:the land use impacts of infrastructure investments/prepared for the Council on Environmental Quality by Urban Systems Research & Engineerings, inc. Urban Systems Research & Engineering. Council on Environmental Quality (U.S.) Washington:CEQ : for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.,1976. Land use United States. Public works United States. Coastal Zone Information Ce t py MR. 6&v *NK J 10@@.,wwM 4, 4"'.00, HD 255 - U7 1976 c. 2 i';Mst of Infrastructure nw-MORM, on Environmental Qun"L AL Other CEQ Land Use Publications Available at U.S. Government Printing Office: Untaxing Open Space An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Differential Assessment of Firms and Open Space Executive Summary Analysis by the Regional Science Research Institute, 1976 Recreation on'Water Supply Reservoirs: A Handbook for Increased Use, by Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., 1975 The Delaware River Basin-An Environmental Assessment of Three Centuries of Change, 1975 Land Use (Reprinted from the Fifth Annual Report of the Council on Environ- mental Quality), 1974 Potential Onshore Effects of Oil and Gas Production on the Atlantic and Gulf of Alaska Outer Continental Shelf, Volume IV of OCS Oil and Gas-An Environmental Assessment, by Resource Planning Associates, Inc., and David M. Dornbusch & Co., 1974 The Costs of Sprawl:. Environmental and Economic Costs of Alternative De- velopment Patterns at the Urban Fringe Executive Summary Detailed Cost Analysis Literature Review and Bibliography prepared for CEQ, HUD, and EPA by Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974 The Taking Issue-An Analysis of the Constitutional Limits of Land Use Control, by Fred Bosselman, David Callies, and John Banta, 1973 The Quiet Revolution in Land Use Control-Summary Report, by Fred Bossel- man and David Callies, 1971 Available at National Technical Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce: Interceptor Sewers and Suburban Sprawl Volume 1: Analysis Volume 2: Case Studies by Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., 1974 Recreational Properties: An Analysis of the Markets for Privately Owned Recreational Lots and Leisure Homes, by Richard L. Ragatz Associates, Inc., 1974 Total Urban Water Pollution Loads: The Impact of Storm Water, by Enviro Con- trol, Inc., 1974 Potential Onshore Effects of Deepwater Oil Terminal-Related Industrial Development Volume 1: Executive Summary Volume II: Mid-Atlantic Region and Maine Volume III: Gulf Coast Region Volume IV: Appendices by Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1973 Land Use Change and Environmental Quality in Urban Areas: Some Com- parative Studies (Denver, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Baltimore, River- side/San Bernardino), by Earth Satellite Corporation, 1973 In Preparation: Leisure homes and recreational properties Land use impacts of federal taxes Energy consumption and land use Land use inside cities Costs of metropolitan development patterns The Growth Shapers The Land Use Impacts of Infrastructure Investments Prepared for the Council on Environmental Quality by Urban Systems Research & Engineering, Inc. May 1976 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413 Property of CSC Library __________________________ For sole by the superintendant of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,D.C. 20402 Price $1.30 Stock No. 041-011-00029-7 HD255,u7 1976 c.2 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE SC 29405-2413 Property of CSC Library For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price $1.30 Stock No. 041-011-00029-7 Preface As part of its continuing analysis of land use issues, the Council on Envi- ronmental Quality is pleased to publish this handbook on the land use impacts of infrastructure investments. As documented in another recent CEQ-funded study, The Costs of Sprawl, the pattern of land development has a substantial impact on the resulting envi- rom-nental, economic, natural resource, and social costs. And as has been pointed out in. numerous publications, including the chapter on land use in our 1974 Annual Report, public works investments are major determinants of land use patterns. This is an issue the CEQ believes should be given much greater attention, particularly in terms of those investments substantially subsidized by the Federal Government. Federal monies fund 90 percent of interstate highway construc- tion, up to 80 percent of mass transit investments, 75 percent of the cost of interceptor sewers and treatment plants, and 70 percent of non-interstate high- ways. All of these, as pointed out in this handbook, have substantial impacts on the location, pattern, timing, and density of development. We believe that these impacts should be recognized by project planners, local officials, and the con- cerned public, and that they should be carefully analyzed in the impact state- ments and other environmental analyses prepared for the projects. This handbook and other research CEQ is sponsoring on secondary effects is designed to help attain this goal. Russell W. Peterson Chairman Council on Environmental Quality Contents Introduction 1. The Problem 8 The Impacts of Induced Development 8 Infrastructure Investments and Land Use Changes 18 Estimating What Development Will Occur 22 Controlling the Impacts of Induced Development 2. Highways Defining the Impact Area 31 The Supply of Developable Land 33 Demand for Development 34 Forecasting Secondary Effects 35 The Resulting Impacts 37 Controlling the Effects 37 Further Sources 38 3. Mass Transit 40 Defining the Impact Area 42 The Supply of Developable Land 42 Demand for Development 43 Forecasting Secondary Effects 44 The Resulting Impacts 45 Controlling the Effects 46 Further Sources 46 4. Sewers 48 Defining the Impact Area 51 The Supply of Developable Land 52 Demand for Development 53 Forecasting Secondary Effects 53 The Resulting Impacts 54 Controlling the Effects 55 Further Sources 57 5. Other Infrastructure Investments 58 Airports 59 Industrial and Commercial Centers 61 Recreation and Entertainment Facilities 63 Mining and Energy Facilities 64 Dams and Flood Control Facilities 66 Further Sources 67 Appendix 68 General Data and Research Sources 68 Bibliography 70 Introduction This book examines the major role defeat long term community goals. which many public facilities, termed Schools and municipal services must be "infrastructure" investments, play in the hastily provided, and local tax rates are local development process. It covers such forced up. Haphazard, ill-planned sub- facilities as water and wastewater sys- divisions and shopping centers degrade tems, power supplies, highway and sec- the local environment. ondary road networks, mass transit sys- The last quarter of this century is tems, and airports. Such investments likely to see continued urban growth and affect local growth by influencing the continued suburbanization converting location and costs of new construction, rural land to residential subdivisions. and can have a- powerful effect on the But new trends are emerging. Changing density, timing, andlamount of new consumer, preferences, rising housing development. prices, and national resource shortages For example' the@ route of ..a new -.-are. encouraging the development of highw ay may lie hear a tract-of open more clustered. and higher density com- farmland, putting that farmland within munities. It is important that infrastruc- commuting distance of a city. The land ture investments be designed to enhance soon becomes developed with single the positive features of new trends in family housing because the new highway development. At the least, local decision- makes it into a suitable residential loca- makers should be aware of the land use tion. Similarly, a sewer built on unde- implications of their infrastructure in- veloped land relieves developers of the vestment decisions, and the economic costs of providing wastewater treatment, and environmental impacts likely to and makes housing cheaper to build. follow. Subdivisions are laid out near the new The link between infrastructure in- sewer because potential builders' profits vestments and land use changes has long are higher there. In both cases, growth been recognized in a general way, but seems to be created by the installation of little has been done to control the design new infrastructure; actually, the infra- and location of new infrastructure. In- structure merely concentrates growth stead, the tactic has been to attempt to which might otherwise have been located reduce the negative impacts of un- elsewhere in the region. planned growth with tools such as zon- The careful design and construction ing, subdivision controls, and local of infrastructure can help achieve well planning. These techniques often fail, organized, environmentally sound urban particularly when land use is changing growth. However, infrastructure plan- rapidly, as it often does following con- ners do notusually consider the land use struction of new infrastructure. Chang- effects of the investments. As a result, ing the design of the infrastructure itself its construction often leads to unplanned can be an effective additional control land use changes that can result in major method, reinforcing the effectiveness economic and environmental impacts. of the other land use controls. The pace and pattern of develop- I This handbook is intended to im- ment greatly affect a community's ability prove understanding of the link between to accommodate growth without strain. infrastructure and land use. Local elected Rapid, unplanned growth is often eco- officials need to know what land use nomically inefficient and environmen- changes an infrastructure investment tally destructive. Development may will provoke in their community, and occur at densities and in locations which what the impacts of these changes will BOW 13 6ER 4c ICE be. Designers of the investments must be concerned with the secondary impacts of their facilities. Developers should look at induced land use, both-to see the real advantages of the infrastructure invest- ment to them, and to help minimize the adverse impacts of their projects. This book will provide the concepts and practical suggestions for making these decisions. Chapter 1 discusses the general interactions of infrastructure and land use, provides a practical framework for forecasting these interactions, and describes methods for controlling sec- ondary effects. Chapters 2, 3, and 4, apply this framework to the analysis of three important types of public invest- ments: highways, mass transit facilities, and sewers. Finally, Chapter 5 broadens the perspective of the book to include consideration of airports, major employ- ment centers, recreational areas, flood control dams, and other developments which can also have powerful local land use effects. The Problem The use of land is perhaps the most mental impacts on communities. The im- basic of all environmental issues. Sound pacts vary according to how much devel- land use is fundamental both to preserv- opment occurs, the spatial pattern and ing stable ecosystems and to controlling density in which it emerges, the speed at pollution, and even if such environmen- which it progresses, and the natural tal issues seem remote to the daily prob- characteristics of the site. This section lems of local governments, officials rec- first reviews the major impacts associated ognize the fundamental economic and with new residential development, with social importance of proper land use. particular attention to its distribution and The construction of new highways, pattern, and then comments on commer- mass transit lines, sewers, and other cial and industrial development. infrastructure can have a powerful effect on local land use. For example, most Economic Impacts of Residential people are familiar with how the Inter- Development state Highway System has speeded urban growth in the suburbs. The eco- Economic impacts of development nomic and environmental impacts of are separated into costs that are privately development induced by new infra- bome and costs paid by the government. structure are of growing concern on all The private costs of development depend levels of government, for the direct local priniarfly on the type of dwelling unit benefits provided by infrastructure may and the amount of amenities provided by be seriously reduced or even out- the developer. In general, single-family weighed by indirect impacts resulting housing is much more expensive in its from changes in local land use. capital and operating costs than multi- These impacts are extensive and family housing. But, except for the prob- often significant. Most represent real lem of whether 'the community will con- costs to the community - costs that may tain sufficient medium and low cost be reduced by proper land use controls housing, the private costs of different and by infrastructure planning. Others development types do not concern mu- may not be felt directly by the commu- nicipal governments - consumers have nities in which the growth occurs, but every right to pay for the amenities they they are felt somewhere, and the respon- desire. sibility for abating them remains Local governments do, however, important. have a legitimate concern regarding the In the following pages, the impacts public costs and revenue generated by a of land use changes resulting from infra- new development, and may wish to con- structure investments will be discussed. trol the amount, location, or pattern of This will form a background for later development, so that it does not severely parts of the book, which consider the strain municipal finances. process by which land use changes occur A recent study of the average costs and procedures for forecasting land use of different development patterns changes associated with particular infra- showed that sprawl development - the structure investments. low density unplanned "suburbia"' familiar across the country - is signifi- The Impacts of Induced Development (opposite) Adapted from ne Costs of Sprawl by Real Estate Research Corporation, subsequently referred to as RERC. (All Unplanned development can have illustrations are by Urban Systems Research and Engineering, 8 serious economic, social, and environ- Inc., unless otherwise noted.) COMMUNITY PRO`rOTYPES - LEGEND . . ........ w . .... ... . . VACANT LAND kl ::!tz;@ X PUBLIC FACILITIES 13 u 13 13 COMMERCIAL LAND L 0 Ij L RECREATION AND OPEN SPACE zlz, F5 SCHOOLS . .......... SINGLE FAMILY CONVENTIONAL q ............. ............ SINGLE FAMILY CLUSTERED Fl 0 i i;@.. P, TOWNHOUSES CLUSTERED LJ ............... CL WALK-UP APARTMENTS 40F .......... .. ...... . HIGH RISE APARTMENTS A .............. .......... ............... .. ........ T k .. ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 2000 1000 0 2000 FEET PUBLIC COSTS OF DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES BY MUNICIPAL SIZE 8 PER YEAR 100 CAPITAL COS S OPERATING & MAINTENANCE (9 1000) IS )00/ YEAR) 12 ........ it LIS ARIES to ... ... X.. SEWERAGE 9 X." LAND GENERAL GOVERNMENT J@Jjjff SANI.TI.N OPEN SPACE, PUBLIC MCILITIES, . ....... VICES 50- 16 OR SERVI STREETS & ROADS FIRE 4 o 3 UTILITIES POLICE 2 ... ...... ....... 0 _jOO 100-200 20 LESS THAN 50 50 0 POPULATION (THOUSANDS) cantly more expensive to service than costs as communities grow. It addresses compact, planned development. Patterns only average costs associated with dif- of development are defined by factors ferent development patterns in a fixed- such as the number of units per acre, the population community. mix of land uses, and the design and lay- The evidence on how public costs out of construction. The Costs of Sprawl are affected by population growth is con- computed the component costs of ar- flicting. It seems to depend very much ranging 10,000 units of suburban housing on the particular characteristics of both in six different patterns, of which three the community involved and the growth representative examples are shown that occurs. For large communities, sev- on the previous page. eral studies have indicated that most per Each pattern serves the same number of capita service costs rise rather than fall as people and has the same amount of com- the communities get larger. The graph mercial space. The study simulated con- above, developed from 1970-71 U.S. ditions on the developing urban fringe, Census data, shows how per capita costs and the "high density" option is not very change with overall community size. high - it includes single-family homes, There is no clear indication why this no building has more than six stories, trend exists, but it does suggest that, for and the average density is three dwelling whatever the reason, as communities units per gross acre. become urbanized, their service costs per Average public cost breakdowns of capita will rise. the study are shown above. It is dear that For smaller communities, on the most of the cost difference between com- other hand, average costs may fall with munity types is taken up in greater street further development as facilities become and road costs for low density develop- used to capacity. One police car or fire ment, but all costs except the capital cost station may be able to handle more of land are uniformly higher as develop- left ) Source: RERC ment is spread out. (above) Source I: Adapted from material in Fiscal Impacts of The Costs of Sprawl does not deal Land Development by Thomas Muller, published by the Urban 10 with changes in per capita public service Institute. Large amounts of growth occurred years. The town is planning to close five in Lexington, Massachusetts, in the of its older schools by 1980, partially 1950's, when Route 128 was made into because of declining birth rates, but also a major circumferential highway. Sev- as a result of changing age structure. eral schools were built for the children of new residents. Now the population is getting older, new construction has. slowed as the town becomes fulll and the schools are emptying. In 196 0,21 percent of the population was in the child bearing years between 25 and 40; in 1970, this had dropped.,to @k7. percent. The figure on the following p' age shows what this has done to elementary school enrollments over the past 20 people without reducing service quality, high public costs, since utility lines, while splitting the costs over the larger streets, and services must be extended population. With extensive growth, long distances through vacant land. Even however, the additional people are likely if the intervening land is ultimately filled to require new schools, fire houses, in, the community must bear unneces- police stations, and the like, and tax rates sarily high service costs in the interim. are likely to rise. Existing residents may It also finds itself locked into sprawled wind up paying more money for the out low density development patterns same level of service they received before for the long term, with all its implications because they are paying for facilities built for higher public service costs. to serve future populations. If development occurs at a rapid New development may bring in resi- rate, as is often the case where infra- dents of a different socio-economic status structure changes are made in a region than existing residents with resulting with strong economic growth, another benefits and costs. A common example group of economic impacts may be felt. is where a new highway turns a rural In an area where a great deal of single- community into an affluent suburb of a family housing is built over a short time, metropolitan area. In such cases, the new most of the residents moving in will be residents may demand additional public about the same age, as will their children. services such as libraries, sport facilities It will be necessary to build schools to (golf courses, tennis courts), recreation serve this large group of children, but centers, parks, and public parking lots. after they pass through the number of The costs and the benefits must be school age children in the community shared by the existing residents. will drop suddenly. A large portion of For reasons which will be discussed the school space may then be useless, later in this chapter, development in- as is the case in Lexington, Massachu- duced by infrastructure investments setts. frequently occurs in scattered locations Because the economic impacts of away from already developed areas. This new development depend so much on 'Ieapfrog@' development pattern carries the particular characteristics of the situa- COMMUNITY LAND USE UNDER DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, LEXINGTON MASSACHUSETTS 1953-1980 0-6- ACTUAL I ACTUAL PROJECTED GRADES I TO 6 KINDERGARTEN TO 6 KINDERGARTEN TO 6 VACANT, UNJ.PROVED VA ANje.J`PP1 .0 SEC . R VVED & ED Q4_ RESIDENTIAL ------- --- BACKYARDS .......... OPEN SPACE TRAN.PORTI.N T 0.2 . SCHOOL 5 PUBLIC FACILITIES ol 0-0. 1950 ji6o :i6? 