Recommendations for minimizing the impacts of hydrocarbon development on the fish, wildlife, and aquatic plant resources of the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Recommendations for Minimizing the
Impacts of Hydrocarbon Development
on the
fish, Wildlife, and Aquatic Plant
Resources of the Northern Bering Sea
and Norton Sound

Habitat Division
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
1981

Funding for this project was provided by a Section 308d
Coastal Energy Impact Grant from.the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration of the Department of Commerce
through the Coastal Energy Impact Program and administered
r
by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs.

@RECOMMENDATIONS FO R MINIMIZING THE

IMPACTS OF HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENT

ON THE
FISH, WILDLIFE, AND AQUATIC PLANT
RESOURCES OF THE NORTHERN BERING SEA

AND NORTON SOUND

Prepared by:

Suzanne J Starr, CEIP Project Coordinator
Mark N. Kuwada, Habitat Biologist
Lance L. Trasky., M/CHM:Project Leader

Marine/Coastal Habitat Management
I Habitat Division
Alaska Department of Fish.and Game
Anchorage, Alaska 99502

For.,

Alaska Department of Community and.Regional.Affairs
Coastal Energy Impact Program
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce

June 1981

ACKNNLEDGEMENT@

We gratefully acknowledge those staff members who assisted in the
preparation of this publication: Sharon Wilson as pri-ncipal typist;
Vikki Benner, Lee Rogers,.Iris.Frank,, Nell Tsacrios, Joyce Villard, and
Bonnie Herbold-Miller for assisting with the typing and with preparation
of graphics. Special thanks are extended:to Robin Mooring for her
preparation.of the maps accompanying thi-s report and for'providing
assistance beyond hercartographic duties with typing and editing.

We would also like to.thank David Burbank of the.Marine and Coastal
Habitat Management staff for providing administrative assistance.

Appreciation is extended to the staff of the Nome office of the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game to Caleb Pungowiyi of Kawerak Inc., and to
other individuals in the State, Federal, and Private sectors who offered
their knowledge and assistance.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction
Background .......................... :.............................. 1
Location and General Description of the Study Area ............... 9
Physical Description ......................................... 9
Climate ...................................................... 11
Biological Resources and Human Use ............................... 14

Phases and Activities of.Oil. and Gas Development

Phases of Oil and Gas Development ................................ 17
Activities.Associated with Oil and Gas Development .............. 21

Impacts and Recommended Mitigation Measures

Introduction........... .......................................... 39
Site Preparation ................................................. 43
Sources and Biological Effects ............................. 43
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ....... 47
Consideration@'@nd A sumptions ........................ 48
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures ...... 50
General Mitigations ............................... 51
Non-Permafrost Soils - Erosion, Runoff and
Sedimentation ....................... 52
Non-Permafrost Soils - Preserving Natu 1
Water Drainage Systems ......................... 54
Protection of Permafrost ......................... 57
Noise and Disturbance ... ....................................... 63
Sources and Biological Effects .............................. 63
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ............. .................................... 80
Considerations and Assumptions ........................ 81
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigati-ve Measures ...... 82
General Mitigations .............................. 83
Facility Siting .................................. 84
Helicopters and Fixed-wing Aircraft ............... 85
Boats ............................................. 86
Seismi.c Exploration ............................... 87
Human Presence .................................... 90
Drilling Muds and-Cuttings ....................................... 95
Sources and Biological Effects ............................. 95
Drilling Muds .......................................... 95
Drill Cuttings ....................................... 109
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ....................... 124
Considerations and Assumptions ....................... 125
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures ..... 126
Oil Pollution ................ ....................................... 133
Sources-and Biological Effects ............................ 133

Sources ............................................... 133
Fates of Oil in Marine Environments .................. 144
Spreading ........................................ 145
Evaporation ..................................... 145
Solution...
Emulsification .................................. 147
Sedimentation ................................... 147
Chemical Degradation ............................ 148
Microbial Degradation ............................ 148
Oil and Ice Interactions ................................... 149
Spill Transport and Containment ........... ***I'***** ........ 157
Net Circulation ...................................... 157
Spreading ............................................. 158
Wind Transport ....................................... 158
Tidal Transport ...................................... 159
Prediction of Pollution Transport .................... 159
Ice .................................................... 160
Spill Response and Containment ............................ 161
Biological Effects ............... ......................... 168
Marine Mammals ........................................ 170
Birds ................................................. 173
Fish ................................................. 178
Invertebrates .................................... ..... 185
Bivalves ....
Crab and Shrimp ................................... 190
Marine Plants ........................................... 193
Hydrocarbon Tainting of Fisheries
Products... ....... *194
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ................................................. 223
Considerations and Assumptions ....................... 224
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures ..... 226
Prevention of Oil Spills ........................ 228
Production Facilities ............................ 230
Onshore Facilities .............................. 230
Transportation ................................... 232
Pipelines ......................... ........... 232
Tanker Docks and Fueling Faci-lities ........ 234
Tankers .................................... 234
Oil Spill Containment and Cleanup ................ 236
Monitoring ........................................ 242
Dredging and Filling, Gravel Mi.ning, and
Gravel Islands ................... e........................... 247
Sources and Biological Effects ............................ 247
Dredging .............................................. 248
Dredging for Pipeline Laying ......................... 252
Gravel Mining .......................................... 255
Filling.... 261
Dredge Dispo*s*@l'.-. *.'261
,Gravel Pad and Road Construction ..................... 263
Gravel Islands ....................................... 264

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended,Mitigative
Measures ................................................ 277
Considerations and Assumptions ......................... 278
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures ..... 280
Dredging-and Gravel-Mining - General ............ 281
..Dredging for Channels ........................... 284
Dredging for Pipeline Laying ..................... 287
Dredging in Streams.....- .......................... 288
Gravel Min.ing in Marine Areas ..................... 289
Gravel Mining in Upland Areas ...... .............. 290
Gravel Mining in an Annual Floodplai.n.............290
Filling - General .......... 90r,
........... I .......... C-.WJ
Dredge Disposal ....... ............................ 297
Gravel Pad and Road.Construction ................ 298
Gravel Islands .................................... 300
Shoreline Alteration .............................. .............. 305
Sources and Biological Effects ............................. 305
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ............................ .................... 317
Considerations and Assumptions ........................ 318
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures ..... 321
General Mitigations ............... * ............... 322
Bulkheads .......... ............................. 323
Riprap and Other Revetments ...................... 326
Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties .......... ...... 327
Piers and Docks ................................. 329
Bridges and Causeways ............................ 330
Small Boat Harbors .............................. 331
Pipelines ........ -* ... 332
CoastaT Roads ........................... .... ... 333
Formation Waters... .......................... 339
Sources and .......................... 339
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended-Mitigative
Measures ............... ....... 355
Considerations and A umptions ................. ...... 356
Sensitivity Designations. and Mitigatime Measures ..... 357
Cooling Waters and Water Withdrawal ......... I..., .................. 365
Sources and Biological Effects .............................. 365
Cooling Waters ....................................... 365
Water Withdrawal ........................................ 372
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures .................... ............................. 388
Considerations and-Assumptions .... ................... 389-
Sensitivity Designations and Mftigative
Measures ............................................. 391
Cooling Waters - General .......................... 393
Closed Cycle-Cooling Systems .................... 394
Open Cycle Cooling Systems.......@..' ................. 396
Water Withdrawal for Purposes other
than Cooling .................................. 399

Interference with Subsistence, Commercial, or
Sport Harvests ................................................ 405
Sources and Biological Effects ............................ 405
Current Harvest Practices ............................ 405
Harvest Interference .................................. 408
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures .................................................. 413
Considerations and Assumptions ....................... 413
Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative
Measures, .414
Noise
Competition for Resources ......................... 415
Competition for Space ............................ 416
Physical Destruction or Restriction
of Fishing Gear ................................ 417
Vessel Traffic ...... ........................ 417
Pipelines... .419
Oil Pollutio@*"@'v'ol'd*a*n@@**a*n@*"***'*****'
Tainting ..................................... 420
Secondary Development .................. .......................... 423
Sources and Biological Effects ............................. 423
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ................................................ 432
Air Pollution .................................................. 437
Sources and Biological Effects ............................ 437
Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative
Measures ................................................. 441

References
References for Impact an "d Mitigation Sections .................. 443
References for Inventory Maps ................................... 483
Personal Communications for Impact Sections and
Inventory Maps ................................................. 497

Appendix

A - Species Lists and Timing Charts ............................ 501
B - Glossary .................................................... 515

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Offshore and Onshore Activities Associated with
Phases of Oil and Gas Development .......................... 20

Table 2. Disturbances Caused By Activities Associated with
Oil and Gas Development .................................... 37

Table 3. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Site Preparation ................................ 61

Table 4. Effects-of Noise and Disturbance on Birds and
Mammals ....................................................... 72

Table 5., Months When Northern Bering.Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Noise and Disturbance .......................... 93

Table 6. Common Drilling Fluid Components .......................... 100

Table 7. Summary of Published Drilling Fluid..Component
Toxic ities ................................................... 104
Table 8. Effects of Drilling Muds and Cuttings on Fish,
Wildlife, Aquatic Plants and Their Habitats ............... Ill

Table 9. Histopathological Examination of Selected Fish
Surviving 96-hour Exposure to Drilling Fluids ............. 122

Table 10. Relationships of the Type of Drilling Fluid and
Well Depth to the Acute Toxicity of Selected
Marine Organisms .......................................... 123

Table 11. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats, or Harvest Acti.vities are Most
Sensitive to Drilling Muds and Cuttings .................... 131

Table 12. Budget of Petroleum Hydrocarbons Introduced Into
the Oceans .................................................. 134

Table 13. 1973 Alaskan Marine Oil. Spi.lls > 1,000 GaTlons ............ 135

Table 14. 1974 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills > 1,000 Gallons ............ 136

Table 15. 1975 Alaskan Marine Oil Spi:lls > 1,000 Gallons ............ 137

Table 16. 1976 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills > 1,000 Gallons ............. 138

Table 17. 1977 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills > 1,000 Gallons ............ 1139

Table 18. Number of Alaska Marine Oil Spills > 1,000
Gallons By Material Spilled 1973-10-7 ..................... 140

Table 19. Number of Alaskan Marine Oil Spills > 1,000 Gallons,
By Cause 1973-1977 ......................................... 141

Table 20. Number of Alaskan Marine OU Spills > 1,000 Gallons,
By Source of Spill 1973-1977 ............................... 142

Table 21. Effects of Oil Pollution on Fish, Wildlife,
Aquatic Plants and Their Habi-tat.s .......................... 198

Table 22. Sensitivities of 38 Marine Species to-Cook.
Inlet Crude Oil .............................................. 221

Table 23. 96-hr. TLM's for Alaskan Marine Species
Sensitive to Cook Inlet Crude Oil and No. 2
Fuel Oil ......... .......................................... 222

Table 24. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats,.or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Oil Pollution ................................. 244

Table 25. Summary of Gravel Requirements for Various
Petroleum Facilities in Arctic and.Sub-
Arctic Regions .............................................. 256

Table 26. Artificial Island Specifications and Fill
Requirements ................................................ 266

Table 27. Effects of Dredging and Filling, Gravel Mining
and Gravel Islands on Fish, Wildlife, Aquatic Plants
and Their Habitats ............................................ 268

Table 28., Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats, or Harvest.Activities are Most
Sensitive to Dredging and Filling, Gravel Mining
and Gravel Islands ......................................... 303

Table 29. Effects of Shoreline Alterations on Fish, Wildlife,
Aquatic Plants and Their Habitats ............ - ............. 311

Table 30. Maximum Water Velocities Through Different
Culvert Lengths Which Can Be Successfully
Negotiated By Several Al.aska Fish Species ................... 334

Table 31. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats, or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Shoreline Alteration ........................... 337

Table 32. Range of Constituents in Produced Formation
Water - Offshore California ................................ 340

Table.33. Range of Constituents in Produced Formation
Wa ter - Offshore Texas ..................................... 341

Table 34. Averages of Constituents in Produced Formation
Water Gulf of Mexico ...................................... 342

vii

Table 35. Typical Characteristics of Effluent from
Water Treatment Facilities- ............................... 343

Table 36. Effects of Formation Waters and Formation
Water Components on Fish, Wildlife., Aquatic
Plants and Their Habitats .................................. 349

Table 37. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Species, Habitats, or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Formation Waters .............................. 363

Table 38. Effects.of Cooling Wat ers and Water
Withdrawals on Fish, Wildlife, Aquatic
Plants and Their Habitats .................................. 375

Table 39. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton'Sound
Species,@Habitats, or Harvest Activities are Most
Sensitive to Cooling Waters and Water Withdrawals .......... 403

Table 40. Months When Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Harvest Activities are Most Sensitive to Harvest
Interference ............................................... 421

Table 41. Timing of Fish Life History Stages Occurring
in the Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Region as Discussed on Map 4 ............ .................... 485

Table 42. Timing of Bird Life History Stages Occurring
in the Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Region as Discussed on Map 5 ............................... 488

Table 43.- Timing of mammal Life History Stages Occurring
in the Northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound
Region as Discussed on Maps 6 and 7 ......................... 492

Table 44. Timing of Subsistence, Commercial, and Sport
Harvests Occurring in the Northern Bering Sea
and Norton Sound Region as Discussed on Map 8 ............... 495

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Northern Bering Sea -. Norton Sound Study Area ............ 8

Figure 2. Drillship Used in Exploratory Drilling ................... 23

Figure 3. Jack-Up'Drilling Rig ...................................... 24

Figure 4. Semi-Submersible,Drilling Rig ............................ 24

Figure 5. Mono-Pod Drilling Rig, Typical of Those
Used in Cook Inlet, Alaska ................................ 25

Figure 6. Pipeline Laying Barge ................. ................... 26

Figure 7. Typical Service Base Configuration ........................ 28

Figure 8. The Trading Bay Treatment Plant-
Cook Inlet, Alaska ......................................... 30

Figure 9. The Valdez.Storage and Distribution
Terminal - Valdez, Alaska ................................ 32

Figure 10. Chevron Refinery near Kenai, Alaska ...................... 33

Figure 11. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Plant
at Nikiski, near Kenai, Alaska ............... ............ 35

Figure 12. Timing of Facilities and Activities in an OCS
Lease Area ............... j .................................. 36

Figure 13. Norton Sound Population, 1979-2000
Base Case ............................................... 427
Figure 14. Norton Sound Population Impacts ........................... 428

Figure 15. Norton Sound EmploymentImpacts ......................... 429

INTRODUCTION

Background

In September of 1982 a Federal outer continental shelf oil and gas lease

sale is scheduled for the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region. A

State lease sale previously scheduled for late - 1981 is currently being
*coordinat6d to occur simultaneously with the Federal sale, with a second

State sale subsequenfly planned for 1983. Because of the magnitude of

these sales and the fact that fish and wildlife resources in the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region are of considerable economic and social

importance to the State of Alaska; the Department of Fish and Game has

conducted an analysis of potential effects arising from oil and gas

related activities and their impacts on fish and wildlife resources. It

has been shown that, in addition to oil pollution, fish and wildlife

r6sources can be impacted by drilling muds and cuttings; noise and

disturbance; dredging and filling, gravel mining, and gravel islands;

shoreline alteration; formation waters; cooling waters and water withdrawal;

secondary development; harvest interference; and air pollution.

It is also apparent that the current level of knowledge regarding abundance

and distribution of fish and wildlife resources in areas where such

impacts are likely to occur is not sufficiently detailed to be used

effectively as a means of protecting these resources. The Alaska Department

of Fish and Game has concluded that if a major oil field were discovered,

development might occur so rapidly and-on such a large scale, that the

Department would not have sufficient time or resources to deal with all

of the activities through the normal project by project permit review

process. The only effective means of mitigating potential impacts

appears to be to anticipate potential problems.and provide industry

planners and resource managers with comprehensive information on project

design and siting criteria before extensive planning or any significant

amount of construction occurs. The early availability of this type of

information should, moreover, greatly simplify and expedite the process

of siting and designing facilities while minimizing the impacts on fis h

and wildlife resources.

In requesting a section 308(d) Coastal Energy Impact Grant from the

Department of Community and Regional Affairs, the Department of Fish and

Game chose Norton Sound and the northern Bering Sea as a region warranting

study for a variety of reasons. First, there are no immediate insurmountable

hazards associated with drilling in this region. Unlike other offshore

areas such as the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, or Navarin and St. George

basins, problems associated with shifting multi-year,pack ice, or excessively

deep water depths are expected to be minimized. Second, this region

supports an abundant number and diverse,array of species. Areas such as

the Yukon Delta, the Bering Strait, St. Lawrence Island and the wetlands

encircling the perimeter of Norton Sound are critically important toward

maintaining the continued viability of an immense number of animals.

Third, subsistence values are extremely high in this region. Historic

and present day subsistence utilization patterns attest to the fact that

the majority of people in this region are socially and economically

dependen t on recurrent harvests of fish and wildlife resources. Beyond

being just a source of food, these resources provide the basis for an

entire lifestyle which revolves around the seasonal appearance of harvestable

species. Finally, very little infra-structure is available with which

to absorb the full developmental impacts of a moderate to high find oil

and gas discovery. Components of secondary development such as deep

water port facilities, treatment plants, roads, and transmission corridors,

all have the potential to disrupt fish and wildlife populations or

harvest activities, either during their initial construction or in their

eventual operation.

The object of the Department's Coastal Energy Impact-Study is to 1)

develop a comprehensive inventory of fish, wildlife,, and aquatic plant

res ources in the coastal and offshore marine waters of the'northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, 2) assess and quantify the effects of

major activities associated with oil and gas development on fish and

wildlife populations, and 3) develop guidelines and.recommendations for

preventing, reducing, or ameliorating fish, wildlife, aquatic plant, and

habitat losses due to hydrocarbon exploration, development and production.

In this respect, the Department's northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound

Coastal Energy Impact study is specifically designed to accomplish two
goals:* 1) minimize the impacts of offshore energy development and

related onshore activities on subsistence, commercial and recreational

fish and wildlife resources, and 2.) expedite the processing of permits

for activities associated with oil and gas development in order to allow

development to proceed at the most.rapid pace and lowest economic cost

commensurate with 1).

By providing industry planners with information on critical or sensitive

fish and wildlife habitats, and the most effective means of mitigating

impacts early in the exploration phase, subsequent activities may be

planned and facilities located in order to avoid conflicts with renewable

resources, which could result in extended permitting or legal delays.

Simultaneously, renewable resource managers and permitting agencies will

be provided with accurate information on 1) the abundance and distribution

of important fish and wildlife resources; 2) the impacts of various

activities; and 3) the most effective means of mitigating impacts of

activities associated with oil and gas development. This information

should enable the permitter to expeditiously determine the effects of an

activity on fish and wildlife resources, thereby allowing him to provide

effective protection to these resources while minimizing the required

.time to issue a permit.

This study was conducted in three phases: 1) all of the available

information on fish and wildlife abundance, distribution, and life

history was collected and depicted graphically on maps and, where necessary,

supplemented with a narrative description; 2) the effects of the major

activities-associated with oil. and gas development on fish and wildlife

resources were identified and assessed through extensive literature

research; and 3) mitigatory measures were developed to protect important

fish and wildlife populations from the adverse effects of oil and gas

related activities. The Department's Coastal Energy Impact Project fs

presented in three parts: 1) a narrative impact report; 2) resource

inventory maps of fish, wildlife, and aquatic plants in Norton Sound and

the northern Bering Sea; and 3) impact maps showing the relative sensitivity

of fish and wildlife habitats to 0 il and gas disturbances. These three

parts are described in more detail below:

1. The narrative impact report includes: 1) a description of the

study area; 2) a description of the five phases of oil and gas

development; 3) a description of oil and gas activities leading

to environmental disturbances; 4) a discussion of the sources

and biological effects of disturbances caused by oil and gas

activities; 5) the sensitivities of areas in the northern

Beri" Sea-Norton Sound region to disturbances; and 6) recommendations

for mitigating the adverse developmental impacts on fish,

wildlife, and aquatic plant resources.

2. Eight resource inventory maps accompany this report. Map 1

shows ice conditions during winter periods. Map 2 identifies

winds, ocean currents, and coastal marine and terrestrial

habitats. Maps 3 through 7 depict the known concentrations of

benthic invertebrates, anadromous and marine fish, marine and

terrestrial mammals, and birds. Map 8 shows major subsistence,

commercial and recreational harvest areas. The inventory maps

represent a synthesis of data from Alaska Department of Fish

and Game fi,eld biologists, regional Native associations, the

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program

(OCSEAP), U.S. Fish and Wildlife studies, the Alaska Department

of Fish and Game Fisheries Atlas, Wildlife and Habitat books,

annual reports, and other resource publications. These maps

were not intended to show general distribution, but rather to

depict where concentrations of fish and wildlife resources are

found in the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region. Population

and harvest estimates were included when this information was

available. Each map was reviewed by those biologists and

.other resource specialists who had originally provided the

information depicted.

3. The nine impact maps depict the relative biological sensitivities

of fish and wildlife habitats in the northern Bering Sea-

Norton Sound in relation to the following oil and gas disturbances:

site preparation; noise and distur bance; drilling muds and

cuttings; oil pollution; dredging and filling, gravel mining,

and gravel islands; shoreline alteration; formation waters;

cooling waters, and water withdrawal; interference with subsistence,

commercial, and sport harvests. Sensitivity designations were

applied by project biologists after reviewing species concentrations

and determining their vulnerability to the above stated impacts.

These designations may be subject to revision should new data

warrant such action.

In all,cases, an.attempt was made to provide the information in a form

that was readily available and understandable to all potential user

groups. Graphics were used whenever possible to clarify complex ideas

and to reduce the size of the report.

This report is based on the best information and data currently available

concerning distribution of fish and wildlife resources in the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, the impacts of oil and gas development

on fish and wildlife resources, and the mitigative measures appropriate

for reducing the biological impacts of oil and gas development. Although

considerable effort was expended in order to produce the most comprehensive

report possible, the scope of this report was limited by:

1. Time - The time allotted for this project was*15 1-2 months.

2. Scale - The size of the study area required information to be

depicted at a scale of 1:500,000 on reduced U.S.G.S. topographic

maps.

3. Available Information - Decisions made in all phases of the

project were based on an existing data base. The Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, to the best of its knowledge and

within the time allowed, has reviewed the available research

data relating to the various phases of the project. A review

of the literature and other available information reveals that

many data gaps exist and that additional research is needed to

provide a more adequate data base on which to make decisions.

The Department recommends that site specific field research be

conducted in areas designated for specific petroleum facility

sites or activities.

Northern Bering SeamNorton Sound
Study Area

SEWARD PENINSULA

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ALASKA

BERING SEA

SCALE 1 51000,000 (Approx.)
100 so 0 50 100 MILES

..........
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STUOY AREA

Figure 1

Location and General Description of the Study Area

Physical Description

The northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region is situated in northwestern

Alaska and includes those areas bordered on the east by longitude 160'W,

in the west by longitude 1740W, in the north by latitude 660N, and in

the south by latitude 63'N. For the purposes of this study, terrestrial

boundaries have been delineated to include all watersheds which drain

into Norton Sound proper. The coast of Norton Sound from Cape Prince of

Wales southward consists mainly of narrow beaches with the terrain

rising steeply immediately behind (Selkregg, 1976). The shoreline is

generally smooth with only a few prominent bays such as Port Clarence,

Golovnin Bay, Norton Bay and Pastol Bay; and isolated headlands such as

Capes Denbigh and Darby. Flat coastal lowlands may be found intermittently

scattered throughout this region, occurring at.such locations as south

of Cape Denbigh, along the entire east coast of Norton Bay, the coastline

from Cape Nome to Solomon, and the entire Yukon prodelta. Sand and

gravel spits are common, and act as protective ba.rriers for shallow

lagoons which lie adjacent to the coastline. Several isolated islands

ring the perimeter of Norton Sound; these include Sledge Island, Besboro

Island, Egg Island, and Stuart Island. Major drainage basins in Norton

Sound include the Kuzitrin, Niukluk, Koyuk and Unalakleet rivers. The

Yukon River which lies at the southwestern edge of Norton Sound is the

single most influential source of sediment and freshwater in this region.

Norton Sound is enclosed to the north and northeast by the Seward Peninsula,

and to the south and southeast by the Yukon-Kuskokwim Coastal Lowlands.

The extensive uplands of the Seward Peninsula consist of broad, convex

hills and flat divides that are 152 to 610 meters (500 to 2,000 feet)

high. These uplands are indented by sharp, V-shaped valleys, isolated

groups of rugged, glaciated mountains 52 to 96 ki.lometers (20 to 60

miles) long 16 kilometers (10 miles) wide with summits 762 to 1,433

meters (2,500 to 4,700 feet) high, and coastal lowlands and interior

basins.

Major mountain ranges on the Seward Peninsula include the Kigluaik,

Bendeleben, and Darby mountains. Lakes fill several large, shallow

volcan ic craters in the northern part of the peninsula and several

depressions between lava flows in the central upland. There are no

glaciers on the Peninsula, and it is underlain by continuous to discontinous

permafrost (Selkregg, 1976).

Along the southern and eastern portions of Norton Sound lies the Yukon-

Kuskokwim Coastal Lowland Section. This is a marshy plain with low

hills of basalt in the vicinity of St. Michael, while the lowland area

around Shaktoolik is a lake-dotted coastal plain with an isolated range,

the Denbigh Hills, at its western end (Selkregg,.1976). Most of the

Yukon Delta is comprised of coastal tundra, with land and water roughly

evenly divided. There are no trees over most of the Delta. Willows and

alders are the only large woody plants, which become more scarce, and

virtually disappear toward the coast, giving way to diminutive alpine

willows, sedges and other tundra vegetation (Gusey, 1979).

The marine area of the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region is characterized

by the Bering - Chukchi Platform, a smooth submarine plain 30 to 150

meters (100 to 500 feet) deep, dissected by old stream valleys cut

during the Pleistoce ne era when the sea level was lower. Several islands,

St. Lawrence, Big and Little Diomede, King, Sledge, and the Punuk Islands

rise abruptly from the pl-ain. Most of the islands are rolling uplands
up to 305 meters (l,'000 feet) high bordered by steep, rocky, wave-cut

cliffs. St. Lawrence Island, the largest, is about 161 kilometers (300

miles) long and 32 kilometers (20 miles) wide. It is chiefly a lake-

dotted bedrock plain of ancient volcanic origin less than 30.5 meters

(100 feet) high. Isolated mountain groups, bordered by old sea cliffs,

rise to altitudes of 305 to 457 meters (1,000 to 1,500 feet) (Selkregg,

1976).

Shallow water conditions characterize most of the study area. The
deepest portion, in the northwest corner, is just over 49 me,ters (160
feet) and a channel 46 meters (150 feet) deep lies just off the eastern

edge of St. Lawrence Island (Hanley et al., 1980). A deltaic fan created

by the Yukon River forms a large shoal generally less than 15 meters (50

feet) deep in the southwest portion of Norton Sound. The Sound itself

has an average depth of 18 meters (60 feet) (Cacchione and Drake, 1978),

and is relatively uniform except for an anomolous channel located just

offshore from the city of Nome (Hanley et al., 1980).

Climate

The northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region is an area of extreme seasonal

variability (Muench, 1980). The climate is mostly trasitional except

for the extreme eastern corner of Norton Sound, which is continental,

and some coastal areas which are maritime (Selkregg, 1976).

Winter usually extends from November through May, during which time

temperatures average from -15 to -12'C (5 to 10'F). Marine ice formation

typically commences in November in shallow bays and lagoons along the

northern shore of Norton Sound, with first ice occurring in Norton Bay.

By mid to late December the entire study area including the northern

Bering Sea is essentially covered with broken first-year ice or, in

nearshore regions, stable shorefast ice. Winds prevail from the north

and northeast during winter months, providing the mechanism by which,

large amounts of ice are transported to southern portions of the Bering

Sea. Wind velocities exceeding 112 k.p.h. (70 m.p.h.) have been recorded

during all months from October through March (USCP, 1979). Annual

snowfall may range from 127 to 178 centimeters (50 to 70 inches) a year.

Summer generally persists from June through early September. Storms

moving through this region during these months can cause extended periods

of cloudiness and rain. The nearly continuous cloud cover during July

and August results in an average of 45 cloudy, 12 partly cloudy, and

only 5 clear days for the 2-month period (USCP, 1979). Precipitation

ranges from 38 to 51 centimeters (15 to 20) inches a year.

During late summer and fall, storms are frequent and usually arise from

the southwest. Whenever a particularly intense storm crosses or approaches

a coastline, some portion of the shore will experience an increase in

sea level and another will experience a decrease. Storm surges, the

term used to decribe such occurrences, are the difference between observed

sea level and the sea level that normally would have occurred without a

storm (Brower et al., 1977). In 1974, a storm surge in Norton Sound

resulted in extensive damage to some coastal communities, including Nome

and Unalakleet. Total rise of water was estimated at 7.6 meters (25

feet) where the normal tidal range is 1.2 meters (4 feet). Storms of

this magnitude are thought to occur once every thirty years (Wise and

Searby, 1977).

Biological Resources and Human Use

The northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region is clearly of major importance

for a variety of animal species, particularly marine mammals and birds.

During the transition periods of spring and fall an immenise number of

marine mammals funnel through the relatively narrow confines of the

Bering Strait, en route to summering areas in the Chukchi Sea and Arctic

Ocean to the north, or wintering areas in the central and southern

Bering Sea to the south. The exact size of these populations remains

largely unknown, however it has been estimated that there are approximately

200,000 to 250,.000 walrus, 200,000 to 250,000 spotted seals, 1,000,000

to 5,500,000 ringed seals, 300,000 bearded seals, 9,500 belukha whales,

1,700 to 2,900 bowhead whales and 16,500 to 19,000 gray whales present

in western and northern Alaska waters. A large majority of these animals

either migrate through, reproduce, overwinter, or feed in the Norton

Basin annually.

Twenty-four seabird colonies scattered throughout this region support an

estimated 4.3 million birds. The seabird populations on St. Lawrence

and Little Diomede Island account for an estimated 2.7 and 1.2 million

birds respectively. These aggregations are the largest and third largest

in the Bering Sea. Large percentages of some seabird species nest

whol.ly within the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region. For example,

colonies located on St. Lawrence Island support 62% of the crested

auklet population in the eastern Bering Sea; and least auklets breeding

on St. Lawrence and Little Diomede Island encompass 79% of this species'

eastern Bering Sea population.

Because of its geographic location, Norton Sound is heavily used by

waterfowl, shorebirds, and passerines migrating between southern wintering

grounds and northern breeding grounds in the Alaskan and Siberian arctic.

The entire Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta stretching south from Norton Sound is

recognized as one of the most productive waterfowl habitats in the

world; it is estimated that there are 3 million waterfowl and over 100

million shorebirds present during summer months. More than half of the

continental population of black brant nest in this area, as do 80% of

the world's population of emperor geese.

The Yukon River Delta is also very important in terms of number of fish

produced. The Delta is a major migratory route for two to five million

spawning salmon each year, and is a principal rearing area for outmigrating

juvenile salmon. in addition, the Delta provides important habitat for

sheefish, ciscos, and other whitefi.sh, all of which are major subsistence

fishery items for local residents of this region.

The northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region supports a rapidly developing

commercial herring and king crab fishery, as well as a nearshore set net

fishery for salmon. These fisheries harvest an average of 2,250,000

pounds of king crab, 1,173 metric tons of herring, and 900,000 salmon

annually. Although these fisheries comprise only a small percentage of

the total State harvest of these species, they are of significant importance

to the local economy. Dollar value estimates for 1979 Norton Sound

commercial fisheries products were $2,721,805 for king crab, $777,608

for herring and herring roe-on-kelp, $876,547 for salmon caught in

Norton Sound proper, and $7,619,500 for all salmon harvested from the

Yukon River system.

There are roughly 18,000 Native residents in this area; the majority of

the inhabitants reside.in more than 26 small villages scattered along

the coast and the major river systems. Nearly all of these people rely

on subsistence harvests of fish and game resources for a substantial

portion of their livelihood. Because of the availability of a variety

of animal species such as whales, walrus, seals, salmon, marine fish,

shellfish, terrestrial mammals, seabirds and waterfowl, this region

probably supports the largest and most diverse subsistence harvest in

the State.

11
[email protected] & ACTIVITIES OF
161L & GAS DEVELOPMENT

PHASES AM ACTIVITIES OF OIL AND W DEVELOFTIENT

Phases of Oil and Gas Development

The development of petroleum resources can be separated into five

phases including 1) pre-exploration, 2) exploration, 3) development,

4) production and transportation, and 5) shutdown. In order to predict

specific environmental impacts from oil and gas development, it is

necessary to understand what kinds of activities are occurring within

each of the five phases (see Table 1).

1. Pre-Exploration

The search for offshore oil and gas begins with an analysis of the

geologic characteristics of an area. Geophysical surveys are used

to identify and locate geological formations that may contain oil

and/or gas. If such formations are found,.Continental Offshore

Stratigraphic Test-(COST) wells are drilled to gather additional

information. Unless extensive oil and gas resources are found, no

permanent onshore facilities are needed to support this phase.

2. Exploration

During the exploration phase, exploratory wells are drilled to

determine whether commercial quantities of oil and/or gas are

present.at a given site. If no commercial discovery is made the

oil industry abandons the lease. If sufficient quantities of oil

and gas are discovered, additional wells are drilled to determine

the size and extent of the area. Production platforms are ordered

and a method for transporting the crude oil is selected. Exploratory

activities are supported by temporary service bases located onshore.

3. Development

The development phase is the period of greatest onshore and offshore

activity. Onshore, a variety of facilities such as permanent

service bases, terminals, pipelines, storage.yards and port facilities

are built to support the construction of offshore platforms and the

production of oil and gas once they start flowing from the production

platforms. Offshore, production platforms or gravel islands are

installed and development wells are drilled. Submarine pipelines

are laid to transport oil and gas from offshore platforms to onshore

treatment facilities and storage terminals.

4. Production and Transportation

Production begins as soon as an offshore well is ready to produce,

the transportation system is completed, and onshore facilities to

store oil are constructed. All facilities built during the development

phase become operational. Additional processing facilities such as

refineries, petrochemical plants, and liquified natural gas plants

may also be built. Gas pipelines are constructed during this

phase.

5. Shutdown

When oil and gas reserves in an offshore production field are

exhausted, most facilities will be shutdown, dismantled, or converted

to another use. Offshore facilities such as production platforms

will be dismantled. The United States Geological Survey normally

requires that casings and pilings be cut 15 feet below the sea

floor and removed. The well site area is dragged to remove any

.obstructions. Pipelines are usually left in place because of the

cost involved to remove them. The connection between the pipeline

and the production platform is capped and sealed. Onshore facilities

are either closed or converted to another use.

TABLE

OFFSHORE AND ONSHORE ACTIVITIES
ASSOCIATED WITH PHASES OF OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT PHASES
PRE-EXPLORATION EXPLORATION DEVELOPMENT, PRODUCTION AND SHUTDOWN
TRANSPORTATION

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING

EXPLORATORY DRILLING x x
PRODUCTION DRILLING AND x x
PLATFORM INSTALLATION
PIPELINES' x x

cl) SERVICE BASES x x x

PLATFORM FABRICATION
> YARDS x x
0 TREATMENT FACILITIES x x

OIL TERMINALS
(MARINE TERMINALS) x x
................................... ......
. ............. ..... ......
..........
......... ........... .... ............ ....... .........
. ........ ........ . ......
.................................... ...... .. .... * ...........
. ..................
.............. .. .... ..........
................ ............. .......
... I I ..... . ........ .....
....... .......... ........ ..................
..................
..................

.................. .. ....
.................
................ ... .........
. .........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-:-0-0-:-:-*-:-:-:-:-*-*-""""*'*"- . . . . . . .
... . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS x
PLANTS
thli"e. "unliW thliWeSJWCIIIVwwlllftbuiVAtheimthog&rlniWa-%Wn jWd F40n. M

Activities Associated with Oil and Gas Development

Oil and gas development involves both offshore and onshore activities

which may potentially disturb and may adversely impact fish and wildlife

resources in the coastal environment (see Table 2). Offshore development

includes 1) geophysical surveying, 2) exploratory drilling, 3) production

drilling and platform installation and 4) laying submarine pipelines.

Onshore development mainly involves the construction of 1) service

bases, 2) platform fabrication yards, 3) treatment facilities, 4) oil or

marine terminals,,5) oil refineries, 6) petrochemical plants, and 7)

liquified natural gas plants. The following is a description of each of

the activities which may result in potential damage to fish, wildlife

and aquatic plants of the coastal region.

1. Geophysical Surveying

The initial step in searching for petroleum deposits is to analyze

the geologic characteristics of a potential development region.

Seismic and other types of geophysical surveys are used to identify

and locate geological formations such as reservoirs or statigraphic

traps that may contain oil and/or gas. This data is used by the

oil industry to determine which submerged lands appear potentially

promising for the development and production of petroleum. Continental

Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) wells are often drilled as a

result of these preliminary surveys. Core samples taken from these

wells identify rock layers and their structure, and the composition

of rock material that may be present, which helps to confirm the

possibility of petroleum accumulations in that area.

2. Exploratory Drilling

Exploratory drilling is the major activity associat ed with the

exploration phase of offshore petroleum development. Exploratory

well s are drilled based on data obtained from geophysical surveying.

If commercial quantities of oil or gas are discovered, additional

wells will be drilled to determine the size of the field and the

quantity of hydrocarbons present. Temporary service bases are

needed to support offshore exploratory operations.

3. Production.Drilling and Platform Installation

If oil is discovered in commercial quantities, platforms are installed

or artificial islands are constructed from which production wells

are drilled. The number and placement of production wells depends

on the extent of the field, rock porosity, viscosity of the oil,

field pressures, and other factors. Thirty or more wells may be
drilled from. a typical platform or island. These production
platforms are stationary and remain in place for the life of the

field (20 to 30 years).

4. Submarine Pipelines

Pipelines transport oil and natural gas from offshore production

platforms to onshore processing, storage and loading facilities

except when such products are stored on the platform and transferred

directly to tankers for shipment. Offshore loading of oil directly

Figure 2. Drillship used in exploratory drilling.

Figure 3. Jack-up drilling rig. Figure 4'. Semi-submersible.drilling rig.

77@

- ---------

Figure 5. Monb-pod drilling rig

ar
r --
CL

-.ar- Fiw-

:ac-

MIA
At
air.-IV
Ago" --P
W-1- 4m;;

lot

.k.4. -am

_.dW
rw
VZO

Figure 6:. Pipeline laying barge. Pipelines are constructed onboard
and laid simultaneously.

into tankers is generally used in fields of limited production.

Natural gas is almost always transported to shore by pipeline.

Between the offshore field and the coast, pipelines are buried

beneath.the ocean floor.or are laid directly on the bottom. As

they come ashore (landfall) they are buried underground and proceed

toward onshore treatment and storage facilities.

5. Service Bases

Onshore service bases provide the necessary services and supplies

for offshore petroleum operations. They are usually the first

onshore facilities constructed. Crew members and materials required

to operate the rigs and offshore platforms are transported from

service bases to offshore operations by supply boats, crew boats,

or helicopters.

Temporary service bases estabiished during the exploratory phase of

petroleum development are used to transfer materials (le.g., pipes,

drilling muds, fuel, food, solid wastes, and crew.members) between

land and the offshore drilling rigs. Supply boats,. crew boats, and

helicopters opera te out of these bases; therefore, they must provide

harbor services for berthing and supplying boats, dock space for

loading and unloading supplies, warehouse and open storage space, a

helipad, and quarters for supervisory and communications personnel.

Existing facilities are used if available, otherwise new structures

must be built.

N)
00

Figure T.
S
ervice bases are typically
the first'onshore facilities
constructed.

If commerical quantities of oil and gas are found in the exploratory

phase, temporary service bases are expanded to accommodate the

increased offshore and onshore activities generated during the

development and production phases. Permanent service bases provide

the same services and support as temporary service bases only on an

expanded scale.

6. Platform Fabrication Yards

The platforms used to drill for and produce offshore oil and gas
are built in platform fabri cation yards. Two major types of

platforms are used, steel or concrete. Large waterfront sites with

deep drydock basins are needed for the construction of concrete

platforms; however no facilities of this type currently exist in

Alaska. Steel platforms would have to be constructed outside

Alaska and transported to the drilling site. Drilling rigs of the

type used onshore or on artificial islands have been constructed in

Alaska.

7. Treatment Facilities

Treatment facilities separate natural gas and formation water from

crude oil. These facilities can be located offshore on the production

pl atform or onshore as a separate facility, in combination with a

marine terminal (facilities associated with waterborne shipments of

crude oil), or a gas processing plant . Generally, the process of

separating the oil from water begins offshore and is completed

onshore.

*,MOON,

Figure 8. The Trading Bay treatment plant on
the west side of Cook Inlet..

8. Oil Terminals,(Mari.ne Terminals)

Oil terminals are used to store crude oil from offshore production

platforms and then load it aboard tankers for delivery to refineries

and outside markets. Oil terminals may be located either onsh ore

or offshore, although onshore oil terminals are more commonly
chosen. Submarine pipelines deliver the oil to the onshore te-rminal

site. If the oil has already been separated from its impurities,

it goes directly into storage tanks. If not, the oil undergoes

separation treatment at an onshore treatment facility. The processed

oil is then stored in tanks for eventual shipment by tankers.

Onshore oil terminals are gen erally located along the waterfront
although the storage facilities could be built inland.

9. Oil Refineries

Refineries convert crude oil into various petroleum products including

gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene, asphalt, and propane. Crude oil is

brought to the refinery by pipeline and/or tanker and is temporarily

stored in tanks. In Alaska the oil is then distilled, refined, and

,blended into a few final products which are stored for later
shipment. Refine"ries do not need to be located along the coast,

but if they are, a pipeline would be needed to connect the refinery

to a sheltered harbor where both crude oil and refined products

would be transported by ship to market areas. Refineries are

highly visible components of the entire production of petroleum and

may elicit public controversy regarding their location.

law

z its
77

Figure 9. The Valdez Terminal in Valdez, Alaska serves as a
storage and distribution center for oil transported
from Prudhoe Bay via the Trans-Alaska Pipeline.

.49

Figure 10. Chevron refin ery near Kenai, Alaska.

10. Petrochemical Plants

To produce petrochemicals which are final products themselves

(toluene, benzene, ethylene) or which may be used to make other

products, petrochemical plants use feedstocks derived from various

oil refinery products and from natural gas liquids. In Alaska
petrochemical plants are not usually an essential part of the-

development of petroleum. It is usually more economical to ship

crude oil-and liquid natural gas in bulk to market areas than to

transport a number of petrochemical.products. If petrochemical

plants are built in Alaska they will be located onshore near refineries

or marketing areas.

11. Liquified Natural Gas Plants

Liquified natural gas (LNG) plants receive natural gas via pipelines

from offshore gas fields, cool and compress it, and transfer it to

cryogenic tankers for transport to regasification plants located

near the market. Liquifying natural gas and transporting it by

tanker is a convenient way to move gas over distances too great for

pipelines. The only LNG plant in the United States is located at
Nikiski, near Ken"ai, Alaska. This plant produces LNG which is

transported to Japan by cryogenic tankers. LNG plants are usually

located on large tracts of land away from populated areas because

LNG spills create a serious hazard from fire and explosion. LNG

plants are often built.along the-waterfront where marine facilities

and sources of cooling water are available.

ppt-

Ink

O's

Figure 11. Liquified Natural Gas (LN G) plant at Nikiski,
near Kenai, Alaska.

Timing of Facilities and Activities
in an OCS Lease Area

initial
Peak Depiction Shuldown
Sale Production Accelernet of. Field

EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT MM=
I
PRODUCTI N
I all
6*60 1 6:6 too: 11L'f4t4!111l11
I
I
66604404. too$# 6.061
10 1. IN a: I a
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SERVICE BASES

FABRICATION YARDS;
. . -a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 4 a a
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . I I I I . . . . . . . . . .
PLATFORMS a.. lassos .............. ..
.44, !;.1 as. 64 . ..... ...... 16.44 .. .... fill
'r"s I a r--rrrr, --rrrr-,, -r,-rr- ... fail$$ #*#1# 1,66.1 4.4004 46#860. it .. :
.rrrr7T V - I I I : : : : : I I : 41 1 1 1 . . . a . 1 6 @ I 1 4 a a I I 'a a 111 AL
rrrr a b a I a I
TREATMENT 6 46 0 1 $ 4 . . :NN: 44-- 4is$"
FiCILITIES ........
Trrrrr Mr. -.. 7 Tr,, . I. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 77 ..... as -. a . . . . . . .44 ol
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...... .... ...... ...... .......
a.ft... - f a I
PIPELINES Is I all JULALL" 11111" @ of ....
-1.7 M
Irrrrrr Irr, 1 1. , -r
Trmff Trr"r rff "Trr"! ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cunstructlun IL T.E MINALS fg a I I 10 .I
..... ...... .. r
T..M.,,,r.r off arm, .. T= ......... . -.T-
... 11 . .......... 4 .. ..... .... as .. : :-:., 0: IN
LNG PLANTS ... . . ... ... .. ...... @:. as. to I 11, 1 1 J.LJ." a 1, 111 ...... @ 1, 1 1 A4"" "A"L- - I a- L, I I I I I I I
600 ......... ..... ...
Ope(aling a.: $6. too as .0604.
MIR ial is
5E AAAJJ.W LAAA4.U UA-L"
.. ..... .. .... . ::::::
rrrrm REFINERIES 4AAA" -""I' AAAAA.W LLILILL"' AAA4".LJAJ-W` A
TT7rrr. rr-.re-r- ;U;;;l;;;;;; ii iii 64; 11
PETROCHEWC L ..... ... to
PL S
A
yew 0 2 4 6 b 10 12 14 16 18 .20 22 24 26 28, *30 32 34 36 36 40 47 44 46 48
$%;urcst ADCRA, 1911
A E IN
ITI I ..
ES ..
It4 rt ff

A ..... .....
N T

Source: ADCRA, 1977

TABLE 2
DISTURBANCES CAUSED BY ACTIVITIES
ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVITIES

......... .
0 ...........
0 A, 0-

. ......... .
4Q- 0
c!)
4:) Co
0j .... . . ....
04- 4L 0j
A,
.
10 A, C, 41@
.... ......... ....
4" 4@ 40
ci 0
Oq1 A%
4L
40 A
4Q- A ..............

.. ....... .........
...... .........

SITE PREPARATION
x x x x x x x x
..............

.......... ....
.... ...............
:::,::
NOISE AND DISTURBANCE
... ... .. ....
x x x x x x x x
.... . .. ..........
..........
...... ........
.......... .......
............
.......... .........
.......... I .........
.......... .........
..........
DRIL,LING MUDS AND CUTTING$ ...................
.......... ....
....................
.......... ..........
......... ...... ...
......... .........
.......... ...... .
OIL POLLUTION
x X x x x x
.. .. .........
co
. ..........
III DREDGING AND FILLING, GRAVEL
MINING, AND GRAVEL ISLANDS x x x x x x x
...... ......
z ....... . . . . . .........
.... .........
.... . .. ........
SHORELINE ALTERATION x x x x x x
cc
n
... . ........
FORMATION WATERS
....... ...

.. .. ........
COOLING WATERS AND WATER
... ... ... ...
WITHDRAWAL x x x x x x

INTERFERENCE WITH SUBSISTENCE,
COMMERCIAL AND SPORT HARVEST -x x x x x x x x
...... .. .....

AIR POLLUTION
x x x x

.. . .........
SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT x x X]
At this time.' It Is unlikely that the'se facilities will be built In the northern Bering Sea-Norto n Sound Region.

.-,11
i
I M P KC. TS & MITIGATIONS
l*@ @' , *

I TACTS AND RECO11EVE) MITICATION TASURES

Introduction

This section addresses the following disturbances caused by oil and gas

development: site preparation, noise and disturbance, drilling muds and

cuttings; oil pollution; dredging and filling, gravel mining, and

gravel island construction; shoreline alteration; formation waters;

cooling waters and water withdrawal; interference with subsistence,

commercial, or sport harvests; secondary development; and air pollution.

The discussion of each disturbance is divided into two parts: 1) Sources
and Biological.Effects; and 2) Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended
Mitigative Measures.

1. Sources and Biological Effects - The information presented in

this section was obtained during the course of an extensive

literature review concerning the sources of oil and gas related

disturbances and the effects that these disturbances have on

fish, wildlife, and aquatic plants. It was found that a

considerable amount of information is available on the impacts

of oil pollution; however, additional research is needed for

the other onshore and offshore impacts of oil and gas development.

Impact tables have been included in order to provide a brief

summary and quick means of reference for the various types of-

disturbances identified, the species affected, the types of

studies conducted, the researchers or authors involved, and

the effects observed. Impact tables have not been provided

for site preparation, air pollution, secondary development or

harvest interference due to the generalized nature of these

disturbances.

2. Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures - the

biological sensitivity of various areas in the northern Bering

Sea-Norton Sound region was determined after synthesizing both

the information on biological resource concentrations, and the

impacts of disturbances on fish, wildlife, and aquatic plant

species. Sensitivity designations were made using the available

information. In many cases, the data available were insufficient

to determine either the extent of a biological resource or the

effects of a disturbance within reasonable statistical limits.

As new information becomes available area designations for

resources-may be altered, however, it is felt that the important

habitats have been identified.

Areas were ranked as having a low, moderate, or high sensitivity

to the impacts of a particular oil.and ga.s disturbance based

on their value as productive fish and wildlife habitat. In

order to insure the maintenance of existing populations of

fish, wildlife, and aquatic plant resources in the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, some areas should be excluded

from specific types of oil and gas development. Highly productive

or unique areas that should remain unchanged in order to

maintain existing fish and wildlife populations were included

in high sensitivity areas. Moderate sensitivity areas were

those areas which supported valuable fish and wildlife resources

but where environmental impacts from oil and gas development

could be prevented or reduced if develop ment took place according

to specific environmental guidelines. Areas were designated

as having a low sen sitivity if the existing data base did not

indicate the presence of significant populations of fish and
wildlife (such as hear existing townsites), or where existing

regulations are adequate to protect biological resources.

It is also possible that future studies may reveal portions of

designated low sensitivity areas to be more important than

currently thought, although large charges are not anticipated.

Mitigating measures are provided in order to minimize the

adverse impacts of disturbances from oil and gas development

on fish, wildlife, and aquatic plants in the northern Bering

Sea-Norton-Sound region.

I
I
s
I I
T
I E
I p
I R
E
I p
A
I R
A
I T
I
1 0
N
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

SITE PREPARATION

Sources and Biological Effects

During oil and gas development, the preparation of sites for the construction

of facilities, roads, utility right-of-ways, and pipeline corridors can

adversely impact the fish and wildlife of Norton Sound and the northern

Bering Sea by altering.or destroying their habitats. In addition to

destroying habitat,.site preparation can lead to other environmental

problems such as alteration of natural drainage systems, sedimentation,

permafrost degradation, and pollution of water from stormwater runoff

and erosion.

Because existing facilities (construction docks, tanker terminals, and

onshore support bases) do not exist in the Norton Sound-northern Bering

Sea region, new facilities will have to be constructed. Extensive site

alteration involving clearing, grading, filling, and gravel pad construction

will be required pr ior to construction of these facilities, or for

access roads, pipelines, and utility corridors.

As a result of site preparation processes, habitats of local fish and

wildlife populations are often altered or destroyed. Species of wildlife

that are sensitive to disturbance will abandon the area (Longley et al.,

1978). If site preparation only alters a small part of a species habitat

and if the surrounding area.is not at peak carrying capacity, the displaced

species may successfully relocate nearby'. However, if the disturbed

area is large in relation to the total available habitat, or if a

species has specific habitat requirements and the area altered provided

the only suitable habitat, the species may be eliminated from the area.

It is also possible that site preparation could create new habitat which

will be colonized by different species from the surrounding area (NERBC,

1976). Impacts of site preparation will be most severe in Norton Sound

and the northern Bering Sea if habitats which are important to fish and

wildlife production are destroyed. Critical habitats in Norton Sound

and the northern Bering Sea include: streams and rivers which provide

habitat for fish spawning, rearing, and overwintering; wetlands which

are vital components of the ecosystem and provide valuable habitat for

fish, waterfowl, shorebirds, moose, and brown bear; Futus beds which are

important habitat for herring spawning; and rocky islands and seacliffs

which are valuable to nesting seabird colonies.

Other adverse environmental effects, besides habitat destruction, may

result from the preparation of onshore facility sites. As areas are

cleared for construction, natural ground vegetation is removed and soils

are exposed to the erosional processes of wind and water. During storms,

runoff containing eroded soils is carried into coastal streams and

marine waters, degrading water quality and interfering with normal

biological processes. When sediments are added to the water it becomes

cloudy, blocking light penetration'and inhibiting the growth of algae

and other aquatic plants. These aquatic organisms are vital components

of the ecosystem and supply the basic.nourishment for the entire chain

of life. Suspended sediments affect juvenile fish by causing inflamation

of gill membranes, and can clog the feeding mechanism of filter feeding

animals such as clams, mussels, and sponges. In addition to sedimen .ts, 45

runoff from construction sites often contains contaminants, including

metals from welding, riveting and paint spills; oil and chemicals;

bacteria; and other undesirable matter, all o f which may pollute coastal

waters. Freshwater storm ru noff flowing into nearshore waters changes

the salinity and increases the stress on coastal marine resources (Shanks,

1978).

Another impact caused by site preparation is the alteration of the water
and drainage systems by filling in or draining of coastal wetlands (tiogs

and marshes),.by degrading the underlying permafrost, and by diverting

or destroying natural drainage channels and watercourses. Altered

drainage patterns can lead to vegetative changes that may in turn change

the composition of fish and wildlife species using the area (NPRA Task

Force, 1978).

In arctic and subarctic regions, permafrost degradation is a major

concer n during site preparat ion. When insulating vegetation and peat

cover are removed or compressed by construction equipment, additional

thawing of the active layer (that portion of the perm afrost-that thaws

in the summer and freezes during the Winter) can occur. This may lead

to long term slope instability, permanent modification of surface drainage

patterns, erosion, lasting scars on the tundra mat, and vegetation

changes. However, insulation of permafrost by the use of gravel pads

for roadways and work or building pads can also affect drainage patterns

and cause deterioration of nearby permafrost areas. Permafrost can grow

upward or aggrade under thick pads blocking drainage. Impoundment of

water on the upslope side of pads can degrade underlying permafrost.

Attempts to relieve the problem by placing culverts through the pad, can

channelize the flow and induce thermal erosion downstream of the pad

(USGS, 1979).

The severity of the impacts from site preparation will depend on the

type and size of the facility being constructed, the time of the year

construction is scheduled, the geology (soils, slope) and hydrology

(rainfall, aquifer) of the construction area, the.construction methods

used, and the composition of plant and animal species in the construction

area. Many of.the most adverse impacts of site preparation can be

minimized through careful siting and design of facilities.

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of site preparation

(see Map A). These designations were based on available data and were

made after-evaluating the following criteria:.

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or

habitat to site preparation.

2. The degree of sensitivity to site preparation which is

experienced by each species during the various stages

of its life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages

occur and the period during which each species would be

most affected by site preparation.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history

stages occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The species population numbers and relative importance of

the population.

8. The degree to which the impacts of site preparation could

be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that 'were made in the ranking of

various habitats included:

1. The assumption that site preparation activities would occur on

land or in nearshore areas. Impacts in streams or nearshore

areas would only occur as a result of runoff from the site or

from extension of an onshore site into adjacent waters (filling).

Impacts arising in marine waters from dredging, filling, or

the construction of gravel islands are discussed in the Dredgin'g

and Filling,.Gravel Mining, ahd Gravel Islands section.

2. Impacts of site preparation would be greatest in eelgrass

beds, wetlands, tideflats and lagoons. These habitats are

generally highly productive areas that would be altered or

destroyed by site preparation.

3. Fucus and kelp beds, highly productive habitats than can be

altered or destroyed by site preparation, were ranked as

moderate because of their widespread nature. It was felt

impacts could be mitigated by limiting the size of projects,

or by providing buffer zones along the coast to prevent sediment

laden runoff from entering the beds.

4. Species most sensitive to site preparation are those for which

a critical life stage occurs in a sensitive habitat (i.e.

waterfowl,nesting and staging in wetlands) or in a restricted

area (marine mammal haulouts, seabird colonies, and muskox

winter concentrations).

5. Moderate sensitivity designations were applied to those areas

where it.was felt that the adverse impacts of site preparation

could be mitigated or prevented by careful siting, design, and

by the use of buffer zones between the construction sites and

nearby streams or coastal waters. Areas included in this

category were: salmon streams and nearshore rearing areas,

herring and capelin spawning areas, raptor nesting areas, and

moose wintering areas. Actual fish spawning sites and raptor

nest sites would be highly sensitive.

6. Important fish and wildlife habitats where species are relatively

wide spread, such as marine mammal migration routes, muskox

summer range, and areas of demersal fish abundance, were

considered to have low sensitivity to the impacts of site

preparatio n .
7. Impacts to harvest areas wo'uld arise primarily from noise and

disturbance during construction and from the physical loss of

harvest areas. These impacts are addressed on the Noise and

Disturbance, and Interference'with Subsistence, Commercial and

Sport Harvest maps.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity was given to areas where impacts of

site preparation would be less adverse than in moderate or high sensitivity

areas. Activities relating to site preparation.in low sensitivity areas

should be conducted according to existing environmental regulations such

as Federal noise level standards, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

air and water quality standards, local zoning ordinances, and Coastal

Zone Management guidelines.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of moderate.sensitivity was given to those areas where

impacts of site preparation on fish and wildlife could be prevented,

minimized or ameliorated. Habitats included in areas of moderate

sensitivity are:

1 . Fucus or kelp beds.

2. Salmon streams and nearshore rearing areas.

3. Herring spawning, possible spawning and overwintering areas.

4. Capelin spawning and possible spawning areas.

5. Waterfowl molting areas.

6. Raptor nesting areas.

7. Moose wintering and calving areas.

Site preparation activities in areas ranked as moderately sensitive 51
should be conducted according to existing environmental regulations and

the following guidelines:

General Mitigations

1. Vital fish and wildlife habitats should be avoided as sites

for oil and gas facilities (see Map A).

2. Before site preparation begins the environmental, geologic and

hydrologic aspects of-t he,construction site-should be studied.

Facilities should be sited where the impacts of the facility

on the environment and the environment on the facility are

minimized.

3. Site preparation activities should be scheduled at times when

the impacts on critical fish and wildlife life processes such

as nesting or pupping will be minimal (see Table 3

4. Development plans should include procedures for controlling

erosion, runoff, and sedimentation, for preserving natural

water drainage systems, and for protecting permafrost.

5. Wetlands,.tideflats, and wet tundra areas should not be drained,

filled, or polluted.

6. The destruction of native vegetation cover should be avoided.

7. Size of facilities should be minimized, and facilities should

be consolidated where possible.

8. Dust should be controlled at construction sites. Dust accumulation

around roads and construction sites can cause early snow melt

and vegetation changes. These changes can lead to changes in

drainage patterns. Dust should be controlled by watering, not

oiling. Runoff from oiled surfaces can pollute local waters

and the hard surface created by oiling lengthens deterioration

time following project abandonm ent.

Non-permafrost soils - erosion, runoff and sedimentation.

1. Clear only-the minimum area needed for construction of facilities.

Other parts of the site should not be disturbed. Any remaining

vegetation will reduce erosion and runoff in adjacent areas.

2. Finish grades so that the flow of water is directed along

natural drainage courses and through natural terrain.

3. Vegetative buffers should be left along all shorelines, sloughs,

bays, rivers, streams, and other surface waters in order to

trap sedimentation and pollutants and to control stormwater

flow. The width of the buffer should be determined by slope

of land, severity of erosion, and vegetation type.

4. Cleared areas should be revegetated as rapidly as possible

after site preparation activities in order to stabilize

exposed soils.

5. Where possible natural vegetation should be used to revegetate

cleared areas. It is adapted to local climatic conditions

and it reduces the loss of wildlife habitat because birds and

mammals are adapted to it. Nurseries should be established to

provide arctic adapted species for revegetation.

6. On a site that has been cleared but on which construction will,

be delayed, temporary vegetation (i.e., rapidly growing grains

and grasses) may be planted on exposed soils to prevent erosion.

Newly seeded areas can be protected until vegetation becomes

established-by laying down netting, preferably jute or other

biodegradable material.

7. Stormwater runoff may be diverted away from exposed soils by

cutt-ing parallel troughs across-slopes to intercept the downward

flow of surface waters. On steep slopes, bench terraces can

be constructed to achieve the same purpose. Both of these

methods are used to divert stormwaters into sediment basins or

into vegetated buffer strips so that sediments can be removed.

8. Sediment basins or detention ponds'may need to be constructed.

in order to detain runoff and.trap sediment thus decreasing

the siltation and contamination of coastal waters.

9. Vegetated waterways (swales) should be used to carry stormwaters

away from construction sites instead of concrete storm drains.

10. Erosion in waterways (e.g., channels, ditches) may be reduced

by planting grasses along their courses. The establishment of

grasses is an effective way of removing sediments from the

water.

11. Structures sited on slopes of unstable materials should be

built on fill or supported on piles.

12. Riprap material used to stabilize river'banks and prevent

erosion should be of sufficient size so that it cannot be

carried into the stream by normal or flood currents.

Non-permafrost soils - preserving natural water drainage systems.

1. Areas that have high water tables should not be drained.

Excavation in these areas should be limited to.such structures

as ponds, artificial lakes, or other containment projects

which preserve the natural water system. These artificial

basins should be designed to function as natural systems,

which means they should be fairly shallow 'and have gentle

slopes. Improperly designed basins may become polluted

within a few years. Vegetative buffer strips should surround.

the basins for restoration of runoff water quality.

2. Areas that are regularly flooded should not be drained or

altered. Elevating structures on piles will cause the least

disturbance to the flood plain.

3. There should be no excavation, filling, land clearing, grading,

channelization, or removal of natural vegetation, and.no

discharge of pollutants into wetlands or wet tundra areas.

4. Upland sites should be selected for facilities unless they are

water-dependent. If facilities are water-dependent, then the

non-water dependent parts of the facility (e.g., parking

areas) should*be located outside of the wetland area.

5. Excavation in wetlands should be avoided except for essential

public purposes (i.e. electrical lines, pipelines, and water

lines that cannot feasibly be rerouted). Excavation should be

limited to as small an area as possible.

6. Solid-fill,roads or,other-s-structures which obstruct the natural

flow of water should not be built in wetlands. The excavation

of fill for these structures causes additional adverse impacts.

If the construction of roads or other types of access through

wet lands is unavoidable, they should be placed on pilings

rather than on fill.

7. If drilling for oil and gas is unavoidable in wetlands,

ecological disturbance can be reduced by using directional

drilling to drill several wells from one site.

8. Wetlands that are altered during the construction of facilities

should be restored to their natural state after the project i.s

completed.

a. The original soil should be saved and replaced after

project completion.

b. The area should be restored to its original topographic

configuration.

C. The area should be revegetated with native species.

9. When the movement of heavy construction equipment through

wetlands or wet tundra is unavoidable, culverts and bridges

should be used to minimize degradation of the natural drainage

patterns. Winter movements are desirable because the substrate

is frozen, fish and wildlife are generally absent, and damage

is minimized.

10. Construction areas should be graded so that the flow of

surface waters is along natural drainage courses.

11. Site preparation activities in wetlands and wet tundra should

be scheduled during winter when the least biological damage

will occur.

12. Tributary streams should not be altered.

13. The use of permeable surfacing materials such as gravel,

rocks, and shells, over groundwater recharge areas is more

desirable than the use of impenetrable surfacing such as

asphalt. Impenetrable surfaces such as paved parking lots and

roads prevent groundwater recharge and accelerate storm runoff.

Water that normally filters through the soil remains on the

surface. Increased runoff from paved areas results in pollution,

causes erosion, andincreases flooding.

14. Stormwater should be retained by constructing detention ponds

which collect runoff and then slowly release filtered and

purified water to the coastal system.

Protection of permafrost

1. Site specific studies should be conducted to define the type

of permafrost terrain present and the degree of potential

instability that must be considered in site design.

2. Construction on well-drained, coarse sediments presents fewer

problems than construction on poorly-drained, fine-grained

sediments.

3. Construction in permafrost areas should use the latest available

technology to prevent drainage alterations, channelization of

flows, ponding, and permafrost degragation.

.58

4. Where gravel pads are required, impact on drainage patterns

can be reduced by building circular pads or orienting one

corner of square pads upslope.

5. Gravel pads should be of sufficient depth to insulate the

underlying permafrost.

6. Artificial material, such as styrofoam insulation, can used in

conjunction with gravel to provide insulation to the permafrost

layer and to reduce gravel needs. However, the long term

impacts of artificial materials have not been adequately

tested.

7. Temporary structures should be built on piles. Gravel pads

should only be used where weight or stability requires their

use. Use of piles reduces permanent environmental damage and
I
reduces commitment of surface area for temporary structures.

8. Refrigerated piles can be used in marginal permafrost to

assure the permanently frozen state of sediments around the

piles. Piles should be spaced far enough apart to allow

thawing between them or drainage patterns will be altered.

9. To minimize environmental damage, construction of facilities

should be minimized. Unnecessary duplication of roads such as.

construction of roads between facilities where access to the

facilities from main roads has already been provided, and the

use of.pipeline construction pads where existing roads could

be used, are examples of activities that should be avoided.

10. Facilities should be consolidated so that the area of disturbance

is reduced.

11. Vehicular travel and movement of construction equipment

should be restricted to adequately constructed roads. Off-

road travel should only be allowed after the tundra s-urface is

sufficiently frozen and snow depths are adequate to prevent

surface damage.

12. Where possible, off-road travel should be restricted to low-

surface-pressure vehicles. Impacts of off-road travel by

tracked or tractor-type vehicles can be lessened by:

a. Traveling only where and when there is sufficient snow

cover to protect the vegetative surface and avoiding

steep slopes and snow-free areas.

B. Using the same route each year when activities extend

over several winters. Use of the same route for more

than two years, providing that the peat layer continues

to.insulate against summer thaw, is less damaging than a

series of parallel roads across the terrain.

In order to implement these guidelines, site specific studies will have

to be conducted on a case by case basis. In instances where information

is not available regarding the effects of site preparation on the various

stages of animal life history, more research will have to be done to

determine these impacts.

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of high sensitivity was given to habitats where the

impacts of site preparation would be extremely adverse to fish and

wildlife resources. Habitats in this category include:

1. Eelgrass beds, wetlands and tideflats (both highly productive/heavily
used and those where productivity is not known), and lagoons.

2. Seabird colonies and peregrine falcon nesting/use areas.

3. Waterfowl nesting and staging areas including major and important
staging areas, emperor geese molting and staging areas, snow
geese staging areas, swan nesting/use areas, and sandhill
crane use areas.

4. Waterfowl and shorebird spring concentration areas.

5. Shorebird fall staging areas and important habitat.

6. Marine mammal haulouts including walrus recurrent and occasional
haulouts, spotted seal and sea lion haulouts.

7. Grizzly bear denning areas and possible polar bear denning
areas.

8. Muskox wintering and calving area.

Because the destruction of habitat caused by site preparation is usually

permanent, facilities should not be sited in areas of high sensitivity.

TABLE 3: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES, HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO SITE PREPARATION.

JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT Nov Dt-C
HABITATS
EELGRABS BEDS

FUCUSIXELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE/
HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLATS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE/
HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

ESTUARYILAGOON

FISH & SHELLFISH
SALMON
STREAM
FRY AND JUVENILE
REARING AREA

HERRING
WINTERING ARI!A
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

BIRDS
SEABIRD COLONY

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRD
SPRING CONCENTRATION AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

SEADUCK WINTERING AREA

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLTING AREA
STAGING AREA
SNOW GEESE STAGING AREA

SWAN NESTINGIUSE AREA

SANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

RAPTOR NESTING AREA

PEREGRINE FALCON
NESTINGIUSE AREA -4
0)

TABLE 3: (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO SITE PREPARATION.

MAMMALS JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
SPOTTED SEAL
14AULOUT AND FEEDING AREA

SEA LION IfAULOUT

WALNUS
RECURRENT HAULOUT
OCCASIONAL "AULOUT

POLAR BEAR
P0681BLE DENNING SITE

MOOSE
WINTER CONCENTRATION AREA
CALVING AREA

GRIZZLY BEAR
SPRING FEEDING AREA
DENNING
PJUMMER PRIME IIAUITAT

MUSKOX
WINTER AN13 CALVING
CONCENTRATION AREA

I
I
N
1 0
1
1 s
I E
I N D
I I
s
I T
u
I R
B
I A
I N
c
I E
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

NOISE M DISTUMANCE

Sources and Biological Effects

The intense level of support activity associated with offshore oil and

gas exploration and development will cause various degrees of distur-

bance to fish and wildlife in the coastal environment. Noise and phy-

sical disturbance are primarily caused by an increase in helicopter,

fixed-winged aircraft, and boat traffic; by heavy machinery used during

site preparation, gravel mining, and construction of onshore.facilities;

by seismic exploration; and by an increase-in human presence.

Projections for offshore oil and gas development in Norton Sound indicate

that up to six wells could be drilled per year during exploration with

approximately one month of geophysica,1 (seismic) work per well. Each

drilling rig would be supported by one helicopter and two supply boats

(Hanley et al., 1980). No estimates are available for the number of

trips required to transfer employees, parts, and supplies between off-

shore drilling vessels and shore. Additional increases in activity are

expected during oil field development.

When birds or mammals are disturbed by noise or human presence they may
either abandon or discontinue using favored breeding, feeding, nes-ting,
staging or molting areas (Nettleship, undated; Geist, 1975). The impact s

from noise and disturbance can be especially severe if they occur during

critical periods in the life cycle of birds and mammals. These critical

periods include such activities as breeding, nesting, pupping, and

hatching. As a result of disturbance during critical periods, repro-

ductive success may be reduced, resulting in lower populations (Nisbet,

1977).

Some wildlife species or individuals are able to adapt to predictable

man-made sounds. McCourt et al. (1974) found caribou tracks within 0.4

kilometers (one-quarter mile) of an active base camp and airstrip during

the spring migration period. In an another area however, caribou reacted

to the simulated sound of an air compressor by altering their direction

of travel and detouring around the simulator (McCourt et al., 1974).

Lapland longspur breeding was unaffected in the vicinity of a gas compressor

noise simulator (Gollop et al., 1974a).

Loud or unpredictable sounds, such as noises from rapidly approaching

boats and aircraft, gunshots, or explosions are usually disturbing to

nesting birds, and can result in direct mortality to eggs or young.

Sudden noises alarm nesting seabirds causing them to move about and

knock eggs or young off cliffs or out of nests thereby exposing them to

predators such as gulls (Nisbet, 1977). Gyrfalcons place their feet

under or between their offspring and when startled and not allowed time

to respond unhurridly to intrusions, the parent birds may catapult eggs

or young from the nest (Fyfe and Olendorff, 1976). Barry and Spencer

(1976) studying the effects of oil well drilling on wildlife in the

McKenzie River delta, found that of all the activities associated with

drilling operations, low-flying helicop@ers caused the greatest disturbance

to birds inhabiting the area within 2.5 kilometers (1.5 miles) of the

drilling rig. Behavior patterns were altered and mortality increased

due to the loss of eggs by predation. When adults were frightened away

from the nests, gulls and jaegers would often take the eggs (NPRA Task

Force, 1978). Egg mortality can also occur when eggs become overheated

or chilled during the parent bird's absence.

The inability of birds to accomodate disturbance from humans,.airplanes,

and boats can result in the abandonment of nesting habitat and major

losses of bird eggs and young (McKnight and Knoder, undated). Close

overflights by fixed-wing aircraft near gyrfalcon nests early in their

nesting cycle before egg laying begins, appears to cause nest desertions

(Fyfe and Olendorff, 1976). Disturbance studies with breeding black

brant, Pacific eiders, glaucous gulls, and Arctic terns at Nunaluk Spit

and Phillips Bay, in the Yukon territory, in July 1972 indicated that

human presence was the most critical form of disturbance affecting the

incubating behavior of these species. Helicopter disturbance had the

greatest impact on the incubating behavior of all species except Pacific

eiders (LGL Limited, 1972).

Disturbance to birds is not limited to nesting activities. During the

molt, birds are flightless and will concentrate in areas where they are

protected from predators. Molting birds are under a considerable amount

of physiological stress due to the large energy requirement necessary to

grow new feathers. Studies have shown that aircraft traffic over sea

duck molting areas will alter normal behavior patterns and therefore

have a detrimental impact on sea duck populations by causing them to

expend energy unnecessarily (McKnight and Knoder, undated). Studies by

LGL Limited (1972) indicated that sounds simulating those gererated by

compressors were disruptive to staging snow geese (McKnight and Knoder,
undated). Salter and Davis (1974) reported that overflights of a Cessna

185 at altitudes of 91 meters (300 feet) to 3000 meters (10,000 feet)

flushed all resting snow geese. The geese tended to flush at greatest

distances when the aircraft was below 300 meters (1,000 feet) with

flocks flushing up to 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) away from the aircraft.

Non-nesting waterfowl populations were reduced on a small lake following

float plane landings and taxiing (Schweinsburg et al., 1974).

Mar ine mammals are also detrimentally affected by noise and disturbance.

Helicopters, low-flying aircraft, noisy boat traffic, and human presence

are primary causes of pup mortality and the decl.ining use of some areas

by marine mammals (Trasky et al., 1977). In the Canadian Beaufort Sea,

belukha whale movements were disrupted by gravel barge traffic during

the construction of offshore islands. When.a barge moved through a

concentration of whales in a bay, whales up to 2.4 kilometers (1.5.

miles) ahead of the barge reacted by moving rapidly away from the dis-

turbance. Distribution of whales in the bay did not return to normal

until 30 hours after the barge had passed.. Heavily used barge routes

appeared to impede, if not block, nearshore belukha movements. It was

felt that the disturbance was caused not only by sound and movement of

the barges but by the wake of suspended bubbles which remained in the

water column for several hours after the barges had passed. The bubbles,

which are suspended in the water column to a depth of a few meters, may

be interpreted by the whales echo locatibn signals as a barrier. A

.67

similar effect has been reported as occurring in the Pacific Ocean where

wakes from tuna boats act as temporary barriers to movements of porpoises

(Fraker, 1977).

Johnson (1976).in a study on the effects of human disturbance on a

population of harbor seals on Tuaidak Island, southeast of Kodiak Island,

Alaska found that low flying aircraft resulted in direct mortality of

harbor seal pups during the pupping season. Studies show that any loud

or sudden noise can lead to a major disturbance whi.ch will frighten the

seals into the water. During a disturbance pups may become permanently

separated from their mothers and die of starvation.. During the study

aircraft flying below 400 feet, particularly those less than 100 feet,

caused most, and sometimes all, of the seals to enter the water. Impacts

from natural disturbances such as rockslides or an eagle landing in or

near a group were usually confined to one localfty and often affected

only one, or just a few of the herds on the island; whereas, low flying

aircraft circling the island caused the entire population to temporarily

abandon haulout areas. As a consequence, low flying aircraft not only

disrupted the seals daily activities, but resulted in a reduction of

population through pup mortality. Most of the disturbance to harbor

seals on Tugidak Island in 1976 was related to OCS exploration. Helicopters

transporting geologists were the most severe disturbance factor (Johnson,

1976).

Seismic activities, used primarily during the exploratory phase of oil
development, also cause disturbance to 'organisms in the coastal environ-

ment. Presently, non-explosive techniques such as side scan sonar, air

guns and sparkers are used in marine areas to identify geological struc-

tures which may contain oil and gas reserves. Explosives and vibrating

(vibroseis) equipment are commonly used on upland seismic surveys.

Non-explosive seismic techniques do not appear to physically injure

fish. Falk and Lawrence (1973) have shown that air guns are non-injurious

to fish populations in shallow waters. Although a certain amount of

noise is emitted by non-explosive devices which can cause fish to move

away from the pathway of a ship towing seismic equipment, it is not

known how much actual disturbance is caused by this method of seismic

exploration. Porpoises have been found to be attracted to side scan

sonar, and other marine mammals such as belukha whales, which depend on

sonar for communication, may also be similarly attracted (Holden, pers.

comm., 1978). Fishermen have complained that fish flee during the use

of these techniques.

Studies in Glacier Bay have shown that marine mammals, such as humpback

whales, killer whales, and Dall porpoises are disturbed by boats. Ncise

generated by boats can cause these animals to abandon an area where they

are feeding, resting, or traveling. Observations in Glacier Bay revealed

that within a 24 hour period, the number of humpback whales using an

area decreased from sixteen to three as a resul.t of boat-whale interactions.

Boats causing the disturbance were either traveling through the area,

trolling for fish, or were being used to observe the whales activities

(Jurasz, pers. comm., 1978).

Gray whales are not overly disturbed by boats in open ocean situations,

but vessel activity has excluded them from some lagoonal breeding areas

in Mexico. Bowhead whales appear to be more affected by disturbance

when restricted to narrow leads in the pack ice than when they are in

the open ocean (Burns, pers. comm.).

Terrestrial mammals are affected by increases in aircraft activity and

human presence. Individual animals and species react in varying degrees

to the same disturbance. McCourt et al. (1974) found that moose, caribou,

and.grizzly bear all react to overflights by helicopters and fixed-wing

aircraft. Caribou and moose reactions decreased as overflight altitudes

increased. Aircraft above 182 meters (600 feet). elicited no response in

moose, and aircraft altitudes of 305 meters (1,000 feet) or more elicited

only occasional responses in caribou. Grizz.ly bear were more sensitive

to disturbance than moose or caribou, but no correlations were found

between altitude and sensitivity (McCourt et al., 1974). Sensitivities

of terrestrial mammals to disturbance can vary according to the activity

the animal is engaged in, season of year, and group size. McCourt et

al. (1974) found that bedded caribou,exhibited the strongest reaction to

aircraft disturbance, with large groups responding more intensely than

small groups. Sensitivity of the caribou to aircraft disturbance varied

seasonally as well (McCourt and Horstman, 1974).

Non-explosive seismic operations can affect other species. Along the

BEaufort Sea coast, Frost (1979) has found that ringed seal densities

are reduced in areas of the shorefast ice zone where over ice seismic

surveys and other activities have occurred. It i@ felt that the declines

in seal density are caused by displacement rather than direct mortality.

Animals will avoid or leave areas of seismic activity. Displacement of

female ringed seals from the shorefast ice zone during pupping can lead

to lower population levels. Newborn pups are helpless for six weeks

after birth and will die unless attended by a female. Seals displaced

to the moving pack ice are more susceptible to polar bear predation; and

pups born on moving ice tend to be smaller, are weaned earlier, and may

have reduced survival rates (Frost, 1979)-. Seismi.c work and human

presence in areas of polar.bear denning have apparently caused early den

desertion (Lentfer, 1976, Belikov, 1976). Lentfer (1976) reported that

a female polar bear with a new cub was observed out of a den a month

earlier than normal in the vicinity of a seismic operation. The cub was

extremely small and had trouble traveling. Early den desertions may

affect cub survival.

Explosives are used during terre strial seismic work and can disturb

wildlife populations if detonated near bird nesting areas, or critical

mammal habitats. 0 ver pressures from seismic explosions can kill fish

if detonated in or near fish producing lakes and streams.

During construction and operation of oil-related facilities, the population

of Norton Sound and the northern Bering Sea region will increase (.Hanley

et al., 1980). The presence of more people in an area will lead to a

certain degree of harassment to wildlife, either because species have

not experienced disturbance before or because human activities may be

similar to other alarm-producing stimuli (Geist, 1975). As a result of

human populations increases, more people will participate in outdoor 71

recreation including hunting, fishing, hiking, and boating. Machines

used by people, such as off-road vehicles, snow machices, trail bikes

and motors, will disturb wildlife. Disturbance and harassment are also

caused by free..roaming domestic pets (i.e., dogs and cats). Harassment,

which by definition includes non-intentional disturbance of a repeated

or prolonged nature, has both direct and indirect detrimental effects on

individuals as well as. groups of wildlife. Harassment elevates body

metabolism and therefore affects an animal's body growth, development

and reproduction. Secondary effects from physical exertion and temporary

confusion induced by harassment can lead to death, illness or reduced

fecundity. Animals will generally avoid or abandon areas where they

have experienced harassment. Avoidance of harassment may lead to a

reduction in the population's range, and ultimately a reduction of the

population itself.

