital habitats identified. This information should be used to

                         plan and schedule dredging so that minimal environmental damage

                         occurs.

                   3.    Detailed plans for dredging and gravel min.ing operations should be

                         submitted to resource management agencies well in advance of

                         proposed activities so that operational delays can be eliminated

                         and site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect

                         local fish and wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

                   4.    Activities which are likel     y to require dredging, such as the construction

                         of nearshore facilities and onshore pipeline routes, should be

                         sited where minimal dredging would be required

                   5. .  Dredging and mining activities should be scheduled to avoid breeding

                         periods and other critical life history stages of sensit.ive species.

                                                                                                  44

                6.   Dredging should be,conducted in a manner which will prevent the

                     release and spread of silty bottom sediments with a high biological.

                     oxygen demand into the water column. "Silt curtains" or "diapers"

                     may be used to retain sediment laden waters near the dredge site.

                     However, silt curtains are only effective in still waters.

                7.   Hydraulic dredges should not be used in areas which support large

                     populations of larvae.or juveniles of commercially or environmentally

                     important marine species which can be entrained or injured in the

                     pumps and dredge lines. In areas with large populations of larval

                     or juvenile marine organisms, a clam shell dredge produces fewer

                     impacts.

                8.   Silt levels from dredging operations should be at ambient levels by

                     the time they reach sensit ive habitats.

                9.   Operating controls for dredges should be established which will

                     reduce adverse environmental impacts.

                10.  Because in some cases gravel may be scarce, quarry rock and alternate

                     materials should be used for construction whenever possible.

                11. Where possible, gravel from abandoned structures such as tailing

                     piles, drill pads or airstrips, should be reused to avoid impacts

                     to watercourses and aquatic habitat.

                                                                                                   45

                12. Upland and offshore gravel  sites are preferred over floodplains and

                     nearshore areas. Impacts  resulting from transportation of gravel

                     and othersecondary impacts associated with mining.operations need

                     to be considered when selecting a site. The site selected should

                     be that which would result in the least total impact.

                13.  Gravel mining sites should not be located within the annual floodpl.ains

                     of fish streams or rivers, unless feasible alternatives are non-

                     existent. Gravel mining in floodplains can result in channel

                     ch anges,.channel blockages., siltation, and fish entrapment.

                14.  Gravel mining should not occur on spits protecting lagoons, in the

                     lagoons themselves, or in nearshore areas.

                15.  Gravel mining in wetlands should be avoided.

                16.  Development of a.minimal number of upland, intensive-use gravel

                     sites is preferable to a proliferation of small sites; minimization

                     of sites reduces access road requirements and limits the area of

                     habitat disturbance.

                17.  A mining site should meet the long.term requirements for all

                     activities in a given area; sites slated for one-time use by a

                     single project should be avoided.

                                                                                                   46

                18.   Deeply mined gravel pits should be converted to water reservoirs

                      where the need exists. This will provide a dependable winter

                      supply of water,,and wil.1 preclude the need for water removals from

                      biologically sensitive habitats such as fish overwintering areas,

                Dredging for Channels.

                      1.   Appropriate choices sho uld be.made for the location and design

                           of channels. Plans should include: 1) proper alignment of the

                           channel to minimize erosion and maintenance dredging; 2)

                           minimum dimensions for length, width, and depth of channel to

                           limit destruction of productive marine habitat and maintain

                           natural circu lation patterns; 3) appropriate choice of dredge

                           type which will minimize siltation (usually suction dredge);

                           4) establishment of beneficial operating controls for dredging

                           operations which will minimize short term impacts on fish and

                           wildlife; 5) proper disposal of spoil in upland sites; and 6)

                           time of year in which dredging operations would encounter the

                           least-amount of biological acti-vity.

                      2.   Existing natural channels should be utilized to the greatest

                           extent possible. New channels s hould be located so as to

                           prevent the loss of vital areas and to avoid erosion of shorelines..

                      3.   Channel dredging can be avoided in most vital ha bitats by

                           limiting dredging to natural channels. Depositional areas

                           will require continual maintenance dredging. All vital habitats

                                                                                                    47

                           should be identified during the planning phase of each dredging

                           operation and a buffer zone of several hundred feet or more

                           shoul-d-be@maintained between those areas and dredging operations.

                           Buffer zone boundaries should be determined on a case-by-case

                           bas i s.

                      4.   Minimize the length, depth, and widt h of the channel to maintain

                           the natural pattern of water circulation, to avoid major

                           salinity alterations, and to protect vital habitats. Excessively

                           wide channels may lead to an u Innecessary loss of vital habitat

                           areas such as clam beds or eelgrass beds. In general, a

                           navigation channel needs to be no wider than about three or

                           four times the width of the.largest vessel for which it is

                           designed. Similarly, channels do not need to be deeper than

                           about 4 feet beneath the deepest draft vessel at low water,

                           provided that traffic moves at moderate speeds to reduce

                           stirring up the bottom where fine sediment has accumul'ated.

                           In many cases it is not unusual to add to this 4 foot depth an

                           additional'foot or so to accommodate siltation or slumping.

                           This will further reduce the frequency of maintenanc e dredging.

                      5.   To avoid excessive slumping of the adjacent bottom into the

                           channel and repeated maintenance dredging, channel sides

                           should be dredged out to a  final stable slope, or "angle of

                           repose" during the initial  operation. The exact cut will

                           depend on local geohydrological conditions.

                                                                                                      48

                      6.   Projects which  would cause accelerated shore erosion should be

                           avoided, or operated in such a m anner as to eliminate erosion-

                           induc.ing;effect,s. Dredging,too clos-e to the shore in shallow-

                           water areas may cause severe shoreline recession, both from

                           channel, slumping and from direct erosion of banks, and should

                           be avoided.

                        7. Dredging near the toe or face of a bluff should   be avoided as

                           it exposes the bluff to increased erosion.

                      8.   New channels should not be created between freshwater aquatic

                           systems and coastal waters.

                      9.   Avoid alteration of natural water channels through straightening,

                           deepening, or diking.

                 Dredging for Pipeline Laying

                      1.   Pipeline routes should avoid highly productive, economically

                           valuable, or unique habitats.

                      2.   If important habitats cannot be avoided when planning pipeline

                           routes, avoid dredging during such sensitive periods as fish

                           migration and spawning, and waterfowl nesting and staging.

                           Onshore pipeline laying should be conducted during the winter

                           when the ground is frozen and impacts caused by construction

                           equipment are minimized.

                                                                                                  49

                     3.    Limit dredging to the smallest area necessary for pipeline

                           placement.

                     4.    Avoid permanently blocking surface drainages during pipeline

                           installation. Elevated pipelines and roads.should be adequately

                           culverted. Soil over buried pipelines should be contoured to

                           original slopes, and banks at stream crossing should not be

                           altered. Care should be taken to prevent sIumping in permafrost

                           soils or altering drainage patterns.

                     5.    Whenever pos.sible, "double ditching", the removal of topsoil

                           and vegetation first and replacement of it last, should be

                           used. This promotes more rapid restoration of vegetation.

                     6.    Limit equipment and activities to the pipeline right-of-way

                     7.    Use hydraulic dredges instead of jet systems when bottom

                           sediments are silty and siltation is likely to affect important

                           habitats. Hydraulic dredges are capable of pumping  dredged

                           spoils up to one mile from the site, thus protecting habitats

                           adjacent to the dredged area.

                     8.    Use silt curtains (polyethylene sheets hanging from float

                           lines to the water's bottom) to trap silt and sediment.  Silt

                           curtains,.however, are effective only in still waters.

                                                                                                   50

                Dredging in Streams

                     1. Dredging should occur    only during low water periods in order

                          to minimize siltation.

                     2.   Dredging should not occur in known or suspected fish spawning

                          or nursery areas. Wherever possible dredging should occur

                          below spawning areas.

                     3.   Dredging operations must foll ow procedures that will minimize

                          the resuspension of instream materials.

                     4.   Dredging should occur during periods of lowest biological

                          activity.

                Gravel Mining in Marine Areas

                     1.   Gravel mining should be avoided in highly sensitive fish and

                          w-ildIi-fe -habitats.

                     2.   Gravel should not be mined from spit s, beaches, deltas of

                          rivers that support fish, lagoons, estuaries, or barrier

                          islands.

                     3.   Gravel mining  sit e selection should be based on a study which

                          considers not only gravel availability but also. concentrations

                          of biological resources; commercial, recreational and subsistence

                          harvest activities; and effects of siltation on downstream

                          habitats.