1970 675 IS& o tion, any conclusions about a specific The former depends on how carefully development have to be based upon spe- the development is designed and con- cific analyses. The bibliography to this structed, and the latter depends on the chapter lists some documents which will natural assimilative capacity of the local assist the community in making these environment, as well as the location, pat- analyses. tern, and density of development. Land use: The overall land budget Environmental Impacts of Residential for the alternative community patterns Development analyzed and discussed in The Costs of Sprawl is presented above. There is a Development usually degrades the striking difference in the amount of land environment to some extent, but growth required to house a given population as induced by infrastructure may bring with better planning and increased densities it particularly heavy environmental im- come into play. One major change is the pacts because it tends to be unantici- potential drop in the "vacant, improved pated, uncoordinated, and,. therefore, and semi-improved" category, which haphazardly. distributed and poorly shows the amount of leapfrogging and designed. wasted space within the community. Pri- The production of air pollution, vate backyard. space and land used for water pollution, and solid waste, as well transportation also decline. Planned as overall rates of energy consumption, open spaces are assumed to actually in- are largely determined by population crease as densities rise; these include size. The pattern in which development parks and private communal grounds in may occur also af "fects the amount of pol- duster and planned unit developments. lution a given population will generate, As communities opt for more plan- but to a lesser extent. Actual environ- ning and more compact development, a mental quality is determined by how the great deal of land can be left vacant and pollution is abated before it reaches the environment, and how much of the re- left ) Source: Ledngbon Town Reports 12 mainder is absorbed by the environment. (above) Source- RERC suburb is generated outside the commu- AV,ERAGE ANNUAL AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS FOR nitys boundaries. However, to the ex- DFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS tent that the community is affected by locally generated air pollution, higher density developments, while producing 200. less air pollution per dwelling unit, may have worse local concentrations of air T ANSPORTATIIN pollution because they have more dwell- RESIDENTIAL Ing units per acre. In general, however, HEATING 100- within the moderate overall densities .. .. .. .... represented by these prototypical com- in unities,. lower air pollution emission rates are likely to lead to better local and regional air quality. More highly planned 0 1. x communities - with their lower emis- @z z@ ion rates and greater amo ts of open S un N space for absorbing pollution - will have better air quality than unplanned, sprawl unimproved within the town bound- communities, no matter what the aries. This land is available for future density. population expansion or for open space. . 0 Water Pollution: Communities It may be used to protect sensitive must contend with three major forms of ecologies, such as streams, forests, or water pollution - sanitary sewage, sur- wildlife areas, and it can have a high face runoff (which. includes storm- recreational value to the community. water flow and sedimentation) and Conventional "sprawl" communities groundwater pollution. have virtually no unimproved vacant Sanitary sewage production is di- land..In the "planned-mix"' community, rectly related to community population however, vacant unimproved land is size. Many small communities, however, 33% of the total - in the high density can manage their sanitary sewage prob- Community it jumps to 56%. lems with on-'site disposal in septic * Air Pollution: The major sources tanks. As growth progresses and densi- of air pollution in non-industrial areas ties increase, septic tanks usually cause are transportation (especially automo- problems: houses are built on lots too biles) and the space heating of buildings. small to allow sufficient percolation of The graph above shows the estimated wastes into the soil. Sewers and treat- amount of air pollution produced per ment plants must then be installed. But dwelling unit for the three basic commu- treatment only removes a part of the nity types discussed previously. These pollution, and the plant effluent can still estimates are based on the average num- cause significant water pollution in the ber of miles driven locally per household receiving stream. As population grows in the different development patterns, and treatment plant effluent increases, and on the amount of natural gas needed stream water quality deteriorates more. to heat the various dwelling types. The pattern and distribution of land Converting these data into estimates use have virtually no effect on the gen- of actual community air quality is diffi- eration of sanitary sewerage in each cult. Air pollution diffuses over large areas and most of the air pollution in a left Source: RERC 13 599 -558 0 - 76 - 2 AVERAGE ANNUAL WATER POLLUTION EMISSIONS FOR AVERAGE ANNUALPER CAPITA WATER USE FOR DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS 100 1POO ---- . . ....... A SEDIMENT ... ........ LA- 1,000- ----- ..... SPRINKLING ----- STO M WATER ----- ...... RUNOFF DOMESTIC SANITARY 50 USE S ....... EWAGE o 25 FEW REMEW P.: household, but they do affect stormwater compounds, and heavy metals can often runoff and Sedimentation. Stormwater be found in the groundwater in and flow is water which runs across imper- around developed areas. Once contam- vious surfaces or saturated land during inated, the groundwater often takes intense rains. It can cause se Irious, flood- many years to clean itself, requiring the ing problems downstream of new devel- users of wells to install water treatment 0 opment and may also contain significant facilities or seek alternative, water amounts of pollution. Sedimentation is sources. a measure of the erosion of soil that e Water Consumption: Many areas occurs throughout a community and that in the United States face current or po- reaches local streams. 'Excessive@ erosion tential shortages of water. In some causes loss of valuable fertile soils and places, particularly in the southwest, obstructs streams and lakes. water itself is scarce, but the most com- The graph above shows how differ- mon problem nationally is lack of ade- ent community patterns are estimated to- quate treatment facilities. Increased en- affect water pollution. As expected, the vironmental pollution has recently forced communities do not differ in sanitary a reevaluation of how much treatment sewage production, but denser, planned is required to provide safe water - the communities tend to generate less run- Environmental Protection Agency has off per dwelling unit. Again, this de- tentatively identified a need for $1.2 pends very much on the care that is taken billion worth of new water filtration in the design and construction of the plants nationwide. This money must be development. raised at the local level, and rapidly Groundwater pollution occurs when growing communities may find it diffi- contaminants, such as sanitary landfills cult to keep up with the water demands or improperly operating septic tanks' reach the water table. Where the water left ) The general findings of The Costs of Sprawl reported Sarutary sewage effluents assuming terbary treatment. The table is high (within a few feet of, tile sur- graph above has been adjusted to represent the more com- face) or where the soil is very porous, mon practice of secondary treatment. Source- RMC... 14 bacteria, viruses, dangerous organic (above) Source: RERC of new development. Increased development increases the AVERAGE ANNUAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS consumption of water. Some of this - typically 50 to 80 gallons per person per day - is used for laundry, dishwashing, toilets, baths, cooking, and so forth. This i;; 500 consumption is basically independent of development patterns or density, except 400 TRIHSPOITATION as these affect population. The rest. of the RESID NTIAL 300 HEATING water consumed in residences is used'for Id 77 such purposes as lawn watering, and 200 this is strongly affected by the develop- .100. ment pattern and by climate. Estimated I average water consumption for different 0 community types is shown at left. 113, o L, t: j, g A second way in which development z. I., exacerbates water shortages is. that the construction of impermeable surfaces reduces the amount of rainfall that per- hoods try to exclude odorous and un- meates back into groundwater reservoirs, sightly landfills from being.located Higher density development results in nearby, and even well-designed landfills less impermeable surface per dwelling are generally perceived as "dumps" by unit than lower density developments. nearby residents. For these reasons com- In either type, the amount of ground- munities may be forced to acquire less water recharge can be significantly in- than satisfactory alternative sites, or creased by sensitive design and siting, dispose of their wastes in a more ex- and by the construction of holding ponds pensive manner. and recharge facilities within developed * Energy: Energy conservation is areas. now a national policy. While high per e Solid Waste: Population growth capita energy use remains the norm induced by infrastructure investments throughout the country, some patterns will increase solid waste disposal prob- of development are significantly more lems in a local area. Although the pro- energy efficient than others. The un- duction of solid waste may vary a small planned sprawl pattern characteristically amount according to the living patterns induced around suburban highways and and income of the population, virtually in new sewer service areas has a particu- nothing can be done through land use larly low energy efficiency under current controls to reduce the amount of solid technology. waste a given population will produce. The graph above compares the three As population grows, finding a suit- development patterns as they affect en- able site for disposal becomes more dif- ergy use. Most of the energy savings ficult. Satisfactory landfill sites are also attributed to clustered patterns,of higher good building sites - they have low density development result from savings water tables, and good transportation in transportation fuel. High density access (for garbage trucks). As develop- communities, being compact, reduce the ment progresses, prices for landfill sites average mileage of local trips, and there- rise, making them more difficult to ob- tain. Furthermore, residential neighbor- (above) Source: RERC 15 by save gas. Also, other modes of trans- changes are socially advantageous to ex- portation can replace cars for some pur- isting residents, others are not. For in- poses - mass transit for work trips, stance, a declining neighborhood might walking for light shopping trips.. Savings experience a rise in local property values, in heating fuel are obtained in high den- and the construction of commercial sity patterns because of shared walls facilities offering more local jobs. On the between units (tQwnhouses or apart- other hand, local land values might rise ments), and because larger, more effi- high enough to price original residents cient furnances may be installed to serve out of the area; this is especially likely more than one unit. to happen in areas with rental housing, since renters cannot cash in on rising The Social Impacts of Residential land prices. Developments The pattern in which growth occurs also carries with it social implications. Theland use changes induced by Studies typically show that about three- new infrastructure projects may carry quarters of the population prefers owner- with them important social impacts, but ship of a single-family house to all other they are intricately linked to conditions options. Among young married people in individual communities. A few general with children, the rate climbs to 95 per- comments can be made, however, based cent. This widespread preference is on the fact that the social impacts of de- backed up by hard dollars, for people velopment depend both on the people clearly are prepared to pay a substantial who are attracted to a growing commu- premium for low density living. They nity, and where and how they settle pay it in taxes, in travel time to work, and within it. in buying and maintaining expensive In rural communities on the fringe homes. of metropolitan areas, the first wave of On the other hand, increased hous- population increase is usually the most ing costs are placing single-family homes significant socially. If new population is beyond the economic reach of much of brought into a predominantly agricul- the population; future communities may tural region by a highway, this implies a, of necessity provide a greater variety of trend away from fanning and toward housing units and achieve greater eco- purely residential land uses. The new nomic heterogeneity. There are other population will tend to work outside of social benefits to be gained by planning the community at occupations different suburban communities for higher den- from those of present residents; they will sities. Even with detached single family probably have a different income status, housing, benefits are gained if otherwise a different political outlook, and perhaps wasted open space in conventional sub- different ethnic backgrounds. Over a few divisions is organized into neighborhood years, this leads to a realignment of the parks and recreational space by some community's political and economic clustering of houses. system, and the original social structure While designing suburban areas is exchanged for a new one. exclusively for higher density apartments In urbanized areas where significant would obviously fail to satisfy consumer increases in development density might preferences, many improvements over follow the installation of a rapid transit conventional sprawl patterns may be system, neighborhood social effects can made without consumer objection or 16 be strong. Some transit-induced land use with positive consumer approval. Leap- Z 71 frog development clearly represents no standards" for both air and water pollu- consumer preference - avoiding it saves tion, they are likely to degrade the en- travel time and preserves peripheral vironment much less than older facilities. open space, both social gains. High den- Much of the industry locating in subur- sity areas in a community will attract ban areas emit little pollution in any case. single people and young couples, who On the other hand, commercial and in- are often relatively affluent and demand dustrial developments generate a sig- relatively fewer community services. nificant amount of traffic, causing This can help preserve open space and congestion and air pollution problems. maintain the overall low densities many New facilities also typically include large communities prefer. It may even lead to areas of impermeable surface in the form lower taxes. of buildings, parking lots, and roads; these surfaces inhibit groundwater re- Conunercial and Industrial Development charge, and their stormwater runoff increases local flood hazards and water The impact analysis above was con- pollution. cerned only with residential develop- All these problems, as well as other ments. But communities should also potential environmental and natural consider the possible impacts associated resource problems, can be significantly with commercial and industrial develop- reduced through proper design, and ment that may also follow infrastructure through the government and the indi- investments. It is much harder to gen- vidual enterprises working closely to- eralize about such development, but the gether during the design and construc- following observations are usually valid. tion phases, as well as after the facility The taxes paid by commercial and is in operation. industrial developments usually exceed the costs of servicing them by a large margin. Because new facilities now have to (above) A housing development east of Dallias, Texas, August conform to "new source performance 1960. Source: U.S. Deparbrnent of Agriculture. 17 Infrastructure Investments and Land social, and economic forces. Use Changes Some land may be permanently re- moved from the market by law. Exam- Infrastructure influences local land ples are land restricted by conservation use by changing the supply of develop- easements, protected environmental able land, the demand for development, zones such as wetlands and floodplains, or both. These changes are often highly parks (national, state, and local), forests significant for local communities, for they (national and state), and wildlife refuges. can bring with them significant eco- Conservation easements can be identi- nomic, environmental, and social im- fied through local and state conservation pacts, as outlined in the previous section. commissions; other areas to be protected We now turn to discuss the general from development (e.g. to preserve mechanisms by which infrastructure in- valuable agricultural lands, coastal wet- vestments tend to induce development. lands, or to prevent water pollution) are It is easiest to look at land use the concern of state and substate envi- changes from the point of view of devel- ronmental protection and land use opers. They are the chief actors in the agencies. urbanization process, and deal with the Other protected land uses are easily market forces of supply and demand in located on various maps obtainable from the most direct and practical way. Devel- regional planning agencies, technical and opers acquire land, remove or modify engineering divisions of state land grant any existing structures, build their pro- colleges, or zoning commissions (U.S. jects, and then seek tenants or buyers. Geological Survey maps are useful, but They are, of course, interested primarily few are completely up to date). in profits, which means that they will Good land use maps will also reveal undertake developments only when they parcels in permanent use as power-line, can reasonably expect enough demand pipe-line and rail rights-of-way, and land for their development to justify their held by schools, colleges, military bases, many costs.. airports and other institutions for ex- Infrastructure investments can lead pansion and other purposes. to local increases in demand for develop- Some legal restrictions on land use, ment or reductions in development costs, notably zoning, may not be perinanent and thus create a strong incentive for but can hold land out of development in developers to locate their projects near- the short term. For instance, land may be by. The presence of infrastructure can zoned for agriculture explicitly to reserve both reduce risk and increase profits for it for future development needs. Other developers. While this is obvious, it is land, while legally developable for the seldom adequately considered by infra- desired project, may not be available at structure planners. any reasonable price - land zoned for commercial use, for example, is likely to The Land Supply be far too expensive for use for single- family housing because the landowners A developer's first problem is find- have higher expectations of its worth. ing a site and choosing a type of develop- Physical limitations on develop- ment to put on it. The supply of land ment, such as unstable soils, steep suitable for different purposes constant- slopes, rock outcroppings, and high ly fluctuates, and physical infrastructure water tables may be harder to identify. 18 plays a role along with legal, physical, The U.S.. Soil Conservation Service and One cause of leapfrogging is that off at least a part of the property. there are a number of tax and other One survey looked at the reasons financial incentives for sale of farm- for holdouts within developed areas land at the retirement or death of the - a prime cause for leapfrogging. owner. There is less incentive to sell Their reasons for not selling are at other times. On retirement, income significant: drops, the tax bracket changes, and, Waiting for retirement/ therefore, taxes on selling the farm inheritance -77% will be lower - especially if the pay- Waiting for a better ments are spread out over several price -18% years. After the owner's death no cap- No offers - 5% ital gains tax is paid on appreciation Similar results were found for other - during the owner's life, making it sales where early leapfrog develop- attractive for heirs to sell, especially ment occurred; there 68 percent of the if they do not wish to farm. Estate sales came through retirement or taxes may also force the heirs to sell death, 21% because of a good offer. the engineering and technical schools of example, often require hundreds of state land grant colleges may both be acres- If parcels must be assembled from sources of useful information. Consult- many sellers, developers' costs are raised ing with major development companies both in time and money. More intense in an area may also be of practical value land uses, such as high rise office J@uild- in determining vacant areas suitable for ings, need little land and dispersed land development. These physical limitations 0.wnership will be les's of An obstacle to raise development costs, and cause the development. land to be initially passed over for devel- Infrastructure influences the land opment until more suitable land is used supply primarily by lowering (sometimes up and prices rise enough to cover the drastically) the costs of development. increased development costs. Sewers are the prime example. Environ- Another supply consideration is the mental regulations or site conditions willingness of landowners to sell their often preclude the use of septic tanks. properties for development. On the An alternative, the construction by the urban fringe, much land is held in large developer of his own sewer system and parcels by farmers. In many such re- small "package" treatment plant, can gions, farmers often sell.off their land entail costs which are high enough to when they retire because farming profits make development unprofitable. If the are declining and they may have no heirs municipality builds the sewer infrastruc- willing to take over the work. Conse- ture, sewage disposal costs are substan- quently, it is oftenpossible to predict tially lower, development becomes when farm properties will be put up for profitable, and a rapid expansion of sale by knowing the age of owners. Price housing within the sewer service area is important, but there are tax advantages may result. to delaying the sale until retirement or Infrastructure may also remove land the death of the owner. from development. For example, high- The land supply may also be con- ways use land for their rights-of-way. strained simply because of the size of While the amount is insignificant in rural available parcels. Subdivisions, for areas, it is significant in cities; this land 19 has good services or a low tax rate, for 47 __ e, it is likely to be more attractive exampl to developers. Developers building large homes on big lots will tend to build in areas where there already are such homes; developers @uilding shopping cent ers will locate where large numbers of people will use them, generally near highways and at a distance from other regional shopping centers. Accessibility is very important. 