Activities which attract wildlife, such as improper garbage disposal or

feeding animals, will lead to human-animal conflicts and could cause

severe impacts on local wild-life populations if several animals must be

destroyed. Bears are often attracted to these situations and are killed

because they become a nuisance or threat to human life and property

(NPRA Task Force, 1978). Other species attracted by garbage include

fox, wolves, and wolverines. Improper garbage disposal also attracts

gulls (including kittiwakes) and ravens leading to local increases in

the populations of these predatory species. Displacement of more desirable

seabird species by rapidly increasing gull populations has proven to be
a serious problem in Europe, the eastern'United States, Australia, and

New Zealand (Drury et al., 1978).

rQ
Table 4 Effects of noise and disturbance on birds and mammals

-Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS

Caribou McCourt et al., field observation aircraft (Bell 206 Caribou reacted more strongly to a Bell 206 helicopter than a
(Rangifer 1974 helicopter, Cessna Cessna 185 at low altitudes (300 ft). No difference in re-
tarandus) 185) activity to different aircraft occurred for altitudes greater
Ko-ose than 300 ft. The reactivity of caribou to aircraft disturbance
(Alces alces) decreased as the altitude of the aircraft increased, up to an
Gr@22ly Bear altitude of approximately 1000 ft. Reactions to aircraft at
(Ursus arctos) altitudes greater than 1000 ft. were unpredictable but infre-
quent. Groups of caribou which were feeding or bedded reacted
often to aircraft disturbance, the bedded animals exhibiting
the strongest reaction. A correlation between group size and
reactivity to aircraft was found at altitudes less than 300 ft.
Larger groups reacted most often and most intensely. No out-
standing changes in reactivity were observed between seasons.
Moose reacted more often than not to aircraft at altitudes of
less than 200. ft. Fixed wing aircraft at altitudes above
600 ft. elicit6,4 no reaction.. Grizzly bear were more sensitive
to aircraft disturbance than caribou or moose but no correla-
tions between altitude and sensitivity were found.

Caribou McCourt et al., field observations simulated air com- Reactions differed by season and activity of animals during
(tn er 1974 pressor (sound only spring migration. Direction of movement was altered by sound
A-i f
randus no movement or odor) of the simulator. During the calving period, caribou within
1/8 mi. of operating simulator exhibited a significantly great-
er frequency of changes in activities than those around the
non-operating simulator. During summer, animals moving within
30 yards deflected slightly away and exhibited alert postures.
There was no evidence of reactions at greater than 300 yards.
During fall migration evidence suggested that caribou were
deterred from approaching closer than 112 mi. to the simulator.

Caribou McCourt et al., field observations man made objects Caribou tracks during spring migration were found within 1/4
(Rangifer 1974 mile of an active base camp and airstrip containing a number of
LaLarLdus trailers, other buildings, and numerous vehicles. Tracks and
feeding craters were also found within 25 ft. of oil storage
tanks at another location. A short detour (100-200 yards) was
made around an unoccupied seismic camp by migrating caribou.
Caribou McCourt et al., field observation presence of man Activity of people on bank of river caribou were attemping to
(Rangifer 1974 swim caused caribou to turn back at halfway point even
tarandus) though changing ice conditions greatly hampered return trip.

Caribou McCourt and field observation aircraft Reactions of caribou to aircraft varied by season. The season-
n i fer Horstman, 1974 al order of reactivity for flights below 300 feet (greatest to
ta ran us least) was found to be: post-calving, winter, spring migration,
calving, fall migration, summer movement. However for flights
at 300-600 feet a strictly chronological order of reactivity
was observed (i.e. winter, spring migration, calving, post
calving, summer). Reactions also depended upon terrain and
group siz.e.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study- Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Dall Sheep McCourt et al., field observation simulated air com- During summer, male Dall sheep were adversely affected by simu-
(Ovis dalli) 1974 pressor,"helicoptor lated noise of a compressor and by helicopters. Disturbance
resulted in behavorial changes and abandonment of range within
1 mi of simulator. Limit of sound disturbance, or duration
of displacement were not determined.
Dal] Sheep Reynolds, 1974 field observation simulated compressor Sheep accustomed to aircraft noise at'a mineral lick did not
(Ovis dalli) station sounds, appear bothered by simulated compressor noise. However, sheep
aircraft spent less time in the part of the lick with highest sound
levels. Sheep showed strong reactions to low flying helicop-
ters coming within 150 yards but mild to no reactions to air-
craft as far away as 1/4-3/4 mi.

Nil Sheep Lenarz. 1974 field observation helicopter The majority of the sheep reacted to a helicopter flying by at
(Ovis dalli) a distance of 300-500 diagonal feet. Reactions ranged from
casual movement away from the stimulus (49% of all sheep *
observed) to panic running (36% of all groups observed). The
degree of reaction was found to be independent of the orienta-
tion of the helicopter to the sheep. Reaction was also inde-
pendent of season and group size, however, ewes with or with-
out lambs reacted stronger to disturbance than rams.

MARINE MAMMALS

Polar bear Belikov, 1976 field observation human activity Several bears deserted dens on Wrangel Island shortly after
(Ursus forming them because of presence of investigators. Other
m
F
ar timus)- dens have been observed at close range without premature
desertion.

Polar bear Lentfer, 1976 field observation seismic activity A female polar bear with a new cub was observed out of a den a
(Ursus month earlier than normal near seismic operations. Cub was
Ea-ritimus) extremely small and had trouble traveling.

Gray whales Burns pers. comm. unknown vessel activity Gray whales are apparently not overly disturbed by boats in
(Eschrichtius open ocean situations but vessel activity has excluded them
robustus) from some traditional lagoonal breeding areas in Mexico.
Bowheads Bowheads are more affected by disturbance when restricted to
(Balaena open leads than when in open ocean.
Wy-sticetus)

Bowhead whales Fraker, 1979 unknown boat traffic, During studies in the Canadian Beaufort, bowhead whales were
(Balaena aircraft approached as close as 152 m (500 ft) before diving. No in-
ri@y-stE_etus) formation was given for the maximum distance which caused the
whales to dive. No adverse reactions were observed to whales
from aircraft flying at altitudes of 300 m (1,000 ft) or more.

Humpback whales Jurasz pers. field observation boat traffic Within a 24-hour period the number of humpback whales using an
(Megaptera Comm. area decreased from sixteen to three as a result of boat-whale
novaeangliae) interactions. Boats causing the disturbance were either trav-
eling through the area, trolling for fish, or were observing
the whales activities.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Belukha whale Fraker, 1977 field observation barge traffic Aerial surveillance during barge movement through a concentra-
(Delphinapterus tion of whales in a bay showed that whales up to 1.5 miles from
leucas) the barge reacted by moving rapidly away from the disturbance.
Whale distribution in the bay did not return to near normal
until 30 hours after the barge had passed. Heavily used barge
routes appeared to impede and may have blocked whale movements
in another area. It was felt that disturbance was not only
caused by sound and movement of the barge but by the wake of
suspended bubbles which remain in the water column for several
hours. The bubbles which are suspended in the water to a depth
of a few meters may be interpreted by the whales echo location
signal as a barrier. This was reported as occurring in the
Pacific Ocean where wakes from tuna boats act as a temporary
barrier to movements of porpoises.

Belukha whales Fraker, 1979 unknown boat traffic In shallow waters, less than about 6 feet (1.8 m) deep,
(Delphinapterus dredging belukhas have reacted to boats and dredges at a distance of 1.5
leucas) to 2 miles (2.5. to 3 km) by moving away from them. Underwater
sounds from dredging operations were calculated to have been
perceptible to belukhas at ranges of 2.5 miles (4 kin). In
deeper water, however, they have been observed as close as 75
feet (25 m) from moving barge tows. A high frequency of marine
traffic movements, about 25 per day, caused an apparent inter-
ruption of belukha whale movements. At a rate of about 15
traffic movements per day or less, belukha movements appeared
unaffected. No adverse reaction to the presence of man-made
islands was observed.

Belukha whale Seaman and field observation boat traffic Local people in Kotzebue Sound have attributed a decline in
(Delphinapterus Burns (in and literature review the number of belukhas congregating in former hunting areas to
eucasl press) increased fishing activity involving continuous traffic of
many small outboard powered boats.

Belukha whale Ford, 1977 unknown gravel borrow By relating sound attenuation rates and probable auditory sen-
(Delphinapterus operation sitivity of belukha whales, it was calcu1`a_t_ea_tT@at whales
leucas) could probably hear average sounds from two gravel borrow
sites at a range of 2,900 meters. Certain transient sounds
might be percieved at a range of 4,000 meters.
Belukha whale Holden pers comm. unknown seismic surveys Porpoises are attracted to side scan sonar and other marine
(Delphinapterus mammals such as belukha whale which depend on sonar for com-
T-eu-ca-s-) munication may also be attracted.

Belukha whale Fraker et al., field observation aircraft Belukha whales in shallow water in Cunningham Inlet, Canada,
(Delphinapterus 1978 reacted strongly to an overflight by a twin otter flying at
leucas) 1,000 ft. Bottom sediments were stirred up as the whales
retreated to deeper water.

Belukha whale Fraker, 1977 field observation gravel islands Although logistics traffic associated with island construction
(Delphinapterus and operation has been observed to directly affect whales, the
leucas) mere presence of an artificial island appears to have little
effect. Substantial numbers of belukhas were seen, some within
100 m, near an operational island in the Canadian Beaufort.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Atlantic walrus Salter, 1979 field observation aircraft, boats Walruses on land responded to 27% of 71 local flights by heli-
(Odobenus copters and to 35% of 31 flights by fixed-wing aircraft. No
rosmarus) response to boat traffic was observed. Responses recognized
were head-lifting, orientation toward the sea, and retreat into
the sea. The level of response depended upon distance and al-
titude of disturbance approach. The only disturbances that
caused reaction beyond head raising were those that occurred
within 2.5 km. The maximum distance at which escape was pre-
cipitated was 1.3 km. A direct overflight by a single engine
plane at 1500 m altitude over a herd of 46 caused head raising
by up to 20 walruses and escape into the water by two. On a-
nother date, an overflight at 1000 Fu caused head raising by 31
to 41 walruses on land, orientation by 39, escape by 17.

Ringed seal Frost, 1979 aerial survey seismic exploration Densities of ringed seals were two to four times greater in
(Phoca hispida) areas where no seismic surveys had been conducted than in areas
where surveys.had been conducted. On the average there were
only one-half'A@ many seals in-the areas of seismic operation.
The decrease was attributed to displacement although mortality
was not ruled out. Displacement from the shorefast ice zone
during pupping is critical in that seals in the moving pack
ice are more susceptible to polar bear predation and pups born
on moving ice tend to be smaller, weaned earlier, and possibly
have reduced survival.

Harbor seal Johnson, 1976 field observation aircraft On Tugidak Island, Alaska, low flying aircraft resulted in
(Phoca vitulina) direct mortality of harbor seal pups during the pupping sea-
son. Studies show that any loud or sudden noise can lead to a
major disturbance which will send all seals into the water.
During a disturbance pups may become permanently separated from
their mothers and die of starvation. During the study aircraft
flying below 400 feet, particularly less than 100 feet, caused
most, and sometimes all, of the seals to enter the water.
Impacts from natural disturbances such as rockslides or an
eagle landing in or near a group were usually confined to one
locality and often affected one or just a few of the herds on
the island; whereas, low flying aircraft circling the island
caused the entire popuiation to temporarily abandon haulout
areas. As a consequence, low flying aircraft not only disrupt-
ed the seals daily activities but resulted in reduction of
population through pup mortality. Effects of low flying air-
craft were greater on calm days than on "noisy" days during
storms or strong winds and disturbance was greater from larger
planes or helicopters than from the smaller planes. Most of
the disturbance to harbor seals on Tugidak Island in 1976 was
related to OCS exploration. Helicopters transporting geolo-
BIRDS gist were the most severe disturbance factor.
Nesting seabirds Sow] and field observation boats, human presence, Seabirds nesting on cliffs are highly susceptible to distur-
Bartonek, 1974 and literature review aircraft bance. The incautious, close approach of aircraft, boats or
people on footalmost invariably results in a panic flight of
birds from cliffs. During incubation and brooding, each occur-
rence results.in a rain of eggs or young from the cliff. Other
chicks and eggs that are temporarily abandoned often fall prey
to gulls, jaegers and other predators.

Cr%

s@@tat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Peregrine falcon Fyfe and field observation human presence Factors causing nest desertion may vary within a species 'or be-
(Falco pereq_rinus_) Olendorff, 1976 tween areas. The most critical time for many species Is just
prior
an other raptors to egg laying. Desertion of nest ledges has been observ-
ed (both before and during egg-laying) following single short
visits to eyries of peregrine falcons. Peregrine falcons will
usually "sit tight" during the several days just before and
just after hatching and will allow people to approach closely.
At such close quarters, however, the eventual hasty departure
of the adult can qrack eggs or injure young.

Gyrfalcons Cade and White, literature review and human presence, Peregrine falcons and gyrfalcons appear to be much more sen-
(Falco rusticolus) 1976 field observations aircraft sitive to disturbances on the ground than by close overflights
P
e-re of aircraft. During nesting surveys, close overflights by a
grine fa cons
(Falco per
i2ri@us) variety of fix-winged aircraft and helicopters elicited no sud-
den flight or panic by nesting or incubating falcons although
several cases of falcons aggressively attacking the aircraft
were reported. Incubating females were especially reluctant to
abandon nests. Long term effects of aircraft disturbance
are not known although falcons continue to use cliffs close to
busy Arctic airfields in Canada and Alaska. Ground distur-
bances such as geophysical survey parties, scientific investi-
gative groups, use of chainsaws and other loud noises appeared
to cause the most disturbance. Sensitivity is greatest during
egg laying and incubation. Once eggs have hatched, adults can
tolerate more activity around the nest.

Peregrine fa-lcons Fyfe and field observation aircraft Authors suggest that helicopters, particularly turbo jets, have
(Falco peregrinus) Olendorff, 1976 little effect on incubating falcons, eagles or ospreys, other
GyrfaTcons than to provoke an occasional attack. Ospreys, gyrfalcons,
(Falco rusticolus) and peregrine falcons can actually pose a hazard to helicopters
and other -raptors because of this behavior. Fixed-winged aircraft flying at
heights in excess of 450 meters (1,500 ft) above the nest site
do not seem to present a disturbance. Data relative to nest
occupancy following fixed-wing aircraft flying near nest sites
at lower altitudes early in the nesting cycle before egg-lay-
Ing suggest that such activities may cause nest desertions of
gyrfalcons. To minimize disturbance at nesting cliffs approach
to cliff should be as direct as possible. An approach from
behind the cliff may result in the sudden appearance and sound
of an aircraft directly over the nest site, which may make the
attending adult fly in panic and fatally damage the eggs or
young as it goes.

Snow geese Salter and field observation fixed-wing aircraft Overflights by a Cessna 185 flushed all resting snow geese at
(Chen Davis, 1974 Cessna 185 altitudes of 300, 700, 1,000, 5,000, 7,000 and 10,000 ft. The
caerulescens) geese tended to flush at greatest distances when the aircraft
was under 1,000 ft with flocks flushing up to 9 miles away
from the aircraft. All geese In an area 5 miles by 10 miles
were driven from the area in 15 minutes by "hazing" with the
aircraft.

Species/Habitat Reference Typeof Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Snow geese Gollop and field observation gas compressor, Noise from a gas compressor simulator had a detrimental effect
(Chen Davis, 1974 noise simulator, on use of a feeding area by snow geese. Only 1 flock out of 33
caerulescens) aircraft landed during operation of the simulator while between 1/3 and
112 of the flocks attracted to the area when the simulator was
not present or not operating landed. When the simulator was
first turned on, flocks within 3 miles left the area. Some
returned to within 1 112 miles but were completely driven from
the area and did not return following the landing of a float
plane on a nearby lake.

Black brant Gollop et al., field observation Jet Ranger helicopter, The combined disturbances of aircraft, helicopter and human
(Branta 1974c Cessna 185 aircraft, presence caused a high % of altered incubation behavior and
ge-rn-icla) fixed-wing and human abandonment of nests resulting in low productivity especially
Cominon ei er disturbance for black brant and Arctic tern. Results indicated 1) Human
(Somateria presence was the most potent form of disturbance, affecting the
iZ_I_1T_ss-Ima) normal incubating behavior of all species studied, 2) Aircraft
Glaucous gulls disturbance affected the normal incubating behavior of black
(Larus hyperboreus) brant, glaucous gulls and arctic terns but had little obvious
Arc!T-c terns effect on common eider incubation. 3) Helicopters were more
(Sterna paradisaea) disturbing to birds than were fixed-wing aircraft. 4) Non-
incubating birds showed greater intolerance to disturbance
than did incubating birds.

Whistling swans Barry and field observation exploritor y drilling Studies at a new dril,ling rig in the Canadian Arctic showed
(Olor Spencer, 1976 rig that nest success @as lower near the rig. Whistling swans had
coT-umbianus) used the rig site the previous 3 years but the majority did not
Canada geese. approach closer than 6.4 kni of the rig although one nested I kin
(Branta from the rig. The closest approach by a family of Canada
canadensis geese was 3.7 km. Large flocks came no closer than 8 km. Snow
geese The closest snow geese approached was 4.2 km. Sandhill cranes
(Chen fed within 800 m of the rig site. The major disturbance as-
caerulescens) sociated with the rig appeared to be helicopter traffic.
During a drill steam test, birds 1 km from the rig appeared
unaffected.

Whistling swans Barry and field observation helicopters, boats Non-nesting snow geese and white-fronted geese flushed 3 km or
(Eg-r Spencer, 1976 more ahead of a supply helicopter and rarely returned. During
columbianus) the molt birds would run from approaching boats or low flying
Snow geese aircraft. Nesting snow geese would leave their nests and fly
(Chen .8 to 2.4 km (112-1 112 mi) ahead of the helicopter when it was
caerulescens) traveling at 150 km/hr (80 ks) at 90 m (300 ft). Birds began
WIii__te_-f_r_o_n_te_d_ geese returning to nests when the helicopter was 80 m (112 mi) away.
(Anser albifrons) Resettling on nests took up to three-fourth of an hour because
Wi-dgeon of territorial fights. Gulls and jaegers took advantage of un-
(Mareca americana) guarded nests during this time. A pintail duck nest 260-500 m
Oldsquaw (200-400 yds) from the drilling pad and under the flight path
(@Cla hyemalis)
Mula of supply helicopters, was robbed by jaegers and abandoned.
PintaiT-(Anus acuta)

Sea ducks Gollop et al., field observation helicopter No detectable numbers of sea ducks were driven from a Polting
(primarily oldsquaw 1974d area as.a result of repeated helicopter disturbance. However,
and surf scoters) behavior patterns were altered and ducks were driven from land

-4
00

�p@@c ies4_@abi tat Re f erence Type of Stu@y Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
into the water by the disturbance. Surf scoters appeared to he
more sensitive than oldsquaws. Surf scoters spent more time
swimming and feeding (rather than resting) during disturbances
than during periods of non-disturbance. Birds of all species
tended to form tight flocks during disturbance. Flock sizes
and numbers of birds in flocks (as a percentage of the total
birds) increased as the disturbance continued.

Waterfowl Schweinsburg, 1974 field observation aircraft- ICessna The waterfowl population on a 0.06 sq. mi. lake was reduced by
185 float plane 60% during four days of disturbance. Populations did not re-
turn to original level after disturbance. The waterfowl
populations of a larger lake (0.10 sq. mi.) also declined but
the data was inconclusive because of inconsistant counts.

Waterfowl Schweinsburg, et field observation aircraft-Cessna 185 Experiments of aircraft disturbance (float plane landing and
al., 1974 float plane taxiing) on two small lakes (.24 and .31 sq. mi) of which one
was primarily used as a brood rearing lake and the other by
molting and non-breeding waterfowl, resulted in a marked re-
duction in waterfowl numbers-on the lake used by non-breeders.
Females with broods did not appear to avoid the disturbance
by flight as did the non-breeders. The most frequent reactions
to aircraft disturbance by all species was to either dive or
fly away.

Lapland longspurs Gollop et al., field observation aircraft and human No significant difference in lapland longspur population den-
(Calcarius 1974b disturbance sity was noted on control, human and aircraft disturbance
laanlcus) sites. However, onset of nesting may have been delayed and
fledging production per pair appeared to be reduced on disturb-
ed sites. Fewer nestlings on disturbed sites survived a severe
storm than on the control site. Higher mortality on disturbed
sites was attributed to greater (%umbers of later hatched chicks
(i.e. younger) and where ages were equal, to the possibility of
disturbed chicks being in poorer condition prior to the storm.

Lapland longspur Gollop et al., field observation gas compressor, The sound emitted by a gas compressor noise simulator had no
(Calcarius 1974a noise simulator measurable short-term effect on lapland longspurs breeding it)
T@@-ponjcus) the vicinity (0-550 yds). Since the simulator was installed
after the majority of the birds had arrived, it is not known
what effect a gas compressor would have on territory selection.

Bald Eagles Stalmaster and field observation human presence, The authors concluded that wintering bald eagles can become
(Haliaeetus Newman, 1978 boat traffic habituated to moderate, routine human activities. However,
T-eucoc-ep-Fialus) the study also showed that human activity had a significant in-
fluence on the eagle's feeding behavior. The mere presence of
humans disrupted their feeding behavior causing the birds to
abandon the feeding area for several hours until the distur-
bance no longer persisted. Activities occurring directly on
the channel of the river studied, such as boating and fishing,
were the most disturbing if they varied from normal activity
patterns.

Species/liabitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation.

OTHER

Nearshore waters Maline and field observation underwater noise Test to determine underwater noise levels from drilling rigs
Mlawski, 1978 from drilling rigs, indicated that very little noise was transmitted to the under-
ice environment from the two drilling locations studied. Most
of the noise decayed rapidly within .5-1.0 miles from the rig.
Some low frequency sound (30 Hz) could be detectid with so-
phisticated equipment at 4-6 mi. In open water conditions, 5
Ilz component from Reindeer drilling rig might be detectable tip
to 5 mi. seaward.

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

a low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of noise and distur-

bance (see Map B). These designations were based on existing data and

were made after evaluating the following criteria.

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to noise and disturbance.

2. Species sensitivity to noise and disturbance during the various

stages of their life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

-and the period during which each species would be most affected.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The species' population numbers and relative importance of the

population.

8. The degree to which the impacts of noise and disturbance could

be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during the course

of ranking included:

1. Birds and mammals would be most affected by the adverse impacts

of noise and disturbance. Blasting would be the only distur-

bance which would affect fish populations.

2. Sensitive bird and mammal species would be most affected by

long-term noise and disturbance. Short-term or occasional

disturbances would be less disruptive and could be mitigated

by careful timing or siting of the activity.

3. Species most affect ed by the adverse impacts of noi se and

disturbance would be those in which the disturbance results in

direct mortality or abandonment.of breeding grounds (nesting

birds),or those species which are-confined to a discrete

habitat during a.critical life history stage (marine mammals

on haulouts).

4. Moderate sensitivity designations were applied to those areas

where it was felt that the adverse impacts of noise and dis-

turbance on a species or life stage could be mitigated or

prevented by careful siting o@ timing of activities. Also

included in this category were areas utilized by sensitive

species during a critical life history stage but which were

large enough to allow siting of activities away from nest

sites, etc. Salmon spawning streams, raptor nesting areas,

moose and grizzly bear concentrations along streams, and

marine mammal and seabird harvest areas are included in moderate

sensitivity designations.

5. Possible polar bear denning areas were ranked as being mod-

erately sensitive because actual denning has not been verified.

The presence of polar bears on St. Lawrence Island (site of

the possible denning) is not a yearly occurrence but is

dependent upon ice conditions. Areas habitually used by

denning polar bears would be ranked as highly sensitive to

.noise and disturbance.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity was given to areas where impacts on

fish and wildlife from noise and disturbance would be less adverse than

in moderate or high sensitiv-ity areas. Activities causing noise and

disturbance in low sensitivity areas should be conducted in compliance

with existing environmental regulations such as Federal noise level

standards and Federal Aviation Administration flight regulations.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of moderate sensitivity was given to areas where adverse

impacts from noise and disturbance could be prevented, minimized, or

ameliorated. Habitats included in the moderate sensitivity category

are:

1. Salmon streams

2. Waterfowl and shoreb ird spring concentration areas

3. Raptor nesting areas

4. Marine mammal feeding and migration areas including: ringed
seal important habitats and high density areas; belukha whale
and gray whale feeding areas; belukha whale, gray whale, and
bowhead whale migration areas; and walrus calving, migration,
and wintering areas; and, belukha whale calving areas

5. Polar bear denning sites (possible) and migratio n routes

6. Grizzly bear spring feeding areas and prime summer habitat

7. Moose overwintering areas

8. Muskox overwintering and calving concentration area

9. Belukha whale, bowhead whale, waterfowl, seabird and seal
subsistence harvest@areas

The following mitigating measures should be employed when conducting

activities causing noise and disturbance in areas ranked as being mod-

erately sensitive to noise and disturbance.

General Mitigations

1. Facilities should be sited away from highly sensitive habitats

(see Map B).

2. Noise generating activities such as helicopter and boat

traffic, blasting or construction should be scheduled at times

and places when there will be minimal. impacts on fish and

wildlife. Schedule activities in sensitive areas to non-

sensitive times (see Table 5

Facility Siting

1. Site facilities with high levels of visual and acoustical

disturbance away from.biologically productive areas (sound

levels decrease with distance).

2. Facilities should be sited a minimum of one mile away from
critical habitats such as seabird colonies and peregrine

falcon nesting cliffs.

3. Site facilities where physical barriers such as irregular

terrain will prevent sound and visual impacts from occurring

over a wide area.

4. Provide vegetative buffer zones around facilities. Indigenous

vegetation should be left during the site clearing wherever

possible.

5. Use machinery that produces less noise, i.e. modify the

design of equipment to reduce noise; equip machinery with

parts such as mufflers that will reduce noise.

6. Conduct activities with high levels of acoustical and visual

disturbance during periods of least biological activity

Helicopters and Fixed7Wing Aircraft

1. Helicopters and fixed wing aircraft should maintain a 'Vertical

distance of at least 1,500 feet, and a horizontal distance of

one mile from sensitive areas during critical life history

stages (see Table 5

2. Under no circumstances should flights over sensitive areas be

less than 500 feet. VFR flights over sensitive areas such as
seabird colonies, should be cancelled when ceilings below 500

feet have,been reported by flight service stations or other

pilots. Wildlife observed while flying at 500 feet should be

avoided by a one-quarter mile horizontal distance.

3. During all phases of oiland gas development, aircraft,
especially helicopters, should follow fixed flight paths which
avoid'sensitive areas during.critical times.

4. If flights over sensitive habitats cannot be avoided during

critical periods, the number of aircraft flying over these

@areas should be minimized.

5. Rapid, linear flight over animals causes less disturbance than

circling. Under no circumstances should helicopters unnecessarily

hover or circle over animals.

6. If flight over a bird nesting cliff.during the breeding season

becomes necessary due to weather or other unavoidable circumstances,

aircraft should approach the cliff as directly as possible.

An approach from behind the cliff may result in the sudden

appearance and sound of an aircraft directly above the nesting

site, causing panicked flight by the attending adults and

fatal damage to the eggs or young.

7. Helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft landing areas should be

located at a sufficient distance from sensitive areas so that

minimum altitudes can be attained before aircraft overfly any

sensitive areas.

8. Orientation classes should be conducted for all new pilots to

aquaint them with the long term effects of aircraft disturbance

on wildlife populations and State laws relating to harassment

of wildlife.

9. In order to establish effective aircraft operation restrictions

in sensitive areas, specific studies need to be conducted on

of the effects aircraft disturbance on a variety of mammals

and birds found in the Norton Sound-Bering Sea region.

Boats

1. Boats engaged in oil and gas exploration, development, and

production should maintain a distance of at least one mile

from sensitive areas during critical periods (see Table 5

2. Oil support activities (such as gravel supply barges, supply

boats, and tankers) should avoid all marine mammal concentrations

during critical periods.

3. Sirens or horns should not be used near bird colonies or

marine mammal haulouts.

4. Navigational aids such as foghorns, or flashing lights should

not be placed in or near seabird colonies or marine mammal

haulout areas.

Seismic Exploration

1. Seismic exploration should be conducted using only no,n-explosive

techniques which do not physically harm fish and wildlife.

2. If a situation arises where non-explosive techniques cannot be

used, and underwater blasting is necessary to protect human

life, prevent environmental damage, or protect property,

blasting programs should be designed to reduce energy transmitted

to the surrounding waters. Techniques such as blast curtains,

small delayed charges, jetted charges, etc. will minimize

environmental damage from blasting.

3. To protect ringed seals and marine fish, under-ice pressures

from explosive detonations on the ice should not exceed 3 psi.

4. Terrestrial blasting should be: 1) conducted during nonsensitive

periods; 2) limited in favor of mechan.ical me thods wherever

possible and desirable; and 3) conducted with reduced charges,

timed delays or muffled in other ways to reduce noise transmission

to surrounding areas.

5. Where possible, there should be coordination of seismic programs

among operators to minimize duplication. Overlapping or

duplicate seismic programs by various companies can intensify

and prolong the disturbance in an area.

6. Onshore seismic activity should be conducted during the winter

mont hs when overland travel causes the least damage to the

tundra. Winter is also the period of lowest biological sensitivity

for most wildlife species. Vehicular traffic should be restricted

to the immediate area of operations.

7. No seismic surveys should be conducted in the shorefast ice

zone after March 20. Ringed seals begin pupping and rearing

young after this date. Along the Beaufort Sea coast, ringed

seal abundance in areas where seismic exploration has occurred

is only one-half to one-third that of undisturbed areas.

8. In the shorefast ice zone, seismic shot lines should be spaced

at intervals of no less than two miles, or the areas of seismic

exploration should be as restricted as possible.

9. Seismic surveys should maintain a minimum distance of one mile

from sensitive habitats during sensitive periods (see Map B).

Explosives should not be used within two miles of peregrine

falcon nests during the period of April 15 to August 31.

10. Explosives detonated near a fish bearing waterbody should be

detonated at a sufficient distance so that induced water

pressures within the waterbody do not exceed 2 psi. The

following table provides minimum stream setbacks for various

substrate types and charge sizes.

CHARGE WEIGHT - POUNDS.

Substrate 1 2 5 10 25 100 500 1000

Rock 53 75 118 167 269 529 1182 1671

DISTANCE TO WATERBODY-FEET
Stiff Clay 42 60 95 134 211 423 946 1337

Gravel 41 59 93 131 207 414 927 1310

Clayey Silt 37 52 82 116 184 368 823 1163
Dense Sand

Medium to 32 46 72 102 162 324 724 1024
Dense Sand

Medium 21 29 46 66 104 207 463 655
Organic Clay

Soft Organic 19 28 43 61 97 194 435 615
Clay

These charge weights are for single detonations separated by

at least 8 milliseconds from the next charge (i.e. if 1000

pounds of charge are detonated in 10 detonations of 100 pounds

each, separated by at least 8 milliseconds, the distance for

100 pounds ca n be used as the minimum distance from the waterbody).

The State of Alaska prohibits the use of high explosives for

seismic work in lakes, steams, and marine waters of the State.

Human Presence

l.. Human visitation to sensitive habitats during critical times

should be restricted in order to maintain populations of

wildlife.

2. All human activities should be prohibited within one mile of

peregrine falcon nesting cliffs between April 1 and August 15.

3. Orientation classes for all employees, including management

and supervisory personnel, should be required so as to inform

personnel of the dangers, adverse biological consequences, and

legal ramifications of animal feeding.

4. All management personnel should be taught proper garbage

disposal methods in order to eliminate animal feeding.

5. Construction camps, garbage dumps and incinerators should be

fenced and buildings skirted in order to minimize human and

animal conflicts.

6. All edible garbage must be thoroughly incinerated or buried to

prevent conflicts between humans and animals.

7. Regulations to minimize human and animal contacts must be

developed and enforced. An effective regulation and enforcement

program must be administered by personnel beyond the influence

of contractors or unions. Companies should ha.ve policies

which penalize violators.

8. Specific research on animal harrassment should be included as

part of the design criteria for any oil and gas development

plan wherever these activities will impact a sensitive area or

a new species.

In order to'implement these guidelines, site specific studies will

have to be conducted on a case-by-case basis. In instances where

information is not available regarding the effects of noise and

disturbance on the various stages of animal life history, more

research will have to be done to determine the extent of the problem.

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of high sensitivity was given to habitats where impacts.

from noise and disturbance would be extremely adverse to wildlife popu-

lations. While all phases of oil and gas development will produce a

certain amount of noise and disturbance activities and facilities which

produce year round disturbance will have a greater adverse impact on

wildlife than those activities which occur only occasionally during the

year.

Habitats included in the high sensitivity category are:

1. Seabird colonies and concentrations of seabirds at the base of
colonies

2. Waterfowl and shorebird nesting, molting, and staging areas
including: major and important.staging areas; waterfowl and
emperor geese molting-areas; snow geese and emperor geese
staging areas; swan nesting/use areas; sandhill crane use
area; and important shorebird habitat

3. Peregrine falcon nesting/use areas

4. Marine mammal haulouts including: recurrent and occasional
walrus haulouts, spotted seal haulouts and feeding areas; and
sea lion haulouts

5. Moose winter concentration.areas

6. Grizzly bear denning areas

In order to maintain wildlife populations, oil and gas facilities or

other activities with a high level of disturbance which will continually

disrupt the environment, should not be sited in areas which are highly

sensitive to noise and disturbance.

TABLE 5 MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON BOUND SPECIES OR,
HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO NOISE AND DISTURBANCE.
FISH SHELLFISH JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT GOT DE C

SALMON STREAM

BIRDS
BEASIRD
COLONY
CONCENTRATION ON WATER AT
BASE OF COLONY

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR OTAGIP40 AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

WATERFOWL AND GHORF;BIND
SPRING CONCENTRATION AREA I

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLTING AREA
bTAOING AREA

SHOW GEESE STAGING AREA

SWAN NEBTINGIUSE AREA

CANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

RAPTOR NESTING AREA

PEREGRINE FALCON
NESTINGIUSE AREA

MAMMALS
RINGED SEAL
IMPORTANT HABITAT
HIGH DENSITY AREA

SPOTTED SEAL
HAULOUT AND FEEDING AREA

BEA LION HAULOUT

WALRUS
RECURRENT HAULOUT
OCCASIONAL HAULOUT
CALVING AND MIGRATION AREA
WINTERING AREA

UELUK"A WHALE
NEARSHORF FEEDING AREA
CALVING AREA
MIGRATION AREA
DOWIIEAO WHALE MIGRATION AREA@
GRAY WHALE
MIGRATION AREA
FEEDING AREA to

TABLE 6: (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORT14ERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES On
HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO NOISE AND DIST URBANCE.

POLAR BEAR JAN Fee MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
POSSIBLE DENNING SITE
MOVEMENTS THROUGH AREA

MOOSE
WINTER CONCENTRATION AREA

GRIZZLY BEAR
SPRING FEEDING AREA
DENNING
SUMMER PRIME HABITAT

MUSKOX
WINTER AND CALVING
CONCENTRATION AREA

HARVEST ACTIVITIES
SUBSISTENCE HARVEST AREA
WATERFOWL
SEABIRD
BEAL
WALRUS
BELUKHA WHALE
BOWHEAD WHALE

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T
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I

DRILLRE IMMS MD CMINGS

Sources and Biological Effects

During the exploration and development phases of offshore oil and gas

extraction, exploratory wells are first drilled to determine if oil and

gas are present. If hydrocarbons are discovered in commercial quantities,

platforms are erected and a number of development wells are drilled to

extract hydrocarbonsfrom an oil bearing formation. While drilling,

adverse environmental impacts may result from the discharge of drilling

muds and drill cuttings into marine waters. The extent of mud and

cuttings discharge will vary in direct proportion to the depth and

diameter of the hole being drilled. When drilling a very shallow well

the total volume of mud and cuttings may only be 2,000 barrels; however,
very deep wells may produce discharge volumes as high as 100,006 barrels

(Moseley, 1980).

Drilling Muds

Drilling muds are special mixtures of clay, water (or oil) and chemicals

which are circulated into the drilling hole to cool and lubricate the

drill bit, to remove formation cuttings from the hole, and to prevent

blowouts by holding back formation pressures exerted by oil and gas

accumulations (McDermott & Co., undated). Throughout the drilling

process muds are recirculated after cuttings and other debris are removed.
Large volumes of mud are discharged into'the marine environment usually

after surface casings of wells have been set, or as the wells are completed

(Sheen Technical Subcommittee, 1976). In some cases, the muds are

stored for future drilling activities once drilling terminates (Clark

and Terrell, 1978).

Drilling fluids and their chemical components may at times be acutely

toxic to fish and marine invertebrates. (Daugherty, 1951; Falk and

Lawrence, 1973; B.C. Research, 1975; Tornberg et al., 1980). The effects

of drilling muds on marine species are related to: a) the composition

of the mud, b) the quantity and rate of mud discharged, c) the nature of

the receiving waters, and d) the biological sensitivity of species

present. It has additionally been reported that "used" muds (downhole

circulated) are more toxic to marine species than "fresh" muds (laboratory

aged), therefore, characteristics acquired by muds during the drilling

process may also be a determining factor in toxicity (Thompson and

Bright, 1980; McAuliffe and Palmer, 1976). Simple drilling muds without

additives can be classified as representing low to moderately toxic

compounds. Because of the relatively low toxicity of simple drilling

muds, most adverse effects will result from the discharge of muds into

shallow waters, water bodies with limited circulation or mixing, or

waters containing high concentrations of eggs, larvae, or sensitive

juvenile or adult organisms. Drilling muds which contain highly toxic

additives to deal with specific drilling problems will be toxic under

any circumstances, but the biological effects of these muds will be most

severe in marine or freshwater areas where little dilution or mixing

occurs.

The most commonly used components of water-based muds are barite, caustic

soda, bentonite clays, and lignosulfonates. Of these, soda and lignosulfonates

are usually considered the most toxic (Dames and Moore, 1978). Ferrochrome

lignosulfonate, a heavy metal compound, may be freed by chemical reactions

when released into the marine environment, resulting in contami-nation of

surrounding waters and possible toxicity to aquatic organisms (Lawrence

& Scherer, 1974). Heavy metals are often essential or non-toxic to

organisms in low concentrations but become toxic in high concentrations.

Even if the concentration of a heavy metal in water is not immediately

lethal, it may accumulate in animal tissues until lethal levels are

reached (NERBC, 1976). Heavy metal contamination can affect living

organisms or ecosystems by 1) changing the species composition in the

area where the effluent is discharged, 2) disrupting the biological

systems of individual organisms, and 3) accumulating in members of the

food chain until the predators in higher trophic levels are affected

(APOA & Environment Canada, 1976). In drilling the Norton Sound COST

well, chrome lignosulfonate in concentrations of 18,000-24,000 fluid

parts per million were present in the mud mixture used (USGS, 1981).

Although barite and bentonite are not considered toxic to plants and

animals they do contribute to the suspended solids content of a drilling

mud and are of concern because upon discharge they increase the turbidity

(cloudiness) of the surrounding water causing a slight decrease in the

production of phytoplankton and macrophytes. Possible effects of suspended

solids on organisms living in the marine environment include irritation

of sensitive membranes, suffocation, decreased resistance to disease,

behavorial changes, reduced rate of growth, increased oxygen demand, and

changes in the development of juvenile fish (Dames and Moore, 1978).

Caustic soda is used primarily to reduce bacterial growth in drilling

mud by maintaining a high pH (Dames & Moore, 1978). Studies have shown

that caustic soda is lethal to various aquatic species in concentrations

of 70 to 450 ppm (Daugherty, 1950). Falk and Lawrence (1973) recorded

the LC50 for rainbow trout exposed-to caustic soda at 105 ppm. Muds

used in drilling the Norton Sound COST well contained caustic soda

concentration mixtures of 600-5,000 fluid parts per million (USGS,

1981). In addition to barite, caustic soda, bentonite clays and lignosulfonates,

drilling muds may contain other chemicals such as viscosifiers, emulsifiers,

completion chemicals, thinners, and preservatives (see Table 6). Most

of these chemicals are used.in drilling deep wells or in dealing with

special drilling problems. Although these special mud additives are

rarely used in large quantities, many of them are extremely toxic

(Table 7). Sodium pentachlorophenate (Dowicide G), a bactericide used

in drilling fluids, is lethal to fish at 0.06 ppm (McKee and Wolf,

1963). Trivalent chromium salts which are generally used concurrently

with XC polymers in drilling fluids are toxic to aquatic life at 0.3-1

ppm (Land, 1974). Hexavalent chromium, a major source of aquatic toxicity

in drilling fluids, can occur in concentrations of up to 450 ppm in mud,

and is harmful to aquatic biological systems at concentrations of 0.1 to

0.4 ppm (Land, 1974). Several highly toxic compounds are also used for

lubrication and clearing in the drilling process, including Skot-Free,

B-Free, Swift Rig Wash, and Dominion Rig Wash. Their 96 hour LC50

values for rainbow trout were 52, 19, 22, and 14 p"pm respectively (Logan

et al., 1973).

Another potential adverse impact resulting from the discharge of drilling

muds occurs through an accumulation of muds on the bottom. Muds which

settle to the bottom can smother benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms 99
which are incapable of moving out of a disturbed area (Dames & Moore,

1978). Mobile species might not be smothered, but still may be affected

by a destruction of habitat or loss of food material (APOA & Environment

Canada, 1976). Nesel oil or other chemicals added to muds to facilitate

the drilling of deep wells can adhere to mud particles and settle to the

bottom, thereby polluting the substrate. Filter feeding animals such as

clams can filter out oil from sediments and concentrate i t causing them

to develop an unpalatable oily taste. St. Amant (1957) reported that as

little as 500 ppm of oil in.mud can cause adverse reactions in oysters,

and 1 ppm of oil in a running water system will be concentrated by

oysters kept at that concentration for,several weeks.

Much of the literature presently available, attempts to establish lethal

or acute toxic values rather than sub-lethal or behavioral responses to

mud induced stress. Furthermore, studies have shown a-wide variability

regarding 96 hour LC50 values for whole drilling muds, whole mud extracts,

and various mud components. This variability has made it difficult to

establish 96 hour LC50 guidelines (see Table 7). Much of the variability

can be attributed to experimental technique and dissimilar drilling

fluid characteristics. Reported LC50 values for whole muds generally

fall in the range of 10,000 to greater then 100,000 ppm (BLM, unpub.

data a). In a study conducted by Dames and Moore (_1978) using aquatic

species of fish and marine invertebrates common to Cook Inlet, pink

salmon fry were found to have the greatest susceptibility to drilling

fluids, with 96 hour LC50 values ranging from 3,000 to 29,000 ppm.

Tornberg et al. (1980), utilizing marine species from the Beaufort Sea

100

Table 6

Common Drilling Fluid Components

Description Primary Application

Weighting Agents And Viscosifiers

Barite For increasing mud weight up to 20 lbs/gal.
Calcium Carbonate For increasing weight of oil muds up to
10.8 lbs/gal.
Bentonite Viscosity and filtration control in water
base muds.
Sub-Bentonite For use when larger particle size is de-
sired for viscosity and filtration control.
Attapulgite Viscosifier in salt water muds.
Beneficiated Bentonite Quick viscosity in fresh water upper hole
muds with minimum chemical treatment.
Asbestos Fibers Viscosifier for fresh or salt water muds.
Bacterially Produced Viscosifier and fluid loss control additive
Large Organic Polymer for low solids muds.

Dispersants

Sodium Tetraphosphate Thinner for low pH fresh water muds.
Sodium Acid Phyrophosphate For treating cement contamination.
Quebracho Compound Thinner for fresh water and lime muds.
Causticized Quebracho 1-2 ratio caustic-Quebracho for thinning
low pH fresh water muds.
Hemlock Extract Thinner for fresh water muds and in muds
containing salt (10,000 to 15,000 ppm).
Modified Tannin Thinner for fresh and salt water muds
alkalized for pH control.
Causticized Lignite 1-6 ratio caustic-lignite dispersant,
emulsifier and supplementary fluid
loss additive.
Calcium Lignosulfonate Thinner for SCR and lime muds.
Modified Lignosulfonate Dispersant and fluid loss control additive
for water base muds.
Blended Lignosulfonate Dispersant, fluid loss agent and inhibitor
Compound for RD-111 mud systems.

Fluid Loss Reducers

Pregelatinized Controls fluid loss in saturated salt
Starch water, lime and SCR muds.
Sodium Carboxymethyl For fluid loss control and barite suspension
Cellulose in water base muds.
Sodium Carboxymethyl For fluid loss control,and viscosity building
Cellulose in low solids muds

101

Description Primary Application

Fluid Loss Reducers - Continued

Sodium Carboxymethyl For fluid loss control in gyp, sea water
Cellulose and fresh water muds.
Polyanionic Cellulosic For fluid loss control and visosifier
Polymer in salt muds.
Sodium Polyacrylate For fluid loss control in calcium free
. low solids muds.
Sodium polyacrylate For fluid loss control in low solids muds.

Lubricants, detergents, emulsifiers

Extreme Pressure Used in water base muds to impart extreme
Lubricants pressure lubricity.
Processed Hydrocarbons Used in water base muds to lower down-
hole fluid loss and minimize heaving
shale.
Oil Dispersible Used in water base muds to aid in con-
Asphalts trolling heaving shale.
Oil Soluble Used for spotting around differentially
Surfactants stuck pipe
Detergent Used in wate@ base muds to aid in dropping
sand. Emulsifies oil, reduces torque
and minimizes bit balling.
Non-Ionic Emulsifier Emu.lsifier for surfactant muds.
Blend of Anionic Emulsifier for salt and fresh water muds.
. Surfactants
An Organic Entity Non-Polluting Lubricant for water base
Neutralized with muds.
Amines
Blend of Fatty Acids Used for spotting around differentially
Sulfonates, Asphaltic stuck pipe where weights in excess
Materials 10 ppg are requi red.

Defoamers, Flocculants, Bactericides

Aluminum Stearate Defoamer for lignosulfonate muds.
Sodium Alkyl Aryl Defoamer for saturated salt muds.
Sulfanate
Flocculating Agent Used to drop drilled solids where clear
water is desirable for a drilling fluid.
Paraformaldehyde Prevents starch from fermenting when
used in muds of less than saturation or
alkalinity less than 1 cc.
Sodium Pentachlorophenate Bactericide used to prevent fermentation.

Lost Circulation materials

Fibrous Material Fillo@r as well as matting material.

102

Description Primary Application

Lost Circulation Materials - Continued

Fibrous Mineral Often used in areas where acids are later
Wool employed to destroy the material.
Walnut Shells-
Fine Most often used to prevent lost circulation.
Medium Used in conjunction with fibers or flakes
to regain lost circulation.
Coarse Used where large crevices or fractures are
G.round Mica- encountered.
Fine Used for prevention of lost circulation.
Coarse Forms a good mat at face of well bore.
Cellophane Used to regain lost circulation.
Combination of granules, Used where large crevices or fractures
flakes and fibrous are encountered.
materials of various
sizes in one sack.
Blended high fluid One sack mixture for preparing soft plugs
loss soft plugging for severe lost circulation.
material

Specialty Products

Shale Control Calcium chloride mud for inhibiting
Reagent the swelling of bentonitic shales.
Bentonite Extender Increases yield of bentonite to form
very low solids drilling fluid.
Non-Ionic Surfactant Primary surfactant for formulating
surfactant muds. May be used in hot
holes for viscosity stability.
Filming - Amine Corrosion inhibitor.

Commercial Chemicals

Sodium Chromate Used in water base muds to prevent high
temperature gelation and as a corro-
sion inhibitor.
Sodium Hydroxide For pH control in water base muds.
Sodium Carbonate For treating out calcium sulfate in
low pH muds.
Sodium Bicarbonate For treating out calcium sulfate or
cement in high pH muds.
Barium Carbonate For treating out calcium sulfate (pH
should be above 10 for best results).
Calcium Sulfate Source of calcium for formulating
gyp muds.
Calcium Hydroxide Source of calcium for formulating
lime muds.

103

Description Primary Application

Commercial Chemicals - Continued

Sodium Chloride For saturated salt muds and resistivity
control.
Potassium Hydroxide For pH stability and inhibition.
Chrome Alum For use in cross-linking XC Polymer
(chromic chloride) systems.

Oil Base and Invert Emulsion Muds

Invert Emulsion Protects sensitive producing formulations.
(Water in Diesel Oil)
Oil Base Mud Basically same application as Ken-X.
Gelatinous Oil Base For casing recovery, corrosion control
Fluid and protection of fresh water sands.

Emulsifiers for Invert Emulsions

Primary Emulsifier Primary additives to form stable water-
in-oil emulsion.
Viscosity and Gel Provides weight suspension.
Builder
Hi-Temperature Improves emulsion under high temperature
Stabilizer conditions.
Hi-Tempierature Improves emulsion, weight suspension and
Stabilizer fluid loss under high temperature con-
ditions.

Source: BLM, 1978

Table 7
Summary of Published Drifffing FTuid Component Toxicities
(Adapted front: McAuliffe and Palmer, 1976
BLM, unpub. data a)

Toxicit
Bioassayl/ Test LC50-9U/, ppm 3/
Test Material. Media ____krqa n i @m (Unless Otherwise indicated) Reference

Adgo F28 F Rainbow trout 480,000 Beak Consultants, 1974
Aluminum Sterate F Rainbow trout 11100 Beckett et al., 1975
Amtno n i um phosphate F Rainbow trout 100 (toxic) Beck Consultants, 1974
Aminonium sulphate F Rainbow trout 100 (toxic)
Aqugel (Wyoming Bentonite) M American oyster 7,500 (nontoxic) Daugherty, 1957
Barite M American oyster 50-60 (LC50-216)
M Various organisms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
F Sailfin molly 100,000 Grantham and Sloan, 1975
M Sailfin molly 100,000 Grantham and Sloan, 1975
F Rainbow trout 7,500 (threshold LC50) Falk and Lawrence, 1973
F Rainbow trout 24,000 Beak Consultants, 1974
Barite fluid extract F Rainbow trout nontoxic Shaw, 1975
Bark extract modified hemlock M White shrimp 265 Chesser and McKenzie, 1975
Baroyd M American oyster nontoxic Daugherty, 1957
Ben-Ex F Rainbow trout 527-836* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Bentonite F Rainbow trout 10,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Bentonite M American oyster 110-119 (LC50-192 day) Cabrera, 1968
Bentonite fluid extract F Rainbow trout 28,570 (nontoxic) Shaw, 1975
M Sailfin molly 100,000 Grantham and Sloan, 1975
Calcium chloride F Water Flea (Daphnia) 920 (Threshold
immobilization) Anderson, et al., 1948
Calcium chloride F Mosquito Fish 13,400 Wallen et al., 1957
Calcium chloride F Bluegill 10,650 Williams and Jones, 1975
Capryl alcohol F Rainbow trout 56-100* Falk and Lawrence, 1957
Carbonox (lignitic material) M Various organisms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
F Rainbow trout 1,300 Beckett et al., 1975
Carboxy methyl cellulose,
regular F Rainbow trout 10,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1975
Carboxy methyl cellulose,
Ifl-Vis F Rainbow trout 10,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1975
Caustic soda (NaOH) F Rainbow trout 730 Logan et al., 1973
Cellulose-Calcium carbonate
workover additive M White shrimp 1,925 Chesser and McKenzie, 1975
Cement (oil well) M Various organisms 70-450 Daugherty, 1957
Chromate Cr+6, soft water F Mosquito fish 107 Wallen et al., 1957
Chrome lignosulfonate F Sailfin molly 7,800 Daugherty, 1957
Chrome lignosulfonate F Rainbow trout 5,600 Deak Consultants, 074
Chrome lignosulforiate M White shrimp 465 Chesser and McKenzie, 1975
Chrome lignosulfonate M Sallfin molly 12,200 Hol I ingsworth and
Lockhart, 1975
Crude oil F Rainbow trout 400 (lethal) Shaw, 1975
Cypan F Rainbow trout 1,200-1,300 Beckett et al., 1975
Desco F Rainbow trout 1,200 Beckett et al., 1975

Toxicity
Bioassayy Test LC50-96Y, ppm 3/
Test Material Media Orqanism (Unless Otherwise indicated) Reference

Dextrid F Rainbow trout I Beckett et a]., 1975
Diatomaceous earth fluid
D@Xtract F Rainbow trout 14,285 (not lethal) Shaw, 1975
!chromate Cr+6 hard water F Bluegill 133 Logan et a]., 1973
Dichromate Cr+6 soft water F Mosquito fish 100 Wallen et al., 1957
F Bluegill 118 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Dodecyl sodium sulphate F Rainbow trout 5-7 Beak Consultants, 1974
Dominion rig wash F Rainbow trout 10-18 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Dowicide-B F Rainbow trout 0.75 Beckett et al., 1975

Ferrochrome lignosulfonate M Rainbow trout 1,140-2,050 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Fibertex M Various organ i sms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
Formaldehyde F Water Flea (Daphnia) 2 (48-hr threshold McKee and Wolf. 1963
conc.)
Formaldehyde M&F Salmon 26 (c ritical) McKee and Wolf, 1963

Gilsonite, powdered F Rainbow trout 100 (nontoxic) Shaw, 1975
Gypsum F Rainbow trout 756,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Imperes (progelantinized I
starch) Various organisms 500-7,500 Daugherty, 1957
Iron Carbonate (siderite) F Sailfin molly 10,000 Grantham and Sloan, 1975
Iron lignosulfonate M White shrimp 2,100 Chesser and McKenzie, 1975
Jelflake (shredded M Various organisms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
cellophane) -

Kelzan-XC(polymer Xanthum
gum) F Rainbow trout 100-560* Falk and Lawrence, 1973

Lignite F Sailfin molly 24,500 Hollingsworth and
Lockhart, 1975
Lignite M Sailfin molly 15,000 (100%survival) Hollingsworth and
Lockhart, 1975
Lignosulfonate thinners F Rainbow trout 100 (toxic) Shaw, 1975

Metso beads F/ Rainbow trout 100-560* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Mica (mica flakes) M Various organisms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
Montmorillonite clay F Water flea 100 (toxic) Robinson, 1957

Oilfos (sodium tetraphosphate) M Various organisms 7,500 Daugherty, 1957
Paraformaldeh@yde F Rainbow trout 46-78* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Phosphoric acid ester
disperant F Rainbow trout 10 (toxic) Shaw, 1975
polyacrylamide bentonite
flocculent F Rainbow trout 100 (nontoxic) Shaw, 1975
Polyacrylate, low molecular
wt. M White shrimp 3,500
Potassium chloride F Water flea (Daphnia) 432 (threshold conc.) Anderson et al., 1948
F Water flea 317 (LC56-48) Beisinger and Christensen,
1972
Potassium chloride F Mosquito fish 920 Wallen et al., 1957
Potassium chloride F Bluegill 2,010 Dowden and Bennett, 1965

C)
Ln

106

Toxity Reference
Bioassayy Test LC50-962/. ppm 3/
Test Material Media Organism (Unless Otherwise inditated)

Potassium chloride, F Rainbow trout 1,920-2,090* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Potassium chloride. reagent
grade F Rainbow trout 1 (lethal) Shaw, 1975
Potassium chromium sulphate F Rainbow trout 560-1,000* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Potassiumchromic sulphate Pickering and Henderson,
Cr+3, soft water F Bluegill 8.5 1966
Potassium chromic sulphate Pickering and Henderson,
Cr+3, hard water F Bluegill 72 1966
Quadrafos M Various organisms 500-7,500 Daugherty, 1957
Quebracho F Sailfin molly 135 Hollingsworth and
Lockhart, 1975

Rig wash compound F Rainbow trout 7,200 (lethal) Shaw, 1975

Skot-free F Rainbow trout 36-76* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Sodium acid pyrophosphate F Various organisms 500 (toxic) Daugherty, 1957
Sodium acid pyrophosphate F Sailfin Molly 1,200 Hollingsworth and
Lockhart, 1975
Sodium bicarbonate F Rainbow trout 7,500 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Sodium chloride F Water flea (Daphnia) 3,660 (threshold conc.) Anderson et al., 1948
F Water flea (Daphnia) 4,625 Beisinger and Christensen,
1972
Sodium chloride F Mosuito fish 17,550 Wallen et al., 1957
Sodium pyrophosphate F Rainbow trout 662-1,140 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Spersene F Rainbow trout 2,500-5,000 Beckett et al., 1975
Sump fluid, composite F Lake chub 225,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Sump fluid, surface F Lake chub 810,000 Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Swift's rig wash F Rainbow trout 11-41* Falk and Lawrence, 1973
Visbestos F Rainbow trout 2,730 Beckett et al., 1975

l/ F = Freshwater
M = Estuarine or marine water
2/ LC50-X = lethal or Median toncentration giving 50% mortality in X hours
3/ ppin is mg/l * range of 95% confidence level
* range of 95% confidence level

107

reported that fish were the most sensitive species tested, and that

invertebrates included both sensitive and relati.vely resistant species.

For invertebrates, 96 hour LC50 values ranged from 310,000 to greater

than 700,,000 ppm for isopods, snails and polychaetes; 221,000 to 381,000

ppm for amphipods; and less than 60,000 to 215,000 ppm for mysids.

Ninety-six hour LC50 values for all fish tested (fourhorn scul.pin, broad

whitefish, Arctic cod, saffron cod and Arctic cisco) ranged between

40,000 and 400,000 ppm. The authors further suggest some correlative

relationship exists between the type of drilling fluid used, the depth

of the well, and the measured acute toxicity. Hrudey (1979), evaluating

the acute toxicity of wastewater from exploratory drilling operations,

reported that surface hole and bottom hole muds are generally more toxic

than intermediate hole muds. The acute toxicity associated with surface

hole mud is apparently due to potash content. The bottom hole mud

toxicity is attributed to lignosulfonates and barites. In most instances

dilution within the water column should significantly decrease the

toxicity of most drilling fluids except in areas very near their point

of discharge. Conversely, some components such as bactericides and.

heavy metals are extremely toxic to marine species, and may accumulate

in the water column or underlying sediments if sufficient current or

tidal mixing is not available to disperse them.

A number of field studies have attempted to quantify the extent of heavy

metal accumulation around active drilling rigs and assess the effects on

benthic communities. In California, a study co6ducted by Ecomar Inc. -

(1978) in the Tanner Bank offshore area'reported pre-drilling background

levels of barium in sediment ranged from 8.7 to 156.0 mg/kg; chromium

108

was recorded at less than 7.0 mg/kg; and lead concentrations ranged from

0.3 to 1.8 mg/kg. Post-drilling levels revealed barium levels ranging

between 173 and 1680 mg/kg; chromium from less than 0.5 to 6.11 mg/kg;

and lead varied from less than 0.7 to 9.9 mg/kg. A water sample taken

0.75 kilometers (.46 miles) from the discharge pipe contained over 10

times the background concentration of lead and chromium and over 5 times

as much barium during a fluid discharge rate of 754 bbl/hr. A sample

taken 2-3 meters (6.5 to 9.8 feet) from the pipe was about 500 times

higher in lead and barium, and the chromium concentration was 1000 times

background levels (Liss et al., 1980). Another study by Mobile Oil in

the East Flower Garden Bank found increases in barium (from 22 to 425

ppm), iron (from 8.5 to 13,000 ppm), and lead (from 4.6 to 12.7).

Generally, increased metal concentrations are usually confined to within

200 to 500 meters (656 to 1640 feet) of a drilling site (BLM,.unpub.

data a).

The results of studies into the effects of drilling fluids on benthic

communities are contradictory and sometimes inconclusive. This variablility

is probably due to the unique physical parameters associated with each

drill site (oceanography, geology, etc.), the composition and volume of

mud discharged, and the type of species present. In some instances

drilling fluids may depress benthic species density or biomass values in

the near vicinity of a discharge (Crippen and Hood, 1980), or they may

influence the surrounding benthic composition by selectively enhancing

or degrading a particular species habitat (Menzie et al., 1980). In

most cas s in deep, ixed waters
es the discharge of drilling mud well m

109

will not present the problems that occur in shallow marine and freshwater

areas where toxic components may accumulate in the water column or

sediment. Mud discharges in areas of intermediate depth are likely to

be variable in their effect, and further research will be needed in

order to resolve questions concerning the extent of their toxicity under

such conditions.

Drill Cuttings

Drill cuttings, composed of bottom sediments and pieces of pulverized

rock from underlying sedimentary geologic formations, are produced

during the course of drilling a well. These materials along with some

associated drilling muds are then discharged into surrounding waters.

Because of their coarseness most cuttings will rapidly settle out from

the discharged material and collect on the bottom near the point of

discharg e. The extent to which they accumulate and form piles will

depend on current speed in the drilling area, although wave energy may

also be an important factor. In shallow marine waters where currents

are low (less than 0.25 knots) discharged cuttings have been reported to

accumulateas mounds approximately 46 m (150 ft) in diameter (Zingula,

1976), and up to 6m (20 ft).in height (Carlisle et al., 1964). The

volume of cutt ings discharged from a platform will depend upon the depth

of a well and the number of wells drilled. A shallow well will produce

less cuttings than a deep well, and a single exploratory well will

produce considerably less cuttings than a producing platform where as

many as 20-30 wells may be drilled during the life of a field. Using 2

million pounds of cuttings as an average per well, 40-60 million pounds

of cuttings may be discharged from a production platform. If sediment

110

transport processes are weak these cuttings will be deposited in a small

area surrounding the discharge pipe, but if currents are strong the.

cuttings may be thinly distributed over several square miles.

Clean drill cuttings are non-toxic and their primary effect on the

aquatic environment will be a smothering of non-mobile benthic organisms

such as clams, anemones and marine plants. When cuttings accumulate to

more than 5 centimeters (2 inches) in depth it is likely that benthic

infauna (organisms living within the bottom substrate) and less mobile

epifauna (organisms living on the surface of the bottom substrate) will.

be severely affected (Dames & Moore, 1978). If a drilling platform

happened to be sited in a unique ecological location such as a larval

king crab settling area (which are usually limited in both size and

number, and presently remain unidentified in this region), and the

cuttings pi-le covered it, the negative effect could be significant.

Studies have further revealed that cutting piles may be colonized by a

variety of marine organisms such as fish and crabs which use the hard

substrate as a habitat (Menzie et al., 1980). If cuttings are deposited

on a sandy or silty bottom, the character of this newly formed benthic

community may differ from the already established,.natural community

(Dames & Moore, 1978).. Drill cuttings which are not adequately cleaned

before discharge may be contaminated with drilling muds and chemicals,

or with hydrocarbons from the producing formation. The toxi.city of

these cuttings and their effect on the marine environment will generally

be the same as the contaminating compoun.d, and their disposal should be

handled similarly.

Table 8 Effects of drilling muds and cuttings on fish, wildlife, aquatic plants and their habitats

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experim ent Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

FISH

SALMONIDS'

Acute/Toxic Effects

Pink Salmon Fry Dames & Moore, static bioassay drilling fluids 0.1-0.7% by volume 96 fir LC50's ranged from 0.3 to 2.9% by
(Oncorhynchus 1978 volume. Well stirred mixtures produced a much
lower (0.3%) LC50 value than the same mud
sample did with minimal stirring (2.9%). Pink
salmon fry were the most sensitive species
tested. With the mud tested, total suspended
solids at the lowest LC50 equalled 1,100 mg/l.

Juvenile Rainbow Environment seawater bioassay drilling fluid 0-56% waste 96 hr LC50 values for rainbow trout and coho
Trout (Salmo Canada, 1975 wastes drilling fluids salmon juveniles ranged from 1.6% to 19.0% v/v.
gairdnerTI-Colto by weight Most were confined to the 1.6% to 3.9% v/v.
Salmon Oncorhynchus There appeared to be a general trend for sample-
kisutchT specific toxicity. All 4 species showed
CE-u-in-S-aTmon similar tolerances when tested with a single
(Oncorhynchus keta) sample (2.4-2.9% v/v) although pink salmon were
P"5nk_S_a1iii-on slightly more tolerant (4.1%v/v).
(Oncorhynchus
@orbuscha)

Rainbow Trout Beak Consultants static bioassay drilling muds 5-25% drilling The 96 hr LC50's for rainbow trout ranged from
(@S@ gairdneri Limited, 1974a mud by weight 5.0% to 25.0% by weight. Filtrates of the
drilling fluids were consistently less toxic
than the whole mud systems. Source of toxicity
was attributed to drilling components (muds)
rather than drilled solids (cuttings). Toxicity
was related to suspended solids and metalic ions
contained in barites and lignosulphonates.

Rainbow Trout Beak Consultants static bioassay drilling fluids 9-27% drilling 96 hr LC50's var ied from 9.0% to 27.0% by
(Salmo qai rdneri Limited, 1974b muds by weight weight. Increased toxicity (LC50's of 9.0% and
11.0%) was attributed to the addition of KCL and
increased barite and lignosulphonate concentra-
tions.

Rainbow trout Herbert bioassay calcium sulphate 3163-6820 ppin Four weeks of exposure at p1l value of 8.1 pro-
(Salmo qairdneri) Wakeford, 1962 (gypsum) duced 50% mortality at 6,820 ppm gypsum (4,250
ppm in suspension); 3,163 ppm calcium sulphaLe
(553 ppm insuspension) was not acutely toxic.

Rainbow trout Logan et al., bioassay bentonite clay 10,000 ppnl Bentonite clay was not toxic to rainbow trout
(Salmo qai rdneri 1973 at 10,000 ppin after 96 firs.

ppm = parts per million
ppb = parts per billion
LC50 concentration required to kill 50% of the test animals
TLM = median tolerance limit - the concentration required to
kill 50% of the test animals within certain time limits

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluati

Rainbow Trout Herbert & toxicity effects mineral solid 30-810 ppm Concentrations of 270 and 810 ppm of mineral
Salmo gairdneri Merkens, 1961 suspensions of kaolin solid suspensions of kaolin and diatomaceous
and diatomaceous earth earth produced high trout mrtality after
several months exposure. Gill damage
(thickening and fusion of lamellae) was noted.

Rainbow Trout Herbert & bioassy spruce fibre 50-200 Rainbow trout held in 200 ppm spruce fibre
(Salmo gairdneri) Richards, 1963 had mortalities of 50% after 16 weeks and 80%
after 40 weeks. No deaths occured at 50 ppm
and 100 ppm.

Rainbow Trout Logan et al., bioassay sodium acid 870 ppm 96 hr LC50 for rainbow trout were 870 ppm at a
(Salmo gairdneri) 1973 pyrophosphate (SAPP) pH of 6.25-6.5.

Rainbow Trout Logan et al., bioassay lubricants and 14-2,270 ppm 96 hr LC50 values for rainbow trout eposd to four
(Salmo gairdneri) 1973 detergents four water soluble surface active agents of un-
known chemical composition (Scot-Free, B-Free,
Swift's Rig Wash, and Dominion Rig Wash) were
52, 19, 22 and 14 ppm respectively. Tricon and
Torq-Trim (surface wetting agents) had LC50's
of 63 ppm and 2,270 ppm respectively.

Rainbow Trout Lawrence & acute toxicity mud from Imperial 1-10,000 ul/l The 96 hr LC50 values for rainbow trout were
Beaufort Sea (Canada) determined to be 75,000 ul/l

Rainbow Trout Moore, Beckett acute toxicity drilling fluids-eight Overall toxicity was a result of components in
(Salmo gairdneri) & Weir, 1975 northern (Canada) use at a particular time and the formation
drilling sites being drilled. Surface hole muds were most
toxic (primarily from use of KCL to penetrate
permafrost). Samples form greater depths
exhibited multifactor toxicity(metals, solids
and other compounds compounded by high
viscosity and extremely high solids content.

Rainbow Trout Weir, Lake, static bioassay samples from 8.6%-100% by volume The 96 hr LC50 ranged from 8.6% to 100%
(Salmo gairdneri & Thackeray 1974 drilling sumps in effluent concentration. Acute toxicity
Canadian arctic appeared directly related to concentrations
of drilling compouns (Barytes and Peltex).
Greatest toxicity appeared due to high con-
centrations of sodium, potassium chloride
chromium, and aluminum. There was evidence of
gill chamber clogging and hemorrhaging of
the gill chambers and eye area.
Physiological Effects

Juvenile King Olson, 1958 hexavalent chromium 0.2 ppm Juvenile king salmon exposed to 0.2 lmg/1 of
Salmon (Oncorhynchus (Cr04 --, Cr207--) hexavalent chromium for 12 weeks showed
tshawtscha) reduced, growth and increased mortality.

Pink Salmon Fry NALCO, 1976 96 hr static whole drilling muds, 10% mud Dissolved oxygen concentrations in unaerated
(Oncorhynchus bioassay whole mud plus para- aquaria containing pink salmon dry decreased
garbuscha formaldehyde (0.25 lb) with time. Greates decreases were
barrel mud) observed at the higher concentrations of
toxicants. No acute toxicity was observed at
this concentration.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Brown Trout Herbert et al., field observations suspended mineral 1,000 ppm Brown trout populations in several rivers were
(Salmo trutta) 1961 solids severely reduced by 1,000 ppm china-clay wastes
(containing mica, clay and sand in various pro-
portions). Population reduction was due to ces-
sation of reproduction, reduction of the aquatic
invertebrate population and gill damage.

Rainbow Trout Herbert Richards toxicity effects spruce fibre 50-200 ppm Rainbow trout growth was reduced by 20-40% after
(Salmo qairdneri) 1963 bioassay 40 weeks exposure to 50 and 100 ppm spruce pulp-
wood.

Behavioral Effects

Rainbow Trout Lawrence & behavioral mud from Imperial sublethal Response to mud suspensions and the super-
(Salmo gairdneri) Scherer, 1974 Oi I 's Immerk B-48 natent fraction was neutral at 100 ml/I shift-
Beaufort Sea and ing to preference at 1000 ml/l. Avoidance was
supernatent fraction observed at 10,000 ml/I of supernatent.

OTHER FISH

Acute/Toxic Effects

Whitefish Lawrence acute toxicity mud from Imperial 25,000 ul/I The 96 hr LC50 for whitefish was 25,000 ul/l.
(Coregonus Scherer, 1974 bioassay Oil's Immerk B-48
clupeaformis) Beaufort Sea

Staghorn Sculpin Dames & Moore, static bioassay drilling fluids 5-20% by volume Based on a small sample and limited number of
(Leptocottus armatus) 1978 organisms, the 48 hr LC50 value for staghorn
sulpin was 10-20% by volume.
Bluegill Pruitt et al., bioassay and pentachlorophenol LC50 and sublethal The 96 hr median lethal concentration (LC50)
(Lepomis macrochirus) 1977 tissue accumulation (PCP) was 0.3 mg PCP/I for bluegill. Fish exposed
to sublethal concentrations (0.1 mg/1) accumu-
lated PCP in various tissues from 10 to 350
times the ambient concentration. The liver
had the greatest concentration followed by the
digestive tract, gills and muscles. Upon
removal from PCP-contaminated water the fish
rapidly eliminated PCP. Residues ranging from
0.03 to 0.6 ppm were still detectable, however,
16 days after fish were placed into alclean
environment.

Physiological Effects

Starry Flounder Varanasi, 1978 bioassay- cadmium,and lead 150 ppb Starry flounder and coho salmon exposed to
(Platichthys stellatus) partial flow 150 ppb cadmium and lead in seawater at 10"
Coho Salmon through and 4% accumulated concentrations of these
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) metals in the skin, mucus, brain, posterior

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

kidney, and liver. Greatest accumulations
occurred at 10C, however depuration in
starry flounder was slower at 4C. Coho
salmon tissues still retained 50% of the
accumulated metals 37 days after removal to
clean water. Lead was retained by both
species in higher concentrations than cadmium.

Behavioral Effects
Whitefish Lawrence behavioral mud from Imperial Sublethal Whitefish showed increasing attraction to mud
(Coregonus Scherer, 1974 Oil's Immerk B-48 1 to 17,600 ml/l suspensions with increasing concentrations
clupeaformis)
Beaufort Sea and (1-1000 ml/l. An increase in swimming speed
supernatent fraction was also observed. Response to supernatent
was neutral at 55 ml/l, preference at 1000
ml/l, neutral at 10,000 and a tendency toward
avoidance at higher concentrations (17,600
ml/l).

SHRIMP

Pandalid Shrimp Dames & Moore, static bioassay drilling fluids 8.6-20% by volume Mortalities of pandalid shrimp at 20% con-
(Pandalus 1978 toxicity effects centrations (LC50-8.6% occurred rapidly and
hypsinotus) all shrimp were dead within 3 hrs. At 15% all
the shrimp were dead at 24 hrs. At concentra-
tions greater than 15% the shrimp showed irrita-
tion when placed in the test solution and would
jump completely out of the tank.

Kachemak Bay Dames & Moore, static bioassay drilling fluids .025-20% by volume 96 hr LC50's values for pandalid shrimp
Pandalid shrimp 1978 ranged from 3.2 to 15% by volume. Total
(Pandalus suspended solids at lowest LC50 equalled
hypsinotus) 14,000 mg/l.

White Shrimp Chesser & bioassay drilling fluid 265-2100 ppm The 96 hr TLM's for white shrimp were 265 ppm,
(Panaeus setiferus) McKenzie, 1975 additives 465 ppm, 2100 ppm for a modified Hemlock bark
extract (tannin), a chrome treated lignosul-
fonate and an iron lignosulfonate, respective-
ly. The chrome was present as trivalent
chromium.

Oppossum Shrimp Neff et al., bioassay spud mud(spud) 9.2 to 17.4 Aqueous extracts of the three used lignosul-
(Mysid psis 1980 seawater chrome- lb/gal fonate drilling muds were similar to each other
almyra) lignosulfonate mud (CLS) (1.09 to 2.07 in their acute toxicity to the test species. In
Grass Shrimp mid-weight kg/l most but not all cases, the mid-weight ligno-
(Palaemonetes lignosulfonate mud (MWL) sulfonate mud (MWL) was slightly more toxic than
pugio high-weight the high-weight lignosulfonate mud (HWL), and
Polychaete lignosulfonate mud (HWL) these two muds were somewhat more toxic than the
Worm seawater, chrome lignosulfonate mud. In most
(Ophryotrocha
labronica
Brown Shrip
(Pandeus
aztecus

Species/Habitat Reference Type of ExpeHment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

cases, larval and Juvenile stages were more sen-
sitive to the drilling mud preparations than
adults. This was most pronounced for
Palaemonetes pqaj@. It is concluded-that the
aqueous @_hase resulting from the addition of one
part used lignosulfonate drilling mud to one-
hundred parts seawater (e.g. 10,000 ppm mud add-
ed) may be toxic to sensitive species or life
stages of marine animals.
Grass Shrimp Conklin et bioassay whole drilling whole drilling Experiments with barite revealed that 80% of the
(Palaemonetes al., 1980 muds and barite muds - 10 to 1000 control shrimp and 40% of the experimental
ul/I (10 to 1000 shrimp (exposed to 100 and 500 ppm barite)
ppm); barite - survived the 30-day static exposure conditions.
100 to 500 ppm Depending on the type of particulate materials
available in the medium at the time of molting,
grass shrimp incorporated sand grains, barite or
drilling mud particles into their statocysts,
which are equil-ibruim receptors. Abnormal
alterations were also observed in the posterior
midgut. In testing acute toxicity to whole
drilling muds, it was found that all mortalities
were molt-related. In some instances shrimp
were unable to successfully cast off the old
exoskeleton and died during molting. In other
cases, they molted successfully and died shortly
thereafter.

CLAIM, MUSSELS, SCALLOPS

Physiological Effects
Mussel Dames & Moore, toxicity effects drilling fluids sublethal Fourteen days exposure at 3% mud volume resulted
(Modiolus modiolus) 1978 1-3% by.volume in a reduction of feeding time, respiration,
delayed byssus thread formation and possible
abnormal uptake levels of heavy metals.
Sea Scallop Liss et al., bioassay drilling fluids fluid suspensions Introduction of drilling fluids into a cold
(Placopecten 1980 of synthetic and marine environment will produce elevated levels
used drilling muds of trace elements. While these elements will be
mage
associated principally with settling particles,
there is likely to be a significant increase in
their dissolved concentrations as well. Sea
scallops were found to accumulate chromium and
barium in their kidneys when exposed to synthe-
tic muds. Chromium concentatio"s were particu-
larly elevated when compared to controls
(chromium concentration rose from 1.74 ug/9 of
dry tissue to 4.35 ug/g; control concentrations
dropped to 1.50 ug/9 during the same period).
Similar results were obtained for the used
drilling muds although increases were not as
marked. The taking up of Cr by sea scallops
has been reported to be a function of the
a dissolved, rather than total, Cr loading.

S ecies/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
Blue Mussel Page et a]., bioassay spud mud 1:9 mud: At approximately normal seawater pH values (I)II
(Mytilus edulis) 1980 light, medium and seawater 8.3) data suggests that much of the chromium
high density in a used mud may exist in a form having very
lignosulfonate muds low water solubility. At pH 2, the data shows
that virtually all of the available chromium
was released from the mud solids after 4
successive extractions. This result has pos-
sible implications for the bioavailability of
mud-derived chromium from ingested mud in acidic
digestive fluids of certain marine animals. At
approximately equal concentrations of
chromium in the seawater phase, Cr3+ exhibited
.the greatest bioavailability to blue mussels.
This suggests that any toxic effects due to
chromium arising from the release of used drill-
ing muds into the open ocean may be mitigated
by the decreased bioavailability of the form in
which chromium is found in this material.

VARIOUS SPECIES

Acute/Toxic Effects

Mysids Dames & Moore, static bioassay drilling fluids 1-20% by volume 96 hr LC50's were 1% to 5% by volume for well
1978 mixed solutions and 10% to 15% in mixtures with
no continuous mixing. -

Copepod/Mysid NALCO, 1976 24 hr and 48 hr whole ttmd and whole The mud and paraformaldehyde mixture (4-10 times
static bioassay mud + paraformaldehyde the expected field concentrations for parafor-
0.0 lb/barrel) maldehyde) resulted in complete mortality at
all concentrations. Significant mortalities
also occurred in concentrations of mud
supernatent >5.7% for mysids and 10% for
copepods.

Myfld Shrimp Rubinstein bioassay drilling fluid 10, 30 and 100 Mysids were not acutely affected. Of the 30
(M sidopsis and Rigby, 1980 ppm mysids exposed to each concentration, no
ahia) mortality was observed in controls, one died
Oyster at 10 ppm, and five died at 30 and 100 ppm
(Crassostrea drilling mud. After 10 days, three additional
virginica) mysids died at 10 ppm, but no further mortality
lu-gworm occurred at the higher concentrations.
(Arenicola
:crj st@ a @ta No oyster mortality occurred at any exposure
concentration, however, oyster shell growth
was significantly inhibited at concentrations
of 30 and, 100 ppm.

Lugworms were severely affected by exposure to
drilling mud. Seventy-five percent of the
animals exposed to 100 ppm died during the test
period, 64% mortality was observed at 30 ppm,
and 33% mortality occurred at 10 ppm.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Arctic Marine Tornberg et al., bioassays drilling fluids varied The toxicity of drilling fluids varies
Species 1980 widely between species. Fish were among the
most sensitive organisms tested, and invert-
ebrates included both sensitive and relatively
resistant species. The 96-hour LC50 values
for isopods, snails and polychaetes ranged
from 60 - 70+% by volume of whole, used drill-
ing fluids in seawater. Values for mysids
ranged from 7 - 22%,amphipods 22-38%,broad
whitefish 6 - 37%, fourhorn sculpin 4-35+%,
Arctic cod 20 - 25% and saffron cod ranged from
17 - 30%.

