North Atlantic regional water resources study appendix U, coastal and estuarine areas

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Coastal Zone
Information
Center North Atlantic Regional
\\Water Resources Study

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Appendix U
Coastal and
Estuarine Areas

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"TIC REGIONAL *ATER RESOURCES STUDY COORDINATING COMMITTEE
MAY 1972
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COASTAL ZONE
property of CSC LibrarY INFORMATION CKENTF2

The North Atlantic Regional Water Resources (NAR) Study examined
a wide variety of water and related land resources, needs and devices
in formulating a broad, coordinated program to guide future resource
development and management in the North Atlantic Region. The Study
was authorized by the 1965 Water Resources Planning Act (PL 89-80)
and the 1965 Flood Control Act (PL 89-298), and carried out under
guidelines set by the Water Resources Council.

The recommended program and alternatives developed for the North
Atlantic Region were prepared under the direction of the NAR Study
Coordinating Committee, a partnership of resource planners represent-
ing some 25 Federal, regional and State agencies. The NAR Study
Report presents this program and the alternatives as a framework for
future action based on a planning period running through.2020, with
bench mark planning years of 1980 and 2000.

The planning partners focused on three major objectives -- Nat-
ional Income, Regional Development and Environmental Quality -- in
developing and documenting the information which decision-makers will
need for managing water and related land resources in the interest of
the people of the North Atlantic Region.

In addition to the NAR StudyMain Report and Annexes, there are
the following 22 Appendices:

A. History of Study
B. Economic Base
C. Climate, Meteorology and Hydrology
D* Geology and Ground Water
U .-S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOA E. Flood Damage Reduction and Water
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER Management for Major Rivers and
Coastal Areas
2234 S.OUTH HOBSON AVENUE. F. Upstream Flood Prevention and
CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413 Water Management
G. Land Use and Management
H. Minerals
I. Irrigation
Jo Land Drainage
K. Navigation
L. Water Quality and Pollutfon
M. outdoor Recreation
N. Visual and Cultural Environment
0. Fish and Wildlife
P. Power
Q. Erosion and Sedimentation
R. Water Supply
f-6 S. Legal and Institutional Environment
Kr- T. Plan Formulation
U. Coastal and Estuarine Areas
@J- V. Health Aspects

WATER RESOURCES NEEDS AND POTENTIALS FOR AN EXPANDING SOCIETY

App endix U
Coastal and
Estuarine Areas

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Prepared by

The' Center for the Environment and Man, Inc.
Hartford, Connecticut

for the

NORTH ATLANTIC REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES STUDY
COORDINATING COMMITTEE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List of Tables iv

List of Figures v

SYLLABUS U-1

INTRODUCTION

Approach u-3

Objective u-5

Methodology U-7

Coastal Uses U-14

Uses U- 14,

Inputs U-16

Framework U-16

Values of Coastal Uses U-19

National Defense U-19

Land Use U-21

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Coastal Problems U-23

Problem Types U-23,

Problem Locations U-23

Problems Selected for Special Analysis U@24

Planning and Management U-27

Need for Planning and Management U-27

Demand U-27

Limitations on the Resource Base U-27

Conflicts Between Coastal Zone Uses U-28

Conflicts Between Coastal and Inland Uses U-32

Non-market Factors U-35

Knowledge Gaps U-35

The Need for Decision u-36

Elements. of Planning and Management U-36

Organizational Considerations U-36

Legal Aspects U-40

SELECTED PROBLEMS
(Numbers in boxes refer to'page location)

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.Problems

Living resources 43' 44 46 46 46 47

Conservation of wetlands 49 50 '52 53 53 54

Non-living resources 5-6 NA NA NA NA NA

Wa@e r pollution 63 64 71 7. 3 74 77

Thermal effects 98 99 99 100 103 103

Solid wastes disposal 110 i10 112 112 112 113

Recreation 116 116 118 119 119 120

Marine transportation 122 124 127 131 131 137

Coastal erosion and 149 149 155 157 157 159
tidal flooding

"Solutions" include such considerations as solution identification;
costs and benefits, direct and indirect; organizational aspects,
.effectiveness, establish goals, d*e'termine sources and establish controls.
e
2/'"NA" means that the cov rage was integrated with the text, not
explicitly broken out.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

U-1 Persons Interviewed U-8

U-2 Commercial Fish Catch by States u-46

U-3 Estuarine-Related Fish Catch u-51

U-4 Extent of Coastal Wetlands in the North Atlantic U-53
Region

U-5 Characteristics of Some Common Metals of Concern u-67
in the Estuarine Environment

U-6 Some States in Developing Pollution Abatement U-79
Programs

U-7 New England Interstate Water Pollution Control U-81
Commission, Classification and Standards of
Quality for Coastal and Marine Waters

U-8 Water Hardness in Major Regional Cities U-90

U-9 Wastes Barged to Sea off Atlantic Coast in 1968 U-111

U-10 Unit Cost of Various Disposal Methods U-114

U-11 Component Commodities U-124

U-12 Total Non-Federal Coastal Port Development U-129
Expenditures to Date

U-13 Major North Atlantic Port Systems u-130

U-14 imports and Exports--Vessels and Air U-138

Shoreline Classification Summary U-155

U-16 Summary of General Policy of State Participation u-167
in Shore Protection Projects

U-17 Problem Profile in Subregion A U-169

U-18 Problem Profile in Subregion B U-179

U-19 Problem Profile in Subregion C U-203

U-20 Shoreline Ownership Pattern

U-21 Problem Profile in Subregion D U-2l9

Problem Prof ile in Subregions E and F U-233

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page

U-1 Subregions and Basins u-4

U-2 Coastal Framework U-17

U-3 General National Values of Major Coastal Uses U-18

U-4 Some Coastal Use Conflicts U-29

U-5 Oxygen Demanding Wastes--United States U-66

U-6 Present Classification of Narragansett Bay U-72
Water.Quality

U-7 Planned Improvement in Coastal Water Quality U-75
Greater New York Area

U-8 Coastal Dilution Benefit U-84

U-9 Nuclear Power Plants in the North Atlantic Region U-101

U -10 Projected Electric Generation.by Types of Mover U-102

U-11 Channel Depth Requirements and Some Major. U-126
Obstacles to Deepening

U-12 A Network Analysis of Dredging U-145

U-13 Hurricanes Affecting New England U-150

U-14 Some combined Climatological Effects U-153

U-15 Estimated Damages from Recurrence of Tidal Flood U-158
of Record

@.SYLLABUS

The broad objective toward which this appendix is written is to
maintain and improve the usefulness of the coastal zone to man for
now and.for the future. This objective is approached from the point
of view of planning and managing the wise use of the coastal water
and related land resources. Major coastal uses are seen as the
extraction of living and non-living resources, waste disposal, rec-
reation and aesthetics'. transportation, national defense and coastal
land use.

Many basic considerations j ustify special coastal planning and
management attention, particularly at the state level. Current and
predicted demand for coastal uses is exceptionally high. The coastal
zonets resource base is very limited. Significant conflicts abound
between coastal zone uses and between coastal and non-coastal uses,
especially inland uses. Non-market factors of indivisibilities,
externalities and irreversibilities are very prominent. Important
knowledge gaps exist. Decisions must be made. Basic responsi-
bilities are split in a variety of organizational patterns.

Proceeding from this overview nine major problem areas are
selected for special analysis,partially on the basis of numerous
interviews throughout the region. These problem areas are living
resources, conservation of wetlands, non-living resources, water
pollution, thermal effects, solid waste disposal, recreation, marine
transportation, and coastal erosion and tidal flooding. For each of
these problems, its nature, causes, and location and time character-
istics are outlined; activities affected by the problem are identi-
fied and general solutions are considered in the broad context of
planning and managing the region's water and related land resources.
Interrelations of the coastal zone with its neighbors, both inland
and oceanward are given special attention. Of the nine selected
problems, water pollution and the conservation of wetlands appear at
this time to be most prominantly recognized throughout the region.

Each area of the NAR coastal zone is reviewed in terms of its
physical and socio-economic characteristics, its major coastal uses
.@and problems, and its prospects and potentials. An overview of
@coastal erosion and tidal flooding is given for each area, since
only selected aspects of this subject are covered in other appen-
dices to the NAR Study.

U-1

U-2-.U

INTRODUCTION

APPROACH

The "coastal zone" is a geographic concept. It encompasses the
oceanward flank of the North Atlantic Region (NAR) for nearly 1000
miles. As such it cuts across many boundaries--geographic,.func-
tional and institutional. Geographically it includes all five of the
NAR's sub-regions and 19 of its 21 areas. Essentially all of the
NAR's functional appendices apply in substantial measure to it.
Institutionally, almost every Federal agency, all but two of the
region's 13 states .. and a. multitude of lower levels of government are
carrying out their particular roles within it, just as they do in
other geographic sectors.

Against such a backdrop,it becomes especially important to define
an approach to the coastal appendix. If the appendix is not to be all
things to all people-and thus lose meaningful focus--it must be
limited to an essential digestible core. The initial entry point
must be very broad, yet this entry point must lend itself to rapid
focus on those components where attention seems most profitable.

The coastal appendix seeks to meet these requirements by--

e Setting the stage with a broad, use-oriented objective and
examiningits meaning.

a Developing a structure of coastal uses and of inputs for
achieving these uses.

e Selecting some major problems in achieving these uses for
furtheranalysis.

o Defining and describing these selected problems and suggesting
possible solutions.

9 Applying the foregoing analysis to delineated,segments of the
coastal zone.

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Sub-region boundary
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OBJECTIVE

'As the initial starting point, the broad objective chosen was:

To maintain and improve the usefulness of the coastal.zone-to
dE man for now and for the future.

Like all broad objectives, each of its terms requires reflection
and understanding. It-is thus worth lingering at the outset on-these
terms, for the overall purpose of this appendix is to give substance.
and depth to them in a way whic h can facilitate decision.

992'To maintain and improve" implies value judgments. It is no -t.
always clear in which direction "improvement" lies. Current condi-,
tp'n-s.might be preferable. Thus a rational approach to the coastal
...,zone begins with the aspiration that it is possible to discern
whether improvement is desirable and in which direction it lies,
that people inputs will be necessary to assist in this discernment..

"Usefulness" can also vary with the point of view, again requir-
ing reflection on ways these different viewpoints can be identified,
considered and hopefully harmonized. "Usefulness" also introduces
the question, "what are the uses?" In response, a family of uses will.
be developed later to facilitate further analysis and provide a frame-
work helpful for articulating and distinguishing human values.

"Of the coastal zone" introduces the requirement to define at the
outset the geographic span of attention. No definition of the coastal
zone can satisfy all requirements,because the zone is a transition
from land to sea and the influence of their interface never entirely
disappears anyplace on earth. However, since the intensity of this
influence does diminish perceptively as one moves landward or seaward
from the shoreline, it is possible and useful to suggest limits which
will satisfy most requirements reasonably well. The definition
adopted is one which sacrifices slightly some environmentally desir-
able attributes in order to incorporate some important political
dimensions. As used herein the coastal zoue is defined as "that
geographic area bounded on its seaward side by.the outer limits of
state jurisdiction and on its landward side by the inland limits of
significant marine influences, as defined by the individual states."
The process of defining the inland limits and the difficulty in doing
so introduces a strong reminder that the coastal zone is not an
island unto itself. Concentration on solutions to coastal zone prob-T
lems must be tempered with an awareness of adjacent inland and
oceanic perspectives, if suboptimal solutions are to be avoided. Put
another way "the usefulness of the coastal zone to man" must be im-
proved within the context of a combined coastal-and-non-coastal per-
spective. One way of minimizing unintentional suboptimization is to
imbed the coastal zone analysis in a larger context, as is being done
in the overall NAR study.

"To man" is intended in its broadest sense. Certainly the -te'rni,,"
does give emphasis to satisfying the most obvious physical, social
and aesthetic needs of man such as his needs to supply himself with
food and materials and to enjoy himself. However, as used herein it
-is also intended to reflect the growing awareness that inadequate
concern for the natural environment as a whole can react unfavorably
and often surprisingly on man himself. Our concern for the eco-
system, for example, is founded on the belief that it is important
to man, even though the relationship is often indirect and poorly.
understood.

"For now and for the future" provides a reminder that both per-
spectives must be included. It implies a pervading need t-oforesee
the long-term consequences of current actions and yet still make- ' swi@:
11now" decisions, whether for action or postponement, when visibilit@y:
of the future is obscured. Predictive techniques need priority'atten-
tion, but equally important, people input is essential to answer-the
eternal question--"Do we know enough to proceed?"

u@67

METHODOLOGY

This appendix was prepared in six phases...

In the first phase non-structured letters were sent to a number
of knowledgeable people throughout the North Atlantic Region. The
addressees were selected to obtain a wide variety of informed opin-
ion about coastal problems in the region. Thirty-three replies
were received. The study of these replies was combined with staff
.experience to develop an initial system of coastal uses and prob-
lems along with a system of descriptors for describing the problems
and potential solutions.

The second phase was information acquisition. It was built
about personal interviews and literature research.

A list of interviewees was developed and screened to insure
balance in geographic areas, in major coastal uses and in institu-
tional levels to include Federal, state, local, academic and busi-
ness perspectives. Letters were sent to those selected to estab-
lish rapport and convey an initial understanding of the purpose of
the interview, the problems being considered and the tentative sys-
tem for describing these problems and their solutions. -Interview
sheets were developed to record and code the interviews systema-
tically. The response was gratifying. Deep appreciation is exten-1
ded to those who contributed so graciously to this undertaking.
Table U-1 is a list of 164 people formally interviewed. Many
others were seen or contacted by phone in the course of the work
and-contributed useful information and perspectives.

Material for literature review was obtained by the staff.
Many useful suggestions as to pertinent literature were obtained
from the interviewees. Each document was reviewed and those judged
most meaningful were summarized and coded.using the interview
sheets.

The third phase was analysis. Based upon a study of the
information acquired earlier, the system of uses was refined, a
final selection of problems was made and the list of descriptors
was consolidated and simplified. Information was extracted and
synthesized to provide a general problem overview and a unified
description and analysis of the selected problems. Interrelation-
ships with other aspects of water and related land resources in the
region as a whole were given special attention during this analy-
sis.

The fourth phase was the problem writeup. Each problem was
described in terms of its nature and severity, its causes, its
locational and time characteristics and the parties affected by
it. Type solutions were then identified and discussed in terms
of their direct and indirect effects and organizational implica-
tions.

U-7

In the fifth phase the coastal zone was divided into segments
using boundaries consistent with those established for the overall
NAR--�tudy. For each of these segments a brief summary was prepared
depicting its chief physical.and socio-economic characteristics of
coastal significance and its major coastal uses, problems, pros-
pects and potentials. For those problems considered to be of major
significancea brief discussion was provided to apply the earlier
general problem analysis to the particular coastal area.

In the sixth or -cleanup phase, drafts were reviewed by the
sponsor, an annotated bibliography was developed, and the appendix
was prepared in final form.

TABLE U-1
PERSONS INTERVIEWED
(Organizational affiliations were those at the time
of the interview.)

Anthony F. Abar - Department of Water Resources, Maryland
Mark Abelson - U.S. Department of the Interior
Richard Ackeley - New Jersey Soil Conservation Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Donald Adamq - Environmental Improvement Commission, Maine
Julian Alexander - Department of Conservation and Economic
Development, Virginia
Dr. Lewis M. Alexander - University of Rhode Island
Donald D. Allen - American Association of Port Authorities
Leo Allen State Senator Moakley's Office, Massachusetts
Paul A. Amundsen - American Association of Port Authori-
ties
Norris C. Andrews - Regional Planning Agency of South Cen-
tral Connecticut
Dr. William I. Aron - Smithsonian Institution
Elmore Ballard - Ballard Brothers Seafood Company
Nicholas L. Barbarossa - Department of Environmental Con-
serva@ion, New York
Joseph Barber - Department of Environmental Protection,
New Jersey
Ernest T. Bauer - Virginia Port Authority
Fred Beck - Callahan Mining Company
William S. Beller - Office of Marine Affairs, Department
of Interior
Derekson.Bennett - American Littoral Society
Bruce Birnhack - Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Richard J..,Bouchard - Department of Transporation
Capt. Fletcher W. Brown, Jr..- U.S. Coast Guard, Boston
Roy L. Brown - Department of Conservation and Economic
Development, Virginia

U-8

TABLE U-1 (cont'd)

Arthur W. Brownell.- Department of Natural Resources,,
Massachusetts
Thomas Bruha - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waltham
B. Calvin Burns - Prince William Engineering Company
Robert Burns - National Park Service
Walter E. Butler U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New
York
Francis Carboine Federal Aviation Administration
Richard Carpenter Southwest Regional Planning Agency,
Connecticut
D. J. Cederstrom. U.S. Geological Survey
Dr. Charles J. Cicchetti - Resources for the Future
John J. Coffey Chamber of Commerce of the United
States
Kenneth Compton Bureau.of Outdoor Recreation
Elbert Cox - Commission of Outdoor Recreation, Virginia
Dr. L. Eugene Cronin - Chesape ake Biological Laboratory
Robert Cyphers - Department of Environmental Protection,
New Jersey
David Damon Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Harold Davis Department of Shellfishing, Maryland
Dr. David Dean - Universit7 of Maine
Louis E.-DeCamp - Federal Water Quality-Administration
Richard S. De Turk - Tri-State Transportation Commission
Dr. John W. Devanney - Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology
Robert L. Dow Department of Sea.and Shore Fisheriesi
Maine
Calvin Dunwoody.- Department of Natural Resources, Rhode
Island
William J. Duddleson - The Conservat ion Foundation
Leslie Dyer - Maine Lobsterman's Association
Howard H. Eckles - Office of Marine Affairs, Department
of Interior
Commander N. P. Ensr ud - U.S. Coast Guard, Washington
Richard B. Ericson - Southeastern Connecticut Regional
Planning Agency
George Ferguson - U.S. Geological Survey
Arthur Flickinger - Soil Conservation Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture
Charles H. W. Foster New England Natural Resources
center
Ernest Friday - Department of Community Affairs, Rhode
Island
William Gannon U.S. Lines, Inc.
Lemuel Garrison National Park Service
Edson B. Gerks Connecticut Development Commission

U-9.

TABLE U-1 (c'ontd)

Boyd'H. Gibbons Council On Environmental Quality
Thomas R. Glenn, Jr. - Interstate Sanitation-Commission
Rear Admiral Robert W. Goehring - Chief of Staff, U.S.
Coast Guard, Washington
Dr. Morton Gorden - Development Sciences, Inc.
Malcolm Graff - New England River Basins Commission
Stanley V. Greiman - Connecticut River Estuary Regional
Planning Agency,,Connecticut
Dr. Walter J. Grey - NEMRIP, University of Rhode Island
Frank Grice - Department of Natural Resources,
Massachusetts
Richard E. Griffith.-,Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life
Jack D. Gunther - Connecticut Association of Conservation
Commissions
Stuart 0. Hale - University of Rhode Island
Mary Louise Hancock State Planning Office, New Hampshire
Roland Handley'- Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
R. J. Harding -Department of Environmental Conservation,
New York
Dr. William J. Hargis, Jr. Virginia Institute of Marine
Science
Capt. David Hart- Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Com-
mittee
Robert R. Haslam - Humble Oil and Refining Company
Capt. Francis D. Hayward - U.S. Coast Guard, Washington
John Healey - Southeastern Regional Planning and Economic
Development District, Massachusetts
Jean Hennessey - New Hampshire Charitable Fund
Milton T. Hickman - State Marine Res(--)urces Commission,
Virginia
Capt. Hollinshead - Eastern Sea Frontier, U.S. Navy
John Holsten - Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Joseph Ignazio U.S. Army Corps of Engineers*, Waltham
Edgar A. Imhoff University of Maine
William Jobin - Department of Natural Resources,
Massachusetts
Dale Jones - Department of Conservation and Economic
Development, Virginia
Dr. Galen Jones - University of New Hampshire
Norman Kapka - Department of Forests and Waters'. Penn-
sylvania
Dr. Robert Kay - National Council on Marine Resources and
Engineering Development
Dr. S. Russel Keim - National Academy of Engineering
Charles F. Kennedy - Department of Natural Re@sources,
Massachusetts

U-10

TABLE U-1 (cont'd)

Harold Kimball State Planning Office, New Hampshire
Dr. John A. Knauss - University of Rhode Island
Ralph F. Kresge U.S. Weather Bureau
Robert Krieger National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration
George Lamb - American Conservation Association, Inc.
Edward Lane - Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control, Delaware
Donald E. Lawyer Office of the Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army
Major Robert Lindsay U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New
York
Robert B. MacKinnon U.S. Corps of Engineers, Waltham
Burt MacLean - Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S.,
Army,
Howard J. Marsdon - Maritime Administration
Dr. Nelson.Marshall - University of Rhode Island
John.B. McAleer Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S.
Army
Janes T. McBroom Bureau of Sport Fisheries.and Wildlife
Frank McCann - Maine State Planning Office
William I. McDonald - Rhode Island Water Re'sources Board
Frank McGowan - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York
Everett McLeman - U.S . Public Health Service
Lester McNamara - Department of Environmental Protection,
New Jersey
James E. McShay - Maritime Administration, New York
'Roy Metzgar.- State Department of Planning, Maryland
Dr. J. A.,Mihursky - University of Maryland
F. W. Mohtonari - Department of Environmental,Conserva-
ti,on, New York
Susan Morrison Rhode Island Statewide Planning Program
Henry F. Munroe Rhode Island Water Resources Board
Kenneth Murdock U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Baltimore
James Murphy - U;S. Dredging Corporation
Mr. Nelson - Eastern Sea Frontier, U.S. Navy
Walter Newman New England River Basins Commission
Earl Nichols Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren - Environmental Science
Services Administration
Theodore Olcott - Port of New York Authority
F.'S. Oldham - Department of Forests and Waters, Penn-
sylvania
Lincoln R. Page - U.S. Geological Survey
F. L. Panuzio - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York
Neil Parker Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army
Capt. Forest Pease, Eastern SeaFrontier, U.S. Navy

U-11

TABLE U-1 (cont'd)

Capt. Carl F.. Pfeiffer - Maritime Administration, New York
Ron Poitras Maine State Planning Office
James Rankin Department of Environmental Protection, New
Jersey
Philip Savage Maine State Planning Office
Thorndike Saville - Coastal Engineering Research Center,
U.S. Army
Thomas Schrader - Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Harry Schwarz - U.S. Ar my Corps of Engineers, New York
Margaret Seeley - National Association of Counties
Sidney Shapiro -.Long Island State Park Commission
Dr. Lois K. Sharpe League of Women Voters of the United
States
John W. Sherman, III - U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
Paul Shore - Federal Power Commission
Fred Sieling - Maryland Natural Resources Management
Division
Joseph Smurda - Department of Health, Pennsylvania'
A. J. Somerville Department of Forests and Waters,
Pennsylvania
Mary B. Sowchuk Greater Bridgeport Planning Agency,
Connecticut.
Harry A. Steel - Water Resources Council
Charles,G. Stone U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New-York.
George S. Swarth -'.Department of Justice
Richard Symonds Office of State Planning, Connecticut
Julian Terr ant Commission of Outdoor.Recreation,
Virginia.
Jack Thompson - Governor,ls,Office, Rhode Island
.Joseph Toland - Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Joseph Truncer Department of Environmental Protection,
New Jersey
Robert1andivert Conservation Planners, Inc.
G. H. Van Gunt.en-- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York
Danial Varin.- Rhode.Island Statewide Planning Program
Blair Wakefield - Virginia Port Authority
Ian Walker - Stony Brook- Millstone Watershed Association,
New Jersey
David Wallace -,Department of Environmental Conservation,
New York
Clint Watson Department of Natural Resources,
Massachusetts
Eugene W. Weber - International Joint Commission, with
Canada
Mr. Weinstein - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York
James Wentz - Maritime Administration,'New York
Richard Weston New England Regional Commission

U-12

TABLE U-1 (cont'd)

LTC Edward M. Willis Coastal Engineering Center, U.S.
Army
Peter Wilson National Association of Engine and Boat
Manufacturers
Hall Winslow Tri-State Transportation Commission
Robert Wood Tri-State Transporation Commission

U-13

COASTAL USES

'As stated earlier, this appendix-is--directed toward,the@fulfill-
ment of a broad.objective,, "to maintain and improve the usefulness of
the coastal zone to man for 11 now and for the' future." In harmony with
the overall NAR study, planning for the preservation, use'and develop-
ment of the'zonels water and related'land resources is, seen as A
fundamental means of achieving this objective.'