4A People must travel to work and to shop- ping; other things being equal, they will, prefer housing with the most convenient access to important centers. Businesses will locate where they can easily get em- ployees, and where they have access to their supplies and markets. can only be developed through expen- Infrastructure affects demand for sive construction techniques using the development b changing the attractive- highway air rights. Airports may utilize ness of a spe Ac area for a particular kind vast tracts of adjacent land to create noise of development, or by changing its ac- buffer zones, reducing the supply of cess. Public recreation facilities, which developable land. Both of these effects can be considered a kind of infrastruc- will change the options available to the ture, increase local amenities and tend to developer. attract population, often in second home developments. Rural highway inter- Demand for Development changes attract travel services such as gas stations and motels. The developer must find tenants or In metropolitan regions, the most buyers for what he builds. In a rapidly important way in which infrastructure growing metropolitan region, there are affects demand is by changing access to large numbers of people and firms seek- shopping or jobs. Suburbanization has ing locations and large amounts of de- been greatly reinforced by the construc- velopment are likely to occur. In a stag- tion of highwaysi new roads serving nant or declining region, there will be distant areas may lead to the conversion little demand for new development. New of undeveloped land to housing. Similar- development responds primarily to, region- ly, mass transit lines may promote resi- al population and economic growth, al- dential development at outlying stations though population shifts may alsoopcur for people who do not use cars.. within a region over a longer time span. Research has failed to discover a Developers are concerned with more simple way in which to estimate local than regional demand and local- develop- demand for new development. In the ment costs, however. They also seek case of housing, however, one quick and competitive locational advantages - reliable.indicator of lack of demand does areas within regions that are compara- left ) Gateway Center, a multi-purpose development using tively more attractive to consumers, and, the air rights over the Massachusetts Turnpike at Newton, 20 therefore, 'more saleable. If a community Massachusetts. exist the local housing vacancy rate. If it is above about 5%, then it is highly unlikely that extensive development of vacant land will occur, assuming no change in local attractiveness or trans- portation access. But there is a minimum vacancy rate of several percent regardless of other conditions, both because people i@@ are always moving and because old housing stock deteriorates. This mini- MUM rate varies from pjace to place. _S17 Actual housing vacancy rates are listed M U.S. Census reports, and may be up- dated more frequently by state or local censuses. The most effective way to estimate present demand for housing develop- ment is to consult with real estate agents, developers, and assessors. Real estate pressure. If regional forecasts indicate agents especially can give an objective strong growth trends, it is more likely account of housing prospects in an area, that substantial development in the pro- taking into account the amenities, or lack ject service area will occur, depending on thereof, which affect an area's competi- its relative attractiveness in terms of tive position for attracting growth. De- access to employment centers, and other velopers, while perhaps less willing to amenities. reveal their full knowledge, are also 'Interactions between several infra- aware of market trends. Assessors can structure investments may affect de- , provide basic information on the trends velopment demand over the long term. of housing values - areas where hous- Interactions are significant both between ing prices are growing particularly fast infrastructure of different types and be- are likely to attract further growth if the tween multiple projects of the same type. supply of developable land is expanded. Both highways and sewers are often Research into recent land trans- necessary before development in an area actions in an area is another approach to can proceed actively. While both are not estimating demand. Speculation in land required for development, they may is a fairly reliable indicator of potential serve jointly to change substantially the development. The creation of develop- relative attractiveness of an area, and able parcels, either through the assembly thus determine the rate, pattern, and of contiguous.small plots or the division density at which development occurs. of unusually large ones, may be the first Interactions between mass transit overt sign that development is likely. and sewers may be similar to those of Registries of deeds maintain current highways and sewers, but there are too records of such transactions. few recent transit projects to draw con- Development potential over the long clusions. Interactions between highways .term should also be estimated. While and mass transit facilities are equally little current interest in development (above) A new sewage treatiment Plant to serve suburban might be found, over the long term re- development, under construction near a suburban highway gional growth may increase development interchange. 21 PREDICT CONSIDER IMPACTS CONTROLS GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CONSIDERING DEVELOPMENT INDUCED BY INFRASTRUCTURE hard to predict, though it would be safe merely concentrates part of the region's to say that they would tend to increase development into its own service area. development density. This is- especially true for smaller projects The interactive effects of multiple of the sort considered here, such as infrastructure projects should be studied single highways or sewers. carefully. Normally, one is reviewing .only one project at a time, yet it is clear Estimating What Development Will that the basic changes in urban form Occur wrought by infrastructure, especially highways, has been due to extensive The past sections have shown some systems built over a period of years, not of the impacts of land development, and by isolated projects. It is also true that a explained how infrastructure invest- particular type of investment has quite ments can affect that development. For different impacts depending on when it planning purposes, though, it is nece,3- is built. The first highway in an area may sary to have a procedure for estimating have substantial local effects, but the what development will occur, and what twentieth one will probably have much impacts it will have. This section outlines less. a simple and rough procedure for this This discussion has focused on how purpose which is developed further in infrastructure investments can shift the subsequent chapters. existing or potential demand. Whether Each type of investment has its own or not infrastructure can create new characteristics, and each one must be han- demand for development is another dled differently. However, the basic goals more controversial point. It is certainly of the procedure and the general steps in- possible that the Federal Highway Pro- volved remain the same. Virtually all de- gram, for example, has so improved velopment related to infrastructure is transportation in and between cities that localized in a zone physically adjacent to it has actually created economic growth. the investment and served by it. The first DEFINE ""Ar 'T;AA. B EXISTING CONDITIONS a< A more conservative view is that infra- step is to define this impact area and to look 22 structure seldom creates growth, but at how it has been growing in the past. The second step is to look at the investments may be controlled. This supply of land in the area, and to assess handbook emphasizes the importance of what land is available, what services are modifying infrastructure design to con- offered, whether there are physical or trol development and its adverse im- legal development restrictions, and pacts. Specifying design changes for whether land is likely to be sold at a various investments will be discussed in reasonable price to developers. Invest- succeeding chapters. But it is also impor- ments such as sewers might change the tant to consider other land use controls. availability or price of land for different uses. In some situations, redevelopment Controlling the Impacts of Induced of existing uses may also be possible. Development The third step is to consider demand for development. Residential demand will' There are two possible ways of deal- generally depend on how fast the region ing with the potential impacts of induced is growing, on how attractive the impact development. One is to control the de- area is, and on what sort of access it has velopment, and thus limit the impacts. to jobsi shopping, and other amenities. The other is to respond to the impacts Commercial demand will depend on after the fact, by providing various ser- whether there are people who would vices or facilities (e.g., police protection travel there to shop or work. or sewage treatment plants). Both ap- Demand and supply must then be proaches are effective and sound, but combined to give estimates of what de- the emphasis here is on limiting impacts velopment will occur. Three questions by controlling development. Most com- are of interest here: munities have experience responding to development impacts; few are adept at 1. How much development will preventing them. occur, and where will it go? Prevention can be accomplished 2. What development patterns and through land use controls. However, in densities can be expected? the case of development induced by in- 3. At what rate will the develop-, frastructure investments, changing the ment occur? design of the infrastructure itself is often The answers to these three questions will the simplest and cheapest way of con- characterize the development and give trolling land use changes. an understanding of the likely conse- quences of the investment. Infrastructure Design Changes The fifth step is concerned with im- pacts. Once some idea of the likely Changing the design of the pro- amount, pattern, and rate of develop- posed infrastructure investment can ment is found, approximate result- change its effect on the local supply of ing impacts can be predicted. The dis- developable land or the local demand for cussion earlier in this chapter is relevant, development. A reduction in capacity and there are other publications (some of will reduce the amount of development which are listed under Further Sources which the infrastructure can support. at the end of each chapter) available on there will be less development induced predicting impacts which would be of by a two-lane road than an interstate use to the local planner. highway, all else being equal. The final step is to consider how the Changing the route of the infrastruc- impacts attributable to infrastructure ture can also be effective in controlling 23 In 1%9, the town of Ramapo, defects of the ordinance have become New York, which controls 60 square obvious. However, a valuable prece- miles of bedroom suburbs serving dent has been made. Growth in New York City, enacted a revolution- Ramapo must follow, rather than pre- ary ordinance which tied future resi- cede, the ability of the town to ser- dential development to an 18 year vice it. capital facilities program. To obtain Such ordinances, if tied to a pro- approval for a development, builders gram to provide housing for all in- must demonstrate that adequate pub- come groups (which Ramapo planned lic facilities e3dst to serve their pro- but has conspicuously failed to do), ject, or build the facilities themselves could do much to control haphazard at their own cost. Growth is still al- sprawl created by unplanned infra- lowed in Ramapo, but it is being structure investment. guided to fit the needs of the commu- nity and minimize public costs. Since its passage, many social induced development. Sewer lines may quire developers either to pay the cost be aligned to avoid large completely va- of service extensions or to locate where cant tracts, and to encourage the comple- services are available. This method re- tion of development in partially urban- duces community costs, cuts down on ized areas. Highway interchanges or leapfrogging, and controls the rate of mass transit stations can similarly be lo- development. cated to stimulate infilling and avoid further sprawl. Zoning Staging the investrnents can also have an impact. A highway or a sewer Zoning is the most familiar and can be extended in phases. Seveial small widely used land use control and is the projects, again built in phases, can sub- most powerful planning tool available stitute for one large scale project. Since to local government. Zoning designates ,it is more difficult to control rapid growth pem-dssable uses and restrictions on than moderate growth, staging can be an various defined districts within a larger important technique. area. It receives its power from the police The local community can often in- power provisions of the Constitution, fluence such design considerations, and and is defined by state enabling legis- thus control growth. Careful planning of lation. interchanges and frontage roads, park- Unfortunately, conventional zoning ing facilities, access provisions for parks has often been unable to cope with the or airports, and the like are very impor- great pressure for development in many tant in guiding new development, and suburban areas. And where rapid new in reducing its adverse impacts. development is being induced by an in- It is also possible to guide growth in frastructure'investment, there is often a community through the provision of irresistable pressure for zoning changes public facilities. If a community develops which may be harmful to the community. a capital investrnent plan for extending . Innovative zoning methods such as necessary services like sewers, schools, cluster zoning, density zoning, and 24 and water supply, it may be able to re- planned unit developments (PUDs) have Zoning can act against its own Development along streams can goals if variances are easy to get. lead to polluted water supplies and Land zoned for apartments is or- flooding. Many communities have dinarily much more valuable than zoned buffers around streams, other residentially zoned land, so in allowing no development within 50 the early 60's owners in Montgom- feet or so to reduce impacts. Napa ery County, Maryland, raised their County, California, uses such a asking prices accordingly. Develop- buff er. In other areas, such as Placer ers, however, found variances easy to County, California, the boundary get, and simply bought land in single size depends on the conditions of family districts and had it rezoned. soils, the land slope, and other fac- One writer says, "It almost appeared tors; this reduces impacts, but is that the best way to keep apartments harder to administer. Zoning of sen- out of the area was for the Planning sitive areas to reduce impacts is an Commission to take the initiative important land use and environ- in rezoning it for apartments." mental control tool. gained acceptance in many communities quality and the local ecology. For such across the country. All allow increased areas, early regulation is important. concentration of uses in some parts of a site in exchange for more open space in Purchase of Land Rights other parts. Such techniques can reduce municipal capital and service costs, re- Zoning is legally strongest when it duce environmental problems such as is designed to prevent an obvious public stonnwater runoff, and protect sensitive hann, as when industrial uses are ex- areas. A wide amount of literature is cluded from residential zones so that available on all of them. property values are secure and public Special zoning for sensitive environ- safety protected. Where the purpose of mental areas can reduce the environ- zoning is to provide a public benefit, as mental impacts of development consider- when land is zoned for open space, ably. Streams and creeks, wetlands, owners of restricted land may sue for woodlands, hillsides, and groundwater compensation - they may have been and aquifer recharge areas are. prime deprived of future benefits from devel- candidates for designation as sensitive opment. In such cases conventional areas; development on them should be zoning may fail, and public purchase of controlled or, where necessary, pre- property or development rights may be vented. In some cases, such controls are required to limit development or protect not necessary until land costs become sensitive environments. high - hillsides, for example, are ex- Conservation restrictions are often pensive to build on and tend to be de- used to protect open space or sensitive veloped last. Other sensitive areas are areas. A community, in effect, pays an inexpensive to develop but have high owner not to develop all or part of his value to the community as open space; land. It buys the "development right" for instance, floodplains are often prime either in perpetuity or for a set period of development sites, yet they should be time such as 30 years. Alternatively, the protected from development to avert public can buy the land outright and costly flood damage and protect water "banl<" it. Landbanking is expensive, 25 599-558 0 - U - 3 A- NINE-; ssqv; but cheaper options than immediate pacts. Requiring high standards of in- outright purchase are available. These sulation in new houses will reduce usually give the present owner continued energy consumption and air pollution use of the land in its undeveloped state. from space heating. Construction and References on the topic may be found at design techniques can help control noise the end of this chapter. problems in both public and private buildings. Plumbing codes may be de- Controls on Subdivisionsand signed to cut down on water use and Construction reduce sewer loads. Subdivision regulations may con- Further Sources trol storm drainage, pavement type, curbs, sidewalks, street grades and The literature on the dynamics of widths, utility burial, amounts of recre- land use change is large and rapidly ex- ational land, and other aspects of new panding. A good general introduction development. They can, therefore, be is Marion Clawson's Suburban Land Con- used to set performance standards for version in the United States (1971); it re- environmental management - stan- views the process of urban expansion in dards for holding stormwater and timing a readable and enjoyable way. its release to sewers, for example. Ade- Another introductory reference on quate standards for septic tank design urban growth, one with a strong em- and maintenance may, if local soils are phasis on environmental problems, is suitable, solve wastewater management The Use of Land: A Citizen's Policy Guide problems without provision of sewers. to Urban Growth (Reilly, 1973). With performance standards, the de- veloper can use either land use designs -left ) This suburban subdivision is encroad-dng on forested or engineering solutions to meet the land, increasing potential sedimentation and erosion problems for local streams, and diminishing local aquifer recharge. community's goals and standards. (above ) This eartlisfide in San Anselmo, California, demolished Building codes also can be used to newly constructed apartments following heavy rainfall in Jan- 26 ameliorate adverse development im- uary 1967. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. A great deal of development ment by Schaenman and Muller. Further occurred in the 1950's on hillsides work on such subjects is underway and around Los Angeles. Each year the several valuable studies should be com- rainy season caused erosion and pleted during the coming year. land slides. By 1963 the city and Another recent study, published by county had developed regulations the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, is the Interim Guide on the density and engineering of forIEnvironmental Assessment, HUD Field hillside sites. Office Edition. This is a handbook for In 1969, the county received the identifying and evaluating the environ- heaviest winter rainfall in over 85 mental impacts of proposed develop- years. The average hillside site ment projects; it describes practical field under the new regulations received tests appropriate for identifying potential an average of only $16 damage; sites environmental problem areas, as well as developed before 1963 received ten advanced tests and technical references times as much damage, and many for quantifying and evaluating them. houses were totally destroyed. A valuable new compendium of ar- ticles on growth and its control has re- cently been published in three volumes The Environmental Protection by The Urban Land Institute, called Man- Agency has published Land Use and the agement and Control of Growth (Scott, Environment, An Anthology of Readings 1975). The hundreds of articles presented (by the American Society of Planning give a comprehensive view of current Officials). The contents summarize the thinking on growth control, its political, new land use ethic and cover the range legal, and environmental implications. from local control applications to national Another recent source is Future Land policy goals. Use: Energy, Environmental and Legal Literature on quantifying the land Constraints (Burchell and Listokin, 1975). use impacts of development is still dis- This collection of articles supplements couragingly small. The Costs c@ Sprawl, the readings in the Urban Land Insti- which covers economic, environmental, tute's anthology. and social impacts and is the source from Ian McHarg's Design with Nature which most of the chapter's land use im- presents a landscape planner's approach pact information was taken, was pub- to translating environmental theory into lished in three volumes: an Executive practice. The book presents a way to Summary, a Detailed CostAnalysis, and analyze all land as to its suitability for an extensive Literature Review and Bib- various types of development. liography. This study based its analysis Extensive bibliographies on hun- on theoretical average cost and pollution dreds of planning topics are available figures for different development pat- through the Council of Planning Librar- terns, and its conclusions should be read ians; major libraries often carry them, or with that in mind. Other useful studies one can write the Councilfor their cur- concentrating on fiscal impacts include rent catalog. the State of New Jersey report on Hous- Those interested in finding detailed ing and Suburbs: Fiscal and Social Impacts land use information specific to their own of Multifamily Development and two re- locale may contact the planning and law ports by the. Urban Institute: Fiscal Im- schools of nearby universities, local con- pacts of Land Development by Muller, and servation commissions, and regional Measuring the Impacts of Land Develop- planning agencies. 