                                                                                                   51

                     4.    Silt control measures should be practiced in areas of biological

                           productivity or where silt could be carried into productive

                           habitats.

                     5.    Organic overburden from offshore mining areas should be backfilled

                           into previously mined areas to speed recolonization of the

                           area by marine life.

                Gravel Mining i n Upland Areas

                     1.    Detailed mining plans should be submitted to resource management

                           agencies well in advance of mining operation to expedite

                           permitting. Site specific mitigating measures sh ould.be

                           developed if necessary to protect local wildlife resources

                           from unnecessary impacts.

                     2.    Where mining occurs in areas which support critical life

                           history stages (esp'. grizzly bear denning., raptor nesting, and

                           moose and muskox wintering) operations should be timed to

                           avoid those life history stages.

                     3.    Impacts of roads and other support activities and structures

                           should be considered during site selection.

                     4.    Sites should be located so as to prevent mass wasting into

                           fish streams.

                                                                                                  52

                     5.   Vegetation removal should be limited to the area necessary for

                          one years operation.

                     6.   Mined areas should berevegetated and restored to original

                          contours or used for water storage.
                Gravel Mining'in an Annual Floodplain.

                Annual floodplains are the least desirable location for gravel mining.

                mining in offshore marine areas or in uplands is preferable. In an area

                where the only feasible gravel source is within an annual floodplain,

                the following guidelines should be followed to minimize impacts.

                     1.   Floodplains of streams which do not support fish populations

                          should be considered as gravel sources.before those streams

                          that support anadromous or non.-anadromous fish. Because of

                          increased risk of hydrological changes in the stream, floodplains

                          of anadromous fish streams should be considered last.

                     2.   Where mining must occur in active floodplains, braided rivers

                          should be considered as primary gravel sources; other river

                          configurations, listed in order or likelihood of causing the

                          least physi cal change, are split, meandering, sinuous, and

                          straight.

                     3.   When small quantities of gravel are required (approximately
                          50,000 m3 or less), select sites that will scrape only unvegetated

                          gravel deposits.

                                                                                                  53

                     4.   When l'arge quantities are required (in excess of 50,000 m3),

                          select larger rivers cont aining sufficient gravel in unvegetated

                          areas, or select terrace locations on the inactive side of the

                          floodplain and mine by pit excavation

                     5.   Consider length, location and other impacts of access roads in

                          site selection. Mined areas should be on the same side of a

                          stream as the access road to minimize stream crossings.

                     6.   Work should be scheduled to avoid peak biological events such

                          as local fish migration and spawning, bird and mammal breeding,

                          nesting, and rearing-of-young. Critical habitats such as

                          spawning and overwintering areas should be avoided.

                     7., Riffle areas should be avoided except in the following situations:

                          a.   When more rapid site recovery is desirable.

                          b.   When the riffle is an unproductive aquatic habitat because

                               of cementation or infiltration by fine sediments.

                          C.   Where deepening the thalweg may reduce or eliminate

                               aufeis development.

                          d.   In a long riffle, excavation may be acceptable near the

                               middle of the riffle.

                       8.   Vegetated areas should not be disturbed when sufficient

                            quantities of gravel can be obtained in unvegetated areas of

                            f1oodp I a ins.

                       9.   Material removed from unvegetated and exposed (de-watered)

                            bars of a watercourse should only beremoved to the existing

                            ice or water level. Following mining, bars should be sloped

                            to enhance drainage.

                       10.  Where removal must occur in vegetated areas, preference

                            should be given to locations in dominant, homogeneous

                            vegetative communities.

                       11.  If mining in vegetated areas, all overburden and vegetative

                            slash and debris should be saved for use-during site rehabilitation

                            to facilitate vegetative recovery.   This material should be

                            piled or broadcast in a manner so that it will not be washed

                            downstream.

                       12.  Material sites within the active floodplain should not disturb

                            th e edge of active channels or form new high-water channels

                            through the site.

                       13.  Site configurations should avoid use of long straight lines.

                            Sites should be shaped to blend with physical features and

                            surroundings.

                                                                                                                             55

                           14. Gravel, mining should occur in such            a manner, that the flow-of

                                 the watercourse is not rechanneled, blocked or diverted.

                           15.   When scraping in active or inactive floodplains, maintain

                                 buffers that will contain active channels to their original

                                 locations and configurations.

                           16. Banks of watercourses should not be altered.@ Undercut and

                                 incised vegetated banks especially should not be altered.

                           17. Stream crossings should be           selected at points where no alteration

                                 of the banks is necessary.

                           18    Equipment should not enter or cross an active (_open flowing)

                                 channel of the watercourse.

                           1.9.  Movement of equipment through willow (Salix) stands should be

                                 avoided whenever possible.

                           20..  Mining should occur in such a manner that berms, potholes,

                                 and/or depressions that could cause fish entrapment are not

                                 created.

                           21.   Pit mining if required, should be           located in areas where there

                                 is a low probability of diverting           active stream channels into

                                 the min,ed,a:rea. Such areas include terraces, inactive floodplains,

                                 or stable islands with adequate buffers.

                                                                                                    56

                      22. Pit excavations  should be separated from the active floodplain

                           by a buffer designed to maintain this separation for two or

                           more decades.

                      23.  If pits are left in floodplains, an outlet should be con structed

                           to provide escape for fish trapped during high water. A pit

                           connected to a fish stream, if properly designed, can provide

                           for fish rearing and overwinterihg. Where a pit is adequately

                           protected from flooding, and will not be used for fish habitat,

                           waterfowl and shorebird habitat can be created by providing a

                           diversity of water depths.

                      24. Pit outlet channels should  be deep enough to allow fish passage

                           during low flow conditions and be as narrow as possible. All

                           outlet channels should be at the downstream end of the pit,

                           angled downstream, and connected to a non-depositional area of

                           the main channel. Outlet channels  should be constructed at

                           the end of site rehabilitation to minimize siltation in the

                           river.

                      25. Where.gravel washing operations are required in floodplains,

                           wash water should be recycled with no effluent discharge to

                           the active floodplain. If settling ponds are required, they

                           should be designed to provide adequate retention time for

                           site-specific conditions. Outflows should be constructed to

                           avoid fish entrapment.

                                                                                                       57

                       26. Upon.completion of material removal the mining site should be

                            graded smooth with all berms and potholes removed, and all

                            depressions filled.to prevent'.entrapment of fish. Stored

                            material should not be stockpiled in the fl.oodplain.

                   Filling  General Measures.

                       1.   Filling (dredge disposal,  gravel pad and road construction,

                            and gravel island building) should be avoided in highly sensitive

                            fish and wildlife habitats.

                       2.   Activities which are.likely to   require filling, such as the

                            construction of near shore facilities and onshore pipeline

                            routes, should be sited where minimal dredging and filling

                            would be required.

                       3.   Detailed plans for  filling operations should be submitted to

                            resource management  agencies well in advance of proposed

                            acti vi ties so - that %@permi tti,ng -del ays can be el i mi nated and

                            site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect

                            local fish and wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

                       4.   Filling activities.should be scheduled to avoid breeding

                            periods and other critical life history phases of sensitive

                            species.

                       5.   Easily erodable material (i.e. silt) should not be used for

                            construction of offshore facilities. The grain size of these

                                                                                                    58

                           materials is too small to withstand ocean currents and waves

                           and are likely to result i.n increased water turbidity and

                           burial of downstream habitats.

                      6.   Because gravel sources may be scarce, quarry rock and alternate

                           materials should be used for construction whenever possible.

                      7.   Solid fill structures such as gravel islands and causeways

                           should not be located in areas where they will disrupt local

                           circulation patterns, adversely affect water quality, or

                           interfere with fish or marine mammal migrations.

                      8.   Do not construct long continuous fill causeways or docks. Use

                           piling structures or provide sufficient breaches to allow

                           normal fish passage, and for maintenance of water quality.

                      9.   Use fill material compatible with the area.. In areas where

                           there is a high ambient silt level such as the Yukon River
                           Delta, silt mayte acceptable 6r structures. In areas with

                           low turbidity - use only clean material and armor to prevent

                           erosion and siltation.

                 Dredge Disposal

                      I    When the spoil removed in a dredging operation is   compatible

                           with existing material (i.e. mud on mud, sand on sand), direct

                           disposal of the dredge spoil onto the bottom may be acceptable.