To begin to add substance to the objective this sectioInprovides
an answer to the question--"What are the human uses of the-coastal
zone?" A family of coastal uses is formulated, general inputs man
must contribute to better achieve these uses are,outlined and the two
are organized into a framework useful for evaluating coastal problems.
Some of the market and non-market values associated with the coastal
uses are suggested. Lastly, two of the uses not explicitly developed
later in the problem analyses are discussed briefly.

Uses. As the first step in identifying coastal uses it is im-
portant to recognize that although almost all forms of human activity
can be found in the coastal zone, a fairly discernable few seem to be
prominently and directly influenced by "coastalness"--the influence
of the land-ocean interface.

On the basis of much structuring and restructuring and exposure
to many people of various levels of government and non-government, it
was concluded that man uses the coastal zone generally as follows:

He gets things he wants from it both living and non-living--
resource extraction.

@ He puts things into it which he does not want--resource return,
or more conventionally: wastedisp sal.

e He derives pleasure from it in the form of recreation and
aesthetic satisfaction--enjoymen

9 He uses it to facilitate the movement of things and people--
transportation.

It may be possible to associate almost any coastal use within
these 'four broad classifications. However, in doing so two common
use concepts would lose a visibility which might needlessly compli-
cate later analysis. These two are land use and national defense.

Purely speaking land use can probably be demonstrated to be a
complex mix of the four broad uses cited earlier. But by eliminating
land use, it would become exceedingly difficult to grapple with prob-
lems such as access and zoning. For the sake of 'workability, then)
the appendix sacrifices some possible analytical'
.purity and incor-
porates land use into its structure of uses. Whenever practicable,

U-14

however,, one of the first four uses is preferred. Thus recreational
land use is addressed primarily under recreation, not land use.

Similarly, the national defense use of the coastal zone can prob-
ably be ascribed principally to coastal .transportation aspects, either
to faciliate desired military movements or obstruct undesirable
hostile movements. However imbedding national defense primarily with-
in transportation would, like land use above, cause a cumbersome loss
of focus on a major use of the coastal zone, especially offshore.

Without belaboring the intermediate steps the ab'ove thoughts can
be translated into the following coherent system of uses:

RESOURCE EXTRACTION
Living resources
Animal
Fish--finfish, shellfish, etc.
Land animals
Other--birds, amphibians, etc.
Vegetable--kelp, eelgrass, etc.
Non-living resources
Solid materials--sand, gravel and other minerals
Liquid materials--oil, water, drugs, etc.
Gaseous materials
,Energy--tidal, wave forces, etc.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Solid wastes
Liquid wastes
Thermal wastes
Other wastes, e.g., radionuclides

'ENJOYMENT
Recreation
Primarily water-based
Water-contact sports
Sports fishing
Boating
Other
Primarily land-based--hunting, etc.
Aesthetic satisfaction
Sensually perceptible--scenic, cooling, fresh air
inhalation, etc.
Supraperceptible--general feeling of well-being

TRANSPORTATION
,Marine--harbors, channels, ports, terminals
Tand--"coastal highways and rail lines
Air--coastal airports

U_'

LAND USE
Private--primarily residential
Commercial
Industrial--coastally located primarily because of resource
extraction, waste disposal or transportation considerations
Other-"governmental, institutional, etc.

NATIONAL DEFENSE

It is easy,to break this system down into any desired level of
detail as indicated by the illustrative entries after the double
dashes (--).

The set of uses seems reasonably complete, but one could add if
he wished an additional category, "other uses," to-serve as a catch-
all. It was not found necessary to do so in this appendix.

Inputs. The uses outlined above may broadly be considered as
coastal outputs--what man gets out of.the coastal zone. To achieve
these outputs man must--

� Identify and locate them.

� Preserve them to insure.continued availability for the future.
olf their values are sufficiently important, increase thei r
plentifulness or quality over that available in nature. He might for
lexample, engage in mariculture (forming of the ocean) or improve a
channel or beach..
a Lastly, use, harvest or consume that which he has,located"J, pre-
served and enhanced abovei,

The overall objective chosen earlier contains a reminder 'to con-
sider the future if coastal uses are to be perpetuated. Man can do
this only by attention to,all four of the.above inputs. To focus on
the last, the attractive payoff, is shortsighted.

Framework. Integrating the above set of uses (outputs) with the
above set of activities (inputs) yields the framework of Figure U-2
shown here in condensed form without the numerous subuses..developed
earlier.

With some imagination the interrelationship of,many@activities
and uses can be-displayed on the framework - Thus,,.resear.ch and
coastal engineering are not shown as uses. They,are means to an end
their value lies ultimately in how they improve the coastal uses
through identification, preservation,-enhanpement and..harves,ting
these uses. They are thus brought out as useful tools-whic.h.sho,uld
be handy in resolving problems later. As afurther 1.1,1ustratip.nP
the exercise of a certain regulatory control may be seen as a means
to preserving a certain use..

16,

COASTAL FRAMEWORK

INPUT (ACTIVITIES)
OUTPUT (USES) Locate, Preserve, Enhance, se,1 harvest,
identj 1conser limprove consume
RESOURCE EXTRACTION

Living resources
Non-living resources
Energy

WASTE DISPOSAL

Solid

Liquid

Thermal

Other

ENJOYMENT

Recreation

Water-based

Land-based

Aesthetic satisfaction

TRANSPORTATION

Marine

Land

Air

LANDUSE

Private

Commercial

Industrial

Other

NATIONAL DEFENSE

SOURCE: Adapted from (31)

l/ The numbers in parentheses throughout this
appendix (APPENDIX U) refer to the annotated
bibliography found at the end of this appendix. FIGURE u-2

U-17

GENERAL NATIONAL VALUES OF MAJOR COASTAL USES

Direct market value

Estimated
annual'
Use value Geiieral basis of estimate Some non-market values
($ billi6n)'

Commercial $ 0.4 Dockside value of catch. Preservation of a way of life,
fishing Excludes sport fishing. providing some of man's animal
protein needs, international.
balance of payments.

Extraction $ 1.7 Primarily, value of Internal self sufficiency,
of non-living leases, drilling and international balance of
resources product as it crosses payments.
coastline. Most ($1.6
billion) is crude oil
and gas.

.Waste disposal $ 0.4 Primarily construction Environmental quality for
and operation of waste other uses, especially fishing
treatment facilities and recreation
within 50 miles of coast.
Probably grossly under-
stated.

Recreation & $ 3.9 Cost of food, lodging, Emotional well-being, physical
aesthetic transportation, gear, fitness, health.
satisfaction entrance fees, boats,
licenses, etc. Includes
sports fishing.

Transportation $11.3 Marine transportation Political relations with other
only. Includes port nations, national defense,
revenues plus freight economic well-being of major
revenues for portion of population centers, inter-
shipments which occur in national balance of payments.
coastal areas. Excludes
$2.2 billion in ship-
building.

National $ 1.3 Navy: Operation and International relations.
defense maintenance of coastal
transport and antisub-
marine warfare, con-
struction and operation
of coastal facilities.
Coast Guard: Operations
plus new facilities and
equipment.

Land use Not U.S. tradition of land owner-
estimated ship and individual rights.

NOTES:

1. Data are 1964 except transportation which is 1963.
2. Detailed comparisons among uses is impracticable. Note that bases of the esti-
mates differ significantly. Thus, if the cost of the processed and distributed
fish products were used, commercial fishing would show at about $1.1 billion.
In a somewhat similar manneri transportation shows only the coastal value added.
The total value of the produce moved is much higher, $41 billion.in 1968 for
example.
3. Land use valuesv unestimated herein because of definitional problems, are
probably very high. For example, the assessed valuation of new offshore land
created by landfill off downtown Manhattan is about $2 billion.
SOURCE: Economic values adopted from basic information reported in ( 9
U-18 FIGURE U-3

This framework can serve as a checklist in flagging water and
related land'resource actions which can maintain, improve or other-
wise affect coastal uses. For example, Column I (Locate, identify)
reminds the planner to evaluate such things as when and where the
use occurs, its intensity, and its visible and latent demand. Col-
umn 2 (Preserve, conserve) reminds the planner to examine what nat-
ural and human factors, current and predictable tend 'to degrade the
use and to examine what can be done about them. Column 3 (Enhance,
improve) causes the planner to reflect on what can be done to in-
crease the level of human satisfaction if this is desired. Column 4
(Use, harvest, consume) causes the planner to reflect on the effi-
ciency with which the use is being captured. Sometimes he might find
that the rate or method of capture is feeding back adversely on the
earlier input stages, such as preservation of the resource base. (A
case in point is fishing quotas.)

The framework can be useful in identifying conflicts between uses.
For example, to improve transportation channel dredging might be
necessary. The planner can then inquire systematically how this
activity could affect other uses and thus take appropriate precau-
tions or add perspective to a tradeoff decision.

Lastly,the framework can remind the planner that some of these
use requirements can be satisfied in slightly different form.else--
where. For example, outdoor recreation demand, say for boating, can
also be satisfied for certain classes of boats by inland resources.
An understanding of these relationships is important to comprehensive
coastal planning.

Values of Coastal Uses. It is not yet feasible to provide'a fully
acceptable assessment of the relative values of the major coastal
uses. Before that can be done well, much greater understanding of
human values and more precise and uniform definitions will be needed..
Notwithstanding these limitations, however, some good attempts have
been made to assign order-of-magnitude values to coastal uses. ''It is
not hard to find in professional literature, valid objections to
every one of these efforts. Figure U- 3 summarizes one study of
coastal values. It is presented not as an endorsement of its'
technical purity, but in the belief that some understanding of use
values is essential in a study like this, despite the-fact that t 'hese
valu'es have not reached a maturity which merits a near unanimous pro--
fessional endorsement. In reviewing Figure U- 3 attention is invited
to the general basis for each estimate. Changing these bases will,
of course, change the estimated values.

National Defense. It is beyond the scope of the overall NAR
study and this appendix to consider problems in improving the

U_ 19.

defensive characteristics of the region's coastal zone. However,
the impact of the national defense use upon other coastal uses is
rather significant especially in the fields of research, economic
impact, and the use of shorefront and offshore areas. Since they
are not developed elsewhere, each will be considered briefly below.

The Navy supports a substantial part of the Federal research
program. Its portion averaged more than a quarter of the total
Federal research program in the marine sciences during the period'
1968-1970. Only the marine sciences research program of the
National Science Foundation was larger and that by only a small
amount. When development is added to research, the Navy's share
increases to about half of the Federal total ( 59). Much of the
Navy's research has a strong actual or potential relationship to
non-defense oceanographic needs. The National Oceanographic Data-,
Center (NODC) helps make available to the non-defense community
unclassified oceanographic information spun off from the Navy's
defense-oriented research. Until recently, NODC was managed by
the Navy but was jointly funded by a number of Federal customer
agencies. With the establishment of the National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Agency in October 1970, it was transferred to the
U.S. Department of Commerce.

Coastal economic impacts of national defense in this region
are most prominent in the Narragansett Bay and Hampton Roads
areas. It has been estimated that, of the $340 million in local
value added by marine-related activities in Narragansett Bay in
1965, $180 million was attributed to marine military (164).

Some military-owned coastal locations have been released for
non-defense purposes in recent years. Examples include Governors
Island in New York Harbor and Fort Totten on Long Island Sound.
This trend might continue. Historically throughout this region
.coastal defense installations were developed by the Army along the
seaward approaches to major cities to protect these cities from
enemy attack. With evolution in the technology of warfare many of
these installations lost their original purpose and with it their-,-
need for a. coastal location. Many evolved into non-coastally re--,,,,
lated administrative centers. In recent years, a strong trend ha.s-.
developed to make these locations again available for non-military-
uses. Viewed historically, it may have been fortuitious that the
retention of these installations was prolonged until fairly recent
years, because it has presented some fresh options to coastal
decision-makers that possibly would not have been available had
these sites developed in a manner similar to adjacent coastal
areas. What is done with these options--preservation, use, devel-
opment for coastal or non-coastal purposes--is not a national de-
fense problem. Rather, it falls into the broad realm of coastal
zone planning and management. Although this possibility of some
fresh options is unique these days, it is important that the
possibility be kept in perspective.

U-20

0 First, only a very small part of the NAR's ocean front is cur.-
rently occuppied by the military--say something under one-half of
one percent. On the basis of information developed in communication
with the National Shoreline Study (136) only about 200 miles of the
4,700 miles of ocean front shorelines in the NAR are Federally
owned. All but about 30 of these 200 miles are in four states,
Massachusetts with nearly half, Virginia, Maine and Maryland. With-
in these four states the Federal oceanfront ownership consists al-
most entirely of non-defense facilities such as Assateague, Cape Cod
and Acadia National Seashores, the NASA facility in Wallops Island
and several wildlife preserves. Thus, although precise data on
military-owned ocean frontage are not available, the total is prob-
ably very small, maybe under one-half of one percent. Much of this
remainder is for naval and other facilities clearly requiring a
coastal location (136).

' Secondly, the decision to abandon a defense coastal facility
can have many important implications on the social and economic well-
being of the people who are employed by the installation or serve it;
and its employees. These transitional problems must be given care-
ful consideration; their magnitude in individual cases could conceiv-
ably override primarily coastal perspectives.

A substantial portion of the coastal waters in the NAR are to
varying degrees reserved for military purposes. However, upon exam-
ination, most of these large area restrictions turn out to be very
minor, e.g., a large maneuver or gunnery area reserved for defense
purposes on rare occasions, say a few days a year.

Like all occupants of the coast, the military is automatically
involved to varying degrees with most coastal problems such as those
associated with pollution. Because pollution from military reserva-
tions is much more closely related to the overall problem of pollu-
tion than it is to the military, such problems are integrated into
the overall subject of waste disposal rather than broken out for
separate treatment under national defense. The same approach ap-
plies to the military aspects of other coastal uses and problems.
As a result and because purely defense problems are outside the
scope of this study, no separate national defense problems were
selected for detailed analysis.

Land Use. An increasing number of coastal planners are conclud-
ing that the key to coastal planning and management is land use con-
trols. The purpose to which the waterfront is put exerts a dominant
influence on the use of the coastal zone especially oceanward of the
shoreline.

Acceptance of this conclusion does not necessarily carry with it
the license for coastal planners and managers to control coastal land
uses. In some places such as the New York Metropolitan area, the
urbanity of the situation might quite properly override its "coastal-
ness." Furthermore, it is not necessarily clear in all cases that
U-21

centralized planning and management ought to override historic,
local, market place, and individual mechanisms despite their im-
perfections.

The above thoughts are not to argue at this point either for
or against centralization of land use control. They are intended
to illustrate the need to guard against categorical simplifica-
tions. The degree to which land use controls are justified and
politically realistic can only be decided after a much deeper
probe into the overall problem of coastal planning and management
probablyat the level of an individual state. Because 'of the all-
purpose breadth of viewpoint for this regional study it, was de-
cided, with the exception of coastal erosion and flooding, not to
treat land use as a separate problem or series of problems. In-
stead it has been integrated into each use problem and into the
ove-_-a7.1 need for improved planning and management.

U-22

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

COASTAL PROBLEMS

Anything which interferes with the objective of improving the
usefulness of the 'coastal zone to man, for now and for the future,
may be considered a problem.

Problem Types. Two of the most common type problems arise from
natural limiting factors and from conflicts between human uses.

Natural limiting factors may or may not be controllable. Exam-
ples include seasonality, resource availability and storms.

In conflicts between human uses, the maximum attainment of one
use might prevent or greatly diminish the attainment'of another use.
Even the former case is not ipso facto "undesirable" if the effect
is localized and the total gain in human value exceeds the losses
in uses foregone or diminished. However, it often happens that the
dominant use excludes the other uses to the point where there is a
net loss.

To minimize use conflicts their existence must first be per-
ceived. Where the conflict cannot be eliminated, some sort of
social tradeoff is necessary based upon indepth knowledge of the
interrelationships between all major coastal uses and of the human
values attached to these uses.

Actually both types of problems are closely related, and they
do not, between them, embrace all possible problems, e.g., problems
in ascertaining the real values of peoples. Nevertheless, they do
form a handy sieve in broad investigations such as this to increase
the likelihood of getting the major difficulties to the foreground.

Problem Locations. As viewed in cross-section perpendicular to
Me coastline, problems tend to peak on the shoreline itself and
the areas immediately adjacent to it. Here are located the spawrL-
ing and nursery grounds for many species of fish, the most acces-
sible mineral assets, the areas most affected by waste disposal,
the beaches, marinas, aesthetic focal points, ports, airfields '
coastally-dependent defense installations and a host of residential,
commercial and industrial land values, which derive essential or
considerable values from their coastal location. Perhaps the most
significant of these many problems derive from competing land uses
along the coast and from the great sensitivity of living marine
resources to the effects of many other uses, especially land fill
and waste disposal.

Moving farther out to sea, problems tend to-be reduced by the
dilution effects of the ocean and its relative inaccessibility.
Inland, the coastal aspects of problems tend to fade into decreas-
ing significance, and merge with and become lost in the overall

U-23

problems of man. Many coastal problems, of course, such as pollu-
Lion and shoreline erosion, have sources farther inland or seaward,
but their coastal impacts are generally concentrated at or near the
coastline.

Problems along the length of the coast tend to peak at estua-
ries. Because they are mostly located at the mouths of rivers,
populations tend to peak there. Ports, land values and recrea-
tional concentrations are at their greatest there. Inflowing
rivers greatly influence the quantity and quality of their waters.
These urban related uses, although severe, are a customary part of
urban planning, inland as well as coastal. However, unique to the
coastal zone is the high weighted value of these same locations to
living resources. For the nation as a whole, it has been estimated
that about two-thirds of the commercial fish catch is "estuarine
dependent." This means that they spend a significant part of their
life cycle in estuaries, whether spawning, nursing or living there
or passing through. From a strictly economic point of view, it is
hard for the commercial fishing industry, with a total national
dockside value of $450 million annually, to stand up against urban
demands for "front" land which goes up as high as $3 million an
acre in downtown Manhattan.

Problems Selected for Special Analysis. To focus the analysis
on a digestible number of major coastal problems in the region,
the information acquired during the interviews and literature
review was evaluated under the framework. Judgments were made on
such things as: the relative severity of various problems,
natural limiting factors and interrelations between other water,
and related land resource uses both coastal and inland. The base
of some problems was broadened to include several previously
delineated as individual problems. other problems were subdivided
to provide the increased focus judged to be desirable. Thus "con-
servation of wetlands" was broken out from "living resources", to
which it primarily relates, in order to give wetlands additional
specific attention. For similar reasons, pollution was subdivided
into three sub-problems--water pollution, thermal effects and
solid waste disposal. Upon completion of this broad analysis, a
final list emerged. In the later analysis of selected problems,
therefore, the appendix will contain an extended consideration of
how to improve the usefulness of the coastal zone to man for now
and the future in the following nine selected areas:

Living resources
Conservation of wetlands
Non-living resources
Water pollution
Thermal effects
Solid waste disposal
Recreation
Marine transporation.
Coastal erosion and tidal flooding

U-24

An important influence in selecting these problems was the de-
gree of importance currently being attached to them in each of the
12 coastal states in this region. Based upon information from
many sources, especially the 164 interviews, a very general pattern
developed for the region as a whole. The importance being attached
to these problems could be ranked about in this order. For the
region as a whole, the importance being attached to problems.could
be ranked about in this order:

Major concern: Water pollution and wetlands conservation are
being considered as the most important problems. Following a
little behind are recreation and marine transporation. If the
rating reflected a "man on the street" reaction, as distinguished
from the informed opinion evaluated here, marine transportation
would drop substantially. So far it is a problem which has not
been conveyed to the public.

Significant concern: At midrange on the scale are problems of
living resources and of coastal erosion and tidal flooding. If
the ranking reflected a "man on the street" reaction, as distin-
guished from the informed opinion evaluated here, commercial fish-
ing would probably rise and coastal erosion and tidal flooding
would probably drop. Memories of losses in great tidal floods of
the past are short lived and probability predictions for the fut-
ure seem unreal. Except for shoreline property owners, the public
seems to attach little relationship to their enjoyment of the
shoreline and the effort to protect it and them.