27 2 Highways Old Route D snakes northeastward out of Atlanta through a broad valley of Kudza and Yellow Pines. At one time people and freight passed through Suwanee, Flowery Branch, Buford, and Gainesville on the slow journey to the other manufacturing towns of the Pied- mont, Washington, and the major north- ,eastern cities. This all changed when Interstate 85 was completed and a modem limited access connection was established be- tween Atlanta and Richmond, Virginia (to the Northeast), and Montgomery, Alabama (to the Southwest). The im- proved North and South Highways di- 7' verted long haul coastal traffic through Atlanta. At the same time the truck traffic helped fuel the rapid economic In the past twenty years, highways expansion experienced by Atlanta in the have played a major role in shaping last decade. And, until the expressways American cities. New highways have were constructed, poor access to the been characterized both as the destroyer open land ringing Atlanta confined new of inner cities, and as a necessity in their housing to the city limits and parts of revitalization. Radial superhighways nearby Dekalb County. The interstate built to aid access into central cities have system permitted Atlanta to expand to a led to an exodus from the city to the seven county metropolitan area encom- suburbs. Circumferentials, often built to passing over 2000 square miles. let traffic by-pass cities, have themselves Development around the North become congested because of businesses Druid Hills Road interchange, about 15 and households which locate along miles from the heart of downtown At- them. Major shopping centers have lo- lanta, exemplifies these patterns of cated at the interchanges of limited- growth. When this stretch of 1-85 was access highways. Commercial strip de- completed in the mid-fifties, pine for- velopment has occurred along the sides ests covered most of the area around the of access -roads and other highways. In interchange. Now, eight gas stations', an some cases, through traffic on the high- office park housing the regional opera- way has generated employment by pro- tions of many major corporations, a viding demand for goods and services. shopping center and many fast food The Atlanta example shows the large- chains and other service businesses are scale effects highways have had on de- within a few1minutes of the interchange. velopment. The trend of suburbanization At least fifteen light industrial opera- may be changing, but highways still have tions have located on the frontage road. an impact. Within 10 minutes of the interchange, thousands of apartment units have (above ) North Druid Hills Road at the Atlanta Northeast Free- sprung up along North Druid Hills way, 1957. Source: Georgia State Department of Bghways Road, Buford Highway', and small (opposite) The same interchange in September 1973, after extensive development. Source: Georgia State Department of 28 feeder roads constructed by developers. Flighways imp .73:@ qw [Jim -lot Adm6p V '04- j-'r, 'lop, - ilk Ak IN T. Ilk- so fl@ 29 One of the major highway by- Market Street By-pass pass studies was done in Blairsville, Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pennsylvania, about 1960. The main bypass bypass bypass bypass local highway, U.S. 22, was relocated Gas Stations 4 6 0 5 Restaurants 11 13 0 2 around the congested center of town Motels 2 5 0 1 in 1953. Land use change over the next All Business 207 216 0 8 several years found that most new commercial and light industrial devel- opment located on the bypass. Since there was less congestion in town, the area became more attractive for local business, as the table shows. If, though, the economy had, concen- trated on serving through travelers, the results could have been very different. The effects of highways on land use areas where people would like to work or and development are addressed in this live. chapter. These effects result primarily If it is easy to get on and off the from the change in access to developable highway - if there are unlimited curb land which highways provide. Three cuts and all intersections are at grade common examples of such development level - then development can occur are the rural interchange which seems to along the sides of the highway in a sprout gas stations, restaurants, and I/ strip" of stores, restaurants, motels, motels overnight, the suburban area gas stations, and apartments. Single- which becomes dotted for miles around family housing may spread out behind with subdivisions and shopping -centers these strips on the many crossing roads. after the new interstate is built, and the If the highway is of the interstate local highway which blossoms'with gar- type with limited access, then the push ish strip commercial development. for development will be at interchanges, Rural interchanges of limited access and cross streets may become major highways often become developed with arterials with their own strip develop- service facilities catering to through traf- ment or office parks. The highly visible fic. Businesses which locate there usually land along the road may be developed have little local market and cannot sup- through construction of frontage roads. port themselves without the highway. In some cases, highways have minor In this case, the highway provides a net effects. In the 1950's, a large number of economic gain to the community. "by-pass" studies were done to see In suburban areas such as around whether construction of a by-pass Atlanta, radial highways and beltways around a town hurt local business. In have drawn businesses and households general, the original roads and the by- from downtown and helped create more pass were state or federal highways, two widespread housing and employment to four lanes wide, with unlimited access, centers. In general, the bigger and faster and the towns were centers of rural the highway the larger these impacts will areas. The by-pass roads had little 30 be, so long as the road gives access to impact. Only a small portion of the com- T'hirty-six rural interchanges on In 1949, Route 128 around Interstate 70 were studied in Penn- Boston was opened and quickly be- sylvania in 1966. 1Most interchange came a classic example of the power development was to serve travelers - of highways to induce local growth. gas stations, restaurants, and motels Glamour industries such as com- - and residential and other develop- puter electronics firms moved in, ments were further away. Inter- drawing labor from Boston itself changes on important cross routes got and local suburbs. Later another cir- more development. cumferential - Route 495 - was Of the 17 interchanges more than planned; it was billed as "another 14 miles from an urban area, only 6 128." While the roads were similar in had any development. Of the 19 configuration, economic conditions within the 14 miles of an urban area, were different: 128 apparently drew 17 received some development. No off all the glamour industries; 495 was development occurred without easy too far from downtown to yield exten- on-off access. sive land use changes. munity depended on servin@ through build a road has implications as large as traffic, and even with the b y pass people that to build one. A number of highways would stop if they needed to, so the have been planned to go through de- areas were not hurt. veloped areas, and have later been can- J The interstate beltways were also celled. In the meantime, though, banks supposed to act as by-passes around and mortgage holders have been unwill- metropolitan areas, but they showed ing to invest in the area because con- very different development patterns. demnation and demolition are likely. Highways like Route 128 around Boston The result has been delayed main- attracted large amounts of residential tenance, vacant houses which cannot be and industrial development, and have sold, and spreading blight. After a high- served as the sites of regional shopping way is eventually cancelled, recovery malls and similar facilities. Traffic gen- may be impossible. erated by this induced development has The following section of this chapter removed most of the gains predicted for outlines a procedure for analyzing prob- by-passing the central cities. In some able land use changes which is based on cities, several belt-vavs have been built the framework discussed in Chapter 1. at increasing distances from the center First, the impact area of a highway is city; in this case, development concen- defined. Then land availability and the trates on the inner ones, and the outer demand for development are identified. ones may serve as by-passes. It is then possible to estimate the quan- Highways compete with each other tity, pattern, an'd rate of development as sites for development. The effects of from the interaction of these two factors, the fourth highway - either beltway or and to go from these to the expected im- radial highway - will be smaller than pacts of the land use change. the effects of the first. Development will be more spread out if there are more Defining the Impact Area sites with equal access. The impacts of highways can be The impact area of a highway is the complex. Sometimes, the decision not to area in which major land use changes 31 J r - r V4-p may be expected; its size depends on the home development and some employ- type of highway built, its location, and ment. People are often willing to travel on the other highways nearby. In rural long distances to such sites, and develop- regions it may only be the immediate ment will follow. Some people may also neighborhood of the interchange where move forty or fifty miles from the city and travelers will stop to buy gas, food, or ' commute daily to jobs which have other services. In suburban areas it may moved twenty miles into the suburbs. extend several miles on each side of the A new highway in a suburban area highway. In urbanized areas it must be can induce both high density intensive defined carefully with reference to local development and low density dispersed conditions. development. Intensive development - Rural interchanges are defined as residential, commercial, and industrial those interchanges on interstate or lim- - is more likely to occur near the inter- ited access state highways which are changes. High density residential devel- beyond the maximum commuting dis- opment depends on how accessible the tance to central city employment. At such interchange is to major employment interchanges there is potential for de- centers and public transit. Commercial velopment serving through traffic on the development depends on how access- highway. This development will vary ible the interchange is to residential areas depending on the traffic flow on the and how many people are likely to drive highway and on whether services are by it. Industrial development will de- readily available at nearby interchanges, pend on how accessible the interchange but it will concentrate within the im- is to large labor pools. Because circum- mediate area of the interchange - gen- ferential highways generally provide erally within 1500 feet and in areas most access to more people and jobs than rad- visible from the highway. Under special ial highways, intensive development is circumstances, particularly in scenic likely to be greater at the former than the areas or near recreation sites such as latter. reservoirs or ski slopes (see Chapter 5), For less intensive development, the 32 , rural highways may also stimulate leisure critical issue is how far people are willing These three figures show stages i:: HH: in development induced by a high way investment. The first shows ru- Tal land, primarily used for farming. In the second stage, the high- way has been planned and con- struction is underway. One parcel is being developed, but several more have been bought by specu- lators. Fanning has almost ceased. In the third picture, commer- cial strips have formed along the road intersecting the highway, and some apartments have been built in the lower right. Open space has % been reduced considerably. to live from the highway. At the urban because of the complex ways they affect fringe where even with the highway it existing communities. Land requirements takes a long time to get anywhere, people alone may become a problem, for such will want to live close to the entrance. For highways usually obliterate many acres of an inner circumferential, where most existing development. New urban high- jobs are only a few minutes along the ways tend to divide neighborhoods, dis- highway, it is reasonable to spend some rupt local traffic patterns, and interact in time travelling to it. complex ways with regional as well as For small highways or areas far from local transportation networks. employment, ten minutes rush hour For these reasons opposition to new travel to the highway may be acceptable highways in urban areas is often intense. to most people, so development will As a result, construction may be deferred occur within that distance. or even canceled, but adverse impacts In fast-growing regions where the may still occur as neighborhoods are al- highway makes a real improvement in lowed to decay along the proposed route. access, a fifteen or twenty minute ride to the highway may be acceptable to The Supply of Developable Land enough people to make development profitable. The impact area would then be The most extensive effect of high- all the land closer to an interchange on the ways has generally been to increase the new highway than to one on an older development of vacant land into single- highway, and within twenty minutes family housing. Commercial, industrial, travel (in rush hour) of the new inter- and apartment developments have often change. Twenty minutes is probably a occurred in the immediate area of the maximum access time to the new high- highways, but usually not more than a way in any case, and shorter times may be few minutes travel from an interchange. F_ q1 appropriate in most instances. The first supply concern, then, is to Defining the impact area of highways estimate the amount of vacant land planned for urban areas is more difficult which is developable and within the im- 33. 599-558 0 - 76 - 4 ... ... .. ... @il.@ pact area of the highway. Land in low- the potential exists for fast and major density use near the highway should also land use changes. If it is low, little change be considered, because it may be con- will occur. verted to denser uses. The importance of Estimating demand for new devel- the type of land and its cost were de- opment induced by a highway in an scribed in Chapter 1. Highways in the inner city is complex and beyond the suburbs tend to induce development on scope of this book. Demand for commer- vacant, prime land because it has the cial development around rural inter- lowest construction costs for large-scale changes, on the other hand, is fairly easy developments such as subdivisions and to anticipate: it depends on the visibility shopping centers., of the interchange and its volume of If the supply of vacant, easily de- traffic. Forecasts of traffic volume are veloped land is large, there is little like- available through state highway depart- lihood that developed land will be con- ments, and may show seasonal varia- verted to higher uses, unless its price is tions. For instance, highways serving extraordinarily low. If there is little va- vacation areas may have a high demand cant land, particularly around inter- for tourist services during the summer, changes, redevelopment of land and and almost none during the winter, or development of marginal areas such as vice versa. hillsides are more likely,, Where very little For highways serving developing vacant land exists, development of high- suburban areas, the demand depends on way air rights may occur. the rate of growth of the metropolitan region, on the relative attractiveness of Demand for Development the area compared to the rest of the region, and on the accessibility of the Demand for development is a mea- area. The latter is affected by highways. sure of how many people would be will- Projecting the likely growth of the ing to occupy new development in an region and assessing the relative attrac- area, and how much they would be will- tiveness of the area will indicate if there 34 ing to pay. If the demand is high, then is a potential for,large, moderate, or The residential areas from The Boston Southwest Express- which workers commute to employ- way was planned to extend Inter- ment are often defined by high- state 95 into the city. Construction ways. The left figure on the oppo- plans proceeded and the state con- site page shows the area within 30 demned buildings in the right-of- minutes travel to a center, over local way. Tenants remained in local areas, roads. The right hand figure shows but the new landlord - the state of (on a reduced scale) the new Massachusetts - failed to maintain areas within 30 minutes commuting the buildings. When citizen opposi- after construction of a major high- tion defeated the entire project in way. The dark area is the old com- 1970, the 1-95 corridor was an urban muting area, the light shade shows ruin. Some buildings have been added commuting area. demolished. The social structure of the area was torn apart,'and the city was left with a wound which will take year .s to heal. small amounts of land use change. The or if there is little employment within next step is to see if that potential will about 30 minutes travel time. be translated into actual growth by the in small regions, these critical times change in access provided by a new should be reduced somewhat; in the highway. largest cities, such as New York, people If the potential for growth is low, are willing to travel further, and the highways will not change it. If large limits should be increased. amounts of growth are occurring already, Poor access will eliminate most building a highway will make little dif- demand for development. People will ference. The important case is where a not locate in an area if there is no work highway makes an area with high growth within an acceptable distance, and devel- potential significantly more accessible to opers will not build there. potential tenants and residents. Good access may increase the In general, length of the trip to work demand on an area. An area with good is the most important factor in locating access and moderate regional growth households. Simple measures of access and local attractiveness will probably are the rush hour travel times to the cen- have a relatively high demand for devel- tral business district and other major opment. Areas of low growth and attrac- employment centers in the region. The tiveness will not experience much of an acceptable travel times will vary from one increase in demand for development region to another and among individual even if access is improved. households, but the following general rules can be suggested. Forecasting Secondary Effects ACCESS is GOOD if the rush hour travel time to the central business district The next step is to convert estimates is less than about 30 minutes or if there of land supply and development demand is other substantial employment within into forecasts of the extent of land use 20 minutes travel time or so. change, and the rate and pattern in ACCESS is POOR if the central busi- which it will occur. There are, basically, ness district is one hour or more distant nine cases to consider: supply and 35 demand can each be high, moderate or low. If demand is low, development will be negligible no matter what the supply of land, so these cases need no further analysis. However, under the following cases, substantial development may occur: DEMAND SUPPLY High High High Moderate Moderate Moderate These three cases describe tradi- tional development at the urban fringe. The impacts attributable to the highway T_ will depend on the extent to which it is -jr 1@ likely to increase demand (by improving accessibility) - from low to moderate or high, or from moderate to high. The houses, townhouses, and walk-up typical case is where an area in a growing apartments would be likely, with the region is "opened up" for development denser uses closer to the highway. by a new highway. Development will be Because of the resulting high population primarily residential, with low density density, commercial and industrial uses subdivisions of single-family homes or of might begin to locate in the area. Vacant apartments and condominiums. There land would receive most of the develop- may be some higher density uses near ment, but there would be conversion of the interchanges of highways, but some developed land, particularly near usually only if low cost, undeveloped the highway interchanges, to other uses land is available. Almost no conversion and higher densities. of developed land will occur. Leapfrog- The highest density development ging is likely, as developers will look for will probably occur when supply is low, large parcels available at a reasonable but demand is moderate or high. In these price within ten or twenty minutes drive cases, land prices will be high, and high from the highway. density residential, commercial and A slightly different development industrial development will result. De- pattern is likely to occur when the velopment parcels will generally be as- demand is high but the supply is only sembled from vacant land and older moderate. In this case, the development housing, and will usually be fairly small. is constrained. An example would be an Irifill housing will be constructed, but area which is partially developed and large subdivisions, industrial parks, and moderately accessible before the con- shopping centers are unlikely because of struction of the highway and which the problems in assembling sites. A becomes highly accessible after construc- typical case would be an older, satellite