                                                                                                     59

                           However, the spoil should not contain toxic pollutants,

                           should spread in a thin layer (less than two inches) whic  h

                           will allow marine organisms -to burrow through it9 shoul.d not

                           be deposited in ridges that significantly impede water flow,

                           and should not cover vital habitat areas,   i.e., wetlands,

                           tideflats, estuarine waters, productive benthic habitats or

                           Fucus and eelgrass beds.

                      2.   In someareas, littoral zone disposal of material dredged from

                           rivers or nearshore channels may be required if deep water

                           disposal would create a.deficit budget in longshore sediment

                           transport. Such disposal should be planned to avoid impacts

                           to sensitive species and habitats.

                      3.   Dredged material should not be deposited in wetlands, but

                           rather in a designated area where there will be a minimum of

                           environmental alteration.

                      4.   Dredged material shou:ld be.,dispo.sed of at a sufficient distance

                           inland to prevent reintroduction ofmaterials into the waterway.

                      5.   In water depths in excess of 2 meters (6.5 feet), water

                           column turbidity can be reduced by vertically discharging the

                           dredged slurry through a diffuser   (a 90-degree elbow) at a

                           depth of 0.5 to 1 meter below the water surface. Use of a

                           diffuser minimizes areal coverage over the disposal area but

                           maximizes mounding of the fluid mud and dredged material. The

                                                                                                  60

                          simple open-ended pipeline, discharging above and parallel to

                          the water surface, creates the grea test water column turbitity

                         @@but-produces a relatively thin, widespread fluid mud layer.

                Gravel Pad and Road Construction

                     1.   Gravel pads and roads should not be contructed in vital fish

                          and wildlife habitats.

                     2.   All linear gravel structures, such as roads and construction

                          pads, should be adequately culverted to prevent artificial

                          ponding or water starvation.

                     3.   Facilities and associated developments should be designed to

                          reduce number and size of pads needed and the amount of  gravel

                          needed.

                     4.   Avoid building pads, especially roads, near waterways to

                          lessen erosion potential.

                     5.   Pads and roads should be of sufficient thickness to prevent

                          permafrost melting. Artificial insulation should be incorporated

                          in fill to reduce gravel requirements.

                     6.   Berms and drainage ditches in non permafrost areas should be

                          instal,led to control the rate of runoff from unvegetated

                          surfaces.

                        7.   Pads should be built in such a way that drai nage patterns in

                             surrounding areas will not be altered.

                        8.   Dust should be controlled on pads by watering, not oiling.

                             Dust accumulation on snow and vegetation leads to accelerated.

                             spring snow melt and vegetation changes.

                        9.   Roads across wetlands or wet tund ra should be aligned per-

                             pendicular to the direction of sheet flow.

                   Gravel Islands

                        1.   Vital fish and wildlife habitats should be avoided as sites

                             for gravel islands.

                        2.   Construction of gravel islands,should be scheduled to avoid

                             breeding periods, migrations, and other critical life history

                             stages.

                        3.   Barge routes for transportation of material to construction

                             site should be planned to avoid marine mammal  and bi rd concentrations.

                             Bubbles from the barges wake.can persist for several hours,

                             causing a "behavioral" barrier to migratory movements and

                             barge traffic disrupts resting and feeding birds.

                        4.   To reduce turbidity and siltation, use of coarse-grained

                             gravel is preferred over use of'fine-grained.construction

                             materials such as silt, sand, and in some cases gravel.

                                                                                                 62

                    5.   Shorelines of artificial islands should be protected from

                         erosion using the methods found in the Shoreline Alteration

                         section of this report. Erosion c an cause siltation and

                         environmental damage to downdrift areas as well as necessitating

                         continual replenishment of eroded material.

                    6.   Caisson retained islands require less gravel fill, can be

                         moved, and should be considered for use during exploration and

                         production drilling over solid fill gravel islands.

                    7.   Gravel islands should not be sited in locations where significant

                         interference with local circulation and subsequent changes in

                         salinity, temperature, and sediment transport may occur.

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                                                                                                   63

                                         SHORELINE ALTERATION

                Shoreline alteration involves the construction of coastal structures in

                order to stabilize the shoreline (rip rap, breakwaters, groins, jetties,

                bulkheads) and to provide transportation access between or across land

                and water (piers, causeways, bridges).

                Fish, wildlife and aquatic plants may be adversely impacted by the

                construction and placement of structu res along the coastline. These

                structures can lead to an alteration of tidal circulation, disruption of

                shoreline sediment transport, and an alteration or destruction of habitat.

                Highly productive habitats such as waterfowl staging areas, eelgrass

                beds an d herring spawning areas would be affected by shoreline alteration.

                Shoreline alteration, proceeding one project at a time, can ultimately

                alter or destroy the entire natural shoreline of a coastal system.

                                                                                                    64

                                    Recommended Mitigative Measures

                General Measures

                     1.   Structures that will alter the coast should not be built along

                          the shoreline unless there are no alternatives.

                     2.   Only water-dependent facilities should be placed along the

                          coastline. All other facilities should be located inland if

                          possible.

                     3.   If coastal construction is necessary:

                          a.    structures should not.be placed in vital coastal habitats

                                such as wetlands, tideflats, estuaries, lagoons, or

                                shellfish beds;

                          b.    natural drainage patterns of shorelands should not be

                                altered. Channelization or diversion of coastal streams

                                away from tideflats and wetlands can lead to increased

                                pollution, altered salinity levels, and decreased biological

                                productivity in estuarine waters;

                          C.    coastal structures should not be built in intertidal and

                                subtidal areas which provide valuable habitat for aquatic

                                organisms;

                                                                                                    65

                          d.   channel erosion should be minimized by routing shipping

                               into deeper channels and establishing speed limits;

                          e.   construction activities should adhere to water quality

                               standa rds and should be scheduled to avoid critical

                               periods of breeding, feeding, and migration of coastal

                               species;

                          f.   large coastal structures should not be built in areas

                               used for marine mammal harvest;

                          g.   coastal structures should not be constructed in areas

                               where rapid coastal erosion or deposition is occurring.

                               Coastal engineering studies should be conducted as part

                               of each project,to identify these areas and to insure

                               that construction will not aggravate the probl,em; and

                          h.   during.construction of coastal structures, turbidity

                               should be kept to a minimum and turbidity control devices

                               should be used when necessary.

                Bulkheads

                     1.   Bulkheading shoul.d be avoided by siting development away from

                          eroding shorelines.

                                                                                                    66

                      2.   The construction of bulkheads to prevent coastal erosion

                           should only be used when there is no alternative. Whenever

                           possible use natural erosion protection such as planted marsh

                           grasses rather than building bulkheads to minimize erosion on

                           unstable shores or banks. Riprap causes less impact than

                           bulkheads and should be a second choice for erosion prevention.

                      3.   Bulkheads should not be built where they disrupt.wetlands or

                           other vital habitats such as clam beds. Even if bulkheads are

                           not placed in vital areas such as estuaries, wetlands, or

                           tideflats, they should be located far enough away to avoid

                           altering sedimentation and water circulation in these important

                           habitats.

                      4.   Bulkheads should be plated inland from all wetlands. Bulkheads

                           and similar structures used to prevent shoreline erosion in

                           wetland areas should be built above the annual' flood mark.

                           Exc eptions to this requirement may be made when bulkheads are

                           constructed onLshorelines which are devoid of vegetation or

                           cannot be revegetated. Erosion is usually severe on unvegetated

                           shorelines , thus requ,iring bulkheading for stabilization. It

                           is recommended that bulkheads built on unvegetated shorelines

                           not extend outward from the mean low-water mark.

                      5.   Bulkheads should not disrupt  the outward flow of groundwater

                           or runoff, and should be designed to be permeable to the

                                                                                                  67

                          natural flow of both groundwater and runoff. Wooden bulkheads

                          should be built with "weepholes" backed by filter screens to

                          allow the passage of water through the structure.

                     6.   In cases where bulkheads must be used, establishing a buffer

                          strip of vegetation between the bulkhead and the water will

                          protect coastal habitat and help reduce undermining of the

                          bulkhead. When possible, existing shoreline vegetation   should

                          remain undisturbed.

                     7.   Bulkheads should be designe.d so that reflected wave energy

                          does not erode intertidal or subtidal areas.

                     8.   Bulkheads should be constructed on a gently sloping shoreline

                          rather than a steep one to reduce erosion.