Lesser concern: Although there are important local exceptions,
for the region as a whole coastal problems associated with thermal
dissipation, solid waste disposal, and the extraction of non-living
resources are currently being considered as less important than the
other six problems. Depending upon results from intensive current
research on the effects of thermal and solid waste disposal on
marine life, either of these two problems could move far up the
perception scale or drop out of sight. The extraction of non-
living resources, currently the lowest on the preception scale,
could rise significantly if oil and gas are extracted off Maine
and if the crisis some predict in the supply of sand and gravel is
satisfied offshore.

These gradations must be approached with care. They are not
based upon polling, nor have they been referred to the states for
reaction. To arrive at them, the impressions of those who did the
interviewing and literature search were recorded independently.
Where these impressions differed they were discussed jointly and a
concensus was reached. Tight definitions and rating systems were
avoided as well as sharp distinctions between-"major concern,"
11significant" and "relatively insignificant." 'Thus the results can
be considered only as general impressions. Others, particularly
those concentrating on specific aspects of the coastal zone will

U-25

undoubtedly have different opinions of where the concensus lies.
For the region as a whole a large cross section was interviewed,
well balanced geographically, functionally, and by institutional
levels--FederalP state, private, industrial, academic. The scope
of the study, however, did not make it feasible to maintain this
balance within each and every state. For example, substantial
coverage was given to solid waste in New York and almost none in
New Hampshire.

U-26

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Although the majority of those interviewed appeared to rank
the problems generally in the order just portrayed, the experts
themselves almost always generalized their answer at a higher
level; they viewed the need to improve coastal planning and manage.-
ment as the number one coastal problem in the NAR. A similar con-
clusion has apparently been reached at the national level where all
currently proposed bills focus principally upon improved planning
and management. Thus, the more knowledgeable people become on
coastal matters, the more they seem to recognize the large array
of uses and interactions which must be considered. Planning and
management attempts to provide this consideration.

Need for Planning and Manageme nt. Reasons why significant
planning and management effort may be required include: (1) the
extent of current and predictable demand for coastal use, (2)
limitations of the resource base, (3) conflicts between coastal
zone uses and between coastal zone and non-coastal zone uses, (4)
non-market factors implicit in coastal zone uses, (5) important
knowle'dge gaps, (6) the need for decisions, and (7) organizational
patterns of split or multiple responsibility. These problem roots
are by no means unique to the coastal zone, but individually and
collectively they seem to take on special importance when placed
in a coastal context.

Demand. Although the tidewater counties in the NAR contain
only a small portion of the region's land, they contain the major-
ity of the region's people. Their proportion of the region's in-
come is probably even higher; nationwide, 40% of the manufacturing
plants are in oceanic counties. In the first half of this century,
the leisure part of the Nation's time budget has been estimated to
have grown about 25% on a per capita basis and about 300% in total
(26). An even greater increase is estimated to have occurred in
outdoor recreation. Partially because of its proximity to popula-
tion centers, the coastal part of outdoor recreation has probably
grown even faster. Other major uses, especially waste disposal
.and transportation, have also grown rapidly.

The region's total population and per capita income are pro-
jected to double and quadruple respectively by 2020, thus produc-
ing an eightfold increase in personal income (Appendix B--Economic
Base). The coastal zone should maintain or even increase its pre-
sent proportion of these increases.

Limitiations on the Resource Base. The physical dimensions of
the coastal zone--its shoreline and its seaward and landward areas--
are generally fixed. Only limited parts of the zone are suitable
for certain uses. Locations suitable for major ports, for example,
are generally fixed. As vessel drafts in-crease, fewer locations
will be able to accommodate them. Only a-bout 27% of the region's
8600 miles of shoreline, including bayd and estuaries in addition
to ocean-frontage, are currently suitable for beaches, and public
access'..,

U-27

is currently limited to about 17% of the coast (136). The use of the
coastal zone for recreation is severely limited by seasonal tempera-
tures with virtually all bathing having to be accommodated in the
three summer months. Social factors tend to concentrate this summer
use mainly on weekends. The region's acreage of important estuarine
biological habitat has diminished physically by about 3% in the last
20 years primarily to accommodate urban and navigation needs (153).
Its usefulness for habitat has diminished even further due to changes
in water quality.

Conflicts Between Coastal Zone Uses. As might be expected, the
heavy growth of demand cited earlier has produced an increasing num-
ber of conflicts between alternative uses of the coastal zone. In
itself, this is not necessarily bad, as competition often serves to
determine the use-priority giving favor to those upon which society
places a bigher value. However, unless non-market values and external
effects are given proper weight, competition can produce solutions
which do not adequately represent the best overall, long-range inter-
ests of man.

Figure U- 4 outlines some of the conflicts which can occur between
different uses of the coastal zone. Three preliminary notes are in
order:

First, the list is intended to be reasonably comprehensive,, but
it is not complete. Its purpose is to illustrate the variety of use
conflicts coastal planning and management might consider. Detailed
development of each conflict is not feasible in this study.

Second, no judgments are intended as to who is the "guilty party"
and who is the "victim." Neither prior use, nor economic value, nor
non-market values nor any other.scheme, is by itself a complete basis
for judgment. Thus the prior utilization of an area for fishing (or
commercial development) and the environmental characteristics asso-
ciated with that use do not automatically put it in the preferred
position. Uses can and should change as society's values change. To
perceive and reflect these changing values is a major role-of plan-
ning and management.

Third,, the word "can" is used in describing each conflict to
imply that there are ways of minimizing or neutralizing the conflict
or even turning it about to produce a complementary effect. It is
beyond the scope of this analysis to present detailed means of doing
this, but some illustrative examples are suggested here and in the
analysis of other problems. In general,-such solutions are brought
about by new knowledge and methodology produced by research; and
alternatively, by studied tradeoffs based upon an awareness of broad
human value systems.

To simpli'fy.presentation.'the numerica I-entries in-Figur6-U-4 are
indexed to the following sub-paragraphs which briefly descfibe the

U-28

SOME COASTAL USE CONFLICTS
Major uses Resource Iextraction Resource return EnjoYment Transportation National I-and use
Living @waste disposal) Recreation Aesthetic defense
satisfaction

11, 12, 13,
Living 1. 2 3, 4. 5. 9. 9. 10. 19 14, 15, 16, 1.3 5. fi. 7. 19 17. 19 7, 13. 16.
Resource 6. 7. 19 19 18, 19
extraction
Non-living 6 6. 20 17

- - - - - - - - - ------------- --------------
Resource return 21 21 22
(waste disposal)

----------

C@
Recreation 15, 23 15. 23 6. 25 17 24. 26

Enjoyment ----------
Aesthetic 6. 27 24, 26
satisfaction

----------------- ------------

Transportation 17 30

--------- ------
----------

National defense
28

---------- ------------

Land use .26, 29
99

Notes-
See text for explanation of each conflict. Note that conflicts occur not on1v between the broad 'Use' catagories shown here,
but also within the 'Use' catagory; e.g., between one living resource and another.
Essentially every conflict has land use implications. These implications are considered as part of the conflict itself; e.g..
.P. between recreation and transportation. The term 'Land use' denotes uses considered as a whole rather than individualk
detailed components, e.g., industrial. commercial. or residential land use.

conflicts:

(1) Among its internal conflicts, commercial fishing is affected
by cverfishing.

(2) Runoff from insecticides, herbicides and agriculture and
industrial chemicals can affect fishing.

(3) Oil wells can become hazards to fishing fleets particularly
during periods of low visibility. This is especially true
if, as sorre maintain, fish concentrate about the wells.

(4) Extraction of mineral resources such as phosphates, sand
and gravel can diminish biological activity in the extrac-
tion areas.

(5) Fishing access can be limited in areas used for non-living
resource extraction and navigation.

(6) Large oil spills incident to oil extraction and navigation
can limit fishing, recreation and aesthetic satisfaction.

(7) Deposition of dredging acquired during non-living resource
extraction or navigation improvements or for fill for air-
ports and other land uses can destroy important wetlands.
In some places, however, the spoil is being used to provide
new wetlands or extend or improve those now in existence
(31

(8) Liquid, thermal, radiological and solid waste disposal can
ham. or destroy fish or make their inedible; however, in
some cases controlled disposal of Wastes might benefit fish.

(9) Uncontrolled or artificially-induced changes in sediment
loads can affect fish. For example, too much sediment can
smother bentbic life. In other places it can build up wet-
lands or provide desirable bottom conditions.

(10) Excess phosphorus and nitrogen,frequently a product of
waste disposal, can accelerate natural geological aging
processes (eutrophication), with fishing being a prominent
victim.

(11) Mass recreation can adversely affect fishing habitats or,
in the case of sports fishing, result in overfishing.

(12) Diking off salt water areas to create freshwater reserves
for water fowl can destroy salt water fish habitats.

u-30

(13) Mosquito control projects employing insecticides can harm
or kill fish or render them inedible. Drainage and diking
methods can have raixed results.

(14) The construction and operation of marinas in wetlands can
affect fish habitat.

(15) Pollution from boats c&n make shellfish inedible and can
limit recreation and aesthetic satisfaction.

(16) Hurricane protection and shoreline erosion works--developed
to protect life and recreational and land use values--can
produce undesirable ecological changes. However, it is
possible in many instances to minimize, eliminate or re-
verse these ecological side effects.

(17) Temporary, intermittant or permanent restricted defense
areas--imposed for reasons of safety, security or militar-
operations--can interfere with fishing, non-living resources
extraction, recreation and navigation. (Other byproducts
of national defense use such as waste disposal from coastal
installations and vessels can significantly affect coastal
uses. However, these conflicts are coded under the more
generic uses such as waste disposal and navigation.)

(18) The sensitivity of fish to environmental change in general
can impose significant inhibitions on land use in coastal
areas.

(19) AlTvost all uses can destroy undisturbed areas required as
base points for ecological research.

(20) The extraction of non-living resources such as oil, sand
and gravel can adversely affect shoreline aesthetics.

(21) Waste disposal can limit recreational use of the coastal
zone. If the disposal is significantly intense, it can
also affect aesthetic satisfaction to the extent that its
presence is perceived.

(22) The more severe forms of pollution, to the extent that they
affect other potential uses, can have varying adverse
effects on land use.

(23) High density recreation can destroy low density recreation
and aesthetic satisfaction.

(24) Private uses of the shoreline, especially residential use,
limit public access for recreational and aesthetic purposes.

U-31

(25) Pleasure craft can collide with shipping especially during
periods of low visibility and heavy traffic.

(26) Industrial and sometimes commercial uses of waterfront
property can limit recreational, aesthetic and residential
potential in the vicinity.

(27) Piers and adjacent port areas can present aesthetic blem-
ishes especially in locations of high public visibility.

(28) Some defense uses of coastal areas can affect or deny other
land use values. Currently, some defense installations
which no longer depend upon their coastal locations are
locating elsewhere. However, the social and economic im-
pacts of the relocation on coastal localities must be con-
sidered.

(29) Urban expansion often requires land which could be used for
coastally related uses. An'example is wetland filling on
the outskirts of New York City.

(30) Port facilities can occupy waterfront of extremely high
value for other purposes. An example is in Downtown
Manhattan.

Conflicts Between Coastal and Inland Uses. These conflicts can
be even more significant than the internal coastal conflicts. As
mentioned earlier, perhaps the most significant conflict stems from
considerations of the quantity, quality, time distribution and--in
the case of diversions--locational aspects of river and stream waters
as they enter the coastal zone. The legitimate requirements of
coastal users can differ significantly from the legitimate require-
ments of inland users. For example, fishermen in an estuary will
have a different idea of what the quantity and quality of an incoming
river's waters should be than people in an inland metropolis which
has limited funds for waste treatment and needs to withdraw waters
for many purposes. To minimize this problem there is a great need
for priority research to define more accurately the requirements of
coastal uses, especially fishing, and the incremental effects of
deviations from the ideal. Unless this knowledge is gained, major
costs in losses incurred or benefits foregone will continue to be
felt. The need for knowledgeable remedial actions and tradeoffs is
inescapable.

However, even without well defined requirements, the potential
interaction between inland and coastal activities must be explicitly
included in any planning process. The interactions can be evaluated
in terms of:

o Competitiveness--when an activity uses a resource and changes
its value for another use; such as waste disposal in a river which

U-32

in turn pollutes an estuary and diminishes its potential for rec.-
reation or fish and wildlife.

0 Complementarity--when one use increases the attainment of
another use; such as when thermal discharges from power plants are
used to improve oyster or lobster fishing.

0 Substitutability--when a use can be shifted from one re-
source to another; such as when the coastal waters are utilized
for power cooling in place of inland fresh water.

Using this competitive-complementary-substitutable scheme, some
general relationships between the inland and coastal uses of water
and related land resources can be suggeste-1. The full significalice
of these inter-relationships requires rather detailed quantifica--
tion and the consideration of site-specific conditions beyond the
scope of this outline -- and sometimes beyond the current state of
the art. As a reminder that these relationships are only sugges-
tive and not detailed, the word "can" will be used frequently to
connote "under some conditions." To facilitate compatibility wil:h
terminology employed throughout this appendix, the following com--
ments will be cast within the general use-catagorization framework
previously adopted for this appendix.

� Extraction of living resourcLs- (agriculture, fishing, forestry).
If these inland uses introduce significant quantities of pesti-
cides, herbicides, and unwanted or superfluous nutrients into
streams and rivers or if they divert significant quantities of
water to evapotranspiration and infiltration "losses," th,@_-y can
affect estuarine marine life adversely and thereby be classi--
fied as competitive to coastal uses. Activities undertaken in-
land to improve fish abundance in rivers that feed estuaries
are generally complementary to similar efforts in estuaries.
Increases in inland protein production, particularly animal
protein, can diminish the pressure for the extraction of marine
food fish and thereby be classified as substitutable.

� Extraction of non-living resources (mineral and petroleum min-
ing, consumptive use of surface and ground water for a variety
of purposes). When these activities pollute waters entering
estuaries through acid mine drainage and the introduction of
other unwanted chemicals, they can be competitive with the
extraction of living resources from estuaries. When sand,
gravel, petroleum and other non-living resources are extracted
inland, they can reduce pressures on the sane resources along;
the coast and thereby be considered substitutable.

Waste disposal (liquid, solid, thermal and other wastes).
When these wastes are deposited into water bodies which feed
estuaries, they can affect a number of coastal uses, especi-
ally the extraction of living resources, in a number of ways

U-33

brought out more fully in the later analyses of water pollu-
tion, thermal pollution and solid wastes disposal, and thus-be
considered competitive. However, when these wastes are trans-
mitted to coastal waters in a controlled way, they can some-
times benefit coastal uses, particularly the extra.--zion of
living resources, and thus be considered complementary in spec-
ial cases. Examples include thermal "enrichment" for fish
culture and possibly recreation, and the addition of desirable
quantities of "nutrients." When wastes are disposed of on land,
the practice can be considered to have a substitutable relation-
ship to coastal disposal. Examples are sanitary fills, cooling
ponds, and the disposal of liquid wastes on the land as a nut-
rient.

Recreation (water contact sports, boating, sports fishing,
hunting and passive pursuits including pleasure driving, view-
ing, picnicking, and a number of activities generally classi-
fiable as aesthetic appreciation). Few of these inland uses of
water and related land resources impact unfavorabl, upon coas-
tal uses. The main relationship here is one of substitutability:
these forms of inland recreation generally reduce recreational
pressures on the coast. In some cases, the inland-coastal re-
lationship is a complementary one. Examples are the relation-
ship between coastal waterfowl areas and iniand preserves and
the movement of pleasure craft between inland and coastal
waters.

Transportation (water, air and land-based). Here inland-
coastal relationships are especially complex. For example,
when inland waterways are improved for navigation, the activi-
ties generally complement marine transporation uses; but the
same activities can have a variety of effects on other coastal
uses depending primarily upon whether the changes in river
regimen adversely or beneficially impact upon marine life and
coastal erosion. When airports, roads and railways are loca-
ted inland instead of along the coast, or when pipelines are
used to transport petroleum products in lieu of shipping, the
inland-coastal relationship is primarily one of substitutability.
Railroad nets are often located to complement marine transpor-
tation. An example is the system joining the West Virginia coal
fields and the coal handling facilities at Hampton Roads,
Virginia.

Land use (residential, commercial, industria2 and defense deve-
lopments, open space and activities such as flood control and
erosion control which are significantly related to land protec-
tion and enhancement). An especially important-inland-coastal
relationship here is substitutability. Estuarine and ocean
waterfront is in great demand for a variety of coastal purposes.
In coastal land use planning of the future, increasing emphasis
will have to be placed upon moving development not functionally

U-34

related to a coastal location to alternative sites inqfii,d.
This concept will apply even in individual developments. Thus
parking lots and power plants can be located inland and the
limited shorelands reserved for uniquely coastal purposes such
as bathing beaches and ocean-connected pipelines. Flood con-
trol and low flow augmentation activities inland which dampen
out extreme high and low flows can affect coastal uses in a
variety of beneficial and adverse ways depending upon whether
these environmental extremes are judged to have a net advan-
tageous or harmful effect upon coastal marine life, shoaling
and sediment-transport, turbidity and shipping. The relation-
ship between river regimen and some coastal uses is developed
in further detail later in the discussion of Chesapeake Bay wad
Susquehanna River.

In summary, it bears 'repeating that the above outline is entirely
illustrative. It is by no means "complete" and every one of the
illustrations contain numerous special qualifications beyond the
scope of this framework study.

Non-market Factors. As the term implies, these are factors
which must be included in any borad assessment of human values, but
which cannot be adequately expressed in terms of supply and demand
through the economic workings of the marketplace. These non-market
factors are very prominent in the coastal zone, but they are by no
means exclusive to this zone. They include indivisibilities,
externalities and irreversibilities.

An example of an indivisibility is commercial fishing as
currently organized. Most of the commercial fishing resources are
common property. It would not greatly reward an individual to ex-
pand effort to improve or maintain any part of the resource. It
must be managed as a whole.

Pollution is a prominent example of an externality, usually a
negative one. From the disposer's point of view, little economic
reward and considerable expense can be incurred by extensive treat-
ment. Others have to bear the cost through decreased usage of the
water resource. There are also external benefits. An innovator,
say in coastal mining, may have patent protection but he often does
not reap the full value of his innovation.

An example of an irreversibility is the filling of a wetland.
It is highly unlikely that a filled wetland will ever revert to it3
former state of biological productivity.

A primary role of government is to recognize these types of
non-market values and see that they are adequately represented in
the competition of coastal uses.

Knowledge Gaps. There are many,important gaps in our current

U-35

knowledge of the coastal zone. Probably the most significant is
lack of knowledge of the requirements for the living resources of
the sea. 'Can they be made more or less plentiful by potentli@jl
changes within man's control--or does the present regime, or a
past one, happen to be the most ideal? Even if this is known,
current knowledge is still inadequate to evaluate the incremental
effect of change and the total (market and non-market) costs and
benefits associated with these incremental changes. Without such
knowledge, society cannot hope to arrive at a fully mature trade-
off between landward and seaward demands.

The Need for Decision cannot be escaped. Even the decision
to postpone decision is a decision. --n the interval until a deci-
sion is finally reached, it may be that valuable resources are
protected. It may equally be that valuable opportunities are
foregone. Perhaps the best formula is: the higher th.-a- uncertainty,
the irreversibility and the importance of the values connected with
the decision, the better the case for a decision to postpone deci-
sion. Eventual decision, however, does not have to wait on complete
resolution of uncertainty. When priority research can establish
upper and lower limits of the competing values, assuming the be.,3-:,
and worst of the uncertainties, one set of values can often clearly
dominate the other and a reasonable decision can be made.

Elements of Planning and Mana&@7ent. Important aspects of plan-
ning and management are deciding what we want (goals), what to do to
attain this, and how to put it into action. There are a number of
management devices such as land acquisition, zoning, subsidization,
permits and other authority delegations. These are, however, not
specific to the coastal zone. For the purpose of this report we
will concentrate on the organizational considerations necessar,r to
carry out the management functions in the coastal zone.

Organizational Consideration.-. A number of organizational con-
siderations have been incorporated with related aspects of the pre-
vious discussion. This section will provide some general thoughts
and sumi:-.-arize organizational aspects first at the state level and
then at the Federal, regional and local levels which will probably
participate with the state in varying degrees during the state's
planning and management of its coastal zone.

Regardless of its level, a coastal planning and management
organization might reflect the following considerations:

Integrate landward and seaward perspectives. Enough has been
said previously of the need to reconcile the different require-
ments of these two areas. An authority primarily oriented either
landward or seaward may not be in the best position to make
balanced judgments.

Maintain a multi-agency character. Since the coastal zone is

U-36

a geographic concept, one should not be surprised or consider it
unsound to see most agencies carrying out their assigned respon-
sibilities there. An authority should be oriented both landward
and seaward to be in the best position to make balanced judgments.
For example, it might be better to keep outdoor recreation under
one agency statewide than to separate out the coastal aspects of
outdoor recreation and place them under a coastal zone authority.
It would thus seem that some sort of interagency mechanism is re-
quired. Such mechanisms are particularly appropriate to compre-
hensive planning where a breadth of representation is desirable.
Interagency solutions are not so quickly produced or as adminis-
tratively efficient as single agency solutions. However, when
important long-range, lasting results are needed on complex matters,
the short-term appearance of action can often be sacrificed.

Maintain a strong research capability. Whether it be provided
in-house or with contract assistance, the foundation of compre-
hensive coastal planning and managenent is knowledge. The planner
should have a capability to influence a significant part of the
research priorities.

Maintain a balanced approach. A comprehensive treatment of
the coastal zone should consider preservation and use and develop-
ment--not place any one of these above the others--of each major
use of the coastal zone. This need to view comprehensive planning
simultaneously from a number of different perspectives also augers
for an interagency mechanism.

Consider existing mechanisms. It may be desirable to build
upon existing mechanisms rather than to re-:;bui-fle too deeply for
the coastal zone. A new mechanism can produce a very desirable
burst of initial enthusiasm, but this often momentary advantage
must be weighted against the sustained confusion possible through
a proliferation of mechanisms.