Variations in the toxicity for specific species
appear to be attributable to variations in the
physical/chemical characteristics of the drill-
ing fluids used for the test. For a specific
well, the toxicity appears to increase with in-
.creasing depth.
Alaskan Marine Houghton et al., laboratory and drilling fluids varied Test solutions were prepard from drilling
Organisms 1980 In situ for Lower Cook fluids taken directly from mud pits and mixed
Pink Salmon bioa ssay Inlet C.O.S.T. with ambient seawater. Toxicity of drilling
(Oncorhynchus well fluids was generally low with 96-hour LC50
gorbuscha values ranging from 3,00ppm (0.3percent by
Coonstripe shrimp volume of drill fluids to seawater) for pink
(Pandalus salmon, to greater than 100,000 ppm, (10
hypsinotus) percent) for shrimp.
Mussel
(Modiolus In situ toxicity studies on pink salmon fry,
) shrimp, and hermit crabs showed no mortalities
Staghorn sculpin that could be related to the discharge plume.
(Leptocottus Sublethal effects were only observed in mussels.
armatus) Fourteen days of exposure at 3 percent mud pro-
Mysids duced a reduction of feeding and respiration
(Neomysis integer) (pumping) time, and delayed byssus thread
Amphipods formation.
(Eogammarus
confervicolous)
Isopods
(Gnorimosphaeroma
oregonensis)

Calanoid Copepod EG & G Bionomics, bioassay drilling fluids' varied Acartia tonsa - 96 hr LC50
(Acartia 1976 Saltwater gel mud -100ppm
tonsa Lightly treated ferrochrome ignosulfonate-
Atlantic 10,000 ppm seawater/freshwater mud
Silverside Ferrochrome lignosulfonate freshwater mud-
(Menidia 100 ppm
menidia Sewage plant effluent (extended aeration)-
marine algae
2,200 ppm
(Skeletonema
costatum 117

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluati

Menidia menidia 96-hour LC50
Saltwater gel mud-greater than 100,000
ppm
Lightly treated ferrochrome lignosulfate-
48,500 ppm seawater/freshwater mud
Ferrochrome lignosulfonate freshwater mud-
greater than 100,000 ppm
Skeletonema costatum 96-hour LC50
Saltwater gel mud-cell numbers of cul-
tures exposed to 10 ppm increased
slightly whereas cell numbers of cul-
tures exposed to 1,800 ppm decreased by
84%. The toxicity of the mud appearded
to decrease in the culture which was
exposed to the next two higher concern-
trations (3,200 and 5,600ppm) but in-
creased again in all higher concentra-
tions
Lightly treated ferrochrome lignosulfonate
seawater/freshwater mud- 96 hr LC50
was 3,700 ppm
Ferrochrome lignosulfonate mud- no 96 hr
LC50 coulbe determined

Alaskan Arctic Northern Technical bioassays and drilling fluids varied Species toxicity studies indicate the following
Marine Species Services, 1980 histopathological values:
Amphipods examination Amphipods
(Onisimus sp.) (Onisimus sp., Boeckosimus sp.)-96-hour

Boekosimus sp. LC50 for amphipods exposed to varied drill-
Isopods ing mud concentrations ranged from 22.1 per-
(Saduria entomon) cent to 38.1 percent

Polyc haetes for reserve pit fluids were between 10 and
(Melaenis loveni) 12 percent. Exposure to barite concentrat-
snails ions indicate that the 96-hour LC50 is
(Nautica clausa, greater than 84,000 ppm.
NEPTUNEA SP. Isopods
BuccINUM sp.) (Saduria entomon)-Tests with XC-polymer/
Mysids- unical drilling fluids gave inconclusive
(Mysis sp.) results. In preliminary tests, concentrat-
Fournorn Sculpin ions of 50 percent resulted in total mor-
Myoxocephalus tality. The 96-hour LC50 for exposures to
quadicornis) CMC/Resinex/Tannathin/Gel
Broad Whitefish were reported to be greater than 60 percent
(Coregonus nasus) Polychaetes
Arctic Cisco (Melaenis loveni)-96-hour LC50 value of
Coregonus autumnalis) greater than 70 percent was documented
Arctic Cisco polychaeted exposed to CMC/Resinex/Tannathin
(Boreogadus saida) drilling fluid.
Saffron Cod Snails
(Eleginus navaga) (Nautica clausa,Neptunea sp., Buccinum sp.)
96-hour LC50 was greater than the highest
concentration tested (70 percent) for the
three species. From mortality
observations of
more sensitive
Nautica clausa and Neptunea sp.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Mysids (Mysis sp.)- 96-hour LC50 for CMC/Gel/
Resinex were between 6 and 7.3 percent. The
96-hour LC50 value for aerated and unaerated
exposures to CMC/Gel were 12 percent and
less than 4 percent respectively. XC-Poly-
Pier drilling fluid 96-hour LC50 values range-
ed between 5 and 17 percent. Tests with
lignosulfonate gave an LC50 value estumated
to be between 3,300 and 10,000ppm.
Fourhorn Sculpin
(Myoxocephalus quadicornis)-96-hour LC50
values for CMC/Resinex/Gel ranged between 4
and 7 percent. Stress was apparent in sur-
viving individuals which were observed gasp-
ing at the surface of their tanks. LC50
values for XC-Polymer mud concentrations
were inconclusive, but appeared to be great-
er than 20 percent. CMC/Gel studies using
aerated and unaerated test containers resulted in 96-4qhou
than 12 percent and 3.2 percent respective-
ly. 96-hour LC50 values or lignosulfonates
were between 1,000 and 6,000 ppm.
Broad Whitefish
(Coregonus nasus)-96-hour values were
derived for various age classes. Values
ranged between 6.4 and 37 percent. Tests
with lignosulfonate drilling Fluids resulted
in a high toxic value between 0 and 10
percent.
Arctic Cisco
(Coregonus autumnalis) Tests with XC-Polymer
drilling fluids were inconclusive, 96-hour
LC50 values for lignosulfonate drilling
fluids were calculated to be 40 percent
Arctic Cod
(Boreogadus saida)-The toxicities of XC-
Polymer drilling fluid and lignosulfonate
drilling fluid are similar. The 96-hour
LC50 values ranged between 20 and 25 percent
Saffron Cod
(Eleginus navaga)-96-hour LC50 values for
saffron cod in CMC/Gel drilling fluid were
between 17 and 30 percent

Histopathological examinations of fourhorn
sculpin, broad whitefish, Arctic cisco, and
Arctic cod show physiological damage may re-
sult from exposure to
(see Table 9).

Analysis of the data also indicates that a re-
lationship exists between the type of drilling
mud used, the depth of the well and the mea
sured acute toxicity(see Table10)

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Physiological Effects

Chironomid Didiuk & Wright, Physiological waste drilling fluids 1, 3, 7 niri layers Populations of Chronomid larvae treated with
(Chironomus 1975 on sediment surface I mm, 3 nuit, and 7 nun layers of drilling waste
:t@e@ntans achieved only 65%, 47% and 12% emergence
respectively, with peak emergence occurring
2, 23 and 25 days respectively after mud
addition. Controls achieved 84% emergence
with peak emergence occurring on the 16th day.
Organisms from contaminated substrates were
smaller in size. Muds appeared to interfere
with feeding mechanisms.

Various Species Gerber et al., bioassay -spud mud 1-100% mud Cold water marine organisms exhibited low or no
of Marine 1980 @high, medium suspension mortalities when exposed to various preparations
Invertebrates and light density dilutions of used drilling muds. Whole muds were slightly
lignosulfonate muds more toxic than mud aqueous fractions to most
-seawater organisms but especially to deposit feeding or-
lignosulfonate mud ganisms. Larvae were more sensitive than
adults. Long term effects in mussels were re-
flected by reduced growth rates.

HABITATS

Bottom Sediment Grahl-Nielson chemical analysis drill cuttings unknown Sediment samples from an area surrounding a
et al., 1980 drilling platform in the North Sea were analyzed
for hydrocqrbon content. An approximate amount
of 1,250 W drill cuttings had been discharged
previous to the sampling. Hydrocarbons result-
ing from these discharges were found in sediment
over an area of 5 square kilometers. The
detected amounts ranged from more than one
thousand milligrams total hydrocarbons per kilo-
gram of wet sediment (parts per million) in the
vicinity of the platform down to less than 10
mg/kg. The drilling mud was of an. oil-based
nature and drill cuttings had been washed with
diesel oil.

Bottom Sediment Gettleson and chemical analysis drilling fluid unknown The distance that barium is dispersed as well
Laird, 1980 discharge as its benthic concentration appears to be de-
pendent on at least three factors: 1) the types
and quantities of drilling fluids discharged, 2)
the hydrographic conditions at the time of dis-
charges, and 3) the height above the bottom that
the discharges are made. Barium analyses in-
dicate that drilling fluids can be detected at
least 1,000 meters, and possibly further, from
both shunted and unshunted wells. In ail cases
the 100 meter station had a greater amount of
barium deposited than did the drillsite (0
meters ). This suggests that currents must carry
even shunted muds at least some distance from
the shunt pipe.

Species/11abitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Estuarine Tagatz et al., bioassay varied varied Effect of Whole Mud and Barite:
Macrobenthic 1980
Communities In the study, animal abundance was affected by
whole mud and barite. In both studies, annelids
(Armandia �n. ) were found to be the most sen-
sitive organisms with significantly fewer in-
dividuals in all contaminated aquaria than in
control aquaria. In the mud study, numbers of
the coelenterate Aiptasia pallida, were signifi-
cantly reduced by aff -concentrations of mud.
Numbers of molluscs were riot significantly
affected by mud-sand mixtures or by mud cover,
and numbers of arthropods were significantly re-
duced only by mud cover. In the barite study,
molluscs were fewer, however, numbers of chor-
dates and arthropods were not significantly af-
fected by the presence of drilling muds.

Effects of Biocides:

Abundance of animals was significantly decreased
by the chlorophenol type biocides. M&lluscs
were found to be particularly susceptible to
chlorophenol.

Terrestrial Younkin bioassay and Drilling fluids; varied Fluid from KCI/water/polymer drilling systems
Vegetation and Johnson, observation KCI/water/polymer contained high organic carbon content and the
(Alberta, 1980 dispersed water/gel highest salt content of all fluid types tested.
Canada) flocculated water/gel Discharges of XCI fluids resulted in significant
reductions in living native plant cover (5 to
30%) and in reed canary grass germination (75 to
80%) and productivity (37 to 60%).

The salt component (at 34,000 ppm) of the sample
fluids was identified as the most damaging to
plant health and soil chemistry. The diesel
fuel (at 4,500 ppm) had a slight effect while
the lignosulfonate (at 165 ppin) and polymer (at
67,000 ppm) components had little effect on
plant growth and vigor or soil chemistry.

Swiss Chard Nelson et al., bioassay water-base 2.21 g/cm3 Addition of high amounts of drilling fluids to
(Beta 1980 drilling fluids (18.4 lbs/gal) fertile soils resulted in plant yield reduction.
vu garis) The mud components which reduced yields may
Ryegrass have been soluble salts, Na+ ions, and/or heavy
(Lo I i um metals. Application of moderate rates of drill-
perenne) ing muds prepared from relatively pure barites
did not reduce yields. Cadmium, zinc, copper
and lead present in drilling fluids were in
part, available for plant uptake. The uptake of
these metals was directly related to the concen-
tration of the metal in the drilling fluid mix-
ture. Mercury which was present in drilling
fluid was not available for plant uptake.

7
122

,able 9 Histopathological examination Of selected fish
surviving 96-hour exposure to drilling fluids.*

Drilling Fluid
Organisms Concentration Test Comments
by volume)

Fo.urhorn sculpins 0 108 Severe myositis was noted in the body wall of
this fish. No other lesions were apparent.
Recognizable microorganisms were not seen in
association with the muscle inflammation.

Fourhorn sculpins 0 108 No visible lesions were present.

Fourhorn sculpins 25 108 No lesions were observed.

Fourhorn sculpins 25 108 With the exception of intestinal parasites no
lesions were noted.

Fourhorn sculpins 25 108 Focal enteritis was the only observed alteration.

Broad whitefish 0 109 The only lesions observed were the presence
of focal inflammation of the gills, the
accumulation of proteinaceous fluid in
Bowman's space of some glomeruli and in the
lumens of some renal collecting tubules.

Broad whitefish 0 109 Focal inflammation and the presence of an
aneurysm were seen in the gills. No other
lesions were noted.

Broad whitefish 0 109 The only lesion observed was the presence of
focal inflammation of the gills.

Broad whitefish 7.7 109 No lesions were noted.

Arctic cis@o 0 113 Few hematopoietic cells were noted within the
renal parencyina, but the kidneys were other-
wise as expected. With the exception of mild
hepatic hyperemia no other lesions were
observed.

Arctic cisco 0 113 Little hematopoietic tissue was present within
the renal parenchyma and multiple foci of
mineralization were noted. In addition some
glomeruli contained proteinaceous exudate
within Bowman's space monogenetic trematodes
were present in the gills.

Arctic cisco 8 113 Very few hematopoietic cells were present
within the renal parenchyma and multiple foci
of mineralization were present. No other
lesions were noted.

Arctic cisco 12 113 The submitted tissues were normal except for
the kidney which contained focal accumulation
of proteinaceous fluid within Bowman's space
of the glomerulus.

Arctic cisco 12 113 The intestinal mucosa was severly damaged and
focally absent, and numerous bacteria were no-
ted within the lumen of the intestine. Since
no inflammatory reaction was present these
changes appeared to be autolytic. Focal bran-
chial hyperpl'asia and clubbing of lamellae
tips were noted along with a leucocytic
infiltrate at the bases of some lamellae.
These changes may have been induced by the
monogentic trematodes parasitising the gills.

noted which resembled post mortem auto'lysis.
Arctic cod 0 133 Numerous systematic degenerative changes were

In addition, the animal had severe, diffuse
fatty degeneration of the liver.

From: Northern Technical Services, 1980.

123

Table 10 Relationships of the type of drilling fluid and
well depth to the acute toxicity of selected
marine organisms.*

96-hour LC50
DRILLING FLUID WELL DEPTH (m) TEST ORGANISM VALUES ( -M )

CMC/Gel 1803 Eleginus navaga 17.0 - 30.0

CMC/Gel 1807 Mysis sp. 21.5

CMC/Gel 2780 Coregonus nasus >20.0

CMC/Gel 2786 Myoxocephalus quadricornis >12.0

XC-Polymer 2778 Coregonus nasus 33.0 - 37.0

XC-Polymir 3057 Boreogadus saida >25.0

XC-Polymer 3064 sp. 16.1

XC-Polymer 3064 Myoxocephalus quadricornis 21.5

XC-Polymer 3319 Coregonus nasus 6.4

XC-Polymer 3319 Myoxocephalus quadricornis >20.0

XC-Polymer 3323 Coregonus nasus 10.0

XC-Polymer 3324 MMA SP. 26.0 - 40.0
XC-Polymer 3646 Mysis sp. 5.0 - 10.0

XC-Polymer 3646 Myoxocephalus quadricornis 5.0 - 10.0

XC-Polymer 3786 Onisimus sp., Boeckosimus sp. 38.1

XC-Polymer 3938 Onisimus sp., Boeckosimus sp. 28.0

XC-Polymer 4029 Onisimus sp., Boeckosimus sp. 27. 8

XC-Polymer 4175 Onisimus sp., Boeckosimus sp. 22.1 - 24.1

CMC/Gel/Resinex 2786 Myoxocephalus,quadricornis 5.0 - 6.0

CMC/Gel/Resinex 2786 sp. >6.0

CMC/Gel/Resinex 3466 sp. 7.3

CMC/Gel/Resinex 3466 Myoxocephalus quadricornis 5.0 - 7.0

From: Northern.Technical Services, 1980.

124

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

a low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of drilling muds and

cuttings discharge (see Map C). These designations were based on existing

data, and were made after evaluating the following criteria:

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to the effects of drilling muds and cuttings discharge.

2. The degree of sensitivity to drilling muds and cuttings discharge

exhibited by each species during the various stages of its

life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

and the period during which each species would be most affected.

4. The loca tion of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The species population numbers and relative importance of the

population.

125

8. The physical characteristics of receiving waters.

9. The degree to which the impacts of drilling muds and cuttings'

discharge can be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during ranking

are as follows:

1. Because toxic components of drilling muds can build up in

shallow water areas with little dilution or dispersion processes,

high sensitivity designations have been assigned to all nearshore

regions seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour line.

2. Based on oceanographic data which suggests circulation is

sluggish in eastern Norton Sound, moderate sensitivity designations

have been assigned to include all marine areas east of a line

stretching from Rocky Point to Stuart Island.

3. Productive habitats such as eelgrass and Fucus kelp beds,

wetlands, tideflats, and lagoons have been assigned a high

impact value based upon their discrete characteristics and

demonstrated importance to,a variety of species. Additionally,

any mud and cuttings discharges in these areas would result in

a direct physical loss of habitat.

4. Although benthic species such as king crab, clams, starfish,

etc., could be affected by discharges of drilling muds and

126

cuttings, they occur over such large areas that localized

disturbances resulting from such discharges are unlikely to

cause significant damage to either those species or their

associated habitat. Subsistence harvests of these species,

particularly king crab, remain vulnerable.

5. Based upon their respective vulnerability to toxicants, and

their nearshore habitat requirements, Pacific herring and

juvenile Pacific salmon have been assigned a high vulnerability

rating to drilling muds and cuttings discharges.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures.

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity applies to areas where the impacts of

drilling muds and cuttings discharge would be less adverse than in

moderate or high sensitivity areas. Low sensitivity areas include: 1)

marine areas with strong currents to.adequately disperse and dilute muds

and cuttings; and/or 2) areas with low numbers of sensitive species or

habitats.

Drilling muds and cuttings may be discharged in low sensitivity areas in

compliance with existing State and Federal water quality regulations.

127

XODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of moderate sensitivity are defined as those areas where the

adverse impacts associated with the discharge of drilling muds and

cuttings can be prevented, minimized, or ameliorated. Species or habitats

which are present in these areas could be moderately affected by these

discharges. Areas included in this category are:

1. Areas of sluggish circulation

2. Shorefast ice zone

3. Area of first open water in spring

4. Herring nearshore feeding and rearing areas

5. Capelin spawning and possible spawning areas

6. Nearshore rearing areas for juvenile fish (other than salmon)

7. Salmon nearshore migration areas

8. Arctic char and sand lance concentrations

9. Waterfowl and shorebird nesting and molting areas including;
waterfowl major staging areas and important staging areas;
emperor geese molting and staging areas; 'snow geese staging
areas; shorebird fall staging areas and important habitats

10. Subsistence king crab harvest areas and subsistence freshwater
mussel areas

Drilling muds and cuttings discharges should be conducted according to

existing environmental regulations. Additional measures to mitigate the

impacts of drilling muds and cuttings on moderate sensitivity areas

include:

1. Wherever possible, drilling muds should be retained and used

for drilling other wells.

128

2. Drilling muds should not be discharged into any nearshore area

seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour line, or any body of

freshwater, including lakes, streams, or rivers.

3. If artificial islands are used to develop oil reserves in the

northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region, clean drill cuttings

can be used as a material source to supplement gravel in

island construction.

4. Drilling muds and clean drill cuttings should be discharged

near the ocean bottom rather than near the surface in order to

decrease the areal extent of outfall and to prevent stratification

of toxic components within the water column.

5. Mud discharge rates should not exceed a maxfmum of 50 bbl per

hour, in order to limit toxic concentrations of drilling muds

to a small area near the outfall.

6. Muds should not be discharged at low tide or slack water when

tidal flushing and dilution is at a minimum.

7. Drilling muds should be diluted prior to discharge. The

minimum dilution factor should be 25 parts receiving water to

I part drilling fluid.

8. Muds containing high levels (as determined by Environmental

Protection Agency or Department of Environmental Conservation

water quality regulations) of hydrocarbons, surfactants,

129

bactericides, detergents, trivalent chromium salts, carcinogenic

compounds and other toxic additives should not be discharged

into the aquatic environment. Instead, these muds should be

hauled ashore and disposed of at an approved Upland site,

pumped down the well bore, or disposed of in some other environ-

mentally acceptable manner.

9. During winter drilling in the shorefast ice zone, drilling

muds should be di.spersed on the ice surface rather than under

the ice in poorly mixed subsurface.waters where toxic build up

may occur.

10. Clean drill cuttings may be discharged without restriction,

except in areas which are important for the rearing of juvenile

marine species, such as larval king crab; or in areas where

such discharges will result in a direct physical loss of

productive habitat,. such as Fucus kelp and eelgrass beds,

wetlands, tideflats, or estuaries. The presence or absence of

juvenile marine species and the relative productivity of an

area should be determined during benthic and engineering

surveys conducted prior to rig placement.

11. Heavy metal accumulations in sediment and animal tissues near

production platforms with multiple wells, should be monitored

to insure that no toxic build up occurs.

130

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of high sensitivity are defined as those habitats where the impacts

of drilling muds and cuttings discharge would be extremely adverse to

fish and wildlife resources. Because of poor circulation, the nearshore

area seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour line would be included in

this designation.

High sensitivity areas include:

1. Nearshore areas seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour
line

2. Eelgrass beds

3. Fucus kelp beds

4. Wetlands, tideflats and estuaries

5. Herring spawning, possible spawning, and wintering areas

6. Salmon streams and juvenile nearshore feed.ing and rearing
areas

7. Sheefish and whitefish streams

8. Subsistence clam harvest areas

.9. Commercial and subsistence herring harvest areas

Drilling muds should not be discharged into high sensitivity areas.

Drilling sites and mud disposal areas should be designed and located so

as to prevent drilling muds from being carried or leached into high

sensitivity areas. The discharge of clean drill cuttings may be approved

on a site specific basis.

TABLE li MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO DRILLING MUDS AND CUTTINGS.

HABITATS -)AN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
AREA OF SLUGGISH CIRCULATION

SHOREPAST ICE ZONE

AREA OF FIRST OPEN WATER
IN SPRING

EELGRASS BEDS

FUCUSIKELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE/HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLATS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEIHEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

EBTUARYILAGOON

FISH & SHELLFISH
,SALMON
:
TREAM
EARSHORE MIGRATION AREA
FAY AND JUVENILE REARIN13 AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE NEARSHORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR CONCENTRATION AREA

"ERRING
SPAWNING.AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA
WINTERING AREA
NEARSHORE FEEDINGIREARING AREA'

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

JUVENILE FISH
NEARSHORE REARING AREA

SHEEFISH AND/OR WHITEFISH STREAM

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

BIRDS
WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR BTAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLT:NG AREA
STAG 0 A EA

$NOW GEESE (A.)
STA43ING AREA -1

TA13LE I I (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO DRILLING MUDS AND CUTTINGS.

HARVEST ACTIVITIES JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
HARVEST AREA
COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
"ERAING HARVEST AREA

SUBSISTENCE HARVEST AREA
kING CRAB
FRESHWATER MUSSEL
CLAM a

I
1 0
1 1
1 L
p
1 0.
I L
L
I u
T
I .I I
0
N
I
I I
I
t
I
I I
I I
I I I
I
I
I

133

OIL PoLLMON

Sources and Biological Effects

Sources

One of the major issues concerning offshore oil development is the

possibility of oil pollution and the subsequent damage that may be

inflicted upon sensitive fish and wildlife populations and their associated

habitat. Oil pollution may occur under a variety of situations, and can

be classified as being either acute or chronic depending upon its rate

of introduction into the marine environment.

Acute oil pollution is that which results from a single infusion of oil

into surrounding waters,.generally by accident (NAS, 1975). Spills of

this nature may occur during expl,oration and development drilling,

production, transportation of oil, or oil processing. Acute oil pollution

may also result from various support activities associated with offshore

oil development such as fuel stor,age.areas, refueling stations, pipelines

and support bases (see Tables 12 through 20). In Alaska, statistics

compiled for the 5 year period 1973-1977 show that the majority (55%) of

oil Spills (greater than 1,000 gallons) occurred as a direct result of

transportation, handling, or storage of oil. Spills from production

activities were additionally responsible for approximately 3% of the

total volume spilled, while incidental spills (fishing vessels, aircraft.,

natural sources, etc.) accounted for the.remaining fraction (42%).

134

TABLE 12

BUDGET OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS INTRODUCED

INTO THE OCEANS (NAS, 1975)

Input Rate (million metric tons)

Source Best Estimate Probable Range Reference

Natural seeps 0.6 0.2-1.0 Wilson et al. (1973)

Offshore Production 0.08 0.08-0.15

Transportation

Lot* Tankers 0.31 0.15-1.0

Non-Lot* Tankers 0.77 0.65-1.0

Dry docking 0.25 0.2-0.3

Terminal Operations 0.003 0.0015-0.005

Bilges Bunkering . 0.5 0.4-0.7

Tanker Accidents 0.2 0.12-0.25

Non Tanker Accidents 0.1 0.02-0.15

Coastal Refineries 0.2 0.02-0.3 Brummage (1973)

Atmosphere 0.6 0.4-0.8 Feuerstein (1973)

Coastal Municipal 0.3 Storrs (1973)
Wastes

Coastal Non Refining

Industrial Wastes 0.3 Storrs (1973)

Urban Runoff 0.3 0.1-0.5 Storrs (1973),Hallhagen (1973)

River Runoff 1.6

TOTAL 6.113

*Lot: Load on top.

135

TABLE 13

1973 ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS

Material Quantity Source Cause
(gallons)

Light Diesel 196,182 Tankship 10,000-19,999 Hull rupture or
gross tons leak
Unidentified Heavy Oil 5,000 Onshore industrial plant Tank rupture or
or processing facility leak
Heavy Diesel 2,500 'Onshore industrial plant Intentional dis-
or processing facility charge
Light Diesel 1,500 Onshore Non-transporta- Valve failure
tion-related facility
Light Diesel 8,000 Miscellaneous Pipe rupture or
leak
Light Diesel 3,700 Other vessel Equipment failure
Light Diesel 7"980 Tugboat or towboat Tank rupture or
leak
Other Oil 4,200 Onshore fueling Intentional dis-
charge
Light Diesel 1,500 Fishing vessel Tank rupture or
leak
Light Diesel 6,500 Other vessel Structural failure
Light Diesel 4,500 Tank barge 1,000-9,999 Tank rupture or
gross tons leak.
Light Diesel 22,500 Miscellaneous Pipe rupture or
leak
Natural Occurrence 9,200 Natural source Natural phenomenon
Light Diesel, 3,800 Miscellaneous Tank overflow

Total 277,062 gallons

Largest single oil spill: .196,182 gallons
Average quantity spilled: 19,790 gallons
Average quantity spilled excluding largest spil-1: 6,222 gallons

All 1973 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills (all quantities):

Number: 133
Total quantity: 281,506 gallons
Average quantity per spill: 2,117 gallons
Number of fishing vessel oil'spills: 36
Average quantity per fishing vessel oil spill: 51 gallons

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident'Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report #51.

011
TABLE 14

1974 ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS

Material Quantity Source Cause

Light Diesel 19,000 Land transportation facility Personnel error
Light Diesel 6,000 Tugboat or towboat Hull rupture or leak

Jet fuel 5,000 Miscellaneous Equipment failure

Light Diesel 5,200 Other vessel Tank rupture or leak

Light Diesel 40,000 Onshore non-transportation- Pipe rupture or leak
related facility

Light Diesel 33,000 Onshore non-transportation- Pipe rupture or leak
related facility

Light Crude Oil 1,050 Offshore bulk cargo transfer Improper equipment handling
or operation

Light Biesel 7,000 Miscellaneous Structural failure

Light Diesel 10,000 Onshore fueling Tank rupture or leak

Light Diesel 2,500 Land transportation facility Valve failure

Light Diesel 33,000 Miscellaneous Tank overflow

Gasoline 5.800 Unknown type of source Unknown cause

Light Diesel 1,200 Onshore non-transportation-
related facility Pipe rupture or leak

Light Diesel 3-0200 Onshore bulk cargo transfer Transportation pipeline
rupture or leak

Light Diesel 10600 Highway vehicle liquid bulk Natural or chronic
Total 173,550 gallons carrier phenomenon

Largest single oil spill: 40,000 gals. Average quantity spilled: 11.570 gals.
Average quantity spilled excluding largest spill: 9,539 gals.

All 1974 Alaskan Marine Oil spills (all quantities):

Number: 153 Total quantity: 181,409 gals. Al,erage quantity per spill: 1,186 gals.
Number of fishing vessel oil spills: 24
Average quantity per fishing vessel oil spill: 71 gals.

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

Frain: Terry et a]., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report R51.

137

TABLE 15

1975 ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS

Material Quantity Source Cause

Light Diesel 1,100 Highway vehicle liquid Natural or chronic
bulk carrier phenomenon
'Heavy Die sel 5,000 Fishing vessel Hull rupture or leak

Light Diesel 1,000 Miscellaneous Unknown causes

Jet Fuel 1,500 Onshore bulk storage Equipment failure
facility

Light Diesel 2,000 Highway vehicle liquid Personnel error
bulk carrier

Light Diesel 65.,000 Onshore pipeline Pipeline rupture or
leak

Gasoline 300,000 Onshore fueling Tank rupture or leak
total 375,600 gallons

Largest single oil spill: 300,000 gallons
Average quantity.-spilled: 53,657 gallons
Average quantfiy spilled excluding largest spill: 12,600 gallons

All 1975 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills (all quantities):

Number: 136
Total quantity: 380,275 gals.
Average quantity per spill: 2,796 gals.
Number of fishing vessel oil spills: 30
Avera ge quantity per fishing vessel oil spill: 201 gals.

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeco nomic Studies Program-
Technical Report #51.

TABLES 16
00

1976 ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS

Material Quantity Source Cause

Heavy Diesel 40,000 Onshore bulk storage facility Transportation pipeline
rupture or leak

Jet Fuel 9,000 Rail vehicle liquid bulk Railroad accident

Light Crude Oil 2,000 Onshore oil or gas production
facility Hose rupture or leak

Gasoline 1,500 Aircraft Aircraft accident

Mixture of Two or More
Petroleum Products 2,000 Offshore production facility Equipment failure

Light Diesel 2,000 Onshore bulk storage facility Tank rupture or leak

Light Diesel 1,000 Fishing vessel Tank rupture or leak

Light Diesel 1,000 Railway fueling facility Improper equipment
handling or operation

Jet Fuel 395,670 Tankship 10,000-19,999 gross Hull rupture or leak
tons
Light Diesel 4,000 Highway vehicle liquid bulk Highway accident

Light Diesel 9,000 Onshore non-transportation- Improper equipment handling
related facility or operation
Total 467,170

Largest single oil spill: 395,670 gals. Average quantity spilled: 42,470 gals.
Average quantity spilled excluding largest spill: 7,150 gals.

All 1976 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills (all quantities):

Number: 234 Total Quantity: 475,820 gals. Average Quantity per Spill: 2,033 gals
Number of fishing vessel oil spills: 48
Average quantity per fishing vessel oil spill: 75 gals.

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
;Wnic#WepJFW5lM. M M M M M 'M

139

TABLE 17

1977 ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS

Material Quantity -Source Cause

Jet Fuel 10,192 Onshore bulk storage Pipe rupture or leak

Light Diesel 72,280 Fishing vessel Hull rupture or leak

Light Diesel 1,000 Fishing vessel Hull rupture or leak

Heavy Diesel 8,000 Fishing vessel Hull rupture or leak

Light Diesel 1,000 Onshore bulk cargo Personnel error
transfer

Light Diesel 10,000 Onshore industrial
plant or processing
facility Highway accident

Light Diesel 8,000 Fishing vessel Hull rupture or leak

Light Diesel 2,600 Onshore non-trans-
portation-related
facility Tank overflow

Unidentified light oil 1,600 Onshore bulk storage Pipe rupture or
facility leak

Total 114,672

Largest single oil spill: 72,280 gals.
Average quantity spilled: 12,741 gals.

Average quantity spilled excluding largest spill: 5,299 gals.

All 1977 Alaskan Marine Oil Spills (all quantities):

Number: 229
Total quantity: 123,633 gals.
Average quantity per spill: 540 gals.
-Number of fishing vessel oil spills: 56
Average quantity per fishing vessel spill: 1,600 gals.

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report #51.

140

TABLE 18

NUMBER OF ALASKA MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS,
BY MATERIAL SPILLED 1973-1977

Number of Incidents
Material Spilled 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977
Light Crude Oil 1 1

.Gasoline 1 1 1

Jet Fuel 1 1 2 1

Light Diesel Fuel 10 12 4 5 6

Heavy Diesel Fuel 1 1 1 1

Mixture of Two or More
Petroleum Products I

Unidentified Light Oil 1

Unidentified Heavy Oil 1

Other Oil 1

Natural Occurrence 1

Total 14 15 7 11 9

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report 1#151.

TABLE 19 141

NUMBER OF ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS,
BY CAUSE 1973-1977

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Cause of Oil Spill

Structural Failure or Loss

Hull Rupture or Leak 1 1 1 1 4

Tan k Rupture or Leak 4 2 1 2

Transportation Pipeline
Rupture or Leak 1 1

Other Structural Failure 1 1

Equipment Failure

Pipe Rupture or Leak 2 3 1 2

Hose Rupture or Leak I

'Valve Failure 1

Other Equipment Failure I

Personnel Error (Unintentional
Discharge)

Tank Overflow 1 1 1

Improper Equipment Handling
or Operation 1 2

Other Personnel Error

Intentional Discharge 2

Other Transportation Casualty

Railroad Accident I

Highway Accident I

Aircraft Accident 1

Natural or Chronic Phenomenon 1 1 1

Unknown Causes 1 1

Total 14 15 7 9

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting System data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report #51.

142 TABLE 20

NUMBER OF ALASKAN MARINE OIL SPILLS > 1,000 GALLONS
BY SOURCE OF SPILL 1973-1977

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Source of Oil, spill

Other Vessel 2 1

Tankship 10,000-19,999
gross tons 1 1

Tank Barge 1,000-9,999
gross tons 1

Tugboat or Towboat 1 1

Fishing Vessel I 1 1 4

Onshore Bulk Cargo Transfer 1 1

Onshore Fueling I 1 1

Offshore Bulk Cargo Transfer 1

Rail Vehicle Liquid Bulk I

Highway Vehicle Liquid Bulk 1 2 1

Aircraft 1

Other Land Transportation
Facility 2

Railway Fueling Facility 1

Onshore Pipeline 1

Other Onshore Non-Trans-
portation-Related Facility 1 3 1 1

Onshore Bulk Storage
Facility 1 2 2

Onshore Industrial Plant or
Processing Facility 2 1

Onshore Oil or Gas Pro-
duction Facility

Offshore Production
Facility 1

Miscellaneous - or
Natural Source 4 3* 1

Unknown Type of Source I

Total 14 15 7 11 9

Source: United States Coast Guard Pollution Incident Reporting Systern data.

From: Terry et al., 1980. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program-
Technical Report -1051. 1

143

Typically, the largest and potentially most damaging forms of acute oil

spillage occur as a consequence of tanker accidents or oil well blowouts.

Massive spills associated with the break-up of such supertankers as the

Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz, and blowouts such as the Santa Barbara

spill or, more recently, the Ixtoc I well in the Gulf of Mexico, have

the capacity to foul miles of coastline, inflict millions of dollars of

damage, and produce exten sive mortalities in marine and avian populations.

Efforts to contain or control the flow of oil once accidents of this

type occur are usually ineffectual, or may occur too late to prevent

significant quantities of oil from escaping. The runaway Ixtoc I well

which flowed out of control for 295 days and released an estimated 140

million gallons of oil into the marine environment is a case in point.

A variety of measures were applied in an attempt to cap the well, but

ultimately two relief wells had to be drilled before the flow of oil

could be stemmed.

United States Geological Survey statistics as compiled by Danenberger

(1980) show that 46 blowouts have occurred on the Outer Continental

Shelf of the United State,s between 1971 and 1978. Thirty of the blowouts

occurred during drilling operations, while the remaining 16 occurred

during completion, production, and workover operations. Of the 46

blowouts recorded, only three resulted in significant quantities of oil

(less than 1,000 barrels in combination) escaping into the marine environment.

During the 8-year study period, 7,553 new wells were started and, on the

average, one blowout occurred for every 250 wells drilled.

144

Chronic oil pollution is the discharge of hydrocarbons either continuously

or sufficiently often such that aquatic biota does not have time to

recover. Annually, chronic sources add more oil to the marine environment

than do acute spills. In many cases the environment is often resilient

or responsive enough to return to a stable state following a catastrophic

event such as an acute oil spill, but a slow and steady degradation of

the environment as is the case with chronic oil pollution, may present a

more serious alteration (Dey and Damkaer, 1977; Michael, 1977; Armstrong

et al., 1979). Sources of chronic hydrocarbon pollution may include

discharge from platform deck drains, effluent (formation water) discharge

from oil-water separators on production platforms, effluent from refinery

'and petrochemical plants, and discharge from vessels, tankers and ballast

water treatment facilities.

Fates of Oil in Marine Environments

Oil may enter the marine environment through a variety of sources and in

a variety of forms, therefore it is important to understand the processes

that are involved in its ultimate distribution, physical configuration,

and chemical constituency. Studies reveal that the effects of marine

oil spills on marine ecosystems are directly related to the following

factors: 1) type of oil spill'ed, 2) amount of oil spilled, 3) physiography

of the spill area, 4) weather conditions at the time, 5) biota in the

area, 6) season of the year, 7) previous exposure of the area to oil, 8)

exposure to other pollutants, and 9) method of treatment of the spill

(Clark and Terrel, 1978). The various permutations that may be derived

from these nine parameters make each oil spill unique. However, most

145

oil spills also exhibit uniform characteristics of behavior which arise

as a result of their discharge into a marine environment. The following

discussion on fates of oil in the marine environment is primarily taken

from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

report t.itled "Impact of Oil On the Marine Environment"; and is co-

authored by an international group of expert organizations studying the

scientific aspects of marine pollution (GESAMP, 1977).

Spreading - Typically, the first process to influence the fate and

eventual impact of a spill is that of extension, or spreading of the oil

product over the marine surface in the form of a thinning film. Gravitational

effects initially control the rate of spreading, but as time increases

and the oil layer thins, slick size.becomes controlled by a surface

tension-viscosity relationship which is independent of the spill volume.

The area occupied by the slick will incr ease rapidly under the influence

of both hydrostatic and surface forces until further enlargement is

limited and offset by natural forces. It appears that even viscous

crude oils will react in a similar manner, spreading rapidly into thin

layers which then come under the influence of surface effects. Once a

spill has thinned and surface forces begin to play an important role,

the oil film is no longer continuous and uniform but rather becomes

fragmented by wind and waves into patches and windrows.

Evaporation - Evaporation is the process by which low to medium molecular
weight components with relatively low boiling points are volatized into-

the atmosphere. This process may occur up to several months after a

146

spill, but generally is most intense during the first few hours to

weeks. Riisgard (1979) estimated that as muchas 50% of a light crude

oil could evaporate within the first week following a spill. Evaporation

can be an important means of preventing toxic components from initially

entering a marine ecosystem, although some higher weight aromatics,

which are thought to be involved in long-term toxicity, a re less volatile

and are practically unaffected by evaporation over long periods of time.

Evaporation therefore selectively depletes the lower boiling components

of the oil, increasing the.specific gravity as the oil loses its volatile

fraction. As specific gravity increases, the residual oil may become

denser than sea water, increasing the possibility of sinking. This

process then can contribute to the formation of thick residuals, oil

sludges, and eventually, the possible formation of tar balls or tar

mats.

Solution - Solution is the physical process by which low molecular

weight hydrocarbons are lost by the oil to the water. The rate of this

process is governed by wind, sea state, and the properties of the petroleum

material itself (chemical composition, specific gravity, viscosity, pour

point, surface tension etc.). Since the soluble fraction of most

petroleum products consists mainly of medium weight aromatics, and this

fraction contains the compounds known to be the most toxic, persistence

of the soluble fraction is an important aspect to consider in determining

the relative harmful effects of a petroleum product. Frankenfield

(1973) investigated the weathering of No. 2 fuel oil, Bunker C residual

oil, and Venezuelan crude oil under simulated natural conditions and

found that after a weeks weathering, the dissolved fraction of the No. 2

147

fuel oil was approximately 3.5 times that found for the heavier oils.

This contradicts the idea that light oils disappear almost entirely due

to evaporation shortly after being introduced into the marine environment.

The above evidence indicates that lighter oils more readily pass into

solution within the water column than heavy oils, and that light oils

may persist in the water column whereas heavy oils form surface slicks.

Emulsification - Rough seas tend to create emulsions of oil and water.

This process may take two forms: oil-in water emulsions, where the sea

is the continuous phase, or water-in-oil emulsions,-where the stable

floating emulsion contains about 30 to 80 percent water. Water-in-oil

emulsions have been found to be stable for periods exceeding 100 days,

and are thought to be the product of accumulated non-volatile residues,

particularly asphaltenes, in crude oils. The formation of water-in-oil

emulsions generally requires violent agitation at the air/sea interface

and relatively thick oil films.

Oil-in-water emulsions may form as a result of stresses at the sea

surface.forcing oil into the water as small drops. This may occur

naturally or through the use of dispersants. Emulsification of crude

oil may also be promoted by surface-active materials produced during

degradation of the oil by certain micro-organisms.

Sedimentation - The process of oil adsorbing to sediment particles is of

particular relevance in the Norton Sound-Bering Strait region where

immense sediment discharges from the Yukon River occur annually. Oil

suspended in the water column could adhere to suspended sediment particles

causing them to settle to the ocean bottom and eventually become trapped

beneath successive layers of sediment. Very little oxidation would

occur once hydrocarbons were buried in reducing sediments. With extremely

cold marine sediments, the rate of degradation may be even slower than

that which usually occurs (Percy and Mullin, 1975). The mechanisms by

which sedimented oil may be resuspended and spread over wide areas, long

after the original spill, are not well understood. However, various

resedimentation and suspension processes which can occur include:

current movement, storm surges, resuspension by pressure waves, or

resuspension by organic reworking of surface sediments.

Chemical degradation - The nature of the chemical degradation process is

not precisely known, but would appear to be largely the result of the

photo-oxidation of hydrocarbons, with the result that oxidized compounds

are more soluble in water than the original compounds. Perhaps the most

notable effect is an increase in resin and asphaltene content.

Microbial degradation - As the residence time of oil on water increases,

biological processes begin to operate and rapidly gain in significance.

Over 90 species of micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) capable of

subsisting on petroleum, and therefore capable of degrading it by biological

oxidation, have been identified. The extent of such degradation in the

sea is dependent upon water temperature, and the presence of certain

volatile fractions (nap htha and kerosene) in the spill', some components

of which are bacteriocidal or bacteriostatic. When these fractions are

removed the residues become more biodegradable than the crudes from

which they originate. Atlas et al. (1980), studying microbial populations

149

in arctic marine sediments found that biodegradation commenced only

after several months exposure, and that there seemed to be a preference

for straight chain alkanes over branched chain alkanes.

Oil and Ice Interactions

The preceding section described the various characteristics and eventual

fate of oil released into a marine environment. The properties mentioned

are typical in the sense that they are the most predictable aspects of a

marine oil spill, and may occur to varying degrees regardless of the oil

type involved. It should be realized, however, that these aspects of

oil spill behavior are applicable only under circumstances in which ice

is not present. When oil is introduced into a marine system containing

ice, the oil can be expected to behave in a markedly different manner.

In the Norton Sound-Bering Strait region ice is normally present seven

months of each year. Because of this, oil drilling operations must

contend with the variable hazards associated with drilling in an environment

where an inordinate degreeof stress may be placed onfixed surface

structures. The-presence of moving ice will increase both the danger of

an oil spill and the difficulty involved in cleaning it up. Should an

accident occur during winter operations, oil behavior under ice will be

significantly influenced by the type of ice with which it comes in

contact.

Stringer and Weller (1980) have proposed a scale of behavior involving
oil interactions within a variety of ice types. Their study defines

150

oil/ice interactions as occurring on a micro-scale, where oil becomes

incorporated within individual crystals of growing ice, up through the

development of pancake ice; a meso-scale where characteristics of pack

ice floe movement and ice ridging are the dominant influencing factors

determini.ng-oil behavior; and a large scale where oil transport over

great distances could occur.

Initially, when oil is introduced into an area where wind or wave action

generates ice, mixing occurs with a slurry of small ice crystals and

seawater, termed grease ice. The most impo'rtant property of grease ice,

as it relates to possible oil entrainment is the existence of a dead

zone, or area of transition between liquid and solid behavior (Martin,

1980). Laboratory experiments indicate that most of the oil introduced

into a grease ice system would end up on the ice surface beyond the dead

zone, with some oil droplets circulating in the grease ice ahead of the

dead zone (Martin, et al., 1978). In this manner oil might become

directly incorporated within new growing ice as it forms. Further field

observations also confirm that if oil were spilled in the various polynya

zones of a freezing ice front, some of the oil would accumulate on the

grease ice surface, some would accumulate in the local dead zones, and a

smaller fraction would be emulsified into oil droplets by wave breaking.

These droplets might then circulate around within both the grease ice

and the ocean circulation at the ice front (Martin, 1980; Stringer and

Weller, 1980).

As grease ice freezes further it develop@ into flat "pancake ice".

Experiments with Prudhoe Bay crude oil have shown that approximately 25%

151

of the oil released beneath pancake ice can be pumped to the ice surface

by the oscillating motion of the ice itself. The rest of the oil may be

bound up as small droplets in grease ice under the pancakes (Martin,.

1980).

A third type of micro-scale oil/ice interaction occurs when oil is

released under stable, stationary first-year ice, as is typical of the

shorefast ice zone that encircles the perimeter of Norton Sound. Various

studies (NORCOR, 1975; Rosnegger, 1975; Hoult et al.,.1975; Uzuner et

al., 1979; Martin, 1979) have concerned themselves with the circumstances

surrounding such an occurrence, and the processes involved are relatively

well understood. The disposition of oil under solid ice cover is controlled

primarily by three factors; the nature of the discharge, the condition

of the ice, and the physical variables associated with the discharge of

oil. Oil may be discharged beneath ic e through the rupture of an underwater

pipeline, an oil well blowout, natural oil seepage, or oil leakage from

a ruptured vessel (Uzuner et al., 1979). In the case of a blowout, well

head temperature, pressure, the quantity of gas and oil, water depth,

and currents wil I all influence the plume and ultimately the disposition

of the oil (NORCOR, 1975). Martin (1980), after conducting experiments

in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, found that oil interactions beneath first

year ice may be separated into three periods of characteristic behavior:

1.) November - February -.When oil is first released under smooth

first-year ice it collects in natural undulations beneath the ice,

which are caused by snowdrift - induced insulation. These undulations

have an amplitude of order 0.1 m and a length scale of order 10 m.

Some oil also flows a short distance up into the ice through brine

drainage channels.

15@ 2

2.) March - May - In the spring as the4ce warms, top-to-bottom

brine channels open up in the ice and the oil rises through these

channels to the surface where it spreads laterally, both under the

snow and within the first few porous centimeters of the ice surface.

The oil on the surface then absorbs solar radiation through the

snow, causing the snow above the,oil to melt.

3). June - August - In the early part of the summer the trapped oil

will continue to rise through the ice to the surface where melt

ponds with oily surfaces then form. Because the sun heats the oil

(which absorbs heat more rapidly than the reflective snow surface),

and the winds blow the oil on the melt pond surfaces against the

edges of the ponds, the oiled melt ponds grow both laterally and in

depth faster than the unoiled ponds. As the ice continues to

decay, much of the oil in a weathered form will flow back into the

ocean either as runoff from the tops of the floes or by melting

through the ice bottom.

In the sub-arctic Norton Sound-Bering Strait region, the time frame will

be reduced, but the processes involved are likely to be the same.

Meso-scale oil and ice interactions which might occur in the northern

Bering Sea include transport of oil along leads (including "lead pumping"),

and oil incorporat ion in pressure ridges. Oi I migrating into open leads

will be compressed to greater film thicknesses, and longitudinal flow

along the leads will occur from areas of thick oil films to unoiled

portions of the leads. This process will continue until obstructions in

the leads cause the oil to overflow onto.the surrounding ice (Stringer

and Weller, 1980). Since the ice is in continual motion with leads

153

progressively opening and closing, the oil could be pumped a considerable
distance from the area originally contaminated (Logan et* al., 1975).

When leads close completely the ice on either side of the lead may be

deformed into pressure ridges. Before the lead closes, the bulk of the

contained oil can be expected to spill over onto the surrounding ice.

As the ridge then forms, the oiled ice will be broken up and incorporated

into the ridge itself (Stringer and Weller, 1980). In this manner oil

may become entrapped in the i.ce thereby effectively preventing any

immediate cleanup, and allowing the oil to be reintroduced into the

marine environment at a later date when the ice subsequently melts.

Other meso-scale considerations involve the interaction of oil with

obstructions under a solid ice cover. It has been found that small

obstructions such as exist in many ice fields, and even large.ridge

keels will not obstruct the motion.of a slick if current velocities are

sufficient (15-25 cm/sec) to cause the slick to move under small-scale

rough ice. However, the limited oceanographic information available

indicates that under ice currents in Norton Sound are weak, and it is

likely that deep pooling wou-ld occur instead if obstructions are close

to the source of spilled oil. Even in the absence of obstruct.ions, the

oil equil ibrium thickness (0.5 to 1.0 cm) is generally so great that

large amounts of spilled oil may be contained in a relatively small area

due to that mechanism alone (Stringer and Weller, 1980).

Large scale transport of oil in ice is a very real possibility in the

Bering Sea. Pease (1979) analogizes i-ce generation and transport in the

1@4
Bering Sea to the mechanic operations of a "conveyor belt". Ice develops

in the northern and coastal regi ons of the Bering Sea, subsequently

advects in a south-southwesterly direction, melts along the southern

margin of the ice pack, and is replaced by new incoming ice. Oil trapped

within growing ice could therefore be transported and released several

hundred miles away. In this manner, the Bering Sea ice pack is believed

to replace itself eight times during the course of a winter. There is

also evidence that while ice moves in a wind induced southward direction,

oceanic currents move in a northerly direction. As a result, less

buoyant weathered petroleum released from the ice cou-Id be transported

back beneath the ice cover (Stringer and Weller, 1980).

The implications of oil capture and transport are significant when the

physical aspects associated with such scenariosare considered. Oil

trapped in ice does not weather substantially, instead it retains much

of its original toxic components , which can then be later released as

the ice disintegrates (NORCOR, 1975; Logan et al., 1975). Processes

normally associated with weathering such as evaporation, dissolution and

biodegradation may still occur, but will be extremely restricted.

Similarly, degradation of oil trapped beneath the ice appears also to be

limited (Atlas, 1977).

Oil can also directly affect ice characteristics. The thermal conductivity

of most crude oils.is roughly one fifteenth that of natural sea ice,

therefore an oil lens situated beneath a sheet of ice may act as an

insulator, causing a reduction in heat flux and a subsequent reduction

in ice growth. This process is likely to occur on a short term basis,

155

returning to a normal temperature gradient once the oil becomes encapsulated

(NORCOR,1975). In the spring, higher ambient air temperatures and

increased solar radiation will induce the formation of top-to-bottom

brine channels which allow entrapped oil to migrate to the ice surface

(NORCOR, 1975; Martin, 1979). Once on the surface, oil will saturate

the snow cover causing a reduction in albedo (reflectant property).

This further accelerates the process of ice degeneration by increasing

the absorption of solar radiation. Oiled areas are then likely to be

free of ice one to three weeks in advance of the gross failure of the

sheet (NORCOR, 1975).

Direct observations of oil and ice interactions have been recorded

following the breakup of the oil tanker Kurdistan off the Cape Breton

coast (C-Core, 1980). During this incident the Kurdistan, carrying a

cargo of 29,000 tons of Bunker-C oil was significantly damaged by heavy

ice and was forced to return to open water., The vessel subsequently

broke apart and an estimated 7,000 tons of Bunker-C was lost. Initially,

the oil with a pour point between 15% and 20'C congealed rapidly in the

cold water. One week later oil was reported in the pack ice in the form

of long bands and streaks. Although the preliminary events leading to

entrainment of the oil in the ice are unknown, during the period of

observation, most processes tended toward a finer dispersion and dilution

of the oil.

One of the primary dispersion processes was the grinding of oil in brash

ice as a result of floe impact and differential movement. In the offshore

pack, swell propagation caused a leisurely grinding motion which produced

156

oil particles ranging from a few centimeters in diameter down to micron

sizes. During extreme sea states, breaking waves resulted in churning

chunks of ice which rapidly reduced oil blobs to a very fine dispersion

with relatively uniform distribution. An additional aspect of the

grinding process appeared to be a considerable incorporation of organic

or mineral material into the oil itself. Samples collected some distance

offshore contained "surprising" amounts of heavy mineral particles which

were believed to have been picked up from floe surfaces.

A secondary process which also tended to reduce particle size occurred

as a result of solar heating on snow/ice surfaces. The ice beneath

blobs of oil would melt, causing the oil to be stretched and spread

until surface tension effects intervened to produce micron sized oil

particles. Individual particles showed no sign of strong adhesion to

the ice, and in many cases became trapped as new ice formed over those

particles which had became concentrated in melt pockets.

One unexpected result arising from chromatographic analysis of brash ice

samples was the apparent tendency for certain light hydrocarbons to be

preferentially enriched (retained). Enrichment of even numbered hydrocarbons

(C14 - C20) was found to further occur in analyses of ice cores from

floes and ice rubble drifts. The preferential retention of light fractions

by sea ice could have significant effects on the epontic algal community

in those areas where biological activity on decaying ice is an important

part of the spring bloom (C-Core, 1980).

157

Spill Transport and Containment

There are a number of factors which are important in determining the

degree of hazard which oil pollution in offshore areas poses for the

biologi'cal resources in both the coastal and offshore zones. The major

physical processes affecting the transport and areal dispersion of

hydrocarbon pollutants during a summer spill are.1) net circulation, 2)

surface spreading, 3) wind transport, 4) oscillatory tidal currents, and

5) mixing. Transport may differ significantly depending on whether the

oil is in solution within the water column, or if it-is spread over the

water surface in the form of a slick. Oil in solution, or oil which has

been mixed within the water column.will be carried prima rily with the

currents. Surface oil slick transport is additionally affected by

direct wind influence, surface spreading, and other surface proc esses.

Net Circulation - The effect of net circulation on oil slick transport

is generally self-evident. In the absence of other modifying influences,

an oil slick will simply be carried with the surface currents. However,

'this straight-forward transport mechanism is complicated by a-number of

additional variables, including a large variability in the "normal" net

circulation itself. Alterations in the "normal" net surface circulation

pattern are continually produced by variations in freshwater runoff,

seasonal temperature changes, winds, periodic variations in tidal range,

and other factors. These natural variations make it difficult to model

or predict the path and eventual landfall of a spill with any degree of

reliability.

158

Spreading - Surface spreading (in the absence of winds or currents) will

greatly enlarge the area of a surface oil slick. Spreading results from

the influence of gravity which causes a film of oil to thin and spread

laterally. In areas where there is restricted circulation, such as a

gyre in a bay, surface spreading alone would greatly increase the area

of the bay which would be affected by the spill. The rate of spreading

and the total area of spread over calm water will vary as a function of

the composition and viscosity of the oil, the seawater and air temperature,

and other factors. A representative calculation of oil spreading which

excludes contributing physical processes (wind, waves, currents, and

tides), indicates that a 65,000 barrel oil spill would, after 11 days,

spread to a diameter of 18.2 kilometers (11.3 miles) (BLM, 1976).

Wind Transport - Wind-induced surface transport of oil is frequently the

most influential variable. Wind will.move a surface oil slick at 2.5-

4.5% of the wind speed and at an angle of 0-45' to the right (in the

northern hemisphere) of the wind direction (Kinney, 1976). The movement

velocity most commonly accepted is 3% of the wind speed in a direction

very close to that of the wind (BLM, 1976; Dames and Moore, 1976). The

wind influence is, at least initially, superimposed upon the "normal"

net circulation. Movement of the slick can then be represented as the

vector sum of the surface current velocity and approximately 3% of,the

wind velocity (Dames & Moore, 1976). Strong winds will overide any

surface current influences. The slick movement may take the form of a

very near-surface "skim layer shear" in which the oil slick and a very

near-surface layer of water slides over the underlying waters (Battelle

Northwest, 1970); however, the surface wind stress is generally transmitted

159

to the underlying waters and progressively alters the deeper surface

water currents. As the wind alters the movement of progressively deeper

waters, the net circulation itself is altered. In effect, t ,he magnitude

of surface water transport due to winds can be expected to increase (up

to a point) as persistent winds alter the "normal" surface and near-

surface circulation at progressively deep er depths.

Tidal Transport - Dispersion of a continuous oil spill within the Norton

Sound-Bering Strait region will be enhanced by oscillatory tidal excursions.

Tides in Norton Sound are primarily diurnal, with currents averaging 20-

30 cm/sec. Diurnal excursions tend to be narrow elipses extending in an

east-west direction over distances of 10-15 kilometers (6.2 to 9.3

miles). Therefore, an oil spill which continued over a complete tidal

cycle could be spread a maximum distance of 15 kilometers (13 nautical

miles) by tidal factors alone. In shallow water close to the Yukon

Delta, currents and resultant excursions are thought to be less, but

there are no direct observations to confirm this assumption. Offshore

the area south of St. Lawrence Island appears to be a region of extreme

tidal complexity, with areas of convergence, divergence and abrupt

variations in velocity. This is believed to be a result of converging
Arctic and Pacific tides (Pearson et al., 1980). Tidal circulation"in

this region will probably have little net effect upon the movement of

spilled oil, but could increase lateral spread and possibly vertical

mixing of oil in the water column due to current induced turbulence

(BLM, unpub. data b).

Prediction of Pollution Transport - Prediction of pollution transport

within the Norton Sound-Bering Strait region involves a number of transport

160

mechanisms, all of which are variable with time and location. Generally,

the tidal stage at which a spill occurred would usuall y be the most

significant initial variable in determining a pollutant's trajectory.

Spreading and horizontal mixing processes also tend to enlarge the area

of the spill. Surface spreading of an oil slick would be a particularly

.significant process in areas such as gyres where the surface slick could

be retained for 1-2 weeks or more.

In the absence of winds, the net circulation will be the dominant factor

controlling long range transport. Wind influence however, is likely to

overshadow all other transport and dispersion processes and may, on the

average, be the single most important force affecting surface oil transport.

Not only does the wind have a direct influence on transport of surface

oil, but the net circulation itself may be altered by persistent winds.

Impingement upon shoreline areas frequently requires some onshore wind

influence on either the net circulation or the surface slick. As an

example of wind influence, a moderate onshore wind with a speed of 7.7

m/sec (15 knots) would cause an oil slick to drift onshore at a speed of

roughly 23 cm/sec (0.45 knots), or about 11.5 km/day (10 nautical mi/day).

During winter the dominant wind direction is usually from the north and

northeast, thus inducing a net southwestward out flow of ice from Norton

Sound. Under-ice circulation patterns during this period remain undefined.

Ice - The mechanisms involved in large scale transport of oil in ice

have been discussed previously.

161

Spill Response and Containment

Fish and wildlife populations can be protected from the effects of an

oil spill if the spill can be contained and cleaned up before it reaches

these resources. In the event of an oil spill, it is imperative that

cleanup proceed as soon as possible; that sufficient equipment be available

to respond to the maximum projected spill; and that manpower and equipment

be mobilized efficiently. At the present time, oil spill response and

containment capabilities are limited by economic, environmental, logistic,

and mechanical constraints, which, in many cases may preclude an effective

cleanup operation except under ideal conditions. A review of existing

oil spill containment and cleanup technology for the Norton Sound region

reveals the following problems:

1. Most of the containment and cleanup equipment available for use

during open water periods is only capable of operating in a maximum

of 3 foot waves, 15 knot winds, and I knot currents (GOACO, 1977).

Recent modifications may have expanded the capability of some

equipment to operate in wave conditions approaching 6 feet (Barto,

per. comm.) however, the actual app lication of such equipment

remains for the most part untested. In the northern Bering Sea,

extreme storm conditions in late summer and fall can be worse than

those in the Gulf of Alaska. For Norton Basin the predicted maximum

sustained wind speed is estimated to be 90 knots (100 mph) and the

extreme wave height is estimated to be 32 meters (105 feet) (BLM,

1980). A regional composite averaging of median wind and wave data

from the open water period of June through October shows that wind

speeds equal or exceed 11 knots 44.3% of the time, and wave heights

162

exceed 3 feet 4.8% of the time (Brower et al., 1977). Tidal currents

for most of Norton Sound are low, and range between 0.4-0.6 knots

(20-30 cm/sec.), although in some nearshore areas tidal currents

may be higher. In the Yukon Delta channels, tidal currents varying

from 0.5 to 1.5 knots have been recorded. Offshore, the area north

of St. Lawrence Island appears to be a region of extreme complexity

for tidal currents with areas of convergence, divergence, and

abrupt variations in velocity. Even under ideal conditions, conventional

oil spill containment and recovery equipment cannot be expected to

provide a removal efficiency much greater than 50% (Meikle, 1978).

2. Mobilization and deployment of oil spill containment and cleanup

equipment will be difficult and time consuming. The Norton Sound-

Bering Strait region has approximately 1931 kilometers (.1200 miles)

of coastline,.but is essentially roadless east of Safety Lagoon.

There are only three airstrips capable of accomodating large transport

planes (Nome, Unalakleet, and Moses Point) and only one port capable

of unloading heavy cargo (Nome). If a spill occurred near the

center of Norton Sound it would take a vessel out of Nome approximately

5 to 7 hours to reach it, not including the time allowed for transportation

of key personnel from Anchorage to Nome, and the time required to

load equipment. If a spill were to occur in the eastern portion of

Norton Sound where port facilities do not currently exist, vessel

intercept times alone may approach 10 to 14 hours.

Should a spill occur, personnel and equipment transported from

Anchorage,.Fairbanks, or Seattle would necessarily have to be

unloaded in Nome or Unalakleet and be ferried to a spill site by

163

helicopter, boat, or small aircraft. This will greatly increase

the amount of time required to respond to a spill, and will be

ineffective if weather conditions do not permit the use of such

modes of transportation. It has been estimated that in this region

during any time of the year there is a 30 percent chance that the

cloud ceiling will be below 300 feet (BLM, 1980). Under adverse

weather conditions it might require several days just to transport

personnel and equipment to a spill site. Dur-ing winter months the

short days and long nights may cause additional delays in the

ability to locate a spill and respond quickly, and the presence of

ice is likely to impede-most marine surface transportation.

3. In the event that weather conditions or the location of a spill

make mechanical containment or cleanup impossible, dispersants may

be used to protect fish and wildlife resources. Dispersants act.tq....

break apart an oil slick, reducing it to components which are more

soluble within the water column, and which are therefore less

likely to physically foul animal species or their habitats. However,

there are several drawbacks to the use of dispersants.

The primary problem is that insufficient data is available on the

effectiveness and toxicity of dispersants to make an objective

decision regarding their use in Alaskan water.. Certain dispersants

and dispersant-oil mixtures can actually increase the amount of

toxicity related damage resulting from a spill, thereby precluding

their use in most cases. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

has published.a list of approved dispersants; however, the presence

of a dispersant on this list only signifies EPA's acceptance of the

method used to test the dispersant and is not necessarily an endorsement

of its innocuous nature. The second problem is that, dependent

upon type, dispersants will only work under certain temperatures

and sea conditions. If these conditions do not exist during a

spill then dispersants will not work. Third, there has to be a

means of delivering the dispersants to the spill site. Vessels,

fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters are all feasible, but weather

and visibility must meet minimum standards to be effective, especially

in the case of airborne systems. Fourth, dispersants are presently

ineffective in ice infested waters.

4. Ice is normally present in the Norton Sound region 6 to 8 months of

each year. Under such conditions, the effectiveness of most open

water containment and recove ry devices will be drastically limited

once the concentration of ice exceeds roughly 10 to 20 percent

(Logan, et al., 1975). Although oil removal operations could

conceivably continue in the presence of brash or pancake ice (Meikle,

1978; ABSORB, 1980), it is likely that efficiency will be greatly

reduced, and personnel safety factors may make such operations

prohibitive.

Oil spill scenarios during wi nter conditions, as presented by the

Alaskan Beaufort Sea Oil Spill Response Body (.ABSORB), describe
cleanup operations which largely a8dress oil spilled within the

165

shorefast ice zone. In such scenarios the ability to utilize heavy

machinery and equipment is crucial in the contruction of containment

berms or trenches, and for the physical collection and removal Pf

oil spilled on top of the ice. However, during periods of seasonal

transition, when ice is in active formation or degeneration, such

operations would be impossible, and oil spilled at this time might

flow unimpeded for several weeks before an attempt could be made to

recover it. In Norton Sound both the strength and extent of the

shorefast ice zone is very limited compared to that of the Beaufort

Sea, and cleanup techniques such as those described will not be

effective.

Should oil happen to be released in broken pack ice, it is doubtful

that any of the methods currently employed during oil spill cleanup

operations would provide more than a minor deterent to wide spread

contamination; under such circumstances in situ burning is likely

to be the only operational technique available. The reliability of

this procedure however, is dependent upon several factors. The

principal limitation to burning is that a minimum film thickness of

roughly 0.5 cm is required to sustain combu.stion (Logan et al.,

1975). During the Kurdistan spill off Cape Breton, the natural

tendency for oil in pack ice was toward dispersion and dilution,

with most observable oil occurring in the form of droplets or

globules (C-Core, 1980). Burning would have been completely

ineffective and was not attempted.

Furthermore, the effeciency of a burn varies directly with film

thickness. For film thicknesses of about 2.0 cm the residues which

166

remain after burning can be reduced to between 10 and 20 percent,

while for marginal film thicknesses they can exceed 50 percent

(Logan, et al. , 1975).

Water temperature is another factor which will influence burn rate.

Lower water temperatures will not only increase heat losses from

spilled oil, but will also increase viscosity, therefore reducing

the flow of oil to a burning area (USCG, 1978). Oil may then have

to be reignited repeatedly to achieve anything approaching a comprehensive

burn.

5. In a situation such as a blowout, or other loss of well control, it

is probable that flaring techniques would be used to ignite the

well if it became apparent that all other control methods were

ineffectual or that on-scene personnel could not retard the movement

of oil from the spill area. By flaring a bl,owout it is possible to

burn up to 90 percent of the oil that is released, if ideal conditions

exist at the time. However, the principal limitation of flaring is

that it restricts all other activities in an area and, in the

winter, fallout associated with this technique will tend to accelerate

melt processes in the spring, thereby reducing the time available

for surface cleanup (Logan et al., 1975).

In summary, it is apparent that current oil spill containment and cleanup

technology is inadequate.to provide protection to fish, wildlife, and

sensitive habitats in the Norton Sound-northern Ber ing Sea region. The

167

numerous hazards associated with each seasonal period, coupled with an

almost total lack of support infrastructure, will require that extraordinary

measures be taken to accelerate the development, acquisition, and application

of more effective oil recovery technology and regional response capabilities.

The time involved, and the capital investment required, will necessarily

be extensive, however, present systems which rely on optimal climatic

conditions in order to affect even a modicum of efficiency are clearly

unacceptable.

A practical and effective solution to the current problem of protecting

marine resources from the possibility of a marine oil spill, while

allowing exploration, production, and transportation to proceed with a

minimum amount of delay, would be to initiate a comprehensive analysis

of current and projected oil spill capabilities in Norton Sound.

Simultaneously, the.-technological and economic feasibility of developing

additional equipment with the capability to clean up oil under all

conditions prevailing in the Norton Sound-northern Bering Sea region

should be evaluated. Where feasible, the development of more effective

oil spill containment and cleanup equipment should be undertaken. In

situations where it does not appear that it woul-d be techn ologically

feasible or economically sound to develop an additional containment and

cleanup capability, the hazards of oil pollution could be minimized by

scheduling operations with comparatively high risks of oil spillage

during periods of maximum cleanup efficiency. For example, since it

appears that oil is virtually unrecoverable once it is released in pack.

ice, well completion operations or tanker transport procedures should be

suspended until cleanup conditions exist which will provide for a more

168

favorable recovery rate. Until responsible measures of this nature are

implemented, valuable fish and wildlife resources will continue to be

imperiled by hazardous operations conducted during high risk periods.

Additional recommendations designed to prevent, minimize or ameliorate

the adverse impacts associated with oil pollution may be found in the

Mitigating Measures segment of this section.

Biological Effects

The effect that oil contamination will have on marine organisms inhabiting

the Norton Sound-Bering Strait region is difficult to"quantify or predict.

Usually a number of factors, acting both individually and in combination

govern the consequences that an oil discharge may have on marine life

(GESAMP, 1977).

It should initially be understood that subjective aspects of assessment

sometimes make it difficult to achieve a consensus judgement on the

ultimate impacts arising from a spill. Most researchers believe that

areas supporting a high diversity of animal and plant life are subject

to the greatest impact should an oil spill occur; others argue that

locations with a low diversity are more fragile in terms of biologic

perturbation, and.therefore they would then receive the greatest impact

(USCG, 1975). Other impact assessments may attempt to reconstruct an

ecosystem model as existed prior to the discharge of oil as an indicator

or standard with which to judge recoverability. This method can sometimes

overlook the dynamic nature of a species. population by assuming a stable

state exists at a given point in time. Finally, mortality counts may be

169

used to gauge the damaging results of an oil spill, although it is

frequently the case that many animals die beyond the field of observation,

or may expire through indirect means

Long-term studies of several major oil spills have indicated that oil

has the following effects on marine life: 1) di-rect kill of organisms

through coating and asphyxiation, 2) direct kill.through contact poisoning,

3) direct kill through exposure to water soluble toxic components of oil

at some distance in space and time from the spill, 4) destruction of the

sensitive juvenile forms, 5) destruction of the food sources of higher

organisms, 6) incorporation of sublethal amounts of oil and oil products

into organisms, resulting in failure to reproduce or reduced resistance

to infection, or physiological stress, 7) contraction of diseases due to

exposure to carcinogenic components of oil, 8) chronic low level effects

that may interrupt any of the numerous biochemical or behavi.oral events

necessary for the feeding, migration, or spawning of many species of

marine life and, 9) changes in biological habitats (Blumer et al.,

1970).

The following discussion will focus primarily on the effects of oil

pollution on Alaskan species of fish and wildlife that are of commercial,

subsistence or recreational importance. It should not be construed,

however, that by limiting consideration to these highly visible species,

the importance of other species of ecological value is diminished or

ignored. Too little attention has been directed toward those organisms

which are of no economic importance, but which nevertheless form a
critical element of the food web upon wh'ich the commercial, subsistence

170

or recreationally important species a re dependent. In instances where

information is lacking on a particular species present in the northern

Bering Sea, an attempt has been made to include studies relating to

other organisms possessing similar characteristics.

Marine Mammals - Studies into the effects of oil on marine mammals are

limited and, as a result, much of theassociated consequences are speculative

in nature. Observations made at various oil spills (Tampico Maru,

Torre y Canyon, Santa Barbara, West Falmouth, Shell, Argo Merchant, and

Amoco Cadiz) do not indicate any-major Toss of marine mammals (Mackin,

1973; Nelson-Smith, 1973; NOAA/EPA, 1978, Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980).

However, field observations may be grossly misleading since the majority

of marine mammals which perish will probably sink to the bottom of the

sea rather than drift to shore, making it difficult to document oil

related mortalities.

It is anticipated that oil will not impact all marine mammals to an

equal degree. Seals and walruses have been found to engage in a partitioning

of available ice habitat and other resources, as is demonstrated by

their dissimilar feeding habits, birth times, choice of birth sites, and

the relative precocity of their young (Burns, 1970; Burns, 1980). Given

such circumstances, oil released into a specific habitat or ice type

might selectively impact one species over another. After conducting

experiments on ringed seals, Smith and Geraci (1975) concluded that even

intraspecific differences may exist which lend an unequal impact to oil

contamination. Typically, older seals and seals in poor nutritional

conditi-on are likely to be more sensitive than younger healthy seals.

171

The-toxic effects of direct oil contact and ingestion are not well

known. Ingestion experiments in which ringed and harp seals were force

fed 25-75 ml of Norman wells crude oil indicate that these quantities

are not toxic on a short term basis (Smith and Geraci, 1975). However,

it is not known what effect oil.ingested by pups nursing from their

mothers (coated with oil) will have on the young (Schneider, pers.

comm.). Recent studies in which three polar bears where immersed in a

simulated oil spill resulted in the death of two bears. Some indications

of possible liver and nervous system disorders were reported after it

was observed-that the bears had ingested "considerabl-e-amounts of oil by
licking their paws and legs" (Anchorage Times, 1980).

Ringed seals are thought to be particularly susceptible to the toxic

components of oil released beneath landfast ice. Burns et al. (1980)

feel that oil will tend to rise and accumulate in breathing holes and,

si-nce most holes do not penetrate completely through the snow to the air

above, there will be a tendency for volatile fractions to accumulate in

the air pockets and subnivian lairs which these seals utilize extensively.

It is currently unknown whether an adult female exposed to this type of

oiling would move out of an area of contamination and abandon a helpless

pup, or would try to take the pup with her before it was sufficiently

developed to leave the lair. Either of these responses are likely to

increase the probability of pup mortality (Smith and Geraci, 1975).

The volatile components of oil also irritate sensitive membranes in the
eyes and nostrils of seals. Smith and G*eraci (.1975) observed that

172

ringed seals secrete tears (lacrimate) excessively and arch their backs

when immersed in oil. Similarly, during the molting period, a loss of

hair coupled with the shedding of an outer protective layer of cornified

epidermis may also leave many pinniped species vulnerable to irritation

by toxicants (Burns et al., 1980). Since the molt represents a period

of considerable metabolic and psychological stress (Ronald et al., 1970

in Burns et al., 1980), any additional stress which might occur as a

result of an oil spill could produce further unknown implications.

Seal pups are especially vulnerable to direct contact with oil. While

they are being weaned, spotted, ribbon and ringed seal pups are relatively

immobile and are dependent on woolly hair (lanugo) for insulation. The

importance of the lanugo for thermoregulation decreases as thickness of

the blubber layer increases. Oil adhering to a mothers coat, or oil

which is deposited upon an ice floe surface would, if it came in contact

with a pups lanugo coat, destroy its insulating value (Burns et al.,

1980). If several square miles of landfast ice were oiled in a submarine

spill a large number of pups might be expected to die of exposure.

The direct effects of oil on cetacean species are even less understood

than those regarding pinnipeds. It has been suggested that blowholes

could become plugged, eyes irritated, or whales might ingest oil when

feeding on fish or plankton. Belukha and killer whales, like seals,

feed on relatively large, individual prey animals, and probably would

not ingest great amounts of oil. Conversely, bowhead whales which feed

on small organisms filtered from the water, might also filter out any

suspended oil as well (Fraker et al., 1978), thereby physically fouling

the baleen plates which these animals use to strain food organisms. 173

Gray whales which are also filter feeders, rely on benthic organisms for

food and could be affected in a similar manner by sedimented oil particles.

According to Nelson-Smith (1973), it is doubtful that oil will adhere to

whales because of their relatively smooth skin. Geraci and St. Aubin

(1980), however, feel that cetacean skin may be particularly vulnerable

to the noxious effects of surface contact with oil. This is due in part

to its unique nature, consisting of epidermal cells rich in enzymes such

as creatine kinase, sorbitol dehydrogenase, and aspartate aminotransferase.

Additionally,.cetacean epidermis is rich in vitamin C, the antioxidant

properties of which may serve to protect the enzymatically active intracellular

environment.

For whales involved in extensive seasonal migrations, as is typical of

bowhead, belukha, and gray whales, oil may indirectly impact these

species by causing a delay in migration, or possible avoidance of oil

contaminated areas.

Birds - Oil pollution of any kind can cause the death of sea birds,

shore birds, and waterfowl by drowning, exposure, starvation, poisoning,

and increased vulnerability to predators. The death of marine birds

caused by oil slicks and the water soluble fraction of oils are generally

one of the earliest and most obvious indications of an oil spill impacting

an ecosystem. Thousands of marine birds of all varieties are often

affected by a large spill (Mackin, 1973). Diving birds which spend the

majority of their life at sea are most susceptible to contamination by

oil pollution; however, any bird that feeds or settles on the sea is

vulnerable.

174

The direct effect of oil pollution on marine birds is well documented

(Mackin, 1973; Nelson-Smith, 1973; GESAMP, 1977). In 1970, approximately

100,000 marine birds may have died after coming into contact with an oil

spill off of Kodiak Island (FWQA, 1970; GESAMP, 1977). A t least 10,000

birds, including alcids, ducks, gulls, and kittiwakes were also killed

by oil apparently pumped from ballast tanks onboard tankers entering

Cook Inlet during February and March of 1970 (Ohlendorf et al., 1978).

Oil spills from the wrecks of oil tankers such as the Torrey Canyon and

Amoco Cadiz can have drastic long range effects on the productivity of

marine birds. Populations of puffins, razorbills, guillemots, kittiwakes

and other marine birds at the Les Sept Isles Sanctuary off the coast of

Brittany dropped dramatically after the Torrey Canyon spill. Prior to

the wreck approximately 2,000 pairs of puffins, 250 pairs of razorbills

and 400 pairs of guillemots inhabitated two of the islands in the sanctuary.

The next year the numbers decreased noticeably and had stabilized at

about 800, 90 and 150 nesting pairs, respectively, preceding the spill

from the Amoco Cadiz in 1978 (NOAA/EPA, 1978).

In many cases, the damage inflicted upon a colony of birds exposed to

oil contamination arises not out of the number killed initially, but

rather to what degree the breeding population has been affected. The

reproductive output of a group of birds, year after year, has more

effect on maintaining the population than does the random mortality of

some individuals (Biderman and Drury, 1980). In this respect, the

175

different reproductive strategies of seabirds become important when.

adult mortality increases (Hunt et al., 1980). Alcids (auklets, murres

and puffins) lay a single egg and would require a long time for population

recovery (Weins et al., 1979 in Hunt et al., 1980). Kittiwakes, and

other seabirds which lay multiple egg clutches have the potential to

recover more quickly given optimal environmental conditions (.Hunt et

al., 1980).

It has been observed that birds can contaminate eggs with oil adhering

to their feathers or by utilizing nesting materials containing oil.

Albers (1977) and Hartung (1965) have found that small quantities of oil

coated on mallard eggs significantly reduced their hatchability. Studies

recorded by Biderman and Drury (1980) demonstrate that amounts of oil as

small as 50 microliters (the amount in one-half drop from a average

household eyedropper) may produce a 100% embryo mortality in treated

eggs depending upon the type of crude oil applied. Similar results have

been obtained with eggs of common eiders, glaucous and black-backed

gulls, fork-tailed storm petrels and sandwich terns (Szaro and Albers,

1977; Patten and Patten, 1977; Manuwal and Boersma, 1978; Biderman and

Drury, 1980). Additionally, the effects of oil on embryos are not

confined to outright death. When just one microliter of oil is applied

to day-old eggs, many of the embryos survive, but a significant number

of them have deformities that include bill malformations, incomplete

bone formation,. and stunted.growth. Many of these deformities would

ultimately kill the chick (Biderman and Drury, 1980).

176

The effects of oil ingestion are not as apparent or as observable as the

effects of oil on eggs. Laboratory studies with herring gull chicks

have shown that ingestion of small doses of crude oil interfered with

.physiological functions which, when combined with other normal stresses

encountered by birds such as food shortages and severe storms, could

threaten their survival (Miller et al., 1978). Very small concentrations

of oil were found to induce liver and kidney damage in mallard ducklings,

and higher concentrations retarded some birds ability to develop flight

feathers (Biderman and Drury, 1980). Behavioral changes may also occur

as a result of birds ingesting oil. Harting (1965) found that when

ducks were fed small doses of lubricating oil they stopped laying for

two weeks.

It is possible that components of oil may be transmitted to birds by

ingesting -contaminated prey species. After the Amoco Cadiz spill, sea

gulls were observed feeding on recently killed intertidal organisms

along the coast (NOAA/EPA, 1978). Biderman and.Drury (1980) have reported

that radioactively "tagged" naphthalene components of oil were readily

taken up and accumulated in tissues of mallard ducks which had been

previously fed contaminated crayfish.

Perhaps the greatest threat that oil pollution presents to individual

birds is the danger of physical fouling or plummage contamination.

Depending upon temperature conditions, as little as seven grams of oil

on the plumage of marine birds may cause dea th (Nelson-Smith, 1973).

For birds which inhabit harsh environments, as is typical of the northern

177

Bering Sea, the amount of oil required to induce a series of events

leading ultimately to death from heat loss may be much smaller.

Levy (1980) presents a general scenario for birds living a "precarious

existence", where winter conditions coupled with a limited food supply

result in considerable hardship: "Since survival for many of the birds

is already marginal because of the stresses imposed by rigorous winter

conditions, the additional stress from what might otherwise have been an

insignificant amount of oil contamination may be sufficient to trigger a

series of events that result in the bird's death. Under these conditions,

a very small amount-of oil-perhaps only-a very small patch-or even just

a light stain-may degrade the insulating and water-repelling properties

of its plumage to the extent that the bird is unable to cope with the

accompanying increase in heat loss.. In an attempt to maintain its body

temperature an involuntary shivering process i,s initiated and the

bird's metabolic processes are accelerated.(McEwan and Koelink, 1973 in

Levy, 1980). These responses require an increased energy supply and, if

this cannot be satisfied through increased food intake, the bird's fat

reserves and subsequently its body tis sues are rapidly consumed. As

this occurs, the bird's average density decreases and it becomes progressively

more buoyant. As a result, it becomes increasingly more difficult for
diving bi'rds to procure food, since both the depth to which they can

dive and the time they can remain submerged are decreased. Although

some may survive until environmental conditions become more favourable

or until the damaged feathers are replaced, for most the spiral o f

increased energy demand coupled with reduced feeding efficiency soon

leads to death by exposure and starvation. Under s.uch conditions many

V78

birds might bear little or no evidence of oil contamination or cause of

death, other than extreme emaciation" (Levy, 1980). Such an event might

have occured in Bristol Bay during April of 1970 when an estimated

100,000 murres (diving birds) died as a result of unknown causes. In

this case, the common denominator among all specimens observed was an

emaciated conditon in which the average weight loss was greater than 25%

(Bailey and Davenport, 1972).

Fish - Oil pollution may impact fish species through: 1) short-term

lethal effects in which individuals are killed relatively quickly; 2)

sublethal physiological effects which, depending upon their mode of

action may eventu ally lead to death, and 3) hydrocarbon induced aberrant

behavioral effects.

In studying the five life stages of Pacific salmon__(,e-g9,, alevin, fry,
juvenile and adult), it has been found that the emergent fry are the

most sensitive to oil pollution (Rice et al., 1975, Moles et al. 1979).

Laboratory tests show that pink salmon fry are killed by oil concentrations

as low as 1.41 ppm of the water soluble fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude

oil. Conversly, pink salmon eggs were found to be fairly resistant in

preliminary tests. Morrow (1973) has additionally reported that juvenile

sockeye and silver salmon succumbed within a few hours after an oil

slick was generated in their holding tank.

The eggs and early larval stages of species such as herring are particularly

vulnerable to the effects of an oil spill since they are relatively

immobile, and any oil which came ashore in the intertidal zone during

179

periods of spawning could physically coat eggs and d irectly kill larvae.

Herring larvae have reportedly been killed by a 96 hour exposure to 3

ppm of the water soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude (Rice et al.,

1976). In a Nova Scotia spill, an "intermediate oil" containing large

amounts of aromatic hydrocarbons was identified as the cause of an

extensive kill of herring..