tion. Land costs would be relatively city given improved access to a central high, and most development would city by a new highway. Another would probably have to be on quarter-acre or (above) New multi-farnfly housing in the suburbs typically smaller lots to be profitable. A mix locates dose to highway interchanges, as here in Springfield, 36 between fairly dense single-family Massachusetts, August 1975. The access highway from One way to cut down on strip Washington, D.C. to Dulles Air- development along highways is to port is unusual. There are no exits reduce the number of access points on the way to the airport from the permitted between intersections. city side, and no entrances on the This has been done near Columbus, way to the city from the airport. To Ohio, where several auto-oriented use the highway to commute to food shops grouped themselves in a Washington, it is necessary to get fairly attractive cluster off the main on, drive to the airport, then turn road after the city planning depart- around and travel back 25 miles to ment clamped down on the allow- town. Naturally, it is not very popu- able curb cuts in the area. Traffic lar - that is how it was planned. congestion is reduced, safety in- Building a normal freeway to creased and the visual environment Dulles would have caused major is improved by such policies. land use effects. Building a special purpose freeway did not. be a widening of a major arterial. may well exceed the positive ones from In all of these cases, the highway building the highway.. investment affects demand, and, there- Two special concerns must be men- fore, affects the quantity and pattern of tioned. First, highways at the fringe of development. It also affects the rate at cities tend to induce low-density devel- which development occurs. The change opment, and this development may not in the rate of development depends upon be sewered. There is a potential for sig- the overall rate of regional growth, the nificant problems with sanitary sewage if change in accessibility, and several less wastewater facilities are not provided or important factors such as zoning delays, if the correct controls are not used. the time required to assemble parcels, etc. Second, large industrial parks, apartment complexes, and shopping The Resulting Impacts centers may locate near interchanges. These areas may create major carbon Highways are built to improve traffic monoxide pollution problems because of flow. All else being equal, they should the auto traffic they generate, and may be speed traffic, save people time, reduce subject to Complex Source Regulations accidents, and reduce air pollution. under the Clean Air Act. However, highways also attract develop- ment, and the positive impacts of the Controlling The Effects highway can be eliminated by the in- duced development. Controls designed to minin-dze the Suburban sprawl, the most common impacts of highway-induced develop- induced development, increases both the ment must either reduce the amount of number of trips people take and the developable land or change the access length of those trips. More trips means provided to it. Land use controls such as more traffic, so the development leads to zoning, which reduce the amount of de- highway congestion, slower travel, more velopable land, were discussed in Chap- accidents, and more air pollution. The ter 1. Changing the highway capacity or negative impacts of the development service area often can also be an effective 37 tool in minimizing adverse impacts. Further Sources Reducing the highway's capacity will often reduce the stimulus it provides There have been, literally, hundreds to land use changes. However, because of highway impact studies looking at the highway is usually related to ex- land use, economic, and environmental pected needs in the highway corridor, changes from highway construction. major changes in design capacity are For research on local highways and difficult to implement in order to reduce development, Economics, Planning, or impacts in one particular area. Civil Engineering faculties at local uni- Changing the service area may be versities often have useful information. more feasible. Eliminating an intersection The state transportation department and may be a practical way to limit develop- metropolitan planning agencies may also ment in a community: without the inter- be good sources. section, travel times to the community The Secondary Impacts of Sewers and will be longer, and development will be Highways on Development: A Bibliography, reduced. prepared for the CEQ, HUD and EPA Routing the highways to reduce the contains a useful discussion and listing amount of land where development of studies on highway impacts. DOT also could occur may also be desirable. Since publishes summaries of its research on the impact areas of highways may be this subject under the title Socio-Economic large, it is seldom possible to eliminate Effects of Highways. development entirely. However, re- The Transportation Research Record routing can reduce demand to a level and other publications of the Transporta- where growth can be more easily tion Research Board (National Academy managed. of Sciences), contains a number of stud- The detailed design of access around ies on highway impacts. the highway may be very important. Re- One classic book is The Urban Trans- ducing the number of allowed curb cuts portation Problem by Meyer, Kain, and may convert strip developments into Wohl, the outgrowth of a Rand Corpora- shopping centers, which could be a pre- tion study on transportation, residential ferred mode of development. Changing location, and sprawl. It was published in the number of curb cuts may be espe- 1965, but is still one of the best introduc- cially attractive for small roads, since tions to the field. There are also a number fewer curb cuts concentrate development of books in the popular press describing and improve traffic flow and safety. The the highway decision process and how to amount of development may not be change it, such as Lupo's Rites of Way. changed, but its pattern will. Specific references used in the chap- For larger roads, interchange design ter include the accessibility analysis of and frontage roads will be important. Sherman, et. al.; the by-pass and inter- Eliminating frontage roads will reduce change studies edited by Maiolo; the development along the sides of the high- early Atlanta analysis by Lemly; the way. Controlling the use of land around classic study of Route 128 around Boston the interchanges, especially in the most by Bone; and our own experience and visible areas for travellers, will also con- what we could gain from conversations trol development. A sign by-law which with many others. limits large lighted signs could reduce service stations, for example. 38 F '77@ -N fs tx, 4@ ol. I- W.r "WA N7 Mass Transit J 7@ W .7 64 '17 ge V-7 L Toronto, Canada, built its first bigger buildings on smaller lots, and north-south transit line in 1954 to re- have increased their profits. place an overcrowded streetcar line The results have been important for going down Yonge Street, the main the metropolitan area. Downtown is still downtown business route. Since then it a major center, and the rush to the sub- has added an East-West line along Bloor urbs has meant a rush to apartments and Danforth Streets and expanded both with good transit service and nearby the University-Yonge and Bloor-Dan- public open space. Contrary to trends in forth lines to the suburbs. Toronto has the United States, Toronto transit rider- also been a leader in metropolitan growth ship has remained high. in the past two decades, and has built The pictures show the sort of devel- more office space downtown than any opment which has occurred. Instead of city in North America except New York. sprawl throughout the area, develop- Transit has been important in this ment has concentrated around the transit downtown development and in guiding stations and feeder routes to them, and dev'elopment in the whole metropolitan open space has been left nearby. area. High density satellite communities Translating Toronto's experience to have grown up near major transit sta- new mass transit systems elsewhere is tions and along routes leading to them. not simple. The Toronto system has Over 90% of new office construction and facilitated metropolitan growth and has about half of the new apartments have led to concentrated uses around stations been within walking distance of transit. and a viable downtown. U.S. cities, Toronto has sought this type of de- however, have seen thirty years of sub- velopment. Canada has not provided tax urbanization and sprawl, and new tran- incentives for single-family homes, so sit cannot revitalize decaying downtown apartments have been the prevalent areas overnight. The land use effects of mode of housing. The transit lines have provided density incentives for offices (above) Ibis photo dearly shows a clustering of urban devel- and apartments which located near opment around two stations of the Toronto transit system. Advance planning maxiinizes transit benefits in these areas. 40 them; builders have been able to build Source: Toronto Transit Commission. 7t. N, transit in Toronto have been large, but transit system can be valuable to down- the effects of new transit lines elsewhere town commercial districts, increasing the will be slower and less pervasive. development of offices, stores, and other Toronto does, though, show the intensive land uses there. types of effects which transit creates, Second, transit can lead to increased and what a policy favoring these land density of development around its out- use changes can do. Planners of transit lying stations. Areas within walking systems should consider whether they distance - perhaps one-third mile - of want such development around their a good transit system can be very attrac- stations, and what policies to use to at- tive both for apartments and for com- tract or discourage it. mercial and industrial development.. Mass transit facilities tend to in- Finally, transit can also affect the use crease development around their sta- of land along its route. For instance, a tions. Like highways, fixed-route mass radial transit line from a central city often transit systems increase demand for has "Park-and-ride"' stations in outlying development by irnprovm*g access. To be areas which enable commuters going economical, they must locate on routes downtown to park and use transit in- where the daily flow of people is greatest stead of driving all the way. The transit - usually through developed areas to line will increase transportation capacity central business districts. Transit is much along its route giving some improvement less flexible than the automobile with in access to outlying residential areas. which it competes, but its ridership in- The result may be an increase in low cludes the 20% of all households without density development beyond the ring of cars, as well as those who take advan- high density development. tage of its speed and low cost for com- Thus, three land use effects may muting to work, shopping, and other arise from a transit investment: increased destinations. center city development, high density There are several ways in which de- uses around the transit stations, and low velopers may respond to the increased (above) Induced development adjacent to Victoria Park Station demand induced by transit. First, a good in Toronto. Source: Toronto Transit Comnussion. 41 density development in areas served by park-and-ride. All of these were shown, Sam Warner's book, Streetcar to varying degrees, in the Toronto Suburbs, describes changes in example. Boston when the electric streetcar The effect of transit on land use was came in. People could then travel up much larger before the automobile to six or eight miles to work. The re- became the dominant mode of travel. But sult was the first real suburban even today, many people still do not sprawl: between 1860 and 1900 the have a car available. Most of them live in extension of streetcar lines led to a the cities, and while some are disad- land boom in new housing. Class vantaged, many who could afford a car differences arose: the upper class find transit fully sufficient for their moved to the country and commuted needs. These households form a "captive by train; middle class people with se- market" for transit - they must live cure jobs bought homes at the ends where it is available, and they can usually of streetcar radials; working class go only where it goes. Because of this, families lived further intown near they are a known market for develop- both radials and cross town links. ment around transit stations, and their demand for housing and services leads density, similar to that along a major to higher density uses around the highway. Some development may con- stations. centrate along bus routes feeding into Commercial development will be the station, but this will depend on how attracted to busy transit stations. If there frequently such routes are used and how is a large flow of people to and from the finTdy they are established. Most of the stations, there is a good chance they will induced development will be oriented want to shop. For example, a market at a toward automobile travel. The impact park-and-ride station will get a good area is defined as the area in which the amount of trade from people picking up caritransit travel time to the central groceries on their way home. business district, in the rush hour, is less than that for an automobile alone. Defining the Impact Area The Supply of Developable Land Two impact areas, related to how users reach the transit system, should be The major land use effects will occur defined for transit improvements. in the primary impact area around the The primary impact area around any transit station. Here, the development station is represented by how far transit demand will be most intense, particularly users will walk. This distance may vary if there is vacant land available. No build- according to local conditions, but in most ings need to be demolished in develop- cases a circle with a radius of one-third ing vacant land, so site preparation will mile around the transit station should be cheap and costs low. Only small par- include all land in this primary impact cels will be required, since development area. will be localized and of fairly high The second impact area is in subur- density. ban areas served by parkand-ride tran- After the vacant land is gone, devel- sit, where transit riders drive their cars to opment pressures may turn to land with the transit system. Induced development old or low value structures that can be 42 within this area will be low or moderate demolished or extensively renovated to TRANSIT WPACT ZONES: QUINCY, MASSACHUSETTS MAJOR STREET$ AND DETAILS OF AREAS NEAR STATIONS *TRANSIT STATIONS [Bog, ................. NOR STATIO AREA RKING:500 CARS UINCY CENTER :j STATION PARKING:850 make new profitable developments. The Demand for Development air rights over the transit line may also be available for development, although Quantifying increased development costs of construction will be extremely demand related to new transit invest- expensive and high rents will be needed ment is difficult. Each system is unique to make the development profitable. and there is little experience to go by. As In the larger impact area, the impor- with highways, the general effect of tant land is largely the vacant develop- transit systems is to increase demand able land considered suitable for large because they increase accessibility. Such scale, low density uses. The major land factors as regional growth and local attrac- use effect of mass transit will be the con- tiveness are also important. version of vacant land to typical subur- The extent to which a rapid transit ban apartments and single-family hous- system increases demand depends upon ing. Redevelopment to higher densities its likely impact on travel habits, which is unlikely, except possibly along major in turn depends upon the ease of using feeder bus routes or in areas with good highways and other transportation transit and highway service. modes. The demand for travel along the Because the size of the primary im- transit route is also an important influ- pact area around a transit station is ence. Where auto travel is relatively limited, competition will cause the more easy, or where origins and destinations profitable land uses in this area to dis- of travelers are spread out, the rapid tran- place less profitable ones. This may sit system is likely to attract relatively reduce the local diversity of land uses: few riders and generate a relatively low residential areas will tend to become demand for development. Thus, the more intensely developed with apart- same conditions which lead to a success- ments (and supporting commercial ful transportation system tend to cause development), shopping areas will the system to have a high land use impact. attract more and larger retail outlets and These conditions are particularly may displace existing older develop- true for the primary impact zone. If there ment, and business districts will expand. are lots of people riding on the system 43 In 1971, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority opened a rapid transit link from Boston to Quincy, Massachusetts. The exten- sion has had different impacts on ly land use at its three stations. In large undeveloped North Quincy, a major commercial/industrial complex has been built. Wollaston station serves a residential neighborhood of low to medium density with little unde- veloped land, and commercial and apartment developments are also oc- curring. In Quincy Center, (pg. 46) the terminal facility has begun to bolster existing commercial land uses. there will be a high demand for apart- outlying stops, the impact on demand is ments and commercial developments to determined by the drive plus wait plus serve them. Non-manufacturing busi- ride plus walk time compared to the time nesses will also be attracted to stations, required for driving directly to the des- and the system will tend to stimulate the tination. Significant park-and-ride use type of development which it best serves. will be made of the transit only if it is as Over time, the development around the fast and as cheap as driving to work, al- stations will tend to attract more riders, though some people like the ability to which will increase the demand for read or work while riding. The demand further development. for this type of development also de- Many businesses, such as insurance pends upon the extent to which employ- companies, require access to large num- ment is concentrated along the transit bers of employees, so they generally route and the rate of regional growth. locate in the central city. Office develop- ment here is likely to increase if access is Forecasting Secondary Effects improved, since employee parking is presently a limiting factor for central This section will concentrate on the business district development in many impact area near the transit station. Land cities. use changes in the outer impact area can However, industries may move from be considered using the procedure sug- the central business district because of gested in the highway chapter. These transit. Space becomes expensive in the changes will probably be small, except in city center because of the high demand special cases which can best be identified and it may be cheaper to move ten or locally. twenty minutes travel away on a transit Since transit lines are usually routed line than to stay in the city. Thus, there to serve existing people and jobs, the may be some demand for industry devel- area around most stations will usually opment along the transit line, if the level have been developed already. Near these of service is high. ( above) Norffi Quincy office development visible in upper left, 44 In the lower density impact area of station in center. low 7 * t"Al- If4 stations, new development may be a increase in development density. But slow process. Early changes are likely to this may require a large investment on be infill housing, splitting of residences the same level as BART, the Toronto Sys- into apartments, and conversion of tem, or the Washington METRO. Even buildings from residential to commercial then, the market for office space depends use. Larger apartments, stores, and office on a large number of factors, and the developments will follow slowly, if the effect of transit is only one. Transit can demand is moderate to high. concentrate demand for new develop- A new transit system may also have ment, but it cannot create it. stations built near undeveloped land, These three cases - the outlying either at the outer limits of the line or at developed area, the outlying unde- sitesbetween older developed areas. At veloped area, and the central city, show the outer end, apartment developments, the ways in which transit can affect land shopping centers, and other suburban use change. high density construction are likely, as happened in Toronto and Cleveland, The Resulting Impacts where there was some suburban devel- opment on the airport extension line. Transit investments improve trans- Nearer the city, there may be an impor- portation and access particularly for the tant shift of jobs from the center city to poor and for non-drivers, it can also re- transit stations, as in Quincy, Massachu- duce auto travel and pollution from cars. setts. This will depend on the demand The induced-development related to for office space in the central city. Both of transit can accentuate these impacts. As these types of development can occur density rises near stations, more people quickly, even before the transit invest- will use the system instead of their autos. ment is completed. Housing built near stations will be con- Areas in the central city may also be ( left ) Wollaston station area; apartments are housing for the influenced by a new transit system. If it elderly, station is at top with parking lot. brings many more people to the city for (above) Quincy Center area; station and parking garage in jobs or shopping, there will be a further top left. 45 venient for non-drivers. Further, the high-density commercial and apartment Studies from 1920 to the present developments will usually contribute have found that transit improve- more in taxes than they