The logical focal point for comprehensive planning and manage-
ment of the coastal zone is at the state level. In keeping with
the principle of delegation of authority, this function should be
conducted at a level which is broad enough to comprehend most of
the significant aspects. Along the coast, the ocean tends to dam-
pen out effects. Thus, water related problems are comparatively
much more transmissible along a river from state to state than
they are along the coast from state to state. It is easy to think
of some exceptions--ocean fishing, interstate estuaries, sand
transport in the vicinity of state boundaries, etc.--but in general,
the most appropriate coastal span of control is at the state level.

A description of the current coastal organization of the 12
coastal states in this region would be unweildy (54). Furthermore,
many states are currently in a state of organizational flux inso-
far as their coastal zone is concerned.

U-37

Within the U.S. Government many organizations have responsi-
bilities which relate significantly to the coastal zone.

The Water Resources Council is the existing focal point for
comprehensive, long-range interagency planning for the nation's
water and related land resources. It too is composed of most of
the coastally active Federal agencies. At regional level, it is
involved in many "Type 1" studies, such as the current, NAR study,
on a joint Federal interagency state basis. Its three river basin
commissions in coastal areas include 14 of the Nation's 30 coastal
states. One commission is located in the NAR--The New England
River Basins Commission (NERBC). NERBC also consists of the
Federal agencies and the states. Geographically, the scope of the
Water Resources Council's planning authority includes the coastal
wate::@;. However, the Council does not have management authority.
That authority resides individually in its members and the states
who implement the plans.

The Department of the Army, acting through its Corps of En-
gineers, has broad authority for the planning and constructio- of
navigation, flood control, beach erosion, recreation, and other
facilities. It is charged with issuing permits for all offshore
facilities on the basis of navigation, fish and wildlife, ecology
and public welfare considerations. It leads several major Federal-
state comprehensive water and related land resource studies in
this region.

The Department of Commerce provides socio-economic projections,
navigation services through its Maritime Administration (MARAD) and
environmental services through its National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) which includes groups formerly known as the
Environmental Sciences Services Administration and the U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey. NOAA has also absorbed a number of agencies
from other departments including the Bureau of Commercial Fishing,
the marine part of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-life and
the Marine Minerals Technology Center of the Bureau of Mines from
the Department of the Interior; the U.S. Lake Survey from the Army
Corps of Engineers; the National Oceanographic Data Center and the
National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center from the Navy; and
the Sea Grant Program from the National Science Foundation. Pre-
cisely what NOAA's coastal responsibilities are to be, have not yet
been announced, but they may be substantial.

The Department of the Interior, through several of its bureaus,
has important coastal responsibilities. Among these bureaus are
the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Park Service, the Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation, the Buxeau of Mines, the Bureau of Land
Management, the Office of Saline Water, and the Office of Water
Resources Research.

The Department of Transportation focuses on the Nation's

U-38

overall transportation system whic', interacts importantly with
coastal por-;,. The Coast Guard is responsible for search and res-
cue, aids to navigation, law enforcement, and oil pollution control
measures.

The recently formed Environmental Protection Agency has absor-
bed the Federal Water Quality Administration, the Nat-Loikal Air
Pollution Control Administration, the Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-
ment and several others. EPA has broad responsibility for inte-
grated management of all aspects of pollution.

The Council on Environmental Quality has substantial overview
authority on important environmental issues.

Within this region there are several significant interstate
estuaries where interstate planning and management should be con-
sidered.

* Narragansett Bay is primarily in Rhode Island, but part of
its northeast shorelines includes Massachusetts. The interb-ate
problems of the Bay do not seem to.have a magnitude sufficient to
require the creation of a new bi-state authority. Apparentl'y
coordinated efforts on a less formal basis is proving adequate to
the two states. Both states, of course, are part of the NER13C
which is managing and coordinating a comprehensive study in the
same area.

0 In Long Island Sound there is increasing awareness that an
interstate approach is required to adequately plan and pc-s@-ibly
manage this large densely populated embayment. A study of this
area under the leadership of NERBC has been funded and work will
start in the near future.

0 The Hudson Estuarj is one of, the most intensively used estu-
aries in the world. Several existing interstate mechanisms have
subdivided between them most of the functions necessary for coas-
tal planning and management. These mechanisms include: The Tri-
State Transportation Commission (New York - New Jersey - Connec-
ticut) with general planning authority, the Interstate Sanitation
Commission (New York - New Jersey - Connecticut) with responsibil-
ity for water and air quality and waste disposal, the Port of' New
York Authority (New York - New Jersey) with general transportation
authority, and the Interstate Palisades Park Commission (New York -
New Jersey) with limited authority for recreation and aesthetics.
In recent years there has also been talk of a Hudson Compact
modeled somewhat after the Delaware Compact. The precise relation-
ship between these authorities and their appropriate role in co-
ordinated coastal zone planning and management is a matter for the
affected states to decide.

In Delaware Bay coastal planning and management is a

U-39

responsibility of the Delaware River Basin.Commission. It is a
Federal interstate commission organized under a compac-@ which gives
it very broad powers of planning and management. It is currently
the only example of its type in the United States, but several more
are being coilsidered--Hudson, Susquehanna and Potomac.

0 In Chesapeake Bay, one of the largest estuaries in the world,
no interstate planning and management mechanism exists. A plan of
study has been developed by a Federal interagency state team under
the leadership of the Army Corps of Engineers to conduct a long-
range comprehensive study of the Bay. About half of the study's
proposed $15 million cost is for a large hydraulic model. If the
affected states of Maryland and Virginia conclude during, or as a
consequence of this study, that a regional mechanism is needed,
several organization problems will have to be faced. Unlike the
Delaware, which is unified from its headwaters to its estuary, or
Long Island Sound which is already under the area jurisdiction of
the New Englan,-1. River Basins Commission--Chesapeake Bay mig@it still
remain fragmented. It appears clear, for example, that effec'..Ive
planning and management of the Bay must embrace its major tribu-
taries. Two of these major tributaries, the Susquehanna whi-ch pro-
vides about 50% of its freshwater inflow and the Potomac, are al-
ready being seriously considered for a Delaware-type compact. One
possible integrating approach, although unprecidented, would be
the creation of a Chesapeake River Basin Commission (CRBC) under
the Water Resources Council. The CRBC would provide for integra-
ted, Federal-state comprehensive planning for the whole area. Its
members would be Federal agencies, all the states in the area and
the Potomac and Susquehanna Compact Coirinissions. All of the mem-
bers, including the two compacts, would plan together. They would
execute (manage) separately, but under the influence of the overall
plan they jointly developed. If this approach is not acceptable,
two other alternatives are: a Maryland-Virginia mechanism only
for the Bay itself with the need to establish cooperative, infor-
mal, interrelationships with its tributary compacts; and 'a con-
tinuation of current informal coordination.

At the county level, a major example of a coastal planning
study is the current Nassau-Suffolk study. This study is identi-
fying the principal coastal problems, determining what information
is needed to resolve them and the state-of-the-art with respect. to
this needed knowledge. It will then formulate a priority-oriented
research and data collection effort and employ the results to con-
struct a management information system. The system will store,
analyze and retrieve data, knowledge and decision processes rela-
tive to marine needs in bi-county area (20), (42).

Legal aspects. See Appendix S - Legal and Institutional En-
vironment for a definitive treatment of the legal aspects of water
and related land resources in the North Atlantic Region. Coastal
law has recently-been receiving considerable attention, sparked

U-40

prominently by the Sea Grant program of the National Oceanic and
Atmo.spheric Administration. Two of the many broad classes.of
issues addressed by this emerging discipline are boundary.de'-ter-
minations and the legal aspects of land use management in the
coastal zone.

Boundary determinations are especially important along the
coast because a number of jurisdictional authorities of inter-
national, federal-state, interstate and public-private importance
are tied to them. This is particularly pertinent to fishery regu-
lation, mineral extraction, defense use of the seabed, and public
versus private rights along the shoreline. Even when jurisdiction
is defined in terms such as a three- or twelve- mile limit,
difficulties can arise because of some uncertainties as to the
location of the baseline from which these limits are to be measured,
particularly where offshore islands and embayments present diffi-
cult technical problems of interpretation. Some states, Maine for
example, feel that they have certain rights far out to sea dating
back to their rights when they entered the Union. Even when a base-
line is legally established it may change in some circumstances by
natural and even man-influenced accretion and erosion. The inter-
face between private and public ownership along the coast is gener-
ally tied to some tidal datum -- frequently mean high water -- but
it varies somewhat from state to state. Infrequently inundated
wetlands often pose special ownership problems.

In land use planning and management along the coast, govern-
ments can use a variety of management tools all with important
legal implications. The basis for governmental decision-making
varies with the part of the coast being considered. in the fore-
shore -- that part of the shore generally held in trust by the
state for the public welfare -- decisions are based on what is
judged best for the public good. However, along the backshore
the land just inland from the foreshore -- decision-making must
take into account both the public welfare and the rights of the
individual property owners. Since nearly 85% of the backshore in
the North Atlantic Region is privately owned, the legal aspects of
various land use management tools are particularly important to
government coastal planning in this region. Governments can in-
fluence the use of coastal lands in four general ways: (1) by
agreements such as voluntary acquisition and desirable private
agreements; (2) by public policy inducements such as those rela-
ting to property taxes, cost sharing, planning maps and protection
of private property; (3) by regulatory controls such as zoning,
subdivision regulation, building codes, ordinances, permits and
orders; and (4) by compulsory taking such as condemnation and in-
verse condemnation. Each of these tools is discussed in Shore
Management Guidelines, a part of the current National Shoreline
.Study of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Problems of "taking"
are currently receiving much attention in the effort to preserve
wetlands. Just haw far government can-legally go to restrict an

U-41

owner of coastal-wetlands in the use of his property is receiving
increasing-attention by the courts.

U-42

SELECTED PROBLEMS

"Nature of the Problem. The living resources of the coastal zone
can be considered from a number of points of view. Among these
are:

a Recreational. Many consider utilization of coastal living re-
sources for recreation to have a human value equal to or greater
than the other two aspects listed below. In states such as New
Jersey, the catch of the recreational fishery is highly signifi-
cant and so is the value of this activity in those areas that cater
to it. (See discussion of recreation, page 116.)

0 Relationship to other uses. Living resources have a relation-
ship to almost all other major uses of the coastal zone. These re-
lationships may be viewed either as detriments or assets. In
Chesapeake Bay, the presence of the stinging sea nettle is con-
sidered a severe drawback by recreationists and fishermen. Also in
this area, as well as in Long Island Sound, the presence of dense
weed beds of species such as Eurasian milfoil and eelgrass are
classified as "nuisances" by boaters. However, the value of these
latter biota as wildfowl habitat is also recognized.

Commercial exploitation. This point of view is chosen as the
focus of the discussion in this section of the report."

Currently, the commercial exploitation of the living resources
of the coastal zone centers on fishing and the harvesting of both
wild and cultivated stocks of shellfish. Other activities, which
are carried on to'a lesser extent concern the harvesting of
marine worms (Maine) and seaweectl@ (Maine and Massachusetts).

Indications are that the future could see not only a greater
return from these various harvesting activities, but also the
development of new methods of exploitation. In general, the
United States fishing effort is aimed largely at those species
readily marketable to the American consumer. However, it should
be noted that some other countries have found it profitable to
harvest species not otherwise desirable for use in fish meal pre-
paration. These include the undertaking of various forms of mari-
culture, as well as the development of new products from the sea,
i*e.9 drugs. However, since the finfish and shellfish of the
coastal areas will continue to be the main focus of attention, the
following discussion is undertaken with these species in mind.

1/ Irish Moss, a seaweed found off the northern coast of North
America, is the source of carragreen, a gel used in a wide vari-
ety of products. Its harvesting is currently low, but its poten-
tial is estimated at $15 million annually. (76)

U-43

Accordingly, the problem to be dealt with herein is defined as
"how to increase the yield of the living resources of the coastal
zone to advance the goals of increased food supply and local eco-
n6mic development," This problem definition is based on the as-
sumption that the existence of a viable industry of this type is a
regional goal. The following discussion concerns commercial fish--
ing as an industry in terms of the definition of the problem given
above. For further discussion of this industry, see Appendix 0 -
Fish and Wildlife.

The rapidly expanding world population has a great need for new
sources of animal protein, and many pe-ople are looking to the sea
as an important source. This drive is reflected in the increasing
effort devoted to the harvesting of fish in recent years. Between
1948 and 1968 the world harvest tripled from 18 million to 64
million short tons. (19) The domestic U.S. market for these pro-
ducts has also experienced a fairly steady increase with a record
consumption at 8.7 million tons in 1968. (156) A projection in
that year showed a continually growing domestic market reaching
some 15 million tons by the year 2000. (60)

In contrast to this rising demand, the fishing industry in the
United States has remained fairly static. The United States has
dropped from second to sixth place among the major fishing coun-
tries of the world since 1956. In 1968, it harvested only 3.8%0' of
the world catch. (6o) In the 1959-1969 period, the domestic catch
varied between 2.0 and 2.7 million tons. The difference in domes-
tic market and supply has been filled with an increasing number of
imports which in 1968, a record year, totaled 6.6 millioi@,. tons.
(156) Yet, it has been estimated that the known resources adjacent
to the United States coast are capable of yielding 22 million tons
per year on a sustained basis. (19) These resources are currently
being exploited to a great extent by other cowitries.

This inability of the fishing indu_:try to expand to meet a
growing demand in face of, at least in certain areas, extensive
resources constitutes the nature of the problem. This phenomenon
is even more pronounced in the North Atlantic Region than it is on
the national level.

Major Causes. The causes of this problem can be classified
into three major categories--institutional constraints, knowledge
gaps, and environmental conditions.

Examples of institutional constraints:

0 The sum of the sections of Title 46 of the United States
Code virtually require American fishermen to use vessels built in
American shipyards. This prevents them from taking advantage of
less expensive vessels of more advanced design built overseas.

U-44

0 The costs of liability insurance are extremely high. In
part, this is a result of the Jones Act which states that an ownc-.@'
is liable even if seaman negligence is involved in an accident.
These high costs cut deeply into profits.

0 In both shell and fin fisheries, regulations on fishing
techniques have been established to protect the stock from over-
fishing. However, these regulations have instead tended merely to
decrease efficiency causing more fishing effort per unit catch and
thereby serving to further depress the economic position of har-
vestors. This has been true for many fisheries off the New Eng-
land coast as well as the oyster industry in Ma--j'Land.

* Although there are many international agreements regulating
the catch techniques in offshore waters, no mechanisms exist to
enforce these agreements. This results in overfishing to the
point where valued stocks are endangered.

Examples of knowledge gaps:

0 Lack of knowledge concerning the extent and recruitment rate
of most species caught by the industry in the North Atlantic Region
results in an inability to gauge the level of sustained yield.
This is evidenced by estimates of potential sustained increase
widely ranging between one and tenfold. If the latter estimate is
correct, a serious underutilization of valued species exists.

0 Not enough information is available on the life cycle of
most species and their sensitivity to environmental changes and
man-made influences such as pesticides. This makes the effective
management and protection of these living resources impossible.

0 Of the body of knowledge that is currently available, little
finds its way into practical use at the harvesting level.

Examples of environmental conditions:

0 The destruction of wetland areas has reduced the required
habitat of many valuable species, i.e., menhaden striped bass.
This subject is considered in more depth in the next special prob-
lem, conservation of wetlands.

6 The pollution of coastal waters has had a severe impact on
the commercial shellfish industry. Even when these species have
survived, their harvesting is limited by health considerations.
This is true of both clams and oysters in several areas of the
North Atlantic Region.

The combination of these many factors has resulted in an in-
efficient, fragmented industry unattractive to new employees and
incapable of expanding to take advantage of a growing market.

U-45

Location. This problem is found in all parts of the North At-
lantic Region, since every state engages in some form of fishing
activity. (Table U-2) Particularly affected are the offshore
finfishing activities in Massachusetts, where the volume landed
decreased by over 30"'0' between 1966 and 1969. The industry in
Virginia has also experienced a severe reduction. The effects of
pollution on the shellfish resources have also been universal in
the NAR, with the most severe occurrences near the heavily popula-
ted areas.

Time Characteristics. Internationally the commercial fish
catch has been increasing much faster than population over the
last several decades. Despite this evidence of what is possible
and the expanding domestic demand, the commercial fishing industry
in this region has not yet demonstrated an ability to become eco-
nomically viable.

Parties Affected. Beyond the consumer, the individuals moot
affected by this problem axe those involved in the direct harvest-
ing'and processing of finfish and shellfish. It is characteristic

TABLE U - 2

COMMERCIAL FISH CATCH BY STATES

Volume in Thousand Short Tons Value in Million $
State 1966 11967 11968 11969 1966 1 1967 1 1968 1969

Maine 100 99 109 96 24.3 23.0 25.6 27.5

New Hampshire 1 1 1 1 .7 .7 .8 .9

Massachusetts 205 173 169 140 46.2 39.1 41.6 41.9

Connecticut 2 2 3 2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8

Rhode Island 34 38 35 41 5.3 5.7 6.0 5.2

New York* 32 19 30 20 11.5 12.7 14.4 13.6

New Jersey 49 62 62 46 9.9 10.7 10.2 10.9

Delaware 3 0 0 0 .3 .3 .3 .2

Maryland 42 37 27 36 14.3 17.4 15.3 17.9

Virginia 209 174 194 139 21.0 18.1 20.6 17.8

Total 677 605 630 521 135.3 129.5 136.6 137.7
*These figure; includ: a =11 contribution by inland fisheries.

SOURCES: Adapted and rounded from (155), (156), (157)

U-46

of the fragmentation found in this industry that, although the
producer level has remained static, the processing and retailing
levels have thrived as imports have increased.

Solutions. A three-pronged attack on this problem would in-
clude a basic change in philosophy regarding the exploitation of
these living resources, new technological and biological research..
arid an attack on the environmental degradation which limits the
full development of productive species.

The first step in an industry revitalization should center
around a basic philosophy change toward the principle of limited
entry. The current view of the living resources of the coastal
zone as a common possession to be harvested at will has led to a
If if I don't take it someone else will" attitude which, although
understandable, does not beget an optimum utilization of the re-
sources involved. The result is an increased strain on the valued
stock arid, as more harvestors become involved, a general lowering
of the profit. Less and less becomes divided among more and more.

The limited entry principle is seen as a potentially effective
way of combating this problem. This evaluation is in part based
on the experience of Virginia and Maryland as regards their shell-
fish resources. The initiation in Virginia of a limited entrv
philosophy to part of its oyster industry has resulted in higher
yields and greater per capita income for harvestors than those in
Maryland where stock protection is undertaken through limitations
on harvesting efficiency.

"An international interpretation of the limited entry principle
would be the extension of the territorial waters of the United
States as much as several hundred miles as some South American
countries have done."

Another factor in the solution of this problem involves the
current restrictions on boat purchase, which should be critically
evaluated. The present regulations function as a Subsidization of
the ship building industry which, although perhaps necessary at
the time of enactment, has become superfluous. More disbenefit
accrues to the fishing industry than benefit to the shipbuilders.

More research is needed to provide a greater understanding of
the life cycles of valued species with a view toward better manage-
ment. Combined with this must come a recognition of the cross
jurisdictional management needs required for effective control of
migrating species. An effective agency with enforcement powers
will be needed to implement the cross jurisdictional activities
needed to manage migrating stock.

Research must also be directed toward uncovering new methods
of increasing fishery yields. This should be both in terms of new

.U-47

harvesting.methods of natural stocks as well as the intensive cul-
tivation of certain species.

The impact of environmental degradation on the industry must
be minimized, primarily by wetland conservation and pollution con-
trol. The loss of wetlands should be arrested and the wetlands
should be managed to improve their natural contributions to fish
abundance. Aspects of pollution control particUlarly beneficial
to commercial fishing are (1) the control of human fecal wastes in
shellfish areas, (2) the control of toxic materials such as mercury,
and (3) the controlled application of "pollutants" for nutrients and
habitat improvement. Examples of the latter aspect-are the crea-
tion of artificial reefs through selective disposal of solid wastes
and the inducement of artificial upwellings at points of thermal
discharge. Barring unexpected major breakthroughs in pollution
abatement techniques, the yield of edible shellfish can probably
be increased much more rapidly and effectively by purification
methods than by reducing pollution enough to meet the very high
standards of water quality required for shellfish harvest.

U-48

CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS

Nature of the Problem. The problem to be dealt with in this
discussion concerns the destruction of the coastal wetlands of the
North Atlantic Region and how and to what extent they can be con-
served.

The term "wetlands" has been subject to many definitions, both
broad and narrow, by the political structures,.private agencies,
and researchers concerned with their existence. For this discus-
sion, a delination was chosen which is patterned after that used
by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in their surveys.
This delineation includes the marshes bordering tidal lands and the
intertidal region.

The preservation of wetland areas in their pristine state is the
goal of many preservationists. However I in many areas, the pressure
of other activities does not allow for the complete setting-aside of
areas to be untouched by man. Also throughout most of the NAR it
would be difficult to find lands as yet unmodified. For these rea-
sons the term "conservation" is used to reflect the broader goal of
maintaining these wetlands in some degree of functional integrity.
In this framework, the preservation of wetlands becomes one of the:
alternatives of their conservation.

The nature of the wetland problem can be explained in terms of
the natural function of wetlands and their desirability as a site
for ,other of man's activities. Superficially, this conflict seems
to be the standardd one of economics versus aesthetics and conser-
vation. However, a closer look at the natural function of these
areas also brings to light many secondary economic considerations
of considerable magnitude.

There are five basic functions of wetlands in their natural
state.

0 Nutrient recycling. Organic matter contained in the run-
off from upland areas and that brought in as part of tidal surges
is broken down by the microbial population of the wetlands or used
as food by higher life forms. TAu-s is formed the basis of a com-
plex food web, many portions of which are harvestable for the bene.-
fit of man.

Nursery area. The nutrient rich waters of coastal wetlands
provide the background for a rapid rate of photosynthetic activity.
In addition, the shallow waters of these areas allow for rapid
warming by the sun. This combination of a plentiful food supply
and moderate temperatures provides an environment conducive to the
survival and rapid growth of the fry of species important to the
food supply of man.

U-49

Wildlife habitat. The biota rich waters of the wetlands at-
tract many species of waterfowl and mammals which are.a source of
economic bene fit and recreation.al satisfactio n to man.