Marine fish with floating eggs and planktonic larvae (such as Arctic

cod) are also vulnerable to oil spills, since both eggs and larvae

develop within the surface water layer. Currents.which carry these.

early life stages would also tra nsport oil, and would serve to keep both

fish and pollutant in constant contact. Kuhnhold (1972) has reported

that exposure to the soluble fractions of Venezuelan and Libyan crude

oils resulted in total mortality of developing. cod eggs. Researchers

have found that over half of all the cod and pollock eggs collected from

the area of the Argo Merchant spill were contaminated with oil droplets

and tar. Additionally, a significant number of eggs collected were

either dead (up to 46%) or contained grossly malformed embryos (18%)
(Longwell, i977).

Adult fish species which live and feed on the ocean bottom (demersal)

are affected primarily by sinking oil which could become incorporated in

bottom sediments, thereby providing a long term source of contamination.

The LD50 (dosage at which 50% were killed) for Arctic cod has been

recorded at 1.569 ppm + 0.004 over an 8 day period (NWAFC, 1979); and

Devries (1977) has reported that cod and. pollock died within two hours

after being exposed to 4 ppm of naphthalene, a toxic component of oil.

180

The sub-lethal physiological effects of hydrocarbon exposure can result

in significant changes in an animal's ability to resist disease, find

food, or avoid predators. Collectively, these c1hanges may promote long-

term population declines. This hypothesis is supported by a study which

showed that small tidal creeks receiving petroleum wastes produced lower

yields of fishery species than similar creeks not receiving such wastes

(Spears, 1971).

Struhsaker et al. (1974) reported that exposure to sublethal concentrations

of benzene induced abnormalities in developing herring embryos which,

although not directly lethal, will in most cases eventually result in

death. Larvae produced from cod eggs which were exposed to sublethal

concentrations of the water soluble fraction of Venezuelan and Libyan

crude oils were observed to be deformed (Kuhnhold, 1972). English sole

held on contaminated sediments fo r over four months had.a higher frequency

of liver abnormalities and weight loss than did control fish in uncontaminated

sediment (Malins et al., 1978). Results obtained by Cameron and Smith

(1980) with herring eggs exposed to Prudhoe Bay crude oil and subsequently

allowed to develop indicate that even larvae which appear outwardly

normal may suffer ultrastructural damage such as mit,ochondrial disruption

or intercellular degeneration.

Rice et al. (1977) indicate that sublethal concentrations of hydrocarbons

may have substantial effects on the survival of salmon fry. Continuous

exposure causes elevated metabolic rates and an increased demand for

energy. This increased energy demand-requires increased food intake

181

which puts the fish at a disadvantage in its struggle for survival,

especially if the stress persists over long periods of time.

Growth rates of pink salmon fry noticeably decre ased after ten days

exposure to very low levels of Prudhoe Bay crude oil (Rice et al.,

1976). This is significant since the success of a year class of salmon

is heavily dependent upon fry developing at precisely the correct rate

to take advantage of the spring plankton bloom. Accelerated or retarded

development could mean starvation and low survival rates for out-migrant

fry.

Respiration rates of pink salmon fry increased markedly, when placed in

water containing the water soluble fractions of hydrocarbons (Rice et

al., 1976). This is an indication of st ress and it is likely that a

population of salmon which is constantly under stress from pollutants

will develop more.slowly and have a lower survival rate than an unstressed

population.

A spill of diesel fuel in Puget Sound was found to have been the causitive

factor inducing eye damage and blindness in coho, salmon held in nearby

rearing pens (Malins.et al., 1978). It is probable that eye damage

would greatly reduce the ability of salmon to find food and avoid predators.

Rainbow trout (which are also salmonids) suffer sk.in, gill, liver and

eye damage when exposed to the water soluble fractions of Prudhoe Bay
crude oil (Hawkes, 1977). Skin and gill damage can increase susceptibi.lity

to infection from a wide range of bacterial, viral, or fungal pathogens

which can commonly attack salmon.

182

It has also been found that marine fish can readily accumu.late, or

bioconcentrate, aromatic hydrocarbons in tissues when exposed through'

the diet, water column, or sediment (Varanasi and Malins, 1977 in Malins,

1980). The extent of accumulation differs in relation to such factors

as species, hydrocarbon structure, route of administration, and environmental

conditions. In various exposed marine fish, aromatic hydrocarbons have

been identified in liver, dark and light muscle, brain, heart, gut,

kidney, skin, eyes, gills, blood, bile, and mucus (Malins, 1980).

Bioconcentration is reported to be substantially higher for flatfish

than for salmon"(Roubal, et al., 1978). After a two-week exposure to

the water soluble fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, starry flounder

accumulated bioconcentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons in liver and

gill tissue in excess of 11,000 times the levels found in the exposure

water (Roubal, et al.1978; Malins, 1980). In addition, it is also

evident that flatfish tend to accumulate large concentrations of hydrocarbons

when exposed to petroleum-rich sediments (Malins, 1980). McCain et al.

(1978) reported that prolonged contact with hydrocarbons in the sediment

at concentrations of 400 to 700 ppm induced both physiological and

pathological abnormalities in English sole. Therefore, oil deposited on

the ocean bottom through sedimentation or other means could significantly

affect flatfish over t1me if they remain within a contaminated area.

The process by which complex mixtures of aromatic hydrocarbons are

converted internally to other metabolic products is termed biotransform.ation.

Thus far, studies have concluded that while most of the aromatic hydrocarbons

183

themselves are readily depurated following exposure, metabolite concentrations

in fish either continue to increase in tissues (eg. liver and muscle)

(Roubal et al., 1977), or decline slowly over days or several weeks-.

(Varanasi and Malins, 1977; in Malins, 1980). In many cases, the intermediate

conversion product is an arene oxide which is known to cause lesions in

the tissues of some mammals (Malins, 1980).

For fish exposed to' oil pollution, the behavioral response initiated is

likely to determine the degree to which they are impacted. When sculpins

were exposed to seawater contaminated with 1 ppm naphthalene, exposed

fish refused to feed. Their condition subsequently appeared to deteriorate

over the course of the exposure (Devries, 1977).

The literature regarding the ability of salmonids to detect and avoid

petroleum hydrocarbons is contradictory. Rice (1973) found that pink

salmon fry demonstrated clear avoidance responses to oil concentrations

as low as 1.6 mg oil/liter. However, in Canadian tests neither rainbow

trout nor Atlantic salmon avoided lethal concentrations of phenol, a

component of crude oil. Either reponse wil-I produce adve.rse effects. If

adult or juvenile salmonids enter an oil slick or contaminated area,

they would.probably be killed; however, avoidance of contaminated

spawning and feeding areas could also have detrimental effects on both

soluble fraction of oil may also impact adult and juvenile salmon by

interfering with chemical signals that juveniles and fry use to locate

food organisms, and which adults use to locate natal spawning streams.

Malins et al. (1978) have reported that.there appears to be no significant

diffe rence between unexposed salmon, and salmon exposed to hydrocarbons,

184

in regard to their homing ability. However, exposed fish did exhibit a

delay in return which was directly proportional to hydrocarbon concentration.

Because salmon are engaged in complex migrations throughout their juvenile

and adult stages, an alteration or delay in migration can threaten the

survival of individuals, and continual interference could destroy certain

populations. Salmon fry usually spend several weeks foraging close to

shore before moving into deeper water. Chronic pollution, or a nearshore

oil spill could prematurely force fry into deeper water where food is

less abundant and exposure to predation is greatly increased.

The only published accounts of pollution affecting salmon migration

involve adult Atlantic salmon. The upstream spawning of this species

was affected by copper and zinc pollution in the Miramichi River.

Al though these salmon are highly motivated by instinct to migrate upstream,

when they reached a sublethal concentration,of toxicants they aborted

their upstream migration and returned downstream without spawning.

Other abnormal movements of adult Atlantic salmon were reported by

observers following fish tagged with ultrasonic transmitters in the

industrially polluted estuary of the river (.Rice, 1973).

Rice et al. (1976) also reported that very young herring larvae apparently

could not detect or avoid oil slicks and, as a consequence, significant

mortalities resulted. This is supported by Kuhnhold (1972) who found

that herring larvae were-unable to avoid oil contaminated water, especially

when oil was present as a dispersion. Similar results were obtained for

English sole which do not discriminate between oiled and unoiled sediments

185

(NWAFC, 1979). In.their natural environment, failure to detect and

avoid oil slicks and other forms of oil pollution could result in increased

mortality and declines in fish populations.

Recent experiments with teleost (bony) fish have demonstrated that

polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's), which are common c omponents

of crude oil , can induce severe behavioral changes. In several instances,

fish were observed swimming vertically and upside-down after being

exposed to different concentrations of the specific PAH--2,6-dimethylnaphthalene

(2,6-DMN) (NWAFC, 1980). In a natural environment, a fish exhibiting

such aberrant behavior would both invite, and be defenseless against,

predation.

Invertebrates - Bivalves - During the course of an oil spill, molluscs

frequently suffer extensive mortalities. This.is due in part to their

inability to escape sinking oil, and because many of them are filter

feeders which indiscriminately extract fine particles from the water,

thereby ingesting oil which is present in the form of droplets, or oil

which might be adsorbed on particulate material (.GESAMP, 1977). Milan

and Whelan (1978) studying the effect of oil pollution on salt marsh

ecosystems report-that benthic organisms, particularly oysters and

mussels, demonstrated the greatest enrichment of petroleum hydrocarbons

in comparison to other species which were present.

very little information is available on the relative sensitivity of

various life.stages of mollus cs to oil pollution. The planktonic stages

(eggs, sperm, and larvae) may be the most vulnerable since they lack the

186

protective shell of adults and therefore might be more susceptible to

the toxic components of an oil spill. Renzoni (1975) subjected spermatozoa

of the bivalve Mulinia lateralis to the water soluble fraction of

crude oil and then allowed them to fertilize untreated eggs, with the

result that the percentage of fertilization was significantly reduced

over that of the controls. Treatment with the water-soluble fraction

caused a 62% mortality in the early ciliated embryos and a 59% mortality

in older swimming larvae (Menzel, 1979).. In laboratory tests, adult

pink scallops, (Chlamys rubida) were killed by concentrations of Prudhoe

Bay crude oil as low as 2.07 ppm (Rice et al., 1976).

Large scale mortalities in mollusc populations are commonly recorded

following oil spills. During a jet fuel spill near Kodiak in 1970,

thousands of cockles were killed, and an equal number were reported to

be in very poor condition. The clams were subsequently declared a

health hazard and residents were warned not to eat them. In a similar

incident, a fuel oil spill in Washington resulted in-the mortality of an

estimated 300,000 razor clams over the course of a one week period

(Tegelberg, 1964).

Sometimes the destructive aspects of an oil spill may not be completely

realized until several years have elapsed following such an event.

After the 1970 Chedabucto Bay spill, mortalities of the softshell clam

(Mya arenaria) ranged from 19% to 730/0' in those areas sampled. Many

clams were smothered by oil and died immediately. Others were contaminated

with oil and came up out of the substrate where they were eaten by

predators. In areas where the substrate became Contaminated with oil,

187

chronic mortalities in the clam population continued through 1976 (Thomas,

1976). A fuel oil spill in Searsport, Maine had much the same effect,

where an original crop of 157 metric tons of the clam Mya arenaria

existed prior to the discharge. Mortality was observed immediately

after the spill, and a decline in numbers continued for the next three

years. Twenty-five percent of the original population died within four

months; 55% were dead 17 months later; and an 86% mortality figure was

reported 3 1/2 years later. Only 22 metric tons of the original 157

metric tons remained as of August 1974 (Dow and Hurst, 1976).

Based on these reports, it is apparent that large oil s-pills do have the

ability to induce mass mortality in clam populations. Death might occur

for some subtidal species if the concentrations of soluble hydrocarbons

in the water column reach the ppm level. If the substrate were contaminated,

chronic die-Offs could continue for several years, leaving many of the

surviving clams contaminated and unfit forhuman consum ption.

The sublethal impacts of oil pollution as they affect molluscs are

varied. Mussels (Mytilus edulis) which were exposed to oil-contaminated

sediment particles accumulated hydrocarbons in excess of 1,000 times

exposure levels (Fossato and Canzonier, 1976). In one area which had

been exposed to high levels of No. 2 fuel oil, the gonads of mussels

failed to develop (Blumer et al., 1971).

Gilfillan (1973) demonstrated that low concentrations (1 ppm) of seawater

extracts of crude oil reduced both the feeding and assimilation of

188

carbon by blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and marsh mussels (Mytilus
demissus) while increasing respiration, the net effect being a significant

reduction in the net carbon balance for both species. Gilfillan also

suggests that the low energy reserves of the mussels might preclude the

development of gametes and that this could account for the fact that the

mussels that survived the West Falmouth spill failed to reproduce the

following year (GESAMP, 1977).

Laboratory studies by Lee et al. (1972) indicate that the filtering

ability of mussels may be inhibited when exposed.to aromatic hydrocarbons.

Depuration (cleansing) of petroleum hydrocarbons from clams and mussels

depletes glycogen (carbohydrate) reserves and may cause tissue damage in

certain organs. Conversely, incorporation of hydrocarbons in these

animals would result in stress and tissue damage,. and would undoubtedly

reduce survival rates. In most depur ation studies it has been found

that there is an initial rapid discharge of accumulated.petroleum hydrocarbons,

however, a small concentration usually persists which may then.be retained
for very long periods (Lee, 1977). Mussels from the oil-polluted Lagoon

of Venice still retained significant fractions of petroleum hydrocarbons

even after 32 days of depuration (Fossato and Canzonier, 1976).

In Oregon, softshell clams and blue mussels from industrial dock areas

were found to have accumulated high levels of carcinogenic benzo-a-

pyrenes (a product of petroleum combustion) (Mix et al., 1976). High

levels of carcinogenic petroleum compounds may cause tumors in animals

and make them dangerous for human consumption. It has also been revealed

189

that the incidence of gonadal tumors in soft-shell clams is much higher

in areas exposed to oil contamination than from uncontaminated areas

(LaRoche, 1973).

Rice and Karinen (1976) have noted that the growth rate in pink scallops

was reduced as a result of exposure to the water soluble fraction of

oil. However, studies conducted on oysters and snails in the Delta

region of Louisiana where oil pollution is evident have shown no diminution

in growth or numbers (Mackin and Hopkins, 1962).

There is evidence to indicate that, as a result of selection, mussels

from chronically polluted areas are more resistant to oil pollution than

mussels from pristine areas (Kanter et al., 1971). This illustrates the

danger in assuming that because a certain organism lives in a polluted

environment, such as occurs near the oil seeps at Coal Oil Point, California,

other individuals of the same species will also be resistant. It may

have taken thousands of years to develop that resistance.

Limited observations concerning a berrant behavior in molluscs .exposed to

oil, or the water soluble fraction of oil, indicate that exposure to low

levels of contamination may increase predation and impair reactions to

environmental stimuli. When the clam Macoma baltica was exposed to the

water soluble fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, it reacted by burrowing

to the sediment surface (Taylor and Karinen, 1977). In nature, any clam

which is exposed on the surface of sediments would probably be eaten by

predators or, in the intertidal region, die from exposure. After exposure

to oil-water emulsions of No. 2 fuel oil and Louisiana crude, softshell

190

clams (Mya arenaria) exhibited the following behavioral sequence: increasingly

impaired activity, immobilization, and finally death (Stainken, 1977).

Continuous exposure to low levels of hydrocarbon pollution would probably

result in declines in clam, scallop and mussel populations.

Crab and Shrimp - Of the four life stages (egg, larvae, juvenile, and

adult) of crab and shrimp, the planktonic larvae of both classes are the

most sensitive to oil pollution. Sensitivity to.oil has been found to

be related to molting, and larvae molt more frequently than adults (Rice

et al., 1976 Caldwell-et al, 1977). Planktonic larvae would be affected

by oil slicks and the water soluble fractions of oil, whereas epibenthic

adult crab and shrimp would be affected by the water soluble fractions

and sinking oil. Both crab and shrimp species are especially vulnerable

to water soluble hydrocarbons because of the large volumes of water

which they absorb during the molting process. Sinking oil can affect

them through direct toxic effects, physical coating, contaminating food

organisms, or by interfering with chemical signals crab and shrim p use

to locate food or sexual partners.

Typically, oil co ncentrations in the 1-4 ppm range are sufficient to

cause significant mortalities in both adult, and larval, crab and shrimp

populations after 96 hours of exposure. Rice and Karinen (.1976), however,

feel that many of the 96 hour TLM (Median Tolerance Limit: the concentration

required to kill 50% of the test animals within the specified period of

time) levels given in the literature may be too high, since many crabs

expire after the 96 hours have elapsed.

191

Tanner crab exposed to the water soluble fractions of Cook Inlet crude

lost a substantial number of legs (Karinen and Rice, 1974). Oil concentra-

tions as low as 0.32 ml oil/liter were sufficient to evoke this response.

Brief exposure of premoTt tanner crab I to 4 weeks before molting appeared

to have adetrimental effect on molting. After exposure to the water

soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude (1.2 ppm) for 48 hours, molting

success was reduced to zero. For developing crabs failure to molt will

usually result in death.

Exposure to low concentrations of the water soluble fractions of Cook

Inlet crude,can-also cause a significant increase in the respiratory

rate of king crab. The soluble aromatic fractions may accumulate in

gill, muscle, or gut tissue up to 1200 times background levels (Rice et

al., 1976). Crude oil did not cause significant mortality in king crab

eggs, however, there was some indication that larval development might

be affected (Rice and Karinen, 1976). Meyers (1976) found that several

samples of shrimp taken after a drilling operation exhibited indications

of petroleum contamination, whereas samples taken before drilling had

shown none.

Oil in very low concentrations,.whi,ch causes no direct mortality, may

have adverse effects on individuals and populations. Individuals subjected

to sublethal exposures may undergo "ecological death" if they are

incapable of adjusting to natural stresses in their environment as a

result of this exposure. For example, a tanner crab which lost a substantial

number of legs after a short exposure to oil would probably not.survive

in the natural environment. Any factors which affect molting in crab

192

also affect growth rate. Erosion of gil.1 tissue and cellular damage

will reduce the animal's physical well-being, increase its chances for

infection, reduce its growth rate, and generally decrease its chances

for survival. Accumulation of aromatic hydrocarbons in crab and shrimp

tissue would not only have an adverse effect on the animal, but could

also make it unfit or dangerous for human consumpti.on. This would be

especially true for carcinogenic fractions such as benzo-a-pyrenes. To

summarize: chronic exposure may not result in direct short@term mortality

but, by reducing birth rates and increasing the death rate, may induce a

subtle trend which would result in a general decrease in crab and shrimp

populations.

Crustaceans, like other organisms, rely to varying degrees on behavioral

patterns for survival. There is a growing body of information indicating

that, in aquatic ecosystems, behavior such as feeding, mating, habitat

selection, migration, escape, and orie ntation may be dependent on detection

of trace amounts of organic compounds. There.is also mounting evidence

that the mechanism by which sperm cells are attracted to an egg is based

on chemical signals from the egg. Consequently, there has been concern

that petroleum contamination, even at very low levels (in the part per

billion range),-may disrupt chemically-mediated behavior patterns of

marine organisms through masking or mimicking chemical clues or by

disrupting sensory physiological mechanisms (Boesch, 1973). Krebs

(1973) reported that after the West Falmouth oil spill male and female

fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax) exhibited breeding display colors, and males.

193

exhibited threat postures even though the breeding season was over.

Takahashi an d Kitteredge (1973), studying the effects of hydrocarbons on

the rock crab Pachygrapus crassipes, found that the water soluble extracts

of two crude oils inhibited the feeding response and the mating stance

of males when exposed to the femalles sex pheromone. This inhibition was

found to persist in concentrations below the parts per billion range.

Further studies revealed that monoaromatic hydrocarbons were effective

as inhibitors of chemoreception for relatively short periods of time -

30 minutes to 1 hour; however, polynuclear hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene
and binaphthyl) inhibi.ted the crabs for 8 to 11 days, and anthra-cen.e
induced inhibition lasted 13 days (Williams and.Duke, 1979). Rice et
al. (1976) found that dungeness crab larvae did not avoid oil slicks,

but would repeatedly swim up into them until overcome by the toxic

effects. Exposure to 0.1-1.0 ppm of the water soluble fraction.of No. 2

fuel oil adversely affected chemoreception in lobsters (Homarus americanus).

This interference was manifested by inappropriate feeding, searching,

escape, and aggressive behavior, and by abnormal neuromuscular control

(Atema, 1977). Failure to find food, inappropriate responses to environmental

stimuli, failure to find mates, and a change in time of spawning could

result in significant reductions in crab and shrimp populations.

Marine Plants'- Observations following the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz

showed that macroalgae (marine plants) on exposed rocks tended to retain

oil long after it had been removed from the bare rocks by wave action.

Not only were the plants affected, but the retention of oil by the

macroalgae probably increased the time of exposure between the oil and

194

organisms living beneath the plants. Mortality of intertidal organisms

was most noticeable during the first two months after the oil reached,

the coastal environment rather than immediately after the spill. Many

of the affected plants did not appear to be dead, although chronic

effects could not be detected (NOAA/EPA, 1978).

Studies of the marine algae Fucus have shown that small amount s of oil

(200 ppb or less) cause an apparent stimulation of growth in juvenile

plants; however, concentrations above this level produced increasingly

deleterious effects on plant growth. In addition, when Fucus receptacles

were placed in oil solutions during gamete release all germi nation

ceased even when only minute quantities of oil were present (Steele,

1977). This would imply that plants exposed to chronic sources of oil

pollution might have little chance of reproducing and therefore could be

eliminated from an area subjected to such conditions.

Hydrocarbon Tainting of Fisheries Products - Tainting of fisheries

resources is a potentially serious problem in areas subject to either

chronic or acute oil pollution. Crustaceans, molluscs, and fish which

are exposed to oily conditions frequently acquire an oily or objectionable

taste. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) criteria governing tainting

in fisheries products state: "materials should not be present in concentrations

that individually or in combination produce undesirable flavors which

are detectable by organoleptic tests performed'on edible portions".

195

Most human taste sensations are produced by a combination of taste and

smell. The nose is a very sensitive organ and can detect surprisingly

low concentrations of oil. Diesel oil can be detected at concentrations

of .0005 ppm. Other hydrocarbon compounds which have caused tainting

include toluene, phenols, napthol, kerosene, toluene dibenzothiophenes,

napthenic acids, mercaptans, tetradecans, dispersants, methylated napthalenes

and outboard motor fuel exhaust (GESAMP, 1977; Thurston et al., 1979).

Although of hydrocarbon origin, these compounds may also produce unusual

tastes that are not, in a sense, "oily".

Petroleum hydrocarbons 'can enter marine organismsthrough the gills,

skin, or permeable intestinal lining (Hawkes, 1977.; Teal, 1977). Water

soluble fractions of petroleum and contaminated food substances appear

to be the major source of hydrocarbon contamination in marine organisms

(Teal, 1977). Hydrocarbons can be concentrated in certa.in tissues such

as gills, lipids, liver, muscle, and brain at 1-10,000 times the level

found in food substances or in the water (Rice et al., 1.976; Lee, 1977).

By this mechanism comparatively low levels of hydrocarbons in molluscs,

fish, and shellfish, can be concentrated until they reach objectionable

levels (Stainken, 1977).

Laboratory studies with two fish species suggest that as little as 0.01

ppm of oil in seawater can produce an odor in fish flesh (Nitta, 1970).

By comparison, hydrocarbon levels commonly reach 50 ppm in discharged

formation waters, 0.25 ppm under oil slicks, and up to 1650 ppm in

sediments (Brooks et al., 1976; Longwell, 1977; Blumer and Sass, 1972).

If the source of cont amination is removed; organisms do have the ability

196

to depurate (become cleansed of the contamination). However, total

depuration of hydrocarbon contamination may take anywhere from five days

to four years to complete depending on the species (Lee, 1977).

A study was undertaken in Louisiana to determine if the water soluble

fractions of crude oil could affect the taste of Gulf shrimp (Penaeus

aztecus and Penaeus setiferus). It was found that the panel of taste

testers could consistently detect an "oily" taste in shrimp which had

been exposed to a concentration of 49 ppm crude oil in sea water for 48

hours. Some judges could consistently detect an "oily" taste in shrimp

which had been exposed to a concentration of only 5 ppm crude oil (Knieper

and Culley, 1975). The oily taste in shrimp persisted for 10 days after

the shrimp were removed to clean water.

Tainting of seafoods has been of great concern to fishermen for many

years due to the fear that tainted catches will be refused upon delivery

at the processing plant. The contamination of seafoods by oil is well

documented. Following the West Falmouth spill of No. 2 fuel ofl, the

scal lop and oyster fishery was closed for two years on the grounds that

a health risk existed after identifiable oil components in she'llfish

tissue were found (GESAMP, 1977). Grant (1969) reported that from just

one area near Brisbane, Australia, 78 short tons of sea mullet were lost

to condemnation due to a "kerosene-like" taint. Following the spill of
Bunker C oil from the Arrow, fhe clam fishery in Chedabucto Bay remained

closed for four years (GESAMP, 1977). A spill of 1,000 gallons of

Venezuelan crude oil in Halifax Harbor caused the tainting of 1,800 lbs

197

of lobsters which were being held in storage tanks (.Whitman, 1975)

Additional information on tainting is contained in the GESAMP (1977)

publication Impact of Oil on the Marine Environment.

Based on the previous information, it is possible that in the event of

an oil spill, or chronic low level oil pollution, tainting of marine

fisheries resources in the Norton Sound-Bering Strait region could

occur. Because tainted fi.sheries resources would be impossible to sel 1,

this could result in major economic losses to fishermen. In addition to

the-problem of actual seafood tainting, there are two other problems

associated with tainting which could also have a significant effect on

the fishery. Consumers may refuse to purchase or consume seafood from

areas known or believed to be contaminated by oil pollution, and fishermen

may refuse to fish or risk fouling their gear in areas known or believed

to be contaminated. Even though little actual tainting may occur, major'

economic losses can result through losses in marketing ability of the

area's seafood products, or through a loss of fishing time.

Table 21 Effects of oil pollution on fish, wildlife, aquatic plants and their habitats
00

Species/flabitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Marine Mammals

Acute/Toxic Effects

Northern Fur Seal Kooyman, Gentry bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude 10 to 20 ml Small amounts of crude oil have large effects
(Callorhinus and McAlister, (brushed on on animal pelts which utilize fur for insula-
u r s Fn u-s-Y- 1976 pelts) tion, and no effects on pelts of animals that
Sea Otter depend on fat for insulation.
(Enhydra lutris)
a
T_
rus 100 ml In living animals, light oiling of approximately
(Odobenus (brushed on 30% of the pelt surface area resulted in a '1.5
rosmarus) pelts) fold increase in metabolic rate of sea otters
Wedd-e-n-Seal and fur seals while immersed in water of varying
(Lepton@chotes temperatures. The effect can last 2 weeks. Any
weddelli) contact with oil at any time of the year would
Bearded Seal have a profound influence on the health of in-
(Eriqnathus dividual northern fur seals.
barbatus
California
Sea Lion
(Zalophus
californianus)

Harp Seal Kooyman, Davis, bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude 10 to 20 ml Small amounts of crude oil greatly reduce the
(Phoca and Castellini, (brushed on effectiveness of animal pelts which utilize fur
groenlandica) 1977 pelts) for insulation. It was concluded that light
Northern Fur.Seal oiling causes detrimental effects in the ability
(Callorhinus to thermo-regulate body temperature, particular-
ursinus) ly in sea otters and fur seals, and that this
Sea tter could then lead to hypothermia, thermal effects
(Enhvdra lutris) on other pinnipeds which utilize fat for insula-
Walrus tion would be minimal. Removing the oil from
(Odobenus the pelt did not improve its insulating capac-
rosmarus) ity.
Bearded Seal
(Eriqnathus
barbatus)
weTdeT-F@ea i
(LepthonXchotes
weddelli)
Ca Fi f H�rn i a
Sea Lion
(Zalophus
californianus)

ppm = parts per million
ppb = parts per billion
LC50 concentration required to kill 50% of the test animals
TLM = median tolerance limit the concentration required to
kill 50% of the test animals within certain time limits

Species/Habitat Reference Type.of xperiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Sea Otter Kenyon. 1972 oil pollution diesel oil oil slick Sea otters died after several hours of exposure
(Enhydra lutris) to a thin layer of oil because they have no
Nor-the'rn fur-Sea] blubber for insulation. Two dead harbor seals
(Callorhinus. coated with oil were found in Tacoma Harbor. A
ursinus) harbor seal and northern fur seal both covered
Ha__rWo_rSeal with oil were weak and thin. Both recovered
(Phoca vitulina) after cleaning and a program of force feeding.

Ringed Seal Smith and bioassay Norman Wells oil slick Three seals Immersed in crude oil died within
(D�qa hispida) Geraci, 1975 crude oil 0 cm thick) 71 minutes. The deaths apparently occurred from
stress.

Polar Bears Anchorage oil immersion unknown surface slick Two bears died as a result of being finmersed in
(Ursus maritimus) Times, 1980 oil. Indications of possible liver and nervous
system disorders were reported after it was
observed that the bears had ingested "consider-
able amounts of oil by licking their paws and
legs".
Physiological Effects

Harp Seal Smith and bioassay Norman Wells oil slick Ringed seals Immersed in oil'for
(Phoca Geraci, 1975 crude oil (I cm thick) 24 hours showed enzymatic and histologic
groenlandica) evidence of kidney damage as well as liver in-
Ringed Seal volvement. However, these effects were
(Phoca hispida) reversible. It is not known what effects
chronic exposure of oil will have on seals.
Most of the seals experienced eye irritation
which could result in permanent eye damage if
the exposure were chronic.

Norman Wells crude NW crude oil was brushed on the hair of harp
(NW) seals. The next day they were recoated in the
Mildale crude oil same manner using MC and SC oil. No negative
(MC) effects resulted.
Saskatchawan crude
oil (SC)
.547 mi 3H benzene 25 to 75 mi Ringed seals were force fed 5 mi of the oil
and 125 mi Norman mixture over a 5 day period for a total of
Wells crude oil 25 mi of crude oil. Harp seals were fed one
mixture dose of oil ranging from 25 to 75 mi. Damage
to both species of seals was negligible indicat-
ing that an ingested dose ranging front 25 to 75
mi of crude oil was not irreversibly harmful.
Chronic intake of crude oil may cause permanent
liver and kidney damage.

N.)
C)
C)
Species/flabitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Pinnipeds Burns et al., discussion none none Burns (1980) feels that oil spilled beneath
1980 landfast ice will tend to rise and accumulate
in breathing holes, causing volatile fractions
to accumulate in air pockets and subnivian lairs
of ringed seals. Also during the molting
period a loss of hair coupled with a shedding
of the outer protective.layer of cornified
epidermis may leave many pinnipeds vulnerable
to skin irritation from hydrocarbons. It is
also hypothesized that oil adhering to a mothers
coat would, if it came in contact with a pups
lanugo coat, destroy its insulating value.

Behavioral Effects I

Ringed Seal Smith and bioassay Norman Wells oil slick Ringed seals arched their backs, a sign of
(Phoca hispida) Geraci, 1975 crude oil (I cm thick) distress, upon encountering the surface of oil-
coated water.

Northern Fur Seal Kenyon, 1972 oil pollution diesel oil oil slick Northern fur seals and harbor seals
(Callorhinus observations appear to lose their appetite when coated
ursinus)- with oil.
Hi-r-bor Seal
(Phoca vitulina)

WHALES Insufficient data is available to clearly document the impact of oil on whales.

MARINE BIRDS

Acute/Toxic Effects

Mallard Hartung and bioassay diesel oil, various doses L050 values for prestressed ducks fed various
(Anas Hunt, 1966 cutting oil additive dosages of the oil, oil mixture and additive
platyrhynchos) containing 30% chlorine were: -
Pekin and 10% phosphorus, 4 ml/kg-diesel oil
(domestic cutting oil formulated 3 ml/kg-cutting oil
mallard) with 10% of the above I ml/kg-cutting oil additive
additive and 10% The magnitude of mortality from oil ingestion
triglycerides and will depend upon the type of oil involved and
80% mineral oil. the extent of any additional stress.

Physioloqical Effects

Mallard Hartung, 1965 bioassay lubricating oil 2 - 35.9 After mallard eggs were coated with small a-
(Anas mounts of oil hatchability was reduced to 21%
@-Iatyrhyncos) compared to 80% for un-oiled eggs.
Mallard Albers, 1977 bioassay No. 2 fuel oil, various doses 50 ul of propylene glycol added to the surface
Was 9 paraffin compounds of eggs reduced hatchability to 80%. 50 ul of
plEa@t h ncos) the paraffin mixture reduced hatchability to
propylene glycol
72%. Fuel oil dosages of 5, 10, 20 and 50 ul
of fuel oil reduced hatchability to 45%, 12%
2% and 0. respectively. Hatchability for the
control group was 88%. All doses killed the
majority of mallard embryos within 72 hours.

Species/Habitat Reference lype of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Common Eider eggs Szaro and bioassay No. 2 fuel oil, various doses Hatching success was 96% for the eggs treated
(Somateria Albers, 1977 propylene glycol with 20 ul propylene glycol, 96% for the con-
moTTT-ssima) trols, 92% for the eggs treated with 5 ul of
oil and 69% for the eggs treated with 20 ul of
oil.

Mallard Biderman and observation, unknown oil varied Effects of oil on eggs:
(Anas platyrhyncos) Drury, 1980 gas chromotography When 50 ul (micro liters) of oil was applied to
Common Eider mass spectrometry mallard eggs mortality was 100%; with 5 ul
(Somateria applied, mortality ranged from 25% to 90%
molf-is-SU-1a) depending on the kind of crude oil used. Other
Lou-i-si-anaHeron species exhibiting a similar response include
(Hydranassa Louisiana heron, common eider, great black-back-
:Er Jcoor ed gull, laughing gull and sandwich tern. 20 ul
Great Black-Back Gull of oil applied to great black-backed gulls eggs
(Laurus reduced hatching success to 50% of control
@ucoides) group, and the success of the surviving chicks
Laughing Gull to fledge was 33% of untreated egg clutches.
Raurus Mortality effects were toxically derived rather
at-ri-cTila) than through a smothering effect. If oil was
Sandwich T rn allowed to weather for 2 or 3 wks. the toxic
(Spp. unknown) effect was reduced but mortalities of embryos
still existed. When just I ul of oil was
applied to eggs, many of the embryos survived,
but a significant number were deformed.

Effects of oil ingestion:
Adult birds are able to eat large quantities
of oil without exhibiting any ill effects. 11ow-
ever, ducks in a stress situation died when oil
w s introduced in their diets. Mallard duck-
lings sustained kidney and liver damage when
ingesting small concentrations of oil. Petro-
leum seemed to retard maturation of egg cells.

Oil residues can be transmitted through the food
chain: "Tagged" naphthalene was readily taken
up by ducks and accumulated in several tissues
of their bodies after ingesting polluted cray-
fish.

Seabirds Levy, 1980 observation, gas Argo Merchant and varied Small amounts of oil on a birds plumiuage may
chromotography Grand Zenith heavy trigger a series of events which can ultimately
ultraviolet fuel oil lead to starvation or death. Such events would
spectrophotometry include loss of thermoregulation and a decreased
ability to obtain food.

Herring Gull Miller et al., oral ingestion Kuwait or South No. 2 ml dose Dose caused cessation of growth, osmoregulation
chicks 1978 experiment Louisiana crude (dose equivalent impairment, and hypertrophy of hepatic, adrenal,
Rarus to 0.3 ml per and nasal qland tissue in birds living in a sim-
argentatus) kilogram of body ulated marine environment. Such findings sug-
weight) gest that crude oil causes multiple sublethal
effects that might impair a birds ability to
survive at sea.

N)
C)

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect a nd Evaluation

Fork-tailed Manuwal application of North Slope crude 0.5 ml dose Surface application of crude oil appeared to
Storm Petrels and Boersma, oil to eggs oil per egg disrupt normal development of embryos,
(Oceanadroma 1978 possibly by interfering with normal gas exchange
furcata) or by leaching toxic hydrocarbons through the
shell. In some cases oiled eggs were abandoned
by parents.

Common Murres Bailey and observation unrecorded unknown A large number of common murres were found dead
(Uria aalge) Davenport, or dying along beaches of the Alaska Peninsula
1972 and Unimak Island. Traces of oil were found in
some locations but the birds were mostly unoiled
and suffering from extreme emaciation. It is
possible that very minor amounts of oil might
have induced a loss of thermoregulation causing
an increased expenditure of energy which result-
ed in a sharp decrease in body weight and an in-
ability to adequately procure food.

Glaucous-Winged Patten and bioassay mineral oil I cc/egg Crude oil applied to the surface of 150 eggs
Gull eggs Patten, 1977 North Slope crude oil reduced hatchability to less than 1%. Mineral
(Larus oil applied to the surface of 75 eggs reduced
glaucescens) hatchabiltiy to 15%. 77% of the untreated eggs
hatched.

Herring Gulls Patten and observation Prudhoe Bay crude oil 1 cc/egg surface Results indicate that very small amounts of oil
(Larus Patten, 1978 applications (I cc) applied to gull eggs at early stages of
argentalus) incubation lead to high embryonic mortality.
(Larus Embryonic resistance to petroleum exposure in-
gl'aucescens) creases with the duration of incubation.

Behavioral Effects
Mallard Hartung, 1965 bioassay lubricating oil various doses Three ducks fed 2 grains of lubricating oil per
(Anas kilogram of body weight ceased laying eggs
pl-atyrhyncos) immediately and did not resume until two weeks
had passed.

Glaucous-Winged Patten and bioassay mineral oil, I cc/egg Adult gulls continued to brood unhatched eggs
Gull eggs Patten, 1977 North Slope crude oil (treated with oil) 20 days longer than normal
(Larus with only 4% producing replacement clijtches of
9T-
Lu.:ce s c e r! s eggs.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

CRAB

Acute/Toxic Effects

Tanner Crab Karinen and bioassay Prudhoe gay crude oil .056-1.00 mg oil/ The median tolerance limit for both premolt and
juveniles Rice, 1974 48 hr TLM liter of seawater postniolt tanner crabs was estimated to be .56
(Chionoecetes mg oil/liter.
bairdi)
Molting success of premolt crabs after exposure
to .32 ml oil/liter was significantly lower than
the molting success of control crabs. Failure
to molt usually resulted in death.

King Crab Mecklenburg bioassay Cook Inlet crude- 0.93-4.75 ppm total Molting success in king crab larvae was reduced
larvae et al., 1976 96-120 hr LC50 water soluble hydrocarbons to almost zero by exposure to 1.2 ppm WSF for 48
(Paralithodes fraction (WSF) hours. Failure to molt usually results in
camtschatica) death. 50 percent of the larvae tested died
within 96 hrs, and 120 hrs, after being exposed
to Cook Inlet crude oil concentrations of 1.37
ppm and .93 ppm of respectively.

Dungeness Crab Caldwell et al., bioassay Cook Inlet crude- Toxic effects were observed at levels as low as
(Cancer 1977 water soluble fraction, .0049 mg/I for the crude oil, and .13 mg/I and
magF- and seawater solutions 1.1 mg/l for the benzene and naphthalene,
@ter) of benzene or naphthalene respectively.

Adult and larval Rice et al., bioassays Cook Inlet crude oil water soluble 96 hr TLM's for adult king crab were 2.35 ppm
King Crab 1976 No. 2 fuel oil, fractions of oils and 4.21 ppm for Prudhoe Bay and Cook Inlet
(Parlithodes Prudhoe Bay crude measured as ppm of crude oil, respectively. 96 hr TLM for No. 2
carntsc at-ica) oil oil by-IR method fuel oil was 5.10 ppm.
and Dungeness Crab
(Cancer magister) Tanner crab larvae were killed by 8 ppm of oil
after 96 hrs of exposure. Exposure to WSF of
Cook Inlet crude oil at low levels (.9 ppm -
3 ppm) caused moribundity in tanner and dun-
geness crab larvae. Moribundity would usually
last for several days before an animal would
die.

Toxicity of hydrocarbons is greater during
molting. Crab larvae molt more frequently than
adults and are, therefore, mQre sensitive to
hydrocarbon pollution.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Tanner Crab Karinen and bioassay 48 hr TLM Prudhoe Bay crude 0.32-0.56 ml oil/ Postmolt crabs lost a substantial number of
(Chionoecetes Rice, 1974 liter of seawater legs due to exposure to oil levels.as low as
)jai rdi .32 ml oil/liter. Some larvae failed to molt
but survived. Brief exposure of premolt tanner
crab I to 4 weeks before molting probably has
a detrimental effect on molting.

King Crab Smith and bioassay C6ok Inlet crude low concentration After 6 days exposure to the water soluble
(Paralithodes Bonnett, 1976 of the WSF of Cook fraction of Cook Inlet crude oil crab gills
Inlet crude oil showed: (1) extensive vacuoloation.'(2)
nucleus change, (3) cytoplasm modifications,
(4) fewer mitochondria, (5) swollen rough
endoplasmic reticulum cisternae and (6) distort-
ed interdigitations along later and basal cell
surfaces. Vacuolation was also present in blood
cell cytoplasm.. and the perinuclear space was
enlarged. Some of these changes indicate mor-
phologic damage related to the altered metabolic
response to sublethal crude oil exposure.

King Crab Rice et al., bioassay Cook Inlet crude less than 4.21 ppm Exposure of juvenile and adult king crab to
(Paralithodes 1976 WSF the water soluble fractions of Cook Inlet
camtscYa-tica) crude resulted in significant decrease in
a@-d -Tanner Crab their respiration rate. Specimens recovered
(Chionoecetes after removal to clean water.
-ai -rd-i
When placed in water containing the WSF of
Cook Inlet crude oil, king crab larvae accumu-
lated significant quantities of aromatic
hydrocarbons. Biomagnification of some
compounds up to 1,260 times ambient levels
occurred. Crabs depurated within 96 hrs after
removal to clean water.

King Crab Rice and bioassay Cook Inlet crude water soluble Spawning female king and tanner crab were
(Paralithodes Karinen, 1976 oil fractions exposed to the water soluble fractions of Cook
F Inlet crude oil.
camtsc a-tica) Preliminary findings
aji-d -Tanner Crab indicate that the oil had little effect on the
(Chionoecetes water hardening of the eggs or the attachment
Ea-i rd 7iy- of the eggs to the pleopodal setae; however,
development may be affected.

@'M MM mow M

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Behavioral Effects

Dungeness Crab Rice et al., bioassay Cook Inlet crude oil oil slick Dungeness crab larvae did not appear to detect
(Cancer magister) 1976 oil and would repeatedly swim up into surface
slicks. Observations of larvae strongly sug-
gest that larvae are oblivious to the presence
of oil until affected physiologically by toxic
concentrations.

Fiddler Crab Krebs, 1973 observation No. 2 fuel oil spill it was reported that male and female crabs in
(Uca pugnax) the area affected by the spill exhibited breed-
ing display colors, with males further exhibit-
ing threat postures even though the breeding
season was over.

SHRIMP

Acute/Toxic Effects

Coonstripe Shrimp Rice et al., bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude, water soluble 96 hr TLM's of 3 species of shrimp for WSF's
(Pandalus 1976 Cook Inlet crude fraction of Cook Inlet crude and No. 2 fuel oil (ppm
psT-notus) and No. 2 fuel oil of oil).
Humpba-ck-SWrimp Cook Inlet No. 2 Fuel
(Pandalus Species Crude oil
goniurus) and Humpback Shrimp --1-.98
P -InT - SYrTm p Coonstripe Shrimp 2.72
(Pandalus Pink Shrimp 2.43
The 96 hr TLM for humpback shrimp exposed to
the WSF's of Prudhoe Bay crude oil was 1.26
ppm. 2.4-1.87 ppm of the WSF of crude oil
would induce moribundity in coonstripe shrimp
larvae. Moribund larvae showed some motion
but were unable to move and were destined for
death. Shrimp larvae were more sensitive to
the WSF of hydrocarbons than adults. This may'
be due to the frequency of molting.

Coonstripe Shrimp Vanderhorst flow through No. 2 fuel oil water soluble Shrimp LC50 values were .8 mg/liter as compared
(Pandalus et al.., 1976 b4oassay fraction to values of 1.5 to 50 mg/liter reported for
hy-p-sTn-otus) static bioassays.

Coonstripe Shrimp Mecklenberg bioassay Cook Inlet 0.25-7.94 ppm Molting coonstripe shrimp larvae were 4 to
(Pandalus et al., 1976 6-144 hr crude oil-water 8 times more sensitive to the WSF of Cook
fiypsinotus) soluble fraction (WSF) Inlet crude than intermolt stage I and 11.
1.15 and 1.37 ppm of total hydrocarbon
severely inhibited molting (10% molting
success) in exposures of 24 hrs or longer.
Concentrations of 0.25 ppm for 96 hrs produced
little or no effect on molting but many larvae
died within 48 hrs after removal to clean
water. The 96 hr LC50 (concentration producing
50% mortality) for coonstripe shrimp molting
larvae was 0.96 ppm but dropped to 0.24 ppm
48 hrs after removal to uncontaminated water,
suggesting that the standard 96 hr bioassay
is not long enough to determine the sensiti- r\3
C)
vities of shrimp larvae to oils. Ln

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and EvaluatiON

Physiological Effects

Pink Shrimp Rice et al., bioassays Cook Inlet crude oil water soluble Pink shrimp accumulate naphthalenes from the
(Pandalus 1976 fraction of Cook water soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude in
borealisis Inlet crude oil seawater. Accumulations in tissue were report-
ed up to 260 times background levels. Depura-
tion in shrimp returned to clean water was slow
and took several weeks
SALMONIDS

Acute/Toxic Effects

Pink Salmon fry Rice. 1973 bioassay-acute Prudhoe Bay crude .75 mg-497 mg oil/ Observed 96 hr TLM levels for pink salmon
(Oncorhynchus toxicity effects oil - water soluble liter of seawater fry were 213 mg oil/liter in June, and 110
fraction mg/liter in August. Fish exhibited dramatic
seasonal difference in sensitivity to oil
pollution. Older fry were more susceptible
to oil toxicity than younger fry and were
more sensitive in their detection and
avoidance of oil. Older fry in seawater
avoided oil concentrations as low as 1.6 mg of
oil/liter of water.

Juvenile Coho Morrow, 1973 96 hr bloassay Prudhoe Bay crude oil 500 ppm - 3500 ppm 500 ppm - 3500 ppm of crude oil produced up to
(Oncorhynchus - water soluble in seawater 100% mortalities in juvenile coho and sockeye
kisutch) and fraction salmon. Stress behavior began within 45
Sockeye Salmon minutes of formation of an oil slick. Mortal-
(Oncorhynchus ity rates were directly related to oil
nerka) concentration and inversely related to
temperature.

Eggs, alevins, and Rice et al., 96 hr bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude oil .075 ml - 4 nil Standard 96 br bioassays with total oil
fry of Pink Salmon 1975 (mechanical mixtures oil/liter of fresh solutions in freshwater and seawater deter-
(Oncorhynchus of oil and water) and seawater mined differences in developing life stages
gorbuscha) of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha).
Eggs were the most resistant and emergent
fry (yolk sac absorbed) the most sensitive
to acute 4-day exposures. In fresh water,
the 96 hr TLM of fry was 12 ppm. In sea-
water it was 6 ppm.

Pink Salmon fry Rice et al., 96 hr bioassay Cook Inlet crude, No. Acute toxicity of the waer soluble fractions
(Oncorhynchus 1976 2 fuel oil, and Prudhoe of Prudhoe Bay and Cook Inlet crude oil to
gorbuscha)_ Bay crude (oil-water pink salmon fry was 1.41 ppm and 2.92 ppm
dispersions, and water respectively. The 96 hr TLM for No. 2 fuel
soluble fraction) oil was 0.81 ppm.

Dolly Varden Moles et al., bioassay 96 hr Prudhoe Bay crude oil water soluble Salmonids, were consistently the most sensitive
(Salvelinus 1979 TLM fraction of of all species tested while three-spined
malma)_ Prudhoe Bay crude sticklebacks were consistently the most toler-
Chinook Salmon oil and benzene ant. The 96 hr TLM for Dolly Varden was 2.75
(Oncorhynchus mg/l total crude oil aromatics and 11.96 u1/1
tshawytscha for benzene.

Spec i Lis/ Ila bi tat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Coho Salmon The 96 hr TLM for sticklebacks were 10.45 mg/I
Oncorhynchus total crude oil aromatics and 24.83 ul/l for
kisutch) benzene.
Socl@iye Salmon The sensitivities of pink salmon and coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus to benzene increased sharply during development
nerka) from egg to fry. The egg stage was the least
Arctic Grayling sensitive to benzene (96 hr TO = 339 ul/I for
(Thymallus pink salmon and 542 ul/I for coho salmon), the
arZticus) alevin stages were moderately sensitive, and the
Arct-ic-Thar emergent stage was the most sensitive (96 hrTLM
(Salvelinus = 5.28 uIll for pink salmon and 9.8 ul/liter for
al-pinusT- coho).
STI-my--g-culpin
(Cottus For crude oil the 96 hr TLM for eggs were
04-na-tus) greater than 12 mg1l. Emergent fry were sensi-
Three-spined Stickleback tive to Prudhoe Bay crude oil, with a 96 hr TLM
(Gasterosteus of 8 mg/I for both species.
aculeatua)
Dolly Varden smolt Rice et al., static bioassay Cook Inlee crude and water soluble 96 hr TLM's for Dolly Varden were 2.28 and
(Salvelinus malma) 1976 and No. 2 fuel oil fractions of oils- 2.93 ppm for Cook Inlet crude and Ne. 2 Fuel
measured as ppm by oil respectively.
IR method

Physiological Effects

Rainbow Trout Hawkes, 1976 bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude sublethal concen- Rainbow trout which were exposed to water
(Salmo gairdnerii) oil trations in ppm soluble fractions of Prudhoe Bay crude oil
range showed the following effects: (a) skin mucus
release and erosion of upper dermal layers,
(b) gill mucus release, lesions, cellular and
.subcellular damage, (c) liver damage, (d)
increase in lens thickness causing myopia.
These debilitating factors increase the
chances for infection, predation and disease and
decrease the fishes' chance for survival.

Coho Salmon Roubal et al., bioassay water soluble Significant levels of metabolites were found
(Oncorhynchus 1976 fractions of in the brain, kidney, muscle and gall bladder
-is --Ut--Ci) aromatic hydrocarbons of coho salmon which had been exposed to
benzene, naphthalene and anthracene. This may
indicate areas of detoxification, and possible
sources of secondary infections, contaminants,
etc.

Alevins and fry of Rice et al., 96 hr bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude .075 ml 4 ml oil/ Three life stages of alevins were exposed to
Pink Salmon 1975 oil (mechanical liter of fresh and 10 day sublethal exposures of the water
(Oncorhynchus mixture of oil and seawater soluble fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude oil.
go r bu s cEa-) water) Growth was most severely affected in alevins
exposed durin@g later developmental stages.
Decreased growth was observed in fry after
10-day exposures at the lowest dose tested
(.075 ml oil/liter). Reduction in size from
exposure could have a detrimental effect on
the survival of wild fry.

N)
C)

M)
C)
00

Species/liabitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Pink Salmon fry Rice et al., bioassay - uptake Cook Inlet crude sublethal Pink salmon fry which were exposed to the
(Oncorhynchus 1976 and depuration oil - water soluble water soluble fractions of Cook Inlet crude oil
gorbuschaT accumulated naphthalenes in gill, gut, and
muscle tissue. Investigators feel gill tissue
is the most probable route of entry. Pink
salmon are able to concentrate naphthalenes up
to 480 times background levels. Pink salmon fry
are able to actively depurate naphthalenes.

King Salmon fry Brockson and bioassay benzene fraction 5-10 ppm benzene Respiratory rate was-increased during the
(Oncorhynchus Bailey, 1973 respiratory early (24-48 hr) period of exposure to both 4
tshawytsch-a-)- effects and 10 ppm of benzene. After longer periods,
respiration returned to near control levels.

Pink Salmon fry Rice and bioassay Cook Inlet crude oil sublethal Respiratory rates in pink salmon fry increased
(Onc orhynchus Karinen. 1976 significantly during exposures to water
gar5u-scha) soluble fractions of Cook Inlet crude oil as
low as 30 percent of 96 hr TLM value.

Pink Salmon fry Thomas and Rice, toxicity - Prudhoe Bay crude 2.83 and 3.46,ppm Opercular rates increased significantly for
(Oncorhynchus 1975 respiratory effects as long as 9 to 12 hrs after exposure to sub-
lethal concentrations of the water-soluble
fractions of Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Observed
changes occurred at aproximately 20% of the
96 hr LC50.

Pink Salmon fry Rice et al., toxicity effects WSF Cook Inlet and sublethal Breathing and coughing rates increased in
1977 Prudhoe Bay crude proportion to oil concentrations. Significant
and No. 2 fuel oil responses were detected at about 30% of the 96
hr TLM. Breathing and coughing rates remained
above normal during exposure for 72 hrs.
Increased oxygen consumption was observed in
fish exposed to oil concentrations that were
50% of a 96 hr TLM.

Coho Salmon Malins et al., spill diesel fuel unknown A diesel fuel spill blinded coho salmon located
(Oncorhynchus 1977 in rearing pens adjacent to the spill. Changes
kisutc'h)- in the eyes included hydration and cloudiness.

Rainbow Trout Krishnaswami static bioass.ay petroleum refinery sublethal Rainbow trout exposed 24 hrs to refinery waste
(Salmo gairdneri) Kupchanko, 1969 and field effluent dilutions with a threshold odor number of .25
observation acquired an oily taste. Fish (trout) kept in
cages in the river 15 mi (24 km) below
refinery wastewater discharge point acquired
an oily.taste with river water odor levels of
at least 1.0.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Coho Salmon Roubal et al., flow through WSF Prudhoe Bay crude 0.9 + 0.1 ppm WSF Coho salmon and starry flounder exposed to 0.9
(Oncorhyncus 1978 bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude ppm of a WSF of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, biocon-
sutch) centrated low molecular weight aromatic hydro-
Starry Tiounder carbons up to 1700 times the concentration in
(Platichthys the water. Generally, starry flounder
stellatus) accumulated the greatest amounts. Alkylated
aromatic hydrocarbons accumulated in tissues
to a greater degree than unsubstituted
derivatives, and accumulations of substituted
benzenes and naphthalenes in muscles increased
in relation to the degree of alkylation.
Complex mixtures of aromatic hydrocarbons were
found in gills and liver of @tarry flounder.
Accumulated hydrocarbons were retained in
starry flounder muscle for a longer period
than in coho salmon tissue after removal to
clean water.

Behavioral Effects

Pink Salmon Rice, 1973 bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude .75 mg 16.0 mg Pink salmon fry showed clear avoidance
(Oncorhynchus avoidance tests oil - water soluble oil/liter. Used responses to oil concentration of 16.0 and 1.6
qorFu_s_cVa_) fraction water soluble mg oil/liter. Pollution avoidance in Atlantic
fraction only salmon is well documented. Avoidance could
have an adverse impact on salmon populations
by changing migration during critical periods
such as fry outmigration or return of adults to
spawning streams.

Juvenile Coho Morrow, 1973 96 hr bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude Change was observed in behavior of salmon
(Oncorhynchus (surface oil slick under oil film. Within 2 to 4 hrs, the fry
kisutch) anif in aerated tank) took up a position at the water oil interface,
Soc ye Salmon with their dorsal and caudal fins touching the
(Oncorhynchus oil. After 12 to 24 hrs exposure the less
nerka) resistant individuals lost equilibrium and
began swimming vertically. Most animals died
shortly after becoming vertical. Animals
exposed to crude oil showed abnormal values
for blood pH, K+, and Cl-. In conjunction
with observed behavioral abnormalities, this
suggests very strongly that the chemical C02
and HC03- balance had been upset.
Rainbow Trout Sprague and bioassay phenol .001 ppm 10 ppm Avoidance reactions were inconsistent even at
(Salmo gairdneri) Drury, 1969 lethal levels. Fish showed no signs of detec-
A tl -ant i c-S-aTo-ion tion even at lethal phenol concentrations.
(@almcj salar)

Atlantic Salmon Rice, 1973 avoidance copper and zinc sublethal Although highly motivated by their instinct to
(Salmo salar) pollution migrate upstream, when Atlantic salmon reached
a sublethal concentration of copper and zinc
pollution in the Miramichi River, they aborted
their upstream migration and returned down-
stream.

N)
CD
to

C:)

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Coho Salmon Malins et a]., bioassay Prudhoe Bay varied 500 - 1000 ppb - a model mixture of aromatic
(Oncorhynchus 1978 toxicity effects crude oil and hydFo-carbons representative of the SWSF (salt-
kisutch) selected aromatic water soluble fraction) of PBCO, when intro-
hydrocarbons and duced in the home stream inhibited upstream
heavy metals spawning migration of salmon in the early part
of the run.

1000 - 2000 ppb - resulted in a delay of 2 days
in the -timing of return to the home stream -
this delay.is a conservative estimate.

2000 - 3000 ppb - this concentration of hydro-
c
66-
ar ns in home stream water caused inhibition
in upstream spawning migration of the run.
OTHER FISH

Acute/Toxic Effects

Cod (Gadus sp.) Kuhnhold, 1972 bioassay Venezuelan and .5 gm oil/liter of 100% mortality-of eggs occurred in 3 and 6 days
Libyan crude oil water with Venezuelan and Libyan crude respectively.
Controls developed normally. Larvae which
hatch from eggs previously exposed to oil
are usually deformed.

Herring larvae Rice et al., bioassay Cook Inlet crude water soluble 3 ppm of the water soluble fraction of Cook
(Clupea harengus) 1976 (96 hr TLM) oil fraction Inlet crude oil was sufficient to kill herring
larvae within 96 hrs.

Herring larvae Cameron and bioassay Prudhoe Bay water soluble Eggs exposed to the water soluble fraction of
(Clupea harengus.) Smith, 1980 crude oil fraction PBCO produced larvae with no signs of out-
ward gross abnormalities. However, electron
microscopy revealed inter and intracellular
spaces in brain and muscle tissues of exposed
organisms but not in those of controls.

Herring Wilson, 1976 100 hr bioassay oil dispersants, .5 ppm - 400 ppm The LC50 values of 8 dispersants ranged from
(Clupea harengus) Atlas, Basol A06, 4 to 35 ppm. The value for Corexit 7664 was
Lemon Sole BP1002, Corexit 7664, 400 ppm. The difference in toxicity was
(Microstomus kitt) D-tar, Finasol ESK, associated with the composition of the
Houghtoslov, dispersants and the percentage of aromatic
Penetone 861, Slix hydrocarbons.

Herring Zitko and spill in Nova "intermediate oil" marine spill Spill caused extensive kill of herring in
(Clupea harengus) Tibbo, 1971 Scotia with large concentra- 1969.
tions of aromatic
hydrocarbons

Selected Alaskan Rice et al., static bioassay Cook Inlet crude and water soluble Pelagic organisms were the most sensitive to
species of marine 1979 96 hr TLM No. 2 fuel oil fractions 1-11.72 oil, but may not be the most vulnerable.,
fish and mg/I total aromatic Pelagic organisms are mobile and can avoid a
invertebrates hydrocarbons spill in most areas. Although benthic and
measured by gas intertidal species were more tolerant to short
chromotography and term exposure. the potential for high concentra-
infra-red tions of toxic fractions occurring during ex-

Species/Habit@t Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

spectrophotometry posure in their environment is greater because
of mixing and entrainment of the oil in the
shallow nearshore waters. Furthermore, habitats
of benthic and intertidal species may be parti-
cularly susceptible to physical oil contamina-
tion.

Saffron Cod Rice et al., static bioassay Cook Inlet crude and water soluble 96 hr TLM's for saffron cod were 2.28 and 2.93
I(Eleginus 1976 No. 2 fuel oil fractions of oils ppm for Cook Inlet crude and No. 2 fuel oil
gracffffs) measured as ppm respectively.
by IR method
Cod and Pollock Longwell, 1977 spill 80% #6 fuel.oil unknown Over 112 of the cod and pollock eggs collected
(Gadus morhua and 20% #2 fuel oil near the 8@o Merchant spill were contaminated
FoIlac-R-usvirens) by adhering tar and oTl droplets. A signifi-
cant number of the eggs collected were either
dead (up to 46%) or contained grossly malformed
embryos (18%). Spawning had just occurred.
Sand Lance Longwell, 1977 spill 80% #6 fuel oil unknown Larvae of sand lance were sampled in the area of
(Ammodytes spp.) 20% #2 fuel oil the Argo Merchant spill. The abundance of
larvae decreased sharply at the two stations
within the area of the thick slick.

Surf Smelt NWAFC monthly Histopathological saltwater soluble 170-231 ppb oil/ Microscopic examination of 21 and 27 day old em-
embryos report, July observation fraction (SWSF) of 45-63 hrs. bryos exposed to 170 or 231 ppb CICO revealed
(qponiesus 1980 weathered Cook abnormal or necrotic cells in brain and eye
Inlet crude oil tissues. Large amounts of lysosomal enzymes
(CICO) were also present, indicating cellular degrada-
tion. Retinal receptors were damaged, with
microscopic lesions located in the midregion
of the receptor cell. A reduced hatching
success was also noted in smelt after 177 hours
of exposure to 231 ppb CICO (7.6% successful
hatching) and 170 ppb CICO (12.1% successful
hatching, compared to the control group (51.6%
successful hatching).
Physiological Effects

Eggs and larvae of Wilson, 1976 bioassay oil dispersant 5-10 ppm Oil dispersants at levels from 5-10 ppm caused
Herring abnormalities in developing herring, sole and
(Clupea harengus) plaice eggs and larvae.
Sole
(Microstomus kitt)

Herri ng Struhsaker bioassay benzene fraction water soluble Considerable physiological stress was noted.
eggs and larvae et al., 1974 48-120 hr fraction Higher concentrations of benzene reduced the
(Clupea harengus) metabolic rate.@

Although eggs are relatively resistant and
require a greater amount of exposure before
mortality, exposure usually causes abnormalities
whose effects are permanent and irreversible,
eventually causing death. On the other hand,
exposed larvae may sometimes partially recover.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

English Sole Malins et al., bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude water soluble English sole held on contaminated sediments
(Parophrys 1977 oil fraction for over 4 months had a higher frequency of
vetulus liver abnormalities and weight loss than did
control fish on uncontaminated sediment.

English Sole McCain. 1978 toxicity effects Alaskan crude oil 0.2% oil/sediment English sole exposed to oil contaminated
(Parophrys sediments for 4 months gained weight slower,
vetulus had a higher frequency of liver abnormalities,
a higher incidence of parasitic infestation of
the gills, and were less active than control
fish.

Coho Salmon Roubal et al., bioassays water soluble 0.9 + 0.1 ppm Results indicate that demersal fish (starry
(Oncorhynchus 1978 fraction of Prudhoe WSF of PBCO in flounder) may be more susceptible to petro-
kisutch) Bay crude oil flowing seawater leum contamination than pelagic fish (coho
Starry Flounder salmon). Demersal fish had a longer retent-
(Ptatichthys ion time of aromatic hydrocarbons in relation
stellatus) to a shorter exposure period. Water soluble
aromatic hydrocarbons were readily accumulated
in muscle, liver, and gills of starry flounder,
and in muscle of coho salmon exposed to 1 ppm
WSF of crude petroleum. Starry flounder were
found to accumulate benzene fractions up to
11,000 times the exposure factor.
English Sole Malins, 1980 project varied varied It was reported that marine fish may readily
(Parophrs summaries bioaccumulate or biotransform aromatic hy-
vetulus) drocarbons when exposed through the diet, water
Starry Flounder column, or sediment. The extent of accumulation
(Platichthys differs in relation to such factors as species,
stellatus) hydrocarbon structure, route of administration
and environmental conditions. During biotrans-
formation, one intermediate conversion product
has been identified as an arene oxide which is
known to cause lesions in the tissues of some
mammals.

Saurel and Nitta, 1970 unknown varied hydrocarbon 0.01 ppm It was found that oil concentrations as low as
Mackerel fractions from 0.05 ppm oil 0.01 ppm were sufficient to impart an odor in
(spp. unknown) Yokkaichi Harbour, fish. Saurel kept in seawater containing 0.01
Japan ppm of oil took on a slight odor in 24 hours.
Mackerel similarly acquired a slight odor after
being placed in seawater containing 0.05 ppm
oil.

Sea Mullet Grant, 1969 taste kerosene unknown Kerosene tainting in sea mullet was reported
(Mugil sp.) near Brisbane, Australia where fishermen report-
ed losses of as much as 78 short tons in one
area.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
Rainbow Trout Malins et 0., bioassays Prudhoe Bay varied Morehology:
(Salmo gairdneri) 1978 toxicity effects crude oil and In fish exposed to high levels of petroleum.
Starry FTo-u-n-de-r selected aromatic eye lenses hydrate and may eventually pro-
(Platichthys hydrocarbons,and duce cataracts, resulting in reduced vision or
stellatus) heavy metals blindness. Liver tissue reflects exposure to
CoFo__@_M_on contaminants in both its biochemistry and mor-
(Oncorhynchus phology. Changes involve alterations in glyco-
kisutch)- gen or lipid deposits and proliferation of the
E-n-gUs-F-Sole endoplasmic reticulum in flatfish exposed to
(Parophyrus petroleum-contaminated sediment and trout expos-
vetuFus-F- ed to PBCO.
RocV-'5o-Te
(Lepidopsetta Chemistry:
bilineata) hin a few hours of naphthalene exposure,
significant concentrations of both naphthalenes
and their metabolites were present in the
skin of coho salmon, starry flounder and
rainbow trout. There is a tendency to pre-
ferentially retain metabolic products of
hydrocarbons. Starry flounders demonstrated
a propensity to accumulate and bioconcentrate
hydrocarbons from the water column. It appears
that skin and epidermal mucus play an important
-role in accumulation. discharge. and retention
of hydrocarbons and their metabolites in fish.
Pathology: sh sole to crude oil cont-
Exposure of Engli
aminated sediments, within the range reported
to occur as a result of oil spills, tended
to have greater weight losses leading in
some cases to emaciation and morbidity; and
sole livers during the first month of exposure
had a higher frequency of severe abnormalities
than controls.

Behavioral Effects
Herring larvae Rice et al., biossay- Cook Inlet crude oil slick on Herring larvae did not avoid an oil slick but
(Clupea harengus) 1976. 96 hr TO oil surface would repeatedly swim up to the surface and
touch it. They did not appear to be able to
detect the slick. Larvae were eventually over-
come by the oil and settled to the bottom.
Herring@larvae Kuhnhold, 1972 bioassay Venezuelan and water soluble Larvae were unable to avoid contaminated
(Clupea harengus) Libyan crude oil fraction water, especially when oil was present as a
dispersion. Author believed chemoreceptors
were blocked or destroyed. Larvae would have
little chance of survival if they remained in
the oil dispersion.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Behavioral Effects

Herring larvae Rice et al., bioassay- Cook.Inlet crude oil slick on Herring larvae did not avoid an oil slick but
(Clupea harengus) 1976 96 hr TL.M oil surface would repeatedly swim up to the surface and
touch it. They did not appear to be able to
detect the slick. Larvae were eventually over-
come by the oil and settled to the bottom.
Herring larvae Kuhnhold, 1972 bioassay Venezuelan and water soluble Larvae were unable to avoid contaminated
(Clupea harengus) Libyan crude oil fraction water, especially when oil was present as a
dispersion. Author believed chemoreceptors
were blocked or destroyed. Larvae would have
little chance of survival if they remained in
the oil dispersion.
English Sole NWAFC monthly flow through unknown unknown Results of these experiments indicate that high
(Parophrys report November, biossays, levels of oil incorporated in sediment were
vetulus) 1979 not avoided by Juvenile flatfish. In this
manner bottom dwelling fish may be exposed to
oil over long periods of time.
Teleost (Bony) NAAFC monthly unknown polynuclear unknown When exposed to varied concentrations of the
Fish report, June aromatic hydrocarbons specific PAH--2,6-dimethyl/naphthalene (2,6-
1980 (2,6-dimethyl/naphthalene) DMN) - fish were observed swimming vertically
and upside-down. In nature, such abberent
behavior would invite predation.

CLAMS, MUSSELS AND SCALLOPS

Acute/Toxic Effects

Pink Scallop Rice et al.. bioassay- Prudhoe Bay crude, water soluble 96 hr TLM for scallops was 2.07 ppm and 3.15
(Chlamys rubida) 1976 96 hr TLM Cook Inlet crude, fraction .80-3.15 ppm for Prudhoe Bay and Cook Inlet crude oil
and No. 2 fuel oil PPM respectively. 96 hr TLM for No. 2 fuel oil
was .80 ppm. Scallops continued to die up to
4 weeks after exposure to the WSF of crude oil.
Cockles Lechner, 1970 oil spill JP5 fuel oil spill Thousands of dead and extremely weak cockles
(Clinocardium sp.) observation were found throughout spill area. Area was
declared a health hazard and residents were
advised not to eat the clams.

Razor Clams Tegelberg, 1964 oil spill fuel oil spill 300,000 razor clams were killed in less than
(Siliqua sp.) a week by a fuel oil spill.
Soft-Shelled Dow and Hurst observation fuel oil spill 157 metric tons of clams existed prior to a fuel
Clam in Michael. 1977 oil spill. Mortality was observed immediately
(Mya arenaria) after the spill. and a decline in numbers
occurred for the next three years. Twenty-f ive
percent of the original population died within
four months; 55% were dead 17 months later; and
an 86% mortality figure was reported 3-@ years
later. Only 22 metric tons survived as of
August 1974.

Species/liabit@t Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
Mussel (M til s Kanter, 1974 bioassay crude oil lxlo3ppm Mytilus succumbed faster 8ndJn higher numbers
californ Ix,05 I ppm than IxIO3
ppm at oTT-conceRtrations of x]
ppm and WO ppm. Larger experimental animals
exhibited significantly higher mortalities
than their smaller counterparts. Mortality
va ried by season.
Soft-Shell Clam Thomas, 1976 observation of Bunker C oil unknown Mortalities of the soft-shell clam (M a
Mya arenaria) spill arenaria) after the 1970 Chedabucto ?ay spill
ranged from 19% to 73% in the areas sampled.
Many clams left their burrows as these filled
with oil. The clams either died on the surface
or were eaten by predators. Soon after, clams
started to die within their burrows. Dead
clams were visibly contaminated with oil, and
mortalities were proportional to surface oil
cover. In areas where the substrate had be-
come contaminated with oil, chronic mortalities
in the clam population continued 5 years after
the spill.

Physiological Effects

Soft-Shell Clam Stainken, 1976b flow-through No. 2 fuel oil 10, 50 and 100 ppm Sub-acute oil exposure resulted in a depletion
(Mya arenaria) bioassay of glycogen and general leukocytosis which was
particularly evident in the blood sinuses of the
pallium and mantle membrane. There was also
an increase in vacuolation of the diverticula,
stomach and intestines. Theincreased vacuo-
lation of oil-exposed clams may also represent
inclusion and intracellular compartmentaliza-
tion of hydrocarbons.
Soft-Shelled Clam Stainken, 1978 bioassay No. 2 fuel oil exposure to sub- Low levels of oil caused a marked elevation in
(Mya arenaria) acute oil-in- respiratory rates while higher concentrations
water concentrat- depressed respiration. As long as the oil or
ions - 10. 50. and water-soluble fraction is present, the rates
100 ppm for 28 days remain affected. This dose-response relation-
ship is further evidenced by the accumulation
of hydrocarbons. It is believed the higher
concentration may have reduced the filtration
activity of those clams below that of clams
tested at lower concentrations.

Soft-Shelled Clam La Roche, 1973 unknown unknown unknown The incidence of gonadal tumors was reported to
(Mya arenaria) in Menzel, 1979 be much higher in soft-shelled clams front areas
subjected to oil contamination tha.n from un-
polluted areas.
Oyster Malins et al., bioassays Prudhoe Bay varied The presence of naphthalene at concentrations as
(Crassostrea 1978 toxicity effects crude oil and low as I ppb reduced the viability of gametes
. as) selected aromatic and larvae of mussels and oysters. The meta-
Musse hydrocarbons and bolic system of the adult spot shrimp provides
(Mytilus edulis) heavy metals an effective detoxification mechanism; however,
spot rimp it also creates a wide range of metabolites and
(Pandalus intermediate compounds that are available to
platyceros) higher trophic level organisms.
Ln

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
Mussel Lee, 1972 bioassay naphthalene varied Hydrocarbons were found to be readily taken up
(Mytilus edulis) toluene by gill tissues. Toluene, naphthalene, and
benzopyrene benzopyrene did not have a lethal effect at con-
tetralin centrations used (up to I mg per liter), how-
mineral oil ever, it was suggested that these aromatic com-
heptadecane pounds may inhibit the filtering ability of
mussels.
Mussel (Mytilus Fossato and flow-through diesel fuel 200-400,ug/liter Mussels were exposed for as long as 41 days to
edulis) Canzonier, 1976 bioassay diesel fuel absorbed on Kaolin particles.
Hydrocarbons were accumulated in the tissues
in excess of 1,000 times the exposure levels.
After removal, mussels began to depurate but
still retained significant fractions after 32
days.
Soft-Shelled Clam Gilfillan and observation and Bunker C oil unknown All tissue and sediment samples examined from
(Mya arenaria) Vandermeulen, lab tissue analysis the original polluted site contained traces of
1978 6-7 yrs post-spill oil. Clam tissues were found to contain up to
observations in 200 ug/g oil in tissue, and sediment samples
Chedabucto Bay 3800 ug/g oil in sediment. Oiled populations
of clams differed from unoiled populations in
lower total numbers with fewer mature adults,
a 1-2 yr lag in tissue growth, a lower shell
growth rate, and a reduced carbon flux with a
lower assimilation rate.
Scallops and other Blumer et al., observations of No. 2 fuel oil Hydrocarbons ingested by shellfish became part
She] If i sh 1970 Falmouth, Mass. of their lipid pool. Oil was incorporated in
oil spill the adductor muscle of scallops.
Pink Scallops Rice and bioassay Cook Inlet crude Found that the growth rate of pink scallops
(Chlamys rubida) Karinen, 1976 oil may be reduced as the result of oil exposure.
Mussel (Mytilus Blumer et al., No. 2 fuel oi I, No. 2 fuel oil Gonads of mussels failed to develop in affected
edulis) 1971 West Falmouth spill areas.
field observation

Mussel (Mytilus Kanter et al., bioassay crude oil Coal Oil Point mussels were more resistant to
californianus) 1971 hydrocarbons than mussels from other areas, sug-
gesting that chronic exposures may lead to
selection for more tolerant forms.
Pink Scallops Rice et al.. bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude. 0.80 - 3.15 ppm Scallops accumulated significant paraffin
(Chlamys rubida) 1976 (96 hr TLM) Cook Inlet crude, concentrations. Scallops rapidly accumulated
and No. 2 fuel oil naphthalenes. Depuration was slow,but steady.
After 120 hrs certain fractions were still
detectable.

Clams Anderson et al., bioassay Prudhoe Bay crude, 600 ug/g oil in Detectable levels of hydrocarbons were present
(Prototheca 1978 oil sediment for 40 in two deposit feeding species, Phascolosoma
Tt a-m-i n-e-aT days and 60 days agassizil and Macoma inquinata, E_u_tnot_Tn_
(Racoma Tnquinata) Protothaca stamfnea, Tfilter feeder. These
Sipunculid results suqgest that mode of feeding is a
(Phascolosoma determinant factor in the availability of
agassizii) sediment-sorbed hydrocarbons to benthic animals.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Hydrocarbon levels were 1-3 ppm combined
aliphatics and diaromatics.

"ydrocarbon concentrations in tissue of
P. apassizii and M. inquinata increased even
Turther over 60 d_a_ys_._ffo_tWThe aliphatic and
diaromatic petroleum hydrocarbons on, or in,
marine sediments are more readily taken up by
detritivores than filter-feeders, however, the
extent of accumulation was relatively low com-
pared to initial sediment hydrocarbon con-
centrations.

Clams (Saxidomus Mix et al.. 1976 analysis of carcinogenic, poly- Detectable levels of carcinogenic benzo-a-
giganttus anU-FFa background hydro- cyclic aromatic pyrenes were found in bivalves from 43 of 44
;-renaria) and y carbon levels hydrocarbons sampling sites. High levels were present in
Ru s s eTj&Li I u s (benzo-a-pyrene) mussels collected from industrial dock areas.
edulis) Significant levels were present in 7Ma
arenaria collected near industrial ocks.

Scallops (Pecten Swedmark, Gramo toxicity effects oil pollution sublethal Scallops and mussels are consider@ably less
opercularis A Killberg. 1973 tolerant to oil pollution than mussels. At
Coc les sublethal concentrations the ability of the
(Cardium edule) bivalves to close their shells was greatly
M-us-se-T-s impaired. Exposure to diesel oil illicited
(Mytilus edulis) the most severe effects.

Oysters HAS, 1975 observation chronic pollution 500 ppm in Tainting of oysters in Louisiana oil fields is
(Spp. unknown) reports brines and spills sediments frequently reported and is generally associ-
ated with sedime ts containing high levels of
petroleum hydroc:rbons (500 ppm). Tainted
oysters must be removed to unpolluted areas
for several months to make them marketable.

Oysters Ehrhardt, 1972 field observation chronic pollution Oysters collected at the mouth of Houston Ship
(Crassostrea Anderson, 1975 (ship channel) Channel showed much higher concentrations of
v Fr Tn7c-a hydrocarbons than those collected across the
qj_
bay, which were 237 and 2 ug/g respectively.

Behavioral Effects

Soft-Shell Clam Stainken, 1977 bioassay No. 2 fuel oil and oil water emulsion With increased concentration of oil, clams
(Kya arenaria) Louisiana crude (sublethal) increased mucus secretion and decreased
tactile responses. General behavioral
sequence: successively impaired activity,
immobilization and death. Increased metabolic
demands for mucus production and excretion and
the disruption of normal physiological and
biochemical processes occurred at much lower
concentrations than the LC50 value indicates.
LC50 values: Phenol 565 ppm; and No. 2 fuel oil
475 ppm.

Seecies/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Clam (Macoma Taylor and bioassay in situ Prudhoe Bay crude 0.234 and 0.367 Water soluble fraction of oil and oil-treated
b a I t I :_aT_ Karinen, 1977 experimenIF oil ppm naphthalene sediment inhibited burrowing and caused claihs
equivalents to move to sediment surface where they would
be vulnerable to predation or die from
exposure.
Habitats

Intertidal Habitat Teal et al.. gas chroma- No. 2 fuel oil spill Naphthalenes with 0-3 alkyl/substitutions and
1978 tography/mass phenanthrenes with 0-2 substitutions in surface
fragmentographic sediments decreased in concentration over time.
analysis The more substituted aromatics decreased rela-
tively less and in some cases actually increased
in absolute concentration. Aromatics were in-
corporated below the upper 0-7 cm to a depth of
25 cm. Organisms living in the marsh were ex-
posed to heavier molecular weight fuel oil
aromatics for at least 6.5 years.
Salt Marsh Hampson and observation No. 2 fuel oil spill Marsh grass in the lower intertidal zone which
Moul, 1978 was impacted by a No. 2 fuel oil spill has
shown an inability to re-establish itself by
either reseeding or rhizome growth. The as-
sociated sediments show a correspondingly high
concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons im-
pregnated In the peat substrate. Erosion rates
were 24 times greater in the affected site
than the control. Microscopic algae were
collected and those present were considered
least sensitive to environmental changes.
Interstitial fauna found in the study area ex-
hibited an extremely reduced number of
individuals and species.
Salt Marsh NORCOR spill Norman Wells and 40-50 liters Controlled spills of 40 to 50 liters, with fresh
Engineering Atkinson Point crude and weathered Norman Wells crude oil in an un-
and Researchttd., oils contaminated salt marsh, produced extensive
1975 vegetation kills. Only marsh plants above
water line at the time of oiling were affected
by the spill.

Ice NORCOR spills Norman Wells varied When oil is released in the water column it
Engineering and and Swan Hills rises toward the surface in a conical shaped
Research Ltd., crude oils plume. The oil tends to be unstable and breaks
1975 into small spherical particles of about I cm in
diameter or less. On striking the underside of
the ice, the oil radiates outward progressively
filling depressions in the sheet. Within
a matter of hours of the oil coming in contact
with the ice a lip forins-around the lens, pre-
venting horizontal movement. During the depth
of winter, a new layer of ice forms beneath
the oil within several days. Once entrapped,
the oil is stabilized until spring. The pro-
perties of the oil remain unchanged and there
is little evidence of weathering or degradation.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
Throughout the winter, oil only penetrates 5.to
10 cm into the loose skeletal layer. As
the sheet begins to warm In the spring
activity intensifies in the brine channels
and the oil begins to migrate upward. The
rate of migration increases with the level
of solar radiation and ambient air temperature.
Oil released in late April under 150 cm of ice
was detected on the surface within an hour.