                     9.   During constructi on of bulkheads, it is generally desirable to

                          drive supporting pilings in rather than jetting them in because

                          jetting causes siltation and affects water quality. However,

                          there may be instances (i.e., bird nesting) where the disturbance

                          from pile driving may outweigh the effects of siltation2 and

                          jetting may be more desirable.

                     10.  In appropriate cases, dredging  should be done after the bulkhead

                          is installed and then the area  behind the bulkhead should be

                          backfilled. This will preven   tmaterials from slumping into

                          the channel and will reduce the need for frequent maintenance

                          dredg,ing.

                                                                                                      68

                      11. Fill material should not be excavated from shallow water and

                           productive wetlands.

                      12. Riprap should be placed in front of a bulkhead to minimize its

                           impacts on wave refraction.and toe scour.

                      13.  Bulkheads should not be constructed with sharp angle turns

                           because thismay create flushing or shoaling problems.

                      14.  Vertica Ily designed bulkheads (espec ially when they protrude

                           to minus tide levels) should be avoided in salmon rearing

                           areas. Stair-step design bulkheads or riprap revetments with

                           a slope of less than 450.provide more protective habitat for

                           salmon fry.

                      15.  Bulkheads should be used only for erosion control and   not to

                           create real estate by filling. Do not use bulkheads for

                           cosmetic purposes.

                Riprap and_Other Revetments,

                      1.   Armor unit revetments should be made of clean, non-polluting

                           material. Any material contaminated with grease, phenol,

                           lead, or other toxic elements should not be used.

                      2.   Revetments with facings that are highly irregular (such as

                           riprap) and have a shallow slope, have a greater ability to

                                                                                                     69

                           support marine life and are preferred over steep-sided smooth

                           revetments.

                      3.   Riprap should be used rather than bulkheading wherever possible,

                           although planting suitable vegetation to prevent erosion is

                           more desirable than riprap.

                      4.   When compared to bulkheads, riprap is more permeable to the

                           flow of groundwater and runoff. The water can move unimpeded

                           through the filter cloth and crushed rock backing of riprap

                           structures. Other advantages of riprap are@that it provides

                           attachment for marine life, it can be built to conform to the

                           natural configuration of the shoreline, and it is less expensive

                           to build then most other erosion prevention structures.

                Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties

                      1.   The use of groins to stabilize or widen beaches should be

                           avoided if at all possible.

                      2.   If groins are built the following recommendations  should be

                           followed to minimize the impacts:

                           a.   Place the shoreline end of the groin above the normal

                                storm-tide line to prevent scouring.

                                                                                                    70

                           b.   Fill the area.around the groin with sand, thus allowing

                                drifting sand to bypass the groin and replenish downdrift

                                .eroded areas.

                           C.   Place polyethylene mat (filter cloth) under the base of

                                the groin to protect the structure from.slumping due to

                                erosion.

                           d.   In some cases, excessive amounts of trapped sand can be

                                mechanically transported around  the groin to replenish

                                eroding areas.

                           e.   Groins which capture all  littoral drift, thus encouraging

                                or aggravating downbeach erosion, should not be constructed.

                                Permeable groins or groins designed to include several

                                weirs are preferable.

                      3.   Dredging to bypass or remove accumulated sand from behind

                           jetties should be scheduled for times of low productivity.

                           Care should be taken in choice of downdrift sand release sites

                           to avoid movement of sand into productive fish and shellfish

                           areas or important plant communities.

                      4.   Jetties should not be built at the mouths of productive anadromous

                           fish streams. Changes in an inlet following construction of a

                           jetty can affect runs of migratory fish.

                                                                                                   71

                      5.   In the co nstruction of breakwaters, the use of riprap or

                           dumped stone is biologically more desirable than breakwaters

                           wi2th flat faces since either of the former provides more

                           ,habitat for aquatic species.

                      6.   The base of breakwaters should be protected from erosion so

                           that scouring does not affect structural integrity and, therefore,

                           aquatic organisms in the area.

                 Piers and Docks

                      1.   When utilities, pipelines and roads cannot be routed around

                           vital habitats, they should be elevated on piers rather than

                           placed on solid fill causeways.

                      2.   Piers crossing marshy areas should be elevated high enough to

                           avoid continual shading of the area under the piers.

                      3.   Pilings should-be driven in rather than jetted in. Jetting

                           affects water quality in the construction area.

                      4.   In marine and estuarine areas, construction of docking facilities

                           on a series of ice resistant mono-pod type legs should be

                           considered-as an alternative to solid fill causeways.

                                                                                                   72

                      5.   Spacing of pilings should allow free flow of tidal currents

                           and littoral drift.

                Bridges and Causeways

                      1.   The location of bri-dges and causeways should avoid vital

                           habitat areas. Whenever possible these structures should be

                           located upland away from wetlands and water basins.

                      2.   Bridges or causeways built across water areas should be elevated

                           on pilings to minimize the disruption of natural water flow

                           and to avoid alteration of vital habitat areas. Solid fill

                           causeways should be avoided.

                      3.   When fill or abutments must be use d in areas subject to flooding,

                           they should be designed so that the floodwaters will not be

                           raised more than 0.3 meters (I ft) above the natural flood

                           level.

                      4.   Culverts should be sufficiently large, and enough culverts

                           should be used, to permit a natural rate of water passage

                           through solid-fill causeways. To provide adequate fish passage,

                           culverts should protrude sufficiently above the water so that

                           the entire passageway is well lighted and that water velocities
                           do not exceed 0.5 fps under'all tide and wind conditions.

                                                                                                   73

                      5.   Bridged breaches should be used in causeway design instead of

                           culverts where tidal flow, littoral transport or fish migrations

                           ,wi-11-be affected.

                      6.   When building causeways or bridges in wetland areas, heavy

                           equipment should be operated from the construction site (i.e.,

                           roadbed) rather than from the wetland area.

                      7.   Environmental disturbances should be minimized during construction.

                           Matting and/or vehicles designed to prevent soil compaction

                           are recommended for use in wetland's.

                 Small Boat Harbors

                      1.   Small boat harbors should onl y be located on bodies of water

                           with a high rate of flushing.

                      2.   Small boat harbors should be designed to minimize the extent

                           of excavation, shoreline alteration, and disturbance of vital

                           habitat areas.

                      3.   In order to e-liminate channel excavation, floating docks

                           should be used whenever possible. When it is not appropriate

                           to.use floating docks, piers bui lt on pilings should be constructed

                           over wetlands to provide access to deep waters. The piers

                           should connect to land above the annual flood level.

                                                                                                   74

                      4.   The natural coastline should be preserved by placing boat

                           slips farther out into the water and connecting them to the

                                      piers. This will eliminate the adverse impacts of

                           dredging and bulkheading.

                      5.   Small boat harbors should not be constructed in wetlands.

                           Piers and docks can be designed to extend over the wetlands to

                           deep waters on pilings.

                      6.   The construction of bulkheads, groins, and jetties shou ld be

                           avoided when building small boat harbors.

                      7.   Support facilities for small boat harbors, including storage

                           areas and buildings, should be located inland away from the

                           coastline.

                 Coastal Pipelines

                           (See additional recommendations for pipelines in the Oil

                            Pollution section)

                      1.   Pipelines should not be placed in vital habitat areas such as

                           wetlands, eelgrass beds, or clam beds.

                      2.   When habitat disturbance is unavoidable, construction activities

                           should be limited to the shortest time and smallest area

                           possible.

                                                                                                  75

                     3.   Pipelines should be built during periods of low biological

                          productivity.

                     4.   After the pipeline is laid, the construction area should be

                          restored to as close to its original state as possible, using

                          original substrate and native species wherever feasible.

                Coastal Roads

                     1.   Build roads perpendicular rather than parallel to the  coast.

                     2.   Coastal roads should not cross wetlands.

                     3.   Stream crossing should be designed to allow fish passage

                          during any flow. Bridges are preferred. If culverts must be

                          used, the following guidelines should be followed:

                          a.   Culverts placed in rivers or streams frequented by fish

                               should be instal'led so that at least one-fifth of the

                               diameter of round culverts or six inches of elliptical or

                               arch culverts is set below the lowest elevation of the

                               natural stream bottom.

                          B.   Culvert dimensions necessary to pass fish upstream are

                               dependent upon the velocity of the water within the

                               culvert when the fish are present; the.time of year these

                               velocities occur; the length of the culvert which must be

                                                                                                  76

                                negotiated by the fish; and the species, size, and age

                                class of fish present and their upstream swimming capabilities.