Flood plain function. When they are inundated, wetlands ab-
sorb large volumes of water (valley storage in flood plain ter-
minology) and thereby help mitigate the potential.damage of floods.
Wetlands, with their boglike substrate and dense grasses, can also
serve in a limited way as a buffer in absorbing the force of storm
tides and waves. This is discussed later under coastal.erosion and
tidal flooding.

Erosion control. The same physical characteristics which
serve to protect upland areas also serve to prevent the filling in
of adjacent waters by silt running off from these land areas. The
removal of this mode of natural-sediment control results in more
dredging of adjacent waterways to maintain their navigability.

The relationships between wetlands and fish abundance needs
better quantification. Two often-used gross indicators are (1)
annual production of vegetation in-tons dry weight per acre and
(2) the estuarine-relationship of the commercial fish catch.
Under the first approach it appears that total productivity de-
creases markedly northward because of shorter growing seasons.
For example, the annual production of smooth cordgrass in tons
dry weight per acre has been reported as between 4.4 and 10 tons
in Georgia, 2.9 in North Carolina, 2.2 in Virginia, 2.0 in Dela-
ware and 1.3 in New Jersey (161). Under the second approach,
Table U-3 depicts the part of the commercial fish catch represen-
ted by "estuarine-related" species, those species which spend any
significant part of their life cycles in or passing through es-
tuaries. Although not all estuarine-related species are neces-
sarily dependent upon wetlends, the information in Table U-3 does
provide a general first order approximation better than any broad
index now in use. Using Maine for illustration, it appears that
something under 19% of its commercial fish catch is significantly
and directly related to Maine's wetlands.

Because of their location at the land-sea interface, wetlands
are seen as ideal sites for many activities which jeopardize, to a
greater or lesser extent, these natural functions. For many of
these activities, a location at this juncture of land and water is
a necessity, i.e. port facilities. However, for the majority of
activities being located on wetland areas may be desirable or
economically beneficial, but it is not essential. The uselof wet-
land areas for solid waste disposal, dredging spoil-disp6sal, re-
sidential development and most industrial developments fall into
the latter category.

Major Causes. The traditional view of wetlands as "wasteland"
to be "improve7_has been a basic cause of the destruction of many

U-50

TABLE u-3

ESTUARINE-RELATED FISH CATCH

--In $milli on dockside value of 1968 commercial fish catch--

Total
Me N.H. Mass. R.I. Conn N.Y. N.J. Del Md. Va. NAR

Finfish:

Estuarine-
related .2 - 9.5 1.9 .2 2.4 2.9 - 1.7 6.5 25.4

Total 5.6 - 25.6 2.8 .3 3.0 3.4 - 1.7 6.6 49.0

% estuarine-
related 3 - 37 68 71 81 87 10C 100 99 51.7

Shellfish,
etc:

Estuarine-
related 4.7 - 3.0 .8 .4 8.3 5.7 - 14.3 11.6 49.0

Total 20.0 .6 16.0 3.5 1.2 11.4 7.3 .2 14.3 14.0 88.4

% estuarine-
related 23 3 19 2 31 75 78 101 100 83 55.4

Total:

Estuarine-
related 4.8 - 12.5 2.7 .6 10.7 8.6 .2 16.0 18.2 74.4

Total 25.6 .7 41.6 6.3 1.5 14.3 7.3 .2 16.0 20.6 134.1

% estuarine-
related 19 3 30 43 40 74 85 95 100 88 54.2
1 - I I I I
Minor differences in subtotals and percentages due to rounding.
SOURCE: Data computed from (156). List of estuarine-related
species from (170).

;.U-51

of these areas. Lacking in the spectacular beauty of a mountain
peak or a waterfall, they have seldom been prized for themselves.
A lack of understanding of the important natural functions which
they serve has also contributed to this misconception. Even when
these attributes become apparent, the inability to put a dollar
value on them becomes a stumbling block in combating the economic
pressures for wetland modification.

This phenomenon is particularly apparent at the municipal
level. Present patterns of land ownership and zoning prerogatives
leave the management of a major portion of wetland areas in the
hands of these local governments. These agencies are constantly
faced with the necessity of increasing their tax base in order to
supply the costly services demanded by their citizens. The de-
struction of wetlands by filling to make room for new industry or
better housing is an often chosen path for satisfying this need.

Other demands of local residents are also satisfied through the
modification of wetlands. For reasons of both health and comfort,
extensive dredging is often undertaken in wetland areas in an at-
tempt to eliminate the shallow water breeding areas of mosquitoes.
This is often done in conjunction with the extensive application
of pesticides which also destroy other biota of the area. In ad-
dition, wetlands have been used extensively as dumps for the wastes
generated by urban areas. This not only results in the destruction
of the wetlands but has serious impacts on offshore areas.

Near major ports, such as New York and Norfolk, large areas of
wetlands have been lost through the dredging and associated spoil
deposition associated with navigation improvements. Such major
urban areas also indirectly impact on wetland areas via their
general water pollution problems and the resultant effect on the
biological productivity of these areas.

Thus, the destruction or modification of'wetlands has been oc-
casioned by a lack of understanding, the economic pressure exerted
by both requisite and non-requisite activities, and the short-
range planning of local governments.

Location. The destruction and deterioration of wetland areas
and related shoal water and shell habitat, has emerged as one of
the major coastal problems of the North Atlantic Region. Although
criteria for definition of wetland areas are not uniform and data
from different sources vary, Table u-4, adapted from the work by
Spinner (115), serves to indicate the location and, in part, the
severity of the problem. The states having the greatest percent
loss of wetland areas are New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey.
Within these states, the problem is particularly acute near the
major population centers.

-U-52

TABLE U-4

EXTENT OF COASTAL WETLANDS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION

ESTIMATED
COASTAL WETLANDS ACRES DESTROYED PERCENT
STATE TOTALS - 1954 1954-1968 LOSS

Me. 29,182 300 1.0
N.H. 6,060 150 2.5
Mass. 45,895 1,200 2.6
R.I. 2,200 150 6.8
Conn. 14,744 3,200 21.7
N.Y. 45,395 13,000 28.6
N.J. 241,060 25,300 10.5
Del. 114,048 4,600 4.0
Md. 204,060 20,200 9.9
Va. 210,250 13,000 6.2

Totals 912,894 81,100 9.4

The acreage of wetland enumerated in Table U-4 only partially
reflects the severity of this problem. A comprehensive picture must
include some measure of the extent of wetland deterioration in terms
of reduced productivity or loss of functional integrity. Although
this information is not currently available, in many areas the amount
of wetlands thus affected is felt to be considerable.

Time Characteristics. The current popular recognition of this
problem has served to retard, to some degree, the destruction of
these areas. Most states have, within the past three years, either en-
acted legislation to prevent' the filling and dredging of wetland
areas or reinforced legislation already on the books. However, the
deterioration of many of these areas through the impact of other
activities associated with urban expansion,_such as water pollution
created by waste disposal, is accelerating as population concentra-
tions increase.

Parties Affected. Many individuals are affected both directly
and indirectly by the destruction of these wetland areas. As implied
above, net economic benefits usually accrue to municipalities bordering
these areas as well as to the industries and commercial activities
which are sited on these filled areas. Although these benefits tend
,to filter throughout the munic,ipalities, some segments of the community
will experience an economic set-back, such as those engaging in com-
.m.ercial shell and finfishing activities.

U-53

The destruction of wetland areas also impacts on many recrea-
tional activities which depend in some measure on their existence.
Among these are hunting, fishing, and passive activities such as
hiking and bird watching.

Sollutions. Two mechanisms exist for the conservation of wet-
land areas - acquisition and legislation.

The acquisition of wetland areas by both public and private
agencies for the purpose of preservation has accelerated in recent
years. All the states in the North Atlantic Region have active
prograrn for wetland acquisition. Most of these are based on
voluntary purchase, but two states also possess the authority to
acquire land by eminent domain, e.g., Massachusetts and Connec-
ticut. This acquisition of wetland areas for preservation or
limited recreational activity is certainly the most effective way
of combating the problem of wetland destruction. However, the
constraints of a lack of sufficient funding combined with an in-
crease in the price of these areas has proved to be a stumbling
block in attaining the land desired.

A potential solution to this difficulty could be found in a
system of cost sharing with the federal government as part of,
perhaps, a National Estuary System. This dual level cooperation
has already been applied to the acquisition of wetlands in New
York (75/25 State-County sharing) with some measure of success
(50). No generally applicable figure can be developed for the
cost of such an'undertaking since price is so dependent on local
conditions.

Public acquisition through the dedication of privately owned
wetlands to public agencies has occurred and should be encouraged.
This might be done through the development of better tax reduction
incentives. Similar favors could be granted to individuals giving
land to private agencies for the sole purpose of preservation.

Legislative controls geared toward the conservation of wetlands
relate primarily-to dredging and filling activities. At the
federal level, this power is administered by the Corps of'Engineers.
At the state level, this authority resides in a variety of agencies,
and some states do not possess such controls. This latter level
is one at which a great deal more effort is required to obtain
stronger legislation with a view to area planning. In addition,
legislation should be developed to restrict wetland deteriorating
activities on valuable areas which cannot be acquired. Such
measures have been established in Massachusetts, and have thus far
been used for the protection of over 12,000 acres of wetland. This
legislation has established limited case precedents in.recent
litigations and may well become.'an inexpensive method of protecting
these areas. In fact, due to the funding problems encountered by
the acquisition program , restrictions upon wetland activities are

likely to be more instrumental in upgrading the general quality of
the wetland areas of the North Atlantic Region.

Lastly, it must be noted that wetlands do not exist in a
vacuum and often suffer deterioration from the indirect impact of
other activities, i.e., via water pollution due to upstream activi-
ties. Thus a part of the solution to the wetland problem must be
in terms of a reduction of other environmental problems.

U-55

NON-LIVING RESOURCES

Nationally, -the extraction and utilization of non-living resources
has one of the highest growth rates of the many uses of the coastal
zone. In the North Atlantic Region this exploitation and its associ-
ated problems are currently limited both in magnitude and locale.
The probability'exists, however, that both will si@,-Aificantly increase
in the near future. This increase will be associated with the inten-
sification of current extractive activities, as well as the utiliza-
tion of yet untapped resources such as oil and gas. The probable im-
pact of these activities upon the economy-of the coastal area, as well
as the quality and use of its land and waters, warrents its inclusion
in this appendix.

Some freedom of structure was taken in the writing of the follow-
ing discussion. After a brief section on the nature of the problem,
each of the major sections concerns itself with a selected category
of non-living resources -- (sand and gravel, oil and gas, metals,
and water). Within each of these sections, the problem dimensions
delineated in the table of contents are generally followed.

Nature of the Problem. In the not very distant past, the extrac-
tion of non-living coastal resources was considered a problem only in
terms of the technology of extraction and the economics of recovery
and processing. Although some conflicts with other uses of land area
might occur, the value of the extracted product was usually the over-
riding argument in any decision made in an industrially-oriented and
rapidly expanding economy. The damage done to other activities and
resources was merely part of the price paid.

Although the above philosophy is still in limited existence, in
recent years the picture has changed. The incompatibility of most
extractive operations with other uses of an area has led to a consid-
eration of the value foregone in choosing resource exploitation.
Conservationists have expressed concern over the impact of these ex-
tractive activities upon the biota of an area and the extent to which
these effects were unavoidable. Private individuals have begun to
vocalize their discontent as these exploitive operations offend their
eyes, ears, nose, and general aesthetic sense. Yet, all of these
changes have taken place against a background of increasing demands
for the products of this exploitation.

Within this framework of opposing values, two questions must be
considered both in terms of the goals of the NAR study and in terms
of the goals of the various political subdivisions involved:

e Should exploitation take place? This may not be an absolute
question but only one relative to time and place.

o If exploitation takes place, how can it be controlled for the
protection of the other legitimate activities in this area and still
maintain its viability?
U-56

Involved in answering these questions are considerations of the
quality and quantity of the resource, the cost of recoverv, the re-
gional and national "need", the availabilitv of alternative resources,
the impact of the exploitation upon other activities in the area, and
the economic and social value of these activities. These questions
and considerations constitute the basic "problem" of non-living re-
source extraction in the coastal zone.

Sand and Gravel. Currently the mining of sand and gravel from on-
shore and offshore sites is the major mineral extractive activity in
the coastal zone of the North Atlantic Region. Associated problems
are economic and environmental.

A signifiLant part -,f the cost of th's aggregate is its transpor-
tation. To minimize this cost, either supply must be located near
demand or very inexpensive large bulk movements must be feasible. De-
mand peakb lccally near developing urban areas with extensive highway
and buildin- programs, and along beaches which are periodically re-
plenished with sand. For supplying urban needs nearby onshore sites
are frequently exhausted, built over or closed for environmental rea-
sons discussed later. The National Sand and Gravel Association pre-
dicts a generally critical supply situation near most urban areas
within the decade. The farther the so -uirce from demand the greater the
need for very inexpensive bulk transportation. These factors combined
with findings of large quantities of sand and, occasionally, gravel
in coastal waters have made the following two alternatives, both of
coastal significance, increasingly attractive:

0 For urban areas: dredging to barges and barge movement to de-
mand centers. Sand and gravel movements are already second only to
petroleum products in annual tonnage for most of the small ports near
urban centers, such as those along Long Island Sound and Chesapeake
Bay.

0 For beach renourishment: dredging and pumping directly onto
beaches from either the backbay or ocean site.

The extractive activity can impact'adversely on the environment.
Onshore sites can present a bleak picture of dust covered buildings
and wasteland-like stretches. Improper slope maintenance can cause
erosion of surrounding lands, and washing of the extracts can deposit
silt into surrounding waterways. Abandoned excavation sites can be-
come stagnant pools or open dumps. Trucking the material from its
source can be noisy, dusty and hard on local roads. These conditions
have led many municipalities to restrict onshore extraction severely
or prohibit it completely.
offshore, material can be dredged from the shallow backbays or
from deeper open waters farther offshore. Environmental effects in
the latter areas do not appear to be major although continuing
study is required especially of before and after conditions.

U-5 7 ..

If not sited and executed with care, dredging in shallow backbay
areas can cause major environmental damage. It is possible for such
dredging to alter water currents and thereby trigger subsequent
changes in local erosion-accretion patterns * if deep holes are left
in the wake of extractive activity, the holes will tend to concentrate
the normal bottom detritus found in the ViCiLlity. A lack of water cir-
culation in these areas results in anaerobic cecomposition of this
material with the production of hydrogen sulfide. These areas can
thus become inimical habitats for most life forms. Silt suspended dur-
ing the dredging process increases the turb4-ditv of surrounding waters
and thus reduces photosynthetic activity. As the silt slowly settles
out, it covers adjacent areas and becomes a substrate which may not
be conducive to rapid recolonization by benthic life. In the worst
locations, where the bottom is actually removed or covered with spoil,
it has been reported that it frequently takes a year or two for ben-
thic life to reestablish itself. (111)

Many activities in the coastal zone are affected by the extraction
of sand and gravel, both positively and negatively. Foremost among
the beneficiaries of an extensive supply of aggregate is the construc-
tion industry which seeks to serve the demands for facilities by a di-
versity of interests. Via this route, all residents of the coastal
zone are affected.

Recreational interests benefit in certain areas, like New Jersey,
from use of sand dredged by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in their
beach replenishment activities. Navigation and port development ac-
tivities are aided by such extraction as part of channel dredging
projects.

Many of the diverse interests which can benefit from a cheap and
ready source of sand and gravel zan also be adver3ely affected if the
environmental abuses cited earlier are allowed. Adjacent land values
can be lowered by the aesthetic impacts, shellfish areas can be harmed,
and the attractiveness of the sites for finfish can be substantially
diminished.

There is little probability o7f developing economical substitutes
for construction and beach sand and gravel. Therefore solution de-
vices developed for these problerns must be oriented toward mitigating
environmental effects.

In the on-shore excavation, more foresigat is needed in planning
for the utilization of the land when mining is completed. The con-
stantly rising value of land near urban areas should permit a signi-
ficant amount of expenditure for land rehabilitation without the fear
of long-range financial loss to the private investor. An alternative
plan might call for the purchase by the municipality of areas suitable
for land and gravel extraction. Such areas could then be leased for
mining activities and later rehabilitated for public use. (88 ) This
planned reuse of mined-out areas will add new values to area commun-

U-58

ities and eliminate the "lost land" argument which often now bars ex-
ploitation in promising on-shore sites. For examples on Long Island,
see the later discussion of Area 13.

Some thought should also be given to the impact of the mining
activity while it is in operation. Physical structures can be cam-
ouflaged to improve their aesthetic impact. Settling ponds or some
screening mechanism could be developed to eliminate the silt deposi-
ted in nearby waterways. As extraction in specific areas is completed,
rehabilitation of the land should be undertaken immediatelv so that
undesirable uses are not allowed to take hold.

As the technology advances, dredging for sand and gravel will be
able to take place farther offshore. This further removal of the
activity will help to mitigate the impact on other area uses such as
shellfishing. Regardless of depth, however, more care will need to
be exercised with regard to the bottom topography. Dredging permits
should specify in detail the degree of leveling required or the net-
work to be dredged to eliminate the development of isolated pits. In
addition, more enforcement will be needed to ensure compliance with
the specifications of the permit. Such care may result in an ifidirect
beneficial effect to sportfishermen in areas where dredging activities
result in deep interconnecting trenches. These areas, when properly
constructed to maintain circulation, provide wintering habitats for
valued sport fish. Also, as on land, some innovative techniques need
to be developed to combat the dispersal of silt and its consequent
deleterious effects.

Considerable additional treatment of dredging and sand and gravel
may be found later under the special problems -of marine transportation
and of coastal erosion and tidal flooding.

Oil and Gas. The national demand for oil@and gas is constantly
increasing. To meet this demand and to safeguard our economy against
a slowdown in oil imports, new reserves need to be constantly searched
out and proven. Increasingly, companies have turned to offshore areas
for these supplies. In this move, they have been faced with public
concern regarding the impact of the drilling activity on the living
resources of the area, as well as a fear that the extractive activity
and the movement of the petroleum to refineries will markedly increase the
likelihood of a major oil spill and its consequent damage to fish, '
wildlife, and shoreline property. This conflict has become a severe
problem.
One area which has become the center of this conflict is Georges
Bank, off the northeast coast. This region is considered to have a
good potential for oil and gas supplies; however, Georges Bank-is al-
so the site of one of the richest fisheries along the North American
coast. It is currently being fished by many countries in addition to
the United States, and the possible effect of the extractive activi-
ties on this living resource is unknown.

U-59

The impact of the offshore exploitation of oil and gas on shore-
line areas would likely be mixed. Benefits could potentially be de-
rived from an increase in economic activity resulting from a need to
provide supportive functions in terms of harbors, storage areas, and
processing plants for a variety of petroleum-derived products. How-
ever, adverse effects would also be likely from the increased threat
of oil pollution mentioned above, as well as the environmental degra-
dation resulting from these increased commercial activities.

One solution that has been proposed to this dilemma is that ex-
ploitation be deferred indefinitely, and the area be maintained in
escrow until the need for new supplies becomes critical enough to re-
quire its exploitation. This alternative deserves serious consider-
ation. From the standpoint of environmental quality, the declaration
of this area as a reserve supply would be a completely effective way
of avoiding any environmental problems. In view of the comments con-
tained in the President's Panel on Oil Spill's 1969 report, (92
this solution might also be a beneficial measure in terms of the
national interest.

If exploitation is chosen, a major effort will need to be under-
take-n to delve into the extent of impact on the fisheries and possible
ways of mitigating any deletorious effects. Although the situation is
quite different, much information could be obtained from investigations
involving the biota in areas in the Gulf and off the West Coast where
oil has already been recovered for a considerable period. Efforts
will also have to be made to combat the threat of oil pollution. In
terms of the possibility of a vessel oil spill, new techniques will
need to be developed to enable the containment and recovery of oil in
the rough northern waters.' The technology is already well advanced
in terms of safeguarding against the possibility of a blow out. How-
ever, stringent regulations will be needed to require the application
of this advanced know-how, and inspection and penalty enforcement will
be needed to insure compliance.

Since the extent of offshore oil and gas deposits and the impacts
of their exploitation on other activities is largely unknown, no firm
dollar value can be quoted in discussing costs of problem solutions.
One can only speak in relative terms.

Involved in the immediate exploitation of these fields are the
value associated with the product, the potential income to onshore
areas from new supportive activities, the potential loss to the fish-
ing industry, and the certainty of some degree of environmental degra-
dation.

In the short term, the costs of putting these offi3hore resources
in escrow is reflected in the value foregone in terms of cost of leases.
product value, onshore development potential and the economy of all
individuals and industries which use petroleum products. It is also

U-60

reflected in continued fishery value and in the avoidance of en-
vironmental degradation. In the long term, the probability exists
that the increasing price per barrel of this non-renewable resource
will serve to increase the value of these deposits. In addition,
improvements in technology are likely to reduce the costs of re-
covery and the occasions of environmental damage.

Substantial additional treatment of oil pollution may be found
later under analysis of the special problems of water pollution
and marine transporation.

Metals. Currently, the exploitation of metals in the coastal
zone of the North Atlantic Region is restricted to the mining of
zinc and copper on the coast of Maine and the extraction of mag-
nesium along the coast of New Jersey. Maine is also rich in other
heavy minerals both onshore and under coastal waters, i.e. moly-
bdenum in Penobscot Bay. However, no plans exist to extract these
resources in the near future because of both their marginal value
and the impact of mining activities on environmental quality.

Low grade deposits of beryllium are found in-the waters off
New England. Other submerged areas of the North Atlantic region
contain traces of zircorium, titanium, and thorium. However, be-
cause of their low-grade and the cost of recovery, none of these
metals are thought to be a source of mining activity in the fore-
seeable future.

As technology rapidly advances, a potential does exist for the
recovery of manganese and phosphate nodules in deep areas off the
Atlantic coast. The impact of this activity on the coastal zone
will be through the development of onshore unloading and process-
ing sites. With the development of these primary supportive sites
will come a myriad of secondary economic activities and the con-
sequent impact on the quality of the shoreline areas.