On reaching the ice surface the oil saturates
the snow cover and substantially reduces the
albedo (reflectant property). This causes an
increase in the level of absorbed solar radiat-
ion which accelerates the process. Oiled melt
pools quickly develop. The albedo of an oil
film on water is about one quarter that of oiled
snow, consequently the melt is further accel-
erated. Oil i.s splashed on the surrounding snow
by wind and wave action and the pools gradually
enlarge until interconnected. New oil is con-
tinually being released until the melt reaches
the initial level of the oil lens. Once melt
holes develop and surface drainage patterns are
established the sheet rapidly deteriorates.
Depending on the nature and location of the
sheet, oiled areas are likely to be free of ice
between one and three weeks earlier than sur-
rounding ice.

Ice Stringer and literature summary varied experimental Equilibrium thickness of crude oil can be ex-
Weller, 1980 of existing oil/ spills pected to be between 0.5-1 cm (Schultz, 1980).
Ice data Results indicate (Cox and Schultz, 1980) that a
relatively large volume of oil can be spread
beneath the ice cover in the form of a 0.5-1 cm
thick slick, and that for many months this slick
can be immobile In the Beaufort Sea and perhaps
other areas such as Kotzebue and Norton Sounds
and some nearshore areas of the Chukchi Sea
where under-ice current velocities are below
the threshold required to cause the slick to
move.

Arctic waters NOAA-USCG- spill Bunker C fuel oil 107,000 gallons Eleven days after the spill, flakes of oil were
(August) Ministry for (380 tons) observed within the water column. These flakes
Greenland-joint were 5 to 10 mm on a side and about I mm thick.
report on USNS Either they were the residual of weathered
Potomic oil lenses of once flaking oil, or more likely were
spill. 1979 the exfoliation of the skin of oil lenses. By
14 days, the oil was not noticeable from the
air. The asphaltene content remained constant
during the first 15 days of weathering.

1,D

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Wring this same period, the lighter fractions
were being preferentially removed, presumably
by evaporation. If this was the case, then a
relatively new sinking process is brought to
light which can potentially cause rapid breakup
of oil lenses and possibly sinking. I

Pack Ice C-Core, 1980 spill Bunker C fuel oil 7000 tons Oil was inaccessible to recovery due to entrain-
ment in pack ice. The general trend was toward
progressively smaller oil particles with
mechanical grinding as a primary cause and
"melt pocket" processes as a secondary factor.
The pack ice served to contain oil offshore and
light'hydrocarbons tended to be enriched in the
ice (with respect to the surrounding water).

Ice Martin, 1980 /Laboratory Prudhoe Bay 200 nil Laboratory experiments revealed that an im-
analysis of crude oil portant property relating to oil retention in
oil spilled growing ice'is the existence of a "dead zone" or
in generated area of transition between solid and liquid
ice behavior. In the study most oil ended up on the
ice surface beyond the dead zone, with some oil
droplets circulating in the grease ice ahead of
the dead zone. In this manner oil may become
entrapped in growing sea ice.

Algae Notini, 1978 observation No. 3 and No. 5 spill Fuel oil released from the grounded tanker Irini
(Fucus vesiculosus) fuel oil drifted into a small bay in the Stockholm arc i-
pelago and wiped out nearly the entire community
of littoral fauna which was present. In
spite of the initial heavy degree of pollution
and the almost total fauna] mortality,
considerable recolonization took place during
the first summer after the spill. After four
years, no significant evidence of lasting detri-
mental effects could be found.

Algae Steele, 1977 bioassay No. 2 fuel oil 0-2000 ppm Small amounts of oil (200 ppb or less) cause an
(Fucus vesiculosus) JP-4 and JP-5 apparent stimulation of growth in juvenile
jet fuel oil plants; however. concentrations above this level
produced increasingly deleterious effects on
plant growth. In addition, when Fucus
receptacles were placed in oil soT-ut-Fons during
gamete release all germination ceased even
when only minute quantities of oil were present.

221
Tabl e 22

*96 h TLm total
Scientific names Common names Habitat aromatics

lish
1. Clupea,pallasi Pacific herring pelagic 1.22 (0.88-1.56)
2. SalveTinus malma Dolly Varden pelagic 1.55 (1.30-1.80)
3. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha pink salmon pelagic 1.69 (1.47-1.83)
4 Theragra chalcogrammus Walleye pollock pelagic 1.73 (1.37-2.09)
5 Auorynchus flavidus tubesnouts pelagic 2.55 (2.06-3.03)
6. Myoxecephalus polyacanthocephalus great sculpin benthic 3.96 (3.52-4.40)
7. Flatichthys stellatus starry flounder benthic >5.34
8. Pholis laeta crescent gunnel intertidal >11.72
9. Anoplarchus purpurescens cockscomb prickleback intertidal >11.72
Crustaceans
10. CranSon alaskensis grass shrimp subtidal 0.87 (0.83-0.91)
humpy shrimp subtidal 1.79 (1.53-2.04)
12. Eualus suckley kelp shrimp subtidal 1.86 (1.66-2.07)
13. Panddalus borealis pink shrimp subtidal 4.94 (3.20-5.60)
14. Paralithodes camtschatica king crab benthic 3.69 (2.65-4.73)
15. emigrapsis nudus purple shore crab intertidal 8.45 (8.32-8.58)
16 Pagurus hirsuiticulus hairy hermit crab intertidal >10.58
17. Orchomene pinguis amphipod planktonic >7.98
18. Acanthomysis pseudomacropsis mysid planktonic >9.02
Echinoderms
19. Cucumar tarspot intertidal >6.84
20. Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis green sea urchin intertidal >10.58

21. Leptasterias hexactis six-armed starfish intertidal >10.58

22. Eupentacta white cucumber intertidal >12.29
Molluscs
23. Chlamys hericus pink scallop benthic 3.94 (3.52-4.39)
24. Mytilus edulis blue mussel intertidal >8.97
25 Protothaca staminea little neck clam intertidal >6.84
26. Collisella scutum plate limpet intertidal 8.18 (6.14-10.96)
27. Notoacmaea Pelta shield limpet intertidal >8.46
28. Katharina tunicata leather chiton intertidal >8.46
29. Tonicella lineaeta lined chiton intertidal >8.46
30. Moopalia cilliata ciliated chiton intertidal >8.46
31. Margarites pu I us purple margarite intertidal >8.46
32. LIttorina sitkana sitka periwinkle intertidal >8.46
33. Thais lima file periwinkle intertidal >8.46
34. Colus halli Hall's colus benthic >8.98
35 Neptunea lyrata ridged whelk benthic >10.58
Anelids
36. Nereis vexillosa mussel worm intertidal >10.58
37. Harmothoe imbricata scale worm intertidal >10.58
Nemerteans
38. Paranemertes peregrina purple ribbon worm intertidal >10.58
39. Lineus vegetus brown ribbon worm intertidal >10.58

Table 1: Sensitivities of 38 Alaskan marine species to Cook Inlet crude oil - 96-h TLm's are in mg/l of
total aromatics determined by GC, with 95% confidence intervals in parentheses

Source: Rice et al., 1979

222
Table 23
Cook Inlet Crude Oil Fuel Oil
96-h TLm IR 96-h TLm Total 96-h TLm IR 96-h TLm total
Species (mg/1) Aromatics (mg/1) (mg/1) Aromatics (mg/1)

Fish
1. In corhnchus Sorbuscha 1.50 (1.29-1.71) 1.69 (1.47-1.83) 0.54 (0-52-0.55) 0.97 (0.90-1.06)
2. SaTveTj@us malma 2.27 (1.94-2.60) 1.55 (1.30-1.80) 0.72 (0.61-0.78) 0.15 (0.14-0.16)
3. Myo.xocephalus
polvacanthocephalus 3.82 (3.51-4.13) 3.96 (3.52-4.40) 2.41 (2.15-2.67) 1.31 (1.25-1.37)
4. Plat!CthyS stellatus >4.69 >5.34 >1.72 >0.97
5 . Pholis laeta >5.89 >11.72 >1.72 >0.97
Crustaceans
-67-IG-rchomene pinquis >7.40 >7.98 >0.48 >1.74
7. Tc-a-nt-Fo-mysis -Pseudomacranli >9.12 >9.02 >0.45 (0.36-0.57) 2.31 (1.85-2.88)
8. Eualus suckleyi 3.94 (3.49-4.39) 1.86 (1.66-2.07) 0.59 (0.41-0.77) 1.10 (0.90-1.30)
9. Crangon alaskensis 2.19 (2.08-2.30) 0.87 (0.83-0.91) 0.43 (0.38-0.49) 0.36 (0.31-0.41)
10. T-rsuiticulus >6.94 >10.58 >8.19 >3,36
11. 'PaarauTrVtsho'des--ca-rn-ts-cFa-tica 4.70 (4.10-5.30) 3.69 (2.65-4.73) 0.81 (0.72-0.90) 1.02 (0.93-1.11)
Molluscs
12. To-Ilisella scutum 3.65 (2.62-5.08) 8.18 (6.14-10.96) >8.19 >3.36
13. -ChT-amys hericus 5.20 (4.11-6.29) 3.94 (3.52-4.39) >8.19 >3.36
14. Katharina tunicata >8.72 >8.46 >8.19 >3.36
151. Mytilus e ulis >7.41 >8.98 >4.19 >1.25
16. TFa-i`sTima >8.72 >9.46 @,8.19 >3.36
AnnelT-ds
T7-.Nereis vexillosa >6.94 >10.58 >8.19 >3.36
Nemeri-ean - 1
18. Paranemertes Peregrina >6.94 >10.58 @,8.19 >3.36
Echin-oderms
19. Leptasteri s hexactis >6.94 >10.58 >8.19 >3.36

Table 2. 96-h Tlm's (with corresponding 95% confidence interval) for Alaskan Marine species sensiti v e to
Cook inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil-TLm's are reported in mg1l total aromatics as measured by gas
chromatography and mg/l total hydrocarbons are measured by infra-red spectrophotometry

Source: Rice et al., 1979

223

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

a low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of oil pollution

(see Map D). These designations were based on existing data, and were

made after evaluat ing the following criteria:

1 The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to.the effects of oil pollution.

2. The degree of sensitivity to oil pollution exhibited by each

species during the various stages of its life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

and the period during which each species would be most affected.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The potential probability that a spill will impact sensitive

biological resources or habitats as'a result of natural physical

processes such as circulation, wind, or tidal transport.

224

8. The species population numbers and the relative importance of

the population.

9. The degree to which the impacts of oil pollution can be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during ranking

are as follows:

1. Coastal habitats which exhibit such features as longshore

sediment transport into an area, floating debris (driftwood)

commonly washed up on shore, or high oil retention shorelines,

are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of oil pollution

because such physical factors tend to increase the potential

likelihood of an area being exposed to, or affected by, an oil

&Pi I I.

2. Intertidal vegetation such as eelgrass and Fucus kelp beds,

are vulnerable to oil pollution based on observations following

oil spills which detail extensive losses due to physical

coating.

3. All wetlands and tideflats are highly susceptible to all forms

of oil pollution due to their high retention characteristics

and slow degradation processes.

4. Benthic invertebrates (king crab, clams, starfish) and bottomfish

(yellowfin sole, starry flounder, Arctic cod) are very sensitive

to the toxic components of oil. However, it is unlikely that

225

oil pollution will significantly affect these species unless

it is transported into juvenile rearing or settling areas, or

is sedimented through adherence to suspended particulate

matter within the water column.

5. Juvenile fish rearing and feeding areas are highly vulnerable

to oil pollution as evidenced by toxicity studies.

6. Seabird populations, resting locations, and pelagic feeding

areas are extremely sensitive to the effects of oil. This is

due to the large amount of time that seabirds spend on the

water; their discrete habitat requirements; their very large

populational numbers in the Norton Sound-northern Bering Sea

region; and the proven damaging effects that arise through

direct physical contact with oil.

7. Waterfowl feeding, nesting, molting, and staging areas are

considered highly vulnerable to oil pollution. This is due to

the discrete characteristics of waterfowl habitat, the importance

of habitats within the Norton Sound-northern Bering Sea region

to various life history stages of waterfowl, their importance

to large waterfowl populations during different times of the

year, and bec ause oil has been demonstrated to be lethal to a

varie ty of waterfowl species.

8. Marine mammals are not considered to be particularly vulnerable

to oil except under special conditions when they may be aggregated

226

(as in haulout areas), or when they are confined to a specific

habitat and cannot escape being impacted by spilled oil (as

with denning ringed seals). It is expected that marine ma mmals

will in most cases avoid an area of obvious contamination.

9. Oil pollution may affect subsistence, commercial, and sport

harvests of fish and wildlife resources through a reduction in

the absolute number of animals harvested or which are available

for harvest; through tainting or fouling of fish and wildlife

species; or through physical fouling of harvest areas and

equ.ipment (boats, nets, crab pots, etc.).

10. The potential impacts of oil pollution on juvenile or larval

marine organisms are extremely high. Because of the lack of

systematic surveys and scientific data on early life history

stages o marine species in the Norton Sound-northern Bering

Sea region, larval and juvenile concentration areas have not

been identified. However, the lack of identified concentration

areas should not be construed to indicate that either these

areas do not exist, or that these organisms are not extremely

sensitive to oil pollution.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures.

LCW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity applies to those areas which exhibit

a high potential for cleanup, and/or include those species which would

227

accrue only minor impacts when exposed to oil pollution. Oil exploration,

development, production, and transportation may proceed in these areas

with strict adherence to existing State and Federal regulations, except

that oil spill response, containment, and cleanup capabilities should

meet the standards set forth in moderate sensitivity areas.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of moderate.sensitivity applies to those areas in which

there is a moderate to high probabflity that an oil spill would have
significant adverse impacts,upon sensitive or important biological
resources. This designation includes: 1) areas in which the available

information on net circulation indicates a high susceptibility to oil

pollution; 2) areas in which relatively well substantiated circulation

data indicates a moderate to high probability for transport and impingement

of oil in sensitive or important areas; and 3) areas which exhibit a

moderate potenti-al for cleanup. Examples of moderate sensitivity areas

include:

1. Areas receiving longshore sediment transport.

2. Areas where floating debris (driftwood) commonly washes up o n
shore.

3. Shorelines with high oil retention capabilities, such as
saltmarshes and wet tundra.

4. King crab concentrations.

5. Herring nearshore feeding and rearing areas.

6. Capelin spawning and possible spawning areas.

7. Nearshore rearing areas for juvenile fish.

228

8. Sheefish and whitefish streams.

9. Sand lance concentration.

10. Waterfowl important staging areas.

11. Ringed seal important habitat.

12. Recurrent walrus haulouts.

13. Sea lion haulouts.

14. Subsistence harvestareas for belukha and bowhead whales,
waterfowl, seabirds and eggs, seals, and walrus.

15. Commercial king crab harvest areas.

16. Subsistence clam and freshwater mussel areas.

Oil exploration, development, production,.and transportation may proceed

in areas of moderate sensitivity with strict adherence to State and

Federal regulations, and by conforming to the following guidelines:

Prevention of Oil Spills

1. Exploratory Drilling - Because of effective U.S. Geological

Survey regulations and enforcement, exploratory drilling

operations on Federal OCS lands have a relatively good safety

record and a low incidence of oil spills. Exploratory drilling.

operations in the northern Bering Sea -Norton Sound region

would be acceptable with the following measures:

a. USGS standards for both drilling operations and safety be

adopted and enforced on both State and Federal lease

tracts in the northern Bering Sea - Norton Sound region.

229

b. A second drilling rig with similar capabilities should be

available in Alaskan waters to drill a relief well in the

event of an uncontrolled flow of oil from a Norton Basin

well due to a blowout or accident such as a rig fire.

The rig requirement can be satisfied by an operational

drilling platform in Alaskan waters, even if it is being

used to drill another well, but must be capable of being

on site and operational within 7 days after an uncontrolled

flow has occurred.

C. Drilling platforms must be inspected to insure that they

are capable of operating under the meteorological and

geophysical conditions that are present in the northern

Bering Sea and Norton Sound. Soil conditions at all

drilling sites should be inspected and certified as being

capable of supporting rig weights.

d. Only temporary drilling structures should be used during

the exploration phase of oil development. After drilling,

all structures should be removed and the site restored

unless those structures will be used in the development

of the field.

e. Because of severe winter ice conditions in Norton Sound

and the northern Bering Sea, exploratory drilling from

conventional jack-up rigs, drillships, and semi-submersible

drilling rigs should be restricted to the ice free months

of June through October.

230

f. Hazardous operati ons with high oil spill risk factors,

such as testing and well completions, should be conducted

only during periods when the ability to contain and

cleanup a spill are maximized. This would typically be

during calm open water periods.

Production Facilities

1. Production platforms in the northern Bering Sea and Norton

Sound must be specifically designed and tested to operate

safely under extreme conditions involving moving pack ice,

maximum sustained wind speeds of 90 knots (100 mph), extreme

wave heights of 32 meters (105 feet), and earthquakes of at

least 6.5 on the Richter scale.

Onshore Facilities

1. Oil storage facilities shou.ld be sited a sufficient distance

away from any open body of water so that even in the event of

an uncontrolled spill, o.il would not enter the water.

2. If facilities must be sited in wetlands or adjacent to a body

of water, provisions must be made in design and construction

to prevent the spread of hydrocarbons and to facilitate cleanup

above and below ground. Such measures would require that oil

storage and processing facilities be bermed and underlaid by

natural or artificial impermeable barriers to prevent spilled

oil from escaping the area and entering adjacent ground and

surface waters.

231

3. Facilities which store large amounts of fuel should be sited

away from sensitive fish and wildlife concentrations, such as

seabird rookeries and wetlands.

4. Oil storage and processing facilities should not be located on

geophysically unstable sites. This would include sites with

unstable substrate, sites which could be aff ected by storm

surges, and active fault zones.

5. Stationary-fuel storage facil.ities for construction activities

should not be placed within.the floodplain of a fish stream,

and vehicle refueling should not occur in these areas.

6. Effluent from refineries, oil treatment facilities, and petrochemical

plants should be treated to reduce concentrations of aromatic

hydrocarbons to below one ppm. Effluents should not contain

any biologically significant amounts of heavy metals or carcinogenic

compounds which might build up to toxic levels in sediment

over the life of the project.

7. Hydrocarbon conta minated effluents should only be discharged

into areas where there is sufficient water volume, strong

tidal currents, and a rapid exchange of water to quickly

dilute the effluent. Under no circumstances should they be

discharged into any body of freshwater, estuary, or area

exhibiting sluggish circulation.

232

8. Alternate methods to dispose of contaminated waste water, such

as pumping it into reinjection wells or into impermeable

formations underground, should be used whenever possible.

9. Alarm systems and security measures should be developed for

all facilities handling oil to prevent spills caused by

carelessness, vandal.ism, or sabotage.

Transportation

1. Pipelines

a. Avoid construction of pipelines in geophysically active

areas; i.e., across faultlines, in areas of current

scour, in gas charged sediment areas, and areas prone to

liquifaction.

b. Submarine pipelines should be buried deep enough so that

they wil'I not be broken by ship anchors, gouging ice

keels, or by fishing trawls.

C. Submarine pipeline locations should be prominently

markffd on nautical charts and maps. Sonar targets

should be placed on the pipeline at strategic intervals

to aid in precise location.

233

d. Pipelines should be consolidated to the greatest extent

possible in order to minimize habitat disturbance and

risk.

e. Pipeline design and installatio n should reflect future

developmental considerations such as increased volume

during maximum production phases, and the ability to

accomodate feeder pipelines from other developing fields.

f. Sensitive alarm systems and,automatic shut-off valves

should be required on all pipelines in order to minimize

the amount of oil that would escape in the event of a

pipeline rupture.

g. The number of stream crossings should be minimized.

Attempt to make crossings downstream from sensitive

habitats such as spawning areas. Uninterrupted movement

and safe passage of fish should be provided for. Any

artificial structure or any stream channel change that

will restrict fish movement should be provided with an

adequate fish passage structure or facility.

h. Pipeline routes should avoid areas of productive or

critical benthic habitat such as larval king crab settling

areas, larval shellfish release areas, salt marshes, and

important clam beds.

234

i. Pipelines should be designed or sited in a manner that

will not impede crab passage or migration.

2. Tanker docks and fueling facilities, which must be located in

marine waters, should be designed to include:

a. Automatic shut-off systems to stop the flow of fuel from

storage areas in the event that a dock is damaged or

destroyed.

b. Redundant safety systems with exceptional safety factors

incorporated in the oil transfer pipes, hoses, and other

equipment, to eliminate the risk of failure and subsequent

oil spillage.

C. Redundant safety measures and additional crews should be

required during operations with historically high s pillage

rates, such as the loading or unloading of tankers.

These measures will help to prevent spills which often

occur due to fatigue or carelessness.

3. Tankers.,

a. Only U.S. Coast Guard inspected. load on top or segregated

ballast tankers which meet Coast Guard standards should

be allowed to transport oil within the Norton Sound -

northern Bering Sea region. Tankers destined for operation

235

in this region should be specifically designed to withstand

ice infested waters, with reinforced double hulls, multiple

screws, and redundant steering systems.

b. Mandatory vessel traffic corridors and a vessel traffic

control system should be implemented.

C. All tankers and other large vessels should be required to

use certified pilots who are familiar with local hazards,

weather, wind, wave, ice, and tidal conditions.

d. No discharge of ballast or bilge water should be permitted

in the Bering Strait because of sensitive wildlife populations;

or east of Cape Nome due to sluggish circulation regimes.

-'-Balllast water treatment facilities should be available at

the tanker dock.

e. Tankers should be required to maintain a distance of at

least 15 miles from established seabird colonies.

f. Ocean going tugs reinforced against ice should be available

in Norton Sound to rescue any tanker which loses power or

steerage before it runs aground.

g. At least one ice breaking vessel should be continually

stationed in the Beri ng Sea.

236

h. Tanker routes in Norton Sound should only be established

after conducting a careful scientific study and analysis

to determine: 1) the safest routes through seasonal.ice

fields, storm paths, and hazards to navigation, and to

2) avoid sensitive fish and wildlife habitat which might

be affected by a spill.

Oil Spill Containment and Cleanup

1. An effective oil spill containment and cleanup organization

should be developed for this region before any drilling begins.

This organization should have sufficient oil spill containment

and cleanup equipment at its disposal to: 1) protect all

identified critical habitats in Norton Sound, and 2) effectively

contain and cleanup the maximum probable projected spill.

2. An effective oil spill response organization for the Norton

Sound-northern Bering Sea region should.have an oil spill

contingency plan which would detail:

a. Activities associated with oil field development, including

offshore activities involving the handling or storage of

oil or hazardous substances.

b. Conditions under which the organization has a clear

capability to contain and cleanup spilled oil; and conditions

under which hazardous op erations should be suspended.

237

C. Operational procedures, communications networks, detection

and monitoring devices, equipment inventories, response

times, and disposal sites.

d. Contingencies and equipment to handle all oceanographic

and meteorological conditions which can be expected to

occur in an area of drilling.

e. Provisions for under'ice and broken ice containment and

cleanup.

f. Locations of additional containment and cleanup equipment,

the location of ports and airfields for transferring

emergency equipment, the availability of transport and

support vessels, and approximate response times to various

spill sites.

g. Provisions for periodic revisions to the contingency

plan, as necessary to accomodate operational changes and

allow the incorporation of new technology.

3. Oil spill containment and cleanup equipment s hould be stationed

at strategic points along the perimeter of Norton Sound and

the Bering Strait in order to decrease the response time to

any point within the lease area to a maximum of six hours

after a spill has occurred.

238

4.- Small scale containment equipment, sorbent material, and oil

spill response training should be made available to coastal

villages which might be impacted by a spill.

5. All tanker terminals, harbors, and ports which are utilized

for oil related acti vities should have sufficient containment

equipment available on site to handle the largest spill which

might occur in those areas.

6. Anchor points for oil exclusion booms shoul.d be identified or

placed near the mouths of all important fish stPeams, lagoons,

bays, and estuaries.

7. Because existing oil spill containment and cleanu p equipment

Is in many areas inadequate, satisfactory field demonstrations

of equipment and organizational capabilities should be conducted

prior to any approval of drilling permits, operation of facilities,

or any shipment of oil by tankers. Where existing equipment

is inadequate to effectively contain and clean up oil in

broken ice, development of effective-equipment for containment

and cleanup of oil in ice should be made a requirement of

permit approval.

8. Recognize the limited capabilities of existing equipment and

the limited amount of equipment available. With present

239

operational and technical oil spill containment and cleanup it

can be most effectively used to protect the most sensitive

fish and wildlife concentrations or habitats from oil'spills.

9. Dispersants - In the event that weather conditions or the

location of a spill make mechanical containment or cleanup

impossible, dispersants should be considered as an option to

protect fish and wildlife resources under certain circumstances.

However, there are several drawbacks to the use of dispersants.

The primary problem is that insufficient data is available on

the effectiveness and toxicity of dispersants to make an

objective decision regarding their use in Alaskan waters.

Certain dispersants and dispersant-oil mixtures can be more

toxic than the ori.gi.nal pare nt oil, thereby precluding their

use in most cases. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

has published a list of approved dispersants; however, the

presence of a dispersant on this list only signifies EPA's

acceptance of the method used to test the dispersant and is

not necessarily an endorsement of its innocuous nature. The

second problem is that, dependent upon type, di.spersants-will

only work under certain temperatures and sea conditions. If

these conditions do not exist during a spil 1 then dispersants

will not work. Third, there has to be a means of delivering

the dispersants to the spill site. Vessels, fixed wing aircraft,

and helicopters are all feasible, but weather and visability

must meet minimum standards to be effective, especially in the

240

case of airborne systems. Fourth, dispersants only remove the

threat of mechanical damage (i.e., coating and abrasion) to

fish, wildlife, and habitat, and may actually increase the

amount of toxicity related damage resulting from a spill.

In light of the aforementioned problems, dispersants should

only be considered as an option to protect fish and wildife

resources or habitats under the following circumstances:

a. Only after consul'tation with the Departments of Fish and

Game and Environmental Conservation. To effectively

utilize dispersants, approval for their use, and the

conditions under which they can be used will have to be

determined in advance of any spill.

b. When mechanical means of oi I spill containment and cleanup

are not feasible.

C. When oil spill trajectories clearly indicate that the

threat of physical damage and fish and wildlife mortalities

at the-projected impact site clearly exceed the toxic

effects of using dispersants at the spill site or at some

point along the spill trajectory.

d. Dispersants should only be used to protect sensitive

species and habitats from-the physical effects of oil

spills and should never be used simply to remove visible

241

components of oil pollution. Dispersants increase toxicity

and solubility within the water column and may adversely

affect larval marine organisms and fish if used improperly.

Species sensitive to physical damage from oil spills

include: seabirds, waterfowl, seal pups, intertidal

spawning herring, and pelagic juvenile marine species.

Sensitive habitats include: eelgrass, Fucus beds, salt

marshes, stream deltas, and depositional shorelines.

e. Di,spersants shoul,d only be used on large.oil slicks in

open water areas which present a definite threat to fish,

wildlife, or sensitive habitat on shore. If a spill is

far offshore and is breaking up, it should be allowed to

dissipate naturally unless it can be contained or cleaned

up by mechanical means.

f. Do not use dispersants in spawning areas during seasons

when large concentrations of commercial or ecologically

important fish or s hellfish eggs or larvae are in the

water column.

g. Do not use.dispersants on spills of li ght hydrocarbon

products such as gasoline or light diesel fuels. These

products naturally dissipate rapidly and dispersants

would increase environmental damage by distributing them

in the water column. Use only on crude and bunker oils.

242

h. Only non-toxic dispersants, or low-toxicity dispersants

with a very low application rate (one gallon of dispersant

to 100 gallons of oil), should be used on Alaskan spills.

Monitoring

1. Ambient hydrocarbon levels should be recorded in the water

column and sediments prior to any developmental activity or

facility operation which will discharge hydrocarbons or other

hazardous substances into the marine environment. Ambient

levels should further be monitored regularly to insure that

discharge standards are not exceeded.

2. Tissue samples of species which commonly occur and are harvested

in an area of oil development should be obtained periodically

to insure that hazardous bioaccumulations of hydrocarbons,

heavy metals, or other hazardous substances do not occur.

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of high sensitivity applies to habitats and species with

a very high vulnerability to impact from oil pollution. Areas may

additionally be rated high based upon their oil retention capabilities

or because they are important areas of marine or freshwater harvest.

High sensiti0ty areas include:

1. Areas of first open water in spring

243

2. Eelgrass and Fucus kelp beds.

3. Wetlands, tideflats, estuaries, or lagoons.

4. Arctic char concentration areas.

5.- Herring spawning and possible spawning areas.

6. Salmon streams and salmon f@y and juvenile feeding or rearing
areas.

7. Seabird colonies, concentrations at the base of colonies, and
pelagic feeding areas.

8. Waterfowl and shorebird spring concentration areas.

9. Waterfowl nesting, molting, and major staging areas.

10. Seaduck wintering areas.

11. Emperor and snow geese molting and staging areas.

12. Swan nesting and use areas.

13. Sandhill crane use areas.

14. Shorebird important habitat and fall'staging areas.

15. Ringed seal high density areas.

16. Spotted seal haulout and feeding areas.

17. Commercial and subsistence fishing areas.

18. Subsistence and sport fishing areas.

19. Subsistence fishing areas.

20. Subsistence king crab harvest area.

21. Commercial and subsistence herring harvest areas.

22. Subsistence winter herring harvest areas.

Operations, activities, structures,,or facilities with a high probability

of acute or*chronic oil pollution should not occur or be located in high

sensitivity are as.

4rz
TABLE 24: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA.AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO OIL POLLUTION.

HABITATS JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
AREA OF FIRST OPEN WATER IN SPRING

L40HOSI10FIE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
INTO AREA

FLOATING DEBRIS (DRIFTWOOD)
COMMONLY WASHED UP ON SHORE

attORELItif WITH HIGH OIL REIENTION
RISK

EELGRASS BEDS

FUCUS)KELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEIHEAVILY USE
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TillEFLATS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEI"EAVILY USE
PRODUC7IVI7Y NOT KNOWN

ESTUARVILAGOON

FISH AND SHELLFISH
KING GRAO CONCENTRATION AREA

SALMON
STREAM
NEARUHONE MIGRATION AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE REARING AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE NEARSHORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR CONCENTRATION AREA

IIERRIN43
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA
WINTERING AREA
NUARSHORE FEEOING/REARING AREA

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

413YEHILE FIB"
NEARbilORIE REARING AREA

SHEEFISH AND/OR WHITEFISH STREA

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

BIRDS
BEAUIRD
COLONY
CONCENTRATION ON WATER
AT BASE OF COLONY
PELAGIC FEEDING AREA

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

TABLE 24 (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST. SENSITIVE
TO OIL POLLUTION.

WATERFOWL A D SHOREBIRD JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY' AUG SEPT OCT Nov DEC
SPRING CO NNENTRATION AREA i

SEADUCK WINTERING AREA Munn ...... mom

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLTING AREA
STAGING AREA
:
NOW GE:SE STAGING AREA
WAN NE TING/USE AREA

SANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

MAMMALS
RINGED SEAL
IMPORTANT HABITAT,
HIGH DENSITY AREA

RECURRENT WALRUS HAULOUT

SPOTTED BEAL
"AULOUT AND FEEDING AREA

SEA LION HAULOUT

HARVEST ACTIVITIES
SUBSISTENCE HARVEST AREA
BELUKHA WHALE
BOWHEAD WHALE
EGO
WATERFOWL
BEABIRD
BEAL
WALRUS
FISHING r
KING CRAB
CLAM
FRESHWATER MUSSEL
"ERRING
WINTER HERRING
SUBSISTENCE AND SPORT FISHING AREA s
COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
FISHING AREA

COMMERCIAL HARVEST AREA
KING CRAB
HEARING

P0
-0b
Ln

I
I
I G
R
I A
v
I E
L
I D m
R I I
.1 E N
D
I G
I I G
N
I G &
I & G
F R
I I A
L v
I L E
I I L
N I
I s
L
I A
N
I D
I
I

247

DREDGING AND FILLING. GRAVEL MINING,
AND GRAVEL ISLANDS

Sources and Biological Effects

Dredging, the excavation of bottom materials, usually takes place during

the development and production phases of petroleum development and is
used to: 1) create and maintain navi.gational channels, turning basins
and harbors for ships,. 2) excavate pipeline ditches for the transportation

of oil and gas between onshore and offshore facilities, and 3) obtain a

source of material for fill or construction of onshore and offshore

facilities (Clark, 1977; ASPO, 1978). Gravel mining may also occur

during the exploration phase of oil and gas development if onshore

facilities or gravel islands are required to support exploratory drilling.

Onshore, construction in permafrost terrain necessitates significant

quantities of gravel for foundation pads, roads, air strips, work pads

and pipeline bedding. Offshore, gravel is required for the construction

of artificial islands which are used as drilling platforms or tanker

loading facilities. Filling includes the disposal of dredged material,

the building of gravel pads for foundations and roads, building of

gravel islands, and creation of new land in coastal areas.

All these activities, dredging and filling, gravel mining, and the

construction of gravel islands, alter coastal habitats by changing

aquatic habitats into terrestrial habitats, altering drainage patterns

and stream channels, redistributing bottom sediments, and altering

248

circulation patterns in bays and estuaries (Allen and Hardy, 1980;

Moulton, 1980; Quigley, 1977). Effects on species occur as a direct

result of the activity (burial by dredge disposal, entrainment in equipment,

etc) or indirectly when habitats or water quality are altered.

Dredging

Two general types of dredges are commonly used in the United States;

hydraulic dredges and mechanical dredges. About 99% of the dredging

volume is accomplished by hydraulic dredges (Pequegnat et al., 1978).

Hydraulic dredges (pipeline dredges, hopper dredges, and sidecaster

dredges) mix sediments with water to form a slurry whtch is pumped to.a.

.-dis.charge point. Mechanical dredges such as the bucket or-dipper

dredge are seldom used in projects involving large volumes of material

but are valuable for working in small-areas such as near docks or boat

slips and for the cleanup of spills and contaminants...Ladder.dredges (a

mechanical dredge) are used only in the United States for mining operations

although they are common components of European dredging fleets.

Mechanical dredges are usually mounted on barges and move material

mechanically with some type of bucket. The dredged material is usually

.transported by barges. Less water is incorporated into the material

than occurs with hydraulic dredging and so less turbidity occurs (Allen

and Hardy, 1980).

Dredging affects fish, wildlife, and aquatic plant resources in the

coastal environment by 1) the physical destruction of benthic habitat,

2) altering water quality through the suspension of sediment which may

249

have a high biological oxygen demand, 3).smothering benthic organisms

when suspended silt and overburden are deposited on adjacent areas, 4)

modifying water circulation patterns through the alteration of natural

bottom contours and features, 5) modifying salinity concentrations when

the flow or rate of input of freshwater to estuarine systems is-disrupted,

and 6) direct mortality of marine life as organisms are swept into

dredging equipment. The effects of dredging may be short or long-term,

depending upon the area dredged, the amount of material removed and the

extent to which bottom contours and natural features are altered. Such

alterations adversely affect plants and animals living in these habitats.

The most obvious result of dredging is the destruction of habitat.

Submerged bottoms, coastal wetlands and tidelands may be destroyed,

drained, or drastically altered by dredging (St. Amant, 1971). Benthic

and epibenthic (animals living on the surface of the.bo ttom substrate)

organisms, such as clams, are destroyed as they are swept into dredging

equipment. Mobile organisms are displaced or driven out of the area by

dredging activities (Clark, 1977). Fish spawning areas may be destroyed

directly through burial, or through disruption of the substrate (Morton,

1977).

Alteration of circulation patterns within bays or estuarie s may displace

planktonic organisms such as larval crab and shrimp to a less favorable

environment. Changes in salinity and oxygen levels in bays and estuaries

will seriously affect populations of organisms living in those areas

(NERBC, 1976). Many estuarine plants and animals live near the limit of

250

their tolerance ranges, and any additional dredging related stresses,

such as increased sedimentation or decreased oxygen concentrations in

the water, may exclude these organisms from the estuary. Large amounts

of fresh water flowing into an estuarine system from tributary streams.

and wetlands create low.salinity regions which are important nursery
areas for juvenile fish and invertebrates. The-variations in salinity
which result from the seasonal discharge patterns of tributary streams

appear essential in the life cycle of organisms which spawn inside the

estuary (Odom, 1970). Dredging in stream mouths or in the nearshore

area often modifies the flow of freshwater into the system and as a

result changes both the extent and location of these low salinity areas.

If affected estuarine organisms cannot tolerate the change in salinity

level they will die or be forced to move to more suitable habitat.,

Another environmental impact caused.by dredging is the alteration of

water quality due to the release of suspended sediments. The resuspen sion

of bottom sediments causes the water to become turbid therefore limiting

the amount of light entering the water column. When light penetration

is reduced, the growth rates of phytoplankton are also reduced, limiting

the amount of food available.for other members of the food web including

zooplankton, fish, birds, and marine mammals (Clark, 1977). Reduced

plant growth also lowers oxygen levels in the water column.

The gills, which are the breathing apparatus of fish and other marine

organisms, and the feeding mechanism of filter feeding animals such as

clams, mussels, and sponges, can be clogged or abraded by suspended

251

bottom particles (Clark, 1977). The effects of heavy loads of suspended

sediments on filter feeding aquatic organisms include: abrasion of gill

filaments, impaired respiration due to clogged gills, impaired feeding

and excretory functions, and reduced growth and survival of larvae. If

dredging operations cause the suspension of large quantities of silt,

the productivity of local marine communities could be decreased. Any

effects on marine communities can directly affect commercial, subsistence

and sport fisheries which harvest these populations, or members of the

higher trophic levels that prey on these organisms (Morton, 1977)..

Larval stages of bivalve molluscs, such as Pacific oysters, quahog

clams, American oysters, and European oysters, are also sensitive to

natural sediments in the water column. Sedimentation interferes with

shell formation, growth and survival and these species will not settle

out or develop in areas with silty waters (Cardwell, et al., 1976).

O'Connor et al. (1976) found that in estuarine systems concentrations of

suspended sediments such as those produced during dredging and disposal

of dredged materials would be lethal to estuarine fish populations. The

most lethal effects of suspended solids were found in 1) lower trophic

level fish (anchovies and juvenile white perch), 2) juvenile fish, and

3) species with high oxygen requirements. In tests, juvenile dungeness

crab, (Cancer magister), were adversely affected by suspended sediments

.in concentrations less than those produced by some dredging operations.

Twenty-five (25) days exposure to concentrations of 1.8 and 4.3 g/l

resulted in serious growth abnormalities, and prolongation of molt. At

suspended sediment concentrations of 9.2 g/l and above, 50% to 85% of

252

the crabs which started to molt died in the process. Ninty-two percent

(92%) of all mortalities occurring during increased sediment levels were

associated with molting. Researchers concluded that a one to three week

exposure to concentrations of 2 g/l to 20 g/l of some harbor sediments

would be lethal to most juvenile Cancer magister (Peddicord and McFarland,

1976).

An other adverse impact, the smothering of benthic (bottom) life, is

caused by dredging. As the sediments suspended by dredging settle out

and collect on the bottom, non-mobile plants and animals may be smothered.

Sessile or attached'organisms such as oysters,.mussels, and barnacles,

which cannot burrow up through thesediments, are killed directly by

burial from discharge of dredging spoils (Morton, 1977). When sediments

are anoxic (without oxygen) smaller animals are more vulnerable to

burial because they are unable to reach the surface before they suffocate.

Small crustaceans respond to oxygen depletion by increased ventilation,

rapidly using up the available dissolved oxygen in the water (Saila et

al., 1972 in Morton, 1977). Mobile organisms, such as fish, shrimp, and

crabs usually abandon dredged areas (Clark, 1977).

Dredging for Pipeline Laying

The construction of offshore pipelines provides a good example of the

effects dredging activities have on fish and wildlife resources and

marine habitats. When oil and gas are discovered in commercial quantities,

a pipeline must be laid to deliver these products from-the offshore

production platform to onshore facilities. Present Department of Interior

administrative procedures require the burial of pipelines in water

253

depths of less than 200 feet (60 meters) (NERBC, 1976). Plows, jets,

and dredging are methods used to bury pipelines and, during the process

of laying pipelines, benthic habitat is disrupted. W here impenetrable

substrate is encountered, blasting may be required at the landfall (the

point at which the pipeline comes onshore).

High pressure water jets are used to bury pipelines by blowing away the
sediment underneath the' line. The pipeline then settles into the trench

where the sediment was displaced and is covered over by backfilli ng or

by natural s-ediment@transport processes. This dredging technique disturbs

the bottom habitat and-causes suspension of solid particles in the water

column resulting in turbidity and the displacement or burial of benthic

organisms. The impacts of turbidity on benthic organisms have been

reported to occur 200 or more fee t (60 meters) from the pipeline construction

site (Clark and Terrell, 1978). When pipeline corridor@ A_-@6 selected

along bedrock, underwater blasting may be used to provide a suitable

trench for the line. Overpressures from blasting may ki,ll fish and

other marine organisms in the vicinity of the line (NERBC, 1976). Long

term damage from habitat disruption is more likely to occur in nearshore

and onshore areas because of environmentally sensitive habitats such as

estuaries and wetlands. Estuaries have rich supplies of nutrients that

support dense populations of phytoplankton which are food for zooplankton,

larval fishes, and benthic organisms (Gross, 1972 in Morton, 1977).

Estuaries and wetlands are used by aquatic species as breeding grounds,

nursery areas or home territories (Morton, 1977). Consequently, the

position of a pipeline landfall is extremely important. Special construction

procedures must be followed to protect the integrity of dunes, barrier

islands, wetlands, estuaries, intertidal areas, and other sensitive

areas at the marine-land interface (NERBC, 1976).

254

The primary impact of onshore pipeline construction is the destruction

of vegetation and the associated changes in habitats and permafrost

stability (NPRA Task Force, 1978; USGS, 1979). Pipelines crossing

streams can impact fish habitat by disturbing the benthos and producing

temporary or permanent blockage to fish and nutrient movements (USDI,

1972 and USDI, 1976 in NPRA Task Force, 1978). Sediments suspended by

construction activities can cause adverse impacts on fish and their food

sources. Turbid waters block light transmission which reduces the

visual feeding range of fish and also decreases primary productivity,

thereby limiting food sources for fish (Lynch et al., 1977). The direct

effects of turbidity on adult fish may be less harmful than the@ effect

of turbid waters on primary productivity and food organisms upon which

fish depend for survival (Hesser et al., 1975). Saunders and Smith

(1965) studied the effects of increased siltation on populations of

trout in Ellerslie Brook on Prince Edward Island, Canada., Their study

showed that the standing stock of trout was reduced because hiding

places and spawning areas were silted over. Fine sediments affect

juvenile fish by causing inflammation of the gill membranes and eventual

death. Reports show that fry and fingerling trout reared in turbid

water are more prone to bacterial infection of their gills (Lynch et

al., 1977). Increased siltation in streams affects the quality of fish

habitat by covering it with a uniform substrate, eliminating protective

hiding places for fish, or by filling in pools where fish may overwinter.

Fish spawning areas may be greatly impacted by siltation which buries

the spawning beds and blocks intergravel flow by filling in the interstitial

spaces between the gravel.

255

Exposed onshore pipelines have the potential of inhibiting or blocking

movements of migratory animals such as moose and car ibou (NPRA Task

Force, 1978). Restriction of caribou movements by the Trans Alaska

Pipeline System (TAPS) is well documented (Cameron & Whitten, 1976 and

1977).

Gravel Mining

Gravel requirements during oil and gas development in arctic and subarctic

regions are high (see Table 25). Gravel to fulfill these requirements

will be mined from offshore areas, coastal deposits, uplands, or from

floodplains. Impacts in each of these areas will be different.

Impacts on fish and wildlife from gravel mining in marine areas will be

similar to impacts occurring during dredging,-:.., Increased.siltation in

the water column,-alteration of bottom sediments, changes in bottom

topography with resultant changes in circulation patterns, and changes

in benthic species abundance and diversity. Other impacts would result

from the noise and disturbance caused by operation of dredging equipment

and by barge traffic as the gravel is transported to areas where it is

needed. In the Canadian Beaufort Sea, belukha whale migrations and

distribution in nearshore feeding areas were affected by increases in

barge traffic during the construction of offshore gravel islands (Fraker,

1977).

Gravel mining in upland habitats will lead to impacts on birds and

mammals if mining is conducted during critical life history stages (such

as raptor nesting or grizzly bear denning) or if mining leads to habitat

(n
0)

TABLE 25
SUMMARY OF GRAVEL REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS PETROLEUM FACILITIES IN ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC REGIONS

Gravel Requirements
Facility Dimensions/Specifications cubic meters cubic yards

@Ipeline work.,@ad 1.5 meters (5 feet) thick; 20 meters 30,177/km 63,555/mile
(65 feet) wide
Pipeline acce*s road 1.5 meters (5 feet) thick; 8.5 meters 10,214/km 21,511/mile
(22 feet) wide

Pipeline haul road 1.5 meters (5 feet) thick; 9 meters 13,928/km 29.333/mile
(30 feet) wide

Airstrip (all weather) 1,523 x 40 meters 5,000 x 150 feet); 84,955 - 126,159 110,000 - 165,000
1.2 to 1.8 meters @4 to 6 feet) thick

Camp and drill pad 128 x 98 meters (420 x 320 feet), 26,760 - 38,230 35,000 - 50.000
(onshore exploratory well) 1.27 hectares (3.1 acres)

Crude Oil Terminal

Small-Medium (<250.000 b/d) 32 hectares (80 acres) 267,610 - 535,220 350,000 - 700,000
Large (500,000 b/d) 120 hectares (300 acres) 1,146,900 - 1,911,500 1,500,000 - 2,500.000
Very Large (>1,000,000 b/d) 202 hectares (500 acres) 1,835,040 - 3,440,700 2.400,000 - 4,500,000

LNG Plant

Small-Medium (400 WCFD) 25 hectares (60 acres) 214,088 - 420,530 280,000 - 550,000

Large (750-1,000 MMCFD) 100 hectares (250 acres) 917,520 - 1,529,200 1,200,000 - 2,000,000
Construction Support Base 16 30 hectares (40 75 acres) 152j920 - 382,300 .200,000 500,000

Exploration Island see Table 26

Production Island see Table 26

I/ Hanley et a]., 1980

257

alteration and lowers the usefulness of the area to species during a

critical life history stage (such as wintering areas used by muskoxen' or

moose). Additional impacts from upland gravel mining will result from

the transportation of gravel between the mining site and the construction

site. Man made cuts, cuts in river banks and through rock knobs and

ridges can c-ause slumping or gullying (.USGS, 1979). Proliferation of

roads can result in alteration of drainage patterns, ponding and channelization

of runoff flows, permafrost degradation, blockage of fish passage in

streams, increased siltation and runoff into streams, and blockage or

deflection of wildlife migrations and vegetative changesin surrounding

areas from dust clouds raised by passing vehicles (USGS, 1979).

Secondary impacts from upland gravel mining sites can also be expected.

Quarry sites would leave scars along ridge crests and hilltops which

would require erosion control to prevent soil flows, soil slumps and

.landslides. Water collecting in upland pit sites may generate thaw

collapse of pit banks. Drainage from water-filled pits can result in

gullying and siltation of downstream areas (USGS, 1979).

Removing gravel from coastal beaches can cause extensive erosional

damage and shoreline changes at or adjace nt to the mining area. Mining

gravel from barrier island chains (or spits) can disrupt the stability

of coastal bay-lagoon systems which are of prime importance to waterfowl

and anadromous populations of whitefish and Arctic char. Although there

may be some areas of littoral drift convergence and active deposition

where coastal gravel mining could take place without disruption to

wildlife habitat, most areas are sensitive (USGS, 1979).

258

Gravel removal in floodplains can result in significant impacts to fish

and wildlife populations and long term alterations of important fish and

wildlife habitats. Major effects of mining in floodplains include: The

possibility of fish entrapment in pits or behind berms following periods

of high water, diversion of stream channels, vegetation removal, and

changes in stream hydrology. Removal of vegetated areas or banks of

active stream channels, can destroy channel integrity and may allow

water to spread over a larger area. Decreased water depth and velocity

increases sedimentation rates and alters water temperature and disolved

oxygen levels (Woodward-Clyde, 1980). Fish spawning and rearing areas

may be lost or become less suitable and shallow water areas may block

fish migrations.

Rundquist (1980) found that ratios between surface flow and subsurface

flow were altered at several sites following gravel removal.- At-one

site, stream flow entered the-mined area and spread out through loose,

uncompacted gravel resulting in a substantial reduction in surface flow

during low water periods. Intergravel flow was still evident thirteen

years after the site was worked. At another site surface flow ceased

entirely for a period of two years (Rundquist, 1980). In portions of

arctic rivers where stream width and depth have been increased by the

gravel removal, declines in stream flow velocity could cause ice floes

to gather. At the downstream end of the gravel removal area these floes

could jam where the-channel constricts back to the natural width. Ice

jams could cause flooding in, and upstream from, the mined area and

possible bed scour beneath the ice jam. Obstructions, such as dikes,

left in the stream channel could also contribute to ice jamming (Rundquist,

1980). Reduced stream flow can also lead to aufeis formation. Aufeis

259

formation occurs in areas of decreased stream channel depths. In these

shallow areas, the ice cover freezes to the bottom resulting in glaciation

of flow over the top of the ice. As this flow continually freezes, an

area of thick ice builds up. Aufeis formation diverts normal under ice

and intergravular flow, and may dewat er downstream fish spawning and

ov erwintering areas. This area of thick ice (or aufeis) also remains

longer in the spring than surrounding snow and ice and can block early

spring fish migrations. Some aufeis remnants remain in place through

the summer (Moulton,,pers. comm.).

In-channel gravel mining can lead to increases in siltation with resulting

mortality to early fish life stages. The deposition of sediments in

fish spawni.ng.streams reduces the flow of water through the interstitial
spaces in the gravel suffocating eggs, embryos, and alevins. Fine

sediments affect juvenile fish by causing inflammation of the gill

membranes, bacterial and fungal infections, and eventual death(Lynch et

al., 1977). Siltation can also alter stream habitats making them unsuitable

to the species inhabiting the area. Following four days of heavy sedimentation

in an Alaskan stream, Arctic grayling numbers dropped from 78 to 2.

Subsequent sediment accumulation on stream margins approached 7.5 to 10

cm (3 to 4 in). It was concluded that the increased sedimentation and

habitat changes altered Arctic grayling feeding patterns and caused the

entire population to move to another area (Woodward-Clyde, 1976).

Floodplain gravel mining can also result in fish entrapment. Following

periods of high water, fish can be trapped by declining water levels in

pits adjacent to the main channel or behind berms surrounding the mining

260

site (Moulton, pers. comm.). During construction of the trans-Alaska

pipeline, fish entrapment was documented at gravel mining sites on Hess

Creek and Tolovana River following fall high water periods. Measurements

of dissolved oxygen showed that oxygen levels were inadequate to allow

overwintering by th e trapped fish (Burger and Swenson, 1977).

Vegetation changes occuring during gravel mining can affect distributions

of birds and mammals. Joyce (1980) found that declines in moose and

ptarmigan populations occurred in areas where large amounts of vegetative

cover were removed during gravel mining, or where changes in hydraulic

conditions subjected an area to frequent or permanent ponding and floodi.ng

or aufeis development. Joyce (1980) also reported that populations of

passerine birds and small mammals were reduced at sites where significant

quantities of riparian vegetation were removed.

Generally, when habitats.are altered, some species are negatively

impacted while others benefit. Moulton (1980) found that the effect of

gravel removal on fish populations in Arctic Alaskan streams included:

(1) reduction in numbers of all fish in the disturbed area, (2) replacement

of one species by another, (3') replacement of one age group by another,

or (4) in some cases because of habitat enhancement, an increase in the

number of fish, or species, or both. Joyce (1980) concluded that waterbird

populations increased where mining resulted in permanently ponded areas.

Effects on birds, caribou, wolves, fox and other animals with large home

ranges are de pendent upon whether decreases or increases in cover or

food supply occur (Joyce, 1980).

261

Fi I I ing

Filling can cause severe impacts along the coastline, especially in

wetlands. Filling changes aquatic habitats into terrestrial habitats

thereby destroying waterfowl breeding grounds, fish spawning areas,

wetlands, and productive intertidal areas such as clam beds. If other

suitable habitats for reproduction are not available nearby, the species

will have to relocate. However, many species such as salmon only spawn

in specific areas and if these areas are destroyed by filling, that

segment of the population [email protected] lost. Wetlands provide large amounts

of nutrients to coastal organisms (Clark, 1977). When wetlands are

filled, fewer nutrients are added to coastal waters and primary production

decreases. This may ultimately reduce the numbers of fish, birds, and

mammals within the coastal area. Wetlands prevent freshwater from
moving into ocean waters, and salt water from moving inland. Because

wetlands are saturated, fresh water is retained underground in natural

reservoirs. When a wetland is filled it can no longer act as a barrier

and fresh water may be diverted into the ocean. This effectively

lowers the water table, and allows salt water intrusion into the water

table (NERBC, 1976).

Dredge Disposa

The primary impacts of dredge disposal are increased siltation and

burial of benthic organisms. Turbid waters block light penetration

reducing the visual.feeding range of fish and decreasing primary productivity.

Fine sediments affect juvenile fish by causing inflammation of gill

262

membranes and eventual death (Lynch et al., 1977). Organisms buried by

the disposal of dredged material, are killed if they are unable to reach

the sediment surface and the overlying water upon which they depend for

respiration and food (Morton, 1977; Allen and Hardy, 1980).

Impacts of burial vary with species, depth of burial and type of sediments

deposited. Sessile or attached organisms such as oysters, mussels, and

barnacles which cannot burrow up through the sediments are killed by

burial. When sediments are anoxic, smaller animals are even more vulnerable

to burial because they are unable to reach the surface before they

suffocate (Morton, 1977). Small crustaceans respond to oxygen depletion

by increased ventilation. This rapidly uses up the remaining available

dissolved oxygen (Saila et al., 1972, in Morton 1977). The ability of

,mussels to emerge from burial appears related to species and size.

Emergence of fat mucket,(Lampsillis radiata luteola) and pocket book

(L. ventricosa.) mussels was prevented by 18 cm (7 in) of sand or silt

but emergence of pig-toe mussels (Fusconaia flava) was prevented by only

10 cm (4 in) of silt. Mussels emerged from the sediment within a few

hours or did not emerge at all (Marking and Bills, in press). Vertical

migration. investigations with clams, crabs, and benthic worms showed

recovery after burial by as much as a meter of like material (i.e. sand

on san d, mud on mud), or smothering by as little as a few centimeters

covering of unlike material (i.e. sand on mud or mud on sand). Field

studies in Virginia and California found benthic recolonization of

dredged areas and disposal mounds to be rapid fo r fine-grained sediment,

and to require up to three years for coarse-grained sediments. Recovery

in a mudflow (fluid mud) area from pipeline disposal was somewhat more

263

rapid (Saucier et al., 1978). Fluid mud, generated by hydraulic pipe line

dredges can flow along the bottom, driven by tidal currents and gravity.

Benthic organisms are destroyed when the fluid mud separates them from

the overlying water upon which they depend for respiration and food

(Allen and Hardy, 1980).

Gravel Pad and Road Construction

Sand and gravel pads are used for year-round roads, camps, air strips,

drill sites, storage areas, pump stations, communication sites, and

other work sites. Pads provide a firm working surface and protect

underlying perma frost from degradation. Pads affect vegetation, alter

drainage patterns and can block or alter movements of fish and wildlife

(USGS, 1979).

The primary impact of the construction of pads is the total loss of the
area covered (vegetation, wetlands, stream bottom, etc.) and that portion

of fish and wildlife habitat it contributes. Pads can.affect vegetation

directly (burial), or indirectly by the dust clouds raised by passing

vehicles (USGS, 1979). Dusting of vegetation leads to accelerated

spring snow melt and changes in vegetative patterns (Gilliam, 1978).

Gravel pads and road beds can also alter drainage patterns. Ponding can

occur on upstream sides of a pad and gullies commonly form on slopes

where culverts in pads channelize flow. On permafrost soils, impoundment

of water or ponding degrades the underlying permafrost, and channelization

of flow through culverts can start thermal erosion problems (USGS,

264

1979). Changes in vegetation and water levels can have direct and

significant effects on nesting and feeding waterfowl and shorebirds.

Fish streams can be impacted by the construction of gravel pads and

roadbeds. Runoff from unvegetated pads and roadbeds can increase siltation,

and where roads cross streams, fish migrations can be blocked or impeded

by improper culverting (USGS, 1979). During construction of the trans-

Alaska pipeline with its associated work pads and haul road, blockage of

fish migrations occurred where currents in culverts were too strong to

allow fish passage, where culverts remained frozen after spring breakup,

and where low water crossings did not allow adequate depth for fish

passage during low flow periods (Morehouse et al., 1978). If fish

cannot reach spawning grounds, or are delayed too long, spawning success

is lowered. Inadequately sized, poorly placed, or improperly designed
culverts can deny fish access to all upstream areas, and significantly

reduce fish populations in the stream system.

Gravel Islands

The oil and gas industry requires stable platfor ms from which to conduct

drilling operations. While conventional jackup or semisubmersible

drilling rigs are seasonally feasible in Norton Sound and can be used

during exploration, gravel and other artifical islands may be the most

economically feasible alternative for year round development drilling

and production in shallow waters to 18 meters (60 feet) deep (Hanley et

al. 1980; Arctic Offshore, April, 1979). Artificial islands are used

during exploratory drilling in the Beaufort Sea. To date, seventeen

265

artificial islands have been constructed in the Canadian Beaufort Sea

and along the Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast (Hanley et al., 1980).

Artificial island designs vary. Side slopes, designed to protect the

island from waves in the summer and ice in the winter, can be protected

by concrete blocks, quarry stone, sand bags, gabions (wire mesh enclosures)

filled with sand bags or can be designed with sacrificial beaches. A

caisson retained island has been designed for drilling in the Canadian

Beaufort Sea. A caisson ring is placed on the sea bed or an underwater

berm and fill is only required for the area inside the ring (Hanley et

al., 1980).

Depth of water and design of the island determine how much area is taken

up by the island and how much fill is required to construct it. Issungnak,

an artificial island built off the Mackenzie River Delta in 19.2 meters

(63 feet) of water, had a working surface 91 meters (300 feet.) in diameter,

but enlarged into a circular shape on the sea bottom more than 732

meters (2,400 feet) across (Arctic Offshore, December, 1980). Caisson

islands require significantly less fill than conventional gravel islands

(see Table 26

The most obvious impact of gravel islands is the alteration of a portion

of nearshore marine habitat into terrestrial habitat. Benthic organisms,

residing at the site would be buried and important habitats such as

spawning and rearing areas will be lost if islands are constructed in

these areas. Construction of two artificial islands in waters only 3 to

3.5-meters (10 to 11 feet) deep in Stefansson Sound, Alaska, (Sag Delta

266
TABLE-26
ARTIFICIAL ISLAND SPECIFICATIONS AXD FILL REQUIREMENT'Sl/

A. SPECIFICATIONS OF SOME EXPLORATION ISLANDS CONSTRUCTED IN SDUTHERN CANADIAN BEAUFORT SEA'

Water Pth Fill Volume Freeboard
Island Name Year meters feet cu. meters cu. yards meters feet Type

Adgo 1973 21 7 38,230 50,000 1 3 Sandbag Retained

Imaerk 1973 3 10 183,SD4 24D,000 4.6 15 Sacrificial Beach

Netserk 1974 4.6 is 305.840 400,DOO 4.6 15 Sandbag Retained

Ketserk X 1975 7- 23 290.548 380,000 4.6 is Sandbag Retained

Arnak 1976 8.5 28 -1,146,900 1,50D.000 5.2 17 Sacrificial Beach

Kannerk 1976 8.5 28 1,146,9DO 1.500,000 5.2 17 Sacrificial Beach

xugmallit 1976 .5.2 17 237,000 310.000 4.6 is Sandbag Retained

Isserk 1977 13 43 1.911,500 2,500,000 4.6 .15 Sacrificial Beach

S. ComPARISON Or FILL REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT EXPLORATION ISLAND DESIGNS,

Retained Fill Island Caisson Retained Island
Water Pth Sacrificial.Beach Island - (Sand Qs) 30 Ft. Set-Down Depth
-meters feet cu. meters CU. yards Cu. Meters cu. yards Cu. Meters cu. yards
6 20 611.680 800.000 191.150 250,000 114.690 150,000

9 30 1.299,822 1,700.000 382,300 500,000 114.690 150,000

12 40 1.911,500 2,500.000 688,140 900,000 229,380 300,000

18 60 3.823,000 5,000,000 1,911,500 2,500,000 688,140 900,000

C. EST114ATED REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTION ISLANDS-
Water pth FM Volu-me
meters feet Dimensions Cu. meters cu. yard$

7.6 25 213 meters 000 feet) diameter working surface. 665,202 870,000
7.6 meters (25 feet) freeboard; 4:1 side slopes

15 50 213 meters (700 feet) diameter working surface. 1,376,280 1,800.000
7.6 meters (25 feet) freeboard; 4:1 side slopes

Sources: deJonq and Bruce, 1978a and' b.
Dames 9 Moore estimates from various sources.

Hanley et al., 1980.

267

No. 7 and Sag Delta No. 8) was expected to result in the physical loss

of 1.8 hectares (4.5 acres) and 1.6 hectares (3.9 acres) respectively

(Evans et al., 1980).

Other impacts that could result from artificial islands include: 1)

changes in circulation patterns and wave refraction; 2) increased

turbidity during construction; and 3) siltation of downstream areas.

Changes in circulatio n can affect longshore sediment transport and

coastal erosion and deposition rates. Increased turbidity can reduce

light penetration thus decreasing photosynthesis and primary productivity;

clog feeding mechanisms of filter feeders such as molluscs and polychaete
worms; alter fish distributions; and, affect nearshore juvenile fish

rearing areas (Evans et al., 1980). Continual erosion of unprotected

gravel islands by marine currents and storms, and deposition of eroded

material in downstream areas can also impact benthic habitat. Deposition

of eroded material in downstream areas can be quite significant during

severe storms or over a period of a year's time. In addition, unprotected

gravel structures will require continual maintainence and large quantities

of gravel to annually replace eroded material.

ch
Table 27 Effects of dredging and filling, gravel mining and gravel islands on fish, wildlife, aquatic plants'.and their habitats 00

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Terrestrial Joyce, 1980 field observation gravel mining At sites where significant quantities of riparian vegetation
Species were removed during gravel mining: (1) passerine and small main-
mal populations were reduced, (2) populations of waterbirds in-
creased where mining resulted In permanently ponded areas,
(3) populations of ground squirrels increased where overburden
plies were adjacent to or within the site, (4) mose and
ptarmigan winter distribution and movements may have been
aItered and, (5) effects on bears, caribou, wolves, fox and
other animals with large home ranges, are dependent upon
whether decreases or increases In cover or food supply
occurred.
Moose Joyce, 1980 field observation gravel mining Following gravel removal, decreases in population levels of
(Alces alces) moose and ptarmigan occurred in areas where large amounts of
Pt7amfgan vegetative cover were removed oir where changes in hydraulic
(Lagopus sp.) conditions occurred that subjected the area to frequent or
permanent ponding and flooding or aufeis development. The
annual occurrence of these types oTfi_yWraulic stress Impeded
rapid vegatative recovery.
Sma I I Mamma I s Joyce, 1980 field observation gravel mining At gravel mining sites studied, presence of overburden sites in
Ground Squirrels a disturbed'area or in an area subjected to flooding, perniaiient
ponding or aufeis development was correlated with increased
populations-o-T -ground squirrels and other small mammals. Over-
burden piles composed of a mixture of silts, organics, woody
slash, root stocks, and debris, located at least I to 1.5 in
(3-5 ft) above normal water levels, and placed in the middle of
large scraped areas rather than along the edge were judged to
be of the most benefit.

Waterbirds Joyce, 1980 field observation gravel mining Pit mining and gravel extraction from sites separated from the
active floodplain increased waterbird habitat. The quality of
the new habitat was related to its size, shoreline diversity
and configuration. water depth diversity, shoreline cover,
FISH presence of islands, and food availability.

Salmon Dutta, 1976 unknown dredging In river As many as 26,000 salmon fry/day were entrained by a hydraulic
(Oncorhyrchus dredge. Fry migration was reported to be 20 million/day during
sp-T- period the dredge was operating.
Chum Salmon Sheridan, 1967 unknown gravel mining Four years after gravel mining on a salmon stream in south-
(Oncorhynchus eastern Alaska, the pits had filled with gravel and, 500 to
V@_t_aT_ 1000 chum salmon spawned in a channel running through the fill
material.

Salmon Darnell et al., unknown turbidity In clearwater streams, turbidity may act as barrier to migrat-
(Oncorhyrchus 1976 Ing salmon.
sp.)

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Arctic grayling Woodward- literature review sedimentation Following four days of heavy sedimentation in an Alaskan
(Thymallus Clyde, 1976 stream, Arctic grayling numbers in the portion of the stream
Lr c -t-l-cu 7s sampled declined from 78 to 2. Sediment accumulation on
stream margins approached 7@5 to 10 an (3 to 4 in). It was
concluded that the increased sedimentation and habitat changes
altered Arctic grayling feeding patterns and caused the entire
population to move to another area.

Steelhead Orcutt et M., unknown gravel mining Steelhead were observed spawning in Idaho streams in areas
(Salmo 1968 where bulldozers had removed gravel. Removal and loosening of
gairdneri) the gravel evidently improved intergravel flow of water thus
contributing to its value for spawning.
Trout Spaulding and unknown gravel mining Sand and gravel mining in trout streams resulted in compaction
Ogden, 1968 of the substrate and subsequent loss of spawning habitat.

Trout Saunders and field observation siltation The effects of increased siltation on populations of trout in
Smith, 1965 Ellerslie Brook on Prince Edward Island. Canada, were studied.
Results showed that the standing stock of trout was reduced
because hiding places and spawning areas were silted over.

Fish U.S. Army Corps unknown dredging and dredge A decline in fish catch and species variety was noted at both
of Engineers, disposal dredging and disposal sites on the Columbia River 40 days after
Portland Dist., dredging. However, at sites that were only slightly disturbed
1973 by dredging, there was an increase In catch.

Fish Webb and Casey, unknown gravel mining Physical changes in a fish stream in Idaho following gravel
1961 removal included a reduction in habitat due to straightening of
stream meanders, elimination of pools, silt accumulation in
pools, and a decrease in suitability of riffles for spawning.
During the actual dredging operation, fish populations were re-
duced by 99% in the dredged area. One year after the study.
population numbers had risen but remained lower in the dredged
area than in surrounding areas.

Fish Northern unknown gravel mining Fish entering borrow pits in the Sagavanirktok River through
Engineering Services breaches in the berms were trapped when channels containing
Company Ltd. and the fish were bermed by lowering water levels. Fish Inhibiting
Aquatic Environments settling basins were killed when these ponds froze solid during
Ltd., 1975 the winter.
Fish Lynch et al.. literature review siltation The deposition of sediments in fish spawning streams reduces
1977 the flow of water through the interstitial spaces in the
gravel, suffocating eggs. embryos, and alevins., Fine sediments
affect juvenile fish by causing inflammation of the gill mem-
branes and eventual death. Fry and fingerling trout reared In
turbid water are more prone to bacterial infection of their
gills due to gill abrasion by the sediments in the water.

@4
C)

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

INVERTEBRATES

Dungeness Crab Allen and Hardy, literature review hydraulic dredging Entrainment of slow moving nekton during hydraulic dredging
(Cancer 1980 was cited as the cause of large scale dungeness crab mortality
@Ster) in Gray's Harbor, Washington. It was not stated whether the
nekton were crab larvae or food items.

Oysters Morton, 1977 literature review disposal of Sessile or attached organisms such as oysters, mussels, and
Mussels dredged material barnacles which cannot burrow up through the sediments are
Barnacles killed by burial. When sediments are anoxic, smaller animals
are even more vulnerable to burial because they are unable to
reach the surface before they suffocate.

Freshwater U.S. Army unknown disposal of dredged Ten years may be required for substrate to be recolonized by
Mussels Corps of Engineers, material mussels following dredge disposal.
St. Paul Dist.,
1974

Freshwater Marking and unknown disposal of dredged Ability of mussels to emerge from burial appeared related to
Mussels Bills, (in material species and size. Emergence of fat mucket (Lampsilis radiata
press) luteola) and pocket book (L. ventricosa mus was prevented
B_y_TR_& (7 in) of sand or-siTIFEut emergence of pig-toe
mussels (Fusconaia flava) was prevented by only 10 cm (4 in)
of silt. Mussels emeFg-e-d from coverage within a few hours or
did not emerge at all.

Bivalve Cardwell et al., unknown siltation Larval stages of bivalve molluscs, such as Pacific oysters,
Molluscs 1976 quahog clams, American oysters. and European oysters, are
sensitive to natural sediments in the water column. Sedimen-
tation interferes with shell formation, growth and survival.
Larvae of these species will not settle out or develop In
areas with silty waters.

Polychaete worms McCauley et al., field observation maintenance dredging Four species of polychaete worms were observed for eight weeks
(Cap te a 1976 after maintenance dredging. Capitella capitata seemed to
capitella) thrive best in recently deposIted sediments but did not do well
Polydora ligni where sediments were overturned several times weekly Polydora
Streblospio li ni thrived where sediments were overturned freque;tl-y-a-n-d-
enedicti r
b We e sawdust and wood debris abounded. Streblospio benedicti
('Pseudopolydora and Pseudopolydorik kempi thrived under conditions where either
kempi) frequent overturning or recent sedimentation occurred and may
be dependent upon suspended organic matter in the epibenthic
water. Both species can apparently leave their sediment tubes
when disturbed, swim rapidly, and rebuild tubes quickly.

Small Crustaceans Saila et al., unknown disposal of Small crustaceans respond to oxygen depletion (which can be
1972, in dredged material caused by dis sal of dredged material with high biological
Morton, 1977 oxygen demandrby increased ventilation. This rapidly uses up
the remaining available dissolved oxygen.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Benthic Allen and Hardy, literature review dredging Daring initial channel construction, and at each maintenance
Organisms 1980 dredging, 75% or more of the henthic organisms are removed
from the site. Although recolonization of dredgedbenthic
habitat may reach original biomass within two weeks to four
months, original species diversity is seldom achieved.
Recolonization is generally by opportunistic species which may
be less valuable in the food chain.

Benthic Taylor and unknown dredging Recolonization of newly dredged channels in Florida was negli-
Organisms Saloman, 1967 vible after ten n
s iears a d none of the 49 species of fish caught
n the channel as compared to 80 species caught in undredged
areas) were demersal. A decrease in numbers of invertebrates
in the channels was attributed to the soft silt-clay dredged
sediments replacing the sand-shell undredged sediments.
Decreased oxygen supply in and above the dredged channel sub-
strate was also considered a prime factor.

Benthic Bingham, 1978 literature review disposal of dredged Results of.a study at a (deep wAter) disposal site for con-
Organisms material taminated dredged material in Puget Sound showed: (1) The
greatest detrimental impact on benthos resulted from burial
in excess of 0.5 m (1.6 ft); (2) benthic repopulation was by
horizontal migration; (3) population density had not recovered
in the center of the disposal area nine months after disposal;
(4) because of Invasion of opportunistic species, species
diversity was greater in the center of the disposal area nine
months after disposal; (5) at nine months both species density
and diversity were greater at the margins of the disposal area
than reference areas; and (6) effects of the disposal operation
were confined to the immediate disposal site areas.

Benthic Saucier et al., summary of field disposal of dredged At an onshelf disposal site off the Columbia River, no water
Organisms 1978 studies material column effects were noted from discharge of 600,000 cubic
yards of dredged material. Physical mounding of the material
was evident at the site. Recolonization of the coarse-grained
material by organisms native to the area was slow (I to 3 years
to biological stability).
Benthic Saucier et al., unknown disposal of dredged Vertical migration investigations of selected organisms (clams,
Organisms 1978 material crabs. and benthic worms) showed them to recover after burial
by as much as a meter of like material (i.e., sand on sand,
mud on mud) or to have been smothered by as little as a few
centimeters covering of unlike material (i.e., sand on mud or
mud on sand). Field studies in Virginia and California show-
ed benthic recolonization of dredged areas and disposal mounds
to be rapid for fine-grained sediment and to require up to
three years for coarse-grained sediments. Recovery in a
mudflow (fluid mud) area from pipeline disposal was somewhat
more rapid.

PQ
4
M)

Species/Habit@t Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Benthic Allen and Hardy, literature review pipeline dredges, Fluid mud was reported as canmonly generated by pipeline
Organ I sms 1980 disposal of dredges. Fluid md can be driven by tidal currents and gravity
dredged material and flow along the bottom. Benthic organisms are destroyed
when the fluid mud separates them from the overlying water upon
which they depend for oxygen and food.
Benthic Clark and Terrell, literature review turbidity during Benthic organisms 60 or more meters'(200 ft) from pipeline con-
Organisms 1978 disposal of dredged struction sites have been impacted by turbidity when high pres-
material sure jets are used.
Benthic Webb and Casey, field observation placer mining Placer mining in an Idaho trout stream reduced benthic or-
Organisms 1961 (dredging) ganisms 99% in the immediate area. Organisms were affected up
to 0.5 km (0.3 mi) downstream. Benthic populations recovered
within one year. Fish populations were eliminated at the
dredge site and reduced 0.5 km (0.3 mi) downstream. Some
recovery occurred at the downstream site. Changes in species
composition were noted.

Benthic Oregon State unknown old dredge mining Gold-dredge siltation in the Powder River In Oregon, affected
Organisms Game Commission, Vemoval and wash- fish food organisms as far as 64 km (40 mi) downstream.
1955 ing of gravel)

PLANTS

Spartina Gambrel] et al.. literature review disposal of dredged Spartina growing on mercury contaminated dredge material may
aT -te-r-nTf I o r a 1978 material transfer sediment bo@nd mercury to the water colum5. Total
uptake by Spartina in a Georgia marsh was 0.7 mg/M lyr. Much
of this was released to surrounding waters through the leaves.
Vegetation USGS, 1979 literature review gravel pads Gravel pads can affect vegetation directly (onsite) by burial
or indirectly by the dust clouds raised by passing vehicles.

Phytoplankton Clark, 1977 literature review turbidi ty The resuspension of bottom sediments causes the water to become
turbid. limiting the amount of light entering the water column.
When light penetration is reduced, the growth rates of
phytoplankton are also reduced, limiting the amount of food
available for other members of the food web including zooplank-
ton, fish, birds, and marine mammals.
HABITAIS

Wetlands Quigley, 1977 field observation filling A sand and gravel berm approximately 10 m wide and 50 cm high
and aerial photo built through 0.5 km of a Wisconsin wetland to support a utili-
interpretation ty transmission line, resulted in vegetative changes in the
wetland. The berm also affected water flow patterns in the
wetland. The resulting differences in water level on either
side of the berm were accentuated in dry years, with dif-
ferences at times becoming greater than 1.5 m.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Shallow waters Allen and literature review disposal of dredged Use of dredged material to create islands or to fill wetlands
and wetlands Hardy. 1980 material, fill, as sites for industry or recreation causes a) the permanent
island construction loss of wetlands or water bottoms; b) changes in water cir-
culation patterns and flushing rates, and c) secondary impacts
from industrialization of the site such as increased surface
runoff, and point and nonpoint source pollution.

Freshwater Wechsler and unknown disposal of dredged Turbidity is more persistent in soft freshwater than in hard
Cogley. 1977 material water (200 mg/l or greater dissolved solids) or saltwater
where induced floculation and consequently more rapid settling
occurs.

Rivers Allen and literature review dredging Altering river channels through new channel construction or
Hardy, 198D deepening projects can cause changes in hydrology and stream
gradients impacting the river, marshes, backwaters, and the
entire floodplain. Channelization of small streams eliminates
wetlands and backwaters, destroys fish cover. causes water
temperature to rise and increases the sediment load and
turbidity.

Rivers Moulton, 1980 field observation gravel mining Habitat alterations occurring following gravel removal in
streams included: 1) a shift from a moderately compacted
gravel substrate to a very loose, unconsolidated sand-gravel
substrate, usually with considerable intergravel flow, 2) a
shift from a smooth, paved substrate which produced near
laminar flow to a more porous, irregular substrate providing
turbulent flow, 3) loss of bank cover, 4) loss of deep pools,
instream cover. and slack water areas behind obstructions. 5)
increased braiding, 6) increased backwater channels with in-
creased siltation in these areas. 7) changes in dissolved
oxygen and water temperature and, 8) increased aufeis forma-
tion. In some areas increased habitat diversify- -occured.
Rivers Rundquist, 1980 field observation gravel mining In arctic rivers where stream width and depth have been increas-
ed by gravel removal (such as by in-channel mining), declines
in stream flow velocity could cause Ice floes to gather. At
the downsteam end of the gravel removal area these floes could
jam where the channels constrict back to the natural width.
This ice Jam could cause flooding in and upstream from the
gravel removal areik and possible bed scour beneath the Ice Jam.
River channels which are widened causing shallower depths, such
as by removing bars adjacent to the channel, could cause ice
jamming by grounding the ice floes. Obstructions, such as
dikes, left in the stream channel could also contribute to ice
jamming.
Rivers Rundquist. 1980 field observation gravel mining Ratios between surface flow and subsurface flow were altered
Fish streams at several sites following gravel removal. At one site, stream
flow entered the gravel removal site and spread out through
loose, uncompacted gravel resulting in a substantial reduction
in surface flow during low water periods. Intergravel flow
was still evident 13 years after the site was worked. At

Species/liabitat Reference jy.Le of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

another site surface flow ceased entirely for a period of two
years. Greatest impact on surface flow was at sites where
gravel removal occurred on the downstream side of a sharp
meandering bend allowing surface flow to leave the channel and
spread out. Where sediments (either exposed by @rwavel removal
or deposits resulting from sediment load dumping ere loose
and uncempacted, substantial intergravel flow resulted. Where
insufficient flow is present, fish migrations would be blocked,
and spawning grounds lost.

River Forshage and field observation gravel mining Sites on the Brayos River in Texas were monitered before,
Carter, 1973 during and six months after gravel removal. Gravel removal
increased the depth of the river and the substrate changed from
gravel to sand. Significant changes in the substrate were
apparent for 1.6 km (I mi) below the site with turbidity de-
tectable for 12 km (7.5 mi) downstream. Benthic populations
were reduced 97% at the site, and 50% 2.7 km (1.7 mi) down-
stream. Benthic organisms were 'affected 6 km (3.8 mi) below
the dredging site. Following gravel removal, species composi-
tion of the fish population changed. There was a substantial
decrease in spotted bass with a pronounced increase in river
carp, sucker and white crappie.

Nearshore waters Allen and Hardy, literature review beach nourishment The greatest adverse impacts associated with beach nourishment
and beach 1980 appeared to be turbidity at the time of disposal and for
several months thereafter as the fine-grained material Is work-
ed from the sand and transported down current. Smothering of
benthic organisms appeared to be a minor short-term impact.

Littoral zone Allen and Hardy, literature review dredging and dredged At times, It is preferable to dispose of sand dredged from
1980 disposal nearshore and river channels in the littoral zone rather
than'release it in deep water where It becomes unavailable to
littoral transport processes. Deep water disposal leads to a
deficit sand budget in the littoral zone, which will affect
littoral zone organisms and cause beach erosion.

Estuary Allen and.Hardy, literature review disposal of dredged The severity of impact on the water column from dredge
1980 material disposal in estuarine habitats is strongly related to the
degree of dilution and mixing that occurs.

Estuary Breuer, 1962 unknown disposal of dredged Placement of fill in one end of South Bay in Texas altered
material circulation patterns; Boca Chica Pass filled in; circulation
in the bay was reduced; depth decreased from 1.2 to 0.4 m
(3.9 to 1.3 ft), and; the oyster population was destroyed.
There was also a decrease in fish and invertebrate populations.

Estuary Allen and Hardy, literature review disposal of dredged Long term anoxia (oxygen depletion) can occur when highly
1980 material organic sediments are discharged. Impacts are most likely to
occur in poorly mixed waters receiving highly organic dredged
materials.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Estuary Barnard, 1978 literature review turbidity Silt curtains can be used around a disposal site to reduce
River water column turbidity as much as 80% to 90% in areas where
currents are less than 5 cm/sec. Use of curtains was not
recommended where current velocities exceed 50 cm/sec (I knot)
as curtains are most effective in calm water.

Bays Allen and Hardy. literature review dredging Changes in the bottom topography due to construction of the
1980 Mobile (Alabama) ship channel have contributed to the problem
of annual oxygen depletion in Mobile Bay. Water in depressions
in the bay bottom becomes depleted of oxygen. The oxygen
depleted water is occasionally moved shoreward by wind and wave
action resulting in stress to the biote.

Shallow bay Kaplan et al., unknown dredging Productivity was drastically reduced in a small shallow bay in
1974 Long Island, New York, following dredging of a navigational
channel. Changes in current velocity, modifications of sub-
strate typeand land use changes brought on by the new channel
were cited as.causes.

Coastal waters Allen and Hardy, literature review dredging Effects on coastal waters from dredging Include increased
1980 turbidity. increased oxygen demand and releases of contami-
nants and nutrients. Turbidity at the dredge site is usually
not as great as turbidity at the disposal site. Effects vary
widely with different equipment types and operator efficiency.