                                Table 1 represents the maximum watervelocities through

                                different culvert lengths which can be successfully

                                negotiated by several Alaskan fish species. To avoid the

                                possibility of restricting fish passage, velocities

                                through culverts should not exceed 0.5 fps.

                           C.   Alternative drainage structures, other than culverts,

                                should be installed if fish passage cannot be assured

                                through culverts.

                           d.   All culverts should be aligned with the natural stream

                                channels.

                           e.   All bank cuts, slopes, fills, and exposed earth work

                                attributable to culvert installation should be stabilized

                                to prevent erosion during and after the project.

                           f.   No culverts should be built in fish spawning or rearing

                                areas. Roads crossing streams at such critical habitats

                                should be re-routed or a bridge installed instead of a

                                culvert.

                                                                     TABLE I

                                        Maximum water velocities through different culvert        lengths
                                  which can be successfully negotiated by several Alaskan         fish species.

         1,ength of            Group I             Group II              Group III               Group IV            Group V
         culvert In            Upstrewn migrant    Adult spring          Adult moderate          Adult Kigh          Juvenile
          feet                 salmon fry and      spawning slow         swimmers:               performance         slow swimmers
                               fingerlings when    swimmers:             pink salmon             swimmers:           and other
                               upstream            grayling              chum salmon             king salmon         adult slow sw1mmers:
                               migration takes     longnose suckers                              coho s'almon.       grayllng, longnose
                               place at mean                                                     sockeye salmon      suckers, broad
                               annual flood                                                      steelbead.          whitef ish'. burbot,,
                                                                                                                     sheefish., humpback
                                                                                                                     whitefish, Northern
                                                                                                                     pike, Dolly VarderV
                                                                                                                     Arctic Char,, upstream
                                                                                                                     migrant salmon
                                                                                                                     fry and firgerlings
                                                                                                                     when migration not at
                                                                                                                     man annual flood

            30                   1.0                  3.7                  6.8                     9.9                  2.0
            110                  1.0                  3.1                  5.8                     8.5                  1.8
            50                   1.0                  2.6                  5.0                     7.5                  1.7
            60                   0.9                  2.3                  4.6                     6.6                  1.6
            70                   0.8                  2.1                  4.2                     6.o                  1.4.
            8o                   0.8                  1.9                  3.9                     5.5                  1.3
            90                   0.7                  1.7                  3.7                     5.1                  1.2
            100                  0.7                  1.6                  3.4                     4.8                  1.2
            150                  0.5                  1.5                  2.8                     '3-7                 1.2
            200                  0.5                  1.5                  2.4                     3.1                  1.2
            >200                 0.5                  1.5                  2.4                     3.0                  1.2
                                                                                                                                  .feet/second

            Source: Alaska Boards of Fisheries and Game and Alaska Department of Fish and Game
                      Proposed Regulations Governing Fish and Game Habitat Protection

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                                                                                                     78

                                            FRATION !,,IATER

                 Crude oil as it comes from the ground.is generally composed of natural

                 gas, petroleum, and water. The water, called formation or produced

                 water, is contaminated with hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and hydrogen

                 sulfide. Before crude oil is deli-vered to a refinery, the water must be

                 separated from the oil and gas. Once separated, it is treated with heat

                 or chemicals and discharged back into marine waters, sometimes in the

                 same location for several years. Formation waters may also be reinjected

                 into disposal wells or pumped back into the production well to maintain

                 pressure. Discharged formation waters can retain up to 50 ppm of oil as

                 small droplets and up to 35 ppm of dissolved hydrocarbons.

                 Format-ion waters are highly toxic and their disposal into the marine

                 environment can be detrimental, especially if they are discharged into

                 shallow nearshore waters or waters which exhibit a very sluggish circulation

                 regime. Deeper waters, as well as larger bodies of water, tend to

                 dilute formation waters. In shallow depths where dilution by seawater

                 may not occur, benthic (bottom dwelling) organisms living near the point

                 of discharge may be totally destroyed. Fish and free swimming organisms

                 do not seem to be greatly affected by the discharge of formation waters

                 because of their ability to move through and out of cont  aminated areas.

                 However, ammonia, a constituent of formation water, is known to produce

                 gill enlargement (hyperplasia) in fingerling chinook (king) salmon; and

                 mercury, a heavy metal found in formation waters, has been shown to
                 concentrate in fish in excess of 10,000 times the amount present in

                 surrounding water.

                                                                                                  79

                 Studies have also shown that formation waters are anoxic (depleted of

                 oxygen) and may have higher temperatures and/or lower salinity values

                 than receiving waters. Waters depleted of oxygen may kill animals

                 directly, although the usual effect is impairment of health or, if they

                 are mobile,.abandonment of an area.

                                                                                                  80

                                     Recommended Mitigative Measures

                General Measures

                     1.    Wherever possible, formation waters should be reinjected back

                           into offshore or onshore subsurface strata in a manner that

                           will not pollute surface or subsurface waters.

                      2.   Formation waters containing significant amounts (as determined

                           by Environmental Protection Agency or Department of Environmental

                           Conservation marine discharge standards) of heavy metals,

                           hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, or other toxic chemicals

                           should not be discharged into the marine environment.

                      3.   To insure that all potentially adverse impacts are mitigated,

                           the following information is needed before siting a facility

                           that will discharge formation waters:

                           a.   A study should be conducted on the body of water into

                                which the formation waters will be discharged in order to

                                determine the rate of flushing; the volume of the water

                                basin; the pattern of water movement; and the suspended

                                sediment load by season;

                           b.   The type of facility that will be discharging formation

                                water, the rate, volume, and composition of formation

                                water that will be discharged; and

                                                                                                    81

                           C.  The degree to which formation waters will have to be

                               treated before being discharged so that they do not alter

                               or reduce the carrying capacity of the coastal environment.

                           In order to implement these guidelines, site specific studies

                           will have to be conducted and mitigating measures adopted on a

                           case by case basis. In many instances, the chemical composition

                           and quantity of formation water will need to be monitored

                           prior to setting effluent limitations. In instances where

                           information is not available regarding the effects of  formation

                           waters on the various stages of animal life history, more

                           research will have to be done to determihe those impacts.

                     4.    Do not discharge formation waters into any freshwater lake or

                           stream.

                     5.    Facilities should not be located in vital habitats such as

                           wetlands, tideflats or estuaries. These highly productive

                           areas are important for the production and harvest of waterfowl,

                           crabs, clams, herring, salmon, and a variety of other fish

                           species.

                     6.    Facilities releasing formation waters should be  sited in areas

                           with good circulation and strong currents, where the discharged

                           effluent will be rapidly diluted and dispersed. Formation

                           water discharge into shallow waters with weak circulation will

                           cause the greatest environmental damage and is discouraged.

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                                                                                                       82

                                    COOLING WATERS AND WATER WIT[MMWAL

                 Large quant ities.of'water are required during petroleum development for

                 cooling and other  fndustrial purposes and for domestic use. Cooling
                 waters are_used-to@reduce waste heat produced by treatment facilities,

                 oil refineries, petrochemical plants, LNG (Ii-quified   natural gas) plants,

                 and power  plants. Other  industri.al uses.of water include drilling,

                 construction, and maintenance of snow   and ice roads or other roads,

                 hydrostatic testing, and waterflooding (the injection of water into     a

                 geologic formation to.increase   pressure at the well site). Domestic

                 water requirements depend upon   the number of people using the waterand

                 the-amount of water available. Water requirements-are met by drawing

                 water from nearby lakes,  streams, springs, estuaries, lagoons, bays, or

                 the ocean; by collecting   groundwater runoff; or by melting snow and ice.

                 The aquatic  life-in waters  used for cooling is threatened by passage

                 through plant  cooling systems Centrainment), by entrapment on the protective

                 screens of water-intake  structures  (impingement), by the discharge of

                 heated water  into the aquatic environment (thermal pollution), and by

                 the addition  of chemicals to the cooling waters (chemical pollution).

                 These impacts can be especially severe if facilities using cooling

                 waters are located in the estuarine   spawning and nursery areas of fish

                 and shellfish.

                 Most of theimpacts on aquatic Tife    by other water withdrawal*activities

                 are similar to those.produced by withdrawal of coolingwaters (ie.

                 entrainment, impingement, thermal pollution, and chemical pollution).