Solution mining or the extraction of minerals from sea water
as used for magnesium extraction in New Jersey is technologically
feasible. Currently this process is being used in other areas for
the recovery of bromine and salt as well as magnesium. These re-
covery operations resulted in a total value of $630 million be-
tween 1960 and 1966. (39). Future activity will most likely be
part of a larger complex which would include a nuclear generating
station and desalinization plant.

Water. There are three major current and potential uses for
the water of the coastal zone. These are the utilization of
underground water supplies for consumptive purposes, the potential
desalinization of saline water for this use, and the uses of the
brackish and saline waters of the area for power plant cooling.

At the present time, coastal areas such as Long Island and

U-61

Cape Cod depend for a major part of their water supply on under-
ground deposits. Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode
Island have only limited supplies of this resource, mostly in
glacial deposits. The southern part of the North Atlantic Region
contains extensive coastal plain formations but, especially in
Delaware and Maryland, these are mostly brackish. In New Jersey,
although salt water intrusion may be a problem, consideration is
being given to making extensive use of these coastal aquifers for
water supply. "Research is needed on the effect of the use of
coastal aquifers on the upwelling of ground water in the water-
tidal zone and below mean low water, and on the importance of this
ground water outflow to marine life in coastal areas."

As water demand increases the potential does exist for the de-
salinization of sea water. Although current costs of this process
are high, a combination of this with nuclear power generation and
mineral extractive activities is possible. This is particularly
true of the New York-Long Island area. This activity could have a
severe impact on the salinity of the coastal area in terms of the
waste products generated. Stringent regulations will need to be
developed with regard to the deposition of brine.

The rapidly increasing demand for electric power combined with
the constraints upon upland water supplies and land space will
necessitate the location of new generating plants on the coast.
Here the industry has access to almost unlimited supplies of water
and, especially in the northern areas, water of sufficiently low
temperature to provide efficient cooling. The potential effects
of the heated effluent on the biota of these areas is not yet
sufficiently understood, but the potential does exist to put such
discharge to use for aquaculture.

A more detailed treatment of cooling waters may be found later
under analysis of the selected problem of thermal effects.

U-62

WATER POLLUTION

Nature of the Problem. The problem to be considered here is
defined as--how to reconcile the disposal of waterborne wastes with
other human uses of the coastal zone in an economically and environ-
mentally acceptable way for now and for the future.

Pollution, itselft is thought of in different ways. Some hold
that it is any addition to an environment which causes a significant
change in the environment. Most emphasize "undesirableness" rather
than "change" and thus relate pollution to human value judgments.
Under this concept water pollution is considered to occur in the
coastal zone when any input into the water cycle alters coastal water
quality to the extent that a coastal use is impaired or lost (168).
This definition follows the current central concept of water quality
control: people inputs should guide the necessary value judgments as
to which water uses should govern in the future. These judgments can
then be translated technically with varying degrees of refinement
into physical-chemical limits beyond which the water quality will be
altered to the extent that the previously selected uses are impaired
or lost.

However water pollution is defined, note that the focus of this
analysis, as defined above, is slightly different. It does not
aspire to "eliminate pollution," however defined. Instead it seeks
to reconcile requirements to dispose of some wastes by waterborne
means with the requirements of other coastal uses. Instead of
Ifeliminating," it seeks to harmonize and implies that in so doing
some tradeoffs between conflicting goals will be necessary to avoid
sub-optimization.

Many billions of dollars are being contemplated for water pol-
lution abatement throughout the North Atlantic Region. No sharp
breakdown of these costs has been attempted herein to distinguish
between coastal and non-coastal pollution abatement because of the
pervading interrelationship between pollution in estuaries and pol-
lution in the rivers which feed them. Frequent references to this
interrelationship will be made throughout.

Because water pollution is such a vast subjectit is necessary to
limit the coverage at the outset. This analysis addresses those
broad classes, by source, of water pollution which are generally in-
cluded in the terms municipal, industrial and agricultural. Specif-
ically, it does not include thermal pollution abatement and solid
waste disposal aspectsbecause these are covered in other problem
analyses. It also does not cover air pollution, since this subject
is beyond the scope of the overall NAR study, although some signif-
icant interrelationships are suggested.

Another type of pollution not explicitly treated herein is
11natural pollution," the difference between the water quality which

U-63

would hypothetically exist without man's presence and some ill-defined
and even more hypothetical "ideal." Thus most sedimentation is some-
times considered a form of natural pollution, but such a label be-
comes very confusing when one recognizes that sedimentation is respon-
sible for much of the wetlands, coastal plains and other land forms
which seem to be so valuable today. Nature probably affects water
quality much more than man; however, these natural effects usually
come about very gradually. Therefore the things that have survived,
including man, usually regard these natural effects as "good," i.e.,
well suited to their own well being. In contrast, man-made changes
are usually more abrupt and proceed at a pace somewhat faster than
evolutionary accommodation can conveniently match. Thus for reasons
of definitional uncertainty and evolutionary accommodation, natural
pollution is not explicitly considered herein. However, it implic-
itly underlies every other form of water pollution under the assump-
tion that the water quality inherited from nature, and the ecosystem
which depends upon it, provide a useful point at which to begin. For
some special studies, many will want to take apart this very sweeping
generalization. For example, some researchers have suggested that
the natural background rates of fecal coli are about the same as the
rates induced by the concentrated presence of man ( 11). Further-
more, even when the human and other life systems have accommodated
to "natural pollution," they can often benefit by change in these
natural conditions.

In keeping with the framework nature of the overall NAR study,
this analysis emphasizes breadth. Thus it attempts to bring many
significant factors to the forefront, but it does not penetrate them
in detail. Therefore frequent generalizations are necessary. Prob-
ably all of them are subject to some adjustment when more detailed
site-specific attention is focused on any individual problem. A more
.definitive regionwide treatment of water quality is given in Appendix
.L (Water Quality and Pollution). Related Public health aspects are
discussed in Appendix V (Health Aspects).
Major Causes. The principal reasons for considering water pol-
lution to be a very significant problem in the coastal zone include:
present and increasing quantities of wastes (demand), the limited
assimilative capacity of the receiving waters (supply), the conse-
quences of not reconciling this demand and supply, and the diffi-
culties in accomplishing the reconciliation. Each of these four
major classes of causes is further developed below.

The first major cause is demand. As used here it is the need to
dispose of large and increasing quantities of waste from population,
industrial and agricultural sources.

Population growth is well documented. (Appendix B-Economic Base.)
The current NAR population is estimated to about double by the year
2020. The tendency to concentrate in urban areas is also well estab-
lished. According to some estimates the nation's population was about
40% urban in 1900, is about 70% today and will be about 80% by the

U-64

year 2020. Well within the 50-year time frame of the NAR Study, the
long-predicted supermegalopolis, extending from Boston to Norfolk,
with somFi-An.ps P_special.1yw7Ve!pr Its-,spi@p5 nd,-Js@z@xpected to be-
come a reality.
Thenation's ocean-borde'fin;g7:caunties -contain 40 percent of its
manufacturing plants (131). Figure U-5 depicts the rapid increase in
industrial wastes. It is unwise to project this relationship to the.
year 2020 because recycling and other potential solutions can hav6 a.
significant effect on the trend. Industrial discharges far exceed all
the sewered population of the United States in terms of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD). Over half the volume.comes from four major
industry groups--paper, organic chemicals, petroleum and steel. Al-
though the total treatment cost is high, it has been estimated to
average only about 1% of gross sales ( 43). Of course, there are,
other dimensions to'the industrial wastes part of the problem besides
those revealed by a BOD forecast. Also important are organic and
inorganic chemicals and heavy metals such as those shown in Table
.'U-5 . A heavy metal tuch'as lead can be introduced to coastal water's
in many ways-:-either directly through shotgun pellets which are in-
.gested by wildlife, indirectly through airborne precipitates origin-
ating from automobile exhausts, or through phenomena not influenced
by man. Whatever the cause, the effects on'.marine life are produced
by its concentration in ecologically important areas.

Livestock in the region cuirently produce.a BOD load equivalent
to that of about 82 million people. The significance of this load
will increase greatly with -expected shift to feedlots. The processing
of forestry products such as paper and pulp also produces very large
BOD loads in the region--equivalent to that of 1.3 billion people.
Agricultural chemicals also run off into streams which carry pollu-
tants to the coast. For a description of agricultural pollutants,
see Appendix'L, Water Quality and Pollution . It assesses the mag-
nitude, significance and controls for sediments, animal wastes, pro-
cessing of agriculture and forestry products, plant nutrients,
chemical exotics and infectious agents.

Whether pollution is generated by either the municipal, indus-
trial, or agricultural activities of man, there are other useful ways
of looking at water pollution sources. One way is to distinguish
between point and non-point sources.

Prominent point sources of municipal water pollution are the out-
falls from sewer systems. Industry accounts for other important
point sources through their own outfall; through oil spills induced
during oil extraction, transportation and use; through dredging,which
does not introduce the pollution but can resuspend it or move it; and
through industrial introduction of radionuclides. Boat pollution is
often considered a point source. Quantitatively it contributes some-
thing in the order of 1/10 of 1% of coastal pollutants ( 89),-but it
can concentrate fresh pathogen-containing wastes in sensitive

u-65

OXYGEN DEMANDING -WASTES UNITED STATES
TOTAL PRODUCTION' OF DOMESTIC AND MANUFACTURING WASTES
iwnls

Hell
cc

MUNICIPAL
FAAWFAC@8
IC
10

91
U BILLION POVIN FROM
MWFACFUMU 0 11144

U.
WORLD WAR N
20000 WASTES FROM MARFAMNING
La BEGIN TO EXCEED VOLUME OF
NUMAN WASTES
.... . ...... ......

........... V

-16 _L
1988 1910 1120 1930 U40 11160 lose Im In@

SOURCES: "The Cost of Clean Water," FWPCA 1968; Federal Reserve
Board Index; Census of Population, Bureau of Census; Water
Resource Council Projection.
'Data Shown in Terms of 1964: One FRB index point of industrial
production = 166 million pounds of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
per year. No adjustment was made for: product mix, sewering or
waste treatment.

NOTE: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD 5) is defined as the amount of
oxygen used in a given time period and at a given temperature
by bacteria that break down organic materials in water (usually
5 days at 20*C).

SOURCE (131) FIGURE U-@5

U-66

rn i
1 1, J1 p; 1
CHARACTERISTICST -OF- SOME, COMMON. -METALS'OF 7@
CONCERN IN THE:ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT

Natural Concentration Range of Concentration
Metal Chemical in Sea Water That Has Toxic
Symbol .mg/1) Effects On-Marine Life,"
(mg/1)

Silver Ag .0003 -Highly Toxic
Arsenic As .003 . 2.0 -
Cadimum Cd .08-. 0.01 to 10
'Chromium Cr .00005 1.0 -
Copper Cu .003 0.1
Mercury Hg .00003 0.1
Lead Pb .00003 01.1
Nickel Ni .0054 0.1.
Zinc Zn Al 10.0

NOTE: GThe figures in the last column are only broad indicators@
They do not, for example, reflect the synergistic effect'of one'.
element magnifying the toxicity of the other. The last column -
indicates the 1,owest concentra@ion@found to be toxic in any of the
L
species tested. For @xdmple, this concentration was 10.0 mg/l in
the-most zinc-sensitive species tested. If for some reason the'.-
natural zinc concentration in seawater were doubled and the most.
zinc-sensitive species multiplied this concentration-through it6-
food chain by a factor of 500 to a level of 10.0 mg/l, that par-
ticular species would die out in the locality affected by the con-
centration. The other species would not die until increases in the
background rate combined with concentrations in their food chains'@
produced concentrations in their bodies somewhat higher than 10.0--
mg/l. However, the surviving species would be affected indirectly@
to varying degrees as the local ecosystem readjusted to the loss of
the most zinc-sensitive species.

e This phenomena, of course, is nothing new. The differential
distribution of "food"-and "poisonous" elements and the differential
ability of species to concentrate and be affected by these elements.
(sensitivity) create limiting factors which.account for much of the
diversity and distribution of plants and animals throughout the.
earth on both land and sea.

*,What is."new" is the relative suddenness,of some of..,the
changes man introduces. Considerable time might be required for an
affected ecosystem to achieve a new equilibrium. During this
process of readjustment, neighboring species, including-man, can
be predictablyor unexpectedly:affected.

SOURCE: Tabular information extracted from (131).

U-67

localities such as marinas and shellfish areas. All of the point
sources introduce both problems-a'nd".bp'p-ortunities. They cause prob-
lems by concentrating wastes and thereby overtaxing dilution capac-
ities. On the other hand,. by"concentrating' was-tes,the-point sources
provide opportunities to employ major economies 'of scale in waste
treatment.

In marked contrast to point sources, non-point sources are
elusive to measure and control. Prominent non-point sources include
precipitates from airborne pollution; agricultural runoff of oxygen-
demanding substances, pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers; storm
runoff; ground-water contaminants; and resuspended pollutants
previously deposited in water courses. Some recent studies have
emphasized the relative importance of non-point sources vis-a-vis
point sources. Iowa reports, for example, that the fecal coli count
in its stream is dependent upon non-point sources. The highest
coliform count in its streams comes at high flow when precipitation
washes animal fecal material into streams ( 18 ). In another study
of the Millstone, Upper Raritan and Upper Passaic Rivers ( 162 ),
the researchers attempted to correlate the input of the known point
sources of BOD with the BOD levels actually found in the water
courses. They concluded that less than 40% of the observed organic
loading in the water courses could be attributed to known point
sources. Stated another way, even if treatment of these point
sources should be improved to absolute perfection (100% removal),
less than 40% of the problem would have been solved. There is a great
need to verify these results in the study area and elsewhere because
their implications are so significant. At present we know relatively
little on how to measure these sources, much less on how-to control
them economically.

Not falling conveniently under either point or non-point sources
is salinity. Salinity concentrations are affected by such things as
river flows; the quantity, location and movement of surface and sub-
surface water; the flushing characteristics of tidal areas; and
climate. Increases, decreases or stabilization of salinity concen+
trations are not categorically either beneficial or detrimental; it
depends upon the water use. For example coastal agricultural, water
supply and wildlife uses generally favor reduced salinity while
various species of marine life favor salinity reduction, stabiliza-
tion or increase. As implied above, salinity changes, whether "good"
or "bad, 1.1 can be influenced by either nature or man. To reach sound
conclusions in the numerous instances where options are possible, a
much better basic understanding is needed on the incremental effects
of salinity changes an all coastal uses.

A second major cause of the problem is supply. As used here it
is the capacity to assimilate wastes.

All matter and energy seem to be part of a gigantic natural re-
cycling system whose broader dimensions are global and epochal. In

U-68

this system matter and energy can be thought of as moving from one
temporary "sink" to another through a distinguishable number of tran-
sitional processes such as ingesti on, decomposition, evaporation and
erosion. One Of the maj'or 'classes of sinks is "precipitates" both
organic and inorganic. Propelled by dynamic forces, especially the
influence of gravity on water, precipitates tend to collect at the
lowest elevations. These are usually the oceans. The accumulation
is especially-consipicuous where rivers enter the ocean. There pre-
cipitates tend to pile up and frequently become resuspended in the
water column. Whether this accumulation is desirable or not depends
upon how it influences other uses of the coastal zone.

The important thing is to know the magnitude and significance of
the matter and energy which 'are entering our coastal waters, their
effects and the alternative ways of influencing this admixture to
improve' the total usefulness of the coast.

The ability of the ocean to absorb a certain amount of waste with
beneficial, neutral or acceptably deleterious effects on other uses
is the measure of its value for waste disposal purposes. If this
assimilation capability is abused, significant short and long-range
harm might be done to the entire system, including man.

A water body assimilates wastes when it reduces them to a harm-
less or desirable form through some physical, chemical or biological
process and'also when it reduces their concentrations to acceptable
levels. Assimilative capacities vary greatly. Probably the most
important factor is dilution. Inland,one of the most significant
approaches in mitigating pollution is increasing the dilution ca-
pacity of water courses especially during periods of high load and
low flow. Although man-introduced pollutants have been observed far
out to sea (DDT has been detected in the Antarctic), it is certainly
true that relative to inland waters, the oceans provide a far greater
dilution capacity. It would thus seem, considering the overall good,
that some waste disposal activities of man should more logically be
located on the coast where the flushing characteristics are the best.
Notwithstanding this observation, there are some real and significant
limitations to the dilution capacity of coastal waters, especially
estuaries. These limitations include:

e The'pollution trap formed in those estuaries in which net water
velocity drops off sharply as pollution-laden rivers enter tidewater.

The.usu.al location of major urban areas adjacent to these pollu-
tion traps.. The load on the estuary is.greatly increased and the
unpleasant effects of pollution are more prominently exposed to many
people..

'Q The.g're'at sensitivity.9K some marine life to changq,.a sens.i-@-
tiVity 4cquiied through;eyolx?tionJn a,relatively qhangq@qss oceanic
env3.ronmeht,- and

U-69-

9 The well documented concentration of toxic materials by ma-
rine life through the food chain to an extent that man is directly
or indirectly harmed.

A third major cause of the problem is the consequence of not
matching demand with supply. The inability.to match the waste
disposal requirements of man with his requirements for water of
various qualities can produce many conflicts between uses of the
coastal zone. Some of these conflicts were illustrated earlier
in Figure U-4 . They are considered in further depth later in this
analysis (Parties Affected).

A fourth major cause of the problem is the difficulty of match-
ing demand with supply. Within the NAR costs have been estimated
at about $50 billion to reach and maintain currently approved
standards to the year 2020 and another $50 billion to improve the
quality beyond these standards to meet regional objectives. (Ap-
pendix L - Water Quality and Pollution). The states in the NAR
have increased their construction of waste treatment facilities
greatly in recent years. For example, 7 of the NAR's 12 coastal
states are ranked in the top 14 in the nation in terms of increased
investment in 1967-69 compared with their 1962-66 average (149).

Water pollution is often cited as thhe prime example of an ex-
ternal diseconomy. If the user of water is not required to return
it in the same condition as he received it, he will avoid some costs
but only at the expense of other users who are hurt by the degraded
water quality. As long as the polluter is not charged with the
effects, there is an understandable tendency in this competitive
world for him to underplay treatment or other costly alternatives.
External effects are usually but not always negative. Many ex-
amples of beneficial thermal and nutrient enrichment are known and
in most of these caseE@ the enricher does not benefit by his contri-
bution.

Knowledge gaps in water pollution control are too numerous to
cover comprehensively herein. Some of the major knowledge gaps are:
(1) the effects of different degrees of water quality improvement
on the environment and the incremental costs and benefits asso-
ciated with these improvements; (2) the significance of non-point
source pollutants and the means of controlling them; (3) methods for
systematically integrating pollution control efforts regionally;
(4) mechanisms of various transport and transformation processes
influencing pollutant concentration in coastal waters; and (5)
economical methods of overcoming problems introduced by combined
sewer systems and by chemicals like nitrogen, phosphorus, organic
carbon and heavy metals. An excellent report on knowledge gaps in
wastes management in the coastal zone was recently released by the
National Academy'of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering
(73

U-76

Location. As mentioned earlier the ocean has a great, but far
from infinite, capacity to'dilute wastes. Dilution capacity has a
major influence on the location and severity of coastal pollution
problems.

The most significant coastal pollution problems in the NAR occur
in constricted estuaries located downstream from urban concentra-
tions. Examples are the Charles, Taunton, Providence, Hudson,
Passaic, Raritan, Delaware, Patapsco, Potomac and James Estuaries.

Figure U-6 depicts a typical situation in this region, Narra-
gansett Bay. Note that pollution is concentrated almost exclu-
sively in the finger-like sub-estuaries. When these feeder estua-
ries enter the major part of the bay, water quality improves to the.
highest classification. The more restricted the dilution capacity
at the heads of the sub-estuaries, the"worse the water quality.

Two other typical causal factors are operating in Narragansett
Bay to fix the location of the worst pollution. One is adjacency
to urban centers clearly illustrated by the Providence and Taunton
Rivers. The second is tidal effects. In some locations the boun-
ary configurations of an estuary are such as to cause the tide to
act as a dam,'delaying the riverine flow and causing the estuary
to become a sediment trap. It is hard to form generalizations on
net tidal effects. In some locations the tide serves to increase
net flushing and at others it decreases it. As an example of the
latter, estimates are that "the mean residual time of pollution intro-
duced in the Hudson River--can be as long as 400 days" (41). Detailed
observations and studies are usually necessary to preditt even the
direction of the effects of proposed changes in estuarine boundary
configurations.

Other pollution problems occur in almost completely enclosed,
poorly-flushed back bays close to high population densities. An
example is Great South Bay on the south shore of Long Island.

On the open ocean coastline, with one major exception, pollu-
tion is possibly less of a problem than it is anywhere else in the
continental United States. The exception is massive oil spills
which can affect the open ocean coast as well as estuarine coasts.
d6nsiderable attention will be given to oil spills later in this
Appendix. (See Parties Affected under the analysis of Marine
Transportation.) In an'evaluation of 38 spills-of 2,000 barrels
and over a'recent study ( 17) indicated that: 1) 75% were associated
with vessels, mostly tankers; 2) 80% of the oil spilled wag crude.
Although residual oils made up only 1% of the spillage, they were
involved in nearly halftth& spills'.- -3).The Torrey Canyon which
s
'illed 700,000 barrels was by fa' the largest, twice as large as
p r
the next and about 1/3 of the tota@l for all 38. 4) About half were

U-71

Water Pollution Classification

El Class SA - Suitable for all sea water uses-
including shellfish harvest for di-
rect human consumption (approved
shellfish areas), bathing, and other
water contact svorts.

Class SB - Suitable for bathing, other rec-
reational purposes, industrial cool-
ing, and shellfish harvesting for
human consumption after depuration,
excellent fish and wildlife habitat,
good aesthetic value.

Class SC - Suitable habitat for fish, wild-
life and non-harvestable shellfish;
suitable for recreational boating
O.V/04t277.
IV and industrial cooling; good
N"
aesthetic value.
Class SD - Suitable for navigation, indus-
trial cooling, and migration of
fish; good aesthetic value.
k

Class SH - Nuisance, unsuitable for most
uses.