Coastal waters Allen and Hardy, literature review dredging The net result of new channel construction may be a general in-
1980 crease in turbidity as the channel acts as a trap for sediments
and contaminants which are then resuspended by boat traffic,
wave action, or currents. Maintenance dredging. although
temporarily Increasing turbidity may decrease long term turbi-
dity by deepening the channel, thereby decreasing resuspension
of sediments by boat traffic.@

Coastal waters Allen and Hardy. literature review dredging New channel construction may cause changes in circulation
1980 patterns, salinity, sediment input and deposition, sediment
supply to the coast, and nearshore wave refraction and defract-
ion patterns.

Marine waters Allen and Hardy, literature review disposal of Factors affecting dispersal of dredge material Include grain
1980 dredged material size and other characteristics of the material. currents,
tides, storms, bottom topography, vessel traffic, and depth.

Marine waters Barnard. 1978 laboratory studies disposal of dredged 1% to 3% of dredge material discharged remains suspended
material in the water column. The remaining slurry decends rapidly to
the bottom where it may remain as a mound or. on slopes greater
than 0.75 deg (1:76), may become fluid mud and move downslope
for as long as the slope is maintained.

N)
4

Spec ies/11abi tat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Laboratory studies determined that water column turbidity
could be controlled to a great extent by using different dis-
charge configurations. A simple open-ended pipeline, discbarg-
ing above and parallel to the surface, maximized the dispersion
of the slurry throughout the water column and produced a thin.
but widespread fluid mud layer. In water depths in excess of
2 m (6.5 ft) the dispersion of the material in the water
column was decreased by vertically discharging the slurry
through a 90-degree elbow at a depth of 0.5 to I m (1.5 to 3
ftl below the water surface. Most water column turbidity was
eI minated by using such a diffuser system at the end of the
pipeline. The mounding tendency of the fluid mud was maximized
by this configuration thereby minimizing area] coverage.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES

Drainage USGS, 1979 literature review gravel pads Gravel pads for roads and structures commonly alter drainage to
form ponds which affect ice-rich permafrost uphill from the
pad. Gullies commonly form on slopes where culverts in pads
channelize flow.

Permafrost and USGS, 1979 literature review gravel pads Permafrost can grow upward or aggrade under thick gravel pads
drainage patterns used for roads and airfields. On slopes up to 25 percent,
growth of permafrost into the gravel pads causes the water
flowing through the active layer "upstream" from the pad to be
impounded. The active layer is a surface layer of ground
that is alternately frozen each winter and completely thawed
each summer. Impoundment or ponding degrades the underlying
permafrost. Attempts to relieve the problem by pla@ing cul-
verts through the pad channelize the water downstream from the
culvert and start thermal erosion problems.

Permafrost USGS. 1979 literature review gravel pads Layers of styrofoam insulation have been used as a substitute
for a part of the gravel required to build a pad, to cut costs
and to conserve gravel. Styrofoam as an alternative to gravel
as an insulation material has not been adequately time tested.

277

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the'northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of dredging and filling,

gravel mining, and gravel islands (see Map E). These designations were

based on available data and.were made after evaluating the following

criteria:

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to dredging and filling, gravel mining, and gravel islands.

2. Species sensitivity to dredging and filling, gravel

mining, and gravel islands during the various stages o f their

life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

and the period during which each species would be most affected

by dredging and filling, gravel mining, and construction of

gravel i sl ands.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

278

7. The species' population numbers and relative importance of the

population.

8. The degree to which the impacts of dredging and filling,

gravel mining, and gravel islands could be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during the ranking

process included:

1. Habitats such as freshwater streams, eelgrass beds, wetlands,

tideflats, estuaries and lagoons are likely to be most affected

by the adverse impacts of dredging and filling, gravel mining,

and gravel islands. These habitats are generally highly

productive areas that are extremely susceptible to changes in

circulation or drainage patterns,- or to the impacts of sil'tation.

2. The species most susceptible to the impacts of dredging and

filling, gravel mining, and gravel islands would be those

dependent upon the habitats described in Map D during critical

life history stages. Such species and life history stages

include: salmon, whitefish, sheefish and other fish rearing,

spawning and feeding in freshwater streams; herring spawning

in nearshore waters; and waterfowl nesting and staging in

wetlands.

3. The habitat destruction caused by dredging and filling, gravel

mining, and gravel islands is more likely to impact a species

279

if that species is restricted to a relatively small area

during a critical life history stage. Species which utilize a

discrete habitat during a critical life history stage were

ranked as highly sensitive. Such species and habitats include:

herring spawning areas, seabird colonies, peregrine falcon

nesting/use areas, and walrus and spotted seal haulouts.

4. A moderate sensitivity designation was applied to thos e areas

where it was felt the adverse impacts of dredging and filling,

gravel mining, and gravel islands could be mitigated. In

these areas, critical life stages of species are not confined

to highly sensitive habitats such as wetlands, freshwater

streams, tidefla ts, etc. Areas ranked as moderately sensitive

include moose and muskox wintering areas, raptor nesting

areas, nearshore fish rearing areas and subsistence, commercial,

and sport fishing areas.

5. Fucus and kelp beds, although highly productive habitats which

would be affected by the adverse impacts of dredging and

filling, gravel mining, and gravel islands, were not ranked as

highly sensitive due to their abundance in eastern Norton

Sound. Herring spawning areas (Fucus is the primary spawning

substrate) were ranked as high sensitivity and those Fucus

beds within spawning areas are included in the high sensitivity

ranking.

280

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures,

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity applies to areas where impacts of

dredging and filling, gravel mining, and gravel islands on fish and

wildlife would be less adverse than in moderate or high sensitivity

areas. Such areas would include. 1) areas where there were low numbers

of sensitive species 2) areas where sensitive species-are wide spread.

Dredging and filling activities gravel mining and building of gravel

islands within low sensitivity areas should be conducted according to

existing environmental regulations such as U.S. Army Corp of Engineers

'permits 404 and 10; Department of Environmental Conservation's 401

certificati.on; Department of Natural Resources, Division of Land and

Water Management Tideland Permit; local zoning ordinances; and Coastal

Zone Management guidelines.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of moderate sensitivity applies to areas where adverse

impacts from dredging and filling, gravel mining and gravel islands

could,be prevented, minimized or ameliorated. Habitats included in this

category are:

1. Fucus and kelp beds

2. King crab concentration areas

281

3. Salmon nearshore migration areas and nearshore fry and juvenile
rearing and feeding areas

4. Arctic char and sand lance concentration areas

5. Herring wintering areas, nearshore feeding and rearing areas
and possible spawning areas
6. Capelin spawning and possible spawning' areas

7. Juvenile fish nearshore rearing areas

8. Seabird concentration areas on water at base of colonies

9. Waterfowl molting areas

10. Raptor nesting areas

11 -Possible polar bear denning sites

12. Moose winter concentration areas, and muskox winter and
calving concentration areas

13. Grizzly bear spring feeding areas and denning areas

14. Commercial, subsistence and sport fishing areas; subsistence
king crab harvest areas; commercial and subsistence herring
harvest areas; and subsistence clam harvest areas

in areas of moderate sensitivity, dredging and filling, gravel mining,

and the building and siting of gravel islands should be undertaken

according to existing environmental regulations the following guidelines:

Dredging and Gravel Mining - General

1. Dredging and gravel mining should be avoided in highly sensitive

fish and wildlife habitats (see Map E).

2. Before major dredging projects are planned, site specific studies

should be conducted in the area under consideration to determine

local oceanographic and hydrological conditions including: circulation

1[82

patterns, temperature, salinity., and dissolved oxygen. The biological

productivity of the area should also be evaluated and the location

of vital habitats identified. This information should be used to

plan and schedule dredging so that minimal environmental damage

occurs.

3. Detailed plans for dredging and gravel mining operations should be

submitted to resource management agencies well in advance of

proposed activities so that operational delays can be eliminated

and site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect

local fish and wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

4. Activities which are likely to require dredging,.such as the construction

of nearshore facilities and onshore pipeline routes, should be

sited where minimal dredging would be required.

5. Dredging and mining activities should be scheduled to avoid breeding

-periods and other critical life his@ory stages of sensitive species

(see Table 28

6. Dredging should be conducted in a manner which will prevent,the

release and spread of silty bottom sediments with.a high biological

oxygen demand i-nto the water column. "Silt curtains" or "diapers"

may be used to retain sediment laden waters near the dredge site.

However, silt curtains are only effective in still waters.

283

7. Hydraulic dredges should not be used in areas which support large

populations of larvae or Juveniles of commercially or environmentally

important marine species which can be entrained or injured in the

pumps and dredge lines.. I.n areas with large populations of larval

or juv enile marine organisms, a clam shell dredge produces fewer

impacts.

8. Silt levels from dredging operations should be at ambient levels by

the time they reach sensitive habitats.

9. Operating controls for dredges should be established which will

reduce adverse en vironmental impacts.

10. Because of the scarcity of gravel in Norton Sound, quarry rock and

alternate materials should be used for construction whenever possible.

11. Where possible, gravel from abandoned structures such as tailing

piles, drill pads or airstrips, should be reused to avoid impacts

to watercourses and aquatic habitat.

12. Upland and offshore gravel sites are preferred over floodplains and

nearshore areas. Impacts resulting from transportation of gravel

and other secondary impacts associated with mining operations need

to be considered when selecting a site. The site selected should

be that which would result in the least total impact.

284

13. Gravel mining sites should not be located within the annual floodplains

of fish streams or rivers, unless feasible alternatives are non-

existent.. Gravel mining in floo dplains can result in channel

changes, channel blockages, siltation, and fish entrapment.

14. Gravel mining should not occur on.spits protecting lagoons., in the

lagoons themselves, or in nearshore areas.

15. Gravel mining in wetlands should be avoided.
' . 1
16. Development of a minimal. number of upland, intensive-use gravel

,,sites is preferable to a proliferation of small sites; minimization

-of sites reduces access road requirements and limits the area of

habitat disturbance.

17. A mining site should meet the long term requirements for all

activities in a given area; sites slated for one-time use by a

single project should be avoided.

18. De eply mined gravel pits should be converted to water reservoirs

where the need exists. This will provide a dependable winter

supply of water, and will preclude the need for water removals from

biologically sensitive habitats such as fish overwintering areas.

Dredging for Channels

1. Appropriate choices should be made for the location and design

of channels. Plans should include: 1) proper alignment of the

285

channel to minimize erosion and maintenance dredging; 2)

minimum dimensions for length, width, and depth of channel to

limit destruction of productive marine habitat and maintain

natural circulation patterns; 3) appropriate choice of dredge

type which will minimize siltation (usually suction dredge);

4) establishment of beneficial operating controls for dredging

operat,ions which will minimize short term impacts on fish and

wildlife; 5) proper disposal of spoil in upland sites; and 6)

time of year in which dredging operations would encounter the

least amount of biological activity (see Table 28

2. Existing natural channels should be utilized to the greatest

extent possible. New channels should be located so as to

prevent the loss of vital areas and to avoid erosion of shorelines.

3. Channel dredging can be avoided in most vital habitats by

limiting dredging to natural channels. Depositional areas

will require continual maintenance dredging. All vital habitats

should be identified during the planning phase of each dredging

operation and a buffer zone of several hundred feet or more

should be maintained between those areas and dredging operations.

Buffer zone boundaries should be determined on a case-by-case

basis.

4. Minimize the length, depth, and width of the channel to maintain

the natural pattern of water circulation, to avoid major

salinity alterations, and to protect vital habitats. Excessively

286

wide channels may lead to an unnecessary loss of vital habitat

areas such as clam beds or eelgrass beds. In general, a

navigation channel needs to be no wider than about three or

four times the width of the largest vessel for which it is

designed. Similarly, channels do not need to be deeper than

about 4 feet beneath the deepest draft vessel at low water,

provided that traffic moves at moderate speeds to reduce

stirring up the bottom where fine sediment has accumulated.

In many cases it is not unusual to add to this 4 foot depth an

additional foot or so to accommodate siltation or slumping.

This will further reduce the frequency of maintenance dredging.

To avoid excessive slumping of the adjacent bottom into the.

channel and repeated maintenance dredging, channel sides

.@should be dredged out to a final stable slope, or "angle of

repose" during the initial operation. The exact cut will

depend on local geohydrological conditions.

,6. Projects which would cause accelerated shore erosion should be

avoided, or operated in suc.h a manner as to eliminate erosion-

inducing effects. Dredging too close to the shore in shallow-

water areas may cause severe shoreline recession, both from

channel slumping and from direct erosion of banks, and should

be avoided.

7. Dredging near the toe or face of a bluff should be avoided as

it exposes the bluff to increased erosion.

287

8. New channels should not be created between freshwater aquatic

systems and coastal waters.

9. Avoid alteration of natural water channels through straightening,

deepening, or diking.

Dredging for Pipeline Laying

1. Pipeline routes should avoid highly productive, economically

valuable, or unique habitats.

2. If important habitats cannot be avoided when planning pipeline

routes, avoid dredging during such sensitive periods as fish

migration and spawning, and waterfowl nesting and staging.

For additional information on species and timing see Table

'28. Onshore pipeline laying should be.conducted during the

winter when the ground is frozen and impacts caused by construction

equipment are minimized.

3. Limit dredgi ng to the smal lest area necessary for pipeline

placement.

4. Avoid permanently blocking surface drainages during pipeline

installation. Elevated pipelines and roads should be adequately

culverted. Soil over buried pipelines should be contoured to.

original slopes, and banks at stream crossing should not be

altered. Care should be taken to prev.ent.slumping in permafrost

soils or altering drainage patterns.

288

5. Whenever poss ible, "double ditching", the removal of topsoil

and vegetation first and replacement of it last, should be

used. This promotes more rapid restoration of vegetation.

6. Limit equipment and activities to the pipeline right-of-way

7. Use hydraul-ic dredges instead of jet systems when bottom

sediments are silty and siltation is likely to affect important

habitats. Hydraulic dredges are capable of pumping dredged

spoils up to one mile from the site, thus protecting habitats

adjacent to the dredged area.

8. Use silt curtains (polyethylene sheets hanging from float

lines to the water's bottom) to trap silt and sediment. Silt

curtains, however, are effective only in still waters.

Dredging in Streams

1. Dredging should occur only during low water periods in order

to minimize siltation.

2. Dredging should not occur in known or suspected fish spawning

or nursery areas. Wherever possible dredging should occur

below spawning areas.

3. Dredging operations must follow procedures that will minimize

the resuspension of instream materials.

289

4. Dredging should occur during periods of lowest biological

activity.

Gravel Mining in Marine Areas

1. Gravel mining should be avoided in highly sensitive fish and

wildlife habitats (see Map E).

2. Gravel should not be mined from spits, beaches, deltas of

rivers that suppor t fish, lagoons, estuaries, or barrier

islands.

3. Gravel mining site selection should be based on a study which

considers not only gravel availability but also concentrations

of biological resources; commercial, recreational-and-subsistence

harvest activities; and effects of siltation on downstream

habitats.

4. Silt control measures should be practicedin areas of biological

productivity or where silt could be carried into productive.

habitats.

5. Organic overburden from offshore mining areas should be backfilled

into previously minedareas to speed recolonization of the

area by marine life.

290

Gravel Mining in Upland Areas

1. Detailed mining plans should be submitted to resource management

agencies well in advance of mining operation to expedite

permitting. Site specific mitigating measures should'be

developed if necessary to protect local wildlife resources

from unnecessary impacts.

2. Where mining occurs in areas which support critical.life

history stages (esp. grizzly bear denning, raptor nesting, and
moose and muskox wintering) operations should be timed to

avoid those life history stages (see Table 28

-3. Impacts of roads and other support activities and structures

should be considered during site selection.

4. Sites should be located so as to prevent mass wasting into

fish streams.

5. Vegetation removal should be limited to the area necessary for

one years operation.

6. Mined areas should be revegetated and restored to original

contours or used for water storage.

Gravel Mining in an Annual Floodplain

Annual floodplains are the least desirable location for gravel mining.

Mining in offshore marine areas or in uplands is preferable. In an area

291

where the only feasible gravel source is within an annual floodplain,

the following guidelines should be followed to minimize impacts.

1. Floodplains of streams which do not support fish populations

should be considered as gravel sources before those streams

that support anadromous or non-anadromous fish. Because of

increased risk of hydrological changes in the stream, floodplains

of anadromous fish streams should be considered last.

2. Where mining must occur in active floodplains, braided rivers

should be considere,d as primary gravel sources; other river

configurations, listed in order or likelihood of causing the

least physical change, are split, meandering, sinuous, and

straight.

3. When small quantities of gravel are required (approximately
50,000 m3 or less), select sites that will scrape only unvegetated

gravel deposits.

4. When large quantities are required (in excess of 50,000 m3),

select larger rivers containing sufficient gravel in unvegetated

areas, or select terrace locations on the inactive side of the

floodplain and mine by pit excavation

5. Consider length, location and other impacts of access roads in

site selection. Mined area s should be on the same side of a

stream as the access road to minimize stream crossings.

292

6. Work should be scheduled to avoid peak biological events suc h

as local fish migration and spawning, bird and mammal breeding,

nesting, and rearing-of-young. Critical habitats such as

spawning and overwintering areas should be avoided.

7. Riffle areas should be avoided except in the following situations:

a. When more rapid site recovery is desirable.

b. When the riffle is an unproductive aquatic habitat because

of cementation or infiltration by fine sediments.

C. Where deepening the thalweg may reduce or eliminate

aufeis development.

d. In a long riffle, excavation may be acceptable near the

middle of the riffle.

8. Vegetated areas should not be disturbed when sufficient

quantities of gravel can be obtained in unvegetated areas of

floodplains.

9. Material removed from unvegetated and exposed (de-watered)

bars of a watercourse should only be removed to the existing

ice or water level. Following mining, bars should be sloped

to enhance drainage.

293

10. Where removal must occur in-vegetated areas, preference

should be given to locations in dominant, homogeneous

vegetative communities.

11. If mining in vegetated areas, all overburden and vegetative

slash and debris should be saved for use during site re habilitation

to facilitate vegetative recovery. This material should be

piled or broadcast in a manner so that it will not be washed

downstream.

12. Material sites within the active floodplain should not disturb

the edge of active channels or form new high-water channels

through the site.

13. Site configurations should avoid use of long straight lines.---

Sites should be shaped to blend with physical features and

surroundings.

14. Gravel mining should occur in such a manner that the water

flow of the watercourse is not rechanneled, blocked-or diverted.

15. When scraping in active or inactive floodplains, maintain

buffers that will contain active channels to their original

locations and confi-g'-urations.

16. Banks of watercourses should not be altered. Undercut and

incised vegetated banks especially should not be altered.

294

17. Stream crossings should be selected at points where no alteration

of the banks is necessary.

.18 Equipment should not enter or cross an active (open flowing)

channel of the watercourse.

1�. Movement of equipment through willow (Salik) stands should be

avoided whenever possible.

20. Mining should occur in such a manner that berms, potholes,

and/or depressions that could cause fish entrapment are not

created.

21. Pit mining if required, should be located in areas where there

is a low probability of diverting active stream channels into

the mined area. Such ar eas include terraces, inactive floodplains,

or stable islands with adequate buffers.

22. Pit excavations should be separated from the active floodplain

by a buffer designed to maintain this separation for two or

more decades.

23. If pits are left in floodplains, an outlet should be constructed

to provide escape for fish trapped during high water. A pit

connected to a fish stream, if properly designed, can provide-

for fish rearing and overwintering. Where a pit is adequately

protected from flooding, and will not be used for fish habitat,

waterfowl and shorebird habitat can be created by providing a

diversity of water depths.

295

24. Pit outlet channels should be deep enough to allow fish pas sage

during low flow conditions and be as narrow as possible. All

outlet channels should be at the downstream end of the pit,

angled downstre am, and connected to a non- depositional area of

the main channel. Outlet channels should be constructed at

the end of site rehabilitation to minimize sil tation in the

river.

25. Where gravel washing operations are required in floodplains,

wash water should be recycled with no effluent discharge to

the active floodplain. If settling ponds are required, they

should be designed to provide adequate retention time for

site-specific conditions. Outflows should be constructed to

avoid fish entrapment.

26. Upon completion of material removal the mining site should be

graded smooth with all berms and potholes removed, and all

depressions filled to prevent entrapment of fish. Stored

material should not be stockpiled in the floodplain.

Fillin2 General

1. Filling (dredge disposal, gravel pad and road construction,

and gravel island building) should be avoided in highly sensitive

fish and wildlife habitats (see Map E).

296

2. Activities which are likely to require filling, such as the

construction of near shore facilities and onshore pipeline

routes, should be sited where minimal dredging and filling

would be required.

3. Detailed plans for filling operations should be,submitted to

resource management agencies well-in advance of proposed

activities so that permitting delays can be eliminated and

site specific mitigating measures may be developed to protect
local' fish and .wildlife resources from unnecessary impacts.

4. Filling activities should be scheduled to avoid breeding

periods and other critical life history phases of sensitive
species (see Table 28-).

5. Easily erodable material (i.e. silt) should not be used for

construction of offshore facilities in Norton Sound. The

grain size of these materials is too small to withstand ocean

currents and waves and are likely to result in increased water

turbidity and burial of downstream habitats.

6. Because of the scarcity of gravel in Norton Sound, quarry rock

and alternate materials should be used for construction whenever

possible.

7. Solid fill structures such as gravel islands and causeways

should not be located in areas where they will disrupt local

297

circulation patterns, adversely affect water quality, or

interfere with fi sh or marine mammal migrations..

8. Do not construct long continuous fill causeways or docks. Use

piling structures or provide sufficient breaches to allow

normal fish passage, and for maintenance of water quality.

9. Use fill material compatible with the area. In areas where

there is a high ambient silt level such as the Yukon River

Delta, silt may be acceptable for structures. In areas with

low turbidity - use only clean material and armor to prevent

erosion and siltation.

@reqge, Disposal

1. When the spoil removed in a dredging operation is compatible

with existing material (i.e. mud on mud, sand on sand), direct

disposal of the dredge spoil onto the bottom may be acceptable.

However, the spoil should not contain toxic pollutants,

should spread in a.thin layer (less than two in ches) which

will allow marine organisms to burrow through it, should not

be deposited in ridges that significantly impede water flow,

and shou ld not cover vital habitat areas, i.e., wetlands,

tideflats, estuarine waters, productive benthic habitats or

Fucus and eelgrass beds.

298

2. In some areas, littoral zone disposal of material dredged from

rivers or nearshore channels may be required if deep water

disposal would create a deficit budget in longshore sediment

transport. Such disposal,should be planned to avoid impacts

to sensitive species and habitats.

3. @Dredged material should not be deposited in wetlands, but
.rather in,a designated area where there will be a mi-nimum of

environmental alteration.

4. Dredged material should be disposed of at a sufficient distance

inland to prevent reintroduction of the materials into the

waterway.

.5. In water depths in excess of 2 meters (6.5 feet), water

column turbidity pan be reduced by vertically discharging the

dredged slurry through a diffuser (a 90-degree elbow) at a

depth of 0.5 to 1 meter below the water surface. Use of a

diffuser minimizes areal coverage over the disposal. area but

maximizes mounding of the fluid mud and dredged material. The

simple open-ended pipeline, discharging above and parallel to

the water surface, creates the greatest water column turbitity

but produces a relatively thin, widespread fluid mud layer.

Gravel Pad and Road Construction

1. Gravel pads and roads should not be contructed in vital fish

and wildlife habitats.

299

2. All linear gravel structures, such as roads and construction

pads, should be adequately culverted to prevent artificial

ponding or water starvation.

3. Facilities and.associated developments should be designed to

reduce number and size of pads needed and the amount of gravel

needed.

4. Avoid building pads, especially roads, near waterways to

lessen erosion potential.

5. Pads and roads should be of sufficient thickness to prevent

permafrost melting. Artificial insulation should be incorporated

in fill to reduce gravel requirements.

6. Berms and drainage ditches in non permafrost areas should be

installed to control the rate of runoff from unvegetated

surfaces.

7. Pads should be built in such a way that drainage patterns in

surrounding areas will not be altered.

8. Dust should be controlled on pads by watering, not oiling.

Dust accumulation on snow and vegetation leads to accelerated

spring snow melt and vegetation changes.

9. 'Roads across wetlands or wet tundra should be aligned per-

pendicular to the direction of sheet flow.

300

Gravel Islands

1. Vital fish and wildlife habitats should be avoided as sites

for gravel islands.

2. Construction of gravel islands should be scheduled to avoid

breeding periods, migrations, and other critical life history

stages.

3. Barge routes for transportation of material to construction

site should be planned to avoid marine mammal and bird concentrations.

Bubbles from the barges wake can persist for several hours,

causing a "behavioral" barrier to migratory movements and

barge traffic disrupts resting and feeding birds.

4. To reduce turbidity and siltation, use of coarse-grained

gravel is preferred over use of fine-grained construction

materials such as silt, sand, and in some cases gravel.

5. Shorelines of artificial islands should be protected from

erosion using the methods found in the Shoreline Alteration

section of this report. Erosion can cause siltation and

environmental damage to downdrift areas as well as necessitating

cont inual replenishment of eroded material.

6. Caisson retained islands require less gravel fill, can be

moved, and should be considered for use during exploration and

production drilling over solid fill gravel islands.

301

7. Gravel islands should not be sited in locations where significant

interference with local circulation and subsequent changes in

salinity, temperature, and sediment transport may occur.

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of high sensitivity was given to areas where the impacts

of dredging and filling, gravel mining, and gravel-Islands would be

extermely adverse to fish and-wildlife populations in the northern

Bering Sea-Norton Sound region. Adverse impacts would result in reduced

populations of fish and wildlife that are of commercial, recreational,

and subsistence importance. The following areas have been indentified

as having a high sensitivity to dredging and filling;

1. Eelgrass beds

Highly productive and heavily used wetlands and tideflats and
wetlands and tideflats where productivi-ty is not known

3. Estuaries and lagoons

4. Salmon streams

5. Herring spawning areas

6. Sheefish-and whitefish streams

7. Seabird colonies

8. Waterfowl and shorebird nesting and staging areas, including:
major and important waterfowl staging areas, emperor geese
molting and staging areas, snow geese staging areas, swan
nesting/use areas, sandhill crane use areas, shorebird fall
staging areas and important habitat.

9. Waterfowl and shorebird spring concentration areas

10. Peregrine falcon nesting/use areas

11. Marine mammal haulouts including recurrent and occasional
walrus haulouts, spotted seal haulouts and feeding areas, and
sea lion haulouts

302

12. Subsistence freshwater mussel harvest areas

In order to protect fish and wildlife values, dredging and filling

activities, gravel mining and building of gravel islands should not

occur in high sensitivity areas.

TABLE 28: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON BOUND SPECIES, HABITATS OR HARVEST
ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO DREDGING AND FILLING. GRAVEL MINING AND GRAVEL ISLANDS.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
HABITATS
EELGRASS BEDS

FUCUSIKELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEIHEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLATS
HIGHLY PRODUClIVEIHEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

ESTUARYILAGOON

FISH I SHELLFISH
SALMON
STREAM
JqE ARSHORE MIGRATION AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE REARING AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE NEARSHORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR CONCENTRATION AREA

HERRING
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA
WINTERING AREA
NEARSHORE FEEDINGIREARING AREA

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

JUVENILE FISH
NEARSHORE REARING AREA

SHEFFISH AND/OR WHITEFISH STREAM

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

KING CRAB CONCENTRATION AREA

BIRDS
SEABIRD
COLONY
CONCENTRATION ON WATER AT
BABE OF COLONY

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

WATERFOWL AND SIIOAEIHAD
SH:PRIN11 CONCENTRATION AREA
REBIRD
FALL STAGING,AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

c:)
w

TABLE 28:(CON T.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES, HABITATS OR HARVEST
ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO DREDGING AND FILLING. GRAVEL MINING AND GRAVEL ISLANDS.

EMPEROR GEESE JAN fee MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MOLTING AREA
STAGING AREA

SNOW GEESE STAGING AREA

$WAN NESTINGIUSE AREA

SANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

RAPTOR NESTING AREA

PEREORINE FALCON NESTING USE AREA

MAMMALS
WALRUS
RECURRENT HAULOUT
OCCASIONAL HAULOUT

SPOTTED SEAL
HAULOUT AND FEEDING AREA

SEA LION HAULOUT

POLAR SEA" POSSIBLE DENNING 617E

MOOSE WINTER CONCENTRATION AREA

GRIZZLY BEAR
SPRING FEEDING AREA
'U:ENNING
KOX WINTER AND CALVING
CONCENTRATION AREA

HARVEST ACTIVITIES
COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
HARVEST AREA
FISHING
HERRING

SUBSISTENCE HARVEST AREA
FISHING
HERRING-WINTER
KING CRAB
FRESHWATER MUSSEL
CLAM

SUBSISTENCE AND SPORT FISHING AREA

I
I
s
I H
0
1 R
E
I L
I
I N
I E
I A
L
T
I E
I R
A
T
I - I
1 0
N
I
I
I
I

I
I I
I
I I
I

305

SHORELINE ALTERATION

Sources and Biological Effects

The exploration, development, production and transportation of hydrocarbons

in the Norton Basin will require the construction of facilities along

the shoreline. Some of these structures provide access or transportation

between land and sea.while others are built to prevent the erosion of

the coastline or to provide new onshore construction sites (ASP0, 1978).

Pipelines are built-to connect offshore production platforms to onshore

facilities and their landfalls are located along the shoreline. Typical

shoreline structures include bulkheads, riprap, groins, jetties, breakwaters,

causeways, piers, docks, and bridges (Shanks, undated). Construction

of these structures may alter the shoreline and damage the habitat of

coastal fish and game resources. Poorly designed and improperly placed

structures can disrupt the transportation of shoreline sediments and

alter tidal circulation. The effects of individual projects on fish and

wildlife resources may not be significant, but shoreline alteration,

proceeding one project at a time, can ultimately alter or destroy the

entire natural shoreline of a coastal system (Shanks, 1978)

Changes in coastal habita ts occur when shoreline structures are improperly

designed and sited. Tidal action may be inhibited leading to altered

water circulation patterns and changes in water temperatures and salinity

(ASPO, 1978; Shanks undated). Structures built in vital habitat areas

such as wetlands may destroy important nesting bird habitat. Fish

migr*ation routes may be changed and spawning areas destroyed. Structures

306 built,perpendicularly to the coastline impede or disrupt nearshore

nutrient flow and sediment transport. The rapid changes in erosion and

deposition which occur cause the alteration and destruction of benthic

habitat which may result in a change in the number and variety of species

using that habitat.

The actual construction of shoreline structures also causes adverse

.environmental impacts. Dredging and filling both result in habitat

destruction and the suspension of bottom sediments- Turbidity, caused

by the suspension of sediments, reduces primary production and lowers
oxygen levels. As the sediment settles out, benthic orga'nisms may be

smothered (Cronin et al, 1978; Clark and Terrell, 1978). Suspended

sediments may also interfere with the respiratory and feeding mechanisms

of fish, zoopl.ankton, and benthic organisms. Construction activities

cause other environmental impacts such as water pollution, air pollution,

and noise and disturbance (Shanks, undated).

Breakwaters, groins, jetties, and other structures built perpendicular

to the coastline disrupt the flow of nutrients along the shoreline and

inhibit the transport of sediment by wave action and longshore currents.

The natural sediment balance is disrupted, causing sand and other fine-

grained material to build up on one side of the barrier while th6

shoreline on the other side is starved and erodes away (Carrol, undated).

The lee side of coastal structures can experience degradation of water

quality, fluctuations of temperature and salinity, and a longer period

of ice cover because of lower wave energy and altered current patterns.

(Mulvihill et al. 1980; U.S. Army Engineer District, Buffalo, 1975).

307

The presence of jetties at a river or bay mouth alters both river outflow

and tidal currents affecting habitats well into the river or bay (Mulvihill

et al., 1980). Jetties can also limit or al.ter the movement of fish and

crustaceans into and out of estuaries (Cronin et al., 1971). Breakwaters

have been shown to affect longshore fish migration routes (Shanks,
undated). Stockley (1974) found that the presence of a shore-conne"cted

breakwater extending into deep water interrupted the shallow water

migration routes of salmon fry. The fry were subject to increased

predation because they would not migrate around the breakwater and were

forced to concentrate in one area (Shanks, undated).

Coastal bulkheads and riprap, constructed to inhibit erosion for one

particular project, may result in the loss of adjacent coastal marshes

and other vital habitats of fish and wildlife (Clark and Terrell, 1978
The destruction of coastal wetlands eliminates feeding, nesting, resting,

and nursery Areas of birds and small mammals (Mulvihill et al., 1980).

The algaes and detritus from these wetlands, which comprise an important

food source for shellfish, zooplankton, and benthic organisms, will be

lost. Bulkheads that extend into water areas alter circulation patterns

and increase scouring of bottom sediments therefore changing vital

habitats such as shellfish beds and tideflats (Clark and Terrell, 1978).

The newly created deep water zone in front of a bulkhead oft en has a

lower concentration of detritus, lower phytoplankton production, and

fewer benthic organisms than adjacent unbulkheaded areas. The turbulence

and scouring action in front of bulkheads from reflected wave energy

often prohibits vegetation from reestablishing and may destroy existing

308

grass flats. Bulkheads extending down below the mean high waterline

were found to bury and destroy smelt spawning substrate in upper intertidal

and sand-fine gravel beach areas in Puget Sound (Mullvihill et al.,

1980). The reduction of shallow water areas in front of bulkheads

forces rearing salmon fry to either move out into deeper waters or

concentrate near the structure. Both situations make salmon fry more

vulnerable to predation and reduces their survival rate. Stair step

design bulkheads or riprap revetments with less than a 45' slope provide

more protective habitat for salmon fry than vertical bulkheads (He-iser

and Finn, 1970; Shanks, undated).

Industrial development and the secondary development and population

growth resulting from oil and gas development, may create a need for new

and improved coastal roadways to serve industrial sites. The construction

of new roads in previou-sly undeveloped areas may destroy significant

amounts of important fish and wildlife habitat. New roads will also

create additional access to fish and wildlife resources, and may increase

harvest pressure.

Road construction across coastal wetlands and streams is of particular

concern since improperly constructed bridges, Culverts, pads, causeways,

and other coastal structures can alter circulation and drainage patterns,

current velocities, tidal movements, and salinity patterns. Solid fill

causeways across coastal wetlands act as dams, dividing the saltmarsh.-

into freshwater and saline components. Marsh vegetation will be adversely

affected, reducing the amount of plant biomass and the value of the

309

wetlands as wildlife habitat (Sipple, 1974 in Shanks, undated). Piling

structures, which allow the free movement of sediments and aquatic life,

have minimal effect on fish and wildlife resources.

The logistic support required for offshore oil development may necessitate

the building of small boat harbors. Calm water within a harbor leads to

water quality problems including oxygen depletion, chronic discharge of

hydrocarbons, and the buildup of toxic metals from the chipping of lead

based paint and erosion of zinc electrolysis plates. Reduced water

circulation can cause an accmumlation of organic substances and a decrease

in oxygen levels (Shank, undated). A study by Reish (1963) showed that

populations of benthic organisms decreased within one year after construction

of the Alamito Bay Marina. He concluded that this decline resulted from

limited water circulation and.a decline in water quality (Shanks, undated).

The.construction of harbors can be especially harmful to an ecosystem if

they are built in important spawning and nursery areas or in wetlands

(Shanks, undated).

Because the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region is shallow and

experiences severe ice co nditions during the winter, tanker terminals

and loading docks will probably be sited at the end of long solid-fill

causeways or on man-made offshore islands. Impacts resulting from solid

fill causeways are similar to those resulting frorn'breakwaters and

jetties, and include: changes in circulation, nutrient flow and longshore

sediment transport; and blockage or alteration of fish and marine mammals

migration patterns. Culverts and breaches designed into causeways for

fish passage may actually prevent passage if not planned carefully.

310

Increases in water level on one side of the structure (either from wind

or tidal action) can create high current velocities in the culvert or

breach that can prevent passage of small fish or cause them to become

exhausted and more vulnerable to predation (U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers,

Alaska District, 1980; Brett, 1958). Man-made or artificial islands can

alter circulation patterns and lead to increased sedimentation in downdrift

areas from erosion of material used in building the island. Other

impacts of artificial islands are addressed in the Dredging and Filling,

Gravel Mining, and Gravel Islands section.

Table 29 Effects of shoreline alteration on4 fish, wildlife, aquatic plants and their habitats

Species/Habitat References Type of Study Type of Structure Effect and Evaluation
BIRDS Mulvihill et a]., literature review breakwaters Breakwaters can create new bird habitat. The stone surface up-
1980 on and behind the breakwater may be used by birds. If sand de-
position creates an emergent or intertidal sandbar, gulls,
terns, and other beach dwelling species may utilize it.
Colonial nesting may occur on the breakwater if human distur-
bance is limited during the nesting season.

FISH

Salmon Heiser & Finn, field observation bulkheads, revetments Vertical bulkheads cause an abrupt habitat change from land to
(Oncorhynchus 1970 deep water with few shallow water areas. Salmon fry tend
SP-T either to go out into deeper water when confronted with a
bulkhead or to concentrate near bulkheads and not go around
them; Both circumstances make salmon fry extremely vulnerable
to predation. Stair step design bulkheads or riprap revetments
on a 45* or less angle were found to provide protective habitat
for salmon fry.

Salmon McKinley A Webb, culvert standards culverts To facilitate fish passage, a culvert grade should not exceed
(Oncorhyncbus 1956 one-half of one percent and the invert (bottom) of the culvert
SP.) at the outfall should be one-half foot below the stream bed.
Common types of culverts which interfere with fish passage are
ones which have a steep slope or ones in which the outfall is
above the stream bed. Steep slopes cause excessive velocities
and shallow depths at normal and low flows. An invert above
the stream bed soon causes erosion in the stream bed -- in
certain instances, lowering the stream bed immediately below
the culvert by as much as 12 feet. When carried to the
extreme,.these conditions will result in the complete blockage
of migratory fish. Even when not,extreme, they may delay the
fish and thus interfere with spawning.

Atlantic Salmon Clay, 1961 design criteria man-made obstructions To provide passage of Atlantic salmon through man-made obstruc-
(Salmo salar) tions, the following criteria were adopted:
1. an attraction flow so entrance to structure can be located
by fish,
2. an absolute minimum depth of two feet,
3. a minimum velocity of four feet per sec.,
4. a maximum velocity of eight feet per sec.,

Coho Salmon Brett et ak., 1958 laboratory A field areas of increased Underyearling coho salmon (length 5.4 cm) maintained a max-
(Oncorhynchus observation waterfowl imum cruising rate of (30 cm/sec.) 1.0 ft per sec. at an
_SU_t_CTG_ optimum temperature of 20'C, and were depressed to (6 cm/sec.)
S
Ve-
oc ye Salmon 0.2 ft per sec by a temperature approaching O'C. By
(Oncorhynchus comparison, underyearling sockeye salmon (6.9 cm).of the
@nera same average age showed a maximum of (35 cm/sec) 1.1 ft per
sec at an optimum temperature of 16% and a minimum of
approximately (12 cm/sec.) 0.4 ft per sec.

Species/Habitat References Type of Study Type of Structure Effect and Evaluation

The cruising speed is that rate which a fish can maintain for
a minimum period of one hour under strong stimulus. Initial
bursts of.speed.of up to (about 1.4 m/sec) 4 to 5 ft/per sec
were observed. These darts were only 0.6 to 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft)
in length and were followed by a "slump" in performance. -The
authors believe this slump is caused by an overtaxing of the
respiratory system and a slight oxygen debt.
Arctic Grayling MacPhee and direct observation culverts Test results showed that to permit 75% passage of grayling
(Thymallus Watts, 1976 through 18.3 m (60 ft) and 30.5 m (100) diameter culverts,
arctTc-us the flow velocity must be restricted to 5.0 and 3.5 times the
fork length respectively. Only 25% of the fish were able to
ascend the culverts when the velocity was 6.2 times the fork
length in the 18.3 m culvert and 4.0 times the fork length in
the 30.5 m culvert. No fish smaller than 87 mm were tested.
Arctic Grayling Tack and Fisher, field observation model A Alaska Usage of a fish ladder by adult and Juvenile grayling increased
(Thymallus 1977 fish ladder with increased water velocities to the maximum velocity tested
:a__rC=t1cus) (2.6 fps). The Increased flow apparently increased attraction.
Yearling grayling (under 130 mm fork length) were inhibited
in their passage at flows above 2 fps. Increasing slope also
had an attractive effect for adult and Juvenile grayling, and
also yearlings, up to the point that water velocities prevented
their passage. Highest success rates at any flow tested were
100% for adults, 94% for juveniles, & 38% for yearlings.
Surf Smel t Millikan et al., field observation bulkheads Bulkheads extending below the mean high waterline were
1974 found to bury and destroy smelt spawning substrate in upper
intertidal and sand-fine gravel beach areas in Puget Sound.
Fish Tetra Tech, 1980 feasibility study causeway A study into the feasibility of constructing a causeway at
Nome concluded that a shore connected, filled causeway would
divert longshore fish movements, and could impact anadramous
fisheries by creating high siltation levels during dredging
and filling (construction and maintenance). The causeway
could also cause changes in nutrient circulation and benthic
habitat as a result of altered littoral regimes, and would
cause major habitat alterations in the local nearshore environ-
ment.
SHELLFISH AND BENTHOS

Shrimp Mulvihill et al., literature review bulkheads Studies of shrimp in bulkheaded and natural estuarine habitats
1980 have shown natural areas to be more productive. These dif-
ferences were attributed to low abundance of organic detritus
and benthic macro-invertebrates, deeper water, and loss of
intertidal vegetation in bulkheaded areas.
Clams Ellifrit field observation bulkheads Clam populations in natural and bulkheaded areas I" Hood Canal,
et al., 1972 Washington were studied. Twice as many clams were found on
natural beaches at three out of the four sites studied. At two
sites significantly more Japanese littleneck clams, yener is

Species/Habitat References lype of Study Type of Structure Effect and Evaluation
Japonica, were found in upper intertidal regions. Differences
in size and distribution were noted. Clams in the lower inter-
tidal regions appeared unaffected by bulkheads. The authors
concluded that these differences probably were due to changes
in current patterns associated with bulkheads. Bulkheads
appeared to produce less favorable conditions for settling and
survival of clam larvae and may have caused reduction in
availability of nutrients and food.

Oysters Mulvihill et al., literature review. jetties A Jetty's Influence on littoral transport contributed to the
1980 breaching of a sand spit. This allowed sand and boulders to
enter a protected lagoon and bury commercial oyster beds.

Oysters Moore and Trent, field observations bulkheads Settling, growth, and mortality of oysters was studied at two
1971 bays in West Texas. The first area was a dead end canal that
had been created by dredging, bulkheading, and filling of a
coastal marsh. The second area was a dead end bayou in an
unaltered part of the same marsh. The settling of oysters was
14 times greater in the natural marsh than in the canal area.
Faster growth rates and lower annual mortality rates charact-
erized oysters in the natural marsh. The authors attributed
these differences to the poor water circulation, plankton
blooms, low levels of dissolved oxygen, and high nutrient
levels in the canals.

Benthos Mulvihill et al., literature review groins The accretion of sand behind groins buries those bottom
1980 organisms which cannot move away. However, this disadvantage
is usually offset by the increased sand surface area provided.
PLANTS

Phytoplankton, Mulvihill et al., literature review bulkheads The newly created'deep water zone in front of a bulkhead often
Vegetation 1980 has a lower concentration of detritus, lower phytoplankton pro-
duction, and fewer benthic organisms than adjacent unbulkheaded
areas. In addition, the turbulence and scouring action in
front of bulkheads from reflected wave energy often prohibits
vegetation from reestablishing and may destroy existing grass
flats.
OTHER EFFECTS ON SPECIES

Fish, Crustaceans Cronin et al., literature review jetties Jetties may limit or alter movement of fish and crustaceans in-
1971 to and out of estuaries.

Marine Inverte- Mulvihill et al., literature review floating breakwater Floating breakwaters can attract marine organisms. In Florida,
brates, Fish 1980 a community of marine invertebrates and fish was well estab-
lished on a floating breakwater within a month of its place-
ment.

Marine Species Mulvihill et al., literature review revetments Construction of a revetment, a sloping structure built to
1980 protect existing land or newly created'embankments against
erosion by wave action, buries existing flora and fauna but
provides new and different substrate. The diversity and abun-
dance of organisms living in and around the revetment varies
depending on type of facing, energy conditions, and its loca-
tion on the beach. A man made island in California which was
protected by rock and tetrapod revetments, supported 225
species of plants and animals while a sandy mainland shore 112
mile distant had fewer than 12 species.

Species/tiabitat Reference Type of Study Structure Effect and Evaluation

Species Composition Mulvihill et al., literature review breakwaters Breakwaters constructed from rock. rubble, and other materials
1980 with irregular surfhces provide a rocky surf habitat on the
seaward side, and a rocky calm habitat on the lee side. The@e
new habitats are gained at the cost of the previously existing
bottom dwelling organisms. In many situations, the new rocky
habitat can be considerably more productive than the substrate
that previously existed. Changes in species composition can
also occur because of altered fluctuations of temperature,
salinity, and water level in the protected waters inside a
fixed breakwater.
HABITATS AND PHYSICAL PROCESSES

Wetlands Mulvihill et al., literature review bulkheads Bulkheads and revetments can affect the plant and animal
1980 communities in the upper foreshore and backshore zones. Bulk-
heads, constructed in wetland areas, can cause extensive
damage to fish and'wildlife habitat. Construction and asso-
ciated backfilling destroy wetlands by covering up narrow
fringe marshes, by covering up the waterfront edge, and by
altering water circulation in larger shorefront marshes.
Destruction of shorefront wetlands eliminates waterfowl
feeding, nesting, and resting habitats and can destroy habitat
of other birds and small mammals.

Estuaries Mulvihill et al., environmental jetties The presence of jetties at a river or bay mouth alters both
1980 impact statement river outflow and tidal currents. These alterations are
often felt well into the estuary and may have widespread
effects. Altered rates of nutrient and sediment accumulation
can occur in salt marshes. Salinity and temperature changes
can occur. The tidal prism can be altered since overall
circulation patterns within an estuary are affected by the
change in water flow through a stabilized channel. The
flushing characteristics of the estuary can be changed and
wave height is often increased in its lower regions.

Nearshore Areas Shanks, 1978 literature review breakwaters Breakwaters (1) Scour at the base because of wave energy that
is deflected downward. Scour depth at the toe of a bulkhead
may be up to twice the height of the average wave striking
the structure. (2) May deflect wave energy (erosion forces)
to adjacent properties, increasing their erosion. (3) Can
accumulate debris at the ends of the structure and in sharp
corners. (4) Tend to be straight, rather than following
natural shorelines.

Nearshore Areas Shanks, 1978 literature review groins Characteristics of groins include: (1) groin surfaces serve
as an attachment site for aquatic organisms (2) groins
often provide a protected area for the establishmeot of
beach vegetation (3) accretion of sand behind groins bury
bottom-dwelling organisms in the area (4) in general, the
length of the protect6d shoreline equals twice the length
of the groin (5) placement of one groin often leads to
the need for another some distance downdrift of the first,
because groins tend to accelerate downdrift beach erosion by
reducing littoral drift and (6) downdrift beaches will recede
until the groins are filled and drifting sand can bypass
the structures.

Habitats/Physical References Type of Study Type of Structure Effect and Evaluation
Processes

Tideflats Mulvihill et al., literature review bulkheads Bulkheads that extend into water areas alter circulation
Circulation Pat- 1980 patterns and increase scouring of bottom sediments therefore
terns Shellfish changing vital habitats such as shellfish beds and tideflats.
beds

Nearshore Mulvihill et al.. literature review breakwaters A fixed breakwater can cause piling-up of water behind it,
Circulation, 1980 decrease circulation, interfere with tides and currents, and
Littoral Transport obstruct littoral drift. If the breakwater is shore-
connected, particularly if it has a shore-paeallel leg, the
effect on littoral drift can be severe. Piling-up most
frequently occurs behind breakwaters that have restricted
openings. This leads to a higher water level behind the break-
waters than outside. Differences in the water levels result in
accelerated flows at the openings or ends of the breakwater.

Shoreline Erosion Mulvihill et al., literature review breakwaters Sand tends to be deposited on the shoreline opposite a de-
Desposition, 1980 tached, fixed breakwater and immediately can form a tombolo (a
Littoral Transport bar or spit that connects an i6land with the shore) between the
structure and the shore if the breakwater is long enough in
proportion updrift of a shore-connected structure. The sand
deposition opposite a detached, fixed breakwater to its dis-
tance from the shore. If conditions are not conducive to tom-
bolo formation, detached, fixed breakwaters can still cause
spit formation on the opposite shoreline. This spit then acts
as a partial barrier to littoral drift, allowing the sand to
deposit updrift and be eroded away downdrift. Floating break-
waters have much less influence on littoral drift.

Water Quality Mulvihill et al., literature review breakwaters Because of lower wave energy and altered current patterns,
1980 the lee side of a fixed breakwater can experience degradation
of water quality and fluctuations of temperature and salinity.

Benthic Habitat Mulvihill et al., literature review seawalls Structures which are not vertical and have rougher faces,
1980 such as revetments or stepped concrete seawalls, tend to
reflect less wave energy seaward and are less affected
by toe scour.

Nearshore Habitats U.S. Army Corps of Construction activities (rock dumping, jetting piles, and
Engineers, Seattle dredging to a solid base) associated with the building of
District, 1971 shoreline structures can disturb bottom sediments,
increase turbidity, and impact bottom dwelling organisms.

Littoral Trans- Carroll, undated literature survey perpendicular shoreline Structures built perpendicular to the coastline disrupt the
port structures flow of nutrients along the shoreline and inhibit the
transport of sand by wave action. The natural sediment balance
is disrupted causing sand to build up on one side of the bar-
rier while the beach on the other side is starved for sand and
erodes away.

Circulation U.S. Army Corps DEIS causeway Effects of the proposed causeway for the Prudhoe Bay Waterflood
Patterns, Migra- of Engineers, Project include: alteration of natural circulation patterns
tion Fish Alaska District, and possible nutrient flow into nearby Simpson Lagoon, and
1980 delay of fish migration.

Habitats/Physical References Type of Study Type of Structure Effect and Evaluation
Processes

Li ttoral Trans- Mulvilhill et al., literature review jetties In nearshore areas the most significant effect of jetties is
port 1980 alteration of littoral transport. Sand is impounded updrift
and eroded downdrift. If a single jetty is installed at a
river or harbor entrance, the opposite shore can be severely
eroded. Additionally, a shoal can form at the end of a single
jetty updrift of an inlet. The inlet will eventually be filled
in.

Littoral Transport Mulvihill et al., literature review causeways The most prominent chronic effects of bridges and causeways
Marsh, Circulation 1980 mentioned in the literature are an alteration in current,
velocity, and water circulation patterns. Salinity may be
affected in estuarine environments and other areas subject to
tidal flow. Marsh circulation may also be affected. Concomi-
tant alterations in the flora and fauna are dependent on the
degree of salinity change, Blocking of longshore currents and
sedimentation may result from causeways.

Littoral Trans- Mulvihill et al., literature review Downdrift beach starvation results when groins completely
port 1980 obstruct littoral drift. Downdrift beaches will recede until
the qroins are filled and sand bypassing occurs. If groins
are used to widen beaches, they can be filled with sand
after construction thereby lessening the potential impact down-
drift. Scour can also occur on the leeside.of groins. This
can often be minimized by including weirs along the length of a
groin or by making the structure permeable.

Wetlands, Circula- Mulvihill et al., literature review groins Circulation patterns in Chesapeake Bay were altered by
tion 1980 qroin placement. The altered circulation affected erosion
patterns as well as nutrient and sediment accumulation rates
in adjacent marshes.

Littoral Transport Coast Plains Center unknown floating piers Floating piers can affect beach sand movement. Open pile piers
for Marine Develop- are recommended in areas of significant littoral transport and
ment Service, 1973 longshore currents.

Ice U.S. Army Corps EIS breakwaters In the Great Lakes region, protected water behind breakwaters
of Engineers ices over earlier and remains frozen longer in the spring than
Buffalo District, water not so protected.
1975

317

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

moderate or high sensitivity to the impacts of shoreline alteration (see
Map D. These designations were based on' available data and were made

after evaluating the following criteria:

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to shoreline alteration.

2. The sensitivity of each species to shoreline alteration which

is experienced during the various stages of its life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages

occur and the period during-wh-i-ch-each species would be most

affected by shoreline alteration.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The species' population numbers and relative importance of

the population.

318

8. The degree to which the impacts of shoreline alteration

could be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during the course

of ranking included:

1. Impacts of shoreline alteration would be greatest in eelgrass

beds, wetlands, tideflats, and lagoons. These habitats are

generally highly productive areas that are highly susceptible

to changes in circulation and longshore sediment transport.

2- f2Lus/kelp beds, al.though highly productive habitats which
would be affected by changes in circulation and lo'ngshore

transport, were not ranked in the high sensitivity category

`-'due to their abundance in eastern Norton Sound. Herring

spawning areas (Fucus is the primary spawn substrate) were

ranked as high sensitivity and those Fucus beds within spawning

areas will be afforded the protection of the higher sensitivity

designation.

3. Species most affected by shoreline alteration are those whose

critical habitat would be destroyed by coastal structures

(haulout areas used by walrus, spotted seals, and sea lions,

and herring spawning areas) or altered by changes in circulation,

or depth (nearshore fish migration routes and rearing areas

and areas of first open water in the spring which are used.by
arriving waterfowl and seabirds).

319

4. Herring spawning areas and the mouths of salmon streams were

ranked as highly sensitive to shoreline alteration. Loss of

spawning habitat and interference with migration into spawning.

streams would have an adverse affect on these important commercial

and subsistence species.

5. Seabird concentration areas in marine waters at the base of

seabird colonies and waterfowl or shorebird spring concentration

areas were ranked as high sensitivity areas based on a report

of-shoreline.structures (such as breakwa.ters)-de.1-aying breakup

(see impact section - U.S. Engineer District Buffalo 1975).

Late breakup in these important early spring use areas would

have adverse impacts on seabird, waterfowl, and shorebird

populations.

6. Subsistence clam harvest areas were ranked as highly sensitive

to disturbance because altered circulation and longshore

sediment transport patterns in the vicinity of clam beds will

have adverse affects on the productivity of these beds.

7. All nearshore critical habitats of important fish species

(except herring spawning areas and the mouths of anadromous

fish streams) were ranked as moderately sensitive. It was

felt that most adverse impacts of shoreline structures could

be minimized by following specific environmental guidelines.

320

8. Waterfowl nesting and staging areas were ranked as moderately

sensitive because changes in circulation and longshore sediment

transport caused by coastal structures, and changes in drainage

patterns caused by the building of coastal roads, would alter

the wetland habitats.critical for these life history stages.

9. Belukha whale and gray whale nearshore feeding areas were.

ranked as moderately sensitive because large coastal structures

could alter nearshore movements of these species or their food

species.

10. Coastal st ructures should be built according to specific

environmental stipulations.(see mitigative measures) in any

nearshore subsistence or commercial fishing area.

11. Low sensitivity designations were not applied to any area of

the coastline. Although specific data is not available for

all areas of the Norton Sound and St. Lawrence Island shorelines,

general life histories for fish species inhabiting the northern

Bering Sea-Nor ton Sound region decribe the importance of

nearshore habitats for feeding, rearing, and spawning. Until

more specific data is available coastal structures in Norton

Sound and on St. Lawrence Island should be built according to

specific environmental guidelines (see mitigative measures).

321

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of low sensitivity were not designated because it was felt that

the placement of shoreline structures anywhere along the coastline would

adversely affect coastal productivity and, therefore, any shoreline

alteration should be undertaken according to guidelines discussed in the

Mitigative Measures.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of moderate.sensitivity were defined as those areas along the

coastline where the effects of shoreline alteration could be prevented,

minimized, or ameliorated. Habitats included iri th-6'moderate sensitivity

area include:

1. Fucus/kelp beds

2. Salmon nearshore migration areas and juvenile and fry nearshore
feeding and rearing areas

3. Arctic char and sand lance concentration areas

4. Herring nearshore feeding/rearing areas and possible spawning
areas I

5. Capelin spawning areas and possible spawning areas

6. Juvenile fish nearshore rearing areas

7. Waterfowl and shorebirds nesting and staging areas including:
major and important waterfowl staging areas, emperor qeese
molting and staging areas, snow geese staging areas, swan
nesting/use areas, sandhill crane use areas, and shorebird
fall staging areas and important habitat

322

8. Grizzly bear spring feeding areas

9. Belukha whale and gray whale ne-arshore feeding areas

10. Commercial and subsistence fishing and herring harvest areas
and subsistence fishing.areas, king crab harvest areas, subsistence
clam harvest areas, and winter herring harvest areas

Any shoreline alteration in areas of moderate sensitivity should be

undertaken according to existing environmental.regulations and the

following guidelines:

General Mitigations

1. Structures that will alter the coast should not be built along

the shoreline unless there are no alternatives.

2. Only water-dependent faci lities should be placed along the

coastline. All other facilities should be located inland if

possible.

3. If coastal constructio n is necessary:

a. structures should not be placed in vital coastal habitats

such as wetlands, tideflats, estuaries, lagoons, or

shellfish beds;

b. natural drainage patterns of shorelands should not be

altered. Channelization or diversion of coastal streams

away from tideflats and wetlands can lead to increased

pollution, altered salinity levels, and decreased biological

productivity in estuarine waters;

323

C. coastal structures should not be built in intertidal and

subtidal areas which provide valuable habitat for aq uatic

organisms;

d. channel erosion should be minimized by routing shipping

into deeper channels and establishing speed limits;

e. construction activities should adhere to water quality

standards and should be scheduled to avoid critical

periods of breeding, feeding, and migration of coastal

species;

f. large coastal structures should not be built in areas

used for marine mammal harvest.

g. coastal structures should not be constructed in areas

where rapid coastal erosion or deposition is occurring.

Coastal engineering studies should be conducted as part

of each project to identify these areas and to insure

that construction will not aggravate the problem; and

h. during construction of coastal structures, turbidity

should be kept to a minimum and turbidity control devices

should be used when necessary.

Bulkheads

1. Bulkheading should be avoided by siting development away from

eroding shorelines.

324

2. The construction of bulkheads to prevent coastal erosion

should only be used when there is no al-ternative. Whenever

possible use natural erosion protection such as planted marsh

grasses rather than building bulkheads to minimize erosion on

unstable shores or banks. Riprap causes less impact than

bulkheads and should be a second choice for erosion prevention.

3. Bulkheads should not be built where they disrupt wetlands or

other vital habitats such as clam beds. Even if bulkheads are

not placed in vital areas such as estuaries, wetlands, or

tideflats, they should belocated far enough away to avoid

altering sedimentation and water circulation in these important

habitats.

4. Bulkheads should be placed inland from all wetlands. Bulkheads

and similar structures used to prevent shoreline erosion in

wetland areas should be built above the annual flood mark.

Exceptions to this requirement may be made when bulkheads are

constructed on shorelines which are devoid of vegetation or

cannot be revegetated. Erosion is usually severe on unvegetated

shorelines, thus requiring bulkheading for stablization. It

is recommended that bulkheads built on unvegetated shorelines

not extend outward from the mean low-water mark.

5. Bulkheads should not disrupt the outward flow of groundwater

or runoff, and should be designed to be permeable to the

325

natural flow of both groundwater and runoff. Wooden bulkheads

should be built wi th "weepholes" backed by filter screens

to allow the passage of water th*rough the structure.

6. In cases where bulkheads must be used, establishing a buffer

strip of vegetation between the bulkhead and the water will

protect coastal habitat and help reduce undermining of the

bulkhead. When possible, existing shoreline vegetation should

remain undisturbed.

7. Bulkheads should be designed so that reflected wave energy

does not erode intertidal or subtidal areas.

8. Bulkheads should be constructed on a gently sloping shoreline

rather than a steep one to reduce erosion.

9. During construction of bulkheads, it is genera.lly desirable to

drive supporting pilings in rather thanjetting them in because

jetting causes siltation and affects water quality. However,

there may be instances (i.e., bird nesting) where the disturbance

from pile driving may outweigh the effects of siltation, and

jetting may be more desirable.

10. In appropriate cases, dredging should be done after the bulkhead

is installed and then the area behind the bulkhead should be

backfilled. This will prevent materials from slumping into

the channel and will reduce the need for frequent maintenance

dredging.

326

11. Fill material should not be excavated from shallow water and

productive wetlands.

12. Riprap should be placed in front of a bulkhead to minimize its

impacts on wave refraction and toe scour.

13. Bulkheads should not be constructed with sharp angle turns

because this may create flushing or shoaling problems.

14. Vertically designed bulkheads (especially when they protrude

to minus tide levels) should be avoided in-salmon rearing

areas. Stair-step design bulkheads or riprap revetments with

a slope of less than 45' provide more protective habitat for

salmon fry.

15. Bulkheads should be used only for erosion control and not to

create real estate by filling. Do not use bulkheads for

cosmetic purposes.

Riprap and Other Revetments

1. Armor unit revetments should be made of clean, non-polluting

material. Any material contaminated with grease, phenol

lead, or other toxic elements should not be used.

2. Revetments with facings that are highly irregular (such as

riprap) and have a shallow slope, have a greater ability to

327

support marine life and are preferred over steep-sided smooth

revetments.

3. Riprap should be used rather than bulkheading wherever possible,

although planting suitable vegetation to prevent erosion is

more desirable than riprap-

4. When compared to bulkheads, riprap is more permeable to the

flow of groundwater and runoff. The water can move unimpeded

through the filter cloth and crushed rock backing of riprap

structures. Other advantages of riprap are that it provides

attachment for marine life, it can be built to conform to the

natural configuration of the shoreline, and it is less expensive

to build then most other erosion prevention structures.

Breakwaters, Groins, and Jetties

1. The use of groins to stabilize or widen beaches should be

avoided if at all possible.

2. If groins are built the following recommendations should be

followed to minimize the impacts:

a. Place the shoreline end of the groin above the normal

storm-tide.line to prevent scouring.

328

b. Fill the area around the groin with sand, thus allowing

drifting sand to bypass the groin and replenish downdrift

eroded areas.

c. Place polyethylene mat (filter cloth) under the base of

the groin to protect the structure from slumping due to

erosion.

d. In some cases, excessive amounts of trapped sand can be

mechanically transported around the groin to replenish

eroding areas.

e. Groins which capture all littoral drift, thus encouraging

or aggravating downbeach erosion, should not be con-structed.

Permeable groins or groins designed to include several

weirs are preferable.

3. Dredging to bypass or remove accumulated sand from behind

jetties should be scheduled for times of low productivity.

Care should be taken in choice of downdrift sand release sites

to avoid movement of sand into productive fish and shellfish

areas. or important plant communities.

4. Jetties should not be built at the mouths of productive anadromous

fish streams. Changes in an inlet following construction of a

jetty can affect runs of migratory fish.

329

5. In the construction of breakwaters, the use of riprap or

dumped stone is biologically more desirable than breakwaters

with flat face@ since either of the former provides more

habitat for aquatic species.

6. The base of breakwaters should be protected from erosion so

that scouring does not affect structural integrity and, therefore,

aquatic organisms in the area.

Piers and Docks

1. When utilities, pipelines and roads cannot be routed around

vital habitats, they should be elevated on piers rather than

placed on solid fill causeways.

2. Piers cros sing marshy areas should be elevated high enough to

avoid continual shading of the area under the piers.

3. Pilings should be driven in rather than jetted in. Jetting

affects water quality in the construction area.

4. In marine and'estuarine areas, construction of docking facilities

on a series of ice resistant mono-pod type legs should be

considered as an alternative to solid fill causeways.

5. Spacing of pilings should allow free flow of tidal currents

and littoral drift.

330

Bridges and Causeways

1. The location of bridges and causeways should avoid vital

habitat.areas. Whenever possible these structures should be

located upland away from wetlands and water basins.

2. Bridges or causeways built across water areas should be elevated

on pilings to minimize the disruption of natural water flow

and to avoid alteration of vital habitat areas. Solid fill

causeways should be avoid ed.

3. When fill or abutments must be used in areas subject to flooding,

they should be designed so that the floodwaters will not be

raised more than 0.3 meters (I ft) above the natural flood

level.

4. Culverts should 6e sufficiently large, and enough culverts

should be used, to permit a natural rate of water passage

through solid-fill causeways. To provide adequate fish passage,

culverts should protrude sufficiently above the water so that

the entire-passageway is well lighted and that water velocities

do not exceed 0.5 fps under all tide and wind conditions.

5. Bridged breaches should be used in causeway design instead of

culverts where tidal flow, littoral transport or fish migrations

will be affected.

331

6. When building causeways or bridges in wetland areas, heavy

equipment should be operated from the construction site (i.e.,

roadbed) rather than from the wetland area.

7. Environmental disturbances should be minimized during construction.

Matting and/or vehicles designed to prevent soil compaction

are recommended for use in wetlands.

Small Boat Harbors

1. Small boat harbors should only be located on bodies of water

with a high rate of flushing.

2. Small boat harbors should be designed to mi-nimize the extent

of excavation, shoreline alteration, and disturbance of vital

habitat areas.

3. In order to eliminate channel excavation, floating docks

should be used whenever possible. When it is not appro priate

to use floating docks, piers built on pilings should be constructed

over wetlands to provide access to deep waters. The piers

should connect to land above the annual flood level.

4. The natural coastline should be preserved by placing boat

slips farther out into the water and connecting them to the

shore with piers. This will eliminate the adverse impacts of

dredging and bulkheading.

332

5. Small boat harbors should not be constructed in wetlands.

Piers and docks can be designed to extend over the wetlands to

deep waters on pilings.

6. The construction of bulkheads, groins, and jetties should be

avoided when building small boat harbors.

7. Support facilities for small boat harbors, including storage

areas and buildings, should be located inland away from the

coastline.

Coastal Pipelines

(See additional recommendations for pipelines in the Oil

Pollution section)

1. Pipelines should not be placed in vital habitat areas such as

wetlands, eelgrass beds, or clam beds..

2. When habitat disturbance is unavoidable, construction activities

should be limited to the shortest time and smallest area

possible.

3. Pipelines should be built during periods of low biological

productivity (see Table 31

4. After the pipeline is laid, the construction area should be

restored to as close to its original state as.possible, using

original substrate and native species wherever feasible.

333

Coastal Roads

1. Build roads perpendicular rather than parallel to the coast.

2. Coasta 1 roads should not cross wetlands.

3. Stream crossing should be designed to allow fish passage

during any flow. Bridges-are preferred. If culverts must be

used, the following guidelines should be followed:

a. Culverts placed.in rivers or streams frequented by fish

should be installed so that at least one-fifth.of the

diameter of round culverts or six inches of elliptical or

arch culverts is set below the lowest elevation of the

natural stream bottom.

b. Culvert dimensions necessary to pass fish upstream are

dependent upon the velocity of the water within the

Culvert when the fish are present; the time of year these

velocities occur; the length of the culvert which must be

negotiated by the fish; and the species, size, and age

class of fish present and their upstream swimming capabilities.

Table 30 represents the maximum water velocities through

different Culver t lengths which can be successfully

negotiated by several Alaskan fish species. To avoid the

possibility of restricting fish passage, velocities

through culverts should not exceed 0.5 fps.

TABLE 80
Maximum water velocities through different culvert lengths
which can be successfully negotiated by several Alaskan fish species.

1@ength of Group T Group II Group III Group IV Group V
culvert in Upstrewn migrant Adult spring Adult moderate Adult high Juvenile
feet salmon fry and spawning slow swimmers: perforumce slow swimmers
fingerlings when swimmers: pink salmon swinmrs: and other
upstream grayling chum salmon king salmon adult slow swimmers:
migration takes longnose suckers coho s 'almon grayling., longnose
place at mean sockeye salinon suckers, broad
annual flood steelbead. whitefish, burboto
sheefish, humpback
whitefish, Northern
pike, Dolly VarderV
Arctic Char,, upstream
migrant salmon
fry and fingerlings
when migration not at
mean annual flood

30 1.0 3.7 6.8 9.9 2.0
110 1.0 3.1 5.8 8.5 1.8
50 1.0 2.6 5.0 7.5 1.7
60 0.9 2.3 4.6 6.6 1.6
70 0.8 2.1 4.2 6.o 1.4
8o 0.8 1.9 3.9 5.5 1.3
90 0.7 1.7 3.7 5.1 1.2
.100 0.7 1.6 3.4 4.8 1.2
150 0.5 1.5 2.8 '3-7 1.2
200 0.5 1.5 2.4 3.1 1.2
>200 0.5 1.5 2.4 3.0 1.2
.feet/second

Source: Alaska Boards of Fisheries and Game and Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Proposed Regulations Governing Fish and Game Habitat Protection

c Alternative drainage structures, other than culverts, 335

should be installed if fish passage cannot be assured

through culverts.

d. All culverts should be aligned with the natural stream

channels.

e. All bank cuts, slopes, fills, and exposed earth work

attributable to culvert installation should be stabilized

to prevent erosion during and after the project.

f., No culverts should-be built in fish spawning or rearing

areas. Roads crossing streams at such critical habitats

should be re-routed or a bridge installed instead of a

culvert.

In order to implement these guidelines, site specific studies will have

to be conducted on a case-by-case basis. In instances where information

is not available regarding the effects of shoreline alteration on various

stages of animal life history, more research will have to be done to

determine these impacts.

HIGH SENSIIIVIIY AREAS

The designation of high sensitivity was given to areas where impacts

from shoreline alteration are likely to be extremely adverse to fish,

wildlife, and aquatic plants. These highly sensitive habitats include:

336

1. Areas of first open water in spring

2. Eelgrass beds and lagoons

3. Highly productive/heavily used wetlands and tideflats and
wetlands and tideflats when productivity is not known

4. Herring spawning areas

5. Mouths of salmon streams

6. Seabird concentration areas on water at base of colonies and
waterfowl and shorebird spring.concentration areas

7. Marine mammal haulouts including recurrent and occasional
walrus haulouts, spotted seal haulouts, and sea lion haulouts.

Structures which cause shoreline alteration should not be sited in areas

of high sensitivity.

TABLE 31: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HA13 ITATS
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO SHORELINE ALTERATION.

HABITATS JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT 110 V DEC
AREA OF FIRST OPEN WATER
IN SPRING

EELORAS8 BEDS

FUCUBIKELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE
HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLATO
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE/
HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

ESTUARVILAGOON

FISH It SHELLFISH
SALMON
STREAM
NEARSHORE MIGRAT16H AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE
REARING AREA
PAY AND JUVENILE NEARSHORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR
CONCENTRATION AREA

HEARING
BPAWNING AREA
NEARSHORE FEEDINGIREARING
AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

JUVENILE FISH
NEARSHORE REARING AREA

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

BIRDS

SEABIRD
CONCENTRATION ON WATER AT
BASE OF COLONY

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRD
SPRING CONCENTRATION AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT 4

L%)
TABLE 31 (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES. HABITATS 00
OR HARVEST ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO SHOREL114E ALTERATION.

EMPEROR GEESE JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MOLTING AREA
STAGING AREA

SHOW GEESE STAGING AREA

SWAN NEOTINGIUSE AREA

BANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

MAMMALS
GRAY WHALE FEEDING AREA

BELUKHA W14ALE
NEARSHORE FEEDING AREA

WALRUS
RECURRENT HAULOUT
OCCASIONAL HAULOUT

SPOTTED BEAL
HAULOUT AND FEEDING AREA

SIEA LION HAULOUT

GRIZZLY UEAR
SPRING FEEDING AREA

HARVEST ACTIVITIES
8013SISTENCE HARVEST AREA
FISIHNG I
CLAM
IIERRING- WINTER
KING CRAB

COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
HARVEST AREA
HEARING
FISIHNU

W--
.I
I
F
1 0
R
I m
I A
T
I
1 0
N
I
I I w
A
T
1. E
I R
s
I
I
I
I
I
I
I i
iI
I
I

339

FORMATION WATERS

Sources and Biological Effects

The discharge of formation waters from offshore drilling platforms.or

onshore-treatment facilities may adversely impact aquatic organisms.

Crude oil as it comes from the ground is generally made up of natural

gas, petroleum, and water. The water, called formation or produced,

water, is contaminated with hydrocarbons an d may be contaminated with

heavy metals and hydrogen sulfide, all of which may pollute marine and

freshwater environments (Longley et al., 1978)(see Tables 32-35).

Before the crude oil is delivered to a refinery, the water must be

separated from the oil and gas. This process can take place on the

offshore production platform, or, if the crude oil is transported ashore

by pipeline the oil, water, and gas will be separated at onshore treatment

facilities. Once the form ation.water is separated from the oil and gas,

it is generally treated by heat or chemicals and discharged back into

marine waters, sometimes in the same location for 20-30 years (Longley

et al., 1978; Mackin, 1973) . Formation waters may also be injected into

disposal wells or pumped back into reinjection wells to maintain pressure

(USDI, 1976). The amount of production water is usually small during

the initial life of an oil field, but increases progressively as the

field is depleted and water invades the rock formation of the natural

reservoir (Read and Blackman, 1980). Production statistics compiled for

individual wells and oil fields throughout Alaska show a wide variability

with respect to oil and water recovery rates. During 1980, the Trading

340

Tabl e 32
Range of Cons-71-tuents in Produced
Formation Water
--Offshore California

Effluent Range, mg/l state of California
Constituent Ocean Effluent Limits
mg/l

Arsenic 0.001 0.08 0.02

Cadmium 0.02 0.18 0.03

Total Chromium 0.02 0.04 0.01

Copper 0.05 0.116 0.3

Lead 0.0 - 0.28 0.2

Mercury 0.0005 - 0.002 0.002

Nickel 0.100 - 0.29 0.2

Silver 0.03 0.04

Zinc 0.05 - 3.2 0.5

Cyanide 0.0 - 0.004 0.2

Phenolic Compounds 0.35 - 2.10 1. 0

BOD 5 370 -1,920

Chlorides 17,230 - 21,000

TDS 21,700 - 40,400

Suspended Solids

Effluent 1 - 60

Influent 30 - 75

Oil and Grease 56 - 359

Tome data reflect treated waters for reinjection.
2/
Toncentrations not to be exceeded more than 10% of time.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.

341

Tabl e 33
Range of Constituents in Produced
Formation Water
--Offshore Texas

Effluent
Constituent Range, mg/l

Arsenic <0.01 - <0.02

Cadmium <0.02 - 0.193

Total Chromiun <0.10 - 0.23

Copper <0.10 - 0.38

Lead <0.01 - 0.22

Mercury <0.001 - 0.13

Nickel <0.10 - 0.44

Silver <0.01 - 0.10

Zinc 0.10 0.27

Cyanide N. A.

Phenolic Compounds 5-3

BOD 3 126 - 342

COD 182 - 582

Chlorides 42,000 - 62,000

TDS 806 - 169,000

Suspended Sol ids 12 - 656

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

N.A. - not available

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.

342

Table 34
Averages of Con tituents in
Produced Formation Water
--Gulf of Mexico

Influent

Oil and Grease 202-mg/l

Effluent

Cadmium 0.0678 mg/l

Cyanide 0.01 mg/l

Chlorides 61,142 mg/l

Mercury Trace

Total Organic Carbon 413 mg/l

Salinity 110,391 mg1l

API Gravity 33.6 degrees

Suspended Solids 73 mg/l

Volumes

Range - 250 to 200,000 bbls brine water/day

Average - 15,000 bbls brine water/day

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, 1974

343

Table 35
Typical Characteristics of
Effluent from Water Treatment Facilities

Phillips Petroleum Company
Lease OCS-P 0166 La Conchita Plant

Physical Properties Chemical Properties
mg/l

pH 7.3 Aluminum 2.2
Specific Gravity 1.02 Ammo**nia, N 39.7
Turbidity 12 JTU Arsenic 0.001
Total Dissolved
Solids (Calc.) 40,400 mg/l Barium 0.
Total Solids 20,990 mg/l Bromide 183.8
Total Volatile
Solids 1,810 mg/l Cadmium 0.030
Total Suspended
Solids 56 mg/l Chromium 0.020
Settleable Solids 0.1 mg/l Copper 0.116
Floatable Solids 0.3 mg/l, Cyanide 0.004
Temperature 77 F Fluoride 1.7
Iron 1.35
Lead 0.28
Specific Conductance 31,630
m-mhos/cm
Max. CaSO 4 Possible
(Calc.) 0. mg/l Magnesium 50.0
Max. BaSO 4 Possible
(Calc.) 0. mg/l Manganese 0.062
Alkalinity as CaCO 3 3,480 mg1l Mercury 0.0005
Nickel 0.29
Dissolved Solids Nitrate, N 0.0
Ta t 1 HTon s Nitrate, Ni 0.000
Total Hardness 10 me/l Kjeldahl.Nitrogene 54.6
Sodium, Na+(Calc.) 15,000 mg/l Phosphorus-Ortho, P 1.54
Calcium, Ca*+ ++ 80 mg/l Phosphorus, P 1.89
Magnesium, Mg 72 mg1l Silver 0.030
Iron (Total), Fe... 1.0 mg/l Zinc 0.18
Anions Phenolic Compounds
C68 OH 2.10
Chloride, Cl- 21',000 mg/l IdeAtifiable
Chlorinated None
Sulfate, SO 0. mg/l Hydrocarbons
Carbonate, @03F 0. mg/l Radioactivity
Bicarbonate, HCO3- 4,270 mg/l Gross Alpha
Activity None
Hydroxyl, OH- 0. mg/l Gross Beta Detected
Activity None
Detected
Sulfide, S= 1.1 mg/l Oil and Grease 5.0

Dissolved Gases
H2S 0.4 mg/l
C02 320 mg/l
02 0.3 mg/l
Source: USGS Santa Barbara EIS, pp. 11-616
NERBC, 1976

344

Bay oil field in Cook Inlet produced roughly 2.2 million barrels of oil

in conjunction with 6 million barrels of water. The cumulative oil-to-

water ratio for the Trading Bay field since its inception in 1967 is

approximately 81 million barrels of oil to 43 million barrels of water.

In Prudhoe Bay, statistics for 1980 show approximately 555 million

barrels of oil were recovered with only 13 mil-lion barrels of associated

water. The cumulative oil-to-water ratio for the Prudhoe field is

approximately 1.5 billion barrels of oil to 23 million* barrels of water

(AOGCC, 1981).

The amount, and therefore the effect, of discharged formation water on

biological communities in receiving waters is determined by the size of

a treatment facility and the ability of receiving waters to accommodate

such wastes. Because onshore treatment facilities may collect oil from

several offshore platforms, the amount of formation water discharged-

will be considerably greater than that which is discharged from treatment

facilities on individual platforms. It may also be assumed that the

biological effects from a single onshore treatment facility discharging

formation waters into shallow nearshore waters will be significantly

greater than the collective effects of formation waters discharged from

several deep water offshore platforms.

Formation waters may be highly toxic and their disposal into the marine

environment can be detrimental (NERBC, 1976). Formation waters may

contain up to 50 ppm of oil as small droplets and up to 35 ppm of dissolved

hydrocarbons, primarily aromatic fractions (Koons et al., 1977).

345

Levels of total dissolved aromatic hydrocarbon s below 1 ppm have been

found to be acutely toxic to larval c rustaceans (Anderson, 1977; Mecklenburg

e,t al., 1976). Formation water may also contain toxic quantities of

heavy metals, such as vanadium and mercury, and hydrogen sulfide, a

poisonous gas. All formation waters are anoxic, and the concentrations

of dissolved salts may vary greatly from those of receiving waters.

Polluted formation waters may affect both individual organisms and

entire populations by causing short term (acute or lethal) biological

-effects such as.death, or long.term (chronic or,sublethal) effects

incl uding abandonment of habitat and interference wit1h growth and

reproduction. Formation waters appear to be more harmful if they are

discharged into shallow waters rather than deeper waters because larger

bodies of water which support tidal action, waves, and strong currents

will tend to rapidly dilute the toxic components. Because of their

ability to avoid contaminated waters, fish and free swimming organisms

do not seem to be greatly affected by formation water discharge. The

effects on free floating plankton seem to be similar and localized.

However, in shallow waters where dilution by seawater may not take

place, benthic (bottom dwelling) organisms living near the point of

discharge may be totally destroyed (Armstrong et al., 1979). The oil in

formation waters can adhere to sediment particles in the water column

and settle to the bottom causing contamination of the bottom substrate.

When accumulations reach a sufficient level, destruction of bottom

communities occur (Mackin, 1973). This information suggests that although

the concentration of oil in water may be low, oil may be accumulating in

bottom sediments over a long period of time. In order to avoid impacting

346

bottom communities, these sediments should be carefully monitored.

The effects of formation waters seem to decline further from the point

of discharge because of dilution by marine waters (Mackin, 1973).

Mackin (1971) studied the effect of produced waters on marine plankton,

benthic, and pelagic communities of six oil fields located in Texas

estuaries. Bottom communities within 15 meters (50 feet) of heavy

discharges were almost completely destroyed, whereas organisms from 45

to 61 meters (150 to 200 feet) appeared to receive noticeable, but less

impact. At 91 meters (300 feet) no short term impact was observed

(Mackin, 1973).