                 However, in Arctic climates the most severe impact of water withdrawal

                 is the depletion of winter water reserves in freshwater lakes and streams.

                                                                                                         83

                                           -Recommended Mitigative Measures

                 Cooling Waters    General Measures

                      1.    Closed,cycle cooling  systems should be used instead of open

                          .:cycle (once throu h)  cooling.systems wherever possible.
                                              9

                            Closed cycle cooling  systems cause fewer environmental problems

                            than open cooling systems.

                      2..   Before.siting  facilities which will use either closed cycle or

                            open cycle cooling systems, site specific studies'should be

                            conducted to  determine the location of vital habitats in the

                            vicinity.   Site specific oceanographic studies and bioassays

                           .should be conducted to.determine the natural systems ability

                            to absorb heat without biological damage.

                      3.    Before choosing   asite for a facility that will require a

                            cooling.system,  a.sound and comprehensive water management

                            program should  be developed to study: the supply of ground

                            water, aquifer  replenishme nt sources, the potential for contamination

                            and depletion of waters,.and the possibilities for reclaiming

                            wastewater and  minimizing unnecessary water.withdrawals.

                      4.    Cooling water  channels should@not be dredged through wetlands

                            nor should natural creeks be used as.cooling water conduits.

                      5.    Screens on intake  structures should not exceed 1 millimeter

                            (0.04 inches).mesh  size and intake velocities at-the screens

                            shoul,d-not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec).

                                                                                                         84

                      6.    Outfalls should be located in areas of rapid dilution and at

                            an.adequate distance from the intake sothat water is not

                            recirculated in the system.

                      7.    The use of'-toxic chemicals to remove encrusted sealife in

                            cooling systems  should be avoided to prevent toxic impacts on

                            recieving Waters., Mechanical cleaning methods br heat treatment

                            should,be used instead.

                      8.    Freshwater,la  kes., streams, or wetlands should not be considered

                            as a water  source for cooling waters, or sites for thermal

                            discharges.,

                 Closed Cycle   Cooling  Systems

                      1.    The use  of  closed cycle cooling systems (such as cooling

                            towers or spray  ponds) is preferred over open cycle systems

                            because they c ause less environmental damage.

                      2.    Only closed cycle  cooling systems should be used in estuaries

                            and other areas  that are vital to the coastal'ecosystem or

                            which.have a   high biological productivity. With this type of
                            cooling, water  is'' recirculated rather than being continuously

                            withdrawn from  or discharged into aquatic environments thereby

                            reducing the volume  of water  needed..

                                                                                                         85

                      3.    To minimize entrai.nment of organisms, intake   velocities

                            should not exceed 7.5 cni/sec (0.25 ft/sec),at the surface of

                            the.intake screens and screen'mesh size should not exceed 1

                            mi'll.imeter (0.04 i,nches).*.

                      4.    Toxic chemicals  (such as chlorine)   added to cool.ing waters to

                            reduce corro .sion in.cooling.towers  and growth of fouling

                            organisms in  condense'r systems, should be collected and treated

                            before beipgreleased to the environment. The chemicals can

                            be reduced by  treatment such as chrome reduction or precipitation

                            using ferrous  sulfate in a reducing pit. These hazardous

                            wastes shou.ld be disposed of in a landfill site designated for

                            hazardous wastes.,

                      5.    Normally,*adverse  effects of vaporplumes and salt     fallout
                            from closed cycle  systems are significant only in the immediate

                            vicinity of the plant and.may be alleviated by locating plants

                            appropriately with respect,to climate and geography.. Plants

                            should not be located'near important wildlife wintering areas

                            and early spring use.areas where additional snowfall could

                            impact wildlife populations.

                      6.    Among various  types.of  closed cycle cooling systems, spray

                            canals appear  to cause  less environmental damage than evaporative

                            cooling towers,  and should be used wherever possible.

                                                                                                          86

                 Open Cycle Cooling    Systems

                       1.   Facilities that use open cycle cooling systems.should not be

                            placed in critical habitats nor in coastal areas such as
                            *wetlands, tideflats, and estuaries where waters for cooling

                            would be withdrawn from or discharged into.sens.itive habitats.

                       2. @Facilities   .using open cycle  cool-ing systems,may be located

                            along the open coastline provided that the fol.lowing criteria

                            Are used as  guidelines during site selection:

                            a.    Facilities  should not  be located near estuaries (e.g.,

                                  inlets, bays). where water is transported in    and out by

                                  tidal action.

                            b.    Facilities should not be sited in or near vital or cri-tical

                                  habitats found  along the open coastline.

                            C.    Intake and  outlet structures should be located offshore

                                  where discharges, will be,di-luted and.cooled more rapidly,

                                  and waters,are not withdrawn from productive nearshore

                                  habitats.

                            d.    Intake and  outlet structures should,not be placed in

                                  areas of  high biological  productivity.

                                                                                                      87

                           e.   Cooling water,intake and discharge points should be

                                separated as widely as possible, taking advantage of

                              ...water-layering or other natural features to prevent

                                recirculation.of discharge water and the impingement of

                                discharge- weakened fish on intake screens.

                           f.   Cooling waters should be withdrawn.from.depths where.

                                water temperatureAs low enough that when discharged near

                                the surface, the temperature of the surface water will

                                not be greatly increased.

                           g.   The temperature  differential between  waste cooling water

                                the ambient water temperature  should  not exceed 1'C

                      3.   Open cycle cooling  systems should be designed to limit the

                           discharge of chemicals into  the coastal ecosystem, provide for

                           minimal disruption  of natural water flow,,and place intake and

                           outlet structures  for minimal effect on aquatic organisms.

                           The following criteria should be used in the design of intake

                           structures:

                           a.   Systems should be  designed to keep the velocity of inflow

                                below a maximum.of 7.5 cm/sec (.0.25-ft/sec) at al-l points

                                ahead of the intake screens and screen   size should not

                                exceed 1 millimeter (0.04.inches).

                                                                                                    88

                           b.   No successful.device  has yet been developed to divert

                                fish larvae and eggs  from the intakes of facilities using

                                open,cycle cooling systems. Much of the reported-progress

                                in this field is exaggerated.and deceptive. (Minimal

                                success has been made in diverting fish through fish by-

                                pass systems).

                           c.,  All containing structures.ahead of  the intake screens

                                such as forewalls, channels, bays,  and recesses should be

                                eliminated.

                           d.   Intake structures should.be.located at depth and in

                                locations of the absolute minimum concentration of biota.

                      4.   Monitoring,programs should be  set up.following plant construction

                           to monitorsystem performance   and the adequacy of mitigating

                           measures. Suggested monitoring programs include: (1) frazil

                           ice formation on the intake structure and outfall line; (2)

                           impingement of.organisms and ice on the intake screens; (3)

                           entrainment of organisms in the intake system; (4) biofouling

                           of the,intake structure;  (5) sea-ice level in relation to the

                           intake structure; (6) intake velocities; and (7) the physical

                           cond.ition of fish in marine life return systems, and their

                           fate and behavior after leaving the outfal.1 (e.g.. predation

                           and,disorientation)..

                                                                                                            89

                       5.   Biocides should not be used t   o remove fouling organisms    or

                            should be re  moved from cooling water before discharge.      Systems

                            should be designed to use mechanical methods to remove        fouling

                            organisms.

                  Water Withdrawal for Purposes other than Coolin2.

                  Primary problems associated with withdrawal of fresh water for domestic,

                  or industrial use are (1) entrainment and impingementof fish (both

                  summer and winter) and (2) dewatering of stream channels and fish overwintering

                  areas., Entrainment, impingement, and alteration of.circulation patterns

                  are the major problems associated with large withdrawals of marine

                  waters.

                  Activities requiring water for other than cooling should.be sited and

                  operated according to the following criteria:

                  1.   Large quantities   of freshwater for domestic or industrial uses

                       should not be withdrawn from any body of freshwater supporting.

                       fish.

                  2.   No freshwater should be withdrawn from any body of water supporting

                       overwintering fish.

                  3.   When very  limited amounts of water are required, use of.several

                       different  water sources-during the'winter will lessen impacts on

                       any one source.

                                                                                                             90

                  4.   When  large  amounts of water@are   required, storage facilities should

                       be constructed to hold water collected during the summer for winter

                       use.   Abandoned gravel sites can    be converted for water storage.

                  5.   Watershould not be     removed   from streams  or lakes in excess of

                       recharge rates.    To  do@ so causes collapse   of the ice cover and

                       stream blockage.