require in ser- ments will do little to counter the vices because of the small number of decline of an area. In Cleveland, the school age children in apartments com- main transit line runs on old rail pared to single-family homes. rights-of-way through industrial There are, however, some special areas and depressed neighbor- impacts related to various types of transit hoods. Little transit-related devel- investments. The concentrated develop- opment has occurred. Camden, New ment near stations will increase noise, Jersey, is on the Lindenwold line traffic congestion, and localize air pol- between Philadelphia and several lution. The character of the community suburbs. The line may have helped may also be changed from suburban or commercial establishments in Phila- local commercial uses to major high- delphia, but it has led to a slight exo- density intense uses. These impacts dus of commerce from Camden, and should be considered in designing the to development east of Camden. transit investment. Controlling the Effects tion will determine how it reinforces or interferes with existing neighborhoods. Much attention is currently being If the line is built ahead of development, given to rail rapid transit as a way in new growth may occur at its outlying which to lure travelers from excessive stations rather than along its route. reliance on automobiles. High density Finally, the station design and the development around transit stations is provision of parking are most important thought desirable since it increases tran- factors. If the station is not designed for sit use. Land use controls are often used pedestrian access, there is likely to be to concentrate development into high little development nearby. Large parking density uses around the transit station lots and kiss-and-ride loops may induce instead of sprawled throughout the area. relatively more low density suburban Zoning is commonly used to do this, development. If the station serves- as the particularly by zoning areas near transit starting point for bus distribution, land for higher densities (in terms of area of use change along the bus routes may floor space compared to lot area). This follow. The detailed flow patterns of has been done in Toronto and San Fran- people and cars around the station may cisco, for example. make development attractive or unattrac- Another method is to encourage the tive, and should be carefully considered development of the air rights of the tran- in system planning. This is also the por- sit system. This can provide more hous- tion of the investment decision most ing and jobs, and thus lead to increased amenable to local control. ridership. Modifying the transit investment can Further Sources change its land use effects. For instance, if the stations are close together, the land Most of the major transit systems use effects will be smaller around each have done impact studies related to land one than if they are far apart. The route use, and others are under way. Work on 46 of the system and the location of the sta- early transit system by Warner (Streetcar The Market Street area is the buildings with special entrances to center of San Francisco's business dis- BART. Since bigger buildings could trict, but its importance was declining be constructed on land near BART, up to a few years ago. Before the ad- development was attracted and den- vent of the Bay Area Rapid Transit sities increased. system (BART), downtown was cap- The whole region has combined turing only 30 percent of all office to aid BART and increase density construction in the area; after BART, around it. For example, the Berkeley the rate is up to 60 percent. Market City Council.turned down a shopping Street has become the most attractive center partially because it was not area for new construction in the served by BART and downtown region. Berkeley was. Zoning regulations were changed to complement the BART system, by providing density bonuses for build- ings near stations, especially for Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston The Economic and Social Impacts of Invest- 1870-1900, 1974) and Spengler (Land ment in Public Transit by Sheldon and Value in Nezv York in Relation to Transit Brandwein. Facilities, 1930) are valuable for historical Major transit investments usually perspective on how land use changed require an environmental impact state- with the advent of streetcars and early ment, and this may be a valuable source subways. of information. The two most studied systems are The definition of the local impact Toronto and the San Francisco (BART) area of transit as one-third mile around systems. Papers on the Toronto System the station came from studies of how far are available from the Toronto Transit people walk to transit stations (see Wil- Comn-dssion and other sources (Heenan, son, et al; Peterson; or MAPC, op. cit.). 1972). Studies of land use change before Air rights have been developed in Cleve- the opening of BART were done by Lee, land suburbs (Libicki, op. cit.). Dis- et al (1973) and post-opening studies are cussion of the transit captive population in progress. Progress reports should be may be found in Meyer, Kain, and available from the Metropolitan Trans- Wohl's The Urban Transportation Problem portation Commission, Hotel Claremont, (1965), and other sources. Berkeley, California 94705. There have also been studies of Boston (e.g., Metro- politan Area Planning Council, 1973; and Kalauskas, 1974), Philadelphia (e.g., Boyce et al, 1972 and Gannon and Dear, 1972) and other cities (see Libicki, "Land Use Impacts of Transit Improvements", 1975). Two useful general sources are The Secondary Impacts of Highways and Sewers on Development: A Bibliography, by En- vironmental Impact Center, Inc., and 47 4 S ewers The relationship between sewer construction and residential housing construction is dramatically illustrated _V- in Fairfax County, Virginia. Lying tothe west of Washington, D.C., Fairfax County is a rapidly growing residential community for government workers. In 1963, the County published "A Western County Development Policy" (which pointed out that sprawl development 4 raises costs of government services to W, taxpayers) and recommended the adop- tion of "urban satellite clusters" located near the main highway to Washington. Such a pattern of development would save money for the taxpayers and leave more open-space for the enjoyment of residents. In the following years the cluster for land within the holding zone were concept was consistently defeated by granted and two one-third acre lot sub- subdivision rezoning and by the power- divisions were approved. There was ful influence of the county sewerage apparently little that the zoning officials system. In 1969, responding to the fail- could do. They were under pressure ure of the cluster concept up to that time, from developers, and, in such a situa- the county planning staff recommended tion, they found it difficult to deny the the adoption of "holding zones" in rural developers the right to connect to the areas, where all development would be sewer. Courts feel that access to a sewer, deferred at least five years. It was hoped which is after all a public health facility, that these zones would encourage the should not be denied to anyone who satellite duster concept to take hold, and wants it. The decision to build the sewer cut down on leapfrogging, with its, high effectively negated the attempt to keep service costs. the land from being developed. This A holding zone was approved for episode shows that in areas with heavy the 2500 acre Middle Run area of the growth potential, local level zoning and Pohick Creek watershed in September planning processes often cannot control 1969. Much to the satisfaction of those the development pressures which wanting to control growth, it was pro- sewers release. posed that this zone would not be As the experience of Fairfax County, opened for development until 1975. VirginiaY shows, sewers have a powerful Unfortunately, the officials also effect on the location, pattern, and timing approved an extension of the sewer sys- of single fan-&y residential development. tem into the Middle Run area at about A variety of studies have found that the same time, supposedly because the funding for this line had been pre- above) Housing development in Prince George's County, Maryland, 1962. Subdivisions Eke this one are highly depen- viously approved. The hope was ex- dent on the provision of interceptor sewers. Source: U.S. pressed that the sewer would lie idle Department of Agriculture. for five years, but this was not to hap- (opposite) Development around the Middle Run interceptor 48 pen. Within months, rezoning petitions sewer, Fairfax County, Maryland, as of late 1973. POHICK CREE SEWER SHED -KEY INTERCEPTOR SEWERS SEWER SHED BOUNDARIES MIDDLE RUN INTERCEPTOR SEWER SERVICE AREA SUBDIVISION DEVELOPMENTS 49 WATE SOU'RSHED DARIES sewered, vacant land in suburban com- Third, communities may deliberately munities is worth from two to four times attract new development to new sewer as much as equivalent unsewered land in service areas in order to pay off construc- the same communities. tion expenses through user charges and American consumers, supported by connection fees. tax incentives, have always been at- The focus of this chapter is on "inter- tracted to individual home ownership. ceptor" or "'trunk" sewers. These are the The land requirements for single-family sewers that connect the treatment plant housing are high, so subdivisions have with the smaller "collect&' sewers ser- generally been located on the unpopu- ving the individual homes or subdivi- lated outskirts of cities. In the past, these sions. Interceptors are constructed by developments often had no sewers and local governments, although their cost is were dependent for their wastewater usually heavily subsidized (to the tune of disposal on septic tanks. This trend to 75% or more) by federal and state gov- locate on the urban fringe continues ernments. Developers do not have to tie today, but new development is becoming into interceptors. As an alternative, they increasingly dependent on sewer can construct small "'package" treatment services. plants (about 10,000 of these plants are New development is attracted to built each year) which serve only the im- areas served by sewers for a variety of mediate development. However, the use reasons. First, consumers prefer houses of package plants is restricted by many with sewers; septic tanks require main- communities. They may not provide tenance and are an undesirable respon- effective treatment over the long term if sibility. Second, increased concern for they are not operated and maintained the environment has prompted the ex- properly, and their full cost has to be tensive (and expensive) construction of paid by the developer. For these reasons sewers in outlying areas and has made it developers prefer land served by a mu- more difficult to have septic tanks ap- nicipal interceptor. proved in moderately priced subdivi- ' 50 sions with lots of one-half acre or less. left ) Sewage treatment plant under construction, 1975. WATERSHED NDARIES Bou KEP In the drawing at left, scattered de- WTE TOR COLLECTOR velopment is shown along rural SEWERS roads in a watershed at the edge of an urban region. At right, an inter- ceptor sewer has been built, paral- leling the route of alocal stream, enabling subdivisions to locate within the watershed boundary. Service is denied to development in adjoining watershed areas, so de- velopment which might have lo- cated there appears instead in the project service area. Once the sewer capacity is installed, it is very diffi- cult to control connections to them so long as excess capacity exists. Interceptors are alway s built with tween existing towns and excess sewer. Idexcess capacity" - that is, capacity capacity combine to give a strong incen- beyond that needed to handle the peak tive for development as a side effect of flow from the present population of the this regionalization. Local communities area served. This excess capacity is avail- also often seek to bring sewers to as large able to developers to serve future pro- an area as possible when they build. Not jects that might connect to the lines. The wanting to interfere with the land mar- proportion of excess capacity provided ket, they seek to spread the benefits of may vary from a low of ten or twenty sewers toias many landowners as they percent of the used capacity up to several can justify. To deny access to sewers. hundred percent. The high subsidies could lay town officials open to a suit, available encourage the construction of for values of property outside the sewer large sewers with large amounts of service area may actually decline if they .excess capacity for growth. In addition, were previously bid up by development design criteria for interceptors are always speculation. conservative, tending to provide for even . The two factors, the amount of ex- more excess capacity through over- cess capacity and the amount of vacant design. So long as excess capacity is land served, are important determinants available, developers need only pay a of the amount and pattern of &velop- reasonable connection fee to satisfy their ment resulting from an interceptor's wastewater management requirements. construction. The high subsidy rates also tend to favor large projects that open up large Defining the Impact Area areas for development all at once. This tends to promote low density, single- To minimize the cost of mechanical family subdivisions. In federally-funded pumping, sewers are designed to flow projects, efforts to promote regional sys- by gravity wherever possible, and are tems often result in several communities usually built close to the routes of natural being tied together by long interceptors streams. Their service areas, therefore, traversing vacant land. Cheap land be- tend to correspond to natural watersheds 51 One sewer interceptor project was also important to consider the vacant designed to serve the rapidly growing land opened by regional projects in Horn Lake Creek Drainage Basin in which a series of watersheds may be tied the Tennessee/Mississippi interstate together by cross-country interceptors. area near Memphis. The engineers The project engineers are best able first projected a population increase to define the service area, and usually from the original 34,000 in 1974 to provide this information on maps show- 208,000 in the year 2000. For the Mis- ing the sewer's legal service area and sissippi part of the area, one engineer watershed boundaries. Sewer author- predicted the ultimate population ities will have information on the pro- would be 265,000; another predicted cedures for obtaining connections to the 337,000. The estimates were never sewer system by development outside reconciled, but the higher one was the legal service area. used. The final design had enough The Supply of Developable Land capacity to serve 410,000 people, twelve times the initial population. Sewers affect land use predomi- nantly by increasing the supply of devel- development outside of one water- opable land. The amount of increase shed cannot connect to a sewer in a depends upon the amount of vacant land neighboring watershed without expen- the sewer serves, and its excess capacity. sive pumping. A 'legal" service area may As mentioned in Chapter 1 and in also be defined which limits the area the preceding sections, the amount of within which connections to the system developable land is determined by phy- are automatically granted; connections sical, legal, and 'economic factors. Even outside the legal service area but within though it lies within the service area, the watershed boundary can be allowed steep slopes are not likely to be devel- but require special permission. * oped unless there is a very high demand. Where land is completely flat, as in Sewage collection facilities serving river delta regions, watershed bound- homes on steep hillsides can be expen- aries do not exist. In these areas, gravity sive to construct. Land that lies in par- flow is provided entirely by the inclina- ticularly low areas, below the service tion of pipes in the ground. This limits level of the sewer, is effectively excluded service area size severely, as laying pipes from development. at depths greater than 14 feet is prohib- Legal restrictions may eliminate itively expensive. Mechanical 'lift sta- some of the land from development if it tions" must be built- to transfer sewage has been set aside in parks, wildlife ref- between segments of inclined pipe in uges, and so forth. However, as pointed flat service areas. out at the beginning of this chapter, Where watershed boundaries are zoning by itself is unlikely to keep an defined " they represent a project's impact area out of development if sewer ser- area. Legal service areas, even if they are vice is available. smaller than the watershed area, seldom .Economically, sewers are unlikely, curtail development because connection by themselves, to stimulate redevelop- permits are usually easy to obtain. Where ment except in instances where the exist- watershed boundaries are not defined, ing land use is of particularly low value the impact area may be defined as all (possibilities include sites containing 52 land within 1000 feet of the sewer. it is marginal industries and scattered inex- The city of Tulsa, Oklahoma, ing stock, recent land transactions within and its suburb, Broken Arrow, the project impact area, the quality of share rapid economic growth. Long local amenities, and the amount of sewered, developable land available an important oil town, Tulsa has elsewhere in the region. diversified and continues to grow. An expressway was built to Broken Forecasting Secondary Effects Arrow to help commuters to reach the central city. Despite the heavy If the sewer services'extensive demand for residential development amounts of vacant land, particularly on the intervening land, environ- when the individual parcels are large, mental considerations required new the induced development is likely to be sewerage capacity before develop- low density. Significant amounts of leap- ment could start. When federal frogging will also occur as developers funding for sewers became available search for the lowest priced available rapid development occurred on land parcels, which are likely to be far away which previously was almost vacant. from existing development. Little in- filling will occur initially because it is pensive homes). Sewers typically have easier for the developer to-start fresh their greatest impact on the construction with a large piece of land rather than fit of single family homes, and thes 'e are the housing in with existing develop- most likely to be built where there are ment, and because.the price of land in large tracts of undeveloped land. The partially urbanized areas is typically construction of a sewer will make such higher than it is at the urban fringe. The sites suitable for medium (two dwelling rate of development will depend pre- units per gross acre) and higher density dominantly on how much demand there development, where it otherwise would is for development, and how much other only be suitable for lower density sewered, vacant land is also available. development. If the sewer opens up only a mod- If there are relatively large amounts erate amount of vacant land for develop- of such sewered vacant land already, the ment, the pattern of development is construction of a new sewer will have likely to be somewhat different. There relatively little impact on supply. If the will be more infilling, and less oppor- supply of such land is tight in the area, tunity for leapfrogging out into ' rural the construction of a new sewer can have areas. The price of land in the service significant irnpacts@. area will be somewhat higher, and as a result, the development will be some- Demand for Development what denser. All in all, the development will be more compact and of higher den- Demand for development within a sity particularly if the demand for devel- sewer service area is unaffected by the opment is high. If the demand is only construction of the sewer itself. Estima- moderate, the land prices will not in- tions of development demand may, crease as fast, and, therefore, develop- therefore, be carried out as discussed in ment will be of lower density, but still Chapter 1, without any special additional not as low as in the previous case. considerations. Demand estimation Oddly enough, if the investment is should include consideration of the local not made at all or if it opens up very little vacancy rate, the condition of local hous- vacant developable land, the effect may 53 V 41 Y-i 414 a" , "IN 4 again be to stimulate leapfrogging. This The Resulting Impacts is because the land in the service area will become so high priced that it will pay Sewers are built expressly to handle the developer to go outside the service an environmental problem - the dis- area for cheaper land even if he has to posal of community sanitary wastes. build his own package treatment plant. They are intended to prevent contamina- If the developer is doing this, he is un- tion of surfaces and ground waters from affected by the location of the sewer and improperly functioning septic tanks, will look for the cheapest land available, guard against disease, and transport which is likely to be significantly beyond wastes to locations where they may be the bound of existing urbanization. treated and safely discharged. Ironically, Thus, it is primarily the relative by tending to attract extensive develop- supply of vacant developable land ment, sewers may create several environ- opened up by the sewer than determines mental problems in solving one. the pattern and density of residential Sewers, like highways, can lead to development. The relative demand has the conversion of large areas of land to' some affect on these two factors, but a residential development. This develop- bigger effect on how quickly the develop- ment often causes serious sedimentation ment occurs. and erosion problems, both from con- The construction of sewers per se struction activities and from the creation usually has little direct impact on com of large areas of impervious ground sur- mercial or industrial development. In face (rooftops, roads, driveways, parking both instances, other factors are likely to 'lots, etc.). Air