PRESENT CLASSIFICATION OF NARRAGANSETT BAY WATER QUALITY

JC4ZE 0V A.F SOURCE: (31) FIGURE'u-6

within a mile of shore and nearly all were within 10 miles. At
the average rate of oil movement of 1/2 knot, an onshore wind
could move oil to the shore in two hours in about half the inci-
dents. 5) The spills lasted 3 to 100 days with the median dura-
tion of 17 days. 6) The median length of coast contaminated was
7 miles. None except the Torrey Canyon was over 40 miles. 7)-75%
Occurred within 25 miles of a port. 8) The principal environmental.
factors which affect the severity of spills are: sea conditions,
wind direction and velocity,surface currents and tidal effects,
water temperature and general atmospheric conditions. 9) Before and
after observations have not yet been adequate to distinguish en-
vironmental impacts caused by oil spills from other natural back-
ground phenomena which also affect the environment. Nevertheless,
available information indicates that marine birds in the vicinity
are usually badly hurt. The effects on shellfish appear fairly
temporary and even when high mortalities were observed, complete
recovery apparently occurred in six months to two years. (However,
see pages 133 and 134 for further discussion.) Finfish were not
affected and no lasting effects on the food chain were observed.
10) Other than on marine life, the spills affected shoreline rec-
reation, aesthetics and land use. The impacts varied with the
season, and duration and with the intensity of use foregone.

Time Characteristics. Most of the contributing factors just
mentioned--constriction, urbanization and tidal effects--are pre-
sent in all seasons. The problem is therefore primarily a con-
stant one with some worsening in the summer although not nearly to
the degree experienced inland.

There are many reasons why coastal pollution tends to be worse
in the summer. As temperatures rise, the quantity of dissolved
oxygen water can hold drops off just at a time when the rate of
decomposition (biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD) increases. This
usually occurs during a period of decreased seasonal freshwater
inflows and at a time when people have their closest contact with
the water. Marine life is operating near its maximum temperature
threshold and is generally much more prone to water quality
deterioration than at other times. In a few poorly flushed coas-
tal areas such as Arthur Kill between Staten Island and New Jersey
dissolved oxygen can reach zero and anerobic decomposition can
occur with attendant odors and fish kills.

In contrast to most coastal pollution, which despite its sum-
mer peak is usually a year-round problem, massive oil spills are
more of an all-or-nothing event. With respect to any given
locality they are relatively rare, but in aggregate their fre-
quency is increasing.

Over the long-range, it is difficult to predict whether coas-
tal water quality will improve or degrade. Certainly without the
current and anticipated scale of effort, coastal pollution would
become increasingly severe. Many billions of dollars will be

U-73

spent in this region to control pollution, but whether this massive
effort will be of a scale to compensate for growth-induced pollu-
tion, is not fully known.

Parties Affected. Efforts to identify and quantify actual
major losses attributable to coastal pollution have been somewhat
unfruitful. A clear exception is the shellfish loss, especially
the loss incurred from restricting the human consumption, without
prior depuration, of oysters growing in some waters. The research
organization, which prepared "Case Studies of Pollution Damage to
Estuaries" for FWPCS in 1969 (Contract No. 14-12-473, has stated:
"In spite of the tremendous amount of material appearing in print
regarding water pollution, it is extremely difficult to find
examples of well documented, scientifically investigated situations,
where there is no doubt that pollution, in its broadest interpreta-
tion, is the cause of the problem observed . ....... Authors and
government authorities are reluctant, or perhaps unable, to reach
a definite conclusion as to the fact that pollution did in fact
cause the damage observed. The second difficulty occurs when one
tries to attach a dollar value to the loss." (61)

One way of partially overcoming this identification problem is
to reverse the coin -- to see who might benefit from a significant
planned increment of improvement in coastal water quality. The
question will be examined in terms of a specific and important ex-
ample. The Greater New York Area has an extensive plan with a
tine oriented goal to improve water quality. The Interstate Sani-
tation Commission (ISC) operates in the tri-state area within about
50 miles of the southern tip of Manhattan Island. Figure U-7
depicts the difference between the current and planned water qual-
ity in terms of commonly cited usages. Should this quality im-
provement be attained, uses of coastal waters in the vicinity
might be improved as suggested below.

Commercial fishing should benefit to the extent that improved
water quality increases the fish catch. Safety, congestion, eco-
nomics and other considerations would probably still limit com-
mercial fishing in some of these areas despite the water quality
improvement. The outermost areas such as Jamaica Bay, New York
Bight and Western Long Island Sound are more likely to be opened
to possible increases in commercial shellfish operations. The
magnitude of any likely increase has not been estimated. The
dockside value of commercial fish taken in the waters surrounding
all of Long Island and the metropolitan area in recent years has
averaged about $12 million annually.

U-74

PLANNED MPROVEMENT IN.COASTAL 14ATER QUALITY

Greater New York Area

Current (1970) Planned (2000)

. . . . . . . . . .
J

Suitable for all recreational use

Suitable for recreational uses except bathing
Ordinarily not suitable for recreational uses

SOURCE: (122) FIGURE U- 7
The waste disposal program will oos Ctlie- -area-,__-_- and the state
and National governments which will carry part of the cost --,
about $6.4 billion for sewage collection and treatment facilities
to the year 2000. Of this $6.4 billion, about a third or $2.1
billion is for upgrading water quality from its current to its
planned level as shown in Figure U-8. The remaining $4.3 billion
is to maintain the planned quality in the face of expected growth
(122). The $6.4 billion cost (1963 dollars) was compiled several
years ago and should be adjusted upward to account for the in-
crease in the cost index of the construction of sewage facilities
and the increases in state and Federal requirements over those set
out a few years ago. It does not include measures to control
water pollution from other closely related sources such as combined
sewers and non-point sources, the cost of private facilities such
as required for industrial discharges and the cost of operating and
maintaining the facilities.

Recreation should benefit, if other problems of shoreline ac-
cessibility and desirability for bathing can be overcome. Some of
the outer beaches now closed regularly or intermittently could be-
come available for swimming. The benefit would accrue about 90
days annually and peak on about 10 summer weekends. The costs of

U-75

pollution abatement plus considerations of safety and beach desir-
ability have apparently been judged to be just too high to make it
feasible to open up even more beaches to recreation.

A number of factors limit the extent of recreational boating
in the New York metropolitan area. Among them are water quality,
seasonality, port congestion, safety, and marina and launching
facilities. Figure U-7 shows that the water quality limitations,
especially in the inner harbor and Hudson River are planned to be
removed. The effect of this improvement on recreational boating
in these areas is unknown, especially in light of the probable
continued existence of the other limitations.

Little sports fishing now occurs in the metropolitan area.
Planned water quality improvements, if accompanied by other mea-
sures to make the metropolitan shorelines more accessible and
attractive, should increase participation; however, water quality
improvements may not be sufficient to encourage the human consump-
tion of fish caught in the vicinity.

Aesthetic satisfaction is probably the use that will benefit
most from coastal water quality improvement. To see why and how,
the catchall "aesthetics" aeeds some dissection.

First, consider the most tangible part of aesthetic satisfaction-
the satisfacti-on directly perceivable by any of the physical senses.
Call it "sensible aesthetics". It is very unlikely that water qual-
ity improvements in the urban coastal waters will have a significant,
direct impact on the senses of a substantial portion of the urban
populace. Unless the beholder approaches very close, pollution can-
not be percei-ved by his eye. Exceptions are floating debris and oil
slicks, but these two problems represent very little of the $6.4
billion planned for sewerage programs. Floating debris is con-
sidered in another problem of this appendix (Solid Waste Disposal).
In a few highly localized areas such as the M"rthur Kill on hot days
the sense of smell will be offetidcd in those who need to or desire
to move close enough to the water to preceive it. The other physi-
cal senses are indifferent to pollution, recognizing that the waters
will not be actually drunk. To do that, if practicable, would re-
quire desalination which would probably remove pollutants in the
process.

The indirect visual effects are probably greater. Thus, if
improved water quality results in more sailboats on these waters,
the aesthetic satisfaction of the beholder would be unquestionably
enhanced. To the extent that improved water quality increases
marine life sufficiently to cause many to move to the water's
edge to preceive this life, aesthetic satisfaction would also be
enhanced.

Next, consider a more elusive form of aesthetic satisfaction --

U-76

human satisfaction which is not ascribable to sense percc?ption. It
could be called "suprasensible aesthetics". It might be here that
coastal pollution control in urban waters has its big human payoff.
When people, who are aware that pollution abatement programs will
not greatly improve their own direct uses of the coastal water, ap-
prove bond issues and referendums, they appear to demonstrate a
clear willingness to pay the cost. Although this "gut feeling" is
elusive, it is very real. It seems to account for the major part
of the multi-billion dollar program.

Another important public benefit which can be entered under
aesthetic satisfaction for want of a better place to put it is the
feeling of satisfaction in adopting a safeside approach to uncer-
tainty. Currently, there is much speculation that water pollution
could irreversibly change the oceanic ecosystem with great long-
range effects on the health and general well being of mankind. Un-
til these hypotheses can be reliably confirmed or dismissed, people
have demonstrated a marked readiness to bear substantial additional
costs for safety.

Water quality improvement has little effect on national defense
or marine transporation except as they contribute to water pollu-
tion and must bear their share of the cost of its control.

Coastal land owners are affected to the extent that the value
of their land is based upon any of the other coastal uses cited
herein. Thus, for example, coastal lands used for bathing are
much more affected than coastal lands used for transporation. To
assess this value better, there is a need for studies of changes
in urban land values brought about by changes in water quality.

Solutions. Notwithstanding numerous inland interrelation-
ships, it has thus far been relatively easy to describe the prob-
lem in a coastal context.

When it comes to solutions, however, it becomes somewhat arti--
ficial. to distinguish the coastal aspects from the overall im-
provement of water quality -- from inland source to, and including,
sea. For example, efforts to disaggregate program costs in terms
of coastal and non-coastal components do not yet appear very re-
warding. Only general solutions can be considered in this analy-
sis. Site - specific solutions for each area require more detailed
study.

In identifying and considering solutions, therefore, this analy-
sis will list some major elements or stages of a systematic water
quality improvement program. These stages may be considered as key
points at which alternative decisions can importantly influence the
degree of desired coastal quality improvement attainable with a
finite commitment of resources. At each stage alternatives multi-
ply, not only from the choices which can be made at that stage, but

U-77

also from the relative degree of emphasis given the stage. Thus,
the first listed stage -- the set.ting of an overall objective --
can beget numerous alternatives greatly affecting every subsequent
stage. A failure to ar.ticulate an overall objective and to review
subsequent steps in terms of it can result in a decentralized, and
possibly ambiguous and ill-aimed program. Similarly, alternative
ways of wording this overall objective should greatly influence a
wellmanaged coherent program.

To provide an intitial overview the stages have been itemized
and broadly classified in Table U-6 as institutional and techn,*Lcal.
Subsequent commentary on each stage is provided only in enough
depth to explain the stage, suggest its overall and/or coastal
significance, point out some alternatives, and sometimes express
a preference for one of the alternatives.

Before considering each stage, a few further preliminary com-
ments applicable to them are necessary.

a Completeness - An effort has been made to be comprehensive,
however, the list of stages is not complete. Other stages, and
alternatives within each stage, existing and in the future, cun be
added. The list can serve as a framework within which addi t4 on@
can be located systematically with respect to those already identi-
fied. The principal purpose of the framework is to display the
very important concept that there are multiple approaches which
should be considered in the solution to the problem in each coas-
tal area. To concentrate almost completely on one such as treat-
ment plants can be narrow and inefficient.

0 Sequence - Some attention has been given to listing th,2
stages in a logical sequence. However, there is considerable over-
lap and feedback between them all. For brevity and simplicity this
overlap and feedback will usually not be identified, but its ap-
plication throughout should be kept in mind.

0 Research - Significantly rewarding research can be under-
taken to improve performance at each stage, but for brevity this
need will be articulated in only a few illustrative cases.

Each of the stages selected for representation in Table U-6
will now be discussed briefly in the same order as they are dis-
played in the Table.

Set Overall Objective. It is of fundamental importance that a
carefully constructed meaningful objective be articulated at the
outset to reduce the possibility of substantial effort being ex-
pended on an inaccurate premise. The overall objective used here-
in is;

U-78

TABLE U-6

SOME STAGES IN DEVELOPING POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAMS

Institutional

1. Set overall objective
2. Establish goals (assigned uses) to meet objective.
3. Establish criteria to meet goals.
4. Establish incremental relationship between benefits of meeting
goals and costs incurred thereby.
5. Identify sources and quantify and quality them in terms of
established criteria.
6. Predict relationships between waste sources and recipient
water quality.
7. Select plant and outfall locations
8. Establish controls.
9. Implement technical methods selected.
10. Monitor water quality.
11. Enforce.
12. Distribute costs.
13. Make regional systems analyses.

Technical

Before Treatment

1. Redesign industrial processes.
2. Recycle.
3. Improve degradability of wastes.
4. Restrict some usages.

During Collection, Treatment and Disposal
1. Collect from point sources.
2. Collect from non-point sources.
3. Select locations.
4. Select degree' of treatment.

At Disposal Area

1. Retain effluent.
2. Augment low flow.
3. Improve flushing characteristics.
4. Aerate in-situ.
5. Remove bottom sediments.
6. Coat bottom sediments.
7. Minimize remaining effects.

U- 79'

To reconcile the dispos;tl of waterborne wastes with
other human uses of the coastal zone in an economi-
cally and environmentally acceptable way -- for now
and the future.

This wording does not try to maximize waste disposal, water
-quality,-economics, environment, the now or the future -- but it
does prominently and explicitly establish their interrelationships
at the outset and implies that solutions will generally be trade-
offs. How this can be done provides the basis for subsequent
analysis. There are, of course, other ways.of expressing the
governing objectives, but however, it is worded, it should be done
at the beginning -- even if after later analysis it may require
some sharpened rewording.

Establish Goals. The first step in meeting the broad objective
would be to break it down into more tangible goals, the accomplish-
ment of which would achieve the objective. The current method ap-
pears excellent; the major use which requires the highest quality,
is designated for each part of the coastal waters. To obtain the
views of people who use these waters, public hearings are held.
After considering this and other information such as costs, the
affected states recommend use classifications. Although there are
some differences among states, the use classification shown in
Figure U- 6and Table U-7 is representative. Since coastal waters
for the most part have beenclassified.interstate for this purpose,
the state recommendations require approval-by the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. With minor exceptions, the recommenda-
tions of all the coastal states in the NAR have received this ap-
proval. Of course, as additional information becomes available on
the benefits and costs of achieving these use classification, they
may be adjusted either upwards or downwards. Provided a reason-
able flexibility is retained to make these adjustments, this sys-
tem is excellent in providing a basis for later stages.

Establish Criteria to Meet Goals. The environmental require-
ments of each of the above designated uses provides the basis for
establishing water quality criteria. "Criteria", used throughout
for consistency, is the same as "standards." In most pollution
abatement literature the two terms are -used interchangeably. In
general, coastal water quality requirements are highest for shell-
fish harvesting with bathing, boating and landscape visual quality
following in that order. For additional indepth description and
analysis of criteria, see (93) and (150). Table U-7 is' representa-
tive of the type of use-oriented criteria currently established.
Just as the recommended uses must be approved by the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, these implementing criteria must also be
so approved. With some exceptions, the criteria have received
this approval in the NAR's coastal states. Again provided a
reasonable flexibility is retained to make adjustments as addi-
tional knowledge emerges, this system is also excellent in taking
the analysis down-to the next-lower level.

U-80

NEW ENGLAND INTERSTATE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL COMMISSION
CLASSIFICATION AND STANDARDS OF QUALITY FOR COASTAL AND MARINE WATERS
(As Revised and Adopted April tS, 1%7)
STANDARDS OF WATER QUAL[TY

Sludge deposits-
WATER USE DESCRIPTION DISSOLVED OXYGEN solid refuse - COLOR COLIrORM BACTERIA TASTE AND PH
CLASSES floating solids- AND
oil - wesee - a". TURBIDITY per 100 .1 ODOR

Suitable for all sea water uses No- " No, 11 exceed a med'an MPN of
c....:'Ch AL
"
luding shellfish harvesting for lion 70 and hot ore @ah 1.11; .1 the
he :hat would samples shall Ordinarily exceed '6.8 8.5
CLASS SA direct human co sumption. ( app- Not 1088 than 6.0 ing, I None allowable At ny None allowable
.1 at any time a - 230 for & 5 - tube decl-
roved shellfish uses) bathing. and ,`T@s "Pec"'c"lly maLMdpLN.U0ch Or 330 1. a 3 - tube
other water contact sports. assigned to decimal dilution (See Note S. I)
this El... I Allowable
Temperak.0
None in such InA:insmie
Suitable EW bathing. other racre- None in such centratAces that Note 2)
al4onal PUFPO345. industrial cool- co-tFations Not to exceed a m6ill" value of would LMP&Lr any
:@at vroiAld 700 and not more than 2. 300 An wsaqes specifically 6.0 8.5 Chanuical
CLASS BE Arig &oil shellfish hii-Aing for Not less than 5.0 mg/l None allowable my assigned to this
huinan consumption after dep@- at any time "'Pa" mine man 10% of I he Aiarnplas
t r Consuh, Me
Uon: AAAAmLlent f- h and wild life sages specifically A@ Note S. I I class and nove tftz@
habitat: good aesthetic value. "signed to would muse taste Not. 31
this .1... and odor in edible
fish - shollfash R&dLoscuvW
I ( Nabs 4)
C@ None except that None An such Aton-
I
01 anicurit hat may a_ such centrations that
1-` Suitable fish. shellfish and wild life No' less than 5 .9/1 It thm in* a,s- hAU'ations would luLp&Lr any
during at least it hours cshwg@ j@ a that would None in such Goncentratioss usag" spscificany
CLASS SC babitat: siAaable for tecram-al of any 24 hinu parwd impa. any that would impauir any usages assigned to 'his 6.5 9.5
boating. and in ustrial cooling. waste uedlinew mxrci ically assigned to this
hArAAcd has I ... tha'@ 3 .9/1 facility Providing usages specifically f I.. and ho
good "34 v.I.e. at any lun. appropriate treat- assigned 1. class would "use as,,
..At this clas. Aind d- An edl.
fish a an.11figh

None In such c
None except that No- An sii@h centratsoas that
Suitable for navigation. Power. :-1 the' may to- cont-entrations None in such concentrations would impair any
&ad mata.. industrial coohq Not less than 2 Ang/I ull from the dis- ih.t .-fit usages specaLwalty 6.5 8.5
CLASS SD water; misr4tLOO Of fish; at any t-. charge fi%nn a Waste Impau' any that would -pav any usag" assigned to line
treatment facility usages specifically spec.licafly assigned to this class and none that
good aesthetic value. proiAidAng approPmets assigned to lass would muse Lasta,
treatment AM. class and 0dor a adlible
fish or shallbah

NOTES SA Surveys to determine collfwm ci,wentrations shall include those areas =111. probably S.4 The d-harqe of radioactive mat-als en concentrations w combinations which %xisild
expe"ed to fecal cor,tirmunation during the mom unfavorable hydrographic and pollution be.harmtul to human. animal or aquatic life aliall not be allowed.
A:ond,.....
S.S Coastal. and maune waters &a those genseaLly subject to the rise and fatl of the tide.
S.2 N@ except where the increase will not exceed the cecunmended 1-18 On the most
sensaive eLte, a&. S. b The standards 61.11 apply at .11 times in coastal and marine waters.
S 3. None in such concer"l,ons or coindinatims which would be harmful to li-an, animal,
or aquatir life or which would m a or
" la:heLlwa[w . uniialfe a unsuitable for fish Shellfish
of fheo Propagation. Impaw the pa ab Aly of same. Of Iftipau 3,he water for any other rPA'DT V 117@1
SOURCE (% 7 55 'N usage. UA

Establish Incremental Benefit-Cost Relationship . As difficult
as it is, this important step should not be avoided as it often is.
"Benefits" and "costs" as used herein are construed in their
broadest context to include both monetary and non-monetary con-
siderations. These two considerations can and should be inter-
related; knowledge of the monetary costs and expenditures and
benefits foregone can provide considerable insight as to whether
they should be incurred, increased, or diminished to achieve
,different levels of non-monetary benefits.

It is a mistake to think of monetary and non-monetary considera-
.tions as unrelated. Two examples will bring out the point. In the
.-first example, take as given the fact,,that to achieve a certain_
minor non-monetary benefit great monetary costs will be incurred;
If these high costs were distributed elsewhere to provide other en
vironmental improvements or social improvements such as education,
welfare or tax relief, a much greater total benefit might be at-
tained. In the second example, take as given the fact that only a
minor monetary cost will produce major non-monetary benefits. In
this case, there is no question that the program should be under-
taken. Arguments which seek to reject economic relationships as
irrelevant to environmental issues sometimes produce emotional
polarization which is not conducive to rational decision making.
Since monetary resources will always be limited, it is very impor-
tant that they be applied in ways which can produce the greatest
-overall benefit. There appears to be no escape from this reality.

Accordingly, the highest priority should be given to that form
of research which can increase understanding of how incremental
water quality benefits are related to incremental costs of achiev-
ing these benefits, whether the benefits or costs be monetary or
not. Currently, a lack of adequate knowledge in this field,
especially with respect to marine life, is one of the greatest im-
pediments to the development of a rational coastal water quality
program. To what extent inland and coastal activities should be
constrained out of consideration for each other is, unfortunately,
inadequately known at present. Increased knowledge here can pro-
.duce greater overall benefits than it can in probably any other
step in program development.

A possible way to begin to require this essential understand-
ing is to use the models developed in the plan formulation part of
-the NAR study. If they are developed to thier potential a general
cost versus water quality curve could be constructed. For example,
as dissolved oxygen requirements for a major river entering tide-
..water are raised, the model will make selections from an increas-
@ingly costly upstream set of solutions. These include: improved
,treatment, jow flow augmentation, instream aeration and relocation
or cessation of industrial processes."''The derived cost - quality

U-82

curve could then be related to the value of the coastal uses which
require varying levels of dissolved oxygen. Much judgment will
still be needed,, especially because of unquantifiable environ-
mental factors. Still considerable light will have been thrown
upon a decision that is now made largely by intuition. Even un-
certainty and environmental intangibles can be examined by intro-
ducing them as constraints, and then comparing solution costs with
and without the constraints.