                  6.   Water impoundment    structures  should not be   built over permafrost.

                       Mel.ting of the  underlying.permafrost layer     can result causing

                       settlement and   changes  in drainage patterns.

                  7.   Waterwells    shou,ld be carefully  sited so that they    do not deplete

                       surface aquifers and dewater lakes and streams..

                  8.   Wherever  possible, water   consumption   should.be  reduced by water

                       recycling.    Examples  include:   recycling water   from mud pits during

                       drilling, and recycl.-ing.domestic water for industrial uses.

                 .9.   When withdrawing water from marine areas, intakes should be designed

                       to prevent entrainment of marine organisms or alteration of circulation

                       patterns.

                       a.    Intake structures should be located at depth and in locations

                             of absolute minimum concentration of biota.

                       b.    -Intake velocities  should not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25      ft/sec)

                             at all po.ints ahead of the intake screens. Intake screen size

                             should not exceed .1 millimeter (0.04 inches).

                                                                                                   91

                     C.   All'containing structures ahead of the intake screens such as

                          forewalls, channels, bays, and recesses should be eliminated.

                     d..  In-take structures should be designed so as to not funnel

                          organisms into the intake (i.e. siting an intake at the end a
                          long solid fill breakwater, jetty or causeway that extends'

                          into or across a  fish migration route).

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                                                                                                  92

                     INTERFERENCE WITH SUBSISTENCE COMERCIAL., AND SPORT HARMSTS

                The intense level of support activity required for offshore drilling.

                could have significant effects on harvest activities in the northern

                Bering Sea-Norton Sound-region. The mere physical presence of equipment

                used during offshore oil exploration and production will create conflicts

                between the oil industry and traditional subsistence, commercial, or

                sport harvest groups. Fishing and marine mammal harvest areas may be

                lost if numerous offshore structures take up space in those areas.

                Increases in boat traffic will create navigational and docking problems.

                Fishing gear may be lost through entanglement with seismic vessels, oil

                tankers, drilling rigs.and tugs. Offshore pipelines will present a

                problem if regulations do not require that they be buried beneath the

                sea floor. Land based facilities may prevent access to traditional

                harvest areas'. Noise and disturbance associated with various operations

                will influence harvest success in surrounding areas, and competition may

                arise between indigenous harvest groups and development associated

                personnel over limited fish and wildlife resources.

                Conflicts will also arise if spawning, nursery, or rearing areas  of

                harvested species or critical habitats of their food species are.used

                for the laying of pipelines, are contaminated by acute or chronic oil

                pollution,. or are otherwise adversely impacted by the activities of oil

                and gas development.

                                                                                                     93

                                      Recommended Mitigative Measures

                 Mitigating measures in previous sections of this report have been proposed

                 in an attempt to minimize development impacts.on fish andwildlife

                 populations and their  habitat. It is assumed that impacts which affect

                 species of subsistence, commercial, or sport value will also affect-

                 harvest levels. The following recommendations address impacts as they
                 directly'relate to current harvest,patterns and practices.

                 Noise and Disturbance

                 Measures.to minimize,the effects of  noise and disturbancehave been

                 discussed previously in  the Noise and Disturbance section of this report,

                 and are applicable toward minimizing harvest interference with the

                 following additions:

                      1.   Activities which  produce turbid'water conditions in important
                           fishing  and mari*ne mammal harvest areas should@either be

                           scheduled during,periods when they will not affect harvest

                           practices,,or  should be designed so as to minimize the amount

                           of suspended material present in the water column. Such

                           activities would include dredging and fi,lling,.shoreline

                           alteration, gravel island construction, discharge.of drilling

                           muds and cuttings, etc.

                      2.   The random or.erratic operation of machinery, aircraft, boats

                           or ATV's should be discouraged in harvest areas.

                                                                                                  94

                     3.   Exploratory drilling on lease tracts that are located on

                          traditional fishing grounds should be scheduled during periods

                          When fishing does not occur.

                Competition for Resources

                     1.   The Board of Fish and Game should anticipate potential-harvest

                          conflicts and should-implement special game and.fi.sheries

                          management procedures or regulations which will serve to

                          reduce competition between new workers and indigenous user

                          groups.

                     2.   In important.subsistence areas the leasee should voluntarily

                         ,limit theoff-duty hunting, fishing, and trapping activities

                          of. its employees on leased lands.

                     3.   Whe n lease.activities must be conducted in or near important

                          harvest areas, the developer should arrange for community

                          involvement in processes such as the siting.of facilities, or

                          the timing of activities, in order to minimize the adverse

                          impacts of.such operations on traditional hunting and fishing

                          practices in the area.

                Competition for Space

                     I    Leasees should not restrict public access to, or use of,

                          leased public lands except in the immediate vicinity of development

                                                                                                         95

                            operations. Exceptions may be provided for in areas of extreme

                            bio:logical sensitivity.

                       2.   Leasees should be sensitive to local industries and tradi-

                            tional  vocations and should plan their activities to avoid

                            i.mpacting:them.  An example  would be to insure that industry

                            boats do not  mono pol.ize,fish.processing plant docks or staging

                            areas.

                       3.   The local coastal   resource service area   can identify separate

                            and distinct areas.  for different kinds of economic activity

                            through its coastal   management plan. Where there is competi-

                            tion for a particular coastal    site, the only solution may be a

                            trade-off between.conflicting    parties. For example, an oil

                            company might be convinced to    locate a staging area away from

                            an important harvest area in exchange for an.offer of less

                            expensive land.or a zoning.change.

                       4.   During  the site  selection process for.onshore and offshore

                            facilities,, leasees should'avoid traditional harvest areas or

                            sites-which  might  block access to tradit.ional,harvest areas.

                 Physical  Destruction or   Restriction  of Fis hing Gear

                  Vessel Traffic

                       1.   All* development related marine vessel traffic including ice

                            breakers should be.required to travel point to point in a

                                                                                                            96

                             linear fashion,.avoiding areas of marine     harvest during periods

                             when such.harvests might.occur. This would allow fishermen

                             and,hunters.to  predict where they might safely place their

                             gear, or pursue marine.mammal.s without disturbance.

                       2.    Because high-petroleum finds coupled with other forms of

                             economic development   (such as coal or offshore gold recovery

                             operations)   maymake  non-corridor vessel traffic extremely

                             hazardous,   permanent or recommended shipping,corridors should

                             be established based   upon.the following considerations:

                             a.   Maximum-safety of all    vessels  utilizing.limited navigational

                                  channels. Because of     shal1low waters and restrictiveice

                                  conditions, deep draft    vessels  may be forced.to conform

                                  to relatively narrow natural corridors whi,ch, without

                                  regulation,   will enhance the   chances.of collision.

                             b.   Minimum  interference with tradi.tional.commerci.al or

                                  subsistence   harvest areas.

                             c.   To  provide  an adequate buffer zone   between vital habitat

                                  areas  and vessel  traffic.

                             d@.  Maximum public. input..

                       3.    Shipping,corridors should:

                                                                                                        97

                            a.   Be clearly designated on marine charts.

                            b.,  Have adequate navigational aids such as buoys, beacons,

                                 and VTS  (Vessel Traffic Safety) radar.

                            c'.. Have a reasonable speed limit established.

                            d.   Be  regulated,,patrolled and  enforced by the U.S. Coast

                                 Guard.

                            All  oil tankersi  LNG tankers, and other large vessels opera-

                            ting in  an area must  be required to use licensed pilots

                            familiar with local  conditions  and navigationa.1 problems in

                            .ice infested waters.

                       5.   A reporting@and.communications   system should.be established

                            for tankers  and other  large vessels util.izi,ng the corridor

                            system.

                       6.@  Permits  issued to seismic  boats operating in near coastal

                            areas should stipulate:

                            a.   Daylight  operation  only-

                            b.   No operations.within or adjacent to areas of concentrated.

                                 commercial or subsistence fishing gear. Operations in

                                                                                                           98

                                  these areas should only be scheduled during closed

                                  fishing periods.

                            C.,   If seismic  surveys are  absolutely unavoidable during

                                  periods when commercia.1 king crab fishing occurs, cable

                                  length for seismic streamers should.not exceed 1/4 mile

                                  in order to-allow for adequate control in avoiding

                                  obstacles such as  fishing gear.

                            d-    Ship captains:should report to,the Alaska Department of

                                  Fish and Game,, Area.Management Biologist., for consultation

                                  on fishing gear  concentrations prior to operating.