pollution is aggravated due be much more important, and the facil- to increases in local traffic and the burn- ities can usually afford to build their own ing of fuels to heat houses. While ground wastewater treatment plant if other loca- water quality is protected by the use of tional advantages exist, but there is no sewers, local stream quality may actually public sewer. (above) Sewer under construction, 1970. Source: Waterworks 54 and Waste Disposal Division, Winnipeg, Manitoba. filling and lower population projections In its wild state, Tahoe was a lake are often equally reasonable. Reducing of matchless clarity and beauty. But the capacity of the lines to serve only the many homes and lodges were built existing population prevents induced near it, polluting the waters with sew- development, but a rational community age. Nevada's government went to land use policy usually should provide lengths to build facilities that provide for some growth. advanced treatment for the sewage. Reducing the capacity of the system The natural resource was thought does not necessarily reduce environ- saved. mental impacts an equal amount. Large However, these facilities per- amounts of land can still be developed, mitted more motels, apartments, and though at a lower population density. casinos to be constructed. Although Therefore, reducing the size of the ser- pollution from sewerage is now vice area may also be necessary. Shorten- small, increased eutrophication, ing the length of lines is a practical scenic degradation, and air pollution constraint on land development: though have completely changed the area. all land within the project watershed may technically be able to use the inter- ceptor, developers will be reluctant to be degraded by the release at a single lay long lines of their own to connect. point of large quantities of treatment The interceptor's capacity and length plant effluent, and by the increased may be adjusted to encourage localized stormwater runoff. higher density (multi-family) develop- . The economic impacts of sewer con- ment, or consolidated areas of single struction may also be large if there is family development. Both control tech- rapid local population growth. These are niques also reduce the costs of the pro- discussed in detail in Chapter 1. The ject to the community. provision of municipal services (espe- Breaking down a project into succes- cially schools) and physical facilities sive stages of construction is also useful, (roads and water supply) will put a heavy and has two side effects. First, it con-' additional financing burden on develop- fines immediate development to smaller ing areas. areas and reduces leapfrogging. Second, the resulting population forecasting Controlling the Effects period, is shorter; it therefore allows for more accurate population projections, To reduce adverse impacts of and gives flexibility if population growth induced growth due to sewer projects, departs from predictions. Such phasing, the project may be modified in several if intelligently planned, is unlikely to ways. increase project costs significantly. Any Reducing the capacity of the sewer increased costs should be balanced by pipe itself reduces the ultimate popu- the benefits of better community plan- lation theproject may serve. Often inter- ning and a lessening of the immediate ceptor sewer projects are sized according financial burden of the project on to the zoh ing of the service area, on the present residents. It is likely that some. assumption that the area will become sort of clear schedule for phasing will totally developed as zoned'. Such popu- be required by the courts if this alter- lation projections may become self-ful- native is implemented. 55 U-1 Where the impacts of a sewer project lines, and preparing a manual for pre- will put a severe strain on a local commu- dicting secondary effects, to stimulate nity, a moratorium on all sewer construc- better consideration of sewer induced tion is sometimes imposed as a last development in project planning. resort. This effectively halts all new local development until more sewer capacity is built. Such moratoria remain highly controversial as growth control tools: some communities have used them in bad faith to prevent the construction of multi-family or low income housing, and they may cause developers to build scattered developments beyond the urban fringe where the land is cheap enough to compensate for the need to construct a package treatment plant. Nor are courts likely to permit such moratoria to remain in effect for more than one and a half to two years. Further Sources Interest in the link between sewers and land use conversion has emerged only comparatively recently, so the exist- ing literature is slender. The introductory example for this chapter was taken from Jeffrey Stans- bury's article "Suburban Growth - A Case Study" (1972). Despite its sarcastic view of the role of local government in urban development, this piece has re- ceived widespread circulation and gives an enlightening view of the dynamics of suburbanization's dependence on sewers. A 1974 study by Urban Systems Re- search & Engineering, Inc., Interceptor Sewers and Suburban Sprawl, also includes a number of case studies. The Secondary Impacts of Highways and Sewers on Develop- ment. A Bibliography by the Environmen- tal Impact Center contains further references. EPA expects to increase the number of Environmental Impact Statements it prepares on sewer projects, and is pres- (opposite) A 54 inch interceptor sewer.being constructed in ently revising its project design guide- Stratford, Conn. in 1973. Source: CE Maguire, Inc. 57 5 Other Infrastructure Investments e13 DALLAS FT WORTH AIRPORT ....... .... 39\ roRt WORTK .......... Highways, mass transit, and sewers several kinds, but impose strong nega- are the most common, but not the only, tive impacts on nearby areas in the form infrastructure investrnents having strong of noise, air pollution, and traffic. effects on development. Other types of New employment centers can have investments, such as those introduced in important land use effects, and can have this chapter, can also induce significant important secondary financial impacts local development. This process will not on communities, inducing additional be described in detail here, but the gen- development. These issues are discussed eral methodology for assessing likely in the second section. impacts, used in the previous chapters, Parks, recreation or entertainment can also be applied to them. If one facilities can promote second home de- understands how an infrastructure in- velopments, and require housing, transit vestment affects the supply of develop- services and support f or employees. Rec- able land and the demand for develop- reational development can impose heavy ment, one can estimate the development costs on local government, and can have that will be induced by it. major environmental impacts on the One type ofinvestment that can sensitive ecologies typical of such areas. have a large impact on development, These are covered in the third section. similar to that resulting from sewer The next decade will see a large investments elsewhere, is the provision amount of investment in energy facil- of water supplies. In and regions, the ities such as mines and power plants. water requirements for development These facilities have often induced and the analysis of their impacts can be "boom-town" growth in remote rural carried out in essentially the same man- areas, with severe social, economic, and ner as that described for sewers. environmental impacts; they are dis- The remaining sections of this chap- cussed in the fourth section. ter describe a number of other major Flood control dams are the topic of types of investments. Airports are the topic of the first (above) Development sites near Dallas/Ft. Worth Airport. Source: Business Week, adapted by Urban Systems Research 58 section. Airports attract development of and Engineering, Inc. Development near Dallas/Fort 9. Forum 303 shopping mall Worth Airport 10. Six Flags Business Park (500- acres, $250-million) 1. Metroport, a $125-million office 11. Harbor Lakes, 379-homes complex 12. Century 21, 311-acre, $ISO- 2. Flower Mound, -a 4,500 acre new million residential and town shopping area 3. Lion Country Safari 13. Lewisville Valley, 1,300-acre, 4. Seven Seas Amusement Park $200-million residential, com- 5. Turnpike Stadium (baseball) mercial, and industrial develop- 6. Texas Stadium (football) ment 7. Six Flags Over Texas Amuse- 14. Brookhollow/Arlington, a 270- ment Park acre business park 8. Bedford Forum, 716-acre com- mercial and residential develop- ment the last section. They can promote exten- opening of the airport was frenzied: val- sive construction in the areas they pro- ues multiplied by ten times in the. five tect from flood damage, though these years prior to the project's completion. areas are often environmentally unsuit- The irony of this speculation is that able for development. the price of land has often risen beyond its potential value for actual develop- Airports ment. Some land previously valued at $5,000 per acre cost $50,000 by the time The new airport serving Dallas and the airport opened. Only high intensity Fort Worth iswithout precedent in the commercial or residential development scale and arnibitiousness of its design. It can afford such high land prices, and the is also the only major new airport to be market for office buildings and luxury constructed in the country in recent apartments in the area has not been years. Though its planners took unusual adequate to develop all these parcels. pains to anticipate and control secondary As a result, competition for develop- impacts of the airport, the project is so ment is intense among the 20 towns and large that growth in the airport region cities of the area. The North Texas Coun- has been feverish. According to one cil of Governments is trying to use vol- major landholder, "The airport is prob- untary acceptance of comprehensive ably the most important significant pro- zoning programs to create compatible Ject in the U.S. in the last 20 years in land uses and balanced economic bases terms of its impact on real estate values." for new communities serving the airport, Homes, officesf motels, ware- but the obstacles are great. Communities h buses, stores, industrial plants, and lack money to build the extensive sewers, recreational facilities have sprung up roads and utilities necessary to support in the 35 mile wide area separating balanced communities, and are tempted Dallas and Fort Worth. A 4,500 acre new to zone unwisely to maximize their im- town, Flower Mound, has been con- mediate revenue needs. A disporportion- structed jus t north of the Airport's 17,000 ate amount of land has been zoned for acres. Speculation in land prior to the commercial use, and much too little for 59 parks and other open space. In many commercial air traffic expanded, noise communities, the airport itself removed and air pollution impacts in these local large amounts of. land from the tax base. areas were tolerable. Since then, local While a great deal of land has been community dissatisfaction with airport zoned for high density use, it does not operations has risen. Simultaneously, all lie along planned transportation cor- many airports have increased their opera- ridors. Local roads are as yet inadequate tions and expanded their runways to ac- to serve these areas efficiently, and the commodate bigger planes, compounding unplanned dispersed pattern of develop- the problem. ment makes the contemplated develop- While studies have differed over ment of a rail rapid transit system an the impact of airports on local land inefficient solution to transportation values, residents fear that their proper- needs. ties are devalued relative to the rest of In short, for all the economic bene- the region. They feel locked in because fits the Dallas/Fort Worth Airport has they often cannot move. The cost of re- provided already, it has created many developing entire impact areas to com- long range problems for successful re- patible land uses is a tremendous under- gional development. While the attempt taking that cities usually cannot afford. to prevent development on the most Tax relief to area residents to compen- noise-affected areas by including them sate them. for their economic, environ- within the airport boundary showed mental, and psychological burden has vision, more effort could have been made been suggested, but is not really a to assist compatible. development around solution. the site. The second obstacle to compatible Airports have far-reaching irn I Pacts land use seems paradoxically opposite to on the economic life of communities, as the first; it is the competition among the experience at Dallas/Ft. Worth points towns abutting the large airport land out. They may also impose serious ad- holdings for airport-associated develop- verse impacts on adjoining areas because ment. Some commercial and industrial of noise, air pollution, and commercial facitities making extensive use of air growth. Certain land uses are compatible transportation for deliveries will try to with airport impact zones: noise-proofed locate next to the airfield. Hotels, motels, offices-, hotels, retail outlets, industries, car rental offices and other commercial and certain indoor sport facilities are the undertakings serving the traveling public main ones. Other land uses are incom- are also willing to pay high premiums for patible; these include schools, hospitals, airport sites. However, the market for churches, parks and all types of housing. passenger service sites is small, and is It is very difficult to redevelop land usually confined inside airport sites and in the airport environs to compatible- along access roads; also competition to uses for two basic reasons. First, most air- sell land to the few airport-related manu- ports are located within at least partially facturing firms is -often so great that land developed areas, where the existing mix prices in nearby industrial zones are not of land uses may be incompatible with it- significantly different from those of other self as well as with the airport. Since they industrial land in the region. As is true are employment centers, airports often near the Dallas airport, much more land have created significant concentrations of is likely to be zoned industrial than can nearby employee housing. Until the late be sold for industrial purposes. 60 fifties, when jets were introduced and The most powerful way to control land use around airports, provided the land is presently vacant, seems to be ad- P-1 @7. vance land acquisition. If development already exists, land must be purchased by a redevelopment authority, and the structures demolished. The property must then be resold (with restrictive use covenants), or leased to industry or com- merce, so that the airport authority con- trols nearby development instead of just forcing it further away. Since commercial and industrial land usually has a low rate of absorption, revenues for sale or lease will be slow coming in. ARN_ Industrial and Commercial Centers Industrial and commercial centers have the potential to induce urbaniza- water, to leave the town. This exodus tion, as was clearly demonstrated in the removed the primary market for many Green River Valley outside of Seattle, of the.local farmers, dealing them Washington, in the late 1960's. another blow. In 19651 the Boeing Company chose The Boeing plant, in effect, has to locate a new.aerO'space center, totally 'committed at least five square miles of isolated from any existing urban devel- rural land to urban uses. As of 1975, the opment, in the, middle of a@ cow pasture level of development has not reached the in the. town of Kent. It then requested saturation levels implicit in the expen- that Kent provide a water distribution sive infrastructure so far installed, but system. Ostensibly to optimize the eco- land in:prime areas of Kent is now sell- n,omics of water distribution, Kent de- ingat $20,000- per acre. Whether this is signed its system to service approxi- good or bad cannot be concluded; it is, mately five square miles of land, and though, a very major change brought declared a Limited Improvement Dis;- about by the Boeing plant and decisions trict assessment of $1,000 per acre. This related to it. assessment was a serious blowto local American urban growth is continu- farmers, who had no need for the level ing to decentralize away from major of service provided. cities. The trend in residential land use In 1967, the need to provide waste continues in the- direction of low density, collection and treatment for the Boeing but. now it is supported by major indus- plant encouraged Kent to join the re- - trial and commercial centers within the gional sewer district. Major sewers were suburbs themselves. Where commuting built, resulting in an additional assess- to jobs in the central city was once the ment to land in the Limited Improve- rule, plants like Boeing's now tend to ment District of $300 per acre. Simul- locate in fringe suburban areas. Even taneously, the charge for sewer service firms with high clerical employment, (based on the amount of water used) was increased, forcing all the local canning (above) Bell Telephone Laboratories, Holmdel, New Jersey, 1966. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculhire, Soil Conserva- industries, which used large amounts of tion Service. 61 effects. As seen in the Boeing example, V@ the effects need not be based on realized economic benefits from these plants: the town of Kent installed *infrastructure for 0" expected growth which still has not oc- -4-1 MI- @Z I'l- curred ten years later. But Boeing's inde- 7_- _41er 4. pendent decision to build the plant forced the town of Kent into a number of decisions it would, not. otherwise have made, and committed it to urbanize a prime agricultural area. Other employment centers have had major- effects: the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida stimulated.- ex tensive development of Brevard.,- County during the 1960's; the Atomic - Energy Commission and the National Bureau of Standards along the interstate such as m*surance companies, may locate highway north of Washington, D.C. in the suburbs away from mass transit. have stimulated development along a Similarly, regional shopping malls are 60-mile corridor leading to Frederick, supplanting local shopping centers, of- Maryland. fering a wider selection of goods plus The negative effects of employment single trip convenience. The location of centers on local communities are intrin- these industrial and commercial centers sically less severe from an economic in undeveloped areas has induced addi- point of view than other infrastructure tional urbanization. facilities we have reviewed. Economi- One example is the small shopping cally, they have many positive impacts, center located outside a rural town. increasing local employment and local Because of the high use and convenience tax revenues, at least if the community of automobiles in uncongested rural does not overreact like Kent. The en- areas, these shopping centers can prof- vironmental and social impacts, how- itably locate away from built up areas, ever, are still of concern. They offer new facilities and easy park- The environmental impacts of em- ing, so they often take much business ployment centers mainly come from the away from existing establishments in familiar sprawl development patterns town. @ that they induce. Industrial plants such But in turn these centers can induce as Boeing's leapfrog to outlying areas to a strip of commercial development con- take advantage of low land prices, vir- necting them to the town; other new tually committing the intervening land businesses take advantage of the com- to extensive low density infill. develop- paratively greater traffic on the access ment. route to the shopping center, causing The social impacts of these land use further erosion of the town's original change may be severe; the community's businesses and the reinforcement of whole employment base may shift to sprawled out development. Larger industrial or commercial left ) Shopping center development, Newton, Massachu- 62 centers have commensurately greater setts, 1966. to allow the designers to control land use ORLANDO and access around the 100 acre theme park. The Reedy Creek Improvement District was authorized by Florida to give the Disney World developers authority to govern and control the larger area. This careful planning was only par- WALT DISNEY WORLD tially effective. As planned, access to the park is through undeveloped land on Par Disney's property. The company has room for its resort hotels, golf courses, airports (a STOL port, and a planned jet- port), and new town. But the plan did INDUCED not control the land use impacts of the DEVELOPMENT park on the regional level. N 0 5 mi. Interstate 4 from Orlando to Tampa provides access to the park. Over 20,000 new occupations, and population growth motel rooms have been constructed may be dramatic. along 1-4 since 1970. Leapfrogging apart- Controls on the effects of new em- ment developments were built behind ployment centers must address both the the motels on the sites of old orange location of new center (to reduce leap- groves. frogging), and the configuration of the Two other major theme parks are secondary development which follows nearby - Sea World (with porpoises, it. Controls on facility location are inevit- whales, aquariums, and so forth) five ably controversial: communities do not miles north, and Circus World (planned want to jeopardize potential new tax to be another giant park like Disney revenue and employment by imposing World, and the new winter home of the unpalatable restriction. Controls on Ringling Brothers Barnum and Bailey secondary development are less contro- Circus) five miles south. To a business versial. serving tourists, the advantages of locat- ing in this area are clear. Recreation and Entertainment Facilities . As a result of the induced develop- ment, 14 may have to be widened to When Disney World was planned handle the added traffic, ground water for Florida, the designers decided 'to cor- pollution is a major problem, and the rect a mistake made in Disneyland. provision of services to the unincorpo- Disneyland only included the imme- rated areas is expensive and difficult. diate park area, but its large number of The original efforts to control land use visitors attracted further development by buying adjacent land were reason- which surrounded the park. The Disney able, but the boom town growth of the Corporation had no control over this - Orlando region and the lack of land use development, and could neither require control outside Disney's site were unex- compatible uses nor receive income gen- pected and have to some extent defeated erated in part because of the existence the original intentions. of Disneyland. Walt Disney World was ( left ) Orlando[Walt Disney World area. Development shown planned to be much larger (27,000 acres) near all interchanges along 1-4. 