A more recent study by Armstrong, et al. (1979) showed that although

receiving water concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons some distance

from oil platforms were very low, the concentrations of several alkyl-

substituted naphthalene compounds in the sediments were four orders of

magnitude higher than in the overlying water. It was further believed

that persistant concentrations of naphthalenes as low as 2 ppm in sediment

were capable of excluding benthic organisms from an area. In the study,

benthic communities were reported to be "severely depressed" within an

area extending 150 meters (492 feet) outward from any platform discharging

formation waters. This suggests that by looking strictly at water

column concentrations the major sink of hydrocarbons may be missed.

In a study by Mackin and Hopkins (1962) in Louisiana, trays of oysters

placed within 7.6 meters (25 feet) of a formation water discharge site

suffered very heavy mortalities near the bottom'of the water column and 347

slightly less at the top. Some mortality was observed out to 23 meters

(75 feet), and between 23 and 46 meters (75 to 150 feet) there was

evidence of stunted growth. Beyond 46 meters (150 feet) the report did

not identify any further evidence of adverse effects.

As previously mentioned, formation waters are often contaminated with

hydrocarbons, sulphurous wastes, and heavy metals (Levorsen, 1967).

Organisms react in various ways to these different contaminants. Soluble

hydrocarbons, heavy metals and hydrogen sulfide, even at low concentrations,

:are known to be toxic to marine life (Shaw, 1976). As a result, there

may be a short, catastrophic'impact or a more subtle long term interference

with growth and reproduction. Non-hydrocarbon constituents of formation

waters cause various adverse effects on fish and other aquatic organisms.

For example, ammonia, a constituent of formation water, produces gill

enlargement (hyperplasia) in fingerling chinook king) salmon. Mercury,

another heavy metal found in formation waters has been shown to concentrate

in fish in excess of 10,000 times the amount present in surrounding

water. The heavy metal lead, in concentrations of 0.3 ug/l, impaired

the reproduction of zooplankton, particularly, Daphnia major (NERBC,

1976).

Other metallic components in formation waters have also been found to

affect marine life. Portman (1972) found that shrimp exhibited a positive

avoidance reaction to copper in concentrations as low as 0.33 ppm.

However, no avoidance reaction was observed with shrimp exposed to

mercury.(up to 100 ppm) or zinc (up to 33 ppm); on the contrary, there

348

appeared to be an attraction effect at lower concentrations. Since the

48 hour LC50 for mercury was reported to be between 3.3 and 10 ppm, an

attraction effect at concentrations just beTow this figure could have

serious consequences, particularly if the more susceptible larvae exhibit

the same behavior.

Formation waters are not only contaminated with toxic chemicals and

gases but are anoxic (depleted of oxygen) as well, and may have higher

temperatures and/or lower salinity values than receiving waters (Levorsen,

1967). Waters depleted of oxygen can kill animals directly, although

the usual effect is impairment of health or, if they are mobile, abandonment

of the area. For example, striped bass spawning was eliminated in the

Delaware River near Philadelphia because depleted oxygen levels deterred

the fish from migrating upstream to their spawning grounds. Salinity

(the amount of salt dissolved in water) is important to the marine

environment because it affects the type and distribution of organisms

living in an aquatic environment. Because some species are broadly

tolerant and others are narrowly tolerant of salinity changes, there may

be interference with their survival, spawning or reproduction, optimum

growth conditions, and daily or seasonal movements during various life

history stages (Clark, 1977). Discharges of high salinity waters into

freshwater lakes or streams, or low salinity waters into highly productive

marine environments such as clam beds could be very destructive.

The biological effects of low level hydrocarbon exposure are discussed

in the section on Oil Pollution.

Table 36 Effects of formation waters and formation water components on fish, wildlife, aquatic plants and their habitats

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

SALMONIDS

Acute/Toxic Effects

Steelhead Chapman acute toxicity, heavy metals 5.2 to 1,755 ug/I The 96 hr LC50 values for adult male coho
(Salmo gairdneri) Stevens, 1978 bioassay (cadmium, zinc and salmon and steelhead respectively were 46 and
CiihoSaTo-ion copper) 57 ug/l for copper, and 905 and 1,755 ug/l for
(Onchorynchus kisutch) zinc. Mortality induced by cadmium was slow
in onset but 50% mortality occurred after more
than a week at 3.7 ug/I for coho salmon and
5.2 ug/l for steelbead. Water hardness and
alkalinity affected the toxicity levels.

Juvenile King Chapman, 1978 continuous flow heavy metals PPM The 96 hr LC50 values for four juvenile life
Salmon toxicity tests (cadmium, zinc and stages of king salmon and steelhead ranged
(Oncorhynchus copper) from 1.0 to > 27 ug Cd/l, 17 to 38 ug Cu/I and
tshawytscha) 93 to 8j5 ug Zn/l. The 200 hr LC50 ranged
Steelhead Trout from 0.7 to > 27 ug Cd/l, 7 to 30 ug Cu/I and
(Salmo gairdneri) 54 to 555 ug Zn/l. Newly hatched alevins 0 f
both species were more resistant to cadmium
and zinc. Later juvenile stages were most
sensitive. Copper sensitivities showed little
relationship to life history stages. Steelhead
were consistently more sensitive to these
metals than were king salmon.
Rainbow Trout Rucker and histopathological heavy metals PPM Results indicate that mercury accumulation is
(Salmo gairdneri) Amend, 1969 examination (mercury) greatest in the liver and kidneys of fish ex-
cf i -1n -oo k -s-aTFno -n posed to soluble mercury compounds or which con-
(Oncorhynchus sume mercury contaminated prey. Highest levels
We-rFaT of accumulation were recorded at 39.6 ppm in
kidney tissues of 8-inch rainbow trout exposed
to 12 weekly one-hour exposures of 2 ppm Timson
(6.25 percent ethyl mercury phosphate). Thirty-
three weeks after exposures were discontinued
12.3 ppm mercury was still present in kidney
tissue. Two year old chinook salmon were also
fed fingerlings contaminated with 3 ppin mercury.
Accumulations reached a high level of 30.5 ppin
in liver tissues, indicating that significant
contamination and bioaccumulation may occur
through predation.
Sa I mon McKee & Wolf, literature review hydrogen sulfide 0.3 to 1.0 mg/I 0.3 and 0.7 mq "2S/I were survived by king
(Oncorhynchus sp.) 1963 H2S salmon and silver salmon respectively, while
1.0 and 1.2 mg H2S/l were toxic.

Coho Salmon Chapman, bioassay heavy metals (lead) 6.8 mg/l 50% of four week old coho salmon were killed
(Oncorhynchus unpublished by a four day exposure to lead concentrations
U@suich) of 0.8 mg/l.

Coho Salmon Katz and Pierro, toxicity effects * animonia Toxicity of ammonia to coho salmon increases
(Oncorhynchus 1967 with increasing salinity.
kisutch)

ppt = parts per thousand LC50 concentration required to kill 50% of the test animals
ppm = parts per million TO median tolerance limit the concentration required to
ppb = parts per billion kill 50% of the test animals within certain time limits
4@:b
Ln

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Juvenile Atlantic Herbert toxicity effects ammonia 0.2 mg/l Concentrations of ammonia greater than 0.2 mg/l
Salmon & Shurben, 1965 are toxic to Atlantic salmon smolts.
(Salmo salar)

Rainbow Trout Brown, 1968 bioassay heavy metals (lead) I mg/l 96 hr LC50 for rainbow trout was I mg Pb/l.
(Salmo gairdneri)

Brook Trout Benoit et al., bioassay heavy metals .06 ug/l Exposure to 3.4 ug/l Cd resulted in the death
(Salvelinus 1976 (cadmium) of a significant number of first and second
f-roivf-inalis) generation brown trout males during spawning.
This concentration also significantly retarded
growth of Juvenile second and third generation
offspring. Bioaccumulation of cadmium
occurred in gill, liver, and kidney tissue and
was directly related to exposure coricentra-
tions. Depuration was rapid from gills but no
loss was detectable from liver or kidney
tissue.'

Juvenile Rainbow Wobeser, 1973 bioassay heavy metals 24-42 ug/l 50% of newly hatched fry and fingerling rain-
Trout (mercury) bow trout were killed by mercury concentra-
(Salmo gairdneri) tions of 24 and 42 ug/l.
Rainbow Trout Wobeser, 1975 bioassay heavy metals 4, 8, 16, and No mortalities occurred as a result of these ex-
(Salmo pirdqert) (mercury) 24 ppm methyl periments. The accumulation of mercury in
mercury chloride tissues was directly related to the concentrat-
Ion of mercury in food, with those fish receiv-
ing a higher concentration accumulating mercury
at a more rapid rate. Indi-vidual fish in all
groups had higher mercury concentrations in
their muscle than were present in their diet.

Phys ological Effects

Juvenile Coho Burrows, 1964 toxicity effects ammonia 0.002 mgll Progressive gill hyperplasia is produced in
Sa 1 mon fingerling chinook salmon at concentrations of
(Oncorhynchus 0.002 mg/l of ammonia.

OTHER FISH

Acute/Toxic Effects

Channel Catfish Bonn & Follis, bioassay hydrogen sulfide 1.5 to 10.9 ppm 3 hr TLM's exposed to un-ionized hydrogen sul-
(Ictalurus punctatus) 1967 112S undissolved sul- fide for channel catfish fry ranged from 0.8 ppil
fides (0.4 to at a pli of 6.8 to 0.53 ppm at a pil of 7.8. Most
0.9 ppm unionized deaths occurred within 10 minutes at the TLM
H2S) values. Fingerling catfish were more sensitive
than adults.

Fathead Minnow Pickering & bioassay heavy metals (lead) 5.6 to 7.3 mg/l 96 hr LC50 for fathead minnows was 5.6 to 7.3
(Pj@Lepheles Henderson, 1966 mg Pb/l .
jEom-e @Is_j_

Species/ Ila bi tat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

Eli
yllplo ical Effects

Flagfish Spehar et aL, toxicity effects heavy metals 4.3 to 8.5 ug Cd/l A comparison of survival rates of flagfish
(Tordanella floridae) 1978 (zinc and cadmium) 73.4-139 ug Zn/l exposed to cadmium and zinc as Individual metals
at.id as mixtures showed that the toxicity of the
mixtures was little if any greater than the
toxicity of zinc alone. Cadmium and zinc did
not act additively when combined at sublethal
@oncentrations, however,,joint action was
indicated. Tissue uptake of one vietal was not
influenced by the presence of the other metal.
A significant decrease was observed in the
@urvival of larvae exposed as embryos to
individual zinc and cadmium concentrations.
However, similar effects on survival were not
observed with progeny of earlier chronic tests.

Winter Flounder Schmidt-Nielsen intramuscular heavy metals 4mg C113HgCl/ml Increase in mercury concentration in tissues was
(Pseudopleuronectes 1977 injection- (mercury) in'50% ethanol roughly proportional to the total dose given.
americanusY_ histopathological solution Accumulation of mercury in gills up to 24 ppin
examination did not decrease the ability of the flounders
to hypo-osmoregulate as has been reported for
other fish species (Renfro et al., 1974).

Bluegill (Lepomls Atchison et al., observation of heavy metals 1.1 to 270 ug/l The relative levels of contamination in blue-
macrochirus)-_ 1977 contaminated lakes (zinc, lead, cadmium) suspended in water gills from two metal contaminated lakes
and 4.4 to 12,800 closely resembled the relative concentrations
ug/g dry weiqht in of metals in the water and sediment at each
sediment site. Up to 3.4 ug Cd/g dry weight of tissue,
220 ug Zn/g dry weight tissues and 6.1 ug Pb/g
dry weight tissue were found in bluegills
from the contaminated lakes. These levels
were significantly above levels found in fish
from uncontaminated lakes.

Fathead Minnows Mount, 1974 toxicity effects heavy metals 0.07 to 0.12 ug/l Fathead minnows did not spawn and males did
(Pimepheles (mercury) not develop sexually when exposed to mercury
concentrations of 0.12 ug/l. No toxic effects
were noted at 0.07 ug/l.

Fathead Minnows Pickering, 1974 bioassay- heavy metals 380 ug/l Survival, growth and reproduction of fathead
(Primepheles toxicity effects minnows were unaffected at and below nickel
pLome I a sJ_ concentrations of 380 ug/l.

Fi sh McKim, 1974 toxicity effects heavy metals Concentrations of mercury in excess of 10,000
(mercury) times those present in surrounding water have
been found in fish.

Behavioral Effects

Channel Catfish Bonn & Follis, bioassay hydrogen sulfide sublethal When catfish of varying ages were exposed to
(Ictalurus punctatus) 1967 112S sublethal concentrations of unionized hydrogen
sulfide (0.2 ppm of TLM for given PH) they
exhibited nervousness and hyperactivity.

U-1
N)

Species/11abitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation
I
SHRIMP

Acute/Toxic Effects

Shrimp Nimmo et a]., flow through heavy metals .079 mg/I to The 96 hr and 30 day LC50's for pink shrimp
(Penaeus duorarum 1977 bioassay and (cadmium) 1.285 mg/l (P. duorarum) were 3.5 mg Cd/l and 0.718 m
and--P-aT-aemonetes toxicity tests CU/1 respectively. The 96 hr and 29 day
vulgaris) LC50's for grass shrimp (E. vulgaris) were
0.76 mg Cd/l and 0.12 mg Cd/T -respectively.
Shrimp bioaccumulated cadmium up to 57 times
surrounding water concentrations. Bioaccumu-
lation occurred at concentrations as low as 2
ug/l. Exposure of shrimp to cadmium concen-
trations close to LC50's resulted in blackened
gills, which were sloughed off by surviving
shrimp after return to clean water. Cadmium
was also accumulated from contaminated food
but at a much lower rate.

European Portmann, 1972 bioassay heavy metals PPM Toxicity data for heavy metal ions are as
Brown Shrimp follows:
(Cranqan
crangon), Metal ion Valency 48 h LC50 in ppm, w/v
European Cockle tested Crang2n Cardium Vish*
(Cardium crangon eduT-e
:e@u @e + 10-33 1 1-3-
Copper 2 . T__UT
Chromium 6+ 100 100-330 33-100 (A)
Iron 3+ 33-100 100-330
Mercury 2+ 3.3-10 3.3-10 3.3 N
Nickel 2+ 100-330 >330
Zinc 2+ 100-330 100-330

(A) Agonus cataehractus; IF) Pleuronectes
flesu s 11ortmann, 191Z)
Behavioral effects were tested b@ observing
avoidance reactions to various metal concentrat-
ions. Shrimp were found to have a positive
avoidance reaction to copper; the minimum con-
centration causing significant avoidance was
between 0.33 and 0.5 ppm, compared with 48
hour LC50 values of 10 to 33 ppm. There was no
avoidance reaction to mercury up to 100 ppm or
with zinc up to 33 ppm; on the contrary at low
concentrations, i.e. with 0.1-1 ppm mercury and
3.3-33 ppm of zinc, there was an attraction ef-
fect. Since the 48 hour LC50 for mercury lies
between 3.3 and 10 ppm this could have serious
consequences, particularly if the more suscep-
tible larvae exhibit the same behavior.

@@s/Habitat Refe-rence Type of Experiment- Petroleum Product Concentration Effect and Evaluation

CLAMS,_OYSTERS, MUSSELS

Acute/Toxic Effects
Oysters Oliveira, 1924 toxic effects hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide generated by a deposit on the
112S bottom of a bay was an important factor in
causing the death of young oysters.

Oysters Menzel & Hopkins, toxicity effects formation water discharge of 6000 Trays of oysters within 25 ft of the effluent
1951 and 1953 barrels/day suffered heavy mortalities. Mortalities were
noted out to 75 ft with evidence of stunted
growth to about 150 ft. There was evidence
of stimulated growth from 150 ft. to about
500 ft.
American Oyster Calabrese et al.,- bioassay heavy metals (nickel) 1.180 m/I One-half the embryos of American oysters were
(Crassostrea 1973 killed after a two day exposure to nickel
j!&-irl ca concentrations of 1.180 m91l.
American Oyster Calabrese et a]., bioassay heavy metals (lead) 1.730 mg/I One-half of a test population of oyster eggs
(Crassostrea 1973 were killed by a two day exposure to 1.730
7v T7rRj -n-a-T mq/1.

Physiological Effects
American Oyster Pringle, 1968 bioassay heavy metals (lead) 100-200 ug/I Long-term exposure to lead concentrations of
(Crassostrea 100-200 ug/I causes considerable atrophy and
diffusion of the gonadal tissue, edema and
less distinction of the hepatopancreas and
mantel edge of the American oyster.

Oysters, Diatoms, Mackin, 1950 aquaria formation water 2.5 ppt Over a 4 month period, heavy growth of
and Algae algae occurred and the oysters stored signif-
icantly more glycogen and had lower mortality
than controls.
Behavioral Effects

Bivalves (Mytilus Capuzzo and toxicity effects heavy metals 0.01 mg Cr/g clay Reduction of filtration rates and disturbed
edulis and Sasner, 1977 (chromium) to 1.2 mg Cr/g clay ciliary activity were observed in response to
@a i-renaria) and I mg Cr/I sea uptake of dissolved chromium by Mya arenaria
water and uptake of dissolved and particMi-te b-ound
chromium by MyLilqs edulis. Inefficient
retention of food pa@_H_E_Ies (due to slower
erratic movement of the cilia) and a reduction
in oxygen consumption were also observed.

Oysters Lunz, 1950 toxicity effects Louisiana formation 10,000-100,000 ppm A significant decrease in pumping rates of
water oysters occurred at 100,000 ppm. Pump i ng
returned to normal after oysters were returned
to clean water. No changes in pumping rate
were noted at 10,000 and 50,000 ppm.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Experiment Petroleum Product Concentration Effect arid Evaluati

OTHER AQUATIC SPECIES

Acute/Toxic Effects

Copepod Biesinger A bioassay heavy metals (nickel) 130 ug/ql A three week exposu
(Dpahnia magna) Christensen, 1972 130 ug/I nickel kil
of Daphnia magna.

Copepod Gentile, 1975 bioassay heavy metals (nickel) 625 ug/l A four day exposure
(Arctia tonsa) of 625 ug/I killed
of the marine copep

Benthic Organisms Armstrong et al., observation of formation water Undiluted effluent Sediments 15 m from
1979 outflow 15 ppm total oil, bay had hydrocarbon
1.62 ppm total great as concentrat
naphthalenes bottom water 15 m f
magnitude less. Th
organisms within 15
fauna was severely
of a second tempora
rapid buildup of na
ing sediments which
months following sh
also severely depre

Bottom and Pelagic Mackin, 1971 toxicity effects formation water Studies of formatin 6
Communities oilfields in Texas
communities almost
50 ft of heavy disc
effect out to 300 f
growth was observed
thousand feet out.

fish and Shaw, 1976 literature review 1-12S & mercaptans 1 ppm Hydrogen sulfide an
Invertebrates water quality (RSH) mercaptans (RSH) ar
and most invertebra
H25.

Physiological Effects

Copepod Biesinger & toxicity effects heavy metals 0.3 ug/I Daphnia major (a sm
(Daphnia major) Christensen, 1972 (lead) showed 16% reproduc
exposed to a lead c

Copepod Biesinger & bioassay heavy metals sublethal A 16% reproduction
(Daphnia magna) Christensen, 1972 (nickel) Daphnia magna expos
of 30 ug/l.

Copepod. Anderson, 1944 toxicity effects heavy metals 4.3 to 7.5 mg/l Toxic effects and s
(Daphnia sp.) (arsenic) Daphnia sp. occur a
7.5 mg As/4.3

Aquatic species Gilderhaus, 1966 toxicity effects heavy metals 2.3 mg Reduced growth of fi
(freshwater) (arsenic) plankton occurred a
at 2. 3 mg/l .

355

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

a low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of formation water

discharge (see Map G). These designations were based on existing data

and were made after evaluating the following criteria:

1. The sensitivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to the effects of.formation water discharge.

2. The degree of sensitivity to formation water discharge as

exhibited by each species during the various stages of its

life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

and the period during which each species would be most affected.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The charactenistics of receiving waters.

6. The productivity of the habitat.

7. The uniqueness of the habitat.

8. The species population numbers and relative importance of the

population.

356

9. The degree to which the impacts of formation water discharge

could be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during the

course of ranking are as follows:

1. Due to the extreme importance of the nearshore area to a

variety of marine species, and because toxic components of

formation waters may become concentrated in both organisms

(bioconcentration) and substrate (suspended sediment adsorption

and settling) if adequate dilution processes do not occur, the

very nearshore area seaward to the 30 ft. bathymetric contour

line has been designated as a high sensitivity area.

2. The moderate sensitivity designations surrounding St. Lawrence

Island, the Yukon Delta, and the mouth of Norton Sound eastward,

have been assigned in order to provide a buffer zone against

formation water discharge occurring directly adjacent to high

sensitivity areas. These designations were applied as a

result of weak or unknown circulation regimes, and should act

to.prevent an.accumulation of toxic hydrocarbon fractions

within the water column or bottom sediments.

3. Productive habitats such as wetlands, tideflats, estuaries or

lagoons have been assigned a high impact value based upon

their limited size and demonstrated importance to a variety of

357

species. Additionally, any formation water discharge in these

areas could result in a direct degradation of habitat and a

long-term retention of toxic hydrocarbon fractions within

reducing sediments.

4. Based on toxicity studies and nearshore. rearing requirements,

juvenile finfish such as salmon, herring, capelin, and Arctic

char are likely to receive the greatest impacts from formation

water discharge.

5. Formation waters can be acutely toxic to crustaceans and

molluscs, particularly larval forms; however, areas important

for critical li-fe history stages in the northern Bering

Sea and Norton Sound region are pres.ently unknown, and have

not been identified. This should not imply that these areas

do not exist or that they are not vulnerable to the toxic

effects of formation wate r discharge.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures

LOW SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of low sensitivity applies to those areas where the

impacts of formation water discharge are believed to be less adverse

than in moderate or high sensiti vity areas. Such areas would support

species or habitats which are relatively resistant to the impacts of

formation waters, or wh ich are, for the most part, widely distributed.

358

Characteristically, low sensitivity areas have strong currents which

provide for adequate dilution and dispersion of the toxic components

found in formation waters.

Formation waters that are discharged into Federal marine waters must be

treated to meet Federal EPA (Envi-ronmental Protection Agency) water

quality standards. Formation waters that are discharged into State

waters (within the 3 mile limit) must meet State water quality standards

for petroleum hydrocarbon content, oxygen levels, and toxic substance

content, which have been established by the Alaska Department of Environment al

Conservation.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

The designation of moderate sensitivity applies to areas where the

adverse impacts associated with the discharge of formation waters can be

prevented, minimized or ameliorated. Species or habitats which are

present in these areas are likely to be moderately affected by formation

water discharges.

Areas included in this category are:

1. Areas of sluggish circulation

2. Shorefast ice zone

3. Areas receiving longshore sediment tr ansport

4. Eelgrass beds

5. King crab concentration areas

359

6. Shrimp possible high density areas

7. Clam possible high density areas

8. Herring nearshore feeding and rearing areas

9. Possible herring spawning areas

10. Capelin spawning areas and possible spawning areas

11. Nearshore rearing areas for juvenile fish

12. Bottomfish areas of high abundance, including saffron cod,
yellowfin sole, starry flounder, and Arctic cod

13. Salmon nearshore migration areas

14. Sand lance concentrations

15. Seabird concentrations on water at the base of colonies

16. Waterfowl and shorebird spring concentration areas

17. Waterfowl and shorebird nesting, molting, and stag ing areas,
including: major and important waterfowl staging areas, emperor
geese molting and staging areas, snow geese staging areas,
swan nesting/use areas, sandhill crane use areas, shorebird
fall staging areas and important habitat

Formation water discharges should be conducted according to existing

environmental regulations. Additional measures to mitigate the impacts

of formation water discharges on moderate sensiti'v.ity areas include:

1. Wherever pos sible, formation waters should be reinjected back

into offshore' or onshore subsurface strata in a manner that

will not pollute surface or subsurface waters.

2. Formation waters containing significant amounts (as determined

by Environmental Protection Agency.or Department of Environmental

Conservation marine discharge standards) of heavy metals,

360

hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, or other toxic chemicals

should not be discharged into the marine environment.

3. To insure that all potentially adverse impacts are mitigated,
the following information is needed before siting- a facility
that will discharge formation waters:

a. A study should be conducted on the body of water into

which the formation waters will be discharged in order to

determine the rate of flushing; the volume of the water

basin; the pattern of water movement; and the suspended

sediment load by season.

b.. The type of facility that will be discharging formation

water, the rate, volume, and composition of formation

water that will be discharged; and

C. The degree to which formation waters will have to be

treated before being discharged so that they do not alter

or reduce the carrying capacity of the coastal environment.

In order to implement these guidelines, site specific studies

will have to be conducted and mitigating measures adopted on a

case by case basis. In many instances, the chemical composition

and quantity of formation water will need to be monitored

prior to setting effluent limitations. In instances where

information is not available regarding the effects of formation

361

.waters on the various stages of animal life history, more

research will have to be done to determine those impacts.

4. Do not discharge formation waters into any freshwater lake or

stream.

5. Facilities should not be located in vital habitats such as

wetlands, tideflats or estuaries. These highly productive

areas are important for the production and harvest of waterfowl,

crabs, clams, herring, salmon, and a varie ty of other fish

species.

6. Facilities releasing formation waters should be sited in areas

with good circulation and strong currents, where the discharged

effluent will be rapidly diluted and dispersed. Formation

water discharge into shallow waters with weak circulation will

cause the greatest environmental damage and is discouraged.

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of high sensitivity are defined as those habitats where the impacts

of formation water discharge are likely to be extremely adverse to fish

and wildlife resources. The nearshore area seaward to the 30 ft. bathy-

metric contour line would be included in this designation.

High sensitivity areas include:

362

1. Recurrent spring open water areas

2. Wetlands, tideflats, estuaries or lagoons

3. Fucus kelp beds and eelgrass concentrations

4. Arctic char concentrations

5. Herring spawning and wintering areas

6. Juvenile fish nearshore rearing areas

7. Salmon steams

8. Salm on fry nearshore feeding and rearing areas

9. Sheefish/whitefish streams

Facilities that are designed to discharge formation waters into surface

waters should not be sited in areas of high sensitivity because of the

potential adverse effects of acute or chronic oil and heavy metal pollution.

Reinjection or disposal wells are an environmentally suitable alternative

to surface discharge in these sensitive habitats if subsurface. aquifers

and permafrost are protected.

TABLE 37: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES
OR HABITATS ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO FORMATION WATERS

HABITATS JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCI NOY DEC
AREA OF SLUGGISH CIRCULATION

SHOREFAST ICE ZONE

AREA OF FIRST OPEN WATER IN SPRING

LONGS"ORE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
INTO AREA

EELGRABS BEDS

FUCUSIKELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE /HEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLAYS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEIREAWLY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

ESTUARYILA430ON

FIB" A SHELLFISH
KING CRAB CONCENTRATION AREA

SHRIMP POSSIBLE HIGH DENSITY AREA

CLAM POSSIBLE HIGH DENSITY AREA

SALMON
STREAM
NEAASHORE MIGRATION AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE REARING AREA
FRY AND JUVENME NEARS"ORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR CONCENTRATION AREA

HERRING
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA
WINTERING AREA
NEARSHORE FEEDINGIREARING AREA

CAPEL[H
SPAWNING AREA
POSS113LE SPAWNING AREA

JUVENILE FISH
NEARSHORE REARING AREA

SAFFRON COD
AREA OF HIGH ABUNDANCE

YELLOWFIN BOLE
AREA OF HIGH ABUNDANCE

STARRY FLOUNDER
AREA OF HIGH ABUNDANCE

ARCTIC COD
AREA OF HIGH ABUNDANCE

SHEEFISII AND/OR WHITEFISH STREAM

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

TABLE 37 (CONT.) MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES
OR HABITATS ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO FORMATION WATERS

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
BIRDS
SEABIRD
CONCENTRATION ON WATER
AT BASE OF COLONY

WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRD
SPRING CONCENTRATION AREA

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLTING AREA
8TA13ING AREA

SNOW GEESE
OTAGIN40 AREA

SWAN
NESTING/USE AREA

$A"DHILL CRANE
USE AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

I
I
c
1 0
1 0
L
I I
N
I G
I w
A
I T
E
I R
s
I &.
I w
I A
T
1, E
R
I
w
I I
T
I H
D
I I

I R
I A
w
I A

365

COOLING WATERS AND WATER WITHDRAWAL

Sources and Biological Effects

Various oil and gas related facilities includ ing treatment facilities,

oil refineries, petrochemical plants, LNG (liquified natural gas) plants,

and power plants (providing energy for oil and gas facilities) require

large quantities of water for cooling and processing purposes (Longley

et al., 1978; DCRA, 1978). Water is also required for drilling, construction

and maintenance of snow and ice roads, dust control, hydrostatic testing,

waterflooding (the injection of water into the formation to increase

pressure at the well site), and for domestic use. Water requirements

are met by drawing water from nearby lakes, streams, springs, estuaries,

lagoons, bays, or the ocean, by collecting groundwater runoff, or by

melting s-how and ice.

Cooling Waters

Cooling waters are used to reduce waste heat produced by the various

industrial processes associated with production and processing of oil

and gas products. Both-open cycle and closed cycle cooling systems are

used to cool industrial waste water. Open cycle cooling systems use

natural water bodies as both a source of cooling water and a means of

disposing of the heated effluent; whereas, closed cycle cooling systems

recirculate water within the cooling structure. Closed cycle systems

may utilize air cooling towers, cooling ponds, or spray canals. Closed

366

cycle cooling systems have been designed so that they use only 2 to 4'/,,

as much water as is used by open cycle cooling systems. Consequently,

only 1/25 to 1/50 of the aquatic organisms that are destroyed by onc6-

through cooling systems are destroyed by using closed cooling systems.

Currently, most facilities that use large quantities of cooling waters

are designed to operate with closed cooling systems. Open cycle systems

have become less environmentally desirable because of their potential

damage to aquatic systems, the increasing size of the industrial plants,

and.the limited supplies of cooling water available. Closed cycle

cooling systems are more expensive to build and operate, but cause less

damage to the aquatic environment (Clark, 1977).

Any oil and gas related facility with an open cycle cooling system,

which.withdraws large quantities of water for cooling and then discharges

the heated effluent back into a freshwater or marine environment, will

adversely impact fish and wildlife resources. Open cycle cooling is

much more destr uctive than closed cycle cooling, because the cooling

waters are extracted from nearby lakes, estuaries, rivers, and underground

wells. The aquatic life in these natural waters is threatened by passage
through plant cooling systems (entrainm.ent), by entrapment on the protective

screens of water-intake structures. (impingement), by the discharge of

heated water into the aquatic environment (thermal pollution), and by

the discharge of toxic chemicals used to prevent fouling by marine

organisms (chemical pollution) (Longley et al. 1978; Murarka, 1977).

The use of wells for a cooling water source may also be environmentally

damaging because the tremendous amounts of groundwater required may

depress the water table, drying up lakes and streams.

367

Entrainment is the major source of environmental disturbance associated

with the use of cooling waters. It is a process by which aquati c organisms

such as plankton, fish, and larval stages of shellfish are exposed to

heat, shock, turbulence, and abrasion as they are drawn in with cooling

waters. The effects can be severe if facilities using cooling waters
are located in estuarine spawning and nursery areas of fish or shellfish.

The eggs, larval stages, and juvenile forms of these species are found

in the water and may be killed by passage through a cooling system

(Clark and Terrell, 1978;'Clark, 1977). For example, up to 165.5 million

menhaden (a marine fi-sh of the herring family) larvae were killed each

day by entrainment at the Brayton Point Power Plant in Massachusetts

during the summer of 1971. At the same plant fifty million fish were.

killed in 11 days. Another power plant, located.along the Hampton-

Seabrook Estuary in New Hampshire, was responsible forthe entrainment

and subsequent death of 74 mil lion clam larvae per day (Boreman, 1977).

Screens used to keep debris out of the cooling water intake often act as

a trap for marine and freshwater organisms. When cooling waters are

drawn into.a plant, fish and other aquatic organisms may become entrapped

or impinged on the intake screens resulting in damage or death from

starvation, exhaustion, and asphyxiation (Barnes, 1976). During the

fall of 1972, six million herring were killed by impingement on the

screen of a cooling water intake structure at a power station on the

James River in Virginia (Clark and Brownell, 1973). At the Oyster Creek

power plant in New Jersey, approximately 10,000 fish and 5,000 crabs per,

month were destroyed by impingement during the spring and summer of

1971. About 400,000 fish and 10,000 shellfish are killed by impingement

annually at a power plant near Cedar Key, Florida (_Borema,n, 1977). Fish

368

attracted to the warmer waters may be unable to escape the strong currents

generated by the intake, and may be drawn to and suffocated on the

intake screens where water enters the cooling systems (Clark, 1977). At

the Indian Point power station in the Hudson River estuary, thermal

attraction appeared to contribute to high winter screen kills of fish

and other aquatic organisms (Clark and Brownell, 1973).

Fish and other aquatic organisms can also be trapped in intake channels

where screens are set back into the channel. Entrapment can occur

because species cannot overcome the current and leave the system (velocity

entrapment), or because species will not leave the channel (behavioral

entrapment). Entrapped fish will remain in the intake channel until

they tire or otherwise become impinged on the intake screens. Juvenile

fish and larval stages are most likely to be entrapped by current velocities

in intake structures. Behavioral entrapment can occur if fish are

attracted to currents present in the intake, if the opening to open

water is small compared to the size of the channel, and if a "skimmer

wall" is present to allow water withdrawal from under the ice.. Pelagic

species entering the intake channel under such a wall may not be able to

escape because their midwater behavioral adaptions maynot allow them to

find the low entrance (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District,

1980).

Thermal pollution resulting from the discharge of heated effluent water

into marine waters can affect the entire aquatic ecosystem. The amount

of damage caused by the discharge of cooling waters will depend on 1)

369

temperature of the discharged effluent, 2) the volume of discharged

waters, and 3) the size and flushing characteristics of the water basin

which the cooling waters are withdrawn from or discharged into. Animal

behavior including feeding,,spawning, migration, and predator-prey

relationships may be altered. The amount of damage inflicted upon the

natural life patterns and the behavior of aquatic.species depends on the

size and flushing characteristics of the receiving waters and the amount

and temperature of the discharged effluent. If water temperatures are

changed, species that cannot tolerate these alterations may be killed or

will relocate. Desirable species may be replaced by more toleran t, but

less desirable species. The species of fish and shellfish found in

Alaskan waters are generally adapted to a fairly narrow temperature

range, and may be killed by temperature changes of 1-2 degrees Celsius

(2-3 degrees Farenheit). Zooplankton drawn in with cooling waters at a

nuclear power plant on the Connecticut River were all killed when passed

through the cooling condenser at temperatures above 31'C (88'F). Mortalities

were attributed to heat shock (Massengill, 1976). Other species become

acclimatized to the warm effluent pl ume created by the discharge of

coolin g waters and die of thermal shock whe n the system is shut down for

maintenance or when temperatures are altered (Clark, 1977). In laboratory

tests, 50% of the juvenile sockeye and coho salmon tested died when

temperatures were dropped from 50 to OOC (410 to 320F). When a power

plant on the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania was forced to shut down

during winter, the temperature in the mixing zone dropped from 26.70 to

2.20C (800 to 360F) killing an estimated 23,178 fish which had congregated

in the warmer waters. Thermal effluents also have a critical effect on

370

seagrasses such as eelgrass. All seagrasses appear to have upper and

lower temperature tolerance levels. The upper level for eelgrass is 30'

Celsius (86"Farenheit). Above these levels, leaf kill and plant death

set in. Jay Zieman of the University of Virginia and Anitra Thorhaug of

Florida International University have documented the extensive damage

done to another seagrass, Thalassia sp., in Biscayne Bay by heated

effluents from two fo ssil fuel and two nuclear power plants at Turkey

Point. Discharges from the plants raised water temperatures in the

nearby waters of Biscayne Bay 5'C (9'F) above the ambient temperature.

All plants in an area of about 9.3 hectares off the mouth of the discharge

canal disappeared, while those in an area 30 hectares farther out declined

by about 50 percent. The ani mal communities associated with these

meadows also disappeared (Phillips, 1978).

Cooling systems tend to become fouled with algae, bacteria, and planktonic

life and may lose their efficiency. Chlorine and other algacides are

added to the water and flushed through the system to kill these organisms

(NERBC, 1976). Unfortunately, chlorine and the chloramine compounds

which are formed when chlorine enters fresh and marine waters are extremely

toxic to fish and other marine life. Thedeath of fish exposed to

chlorine and its related compounds has generally been.attributed to
damage of the epi-thelial cells of gills, resulting in ultimate suffocation

of the fish (Tsai, 1975). It is probabl e that chlorine affects other

marine organisms similarly. Holland et al. (1960), indicated that

chinook salmon started to die in sea water containing 0.25 mg/l of

chlorine. The maximum non-lethal (in 23 days) concentration of residual

chlorine for pink salmon and coho salmon in sea water was 0.05 mg/l.

371

Taylor and James (1928) reported that 0.3 mg1l of free chlorine killed

rainbow trout in two hours and that 0.25 mg/l proved fatal to fingerling

trout in four to five hours, but had no effect on goldfish in 42 hours.

Conventry et al. (1935) indicated that some delicate species of fish are

sensitive to residual chlorine or chloramines as low as 0.05 mg/l.

Concentrations of 0.01 mg/l with maximum 0.06 mg/l,chlorine are fatal.to

trout fry in 48 hours. Tsai (1973) i ndicated that if all species of

fish are to be protected in areas immediately below sewage outfalls, the

standard would be no detectable total residual chlorine in the discharge.

Chlorine also is known to affect fish behavior. Dandy (1967, 1972)

showed that exposure of brook trout to chlorine evoked changes in activity,

ventilation, the coughing reflex, and. at lethal levels, a heavy secretion

of mucus. Locomotory activity increased initially and was subsequently

depressed. Both responses were seen at 0.35 and 0.08 ppm, but at the

sublethal level of 0.005 mg/l, the initital increase in activity was not

seen.

Tsai (1970) found that chlorinated sewage effluents became an ecological

barrier, blocking upstream migration of semi-anadromous white perch and

white catfish, and.potamo.dromous white sucker and northern redhorse in

the Patuxent River, Maryland. It is probable that chlorine contaminated

effluents from cooling water discharges will have similar effects on

salmon and marine fish migrations.

Very little information is available on the effects of chlorine and

chloramines on other marine organisms; however, they are probably very

372

harmful, especially to sessile organisms which cannot avoid the effluent.

Muchmore and Epel (1973) found that unchlorinated domestic sewage is a

relatively mild inhibitor of external marine fertilization in three

species of marine invertebrates. Chlorinated sewage is a very potent

fertilization inhibitor, active in concentrations as low as 0.05 mg/l

available chlorine. Primary effects of both chlorinated and unchlorinated

sewage are on sperm. Use of chlorine disinfection in cooling waters

outfalls could also contribute to reproductive failure in external

fertilization of marine in-vertebrates in the vicinity of the initial

diluting water of such outfalls.

Cooling waters can also become contaminated by hydrocarbons or petrochemicals

leaking into the cooling system. These toxic substances can also cause
disturbances to aquatic organisms in receiving waters (NERBC, 1978).

Water Withdrawal

Water is a necessary component of petroleum development. Although much

of the water is used for cooling, water is also required for hydrostatic

testing, drilling, maintenance of roads, waterflooding and domestic use

(USGS, 1979). The Prudhoe Bay waterflood project was designed to withdraw
4.07 m3/s (64, 200 gal/min) from coastal waters (U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, Alaska District, 1980). Domestic water requirements can

range from 283 to 756 liters (75 to 200 gallons) per day/per person

(USGS, 1979).

373

Because of limited water resources, marine waters will be used for large

scale water withdrawals such as for waterflooding. Impacts of these

withdrawals will be similar to those described previously for cooling

waters. For smaller water requirements and where fresh water is required,

rivers, lakes, streams or man made storage areas may be used.

Natural freshwater sources are limited'in the Norton Sound-northern

Bering Sea region. There is a lack of surface runoff due to low precipitation,

the presence of permafrost, and numerous low mountains. Peak flows in

streams typically occur in May through August with minimum flows occurring

from December through March. Ground water-sources (,for wells) are

primarily available beneath c'hannels of larger streams and adjacent to

large lakes (Hanley et al., 1980).

The magnitude of impacts caused by water withdrawals will vary according

to se ason. In summer, if water withdrawals are spread out over several

rivers or other large water bodies, impacts will probably be limited to

small erosional problems at sites where the withdrawal occurs. Entrainment

of aquatic organisms will occur but can be limited by proper design and

screening of intake structures. Use of water from small to medium

arctic streams during the fall can be particularly deleterious, as the

habitat of aquatic organisms and fish is altered, and normal water

levels are not restored until the following spring. Withdrawing water

from streams without adequate recharge rates can lower water levels,

affecting fish spawning areas and other important aquatic habitats.

During the winter, flow rates in all arctic streams decline to a fraction

of summer levels, and the remaining overwintering habitat for fish and

other aquatic life is comprised of a series of pools connected by minimal

under ice and intergravuler flows. In winter, removal of water from

374

stores beneath ice may create several ecological problems. If all water

is withdrawn from an area supporting aquatic organisms, all of the

organisms living in that habitat will die. When some of the water is

,removed, organisms crowded into the remaining volume may cause a buildup

of waste metabolites or a decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration due

to respiratory activities. Partial removal may also dewater gravels

which contain developing fish embryos (USGS, 1979).

Table 38 Effects of cooling waters and water withdrawals on fish, wildlife. aquatic plants and their habitats

Species/lIabitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

FISH

Acute/Toxic Effects

Juvenile Salmon Smith et al., unknown impingement The injury rate resulting from scale loss was inversely
(Oncorhynchus 1969 proportional to fish size (i.e., small fish are affected great-
spp.) ly by scale loss). For salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) less than
30 cm. in length, death occurred tKree to eTghteen hours after
30-50 percent scale loss. In addition, fish behavior after
scale loss was observed to change markedly. One hour after
descaling, juvenile salmon were noticeably less active and less
alert to visual stimuli than were controls. Loss of
equilibrium occurred approximately three hours after descaling,
followed by a decrease in respiration and activity. In
general, death occurred approximately four hours after
descaling. The time sequence varied with the severity of scale
loss. Loss of body weight followed descaling in marine
species, presumably as the result of osmotic removal of water
and body fluid through the injured skin surface and the gills.

Herring Clark and literature review impingement Six million herring were killed by impingement on the screen of
(Clupea harengus) Brownell, 1973 a cooling water intake structure at a power plant on the Thomas
River in Virqinia.
Menhaden larvae Boreman, 1977 literature review entrainment Up to 165.5 million menhaden (ma rine fish of herring family')
(Brevoortia sp.) larvae were killed per day by entrainment at the Brayton Point
Power Plant in Massassachusetts during the summer of 1971. At
the same plant 50 million fish were killed in eleven days.

Larval Fish Hoss et al., laboratory tests entrainment Conditions of entrainment were simulated in the laboratory to
(Lagodon 1974 investigate the effects of thermal shock, the combined effects
Aolilbo des) of thermal shock and copper, and the combined effects of
(F-ara-Mchthys sp. thermal shock and ch 'lorine on the survival of larval fish. A
(firevoortia cycling acclimation temperature was found to reduce the effects
yrannus F of themal shock on larval pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides. Sur-
(MU-11-ce lus) vival of pinfish held for twenty fou'r-h-o-urs in water-containing
1.0 ppm copper prior to thermal shock was significantly reduced
at shock temperatures of 12' and 15* above acclimation tem-
peratures. Flounder (Paralichthys sp.) Atlantic menhaden,
(Brevoorti a tyrannusi s_tr-i_p_eT_wu_TTe_t, (Mugil !c@@us) safely
withstood Timited exposure to 0.3 ppm chlorine at ikient
temperature: up to five minutes for mullet and flounder,
and up to seven minutes for menhaden. Reductions in survival
occurred at exposures longer than the above, and further
reductions occurred with the addition of heat. Survival was
reduced still further at chlorine concentrations of 0.5 ppm in
some cases at ambient teinperatures. The experiments indica@e
that the interaction between heat and chlorine is synergistic.

LC50 = concentration required to kill 50% of the test animals
LT50 = temperature required to kill 50% of the test animals

W
14
Ln

Species/Habitat Reference of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Fish Pavlov and literature review, entrainment Work in USSR on fish bypass systems showed that using fine mesh
Pakhorukov, laboratory and fish diversion screens, and depending upon approach velocity
1973 prototype and bypass flow, bypass of 10-40 mm (0.4-1.6 in) fish could be
studies achieved with up to 97.6 percent efficiency.

fish Taft et al., field observations entrainment Studies of bypass by fish 25-150 mm (1-6 in), were con-
1976 ducted for a number of large power plants. It was found that
an angled 9.5 mm (3/8 in) screen oriented at 250 to the flow
was able to bypass 100 percent of the fish tested. Of the fish
bypassed, there was 96 percent one-week latent survival,

Fish Ray et al., literature review entrainment Mechanisms and intake designs for reducing the number of fish
Larval fish 1976 impingement entrained and impinged at water intake facilities were evaluat-
ed. Special consideration was given to designs that protect
small fish and larvae. The conclusions were: (1) although
several successful applications of electrical, air, and lower
barriers have been reported, behavioral barriers in general
showed limited applicability to power plants, (2) high savings
of impingeable-sized fish were reported with a vertical travel-
ing screen with attached water carrying troughs to lift fish
from the screen wall as the screen continuously rotates, (3)
most power plant screens are incapable of protecting larval
fish, and (4) plant siting in least productive areas is
viewed as the most important consideration in terms of mitigat-
ing fish loss.

Fi sh Tomijanovich unknown impingement The author found a strong inverse relationship between impinge-
et al., 1977 ment duration and survival, particularly for impingement times
in excess of four minutes.

Post larval Noss el al., laboratory entrainment The critical thermal maximum (the temperature at which an
and juvenile 1971 studies thermal shock animal loses its ability to escape from conditions that will
Menhaden Spot kill it) for post larval and juvenile menhaden, spot, and
(Brevoortia pinfish acclimated at 15% was 29.4', 31.0', and 31.0'C
tyrannus), respectively. Oxygen constimption increased as temperature
(1-eiostomus increased indicating additional environmental expenditure was
xantYu-ru-sT. necessary to maintain the fish at elevated temperatures. At
a iFd _p -in-fT-s h temperatures of 15*C above normal environmental temperature,
(Lagodon all of the menhaden, spot, and pinfish died within five to ten
Ffiom5o-ides) minutes. When first placed in the test tank, all fish were
quiet. Increased temperature caused in succession: rapid
swimming; spasms; flaring or spreading of the opercula, and;
finally death,

Fi sh Noss et al., literature review thermal pollution The use of weekly average temperatures as the basis for deter-
1979 mining safe discharge plume temperatures during cold months
may not provide enough protection if the plume temperature
fluctuates widely enough during the week to permit fish in the
plume to become acclimated to a temperature significantly
higher than the average weekly p1time temperature. Knowledge

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

of rates of acclimation in fishes is rudimentary and based
almost entirely on constant temperature exposures rather than
on exposures to cyclic or variable temperatures. liowever, the
evidence generally indicates that acclimation to an elevated
temperature proceeds more rapidly than does acclimation to a
lower temperature, and therefore that thermal tolerances of
fish exposed to fluctuating temperatures tend to correspond to
the maximum rather than the average temperature experienced
during acclimation. Thus during the cooler months the average
weekly temperature in a given discharge plume might be lower
than the temperature to which fish in,that plume are acclimat-
ed; this could result in unanticipated low temperature mor-
tality as a result of interruption of heat discharge, even
though the average plume temperature during the period of heat
discharge was carefully regulated (on the basis of reliable im-
formation on the lower lethal threshold temperature of the
organism of concern) to prevent low temperature mortality.

Larval Becker et al., literature review thermal di.scharge The cold shock resistance of acclimated freshwater juvenile
Sockeye Salmon 1977 thermal shutdown sockeye and coho salmon and estuarine larval Atlantic herring
(Oncorhynchus during thermal shutdown was tested. Fifty percent mortality
nerFaT- occurred when the temperature was reduced (acclimated to
larvaT Coho Salmon ambient) from: 5' to O'C, 10' to 30C, 15' to 41C, and 20" to
(Oncorhynchus VC for juvenile sockeye salmon; 5' to O'C, 10' to 2'C, 15' to
kTsutch) and 3.5% and 20' to 4.50C for juvenile coho salmon; and 7.5' to
I-arval-wtlantic -1.75*C, 11' to -1.5%, and 15* to -0.5% for larval herring.
Ilerring (Cl ea Resistance to cold may vary with salinity for marine and
estuarine species.

Northern Pike Becker et al., literature review thermal discharge When a power plant on the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania
(Esox lucius) 1977 shutdown was forced to shutdown during winter, the temperature in the
mixing zone dropped from 26.7' to 2.2'C. The drop in tempera-
ture killed an estimated 15,388 "valued" fish congregating in
the warmer water. The fish affected were walleye (Stizostedion
vitreum), smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui), Wuqsillunge
TE-sox m@as uinongy), northern pike, and @_arfiiiuispanfish, catfish
'u'
and suc ers. additional 7,790 carp (Cyprin s @@arpio) also
died.

Northern Pike Becker et al., literature review thermal discharge About 250,000 spottail shiner and 250 northern pike were
(Esox lucius), and 1977 shutdown destroyed by thermal shock when a mechanical failure forced an
s@o_ttaff_S-hTners abrupt power plant shutdown in Alberta, Canada, and the tem-
(Notropis perature in an extended discharge canal dropped 16.9% in a 30
min span.

Bluegill Sunfish Speakman and unknown thermal discharge Temperature change rates permitting survival of bluegill
(Lepomis @renkel, 1972 shutdown sunfish were examined experimentally. Rates of increase
Macrohirus) causing mortality were at least 20 times as rapid as cor-
responding rates of decrease, indicating that bluegill com-
pensated more rapidly for increasing temperatures than for
decreasing temperatures. Decline rates providing 50 and

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

90 percent survival during cooling
/hour for 25* to 5 range, 2) -0.
30' to 5C range, and 3) -0.32 an
10C range, respectively. If the
tures was abrupt (such as would oc
the thermal plume), the lower term
5C would have proven lethal.

King Salmon Holland et al., unknown chlorine The maximum non-lethal concentrat
(Oncorhynchus 1960 chlorine for pink salmon and coho
Tshawytscha mg/liter. Concentrations of 0.25
Pink Salmon lethal to king salmon.
(Oncorhynchus
gorbususcha
Coho Salmon
(Oncorhynchus
kisutch

Juvenile Pink Stober and bioassay chlorine King and pink salmon juveniles wer
(Oncorhynchus Hanson, 1974 concentrations (the concentration
gorbuscha) and demand of the receiving seawater h
King Salmoon salmon juveniles the LC50 was 0.5
(Oncorhynchus when tested at the mean ambient te

tshawytscha posure times of 7.5 and 15 min. A
0.25 mg/liter chlorine was found a
Average increased temperatures of
ambient for 7.5, 15, 30 and 60 min
LC50 to 0.1, 0.10, 0.05", and 0.0
was reduced by about a factor of I
at 0.5 mg/liter residual chlorine
posures. The LT50 was reduced by
a 104% increase in temperature at
decreased with exposure at each te
occurred after the 7.5 and 15 min
,$recovering" in ambient sea water;
exposures were sufficient at the hi
cause an LTSO within the exposure 01
was the most acutely toxic to king

For pink salmon juveniles, the LC5
chlorine when tested at the mean au
exposure and decreased to 0.25 mg/I
minute exposures. Average increase
and 9.98q% above ambient after 7.5,
exposures resulted in LC50 concentr
0.1 mg/liter residual chlorine, res
of 9.9'C caused the LT50 to decreas
7.5 min exposure and about 3 times
Salmonids DeGraeve et al., literature review chlorinated cooling The authors recommend that the EPA
(Oncorhynchus 1979 water exposure to residual chlorine be lo
sp.). to 3-5 uj/liter for marine and fres
Freshwater and salmonids. The EPA criteria for sa
Marine Organisms liter and recent 96-hr flow through
some freshwater species are more se
however. equipment sensitive enough
is not widely available.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of St.udy Disturbance Effect and Evaluation
Rainbow trout Taylor and bioassay chlorine Concentrations of 0.3 mg/liter of free chl orine killed rainbow
(Salmo James, 1928 trout in two hours and 0.25 mg/liter proved fatal to finger@
i-a-irdneri) ling trout in four to five hours. No effect was seen on
Codfish codfish in forty-two hours.

Fish, Coventry et al., unknown chlorine Some species of fish are sensitive to residual chlorine or
Trout 1935 chloramines as low as 0.05 mg/liter. An average of 0.01 mg/
liter with maximum of 0.06 mg/liter chlorine are fatal to
trout fry in 48 hours.

Steelhead NWAFC, 1979a field observation water withdrawal Extensive water withdrawals in combination with low water
(Salmo periods (drought or modest flow years) on the Columbia River
9A_rdneri) has forced the truckinq of steelhead smolts from upstream areas
to safe release sites below Bonneville Dam. It was estimated
that steelhead smolts migrating on their own suffered a 93%
mortality. Low flows and resulting higher temperatures
were thought to contribute to the mortality.

freshwater and Wilson et al., literature review water withdrawal Under-ice water depth is considered to be the single most im-
Anadromous Fish 1977 portant factor to fish winter survival. Fish must spawn and
overwinter in portions of aquatic systems where unfrozen space
is available and very low temperatures do not impair develop-
ment of eggs. North of the Brooks Range ice thicknesses above
overwintering pools of fish generally ranges from 1.5 to 3.0
meters. Overwintering fish are generally found where at least
2 meters of water remains unfrozen. However, fish have been
found under ice in water depths as shallow as 0.4 to 0.5
meters.
Physiological Effects

Fish Eggs, Knapp, 1978 literature review entrainment, Fish eggs, larvae, and adults caught in intake currents are
Larvae, exposed to:
Adults
Metabolic stress from avoidance swimming. Fish larvae,
juvenilis and adults often attempt to overcome intake flows
by swimming against induced currents. This behavior can
severely stress respiratory, circulatory and muscular systems.
It can cause the death of escapees -- the stress causing loss
of equilibrium, increasing' susceptibility of predation, and
impaired feeding. Similarly, metabolic stress can contribute
toward the mortality of organisms that do not escape and become
entrained.

Mechanical abrasion from contact with surfaces of intake system
components and solids suspended in intake water. Circulating
water pumps and condenser tubes are the primary sources of
damage. Injury can be external or internal. External damage
usually involves degradation or erosion of protective coverings
membranes of fish eggs and larvae and scales of juvenile and
adult fish. This damage often increases the organism's sus-
ceptibility to disease and parasites. Internal damage often
involves hemorrhaginq and rupturing of internal organs.

co
C@

Species/11abitat Reference pe o-f St_ud_V Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Mechanical forces occurring in the intake water. Organisms
are exposed to t1kree kinds of forces- hydrostatic pressure,
acceleration, and shear. These forces can alter the organism's
position in the water and exert stress on its external sur-
faces. If severe, such forces can cause substantial mortality
among fish eggs and larvae.

A variety of other stresses especially chemical and thermal
p
_TT_
o ution.

Trauma or shock from one or more of the above effects.

Impingement on intake screens cause death due to suffocation
wlien -the force of the intake water against the impinged
fish closes the gill covers and inhibits breathing, mechanical
abrasion, trauma, and shock.

Juvenile Salmon Prentice and unknown impingement The degree of oxygen stress observed in Juvenile salmon imping-
(Oncorhynchus Ossiander, ed on intake screens increased with both increasing water
sp-1- 1974 velocity and increasing impingement time. Oxygen stress and a
loss of equilibrium were evident in fish impinged 15 min at a
water velocity of 61 cm/s. Reduced activity was evident in
fishes forty-eight hours after impingement of 9 min or longer
at a velocity of 61 cin/s. Survival decreased as the duration
of impingement and water velocity increased. Minimum velocity
at-which internal hemorrhaging in juvenile salmon occurred was
approximately 46 cm/s. At 61 cm/s hemorrhaging occurred in
approximately 10 percent of the fish tested after a 30 sec im-
pingement with an increase to 33 percent after impingement for
60 seconds.

Fish U.S. Army DEIS, literature entrainment, Tests withdifferent mesh screens indicated that the body depth
Corps of review impingement of a fish was the factor most responsible for determining if a
Engineers, Alaska fish was retained on a screen. Results of studies with 9.5 mm
District, 1980 (318 in) woven square mesh screening indicated the fish smaller
than 50 - 60 mm (2 - 2.3 in) in length would most likely be
entrained. Fish over 100 ran (3.9 in) are usually retained on
the screens. Fish between 60 - 100 rmn in length (2.3 - 3.9 in)
may fall into either category, depending upon general fish body
shape and, in particular, body depth.

Fish Hanson et al., literature review impingement Accumulation of debris on trash racks and intake screens tends
1977 to entrap and entangle fish, resulting in increased mechanical
damage; and, alters the hydraulic flow field and approach velo-
cities associated with each intake structure. High concentra-
tions of suspended sediment abrade the eyes, gills, and epider-
mal tissue of impinged fish.

Steelhead NWAFC, 1980 laboratory and thermal discharge Tests with 200 yearling steelhead showed an Inverse relation-
(Salmo field tests ship between survival and rearing temperature. Rearing tem-
gairdneri) peratures above 10% appear to retard smoltification and in-
crease the incidence of external darkening.

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Brook trout Dandy, 1967, unknown chlorine Exposure of brook trout to chlorine evoked changes in activity,
(Salvelinus 1972 ventilation, the coughing reflex, and at lethal levels,
a heavy secretion of mucus. Locomotory activity increased'
initially and was subsequently depressed. Both responses
were seen at 0.34 and 0.08 ppm of chlorine, but at the sub-
lethal level of 0.005 mg/liter. the initial increase in
activity was not seen.
Behavioral Effects

Salmonid Prentice and field observation entrainment 97 percent diversion of 70-170 mm (3-7 in) salmonid fingerlings
Fingerlings Ossiander, was achieved in a fish bypass system using angled horizontal
(Oncorhynchus 1974 screens.
sp -

Fish- USEPA, 1976 unknown entrainment "Behavioral" entrapment in intake channels can occur even if
water velocities are well within cruising speeds of affected
fish. Setting screens back in the intake channel increases
the potential for entrapment as does the use of a skimmer wal I.
Both channel walls and the skimmer wall create non-uniform
velocities and entraping dead spaces. With the skimmer wall
demersal species would be more likely to enter under the wall
than pelagic species. However, if pelagic species enter the
intake, they would be less likely to swim back under the wall.
Potential for behavioral entrapment is also increased where the
openings to the water source are small compared to the size of
the intake channel. A fish guidance or bypass system was
recommended as an alternative to approach channel intakes.

Fish U.S. Army Corps DEIS, literature entrainment Under certain conditions use of an air bubble curtain will
of Engineers, review deter fish from entering a water intake channel entrance.
Alaska District, The effectiveness of the curtain as a barrier varies according
1980 to temperature, light intensity, and fish species. No change
in impingement was observed in turbid water.

fish U.S. Army Corps DEIS, literature entrainment 15 cm/sec (0.5 ft/sec) was cited as the swimming speed
of Engineers, review (avoidance) attainable by many species of small fish and the mean cruising,
Alaska District, speed of all young salmon at low temperatures. Several species
1980 of cod and the longhorn sculpin had sustained swimming speeds
greater than 15 cm/sec. Burst speeds (the highest speed a
fish can attain for 20 seconds or less) showed little change
with changes in temperature. However, some fish tested did not
attain burst speeds of 15 cm/sec.

Estuarine Fish Meldrim and laboratory thermal discharge Studies with 22 estuarine fish in Delaware showed that those
Gift, 1971 studies fish actively avoided stressful thermal conditions although
the temperature which would elicit an avoidance response was
dependent upon acclimation temperature, light level, salinity
and size of fish. Most of the same variables also affected
temperature preference although small increases in temperature
tended to attract fish.

00
N)

Species/11abitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

King Salmon Gray, 1977 simulated thermal thermal discharge Juvenile kinq salmon tested under three discharge conditions
(Oncorhynchus plume in raceway (no plume, ambient plume, and heated plume) avoid plume tem-
:t jsa-w _t s _cEa-T peratures greater than 9' to Il'C above ambient. The higher
the temperature change, the more rapidly fish avoided the
plume. Temperatures causing spasmodic contractions of somatic
muscles were generally above 25.]'C. No evidence of thermal
attraction was found. Authors felt that in some cases the
avoidance response to higher temperatures co-uld be-used to
cause fish to avoid a plunte where other effluent components
might work in combination with lower temperatures to cause
mortalities or alter avoidance response.

Sa I mon Manzer et al., unknown thermal discharge The range of tolerable and preferred sea surface temperatures
(Oncorhy!lchus 1964 is different for each species of salmon in the Bering Sea and
sp. North Pacific Ocean, and these ranges change from spring
through fall. Sockeye and chum salmon preferred the lowest
sea-surface temperature range (2' to 9'C and 2' to ll'C
respectively); pink salmon, the intermediate range (4' to
ll*C); and chinook and coho salmon, the highest range (7'
to IOOC and 70 to 12'C respectively). From May through July
and'August, all salmon species preferred increasingly higher
temperatures. In September, all salmon species again preferred
colder waters. In spring and early summer, maturing salmon
were,pssociated with slightly colder sea-surface temperatures
than ,mmature salmon. In late sunrier and fall, maturing salmon
tended to be associated with warmer sea-surface temperatures.
Tolerable ranges were found to be V to IVC for sockeye, To to
15'C for chum, and 3* to 150C for pink, 5' to 15'C for coho,
and 2' to 130C for chinook-salmon. Criteria were provided for
establishing tolerable limits.

Whitefish Hoss et al., literature review thermal discharge Exposing young-of-the-year whitefish for one minute to elevated
1979 temperatures (20C below their upper lethal temperature limits)
made the test whitefish significantly more vulnerable to pre-
dation by yellow perch than control whitefish that had not been
heat-shocked.

Fish larvae, Deacutis, 1978 laboratory tests thermal shock Larvae of two fish species, Atlantic silverside and suumier
Atlantic silverside flounder, were subjected to a 15-min thermal shock of 10%
(Menidia menidia) -above acclimation temperature, returned to acclimation tem-
S@_nimerFliiiu_nder perature, and exposed to a predator (striped killifish). Four-
(Paralichthys and six-week-old silverside were significantly more vulnerable
dentatus) to predation after being shocked than control larvae, but
younger larvae were not. Shocked larvae of summer flounder
were less susceptible to predation than control larvae.

Fish Tsai, 1970 unknown chlorine Chlorinated sewage effluents became an ecological barrier,
blocking upstream migration of semi-anadromous white perch and
white catfish, and potamodramous white sucker and northern
redhorse in the Patuxent River, Maryland.

Species/Habitat. Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Benthos

Clam larvae Boreman, 1977 literature review entrainment 74 million clam larvae per day were entrained at the Hampton-
Seabrook Estuary in New Hampshire.

Benthos Esterly, 1975 field studies thermal discharge Numerical abundance, biomass, and species diversity of benthos
were compared between two arms of a Missouri reservoir; the
Hotwater Arm received thermal discharge while the control
arm was at ambient temperature. Benthos, carried by currents,
were deposited at the mouth of the Hotwater Arm, beneath the
influence of the heated water. No direct effects of the heated
water on the benthos were observed. However, numerical
-abundance and biomass were greater in the control arm than in
the Hotwater Arm during the winter. There was no difference
in species diversity between the two arms.
PLANTS

Eelgrass Phillips, 1978 unknown thermal pollution Upper temperature tolerance for eelgrass was cited as 300C
(80 'F). Above 30'C, leaf kill and plant death occur.
Turtle grass Phillips, 1978 unknown thermal pollution Extensive damage was done to a seagrass (Thalassia sp.) in
(Thalassia sp.) Biscayne Bay by heated effluents from two___f_0ssiV_fueI and two
nuclear power plants. Discharges from the facilities raised
local water temperatures 5' above the ambient temperature.
All plants in an area of about 9.3 hectares off the mouth of
the discharge canal disappeared, while those in an area 30
hectares farther out declined by about 50 percent. The
animal communities associated with these meadows also dis-
appeared.

Eelgrass and Silvester, 1974 literature review water withdrawal Screens used to prevent entrainment of fish must be temporarily
Kelp Beds removed if storms bring in large patches of marine plants or
other suspended matter that might clog the screens, restrict
water flow, and within seconds create a fire hazard. A
thorough knowledge of littoral currents, and siting of
facilities in areas where currents will not transport up-
rooted marine plants near the intake, is suggested as the
best answer to this environmental and safety problem.
OTHER AQUATIC ORGANISMS

Acute/Toxic Effects

Zooplankton Massengill, 1976 unknown entrainment 100% kill occured when zooplankton were passed through a cool-
ing condenser in a nuclear power plant. Temperatures were
above 31% (88'F) and mortality was attributed to heat.
Fish and Aquatic Clark and literature review impingement Thermal attraction at a Hudson River' power plant appeared to
Organisms Brownel 1, 1973 contribute to high (over 70%) winter screen kills of fish
and other aquatic organisms. Fish were attracted to the warmer
waters and suffocated on the intake screens.

00
W

Species/liabitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation_
Fish and crab, Boreman, 1977 literature review impingement Approximately 10,000 fish and 5,000 crabs per month were kill-
shellfish ed by impingement at a New Jersey power plant during the spring
and summer of 1971. At another power plant in Florida, 400,000
fish and 10,000 shellfish are killed annually.

Aquatic Organisms Hoss eL al., literature review thermal pollution Determining temperatures to which organisms are acclimated
1979 (when determining safe temperatures change limits) can some-
times be done by assuming that organisms are acclimated to the
temperature of the water they are found in. However, this may
not be the case (even in undisturbed habitats) where sharp
thermal gradients exist, or where large diurnal thermal
fluctuations may occur.

Aquatic Organisms Knapp, 1978 literature review chlorinated discharge Many species of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates can be
killed by chlorine concentrations greater than 1.0 mg/l total
residual chlorine. Many fish species can be killed by concen-
trations above 0.2 mg/liters. Fish eggs and larvae are
generally more sensitive to chlorine than adults. Some aquatic
plants can tolerate concentrations as high as 10 mg/lIter.

Physiological and Other Effects

Zooplankton King, 1974 field observation thermal discharge Comparison of the zooplankton populations near a power plant
discharge and at a distant location on a Missouri reservoir
showed significant differences. Cladocerans and larval cope@
pods were more abundant at the heated site while rotifers were
more abundant at the control site. No differences in
zooplankton abundances were observed. Differences in species
composition were only observed during population maxima.
Timing of population maxima was not affected. Rate of growth
for fish was less at the heated site. Temperatures at the
heated site were 1.86' to 2.49'C above ambient.

Aquatic Organisms Knapp, 1978 literature review chlorinated discharge Chlorine concentrations greater than 0.5 mg/liter can inhibit
reproduction in some crustaceans (e.g.. �@ammarus pseudo] im-
naeus) finfishes (e. Pime ha e promelas - fath-ead m-1-nnow),
_ec'fi-inoderms (e.g., Sgtr*;n y ocentrotus purpura us - sea urchin)
and polychaetes (e.g., Phragma opoma Cal fornica). Concen-
trations above 2.0 mg/liters can severely retar I cell growth
in plants, especially chlorophyta (green algae), chrysophyta
(brown algae) and cyanophyta (red algae). Concentrations
greater than 0.2 mg/liters can reduce growth in molluscs (e.g.,
Crepidula spp - gastropods) and fishes (e.g. Pimepheles
romelas - fathead minnow). Reduced motility-,eviUeWc_ed by
a@ t@7r-ation of swimming (speed, duration and pattern) in finfish
(e.g., Salvelinus fontinalis - brook trout) and pumping in
shellfish (e.g., Crassosi-rea virginica - American oyster; and
Ostrea edulis - E Pean oyster) R-ave been observed after con-
tact wif-hsu&lethal concentrations of residual chlorine.

Species/labitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Marine Invertebrates Muchmore and unknown chlorine Unchlorinated domestic sewage was found to be a relatively mild
Epel, 1973 inhibitor of external marine fertilization in three species of
marine invertebrates. Chlorinated sewage is a very potent fer-
tilization inhibitor, active in concentrations as low as 0.05
mg/liter available chlorine. Primary effects of both
chlorinated and unchlorinated sewage are on sperm.
HABITATS

Aquatic habitats Knapp, 1978 literature review cooling water Water lost by evaporation, drift, and blowdown (the required
bleeding off of water with high concentrations of accumulated
salts from constant water evaporation) in cooling towers
typically,amounts to less.than 4% of the intake requirement of
an open-cycle system designed to dissipate an equal amount of
beat.

Marine waters Wolfson field observation cooling water Cooling water used by the Jack-up drilling platform Dan
pers. comm. Prince in Norton Sound was 60 to 70C (43' to 44'F) at-
fhe intake and 11' to 12% (510 to 52'F) at the outfall. An
estimated 1,250 gal/minute were used and discharged.

Estuary and Trasky, 1977 unknown water withdrawal It was estimated that the proposed El Paso LNG plant's once
Marine Waters through cooling system would require 658,000 gallons of sea-
water per minute or .95 billion gallons of water per,24
hour period.

Substrate, Knapp, 1978 literature review cooling water Currents induced in front of cooling water intake structures
Currents withdrawal can scour the bottom and degrade benthic habitat. Molluscan
and crustacean shellfish, polychaetes, hydroids, insect larvae,
attached periphyton, and rooted plants can be adversely affect-
ed. Induced currents can also disrupt natural circulation
patterns around the intake structure, causing silting ahead
of the intake forebay and producing a very unstable substrate.
Benthic organisms can be adversely affected by smothering and
increased turbidity. Elevated intake structures with low in-
take velocities (<I.O fps) can eliminate or greatly reduce
these problems.

Areas with Silvester, 1974 literature review thermal discharge Critical conditions for thermal pollution are more likely to
Sluggish Circulation occur in bays where tidal action or currents from fresh-
water flow are negligible than in well flushed areas. In
stagnant bodies of water the sun can heat up the surface layer,
so causing a density difference and strong stratification.
When warm water discharge is poured into this surface layer it
will not diffuse with water below the thermocline, where there
is a significant change in temperature * Field measurements in
Japan found a vertical diffusion coefficient on the order of
only 0.01 m2/sec whereas the horizontal value was 50 times
greater. There was no evidence o@f turbulent mixing across the
thermocline, which in many bays was 3 to 5 m thick. When no
stratification occurred, mixing of warm effluent with the body
of bay water occurred more rapidly. In such cases wave break-
ing generates turbulence at depth, whereas with a thermoclitie
such mixing occurs only in the surface layer.

CO
Un

Species/liabitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Bays and Silvester, 1974 literature review thermal discharge Heat accumulation in an estuary from cooling water discharge
Estuaries can affectchemical and biochemical processes, promote growth
of flora, disrupt spawning cycles of fish, and in extreme
cases increase evaporation and so increase salinity. Where
intakes and outfalls must be located in close proximity, care
must be taken that water is not recirculated in the system
or the body of water being used becomes increasingly warmer.

Aquatic Habitats, Knapp, 1978 literature review cooling water Cooling water discharges can alter the physical and chemical
Circulation discharge properties of the water body affected. Subtle changes in
the concentrations of nutrients, pollutants, and solids
(suspended and dissolved) can occur around discharge
structures as ambient and discharge waters mix. Alteration
of the receiving water's circulation occurs as the momentum
of low-velocity shoreline dischar e and high-velocity sub-
surface discharge (i.e., diffuserl disrupts horizontal and
vertical circulation in receiving waters. This can alter
transport and distribution of organisms and nutrients near
the outfall in some cases some distance away. Early life-
stages of fish and benthic invertebrates can be carried to
locations not suitable for growth and development. Alter-
natively, discharge can prevent movement of fish, especially
migrants, along shore. Discharge can also simulate physical
conditions similar to the introduction of a tributary into
thb main water body. This can elicit behavioral response in,
fish, especially migration and spawning, an *d cause fish to
congregate in low velocity areas of discharge.

Aquatic Habitat, Jolley et al.,. unknown chlorinated cooling Chloro-organics, produced in low yields during the chlorination
Atmosphere 1977 water of once-through cooling waters at electric power-generating
plants, consist of a large variety of compounds such as
chlorophenols, chlorinated purines, chlorinated pyrimidines,
and probably haloforms. Some of these products are toxic, and
5-chlorouracil is a mutagen for Escherichia coli. Little in-
formation has been found concernT-ngtFe -form-a-tFoin of chlorine-
containing compounds in cooling tower waters. However, it is
likely that haloforms, chloro-organics, and other chlorine-
containing compounds should be qenerated during the repetitive
cycling and chlorination of these cooling waters. Such com-
pounds in cooling tower drift and blowdown could be environ-
mentally significant.

Streams, Grundy pers. pers. observation water withdrawal When water withdrawal exceeds recharge rates during the winter,
Rivers comm. , 1981 the ice cover collapses. Subsequent stream discharge does not
refloat the concave ice sheet, but flows over the top, glaciat-
ing and causing a complete stream blockage. Glaciation can
interrupt the flow of both surface and intergravel stream flow
and dewater fish spawning and overwintering areas far down-
stream from the blockage.

M MM M MM M M M M

Species/Habitat Reference Type of Study Disturbance Effect and Evaluation

Atmosphere, Knapp, 1978 literature review cooling towers Drift can be deposited downwind of cooling towers as a result
Vegetation of downdrafts and plume cooling and condensation. Drift drop-
lets can contain dissolved and suspended solids present in
intake waters which are concentrated by evaporative water
losses, as well as residual components of compounds added for
control of 'corrosion, scaling and fouling. Salt deposition
from salt-water and brackish-water towers can cause damage to
surrounding vegetation. Damage depends on the amount of salt
deposited, the frequency of deposition, and the distribution of
salt-tolerant and intolerant plants around the cooling towers.
Direct foliar interception and uptake from contaminated soil
are the principal pathwa ys of exposure. The former is usually
the most harmful, causing leaf lesions, marginal necrosis, de-
foliation, and even death. Water vapor introduced to the
atmosphere increases relative humidity and can contribute to
local increases in fog, icing, and precipitation.

Snowfall Otts, 1976 field observations cooling towers Moisture and heat added to the atmosphere by large cooling
towers in West Virginia appeared to contribute to heavy snow-
fall in localized areas downwind of the towers. Meteorological
,conditions were similar during the two events studied and in-
cluded: a strong influx of cold air into the area, relatively
high humidity, a strong inversion layer, and an average of
minus IO'C or colder.

00
-1

388

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommend Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as having

low, moderate, or high sensitivity to the impacts of cooling waters and

water withdrawal (see Map H). These designations were based on available
data and were made after evaluating the following criteria:

.1. The sensi tivity of each fish and wildlife species or habitat

to cooling waters and water withdrawal.

2. The degree of sensitivity to cooling waters and water withdrawal

which is experienced by each species during the various stages

of its life history.

3. The time of year that these critical life history stages occur

and the period during which each species would be most affected

by cooling waters and water withdrawal.

4. The location of habitats where critical life history stages

occur.

5. The productivity of the habitat.

6. The uniqueness of the habitat.

7. The species' population numbers and relative importance of the

population.

389

8. The degree to which the impacts of cooling waters and water

withdrawal could be mitigated.

Specific considerations and assumptions that were made during the course

of ranking included:

1. Impacts of cooling water discharges and water withdrawal would

be greatest in freshwater streams, lakes, wetlands, tideflats,

shallow water areas, lagoons and bays. These habitats are

generally highly productive areas that are unable to adequately

dilute waters of higher than ambient temperature or sustain

water withdrawals during winter low flow periods.

2. Eelgrass beds, kelp, and Fucus beds were assigned a high

impact value because of their importance as fish nursery and

spawning areas, as waterfowl feeding areas, and because of

their sensitivity to heated water.

3. Aquatic species and species dependent upon riparian and

wetland habitats are most vulnerable to mortality from cooling

water discharges, entrainment or impingement in cooling water

intakes, and by the effects of other water withdrawals.

4. Waterfowl staging areas were ranked as having a high sensitivity

to the impacts of cooling waters and water withdrawals because

of the dependence of these species on highly sensitive,

390

wetland habitats during critical life history stages. Degradation

of a wetland's productivity by thermal pollution or through

water withdrawals would substantially affect waterfowl populations

using these wetlands.

5. Nearshore waters around St. Lawrence Island have been assigned

a high sensitivity ranking based on known life history patterns

of salmon and Arcti.c char. Although data specific to St.

Lawrence is not available, Arctic char and juvenile salmon

move into nearshore waters in the spring for feeding and

rearing and remain in these waters throughout the summer.

6. Throughout most of the study area, the ave rage seaward boundary

of the shorefast zone was used as the boundary between areas

ranked as highly sensitive and those ranked as moderately

sensitive. Because the extent of the shorefast ice is affected

by currents, it was felt that, until better nearshore current

data is available, the edge of the shorefast ice could be used

to identify where currents were strong enough to rapidly

dilute thermal discharges (i.e. if the currents are strong

enough to pr&vent shorefast ice formation, they should be

strong enough to dilute discharges)

7. All marine waters in eastern Norton Sound not ranked as

highly sensitive have been ranked as moderately sensitive

because of reportedly sluggish circulation in the eastern

391

Sound and stratification of the water column during the summer.

Rapid dilution of thermal plumes would be unlikely.

8. A "buffer" zone of moderate sensitivity was included off the

Yukon River Delta and along the western Seward Peninsula

seaward of high sensitivity nearshore waters.

9. Concentrations of demersal fish species such as Arctic cod,

yellowfin sole, starry flounder, and saffron cod occur in

waters where dilution of thermal plumes will occur rapidly;

consequently, the impacts on these species are likely to be

minimal. Entrainment of larval forms of these species in

cooling water systems could have a major'impact, however,

areas of larval abundance are not known.

10. Impacts of cooling waters on offshore marine waters or in

areas of strong currents would be minimal because of rapid

dilution.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures

LaV SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of low sensitivity are defined as those where impacts from open

cycle (once through) cooling systems, closed cycle cooling systems and

from water withdrawals would be less adverse than in moderate or high

sensitivity areas. Such areas would include: 1) areas with currents

39@
of sufficient strength to adequately dilute thermal discharges; 2) areas

with sufficient water reserves to maintain water withdrawals; and 3)

areas with low numbers of sensitive species.

Facilities that use cooling systems in, or which require water withdrawals

in low sensitivity areas should operate according to existing environmental

regulations such as EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and DEC (Alaska

Department of Environmental Conservation) water quality standards, local

zoning ordinances, and Coastal Zone Management guidelines.

MODERATE SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas of Moderate Sensitivity are defined as those areas where the

adverse impacts of cooling waters and water withdrawals can be prevented,

minimized or ameliorated. Species or habitats within these areas are

likely be moderately affected by cooling waters or water withdrawals.

Habitats identified as moderately sensitive include:

1. Region of sluggish circulation in eastern Norton Sound

2. A "buffer" zone around highly sensitive nearshore waters
adjacent to the Yukon River Delta and the western Seward
Peninsula. ' 1

3. Waterfowl and shorebird nesting, molting and staging areas
including: major and important staging areas, emperor geese
molting and staging areas, snow geese staging areas, swan
nesting/use areas, sandhill crane use areas, and shorebird
important habitats and fall staging areas.

Facilities using cooling systems or requiring water withdrawals within

moderately sensitive habitats should conduct activities according to

existing environmental guidelines and the following recommendations.

3 91@

Cooling Waters - General

1. Closed cycle cooling systems should be used instead of open

cycle (once through) cooling systems wherever possible.

Closed cycle cooling systems cause fewer environmental problems

than open cooling systems.

2. Before siti ng facilities which will use either closed cycle or

open cycle cooling systems, site specific studies should be

conducted to determine the location of vital habitats in the

vicinity. Site specific oceanographic studies and bioassays

should be conducted to determine the natural systems ability

to absorb heat without biological damage.

3. Before choosing a site for a facility that will require a

cooling system, a sound and.comprehensive water management

program should be developed to study: the supply of ground

water, aqui-fer replenishment sburces, the potential for contamination

and depletion of waters, and the possibilities for reclaiming

wastewater and mi@nimizing unnecessary water withdrawals..

4. Cooling water channels should not be dredged through wetlands

nor should natural creeks be used as cooling water conduits.

5. Screens on intake structures should not exceed 1 millimeter

(0.04 inches) mesh size and intake velocities at the screens

should not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec).

394

6. Outfalls should be located in areas of rapid dilution and at

an adequate distance from the intake so that water is not

recirculated in the system.

7. The use of toxic chemicals to remove encrusted sealife in

cooling systems should be avoided to prevent toxic impacts on

recieving waters. Mechanical cleaning methods or heat treatment

should be used instead.

8. Freshwater lakes, streams, or wetlands should not be considered

as a water source for cooling waters, or sites for thermal

discharges.

Closed Cycle Cooling Systems

1. The use of closed cycle cooling systems (such as cooling

towers or spray ponds) is preferred over open cycle systems

because they cause less environmental damage.