                       7.   Commercial, subsistence or sport.fishing ve�se.1s.should not

                            anchor,  fish pots  or,trawl in zones designated as shipping

                            corridors.

                       8.   The  Ports and  Waterways Act of 1972 should be amended to

                            designate  mandatory  shipping,corridors.

                  Pipelines

                            To the  greatest  extent possible, pipelines should be routed

                            around  active bottom  fishing or trawling areas.

                                                                                                          99

                       2.   Where the placement of pipelines in these areas cannot be

                            avoided the following techniques should be utilized:

                            a.    Trenching    trenching should be used   to bury pipelines
                                  beyond.the  point where they might entangle crab pots'and

                                  anchors., be struck by  trawl doors, or be ruptured by

                                  gouging  ice keels.

                            b. @Pipeline    route marking    unburied pipelines should be

                                  marked  on navigation charts to discourage anchoring or

                                  trawling  in those areas.

                 Oil--Pollution    Avoidance  and Tainting
                  Speci-fic measures to,minimiz'e the  impacts of.oil pollution may be found

                  in the Oil Pollution  section  of this report.

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                                                                                                  100

                                          SECONDARY Taffl-M

                If commercially explo-itable quantities of oil or gas are found in an

                area, a variety of support facilities are required in order to begin

                development and production. Inevitably, with the establishment of

                onshore petroleum facilities an additional amount of secondary devel-opment

                will also be needed. Secondary development has two. major components:

                indirect development, as typified by those industrial projects which

                serve and support the primary projects, often through sub-contracts; and

                induced development,-the construction or expansion of community facilities
                and services (such as housing, utilities, transportation, schools,

                recreation and commercial facilities) to serve the added population

                which is attracted by employment opportunities in direct, indirect, and

                induced development.

                Environmental disturbances  from secondary development are primarily

                caused by construction a ctivities and an increase in numbers of people.

                The construction of houses, buildings, roads and utility corridors will

                result in a direct loss of fish and wildlife habitat. Animals which

                connot tolerate disturbance will leave an area.permanently and, if no

                equiva,lent habitat is available, their numbers may be reduced.

                The construction of utility corridors may requir e extensive cutting and

                clearing pratices which may act to remove essential vegetational   habitat

                or ground cover. Such practices can result in soil erosion or degradation,

                water quality degradation, air quality degradation if open burning is

                prescribed, and elevated noise levels. Additionally, utility corridors

                                                                                                   101

                can provide access to non-native species resulting in increased levels

                of predation, competition, or incidence of disease and parasites.

                The impacts of road construction include all of the considerations

                listed for utility corridors as well' as some additional consequences.

                Roads can increase traf fic and human presence in areas not previously

                subject to such intrusions,.which in turn could promote harassment,

                injury,.or death as animals  venture near or across such road systems.

                Roads may also im pede.an,imal movements and can result in.the.parcelling

                of -a species habitat.

                                                                                                  102

                                       Recommended Mitigative Measures

                The adverse impacts ofsecondary development on fish, wildlife and

                habitat are a.combination of disturban ces that, for the most part, have

                been-discussed previously i-n other sections of this report. Through

                compliance with the mitigating measures already identified.in those.

                sections, many of the  impacts associated with secondary development may

                be substantially minimi.zed, or in some-cases, completely eliminated.

                Additional mitigatory  measures which:have.not.been addressed include:

                General Measures

                     1.    Site specific environmental studies should be conducted in any

                           marine or terrestrial area likely to be impacted by secondary

                           development operations.  These studies should include comprehensive

                           species inventories, food and habitat requirement surveys, and

                           site specific mitigations.

                     2.    Avoid siting and construct ing road systems and.facilities

                           which parcel or separate a species critical habitat range.

                     3.    During winter, roads should be plowed so that snow barriers

                           are not left alongside which might serve to impede animal

                           movements.

                     4.    Salt shou Id not be used on roads during winter in order to

                           minimize wildlife attraction.

                                                                                                                   103

                         5.    Off-road   traffic.should be-restricted as much       as possible to

                               minimize   damage to surrounding vegetation and       to avoid undue'

                               harassment of animals Tiving adjacent to the         road system.

                         6.    During summer   months   (June through September) or during periods

                               when  snowcover    is inadequate to protect underlying vegetation,

                               only  low  surface  pressure   vehicles shouldbe allowed off of

                               established   roads.or   prepared  foundations.

                         7.    Public,access   on  roads  or airfields should be restricted where

                               necessary to   prevent increased human presence in critical fish

                               and w.il-dlife areas, and-to maintain current sport and subsistence

                               harvest  levels   in areas mad  e accessible by lease activities or

                               onshore  development. Determinations        of this nature should be

                               made only after    consultation.with the Alaska Department of

                               Fish and.  Game.

                         8.    utility. corridors   'Should  be designed to accomodate     additional

                               Ioads to   limit  further  construction in undisturbed      areas.

                         9.    Utili ty,corridors   should   be consolidated with road      systems as

                               much  as possible   to-minimize habitat disturbance.

                         10.   Power   and telephone    lines should  be  constructed above ground

                               to-facilitate quick     repair  and.to  avoid extensive trenching in

                               permafrost areas., Additionally,       they should be constructed so

                                                                                                           104

                             as to utilize   existing land contours and natural barriers

                             which will aid   in minimizing.bird/powerline collisions..

                       11.   Implementenvi   ronmentaltraining programs to educate personnel

                             as  to-the dangers  of feeding, hand.l.ing or harassing wildlife.

                       12.   Limit   the off-site.and off-duty activities    of workers to

                             eliminate.@animal  and  human conflicts in sensitive areas.

                       13.   Implement  spec1al  game and  fisheries management procedures or

                             regulations   which will serve  to reduce competition between new
                             workers  and indigenous  user  groups.

                       14.   Arrange  for.an  exchange of  dialogue between developers and

                             surrounding  communities.    This may be  accomplished by esta-

                             b lishing meetings  or forums on a regularly scheduled basis

                             (bi-monthly/quarterly), in which     representatives from the

                             private and,public   sectormay di:scuss problems and issues, new

                             proposals,  etc.

                       15.   Edibles  should  be adequately stored from their initial arrival

                             to theireventual    disposal  to avoid attracting animals. All
                             edible:ga'rbage  should be  thoroughly incinerated.

                       16. A    solid waste  disposal program should be initiated which      willi
                             a) utilize.material-s,that will not generate a large amount of

                                                                                                      105

                            solid waste i.n.the form of packaging; b) maximize on-site

                            recycling of parts or materials, including specifically pur.@-

                            chasing parts or materials amenable to rebuilding or recycling;
                            and c) schedule.support activities so that all freight carriers

                            return with a-load of.solAd waste.

                      17.   Liquid waste disposal systems should, a) reduce the temperature

                            of effluent discharge to minimize-thermalerosion of subsurface

                            permafrost; b),recycle water in a cascading system if certain

                            processes do not require-high water quality; and c) use a

                            series of interconnected-lagoons so that water for industrial

                            use may be withdrawn from the last holding lagoon.

                      18.   All liquid waste treatment lagoons should be lined and bermed

                            with-an impermiable material that will prevent leaching into

                            the surrounding substrate.

                      19.   Pesticides or defoliants should.not be used for mosquito

                            control or-site maintainence unless it can be demonstrated

                            that such chemicals will  not accumulate in animal tissues,

                            groundwater supplies, or.soil. sediments; and that such tech-

                            niques will not preclude habitat  utilization by other species.

                      20.   Revegetation techniques should proceed immediately following

                            termination@of activity in an area not subject to additional

                            operations.

                                                                                                         106

                       21. All efforts should be made to restore an area to its original

                            state.   This would include restoration of vegetational compo-

                            sition, land contour, waterflow and soil 'characteristics

                       22.  Habitat improvement   techniques shoul-d be implemented concurrent

                            with development operations when i't has been determined what
                            species willbe@displaced, what their habitat requirements"
                            are, and if  it is conc'luded that such practices will be

                            beneficial. Examples of habitat improvement techniques would

                            include the creation of additional denning, nesting, spawning

                            or rearing.sites; planting,additional cover to compensate for

                            that which  is.removed;.seeding additional.vegetation for

                            forage in  outlying areas,  etc.

                       23. 'Whenever,it  is, necessary to destroy important fish and wildlife
                            habitat,  mitigation should   be required.

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