03 above. Since they often occur in rural areas, they can transform (or even con- trol) the local economy. Seasonal facil- 80AT k'AIIP ities may lead to summer populations several times larger than winter popula- tions, or vice versa. 4i Many recreation areas occur in en- vironmentally sensitive areas, such as lakes, rivers, coastal zones, and moun- tain tops. Development of these areas even destroy the natural amenities may have serious ecological impacts, and may which produce recreational value. Control of these facilities is difficult. They tend to be built in rural areas which have no experience with land use con- trols. The positive impacts - tourist L dollars - are stressed, and the fact that Not all parks and recreation facilities these dollars may go to new residents are like Disney World. Few are built in and that service costs may rise is ignored. boom regions like Orlando. But other Effective control may be impossible ex- recreation facilities induce similar devel- cept at the state level, although local opment in service industries, housing goverru-nents still have the authority and and other recreation. Service industries responsibility to analyze carefully the are most significant. Tourists need res- potential impacts of individual projects taurants, lodging, transportation and which are proposed. Many recent land other services, and these will grow up use controls focus on developments af- around a recreation investment, whether fecting land use beyond the local jurisdic- it is a ski slope, a park, an artificial lake tion in which they are built. These de- or an historic village. velopments and their impacts should be Housing comes next. Part of the reviewed by state or regional land use housing will be second homes for the agencies before construction begins. skiers, fishermen, or others who use the area. If the recreation area is big, housing Mining and Energy Fadlities will have to be built for employees work- ing in local service industries. Sweetwater County, Wyoming used Other recreation investments may to be a railroad and coal mining town. follow the initial one. Disney World has It even had limited agriculture and been joined by Sea World, and may be sheep grazing, though the local climate followed by Circus World as well. A suc- is dry. cessful ski area may expand or be joined After World War II Sweetwater suf- by others on nearby mountains. A park fered from the national decline of rail- may be surrounded by animal farms, roading. Seventeen hundred Sweetwater dude ranches, or other tourist attrac- residents were employed by the rail- tions. All combine to increase the amount roads in 1950; only 300 are so employed of regional development. now. In the sixties, however, growth The impacts of these developments ( left ) Lake Sebago, Maine. A multi-purpose recreation area 64 can be as large as any of those discussed that has induced substantial development nearby. picked up, starting with the construction MOUNTAIN STATES of the large Flaming Gorge Dam. Trona mining (which produces industrial soda NORTH DAKOTA ash) steadily grew and oil and gas pro- MONTANA duction expanded. By 1973 Sweetwater was in the throes of an indus trial boom. Its mining SOUTH DAKOTA projects were augmented by the con- struction of the Jim Bridger Power Plant, WYOMING which required more labor and boosted the population growth rate to an annual M&N 4 e111 co ound rate of 20%. Construction UTAH I mp 41"011111 employment was 400 in 1970; in 1975 it is COLORADO MA OR ENERGY more than 4800 and growing. Mining ACTIVITY AREAS employment has gone from 1500 to 2600 in the same period. Total population in 1970 was about 18,000; today it is 37,000; projections for the early 1980's go as high as 89,000. Energy development generally re- This unprecedented growth has quires vast construction/extraction pro- caused a crisis. It has degraded the qual- grams, but these programs last only a ity of life for county residents, reduced limited number of years in a specific productivity and caused higher costs in place. Employment booms and declines. industry, and caused a breakdown in The employment boom is highly disrup7 local government's ability to provide tive, since it upsets local wage structures public services. There is insufficient in unrelated occupations such as agricul- housing, and unplanned mobile home ture. Agriculture is especially vulnerable neighborhoods are proliferating outside in strip mining regions, where direct con- city limits to avoid wastewater control flict exists between surfaces uses (agri- regulations. The number of doctors per culture and ranching) and the extraction capita has fallen to one doctor per 3,700 of minerals below. Furthermore, local residents and rates of alcoholism, workers have a difficult time finding new broken homes, and suicides are up. employment in construction work since Schools are insufficient, and retail and they seldom have the necessary skills; service facilities lag behind demand. In many new jobs are taken by outside. coming years, the problems are expected labor, often producing bitter social con- to get worse rather than better since the flict and even raising unemployment industrial firms have made irrevocable during construction. commitments to expanded production, When the boom is over, unemploy- and increased coal mining is likely to ment becomes a major problem. After the occur as a further response to national power plant is built or the local coal energy needs. seams exhausted, many workers leave; The United States is intent upon the original residents and some new increasing its energy self-sufficiency and people remain, but the previous employ- it has become an explicit national policy ment structure often cannot be revived to to encourage increased exploitation of support them. native fuel supplies. We may expect more boom towns like Sweetwater. (above) Source: U.S. Environmental Protecfion Agency. 65 The major companies which embark a dose reading of the Corps' figures on these projects are attracted to the local revealed that two-thirds of these bene- area by physical resources and to a cer- fits were for new industry which would tain extent are captive to the local town. develop because of the flood protection. In several communities which have ab- Many of the valley residents wanted sorbed major power plants, local proper- neither the dam nor the industry. ty taxes have been eliminated while rela- Highways and sewers have been tively luxurious community facilities built since the dam, and urbanization have been funded at company expense. has followed. Without the flood control In the long term this windfall may have profitable development would not have drawbacks. The town may act as a mag- been possible, and the area might still net for retired elderly people or for sec- be farms. ond home development. Thus, many The dam did not even solve all the community residents will have low in- flooding problems. The soils in parts of comes or will contribute to the local the area are relatively impervious and economy only on a seasonal basis. drainage is slow; ponds form for a time Communities have a difficult time after the snow melts. In the past, some controlling the impacts of mining and farmers have built culverts or ditches to energy-related infrastructure. These in- drain their land. The Soil Conservation dustries locate in rural areas, where the Service wants to build $36 million worth prospect of fast wealth is often irre- of channels to solve the ponding prob- sistible; the inevitable negative impacts lem, which presently costs $325,000 in are ignored. Even if the potential nega- damages per year. Major new develop- tive impacts are recognized, the com- ment would be required to make this munities often do not have the resources investment economically reasonable. to deal with them, because this requires This project may or may not get huge public infrastructure investments built. The area is taking initial steps before the development occurs and be- towards comprehensive planning and fore there are any tax revenues from the control of development, and these ef- new construction. Some local groups, forts should start with decisions about however, have been able to exert an flood management infrastructure. influence over large developments, Flood control dams, stream chan- forcing the incoming firms to make pro- nelizations, levees, and similar invest- visions to abate the major economic and ments can have a major impact on devel- environmental impacts typical of the opment by reducing the damage frorn projects concerned. floods in an area. In the Green River basin, flood control was the first infra- Dams and Flood Control Facilities structure required for development, and further flood control investments will Before 1955, the Green River Valley lead to more urbanization. near Seattle was mostly farmland. The Elimination of flood hazards typi- river frequently flooded, leaving rich cally has important effects on develop- alluvial soils for farming but also creat- ment. Dams allow development in flood ing a small amount of flood damage. In plains with less risk, especially when 1955 the Corps of Engineers built the federal insurance and disaster relief pro- Howard Hansen Dam to remove this grams compensate residents for losses 11 problem," and projected annual bene- should a flood ever occur. Improved 66 fits of about a million dollars. However, drainage of wetlands lets them be de- veloped without major problems in base- Further Sources ment flooding, lawn upkeep, or sewer infiltration. Many of the sources about land de- Protected flood plains and drained velopment, such as those listed in Chap- wetlands are very attractive sites for de- ter 1, relate here as well. The major velopment. Flood plain landis generally examples and experiences were drawn flat and requires little clearing. Drained from several sources. marshland may require some fill and The Dallas/Fort Worth example was grading, but this is relatively inexpen- based on past work at USR&E for the sive. In either case, the infrastructure project "Development of Airport Legis- creates ideal land for low cost develop- lative Innovations", done for the Federal ment and developers are attracted. Aviation Administration. Disney Worl& There are both economic and envi- was described based on articles in Archi- ronmental impacts from flood area devel- tectural Forum by Peter Blake and in the opment. Most of the benefits from dams Orlando Sentinel. The Green River and are in protection from flood damage. Boeing case studies came from unpub- However, should an uncontrollable flood lished research in the Green River area, ever occur, and ultimately it will, damage and the Sweetwater material from the in developed flood plains will be very Denver.Research Institute study, A costly. Dams and channels also tend to fill Growth Management Case Study: Sweet- up with silt, and expensive maintenance water County, Wyoming. . t @ may be required. Sewers in areas with The annual reports of the Council on high water tables may receive a great deal Environmental Quality (1971 to 1975) also of infiltration, lowering effective plant contain a great deal of useful information capacity._ Development of wetlands can on growth and land use land their reports greatly reduce the groundwater available on leisure home developments are useful or change its quality, which may damage in analyzing the potential impacts of community water supplies. recreational developments. Clawson's Control of the impacts of flood in- book on The Economics of Outdoor Recrea- vestments can be very simple. If the dam tion is a classic and probably the best first is not built, there will be no maintenance source for ideas on predicting demand. costs, and though it will still be necessary There are few classic works on energy to control development in the flood facility impacts, flood control and devel- plain, the demand for development will opment, or rural employment growth. be greatly @redl'uced. Flood plains and There are many sources, but little good wetlands are sensitive areas, and the synthesis has been done. The best first zoning of flood plains to allow only suit- step is probably to start with a good bib- able types of development is a proven hography and a research library, and technique. unearth the many sources available. Since flood controls have extensive and essentially irreversible conse- quences, they should be undertaken with care. The assumptions, made in calculat- ing -the net benefits expected should be ..consistent with community desires and plans for growth. 67 Appen- dix General Data and Research Sources Council of Planning Librarians, Box ??9 Data Sources Monticello, Illinois, 61856 CPL Bibliographies are available on a The National Environmental Policy large number of topics related to Plan- Act (N-EPA) requires environmental im- ning, land use, and the environment.@ pact statements to be prepared for most Write for a -list. projects having federal involvement, and e. Superintendent of Documents, many states have similar requirements Government 'Printing Office, for large projects. The EIS usually con- Washington, DC 20402 tains extensive data on the@ investment' The'source for non-technical government itself, and projections of population,@ -publications and,'@rna`ny technical. ones. employment, and land use. It may be a Bra ,nch -go-veriiinciAt bookstores are in major source of inforination and maps. twenty-five majiorcities, and there is a Regional planning agencies are monthly catalog available. another good source for mapsl projec- National Technical Information tions, and information about local and.. Service, Springfield, Virginia, 22161 regional growth. NTIS is the major source for technical The Chamber of Commerce may publications developed by or for the have infonnation on commercial and govemment and publishes comprehen- industrial construction trends. sive monthly and annual indices contain- State agencies such as the State Geo- ing abstracts and organized by subject, logic Surveys will know about soil types, author, issuing agency, etc. Most useful flooding, marshes, and sensitive areas reports are in a publications (PB) series where major environmental impacts are (with order numbers like PB-235-257), likely. Local conservation commissions and response is quicker if you order by or citizen groups may also have these number rather than by title. Response is data, and the U.S. Geologic Survey and also quicker if payment is enclosed - mi- Soil Conservation Service may be crofiche copies are all $2.25 (printed copy helpful. prices depend on the number of pages). Another resource often left un- Write them for further information. tapped is the academic community. Col- * The Transportation Research Board lege faculties may know what research publishes reports about highways, air- has been done and may be able to sug- ports, and mass transit. Write to them at gest simple ways to answer important 2001 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Wash- questions. There may also be students ington, D.C., 20418. who would like to work on analyses for * The Environmental Protection course credits. Agency has a central library in Washing- ton and regional libraries in Boston, New Research Sources - Reports York, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Kansas City, Denver, San Fran- There is a wealth of published mate- cisco and Seattle. They have a wealth of rial on almost any land use question. material, and the libraries can borrow Some of these were described in each from each other as needed. chapter; others are likely to be suggested e The Council on Environmental by people talked to or from bibliogra- Quality, which funded this work, has phies in the references. Here are a few also supported a number of other studies 68 useful addresses and pointers. on land use. CEQ publishes an annual report, with a section concerned with land use management and public invest- ment. They are located at 722 Jackson Place, N.W., Washington, DC 20006. * If you need the address or source for any government agency or publication, try your Congressman. 69 Bibliography Blake, Peter, 'Walt Disney World," Denver, 1974. Architectural Forum, Vol. 136, No. 6, June Heenan, G.W. "The Economic Effect 1972: pp. 24-41. of Rapid Transit on Real Estate Develop- Bone, J.H., Economic Impact of Massa- ment,". Appraisal Journal, Vol. 36, No. 4, chusetts Route 128, Department of Civil April 1968, pp. 212 224. Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Kalauskas, C. The Impact of Rail Rapid Technology, Cambridge, Mass, 1958. Transit Stations on Multi-Family Housing, Boyce, D.E., B. Allen, R.R. Mudge, Graduate School of Design, Harvard P.B. Slater, and A.M. Isserman, Impact University, 1974. of Rapid Transit on Suburban Residential Lee, Douglas B. et al. BART II Land Property Values and Land Development, Use Studies, Washington: NTIS 1973. Regional Science Department, Univer- (vol. 1: Econometric Studies, PB-236 741; sity of Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, 1972. vol. 2: Key Informant Interviews, PB-236 Burchell, R. and D. Listokin. Future 742; vol. 3: Case Studies, PB-236 743; vol. Land Use: Energy, Environmental, and Legal 4: Market Street Study, PB-236 744; vol. Constraints, Center for Urban Policy Re- 5: Pilot Land Use Information System, search, Rutgers University, New Bruns- PB-236 745; vol 6; Irnpacts of BART on wick, NJ, 1975. Prices of Single Family Residences, Clawson, M. The Economics of Out- PB-236 746). door Recreation, Baltimore: The Johns Lemly, J.H. Expressway Influence on Hopkins Press for Resources for the Land Use, Georgia State College, Atlanta, Future, 1966. 1958. Clawson, M. Suburban Land Conver- Libicki, M.C. "Land Use Impacts of sion in the United States, Baltimore: The Major Transit Improvements," Office Johns Hopkins Press for Resources for of Transportation Planning Analysis, the Future, 1971. U.S. Department of Transportation, Council on Environmental Quality, Washington, 1975. Environmental Quality (1970, 1971, 1972, Lupo, A. et al, Rites of Way: The 1973, 1974, 1975), Annual Reports of the Politics of Transportation in Boston and the Council on Environmental Quality. U.S. City, Boston: Little Brown and Com- Washington: U.S. Government Printing pany, 1971. Office, yearly. Maiolo, J.R. (ed.) Highways and Com- Curtis, V. (ed.), Land Use and the munities, The Pennsylvania State Uni- Environment: An Anthology of Readings, versity, University Park, 1966. Washington: NTIS. 1973 (PB-225 521). McHarg, 1. Design With Nature, Environmental Impact Center, Inc. Garden City, N.J.: Doubleday, 1971. The Secondary Impacts of Sewers and High- Metropolitan Area Planning Coun- ways on Development: A Bibliography, EPA cil, South Shore Rail Rapid Transit exten- Report #600/5-75-002, January 1975. sion: Preliminary Impact Study, Boston, Gannon, C.A. and M.J. Dear. The 1973. Impact of Rail Rapid Transit Systems on Meyer, J., J. Kain, and M. Wohl, Commercial Office Development: The Case of The Urban Transportation Problem, Cam- ,the Philadelphia-Lindenwold Speed Line. bridge: Harvard University Press, 1965. Washington: NTIS, 1972 (PB-212 906). Muller, T. Fiscal Impacts of Land De- Gilmore, J.S. and M.K. Duff, A velopment, The Urban Institute, Wash- Growth Management Case Study: Sweet- ington, 1975. water County, Wyoming, Prepared for New Jersey Department of Commu- 70 Rocky Mountain Energy Company, nity Affairs, Secondary Impacts of Regional Sewerage Systems, Trenton, 1975. pared for the Federal Aviation Adminis- New Jersey State, County, and tration, U.S. Department of Transporta- Municipal Government Study Commis- tion, Washington, March 1975. Report sion, Housing and Suburbs: Fiscal and No. FAA-ASP-74-1. Social Impacts of Multifamily Development, Urban Systems Research & En- Trenton, 1974. gineering, Inc., Interceptor Sewers and Peterson, S.G. "Walking Distance to Suburban Sprawl, Washington: NTIS, Bus Stops in Washington, D.C. Resi- 1974. (PB-236 477 and PB-236 871). dential Areas," Traffic Engineering, Warner, S.B., Jr. Streetcar Suburbs: December 1969. The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870- Planning Environment Interna- 1900, New York: Atheneum, 1974. tional, Interim Guide for Environmental Assessment, HUD Field Office Edition, Prepared for U.S. Department of Hous- ing and Urban Development, Washing- ton, 1975. Real Estate Research Corporation, The Costs of Sprawl, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. (Stock Numbers 4111-00020 to 4111-00022). Reilly, W.K. (ed.) The Use of Land: A Citizen's Policy Guide to Urban Growth, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1973. Schaenman, P. and T. Muller, Mea- suring the Impacts of Land Development, The Urban Institute, Washington, 1974. Scott, R.W. (ed.) Management and Control of Growth: Issues, Techniques, Prob- lems, Trends (3 volumes), The Urban Land Institute, Washington, 1975. Sheldon, N.W. andR. Brandwein, The Economic and Social Impact of Invest- ments in Public Transit, Lexington: Heath Lexington Books, 1973. Sherman, L., B. Barber, and W. Kondo, 'Method for Measuring Metro- politan Accessibility," Transportation Research Record #499, Transportation Re- search Board, Washington, 1974. Spengler, E.T. Land Value in New York in Relation to Transit Facilities, New York: Columbia University Press, 1930. Stansbury, J. "Suburban Growth, A Case Study," Population Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 1, February 1972. Urban Systems Research & Engi- neering, Inc., "Buy Now, Fly Later: Land Banking for Airport Development," Pre- 71 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1976 0-599-558 HW7 tw . . . . . . . .Am it NK 12 "a' "Pit 3 6668 00002 9662