2. Only closed cycle cooling systems should be used in estuaries

and other areas that are vital to the coastal ecosystem or

have high biologica 1 productivity (see Map H). With this type

of cooling, water is recirculated rather than being continuously

withdrawn from or discharged into aquatic environments thereby

reducing the volume of water needed.

395

3. To minimize entrainment. of organisms, intake velocities

should not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec) at the surface of

the intake screens and screen mesh size should not exceed 1

millimeter (0.04 inches).

4. Toxic chemicals (such as chlorine) added to cooling waters to

reduce corrosion in cooling towers and growth of fouling

organisms in condenser systems, should be collected and treated

before being released to the environment. The chemicals can

be reduced by treatment such as chrome reduction or precipitation

using ferrous sulfate in a -reducing pit. These hazardous

wastes should be disposed,of in a landfil-I site desi.gnated for

hazardous wastes.

5.1 Normally, adverse effects of vapor p lumes and salt fallout

from closed cycle systems are significant only in the immediate

vicinity of the plant and may be alleviated by locating plants

appropriately with respect to climate and geography. Plants

should not be located near important wildlife wintering areas

and early spring use areas where additional snowfal'l could

impact wildlife populations.

6. Among various types of closed cycle cooling systems, spray

canals appear to cause less environmental damage than evaporative

cooling towers, and should be used wherever possible.

396

Open Cycle Cooling Systems

1. Facilities that use open cycle cooling systems should not be

placed in critical habitats nor in coastal areas such as

wetlands, tideflats, and estuaries where waters for cooling

would be withdrawn from or discharged into sensitive habitats.

2. Facilities using open cycle cooling systems may be located

along the open coastline provided that the following criteria

are used as guidelines during site selection:

a. Facilities should not be located near estuaries (e.g.,

inlets, bays) where water is transported in and out by

tidal action.

b. Facilities should not be sited in or near vital or critical

habitats found along the open coastline.

C. Intake and outlet structures should be located offshore

where discharges will be diluted and cooled more rapid,ly,

and waters are not withdrawn from productive nearshore
habitats'.

d. Intake and outlet structures should not be placed in

areas of high biological productivity.

397

e. Cooling water intake and discharge points should be

separated as widely as possible, taking advantage of

,water layering or other natural features to prevent

recirculation of discharge water and the impingement of

discharge-weakened fish on intake screens.

f. Cooling waters should be withdrawn from depths where

water temperature i.s low enough that when discharged near,

the surface, the temperature of the surface waterwill

not be greatly increased.

g. The temperature differential between waste cooling water

the ambient water temperatu re should not exceed 10C

3. Open cycle cooling systems should be designed to limit the

discharge of chemicals into the coastal ecosystem, provide for

minimal disruption of natural water flow, and place intake and.

outlet structures for minimal effect on aquatic organisms.

The following criteria should be used in the design of intake

structures:

a. Systems shoul d be designed to keep the.velocity of inflow

below a maximum of 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec) at all points

ahead of the intake screens and screen size should not

exceed 1 millimeter (0.04 inches).

398

b. No successful device has yet been developed to divert

fi sh larvae and eggs from the intakes of facilities using

open cycle cooling systems. Much of the reported progress

in this field is exaggerated and deceptive. (Minimal

success has been made in diverting fish through fish by-

pass systems).

C. All containing structures ahead of the intake screens

such as forewalls, channels, bays, and recesses should be

eliminated.

d. Intake structures should be located'at depth and in

locations of the absolute minimum concentration of biota.

4. Monitoring programs should be set up following plant construction

to monitor system performance and the adequacy of mitigating

measures. Suggested monitoring programs include: (1) frazil

ice formation on the intake structure and outfall line; (2)

impingement of organisms and ice on the intake screens; (3)

entrainment of organisms in the intake system; (4) biofouling

of the intake.structure; (5) sea-ice level in relation to the

intake structure; (6) intake velocities; and (7) the physical

condition of fish in marine life return systems, and their

fate and behavior after leaving the outfall (e.g. predation

and disorientation).

399

5. Biocides should not be used to remove fouling organisms or

should be removed from cooling water before discharge.-. Systems

should be designed to use mechanical methods to remove fouling

organisms.

Water Withdrawal for Purposes other than Coolin2-

Primary problems associated with withdrawal of fresh water for domestic,

or industrial use are (1) entrainment and impingement of fish (both

summer and winter) and (2) dewatering of stream channels and fish overwintering

areas. Entrainment, impingement, and alteration of circulation patterns

are the major problems associated with large withdrawals of marine

waters.

Activities requiring water for other than cooling should.be sitedand

operated according to-the following criteria-:

1. Large quantities of freshwater for domestic or industrial uses

should not be withdrawn-from any body of freshwater supporting

fish.

2. No freshwater should be withdrawn from any body of water supporting

overwintering fish.

3. When very limited amounts of water are required, use of several

different water sources during the winter will lessen impacts on

any one source.

400

4. When large amounts of water are required, storage facilities should

be constructed to hold water collected during the summer for winter

use. Abandoned gravel sites can be converted for water storage.

5. Water should not be removed from streams or lakes in excess of

recharge rates. To do so causes coll,apse of the ice cover and

stream blockage.

6. Water impoundment structures should not be b-uilt over permafrost.

Melting of the underlying permafrost layer can result causing

settlement and changes in drainage patterns.

7. Water wells should be carefully sited so that they do not deplete

surface aquifers and dewater lakes and streams.

8. Wherever possible, water consumption should be reduced by water

recycling. Examples include: recycling water from mud pits during

drilling, and recycling domestic water for industrial uses.

9. When withdrawing water from marine areas, intakes should be designed

to prevent entrainment of marine organisms or alteration of circulation

patterns.

a. Intake structures should be located at depth and in locations

of absolute minimum con centration of biota.

401

b. Intake velocities should not exceed 7.5 cm/sec (0.25 ft/sec)

at all points ahead of the intake screens. Intake screen size

should not exceed 1 millimeter (0.04 inches).

C. All containing structures ahead of the intake screens such as

forewalls, channels, bays, and recesses should be eliminated.

d. Intake' structures should be designed so as to not funnel

organisms into the intake (i.e. siting an intake at the end a

long solid fill breakwater, jetty or causeway that extends

into or across a fish migration route).

HIGH SENSITIVITY AREAS

Areas@of hig h sensitivity were defined as those areas'where-the impacts

of cooling waters and water withdrawals would be extremely detrimental

to fish and wildlife resources. Habitats included in the high sensitivity

category include:,

1. Shorefast ice zone

2. Eelgrass and Fucus/kelp beds

3. Highly productive and heavily used wetlands and tideflats and
wetlands and tideflats where productivity is not known.

4. Estuaries and lagoons

5. Salmon streams, nearshore migration areas and salmon fry
nearshore rearing and feeding areas.

6.:, Arctic char and sand lance concentr@tions

1
402

7. Herring spawning,, possible spawning, wintering, and nearshore
feeding and rearing areas

8. Capelin spawning and possible spawning areas

9. Juvenile fish nearshore rearing areas

10. Sheefish and whitefish streams

Facilities using open cycle (once through) cooling systems should not be

sited in high sensitivity areas. Water withdrawal activities and facilities

using closed cooling systems should be sited and operated according to

the specific environmental guideli-nes found in the modereate sensitivity

section.

TABLE 39: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND SPECIES OR HABITATS
ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO COOLING WATERS AND WATER WITHDRAWAL.

HABITATS JA 11 FEB MAR A MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
AREA OF SLUGGISH CIRCULATION

SHOREFAST ICE ZONE

EELORASS BEDS

FUCUS/KELP BEDS

WETLANDS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE lHEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

TIDEFLATS
HIGHLY PRODUCTIVEIHEAVILY USED
PRODUCTIVITY NOT KNOWN

ESTUARYILAGOON

FISH & SHELLFISH
SALMON
STREAM
NEARSHORE MIGRATION AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE REARING AREA
FRY AND JUVENILE NEARSHORE
FEEDING AREA

ARCTIC CHAR CONCENTRATION AREA

HERRING
SPAWNING AREA
WINTERING AREA
NEARSHORE FEEDING/REARING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

CAPELIN
SPAWNING AREA
POSSIBLE SPAWNING AREA

JUVENILE FISH
HEARSHORE REARING AREA

SHEEFISH AND16R WHITEFISH STREAM

SAND LANCE CONCENTRATION AREA

BIRDS
WATERFOWL
NESTING AREA
MOLTING AREA.
MAJOR STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT STAGING AREA

SHOREBIRD
FALL STAGING AREA
IMPORTANT HABITAT

EMPEROR GEESE
MOLTING AREA
STAGING AREA

SNOW GEESE STAGING AREA

SWAN NESTINGIUSE AREA
C:)

SANDHILL CRANE USE AREA

405

INTERFERf34CE WITH SUBSISTENCE
CONRCIAL OR SPORT HARVESTS

Sources and Biological Effect

Due to the large amount of activity associated with the development of a

major offshore oil field, conflicts are likely to occur between oil

related operations and established fish and wildlife harvest activities.

These conflicts can be classified into one of four categories: a) a

localized increase in noise or physical disturbance which could cause

wildlife to avoid areas where harvests nonnally occur, b) competition

for space, labor, or limited fish and game resources, including the

possibility of restricted access to harvest areas, C) physical loss or

interference with fishing gear or vessels and, d) direct species mortality

or area avoidance due to oil pollution.-

Current Harvest Practices

Before attempting to describe the various aspects of harvest conflict,

it might be advantageous to examine current harvest patterns and attitudes

in the Norton Sound-Be.ring Strait region in order to acquire a broad

understanding of the issues likely to be involved. The following

discussion is taken primarily from the BLM/OCS technical report "Bering-

Norton Petroleum Development Scenarios and Sociocultural Impacts Analysis",

as prepared by Linda J. Ellanna:

The Norton Sound-Bering Strait region today is basically rural, isolated,

and sparsely populated with abundant aesthetic values and relatively

406

easy access to hunting, fishing, and recreational use of the sea and

land. The core or central organizing principle which provides a basis

for the sociocultural systems of a vast majority of residents in the

study area --including those who have successfully integrated subsistence

practices with a cash economy-- is subsistence.

Subsistence activities, particularly the hunting of sea mammals and

fishing, are economically and nutritionally vital to the well-being of a

large majority of Natives and a smaller percentage of non-Native residents.

Contemporary subsistence practices in the Norton Sound-Bering Strait

region can generally be subdivided into four subregional groupings based

upon geographic proximity to various species and similar subsistence

adaptations. These categories or patterns are as follows:

1.) Small sea mammal hunting, inland hunting, and fishing pattern: the

contemporary communities of Shishmaref, Brevig Mission, Teller,

and Mary's Igloo.

2.) Large sea mammal hunting pattern: the contemporary communities of

Wales, Inalik (Little Diomede), King Island, Gambell, and Savoonga

(St. Lawrence Ifl-and).

3.) Norton Sound fishing and coastal and inland hunting pattern: the

contemporary communities of Solomon, Golovnin, White Mountain,

Council, Elim, Koyuk, Shaktoolik, and Unalakleet.

407

4.) Yukon Delta fishing and small sea mammal hunting Pattern: the

contemporary communities of St. Micheal, Stebbins, Kotlik, Bill

Moore's Slough, Hamilton, Emmonak, Alakanuk and Sheldon Point.

Several.points relative to the above.groupings should be made: (1)

subsistence pattern titles are illustrative of major subsistence focuses

and are not exclusive of other activities; (2) the city of Nome does not

easily lend itself toward this type of categorization. Contemporary

Native occupants of Nome come from a variety of communitiesand tend to

follow the subsistence pattern of their place of origin if possible; (3)

on the mainland, there are no abrupt subsistence pattern boundaries

between the four major groupings but rather a continuum that may shift

during certain years due to resource availability; and (4) the islands,

due to their size and location, are more restricted in self contained

resource variation but tend to have a more dependable and abundant

subsistence base.
Due to the relative'isolation of this region, there presently is not a

large number of sport hunters or fishermen which utilize the area. An

influx of people in conjunction with industrial development would undoubtedly

create a real or perceived competition for the same animal resources.

Most recreational harvests (hunting and fishing) occur off of the road

systems leading from Nome, and are performed primarily by residents of

that city (ADF&G, 1979a; Alt, 1979).

Commercial fishing to a limited extent is just beginning in the northern

portions of Norton Sound and the Bering Strait. In the southern portion

408

of Norton Sound and on the Yukon Delta, commercial fishing has gained,

increasing prominence each year (especially since implementation of the

200-mile U.S. fishing limit), and is the single major source of annual

cash income to residents. Economic forecasts indicate that the full

potential of the fisheries in this region have not yet been realized.

Commercial harvests of Pacific salmon, Pacific herring, king crab,

whitefish and Arctic char occur to a greater or lesser degree each year

(ADF&G, 1979b).

Additional inforTnation regarding harvest practices, the amount and type

of species harvested, and known harvest areas may be found in the harvest

map (Map 8) accompanying this report.

Harvest Interference

In most harvest practices (perhaps hunting more than fishing) a certain

amount of stealth myst be employed in order to approach game animals.

Noise or disturbance (including physical presence as well as visual,

tactile, or olfactory inhibition) might significantly affect harvest

success by frightening animals away or causing them to avoid an area

during those periods when harvests typically occur. Some aspects of oil

development which could contribute to elevated noise or disturbance

levels and which would consequently impact harvest success include:

seismic operation, aircraft or helicopter overflights, the operation of
heavy machinery (e.g. bulldozers, graders, loaders etc.), the operation

of small scale machinery (e.g. compressors, jackhammers, generators

etc.), increased human presence, and increased vehicle or vessel traffic

409

in traditional harvest areas. In addition, some activities may limit

harvests by removing ground cover that might otherwise have attracted

species or allowed hunter concealment, or may produce turbid water

conditions which conceal species during periods of harvest (this is

particularly applicable to belukha whale harvests which rely on visual

tracking of animals in shallow water). For further information concerning

the impacts of noise or disturbance on fish and game species (and therefore

on harvests), see the Noise and Disturbance section of this report.

Another factor to consider when trying to anticipate harvest conflict is

competition. Competition may occur through-a variety of means, usually

as a result of increased economic activity'associated with oil development

and the large influx of personnel required for such operations. In its

tangible form, competition can be, reflected in day to day situations

where indigenous inhabitants of an area are gradually forced to compete

with new residents or non-residents for a limited number of moose,

waterfowl,, or fish. Tangible competition may also include competition
for limited services or goods such as harvest permits, dock space, fuel,

or repair facilities and parts. Additionally, unless industry continuously

acts to hold down-lighterage costs for goods delivered to this region,
inflated prices may res'trict the purchase of harvest supplies (guns,

ammunition, nets etc.).

Less tangible forms of competition, though not as obvious, may exert a

greater debilitating influence on current harvest practices. An example

of this would be the improper siting of activities or structures in a

410

manner which might eventually deny access to traditional harvest areas.

By physically inhibiting the free passage of fishennen or hunters, a

corresponding reduction in harvest success might be expected, particularly

if the prohibited area exhibited significant harvest value. A similar

corresponding result might occur if State or Federal policies are implemented

which allow industry to restrict access to vast acreages of leased

public lands.

Extensive development will require a substantial workforce, especially

during those periods when onshore support facility construction is most

intense. It is likely that residents of this region will expect, and

probably will receive--hire preference over norf-residents for unskilled

labor positions. This may impact the local commercial fishery by removing

a portion of its workforce. Terry et al., (1980) states: "The ability

of the commercial fishing industry to respond to a decrease in the

supply of labor is directly related to both the industry's ability to

prepare for it and its duration. If there is little time to attempt to

secure alternative sources of labor or to adopt labor-saving processing

methods, the response will tend to be minimal, and the decreases in

industry activity may be significant. The same will be true if the OCS

impact on the price of-labor is expected to be only temporary because

the cost of responding may not be warranted by the temporary increase in

the price of labor. In the extreme case, higher labor prices would make

processing activities unprofitable, and processing activities would

cease in the short run and perhaps also in the long run".

411

Harvest interference can also encompass the physical restriction or

destruction of fishing gear. This may occur in numerous ways, and is

most likely to affect fixed gear such as nets and crab pots, or marine

fishing vessels which utilize heavy traffic corridors. Annually, a

considerable amount of crab and fishing gear is lost or destroyed when

vessels run through concentrations of this gear, cutting mooring lines

and bouys. Seismic boats and tugs with barges are particularly bad

offenders because of the large area covered by cables which extend

behind such vessels.

In many instances the gear is not destroyed, but once the buoy is lost

it is impossible to locate or recover the gear itself. In the case of

king crab, derelict crab pots may continue fishing, killing untold

numbers of crab before the metal rusts through completely and the trap

ceases to be effecti ve. If the vessel or vessels which cause gear

losses cannot be identified, and typically they cannot be since the

losses usually-occur when pots are unattended, the crab boat sustaining

the losses is not compensated and therefore bears the full burden of the

lost gear and perhaps the full burden of the reduced income (Terry et

al., 1980). Offshore pipelines may also entangle longlines, crab pots,

and trawls if regulatiDns do not require that they be buried or marked

prominently.

In Norton.Sound most marine fishing occurs in very nearshore areas and,

as such, gear losses due to entanglement are expected to be minimized.

However, debris from offshore drilling sites may physically foul nets,

and some fishing areas may be eliminated completely by the filling of

intertidal areas or the construction of onshore facilities. Furthermo re,

412

there may be increased incidents of vessel collisions if marine support

activity generates higher levels of boat and barge traffic in near-

coastal areas.

Oil and gas development may also interfere with fishing activities in

the event of a major oil spill, or through persistent chronic oil

pollution. Oil spills not only affect biological resources, but humans

as well. In an area where a spill has occurred, fishing is usually

suspended because fishermen do not want to foul their boats or fishing

gear by using them in oily water (Nelson-Smith, 1973). As a result,

overall fishing effort is reduced. Oil pollution may also reduce the
number of fish and shellfish available to fishermen through direct

mortality, or by causing them to avoid or abandon an area. Many species,

such as Pacific salmon and Pacific herring concentrate in small areas

along the coastline at specific times of the year, therefore contamination

of these important habitats and the subsequent loss of these populations

could have serious consequences for fishermen (Micheal, 1977).

Finally, oil pollution may produce tainting in the flesh of fish or

shellfish. Fish in the area of a spill can acquire an oily or chemical

taste making them unpalatable and undesirable for human consumption

(Nelson-Smith, 1973). Even if no tainting has actually occurred, the

public is often reluctant to purchase fisheries products from areas

where there has been an oil spill, or areas which are known to be polluted.

Tainting is discussed in greater detail in the section on Oil Pollution.

413

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Harvest areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were ranked as

having a moderate sensitivity to the impacts of harvest interference

(see Map I). Designations of low or high sensitivity have not been made

since, 1) it is assumed that all identified areas of harvest exhibit

some degree of value to the people that utilize them; 2) it is impossible

to determine what types of development activities will occur in specific

harvest areas at this time; and 3) importance is a relative term when

applied to harvest (i.e., a harvest area may appear to be insignificant

when compared to another which supports higher yields of species or

greater numbers of users, however the original area may be extremely

important to thefew people which do rely on it).

In,general,,.the impacts associated with harvest interference include:

1. Noise and disturbance associated with support facilities,

machinery operation, aircraft and boats, seismic exploration,

or human presence, which will drive subsistence, commercial or

recreationally harvested species out of the range of fishermen

and hunters.

2. Competition between indigenous fish and wildlife users and new

workers for limited fish and game resources, hunting and

fishing harvest permits, docking space, access to harvest

areas, etc.

414

3. Physical interference with, or destruction of fishing gear.

4. Species avoidance of an area due to oil pollution, or the

tainting of fisheries products.

Sensitivity Designations and Mitigative Measures,

Mitigating measures in previous sections of this report have been proposed

in an attempt to minimize development impacts on fish and wildlife

populations and their habitat. It is assumed that impacts which affect

species of subsistence, commercial, or sport value will also.affect

harvest levels. The following recommendations address impacts as they

directly relate to current harvest patterns and practices.

Noise and Disturbance

Measures to minimize the effects of noise and disturbance have been

discussed previously in the Noise and Disturbance section of this report,

and are applicable toward minimizing harvest interference with the

following additions:

1. Activities which produce turbid water conditions in important

fishing and marine mammal harvest areas should either be

scheduled during periods when they will not affect harvest

practices, or should be designed so as to minimize the amount

of suspended material present in the water column. Such

activities would include dredging and filling, shoreline

415

alteration, gravel island construction, discharge of drilling

muds and cuttings, etc.

2. The random or erratic operation of machinery, aircraft, boats

or ATV's should be discouraged in harvest areas.

3. Exploratory drilling,on lease tracts that are located on

traditional fishing grounds should be scheduled during periods

when fishing does not occur.

Competition for Resources

1. The Board of Fish and Game should anticipate potential harvest

conflicts and should implement special game and fisheries

management procedures or regulations which will serve to

reduce competition between new workers and indigenous user

groups.

2. In important subsistence areas the lea see should voluntarily

limit the off-duty hunting, fishing, and trapping activities

of its employees on leased lands.

3. When lease activities must be conducted in or near important

harvest areas, the developer should arrange for community

involvement in processes such as the siting of facilities, or

the timing of activities, in order to minimize the adverse

impacts of such operations on traditional hunting and fishing

practices in the area.

416

Competition for Space

1. Leasees should not restrict public access to, or use of,

leased public lands except in the immediate vicinity of development

operations. Exceptions may be provided for in areas of extreme

biological sensitivity.

2. Leasees should be sensitive to local industries and tradi-

tional vocations and should plan their activities to avoid

impact ing them. An example would be to insure that industry

boats do not monopolize fish processing plant docks or staging

areas.

3. The local coastal resource service area can identify separate

and distinct areas for different kinds of economic activity,

through its coastal management plan. Where there is competi-

tion for a particular coastal site, the only solution may be a

trade-off between conflicting parties. For'example, an oil

company might be convinced to locate a staging area away from

an important harvest area in exchange for an offer of less

expensive land or a zoning change.

4. During the site selection process for onshore and offshore

facilities, leasees should avoid traditional harvest areas or

sites which might block access to traditional harvest areas.

Physical Destruction or Restriction of Fi ihing Gear

Vessel Traffic

1. All development related marine vessel traffic including ice

breakers should be required to travel point to point in a

linear fashion, avoiding areas of marine harvest during periods

when such harvests might occur. This would allow fishermen

and hunters to predict where they might safely place their

gear, or pursue marine mammals without disturbance.

2. Because high petroleum finds couplejwith other forms of

economic development (such as coal or offshore gold recovery

operations) may make non-corridor vessel traffic extremely,

-hazardous, permanent or recommended shipping corridors should

be established based upon the following considerations:

a. Maximum safety of all vessels utilizing limited navigational

channels. Because of shallow waters and restrictive ice

conditions, deep draft.vessels may be forced to conform

to relatively narrow natural corridors which, without

regulation, will enhance the chances of collision.

b. Minimum interference with traditional commercial or

subsistence harvest areas.

C* To provide an adequate buffer zone between vital habitat

areas and vessel traffic.

418

d. Maximum public input.

3. -Shipping corridors should:

a. Be clearly designated on mar ine charts.

b. Have adequate navigational aids such as buoys, beacons,

and VTS (Vessel Traffic Safety) radar.

C. Have a reasonable speed limit established.

d. Be regulated, patrolled and enforced by the U.S. Coast

Guard.

4. All oil tankers, LNG tankers, and other large vessels opera-

ting in the area must be required to use licensed pilots

familiar with the northern Bering Sea - Norton Sound region,

and with navigational problems in ice infested waters.

5. A reporting and communications system should be established

for tankers and other large vessels utilizing the corridor

system.

6. Permits issued to seismic boats operating in near coastal

areas should stipulate:

419

a, Daylight operation only.

b. No operations within or adjacent to areas of concentrated

commercial or subsistence fishing gear. Operations in

these areas should only be scheduled during closed

fishing periods.

C. If seismic surveys are absolutely unavoidable during

periods when commercial king crab fishing occurs, cable

length for seismic streamers should not exceed 1/4 mile

in order to allow for adequate control in avoiding

obstacles such as fishing gear.

d. Ship captains should report to the Alaska Department of

Fish and Game, Area Management Biologist, for consultation

on fishing gear concentrations prior to operating.

7. Commercial, subsistence or sport fishing vessels should not

anchor, fish pots or trawl in zones designated as shipping

corridors.

8. The Ports and Waterways Act of 1972 should be amended to

designate mandatory shipping corridors.

Pipelines

1. To the greatest extent possible, pipelines should be routed

around active bottom fishing or trawling areas.

420

2. Where the placement of pipelines in these areas cannot be

avoided the following techniques should be utilized:

a* Trenching - trenching should be used to bury pipelines

beyond the point where they might entangle crab pots and

anchors, be struck by trawl doors, or be ruptured by

gouging ice keels.

b. Pipeline route marking unburied pipelines should be

marked on navi gation charts to discourage anchoring or

trawling in those areas.

Oil Pollution Avoidance and-Tainting

Specific measures to minimize the impacts of oil pollution may be found

in the Oil Pollution section of this report.

TABLE 40: MONTHS WHEN NORTHERN BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND HARVEST
ACTIVITIES ARE MOST SENSITIVE TO HARVEST INTERFERENCE.

HARVEST ACTIVITIES JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUO SEPT OCT Nov DEC
SUBSISTENCE HARVEST AREA
FISHING
HERRING-WINTER
KING CRAB
FRESHWATER MUSSELS
CLAM
WATERFOWL
SEABIRD
EGO
8EAL
WALRUS
BELUKHA WHALE
SOWHEAD WHALE

SUBSISTENCE AND/OR SPORT
HARVEST AREA
FISHING
MOOSE
CARIBOU

COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE
HARVEST AREA
FISHING
HERRING

dPORT HARVEST AREA
GRIZZLY BEAR

COMMERCIAL HARVEST AREA
KING CRAB

I
I
s
I - . E
I c
0
I. N
D
I A
R
I y
I D
E
I V@
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I
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423

SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT

Sources and Biological Effects

If commercially exploitable quantities of oil or gas are found in the

Norton Sound-Bering Strait region, a variety of facilities will be

required in order to begin development, production and transportation.

Inevitably, with the establishment of onshore petroleum facilities an

additional amount of secondary development will also be needed. Secondary

development has two major components: indirect development, as typified

by those industrial projects that serve and support the primary projects,

often through sub-contracts; and induced development,, the construction
or expansion of community facilities and services (such as housing,

utilities, transportation, schools, recreation and commercial facilities)

to serve the added popul ation which is attracted by employment opportunities

in direct, indirect, and induced developments (Zinn, 1978).

Environmental disturbances from secondary development are primarily

caused by construction activities and an increase in numbers of people.

The construction of houses, buildings,,roads, utility corridors, etc.

will result in a direct loss of fish and wildlife habitat. Petroleum
developm ent scenarios ior Norton Sound (Ender et al., 1980) anticipate

an additional 387 to 485 houses will be needed for medium and high finds

respectively; this would physically remove between 62 and 155 acres of

land just for housing purposes. Although Nome would seem to be the most

likely area to accomodate such additional development, in fact very

little residential land is available and city expansion is limited due

424.

to surrounding patented mining claims. Therefore, future building sites

must come from privately owned undeveloped land both within and outside
of the Nome townsite, as well as city owned lots within Nome(Ender et
al., 1980).

Some forms of secondary development, even with a maximum degree of

consolidation, have the potential to disrupt a variety of species and

their associated habitats. The construction and operation of electrical

transmission systems are an example. These systems can require extensive

right-of-way (ROW) cutting and clearing practices which may act to

remove esse.ntial vegetational habitat or ground cover. The adverse

environmental damages resulting from such practices include increased

soil erosion and/or degradation, water quality degradation, air quality

degradation if open burning is prescribed, and elevated noise levels.

The effects of ROW construction on species may include temporary displ:acement

or long term avoidance. Addi.tionally, ROW corridors can provide access

to non-native species resulting in increased levels of predation, competition,

or incidence of disease and parasites (Knapp, 1978).

Clearing land for construction sites will result in the displacement of

birds and mammals utilizing those areas. Animals which cannot tolerate

disturbance will leave an area permanently and, if no equivalent habitat

is available their numbers may be reduced (FERC, 1978). For example,

the Collier Carbon and Chemical Corporation near Nikiski, Alaska, an

industry using petroleum by-products to produce chemical fertilizers, is

located in an industrial and residential complex where vegetation and

habitat have been drastically altered in the past. As a result of this

habitat disturbance wildlife use of the area which included species such

425

as moose, brown and black bear, and other furbearers, is now minimal

(Dames and Moore, 1976).

Additional impacts which may result from construction activities include:

1) surface and permafrost degradation resulting in the formation of

sediment slum p areas; 2) increased erosion which causes siltation in

adjacent streams; 3) drainage pattern changes leading to vegetation

changes; 4) increased dusting of both vegetation and snow, leading to

early snowmelt and destruction of sensitive vegetation; 5) damage to the

tundra surface adjacent to construction sites as a result of the operation

of construction equipment; and 6) temporary or permanent blockage or

hinderance to fish and wildlife movement (Gilliam, 1978).

The impacts of road construction include all of the problems listed
above as well as some additional.consequences. Roads will necessarily
increase traffic and human presence in areas not previously subject to

such intrusions, which in turn could promote harassment, injury, or

death as animals venture near or across such road systems. Moose are.

frequent casualties of collisions with cars on Alaskan roads (FERC,

1978). In the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Game Unit 14C (Anchorage),

93 moose were report ed killed by cars in 1978 while 74 moose were reported

killed by cars in 1979. In contrast, only 73 moose were actually harvested

by hunters during those two years. Road kills between Talkeetna and the

Knik River bridge accounted for 100 moose in 1978, while 50-60 moose are

killed annually by cars between Skilak Loop Road and Kenai. By increasing

human access, roads may also serve to reduce animal populations through

expanded harvest levels and poaching. On the Seward Pen insula, hunting

426

pressure along the road systems leading from Nome has been described as

"intense", and in the past four years Nome residents have spent thousands

of man-hours during each hunting season driving the roads in search of

moose (ADF&G, 1979a).

Noise and disturbance associated with road systems.will cause animals to

avoid an area under some circumstances (Cameron and Whitten, 1978).

Vehicles are percieved as both noisy and mobile, and dust raised by

traffic can increase their apparent size.- Furthermore, roads are frequently

used by low-flyin g aircraft as an 'aid to navigation during periods of

bad weather, which may provide yet another form of disturbance (Gilliam,

1978). If animals acquire a tendency to avoid road systems then roads

have the effect of parceling those species habitats, restricting their

range, and perhaps inducing added competition for species forced to

utilize limited resources.

Finally, roads may present a physical barrier to animal-migrations or

movement. If roads are maintained during winter manths, high steep

berms of plowed snow can restrict the mobility that many animals require

in order to forage successfully and survive. Similarly, snow fences may

produce the same effect.

An increase in human population and human presence (Ftgures 13, 14, and

15) will significantly affect fish and game resources by expanding

hunting and fishing pressure, and by elevating levels of harassment.

Increased numbers of people hunting and fishing will mean that a greater

number of animals 4ill be harvested, yet the carrying capacity of a

427

Figure 13
NORTON SOUND POPULATION, 1979-2000
BASE CASE

(thousands of person-S)

ls*s HOMN-50LINp POPULATION

14.S

13.s

12.S

1984 ISS3 1994 1999 2004

1979 12.016
.1980 11.846
'1981 11-776
1982 11.51 1
1983 11.752
1984 12.406
pas 12.525
-1986 12-51 7
1987 12-556
1988 12.69
1989 12.886
1990 13.108
1991 13.2.92
1992 13.494
1993 13' 662
1994 13.909
1995 14.105
1996 14-291
1997 14.491
1998 14.707
1999 14.949
2000 IS.14
S

Source: MAP Model
Porter, 1980

428
Figure 14

NORTON SOUND POPULATION IMPACTS

(Thousands of Persons)

10.0 NORTON @29= POPULATION IMPACTS

7.5
High
'Find

Medium
Find

Low Find

19as 1990 IGGS

EXPL LOW MOD HIGH

1980 0. 0. 0.
0. 0- 0. 0.
1982 0. 0. 0. 0.
1983 0.095 0.199 0.289 0.283
1984 0.198 0*.294 0.673. 0.578
1985 0.108 0.524 1.048 1.206
1996 0.006 0.759 0.942 1.536
1987 0.004 0.308 0.998 2.
1988 0.003 0.7 1 .832 2.708
1289 0.003 0.926 1.534 3.504
1990 0.002 2.265 4.473 7.015
1991 0.002 2.211 5.31 8.597
1992 0.002 1-718 5.018 8.874
1993 0.002 1.337 4.146 7.916
1994 0.002 1.262 3.729 7.14
1995 0.002 1.402 3.683 6.961
1996 0.002 i.392 3. 756 6-S47
1997 0.002 1.382 3.785 6.S57
1998 0.002 1.371 3.761 6.816
1999 0.002 1.356 3-726 6.811
2000 0.002 1-341 3.688 6-747

Source: MAP Model
Porter, 1980

429

Figure 15

NORTON SOUND EMPLGYMENT IMPACTS

(Thousands of Persons)

-7.5- NORTON SOUND EMPTLQIrT@M IPTIACTS

High
'Find

Medium
Find

Low Find

EXPL LOW MOD HIGH

1990 0. 0. 0. 0.
1931 0. 0. 0- 0.
1982 0. 0. 0- 0.
1983 0.047 0.094 0.144 0.14
1984 0.104 0.1, 52 0.343 0.295
19es 0.0se 0.259 0.508 0.601
1986 0.001 0.377 0-542 0.877
1987 0.001 0.18 0.694 1.342
1988 0. 0.3a9 0-998 1.599
1989 0. 0.566 0.978 2.051
1990 0. 1.558 3.094 4.773
1991 0. 1.557 3-731 5.964
1992 0. 1.206 3-539 6.198
1993 0. 0.941 2-927 5-553
1994 0. 0.902 2.659 5.027
1995 0. 1.021 2.664 4.961
IS96 0. 1.028 2.754 4.938
1997 0. 1.034 2.811 5.006
1998 0. 1.04 2-828 5.036
1999 0. 1.045 2-842 S.1
2000 0. 1.049 2.853 5-121

Source: MAP Model
Porter, 1980

430

habitat will limit the number of animals that can be taken. Harvests

will need to be managed by altering 1) methods and means of taking game,
2) bag limits, 3) lengths and timing of seasons, and 4) limiting the

number of hunters (by permit or punch card systems). Due to the extreme

importance attributed to subsistence activities in this region (Ellanna,
1980)- it might further be expected that some determina tion must be made

concerning subsistence qualification.

Incidents of.a.nimal harassment will occur more frequently if human

population levels increase. In most cases, low level harassment may

constitute nothing more than stalking animals for nonconsumptive purposes

such as viewing and picture taking. Such activities are unlikely to

affect a large percentage of a species population and can be relatively

harmless, unless an animal is extremely sensitive to human presence.

Lets amenable forms of harassment include chasing animals with motorized

vehicles or aircraft, scaring animals with gunshots,- handling young

animals, o-rdestroying a species critical habitat e.g. nests, dens,

spawning sites, etc.). Indiscriminate waste or garbage disposal may

also be considered a form of indirect harassment since animals (particularly

bears, foxes and birds) may come to rely on these sources for food. For

reasons of safety or health, these animals must then be exterminated.

Harassment can produce the following effects on an animal: 1) a greatly

elevated body metabolism which elevates the cost of living to the

animal at the expense of its body growth, development, and reproduction,

2) physical exertion and temporary confusion, which may lead to death,

illness, or reduced reproduction, and 3) avoidance or abandonment

431

of areas in which animals experience harassment, leading to a reduction

in the populations range, and ultimately a reduction of the population

due to a loss of access to resources, increased predation, or increased

cost of existence (Geist, 1975).

432

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

The adverse impacts of secondary development on fish, wildlife and

habitat in the northern Bering Sea-Norton Sound region are a combination

of disturbances that, for the most part, have been discussed previously

within the Impact and Mitigation sections of this report. Through

com pliance with the mitigating measures already identified in those

sections, many of the impacts associated with secondary development may

be substantially minimized, or in some-cases, completely eliminated.

Additional mitigatory measures which have not been addressed include:

1. Site specific environmental studies should be conducted in any

marine or terrestrial area likely to be impacted by secondary

development operations. These studies should include comprehensive

species inventories, food and habitat requirement surveys, and

site specific mitigations.

2. Avoid siting and constructing road systems and facilities

which parcel or separate a species critical habitat range.

3. During winter, roads should be plowed so that snow barriers
are not left 'alongside which might serve to impede animal

movements.

4. Salt should not be used on roads during winter in order to

minimize wildlife attraction.

433

5. Off-road traffic should be restricted as much as possible to

minimize damage to surrounding vegetation and to avoid undue

harassment of animals living adjacent to the road system.

6. During summer months (June through September) or during periods

when snow cover is inadequate to protect underlying vegetation,

only low surface pressure vehicles should be allowed off of

established roads or prepared foundations.

7. Public access on roads or 'airfields should be restricted where

necessary to prevent increased human presence in critical fish

and wildlife areas, and to maintain current sport and subsistence

harvest levels in areas made accessible by lease activities or

onshore development. Determinations of this nature should be

made only after consultation with the Alaska Department of

Fish and Game.

8. Utility corridors should be designed to accomodate additional

loads to limit further construction in undisturbed areas.

9. Utility corridors should be consolidated with road systems as
much,as possi6le to minimize habitat distu rbance.

10. Power and telephone lines should be constructed above ground

to facilitate quick repair and to avoid extensive trenching in

permafrost areas. Additionally, they should be constructed so

434

as to utilize existing land contours and natural barriers

which will aid in minimizing bird/powerline collisions.

11. Implement environmental training programs to educate personnel

as to the dangers of feeding, han dling or harassing wildlife.

12. Limit the off-site and off-duty activities of workers to

eliminate animal and human conflicts in sensitive areas.

13. Implement special game and fisheries management procedures or

regulations which will serve to reduce competition between new

workers and indigenous user groups.

14. Arrange for an exchange of dialogue between developers and

surrounding communities. This may be accomplished by esta-

blishing meetings or forums on a regularly scheduled basis

(bi-monthly/quarterly), in which representatives from the

private and public sector may discuss problems and issues, new

proposal s, etc.

15. Edibles shou.ld be adequately stored from their initial arrival

to their eventual disposal to avoid attracting animals. All

edible garbage should be thoroughly incinerated.

16. A solid waste disposal program should be initiated which will,

a) utilize materials that will not generate a large amount of

solid waste in the form of packaging; b) maximize on-site

435

recycling of parts or materials, including specifically pur-

chasing parts or materials amenable to rebuilding or recycling;

and c) schedule sup port activities so that all freight carriers

return with.a load of solid waste.

17. Liquid waste disposal systems should, a) reduce the temperature

of effluent discharge to minimize thermal erosion of subsurface

perTnafrost; b) recycle water in a cascading system if certain

processes do not require high water quality; and c) use a

series of interconnected lagoons so that water for industrial

use may be withdrawn from the last holding lagoon.

18. All liquid waste treatment lagoons should be lined and bermed

with an imp ermiable material that will prevent leaching into

the surrounding substrate.

19. Pesticides or defoliants should not be used for mosquito

control or site maintainence unless it can be demonstrated

that such chemicals will not accumulate in animal tissues,

groundwater supplies, or soil sediments; and that such tech-

niques will not preclude habitat utilization by other species.

20. Revegetation techniques should proceed immediately following

termination of activity in an area not subject to additional

operations.

436

21. All efforts.should be made to restore an area to its origi nal

state. This would include restoration of vegetational compo-

sition, land contour, waterflow and soil characteristics.

22. Habitat improvement techniques should be implemented concurrent

with development operations when it has been determined what

species will be displaced, what their habitat requirements

are, and if it is concluded that such prac tices will be

beneficial. Examples of habitat improvement techniques would

include the creation of additional denning,,nesting, spawning

or rearing sites; planting additional cover to compensate for

that which is removed; seeding additional vegetation for

forage in outlying areas, etc.

23. Whenever it is necessary to destroy important fish and wildlife

habitat, mitigation should be required.

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437

AIR POU UTION

Sources and Biological Effects

Air emissions from oil and gas industry operations can be sources of air

pollution. It is generally the case that the types of emissions produced

depend on the function of the facility. The amount of pollution in the

air is related to the types of products being produced, the kind of oil

pollution control equipment being used, and the regional ambient (surrounding)

air conditions. In Norton Sound, it is unlikely that oil refineries or

petrochemical plants will be constructed; however, primary treatment

facilities and liquified natural gas (LNG) plants are possible. Emmissions

from these facilities include hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur

oxides, nitrogen oxides, car bon monoxide and particulate matter (NERBC,

1976). Vaporized hydrocarbons, such as LNG, may be emitted into the air

at transfer points (i.e., marineterminals, LNG plants, fuel storage

tanks, leaks from pipelines, valves, and seals) further adding to air

problems (Clark and Terrell, 1978). An accident that released LNG to

the atmosphere could result in a catastrophic explosion and fire (Clark,

1977). If petrochemical industries utilizing petroleum feedstocks

should be constructed in Norton Sound and are located adjacent to production

and processing facilities, air pollution may be compounded.

Construction of onshore facilities during the exploration, development,

and production stages of oil development also contribute pollutants to

the atmosphere. Two types of air pollution are usually generated, one

438

type is from the exhaust of heavy machinery operating at the construction

site and the second type is generated by dust from heavy machinery

moving over exposed topsoil. Nitrogen oxide (N02) is released by diesel-

powered equipment, and carbon monoxide (CO) arises from gasoline-

powered machinery (NERBC, 1976). The Alaska Department of Environmental

Conservation anticipates that dust will be the major air quality problem

at service bases in Alaska (ADCRA, 1978).

Plants and animals react to air pollutants such as hydrocarbons, sulfur
dioxide, and.nitrogen oxide in various ways. Some'pollutants interfere

with normal central nervous system functions while others are suspected

of being carcinogenic (cancer-inducing) (NERBC, 1976). Polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons, which are widely studied pollutants, are thought

to cause lung cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are found in

crude petroleum and in the air surrounding refineries (Thomas, 1978).

Sulphur dioxide has been shown to increase the frequency of respiratory

irritation and disease in humans and animals; cause bleaching, growth

suppression, and reduction in yield of plants; affect growth of lichens;

and increase the acidity of rain and snow (NERBC, 1976; Saunders and

Wood, 1973). Nitrogen oxide can cause eye and respiratory irritation in

humans and animals, growth reduction in plants, and a discoloration

(brown haze) of the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are
emitted by fossil fuel combustion engines, treatment plants, gas processing

plants, and refineries (NERBC, 1976).

Studies in the British Isles, have shown that lichens are extremely

sensitive to air pollution (especially sulphur dioxide). Changes in

439

species diversity and abundance have reportedly occurred near urban

areas, and lichen vegetation which has been subjected to air pollution

can become considerably depleted (James, 1973). In eastern North America,

the eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) is highly sensitive to pollutants

such as sulphur dioxide, ozone, and nitrogen oxide. These pollutants

reduce the growth in height and diameter of trees, and injure their

foliage (Gerhold, 1977). The effects of air pollution on vegetation are

apparent at the Collier Carbon and Chemical Corporation near Kenai

(Dames & Moore, 1976a). This industry uses natural gas,as a feedstock

to produce liquid ammonia and urea, which are essential components for

growing commerical crops. Spruce and birch trees adjacent to the plant,
as well as in the rest of the industrial complex, are in poor 6ndf.tion.

Dead or dying spruce trees and partially defoliated birch trees are more

common is this area than those found greater distances from the complex.

The emission of gaseous ammonia appears to be the responsible factor

causing their poor condition (Dames & Moore, 1976a). In the northern

Bering Sea and Norton Sound region, gaseous emissions of sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxide, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons will be localized

around facilities or construction sites and are not likely to significantly

affect wildlife.

Atmospheric pollution can also affect the ecosystem by causing a change

in rainfall and snowfall patterns, lowered visibility, and local temperature

changes (NERBC, 1976). Otts (1976) reported that moisture and heat

discharged into the atmosphere by the large cooling towers of a power

plant near Charleston, West Virginia contributed significantly to heavy

snowfall downwind from the plant.

440

A major air pollutant during construction and operation phases in arctic

and subarctic regions will be dust. Dust reduces visibility, and can

increase the melt rate of snow resulting in vegetation changes and

changes in drainage patterns. Accumulated dust may smother vegetation

or increase turbidity and decrease light penetration in standing or

flowing water.

The secondary development that accompanies-the establishment of onshore

oil and gas facilities may lead to the use of pesticides and herbicides.

Contamination of the environment by pesticides (containing chlorinated

hydrocarbons) or herbicides could have serious detrimental effects on

marine birds, waterfowl , shorebirds, and raptors such as peregrine

falcons and bald eagles. Accumulation of pesticide residues in these

birds or their prey can eventually reduce reproductive success. There

is usually a general decrease in fertility, a reduction in the viability

of embryos and chicks, and eggshells become thinner and are easily

crushed during incubation resulting in the loss of the embryo (ADF&G,

undated; Nettleship, 1977). Peregrine falcons appear to be affected by

eggshell thinning in all areas of their nearly global range, including

areas in the Aleutians where they depend on marine food chains for

survival (Ohlendorf, et al., 1978). Increased air traffic can also add

to air pollution. Studies concerning the impacts on air quality resulting

from the new north/south runway at Anchorage International Airport

reveal that carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide, and particulate

matter (dust) were the most common pollutants associated with airport

operations (Tigue and Carpenter, 1975).

441

Sensitivity of Areas and Recommended Mitigative Measures

Areas in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound were not ranked as

having low, moderate or high sensitivity to the impacts of air pollution.

The adverse impacts of air pollution on biological resources which can

be anticipated from offshore oil development and associated se condary

development in the northern Bering Sea and Norton Sound can be prevented,

minimized, or ameliorated by complying with existing Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation

(ADEC) Air Quality Standards.

4" ' @--_REF@ERENC@S' '

443

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Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs (ADCRA). 1978.
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). 1978. Resource report for
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Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). 1979a. Survey Inventory
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Anderson, J.W., J.M. Augenfeld, E.A. Crecelius and R. Riley. 1978. Research
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Atchison, G., B. Murphy, W. Bishop, A. McIntosh and R. Mays. 1977.
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497

Personal Communications for Impact Section and Inventory MaPL-

Alt, K. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks,
Alaska.

Arvey, W. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage,
Alaska.

Barto, B. 1981. Crowley Environmental Services. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Barton,' L. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Baxter, R. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Bethel,
Alaska.

Braham, H.W. 1980. Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center. Seattle,
Washington.

Burns, J.J. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game.. Fairbanks,
Alaska.

Coachman, L. 1980. University of Washington, Department of Oceanography.
Seattle, Washington.

Community of Alakanuk. 1980. Alakanuk, Alaska.

Community of Kotlik, 1980. Kotlik, Alaska.

Community of Koyuk., 1980. Koyuk, Alaska.

Community of St..Michael. 1980. St. Michael, Alaska.

Ellanna, L. 1980, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Fay,- F.H. 1980. Institute of Marine Science, University of Alaska..
Fairbanks, Alaska...

Frost, K.J. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Fairbanks,
Alaska.

Grauvogel, C.A. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Grundy, S. 1981. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Fair banks,
Alaska.

Hall, J. 1978. Northern Gulf of Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Sacramento, California.

498

Hol den, K. 1978. United States Geophysical Survey. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Jones, R. 1980. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Jurasz, C. 1978. Sea Search. Juneau, Alaska.

Kawerak Inc. 1980. Native nonprofit Corporation. Nome, Alaska.

Kessel, B. 1980. University of Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska.

Lensink, C. 1980. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Lowry, L. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Fairbanks,
Alaska.

Money, D. 1980. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Moulton, L. 1981. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Nelson, R.R. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Pegau, R. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Pungowiyi, C. 1980. Kawerak, Inc. Nome, Alaska.

Ramsdell, C. 1980. College of the Atlantic. Maine.

Regnart, R. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Schaefer, G. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Schneider, K.B. 1978. -Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
Anchorage, Alaska.

Schwartz, L. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Seaman, G.A. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Anchorage,
Alaska.

Springer, H. 1980. Alaska Department of Transportation and
Public Facilities. Fairbanks, Alaska.

499

Thomas, 0. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Walluk, T. 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Nome,
Alaska.

Wolfson, L. 1980. ARCO Oil and Gas Company. Anchorage, Alaska.

Wolotira, R. 1980, National Marine Fisheries Service. Kodiak,
Alaska.

Woodby, D. 1980. Point Reyes Bird Observatory. California.

.1. " APPENDIX 1
14: .. I,-
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501

Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 3 - Benthic Invertebrate
Concentrations

Red King crab Paralithodes camtschatica
Blue king crab Paralithodes platXpus
Tanner crab C71onoecetes opilio
Starfish Ts-t-er-iras sp.
Shrimp Pandalu-s goniurus
Snails eptunea E-eros
Clams a arenaria
acoma calcarea

Scientific names represent the dominant species within a class grouping,
that are present in the Norton Sound Bering Strait region.
W
a
acj

502 Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 4 Fish Concentrations

Pacific herring Clupe ha engus pallasi
Chum salmon Oncor nchus keta
Pink salmon Oncorhynchus or uscha
King salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka
Coho salmon OncorUnChus kisutch
Grayling Thymallus arcticus
Cisco Coregonus sp
Whitefish Coregonus sp.
Sheefish Stenodus leucichthys
Capelin mallotus villosus
Toothed smelt Osmerus mordax de tex
Arctic cod Boreogadus saida
Saffron cod Eleginus gracilis
Shorthorn sculpin Myoxocephalus scorpius groenlandicus
Pacific sand lance Ammoodytes hexapterus
Yellowfin sole limanda aspera
Longhead dab limanda proboscidea
Arctic flounder Liopsetta glacialis
Starry flounder Platichthys stellatus
Alaska plaice Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus

TABLE 41: TIMING OF FISH LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCURING IN THE NORTHERN,
BERING SEA ANM NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAP 4.

JAN Fee MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG 8EPT Oct NOV DEC
SALMON
KING
PRESENT IN NEARSHORE WATERS

SPAWNING

EGGSIFRY PRESENT IN STREAMS
JUVENILE OUTMiGRATION ? ? 7 ? ? NO SPECIFIC DAIA 19 AVAILAB.E. IT 18 ASSUMED THAT Al.L
JUVENILE NEARSHORE FEEDING ? ? I ? ? ? ? SPECIES OF JUVENILE SALMON )UTMIGRATE FOLLOWING ICE BAFAKUP.

SOCKEYE
PRESENT IN NEARS"ORE WATERS LOW NUMBI 48 PRECLUDE ESTIMATE$.

SPAWNING

EGOSIFRY PRESENT IN STREAMS
JUVENILE OUTMIGRATION ? p ? ? ? NO 8PECIFIC'DAl A 19 AVAILAN LE. IT 19 ASI UMED THAT A LL
JUVENILE NEARSHORE FEEDING ? ? ? t ? ? ? ? ? PF 'IE8 OF'JUVE 41LE SALMON 3UTMIGRATE FOLLOWING ICI BREAKUP.

COHO
PRESENT IN NEARSHORE WATERS

SPAWNING

EGOSIFRY PRESENT IN STREAMS
JUVENILE OUTMIGRATION ? ? ? ? ? ? PECIFIC DAl A 15 AVAILAI LE. It IS AS WMED THAT kLL
JUVENILE NEARSHORE FEEDING ? ? ? ? ? ? :POE C81ES OF JUVE 41LE SALMON )UTMIGRATE F DLLOWING ICE BREAKUP.

PINK
PRESENT IN NEARGHORE WATERS

SPAWNING

EGOSIFRY PRESENT IN STREAMS

JUVENILE OUTMIGRATION

JUVENILE NEARSHORE FEEDING

CHUM
PRESENT IN NEARSHORE WATERS

SPAWNING

EGOSIFRY PRESENT IN STREAMS

JUVENILE OUTMIGRATION

JUVENILE NEARSHORE FEEDING

GRAYLING
SPAWNING

C)
w

CD
4@b

TABLE 41 TIMING OF FISH LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCURING IN THE NORTHERN

BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAP 4.

JAN FEB M A It APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

ARCTIC CHAR
SPRING OUTMIGRATIO"

SPAWNING

FALL IMMIGRATION

"ERRING
SPAWNING

LARVAE PRESENT

NEARSHORE FEEDING

WINTERING

CAPELIN
SPAWNING

SAFFRON COD
MEARSHORE SPAWNING
Aa ORE GA TION8

SPAWNING

ARCTIC COD
NEARSHORE SPAWNING
AGGREGATIONS

SPAWNING

$TARRY FLOUNDER
SPAWNING LARVAE HAVE BE :N CAUGHT IN NORTON SC U.ND bURIN THE SUMMER.

YELLOWFI" SOLE
SPAWNING

WHITEFISH
OUTMIGRATION

IMMIGRATION

REFERENCES: A.D.F.&G., 1978; Alt. 1979; All. per$. comm.:
Bakkala. 1979*. Barton. 1980; Front. 1979; Frost. pore. comm.;
McPhail and Lindsey. 1970'. Hunarn Kitlutelati, pore. comm.;
Schaefer. per&. COMM.: U.S. Coast Guard. 1975; Waldron. 1979.
-r-777

505

Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 5 Bird Concentrations

Pelagic cormorant Phalacrocorax pelagicus
Whistling swan Olor columbianus
Canada goose Branta canadensis
Black brant Branta bernicla
Emperor goose Philacte canagica
Snow goose Chen caerulescens
Pintail duck Anas acuta
Greater scaup Aythya marila
Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis
Harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus
Steller's eider Polysticta stelleri
Common eider Somateria mollissima
Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus
Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus
Sandhill crane Grus canadensis
American plover Pluvialis dominica
Black-bellied plover Pluvialis squatarola
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus
Sandpipers Caldris sP.
Red knots Caldris canutus
Rock sandpiper Caldris ptilonemis
Dunlin Caldris alpina
Western sandpiper Caldris mauri
Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica
Red phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius
Northern phalarope Phalaropus lobatus
Glaucous gull Larus hyperboreus
Herring gull Larus argentatus
Mew gull Farus canus
Black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla
Sabine's gull Xema sabini
Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea
Aleutian tern Sterna aleutica
Common murre Uria aalge
Thick-billed murre Uria lomvia
Dovekie Alle alle
Pigeon guillemot Cepphus columba
Kittlitz's murrelet Brachyramphus brevirostris
Parakeet auklet Cyclorrhynchus psittacula
Crested auklet Aethia cristatella

Least auklet Aethia pusilla
Horned puffin Fratercula coniculata
Tufted puffin Lunda cirrhata

Ln
c:)

TABLE 42: TIMING OF BIRD LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCURING IN THE NORTHERN
BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAP 5.

JAN FE13 MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG 8 PT OCT Nov DEC

ORABIROB
NFOTING

CONCENTRATED IN LEADS

FEEDING OFF COLONIES

PELAGIC FEEDING

WATERFOWL
CONCENTRATED I" LEADS

NESTING

MOLTING

FALL STAGING

MIGRATION

SEA DUCK
WINTERING CONCENTRATION

SHOW GEESE
STAGING

MIGRATION

EMPIEROR evesS
STAGING 1-4

MIGRATION

MOLTING

BLACK BRANT
MIGRATION

SWANS
NESTING

MIGRATION

OAND"ILL CRANES
HE 8 TING /FEEDINQIOTAGING

MIGRATION

NESTING

TABLE'42 : (CO@NTJ TIMING OF BIRD LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCU RING IN THE NORTHERN
BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAP 5.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

SHOREBIRD$
MIGRATION

CONCENTRATION IN LEADS.

FALL STAGING

NESTING

RAPTOR
NESTING

PEREGRINE FALCON
NESTING

REFERENCES: Drury at &1. 1978: Drury at &1.-1980;
Fay. 1981: Flock and Hubbard. 1979; Gilt and Handel.
1978; Gill and Handel. 1980; Kassel. pore. comm.:
Shield* and Peyton. 1978.

CrI
C:)
4

508 Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 6 - Marine and Terrestrial
MammaT Concentrations Winter

Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus
Belukha whale Delphinapterus leucas
Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus
Walrus Odobenus rosmarus
Ringed seal Phoca hispida
Bearded seal Erignathus barbatus
Polar bear Ursus maritimus
Muskox Ovibo moschatu
Moose Alces alces

509

Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 7 - Marine and Terrestrial
Mammal Concentrations Summer

Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus
Belukha whale Delphinapterus leucas
Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus
Killer whale Orcinus orca
Minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Harbor porpoise Phocoena phocoena
Stellar sea lion Eumetopias jubata
Spotted seal Phoca vitulina
Pacific walrus Odobenus rosmarus
Grizzly bear Ursus arctos
Muskox Ovibos moschatus

TABLE 43: TIMING OF MAMMAL LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCURING IN THE NORTHERN c:)
BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAPS 6 AND 1.

90WHEAD WHALE JAN FES' 'MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OC7 NOV DEC

SPRING M143RATION
CALVING 7H;u T TO OCCUF DURING THIa TIME
FALL MIGRATI
ON

GELUKHA WHALE

SPRING MIGRATION

CALVING

FEEDING

MATING

FALL MIGRATION

GRAY WHALE

SPRING MIGRATION

FEEDING

FALL MIGRATION

OTHER WHALSO

PREGENT

WALRUS

SPRING MIGRATION

CALVING

FALL L41GRATION

BEARDED GOAL,

FREBENT

BREEDING

PUPPING

MOLTING

RINGED SEAL

PRESENT

BREEDING

PUPPING

MOLTING

SPOTTED BEAL

PRESENT

MOLTING

HAUL-OUTIFEEDING

TABLE 43 (CONT.) 'TIMING OF MAMMAL LIFE HISTORY STAGES OCCURING IN THE NORTHERN
BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAPS 6 AND T.

R1860H BEAL JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

PRESENT

MOLTING

POLAR BEAR

PRESENT

moose

PRESENT

BREEDING
CALVING of
WINTERING

INTENSIVE FEEDING

GRIZZLY BEAR

PRESENT

BREEDING

BIRTHINO'

DENNING

INTENSIVE FEEDING

CARIBOU

PRESENT

MUSKOX

PRESENT

BREEDING

CALVING

WIN@ERINQ

REFERENCES: Braham, pore. comm.. Burns. in press;
Fay, pore. comm.; Frost. pore. comm.: Grauvogel. pore. comm.*.
Kawofak Inc.. per$. Comm.: Kllnkharl. 197?;Rlce and Wofman,
1971: Beeman, per$. comm.

512

Scientific Names of Species Discussed
on Map 8 Harvest Areas

Belukha whale Delphinapterus leucas
Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus
Bearded seal Erignathus barbatus
Ringed seal Phoca hispida
Spotted seal Phoca vitulina
Pacific walrus Oodobenus rosmarus
Grizzly bear Ursus arctos
Moose Alces alces
Caribou Rangifer tarandus
Salmon
Chum Oncor ynchus keta
Pink Oncor ynchus goorbuscha
Sockeye Oncorhynchus nerKa
Coho Oncorhynchus kisutch
King Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Sheefish Stenodus leucichthys
Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi
Arctic char Salvelinus alpinus
Shorthorn sculpin Myoxocephalus scorpius
groenlandicus
Cisco Coregonus sp.
Grayling Thymallus arcticus
Whitefish Coregonus sp.
Burbot Iota Iota
Arctic cod oreoga us saida
Saffron cod Eleginus acilis
King crab Paralitho chatica
Paralithodes platypus
Freshwater mussels sp unknown
Clams Mya arenaria
Macoma calcarea
Common eider Somateria mollissima
King eider Somateria spectablis
Spectacled eider Lampronetta fisheri
Stellar's eider Polysticta stelle I
Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis
Pintail Anas ac
Black brant Branta icla
Snow goose Chen hyperborea

White-fronted goose Anser albifrons
Crane Grus cadensis
Common murre (particularly eggs) Uria aalge
Thick-billed murre (particularly eggs) Uria lomvia
Least auklet Aethia pusilla
Crested auklet Aethia cristatella
Parakeet auklet Cyclorhynhcus psittacula

mm mmmm mm mom="

TABLE 44: TIMING OF SUBSISTENCE. COMMERCIAL AND SPORT HARVESTS IN THE NORTHERN
BERING SEA AND NORTON SOUND REGION AS DISCUSSED ON MAPS.

SALMON JAN FES M A 14 APR MAY JUNE JULY AIJ13 SEPT OCT NOV DEC

HEARING

OTHER FISH

KING CRAB

CLAMS

MUSSELS

SEABIRD$

WATERFOWL

EGGS

BOWHEAD WHALES

BELUKHA WHALES

WALRUS

BEALS

GRIZZLY BEAR

MOOSE

CARIBOU

.REFERENCES: A.D.F.60.. 1979s, A.D.F.&G., 1979b A.D.F.M. 1979c,
A.D.F.M. 19110. Burns, 1965, Eisler, 1978. Ellanne, 1980. Ellanne.pers. comm.,
Grauvogel. pore. comm.. Kawafak Inc.. pers. comm.. Nelson. per@- comm.,
Seeman. per*. comm.. Thomas, pore. comm.. Walluk, pore. comm.

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515

GLOSSARY

AMPHIPOD An organism belonging to the order Amphipoda; individuals lack
a carapace, bear unstalked eyes, and respire through gills.

ANADROMOUS Classification of fish that live in the sea, but ascend
rivers t pawn in fresh water, e.g., salmon, Arctic char, etc.

ANOXIC The failure of oxygen to gain access to, or to be utilized by,
the bo y tissues. Waters which.have become depleted in dissolved oxygen.
ANTIOXIDANT An inhibitor effective in preventing oxidation by molecular
oxygen. I

AQUATIC PLANTS Plants that grow eit herfloating on the surface, growing
up from f-hebottom of a body of water or growing under the surface of
the water.

AQUIFER A water bearing layer of permeable rock, sand, or gravel.

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbons containing at least one benzene
ring. See Hydrocarbons.

AUFEIS AnAce feature that is formed by water overflowing onto a surface,
such as river ice or gravel deposits, and freezing, with subsequent layers
formed by water overflowing onto the ice surface itself and freezing.

BACTERIOCIDAL Capability to destroy bacteria.

BACTERIOSTATIC Capability to inhibit bacterial growth or metabolism.

BALLAST Seawater which is pumped into the hold of a ship, generally a
tanker, used to enhance stability.

BELUKHA WHALE (Beluga whale) Toothed, white whale.

BENTHIC Refers to aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms including: (a)
attached animals, such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels, oysters, some
worms, and many attached algae;.(b) creeping forms, such as insects,
crabs, snails, and certain clams; and (c) burrowing forms which include
most clams and worms.

BIOTA The flora and fauna of a region.

BIOMASS The amount of living organisms in a particular area, stated in
terms o the weight or volume of organisms per unit area, or of the
volume of the environment.

BLOWOUT An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, and other well. fluids from a
well to the surrounding air or water. A well blows when formation
pressure exceeds the pressure being applied to it by the column of
drilling fluid.,

516

BLOOM A proliferation of living algae and/or aquatic plants on the
surface of water. Blooms are frequently stimulated by phosphate enrichment.

BOG14 A floating device that is used to contain oil on a body of water.

BUFFER ZONE A vegetated buffer area that provides erosion control for
ongoing construction, adding to site aesthetics and reducing noise
levels during construction. Buffer zones are located along water courses
and shorelines to trap sediment and pollutants. Width of buffer zones
is determined by slope of land, severity of erosion, and vegetation
type.

BULKHEAD Structure installed to prevent erosion of land; usually a
vertical wall built parallel, or nearly so, to the shoreline.

CARCINOGEN Substance that can cause cancer.

CHEMORECEPTION Reception of a chemical stimulus by an organism.

CHRONIC Marked by long duration or frequent recurrence.

COASTAL ZONE Coastal waters and adjacent lands that exert a measurable
influence on the uses of the sea and its ecology.

C04MUNITY Those organisms occupying the same area that make up a naturally
occurring assemblage of plants and animals that live in the same environment,
are mutually sustaining and interdependent, and are constantly fixing,
utilizing, and dissipating energy. The interacting populations are
characterized by death and replacement and usually by immigration and
emigration of individuals. The populations themselves are always fl'uctuating
with seasonal and environmental changes.

CONTAMINATION To make impure or unclean; an intrusion of or contact
with dirt, or foulness from an outside source.

CONTINENTAL SHELF That part of the continental margin that is between
the shoreline and the continental slope (or when there is no noticeable
continental slope, a depth of 200 m); a shallow submarine plain of
varying width forming a border to a continent and typically ending in a
steep slope to the oceanic abyss.

COOLING TOWER A device to remove excess heat from water used in industrial
operations, notably in electric generators.

COOLING WATERS Waters withdrawn by industrial facilities for the
purpose of cooling equipment and then discharged back into a freshwater
or marine environment.

COST WELL Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test well.

CRUDE OIL A comparatively volatile liquid bitumen composed principally
of hydrocarbon, with traces of sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen compounds,
(natural gas, petroleum, water) can be removed from the earth in a
liquid state.

517

DEMERSAL Living at or near the bottom of the sea.

DEPURATION To cleanse or purify.

DETRITUIS A collective term for loose rock and mineral material that is
worn off or removed directly by mechanical means, such as abrasion, and
moved from its place of origin. Often contains decaying plant material,
bacteria, fungi, and numbers of microscopic animals.

DB4ATER The draining or removal of water from an enclosure or channel.
DIATCMS Microscopic, single-celled plants growing in marine or fres*hwater.

DINOFLAGELLATE A one-celled, microscopic, chiefly marine, flagellated
organism which resembles both the animal and plant kingdoms.

DISPERSANT A chemical agent used to break up concentrations of organic
material. In cleaning oil spills, dispersants are used to disperse oil
from the water surface.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN The amount of oxygen, in parts per million, present in
water, now generally expressed in mg/l. A critical factor for fish and
other aquatic life, and for self-purification of a surface-water body
after inflow of oxygen-consuming pollutants. Abbrev: DO.

DISTURBANCE To destroy the tranquility of, and/or to throw into disorder;
a local iation from the average or normal condition; an undesired
interference.

DIURNAL TIDE A tide in which there is only one high water and one low
water each Tunar day.

DRAI NAGE (AREA) The entire area drained by a river or system of connecting
streams such that all streamflow originating in the area is discharged
through a single outlet.

DREDGING A method for deepening streams, swamps, or coastal waters by
scraping and removing materials from the bottom.

DRILL CUTTINGS Composed of bottom sediments and pieces of pulverized
rock from uFd-erlying geologic formations and are discharged into marine
or fresh water during well drilling..
DRILLING MUDS Special mixtures of clay, water, (or oil) and chemicals
which are circulated into the drilling hole to cool and lubricate the
drill bit, to remove formation cuttings from the hole, and to prevent
blowouts by holding back formation pressures exerted by oil and gas
accumulations.

518

OROGUE A current measuring assembly consisting of a weighted current
cross, sail, or parachute, and an attached surface buoy. Also known as
a drag anchor; sea anchor.

EBB TIDE. The reflux of the tide toward the sea; the tide which is at
ebb or a state of decline.

ECOLOGY The study of the relationships between organisms and their
environments, including the study of communities, patterns of life,
natural cycles, relationships of organisms to each other, biogeography,
and population changes.

ECOSYSTE14 A functional ecological system that includes the organisms of
a natural community together with their environment.

EFFLUENTS The liquid waste from sewage and industrial processing discharged
into th nvironment. Generally used in regard to discharges onto land
or into waters.

EMULSION A suspension of small globules of one.liquid in a second
liquid with which the first will not mix.

ENHANCE To increase or make greater, as in value, beauty or abundance.

ENTRAIMENT A process where aquatic organisms (such as plankton, fish,
and larval stages of shellfish) are exposed to heat, shock, turbulence,
and abrasion as they are drawn in with waters used to reduce waste heat
produced by various industrial processes.

ENVIRONMENT The sum of all external conditions and influences (e.g.,
temperature, light, water, and other organisms) affecting the life,
development and ultimately, the survival of the organism.

.EPIBENTHIC Animals living on the surface of the bottom substrate.

EPONTIC ALGAE Algae typically planktonic in form, growing in close
association with sea ice.

EROSION The weathering and displacement of rock and soils by the force
of moving water, ice, wind, and gravity.

ESTUARIES Areas where fresh waters meet salt waters. For example;
bays, m hs of rivers, salt marshes and lagoons containing a salinity
greater than 0.5 ppt. (parts per thousand) during any portion of the
year. Estuaries are delicate ecosystems; they serve as nurseries,
spawning areas, and feeding grounds for a large segment of marine life,
and provide shelter and food for birds and wildlife.

ESTUARINE Pertaining to, formed, or living in an estuary; especially in
the context of deposition and the sedimentary or biological environment
of an estuary.

519

EYRIE The nest of a raptor.

FAST ICE Ice which is held in postion by contact with or attachment to
The -shore or bottom. It is called "ice foot" if frozen to the shore,
"shore ice" if cast onto the shore or beached, "stranded ice" if grounded,
and nbottom ice" if frozen to the bottom. Ice which is not in contact
with or attached to the shore or bottom is called "floating ice."

FAUNA The entire animal population of a given area.

FEEDSTOCK Natural gas liquids and refinery products, such as naphtha
and gas oil, used by petrochemical plants to produce several hundred
intermediate and final products, including ammonia, ethane, argon,
hydrogen gas, fertilizers, neoprene rubber, aromatics, and ethylene.

FILLING Taking materials produced by dredging and depositing them for
fill; or the disposal of by-products. The process of depositing dirt
and mud in marshy areas to create more land for real estate development.
Filling,can disturb natural ecological cycles. See dredging.
FLUSHING The rate'at which the water of an estuary is replaced (usually
expressed as the time for one complete replacement).
FOOD WEB A modified food chain thai*expresses feeding relationships at
various levels.

FORMATION WATERS Waters discharged from offshore drilling platforms or
onshore treatment facilities which are contaminated with hydrocarbons,
heavy metals, and hydrogen sulfides which.may pollute marine and freshwater
envi ronments.

FRY Recently hatched fish.

GAMETES A mature germ -cell (an egg or sperm or one of their anticedent
c el I sT.

GEOPHYSICAL Dealing:with the physics of the earth including the fields
of meterology, hydrology, oceanography, seismology, volcanology, magnetism,
radioactivity, and geodesy.

GROIN A wall or barrier built outward from the shoreline to trap sand,
influence current, deflect waves, or otherwise protect the beach. Syn:
jetty.

GROUNDWATER All subsurface water, especially that part that is in the
zone of saturation.

GYRE A current moving in a closed, circular system.

520

HABITAT The part of the physical environment in which a plant or animal.
Tirvies-, the total sum of environmental conditions of a specific place
that is occupied by an organism, a, population, or a community.

HAUL OUT Resting, molting, pupping or rearing area; or behavior performed
by marine mammals in order to get out of the sea and onto a land mass,
rock, or ice formation.

HEAVY METAL A metal whose specific gravity is approximately 5.0 or
higher e.g. lead, zinc, mercury, nickel etc.

HERBICIDE A chemical used to destroy or' inhibit the growth of certain
plants.

HIGH-WATER CHANNEL A channel that is dry most of the ice-free season,
but contains flowing water during floods.

HYDROCARBON One of a very large group of chemical compounds composed
only ofcarbon and hydrogen; the largest source of hydrocarbons arise
from petroleum crude oil.

HYDROSTATIC The condition in which there are equal compressive stresses
or equal tensile stresses in all directions, and,no shear stresses on
any plane.

IMPACT The force of impression of one thing on another; an impelling or
compelling effect; the total effect of an environmental change, either
natural or man-made, on the ecology of the area.

IMPINGEMENT Entrapment on the protective screens of water-intake structures.

INFAUNA Those aquatic animals that live within, rather than on, the
bottom sediment.

INGESTION The act or process of taking food and/or.other substances
into th@_animal body.

IN SITU In the original location.

INTERSTITIAL Of, pertaining to, or situated in a space between two
things, as in spaces between gravel.

.INTERTIDAL AREA The area between the extreme high and low tide levels.

JET A hydraulic device operated by pump pressure for cleaning mud pits
and tanks on a rotary drilling location.

JETTY A barrier built outward from the shore into a body of water to
influence the current or tide, or to protect a harbor or shoreline.
Syn: groin.

521

LAGOON A relatively shallow estuary exhibiting restricted exchange with
the sea. A shallow stretch of seawater, such as a sound, channel, bay,
or salt-water lake, which is near or communicating with the sea and
partly or completely separated from It by a low, narrow, elongate strip
of land, such as a reef, barrier island, sandbank, or spit.

LANDFALL The point at which an offshore pipeline canes onshore.

LARVA The pre-adult fonn in which some animals hatch from the egg;
capable of existing by itself, though usually in a way different from
the adult, usually incapable of sexual reproduction and distinctly
different from sexually mature adult in form. Turns into adult, usually
by a metamorphosis, e.g., tadpole to frog, caterpillar to butterfly etc.
Many marine invertebrates.have planktonic, transparent, ciliated larvae.
Plural: larvae.

LEAD Linear cracks separating bodies of ice.

LNG Liquified natural gas.

MACROALGAE Algae that can be observed with the naked eye.

MACROPHYTE A plant, especially aquatic plants, that can be observed
with the naked eye.

MEROPLANKTON An organism that is temporarily planktonic, e.g., eggs and
larvae.
MITIGATION Cause to become less harsh or hostile,' alleviate, make less
severe.

MOLT To shed part or all of a coat or outer covering, such as hair,
fe-athers, shell, horns, or an outer layer of skin, which is replaced
periodically by a new growth.

n.mi. Nautical mile. 1.151 miles or 1.852 kilometers. A unit of
distance use d for sea and air navigation.

NUTRIENT A nutritive substance or ingredient which provides nourishment;
elements or compounds essential as raw materials for an organisms growth
and development, fo r example, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

OCS Outer Continental Shelf. See Continental Shelf.

OFFSHORE (a) Situated off of, or at a distance from the shore; submerged
zone of variable width extending from the breaker zone to the seaward
edge of the continental shelf where substantial movement of material is
limited. The offshore zone is seaward of the inshore zone or the shoreline,
although it is often regarded as the zone extending seaward from the
low-water shoreline. (b) Pertaining to a direction seaward or lakeward
from the shore; e.g., an offshore wind or one that blows away from the
land, or an offshore current or one moving away from the shore.

522

ORGANISM. An individual constituted to carry out all life functions, any
living human, plant, or animal.

PATHOGEN. A disease - producing agent; usually refers to living organisms.

PELAGIC (a.) Pertaining to the water of the ocean as an environment.
(E) -Said of marine organisms (such as birds, mammals, and fish) whose
environment is the open ocean, rather than the bottom or shore areas.
(c) Also refers to fish which do not spend their whole life on the
bottom, although they may remain fairly near the shore, such as herring
or sardines.

PETROCHEMICAL A chemical isolated or derived from petroleum or natural
gas.

PHEROMONE Intraspecific behavior inducing substance.

PHOTO-OXIDATION A chemical reaction induced by light which increases
the oxygen content of a compound.

PHYTOPLANKTON That part of the plankton composed of floating, microscopic
aquatic plants. See Plankton.

PILINGS Long, slender columns usually of timber, steel, or reinforced
concrete, driven into the ground to carry a vertical load.

PLANKTON Animals and plants of the sea or a lake which float or drift
almost passively. They are usually very small. Plankton occur mainly
near the surface, where plants get sufficient light, and are.of great
ecological and economic importance, providing food for fish and whales.

PLLHE Effluent material at the mouth of an outfall which is present in
the receiving waters before mixing reduces them below a detectable
level.

POLLUTANT Any introduced gas, liquid, or solid that makes a resource
unfit for a specific purpose.

POLLUTION Making something physically impure or unclean; to contaminate
the environment especially with man-made waste.

POLYCHAETES A class of segmented marine worms.

POLYNYA Open water area surrounded by ice.

POTAMODROMOUS Fish which occupy the slow moving, warmer portion of
rivers below the leadwaters but upstream from any saltwater or brackish
water.

PPM Parts per million; can be stated as mg/l*.

PREDATION A mode of life in which food is primarily obtained by the
killing and consuming of animals.

523

RECEIVING WATERS Rivers, lakes, oceans, or other bodies that receive
treateFor untreated waste waters.

REFINERY A building and equipment used for refining or purifying a
crude substance, such as oil.

RIP A body of water made turbulent by the convergence of opposing
tides, currents, or winds; a current of water agitated by passing over
an irregular bottom.

RIPARIAN Living or located on the bank of a river, pond, or small lake.

RIPRAP A large, durable layer of broken stones erected in water or soft
ground as a foundation to prevent erosion.

RUNOFF That portion of.rainfall, melted snow, or i.rrigation water that
flows across the ground surface and eventually is returned to streams.
Runoff can pickup pollutants from the air or the land and carry them to
the receiving waters.
SACRIFICIAL BEACH A beach designed to protect an artificial island
through gradually sloping (1:20 underwater slope) beaches which force
waves to break and dissipate their energy before they reach the island.
The beach is replenished as necessary by additional dredging.

SALINITY A measure of the quantity of dissolved salts in sea water in
parts per thousand of water.

SEDIMENT Fragmental material, or a mass of such material, either organic
or inorganic, transported by, suspended in, or deposited by air, water,
or ice. It ultimately foms in layers on the earth's surface in an
unconsolidated form; e.g., sand, gravel, silt, mud, till, loess, alluvium.
In the singular, it refers to material suspended in water or recently
depos,ited. In the plural, it refers to.deposits of unconsolidated
materials.

SEDIMENTATION The act or process of accumulating sediments in layers.

SESSILE Permanently attached to the substrate.

SCOUR The removal of sediments by running water, usually associated
Wi-t-h-removal from the channel bed or floodplain surface.

SILT CURTAINS A flexible barrier erected around a source of silty water
which is designed to allow the sediment to settle out before allowing it
to enter a relatively clean body of water.

SILTATION The deposition or accumulation of stream-deposited silt that
is suspended in a body of standing water.

SKIMMER A mechanical device for removing oil or scum from the water.

524

SKIMMER WALL A wall in front of a water intake structure designed to
prevent clogging by material floating on the surface. Especially to
prevent clogging by floating ice.

SLUMP A type of landslide.characterized by the downward slipping of'a
mass of rock or unconsol.idated debris.

SMOLT A young salmon that is roughly 2 years old,-at the stage of
Ue-velopment when it assumes the silvery color of.the adult.

SOLUBLE Capable of being dissolved

SPOIL Earth and rock excavated or.dredged.

SPRAY POND An arrangement for cooling large quantities of water in open
.reservoirs or ponds; nozzles spray a portion of the water into the air
for the evaporative cooling effect.

STAGING The grouping of waterfowl and seabirds for feeding and resting
before, during, and after migration.

STAGING AREA An area of staging acti.vities. See Staging.

STAMUKHI Large piles of ice formed on.tidal flats from beach ice broken
free and deposited higher on the flats. Usually.frozen to the underlying
mud.

SUBSTRATE The.base on which an organism lives.

SUSPENSION The state of a substance when its particles are mixed with,
but remal-n undissolved in a fluid or solid.

TANKER A cargo boat fitted with tanks for carrying liquid in bulk.

THALWEG The line following the lowest part of a valley, whether under
water or not; also usually the line following the deepest part or
middle of.the bed or channel of a river or stream.
THERMAL POLLUTION Degradation of water quality by the introduction of a
heated effluent. Primarily a result of the discharge of cooling waters
from industrial processes, particularly from electri.cal power generation.
Even small deviations.from normal water temperatures can affect aquatic
life. Thermal pollution usually can be controlled by cooling towers.

TIDEFLATS Unvegetated sandy or muddy areas exposed at.low tide that
support rms, crabs, and clams which feed at high tide and retreat into
burrows during low tides. High tides also-bring juvenile and even adult.
fish to.graze on exposed food.supplies.. Millions of microorganisms in
tideflats serve as natural filters for cleaning polluted.water.

525

TOLERANCE The physiological, behavioral, or ecological limits (e.g., of
salinity, temperature, competition, predation) within which living
organisms interact with their environment.

TOXIC Relating to a poisonous substance which after discharge and upon
exposure, ingestion, inhalation, or assimilation can cause death or
disease.

TROPHIC Of or pertaining to food or feeding.

TROPHIC LEVEL A position or level in the food chain determined by the
number of -energy transfer steps to that level and based on feeding
relationships among species.

TLJRBIDITY Reduced water clarity resulting from the presence of suspended
particles, such as silt or finely divided organic matter.

TLIRNING BASIN An open area at the end of a canal or narrow waterway to
allow boats to turn around.

MELLING Welling up; moving or flowing upward.

VOLATIZATION The conversion of a chemical substance from a liquid or
solid State of a gaseous or vapor State.

WASTE WATER Water carrying wastes from homes, businesses, and industries,
that is a mixture of water which su.pports dissolved or suspended solids.

WETLANDS' Includes lands shallowly submerged by water with a frequency
and.duration sufficient to support, vegetation typically adapted for
life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands are not strictly limited to
the zone daily inundated by the tides, but rather are characterized as
marshes, bogs, or muskegs which generally have an extensive freshwater
zone above sea level and which often have a tidally influenced saltwater
zone at sea level.

ZOOPLANKTON Animal life of the plankton. Planktonic animals that
supply food for fish. See Plankton.

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