Determine Sources. A major step in achieving water quality
standards is to identify sources of pollutants which combine to
produce ambient water quality. Fundamental to rat'ional analysis
is an inventory of pollutant sources showing their location, quan-
tity, quality and temporal variations. As stressed earlier, it is
relatively easy to identify point sources, but there is an increas-
ing body of evidence to indicate that the more elusive non -point
sources could be of equal or greater significance as a determinent
of water quality. For example, it has been reported that in the
Los Angeles County area more organic wastes are discharged into
the atmosphere than into the Pacific Ocean (73). In that area it
is clear that at least one non-point source, airborne precipitates,
could be of major significance in developing programs to improve
the quality of the water. The identification and analysis of these
non-point sources should receive the highest priority unless their
significance can be demonstrated to be minor.

Predict Source-Recipient Relationships. When the desired cri-
teria and the pollutants which influence them are known, it is
conceptually straightforward to predict how the sources (inputs)
of these pollutants affect desired water quality criteria in re-
cipient water bodies. However, practically this is still very
difficult. The decay rate of pollutants, chemical and biological
interactions and the movement of tidal waters govern the concen-
tration of coastal pollutants at any given time and place. Decay
rates and chemical and biological interactions over time require
considerably more research. The description of the circulation of
most tidal waters often requires very sophisticated and costly
analysis, especially when effort is made to predict the effect: of
changes. Currently models based on correlation with the observed
distribution of dyes provide the best means of prediction. Numeri-
cal models and physical models each have their advantages and
limitations. In important situations, both may be justified. For
analyses of the relative utility of modelling methods, see (133)
and (94). Whatever method is used, it is essential that the basic
source-recipient relationship be known before costly abatement:
programs can be rationally contemplated.

Select Plant and Outfall Locations. The siting of treatment
plants and outfalls should be influenced not only by economic
proximity to the pollution source but also by the locational ef-
fect on the receiving waters. This is particularly important in

U-83

COASTAL DILUTION BENEFIT

Discharge into river

F
C E

H Discharge into
the open ocean

0
D Increasing
pollution

Note: For a given degree of pollution, D, effluent treatment
costs are far less when discharging into the open ocean,
G, than when discharging into the river, E. For a given
treatment cost, C, much less pollutionlresults with ocean
discharge, F, than with river discharge, E. Between F and
G there are opportunities for all to benefit from the
superior dilution qualities of the ocean. One such point
is H at which both costs and pollution are less.

SOURCE : (31) FIGURE U-8

the coastal zone. To satisfy a given set of environmental cri-
teria, for example, a long ocean outfall with diffusers at the
outlet end might be far less costly than increased treatment.
other factors must be considered too. For example, instead of
economically-venting liquid wastes to the ocean, it might be better
overall in some localities to incur increased treatment costs and
allow the improved waste water to-be used for 'ground water re-
J_L

plenishment or for maintaining minimal salinity concentrations im-
portant to other uses such as aquiculture and oyster cultivation.
Attention to locational considerations might greatly decrease
costs and simultaneously greatly increase water quality as Figure
U-8 illustrates.
. U-84

Reasonable care is assumed in applying this concept. Careful
research and analysis would have to be made to prove out the eco-
logical and economical tradeoffs suggested. Sites would probably
be concentrated at the many coastal locations where discharge can
economically and safely be made into the ocean proper. They would
not be located along most estuaries, in busy ports, or in impor-
tant recreational, conservation, preservation or shellfishing
areaso

. The point is that the ability to dilute effluent relative to
inland water bodies may determine the highest and best use of some
stretches of the region's ocean coast. Overall pollution problems
are relieved every time a new major pollutor decides to locate in
that portion of the nation and region which can best accommodate
his effluent.

For many industries, such as the canning industry, the ability
to dispose of large volumes of waste economically and inoffensively
is the difference between growth and decline. A single sugar beet
plant, for example, may generate wastes with a BOD equal to that of
a city of a quarter million people (169). To encourage the loca-
tion of such industries where it is to the best national and re-
gional advantage, will require some change in current approaches.
Coastal areas, particularly those in which unemployment and poverty
are problems, should understand and consider the option to capital-
ize on the unique natural disposal capabilities of their areas by-
advertizing and inducing new disposal industries to locate in these
areas. An alternative-of requiring all pollutors to treat effluent
to the same degree, say secondary, regardless of location, has the
virtues of simplicity, enforceability and apparent fairness, but it
may result in pollution continuing to be concentrated in inland
areas where the effects may be much more deleterious.

Establish Controls. Before embarking on costly treatment pro-
grams, the problem can often be reduced in scale by regulations,
permits and other controls. Despite the attendant restriction on
other human values,, controls may often be the best overall solu-
tion, provided that the cost of accepting these restrictions is
less than the additional degree of treatment required or benefits
achieved.

Implement Technical Methods Selected. Numerous alternative
technical methods are cited later. The problem of implementing
them, however, is an institutional one requiring public acceptance
and funding. All of the other steps in this analysis have as their
objective the reduction of this particular step to an acceptable
minimum. Considering the great variety of tools available, major
savings appear very attainable, but they will require a degree of
knowledge and sophisticated analysis which needs much more devel--
opment.

Monitor Water Quality. In many places in this region pollu-
tion abatement progress is largely measured in'terms of the com-
bined capacity of treatment plants constructed and proposed. Al--
though such
U-85

a yardstick is delightfully tangible, it is nevertheless a poor one.
Progress should be measured in terms of changes in the target water
quality criteria. This can only be done if adequate monitoring sys-
tems are employed. Enough adequate monitoring systems do not exist.
Since it is basic to any program to have a reliable means of measur--
ing progress in terms of target criteria, this deficiency is a major
one. Greater emphasis on this means of performance analysis could
have the very desirable effect of shifting needed attention to the
greater variety of tools in addition to treatment plants which might
produce more significant results more economically. According to
the U. S. Council on Environmental Quality ( 43), "Current monitoring
systems are often spotty in coverage, and do not provide the total
information necessary to assess environmental conditions and trends
or to predict the impact of proposed actions, or to determine the
effectiveness of programs for protecting an enhancing environmental
quality". FWQA and others are developing monitoring systems.

Enforce. Whatever is decided to be done, enforcement wi-11 be
necessary to see that it is done efficiently. Consistent, uniform
and reasonable enforcement can benefit everyone, especially those
against whom enforcement is directed, because it minimizes unfair
competitive disadvantages.

Distribute Costs. An important element in any pollution abate-
ment program is the distribution of costs to the sectors of society
that will bear them. In general, the more a pollution contribution
can be localized to an individual, municipality or industry or
other source, the more that source might be charged with the cost --
in abatement costs and in benefits foregone. Correspondingly, the
more widespread the contribution, the more the public as a whole
might bear the cost. However, this concept is not quite so pat as
it might appear. For example, although the primary burden would
seem to apply to the polluter, the user may not necessarily be
completely free of bearing the costs his water quality requirements
necessitate. Secondly, the principle has been well established,
especially in the case of municipal polluters, that higher levels
of government should bear a substantial part of the costs. The
relative share of these costs is shifting somewhat, and the level
at which it will eventually stabilize is hard to predict. Notwith-
standing this uncertainty, cost distribution is an element that the
formulators of pollution abatement programs must address. It would
be very helpful to all concerned if they could depend upon a fully
predictable proportioning of the costs. At present, some localities
may be deferring action in the hope of shifting a great burden of
costs later to higher levels of government. It would be better
clearly to reward the doer than the procrastinator.

As emphasized earlier there are many external diseconomies in
pollution abatement. One difficult but efficient and equitable way
.:of distributing much of the costs is to "internalize the diseconomies"
.by various.forms of assessmetits;or effluent.-charge-systems,in which

U-86

all polluters pay their share of the effluent collection and treat-
ment,

Make Regional Systems Analysis. This step is placed at the end
of the institutional alternatives by way of summary. Actually it
embraces all of the above alternatives -- and the technical alter-
natives as well. Its objective is to put the pieces together to
produce the best overall solution.

The word "regional" in this context requires considerable at--
tention. If too small a bite is attempted, solutions will prob-
ably be suboptimal. On the other hand, if too large a bite is at-
tempted the analysis can become unmanageable. As a general rule,,
a river basin is probably the best bite. The NAR is fortunate in
this respect in that, unlike the Mississippi or other large single-
river regions, it is compartmented into much more digestible bites.
Its smaller rivers flow parallel into the sea. From an exclusively
coastal point of view large estuaries such as Chesapeake Bay and
Long Island Sound also justify a complex integrated approach.
Here,, however, some simplicity can be gained by recognizing that
much of the water quality use conflicts can be localized in the
poorly flushed subestuaries.

Some of the significant advantages of a river basin systems
approach were demonstrated in a recent study of the Merrimack
River by the General Accounting Office (126). Even though this
study for simplicity of illustration addressed only the control
of BOD and ignored most of the alternatives suggested herein, it
still is useful to illustrate some of the advantages of the re-
gional systems approach. The study showed how relatively minor
expenditures could produce large improvements in water quality
over a major stretch of the river. The study concluded that those
actions which produce the greatest return for effort invested
should be given priority attention. It questioned the efficacy of
emphasizing either municipal or industrial pollution abatement
categorically above the other and suggested that a general goal
of bringing all plants 'to the secondary level might not be the
most efficient solution. A thoughtful discussion of this point
may be found in (18). Instead, the study showed how tertiary
treatment at a few critical locations might be more rewarding than
even primary treatment at others. One deficiency in the limited
approach was the failure to take adequately into account the rela-
tive readiness to proceed of the different pollutant abaters. Al-
through readiness to proceed is an important criteriont it can be
given too much precedence in relation to other factors cited
herein as the following quotation indicates: "An unfortunate ef.-
fect of the lack of effective priorities is to channel funds awa,
y
from the larger cities that include the most significant concen-
trations of pollution. The 'readiness to proceed' test brings
applications from those communities in weak bargaining.situations vis
a vis State reg ulatory agencies. The net result is that funds have
f170wed in almost re'verse correlation to population. And though
over half of FWPCA grants

U-87

have gone to metropolitan areas, they have been made Available large-
ly in the smaller suburban places rather than in the central cities."
(149). Furthermore placing priority, intentionally or otherwise,
on lower population areas is more expensive because it does not take
advantage of potential economies of scale. Per capita construction
costs of primary treatment for a sewered population of 100 may be
5 to 10 time the per capita costs for a sewered population of one
million. Since coastal pollution is most significant in constricted
subestuaries adjacent to major urban areas, these effects are partic-
ularly detrimental to coastal areas.

Notwithstanding the ease with which one can identify scope
limitations, the General Accounting Office study did show clearly
the great advantages of such systems approaches.

Selected Technical Stages. Each of the technical stages selected
for representation in Table U-6 is discussed briefly below in the
same order as displayed in the table.

Before Treatment. The problem of collection, treatment and dis-
posal of waterborne wastes can often be minimized by careful atten-
tion to waste generation sources. Examples discussed below include
the redesign of industrial processes, recycling, improving degrad-
ability of wastes and restricting certain uses.

Redesign Industrial Processes. The quantity and quality-of waste
discharges from industrial processes can sometimes be influenced by
changes in the processes. Inert or harmless constituents might be
substituted for harmful ones with attendant cost increases being less
than the added cost of treatment. Similarly the quantity of harmful
effluents might be diminished.

Recycle. Recycling is increasingly being proposed as a solution.
It does provide an attractive conceptual basis for minimizing pollu-
tion at its source. However, like all single solutions, it has some
important limitations which are often overlooked. Even when techni-
cally possible, recycling is justified primarily (1) when the dis-
posed material is scarce and has a potential value which exceeds the
cost of its recycling, or (2) when the disposed material can'produce
a significant deleterious effect on the recipient water body or (3)
when the process of disposal produces an obnoxious "litter effect".
The first condition is self-policing, but it can be reinforced by
research. Thus when the recovered Value exceeds recovery cost,
market factors will encourage the recovery. In the second instance,
public action is usually necessary to "internalize the external".
Otherwise. in a competitive market place, the industrial user who
accepts the increased 'recycling cost is disadvantaged with respect
to his less socially consci .ous.competitor.- The last case focuses on
,that type of@waste which has lirtle recovery value, which is inert
or relatively harmless to the ecologicdl environment,'but which creates
a social nuisance.

An example, stepping briefly into the field of solid waste, is
the case of disposable bottles. The silica of which they are composed
is one of the earth's most abundant materials. Except when they are
dumped recklessly so as to smother an ecological resource, they are
inert and have no more effect on the ecosystem than sand or rocks.
Thus their offensiveness lies in their litter effect. Recycling used
bottles back into the distribution system is a solution, but the in-
dividual nature of the collection and return effort might have limited
effectiveness and it can impose a substantial time and monetary burden
on consumer, distributor and producer alike. It might be better for
them to devote far less total effort to contributing to a more ade-
quate public collection and disposal system. The points of the
illustration are (1) that recycling is far from a panacea unless cer.-
tain requirements are met and (2) that the quality of life includes
minimizing the complexity of daily living as well as other aspects
more commonly connoted by the phrase.

Improve Degradability of Wastes. Somewhat aligned with the two
previous alternatives is the idea of improving the biodegradability
of the wastes. This in effect is recycling on a broad, nature-en-
compassing scale. Thus the use of DDT, with its very long half life,
is being restricted and much research is underway to develop more
rapidly degradable substitutes.

On a global basis man is probably taking a little more phos-
phorous out of the oceans than he is putting in. However, local
concentrations of phosphorous can produce adverse effects. Thus
the reduction or elimination of phosphorus from detergents is
currently receiving much study because it is considered by most to
be the most easily removable link in the chemicals which most in-
fluence eutrophication of lakes, rivers and estuaries. In some
situations other elements such as nitrogen, carbon and oxygen can
become the limiting factor. The purpose of the sodium tripolyphos-
phate used in most heavy detergents is to soften water. Therefore,
a proposed simple but effective way of reducing the phosphate con-
tribution of detergents,pending its complete eliminationis to re-
duce the phosphates in de 'tergents marketed in soft water areas.
Eighteen of the nation's 100 largest cities are in the NAR. Table
U-8 shows that all of them fall into the more favorable soft-water
categories. Thus, if detergents with low phosphate content were to
be manufactured and distributed in a way which reflects the region's.
actual need, much of the regional phosporus problem might be resolved.

Improving the degradability of wastes, like all solutions, has
some limitations. Thus among the most degradable of wastes are paper
and the effluent of pulp mills. However, the great quantities in-
volved -- about half the nation's solid industrial wastes by weight
is paper -- and the interim obnoxious effects during the degrading
process can be grossly offensive.

U- 89

TABLE U- 8

WATER HARDNESS IN MAJOR REGIONAL CITIES

Hardness Categories in ppm'of CaC03

Hard Very-Hard
Soft (0-60) Moderate (61-120) (121;--180) (180)

1 2/
Boston New York City- Patterson- None None
Sprin.gfie.ld Albany Philadelphia-!/
4/
Worcester Yonkers Washington

Providence Jersey City Norfolk

Hartford Newark
New Haven 4/ Baltimore
Bridgeport 4/ Richmond

l/ Minor amount is "very hard."-
Nearly half is "soft."
Half is "hard." .
T/.Minor amounts are "moderate."

SOURCE:. (130)

U-90

Restrict Some Usages. Sometimes it is necessary to restrict the
usage of certain products. DDT has already been mentioned. A second
example prominent in the control of airborn precipitation is restric.-
tions on the use of fuels containing a high percentage of sulphur.
In these instances, the added cost to society of the restriction is
deemed less than the added cost of removal or acceptance of the en-
vironmental degredation. Sometimes the incentive and priority given@.
to research to minimize the added cost of usage restrictions can be
very effective.

During Collection, Treatment and Disposal. Often the technologi-
cal and economic problems of limiting wastes at their sources are
sufficiently difficult as to turn attention to the next phase -- the
collection, treatment and disposal of the waterborne wastes. Example's
of some solutions in this phase are discussed below.

Collect from Point Sources. Where major point sources of water-
borne wastes are located reasonably close together, it is usually
best to interconnect these sources by sewer systems and bring the
pollutants to a central point for treatment to benefit from economies
of scale. Methods for evaluating this alternative on a local scale-r!,
are relatively straightforward and known. On a regional scalet
however, it may prove attractive to interconnect the outfalls from
several adjacent communities to permit treatment at a single large
plant. Similarly, depending upon each set of individual circum-
stances, it may or may not prove desirable to connect industrial
systems with appropriate cost sharing provisions.

Collect from Non-Point Sources. Probably the poorest method of
controlling non-point source pollutants is collecting and treating
them centrally. Solutions at the source and in the disposal areas
are more effective. As cited earlier, some of the prominent non-
point source pollutants are airborne precipitates; agriculture run-
off of oxygen-demanding substances, pesticides, herbicides and
fertilizers; storm runoff; ground water contaminants; and resuspended
pollutants previously deposited in water bodies. Some of the major,.@
largely unsolved problems in water pollution abatement fall into these
areas. At minimum, it is of fundamental importance that the quanti-
tative and qualitative contributions of non-point source pollutants to
the overall problem be determined if suboptimal solutions are to be
avoided. Electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers and other means can
remove some airborne precipitates as part of industrial processes. It
may be that agricultural ditches, settling ponds and possibly under-,
ground filter courses could provide a useful degree of collection,
but the feasibility of such methods on a large scale is currently
questionable. Because of the magnitudes involved, the collection and
treatment of storm runoff is especially difficult. In municipal
areas, combined sewers present extraordinarily difficult problems.
The great quantities of storm water almost always exceed the capacity
of sewage treatment plants with the result that during storms all
the effluent, domestic as well as storm runoff, must be bypassed

U-91

into the water body. In rural areas, small and large reservoirs can
concentrate the runoff with consequences good to downstream areas and
bad to the retention basins unless treatment thereat is feasible.

Select Locations. As mentioned earlier under institutional
alternatives, pollution abatement problems can be minimized by
locating major sources, treatment facilities and/or outfalls at
locations carefully selected to take advantage of improved assimila-
tive characteristics of adjacent water bodies.

Select Degree of Treatment. Much of the region's attention in
waterborne pollution abatement has been focused thus far on costly
,treatment plants for the control of that portion of the pollutants
which can be classified as point source. Indeed when the many other
solutions suggested herein are found infeasible, treatment plants
are the only alternative.

Primary treatment involves the removal of settleable solids
through processes such as screening, shredding, flotation and sedi-
mentation. It can remove little of the colloidal and dissolved
matter, but it does remove about 30-40% of the BOD. Intermediate
treatments can remove an additional substantial percentage of
colloidal matter but little dissolved material. -It removes up to
75% of the BOD. Secondary treatment uses biological and biochemical
processes to stabilize, oxidize and nitrify the unstable organic
matter present in the remaining effluent. The many processes include
trickling filtration, contact stabilization, activated sludge and
extended aeration. Secondary treatment removes about 80 to 95% of
BOD, with 85% often being used as a general planning yardstick.
Advanced waste treatment (AWT), sometimes called "tertiary treatment",
selectively uses currently uncommon biological treatment and phy-
sical-chemical separation processes separately and in combination to
remove organic and inorganic contaminants that resist present day
conventional treatment processes. It is possible, but not necessarily
advisable, to purify effluents even to the extend they can be drunk,
,but.95% is often used as a general planning yardstick for AWT.

Since costs increase precipitously with the degree of treatment,
it is important to use all of the applicable non-treatment alter-
natives to minimize these costs. On a regional basis, if attention
.is fixed on improving the water quality to meet established uses,
it may mean that some sources, such as industrial sites, should
receive AWT, while others such as low density rural communities may
not justify any treatment at all. As mentioned earlier, goals
such as the attainment of a given degree of treatment everywhere
may be false ones, because they can allocate heavy costs for treat-
ment facilities with little potential effect on water quality. Such
goals thus deny the additional funds needed for adequate facilities
where concentrated attention can produce the best overall water
quality improvement.

U-92

At Disposal Area. The previously discussed control of pollu-
tion at its sourceand its collection, treatment and disposal must
be considered in conjunction with-the-many solutions available at
the disposal area itself. The set of disposal area solutions in-
cludes the retention of effluent, low flow augmenta':i.:-, improved
flushing characteristics, in-situ aeration, removing or coating
bottom sediments and minimizing the remaining effects.

Retain Effluent. In special instances the effluent might be!
retained. Thus large underwater expandable bladders have been
suggested as a possible means of retaining storm runoff from com-
bined sewers for later cycling through adjacent treatment plants.
The large scale requirements of this solution are potentially
major drawbacks. For concentrated effluents, settling ponds are
possible. Thus an industrial plant might retain heavy metals for
later extraction or removal to more desirable disposal areas.

Augment Low Flow. Under this approach, water is retained up-
stream for release during periods of low flow to improve the di-LU-
tion capacity of receiving weers during these critical periods.
Low flow augmentation will substantially reduce high treatment
costs to the extent that these costs are incurred meetin- peak
waste load requirements at low flow. However, this technique i.3
more applicable inland than along the coast where the added dill.1-
tion would be relatively insignificant.

Improve Flushinp, Characteristics. As previously emphasized,
coastal pollution problems tend to peak in poorly flushed urban
es;tuaries. The influence of flushing is noticeable even in non.-
urban areas. Thus a decrease in flushing reportedly has led to
an increase in pollution in the main harbor at Martha's Vineyard.
In some urban estuaries, after careful model studies, it should be
possible to increase natural flushing action by improving the
hydraulic cross section and thereby reinforcing desirable tidal
effects.

Improved flushing in some instances can greatly minimize the
cost of extensive treatment and has the further advantage of
addressing non-point source pollutants which many alternative
methods ignore. Three of many possible examples are cited: A
second entrance to San Diego harbor is being evaluated as a means
to increase the natural flushing rate. At Savannah, a possib-'l-
ity is being studied to use several adjacent channels and islands
in such a way as to increase net tidal movement seaus@@-,-(]. Of course
all such proposals must undergo vigorous evaluation to insure tftat
secondary effects are known and considered. The construction of
dikes off Coney Island and Staten Island has been considered as a
possible means of delaying the movement of pollutants originating
in the Uew York Harbor area to a degree that they will be substan-
tially oxidized by the time they reach the bathing beaches behind

U-93

the dikes (137). Improving or-retarding flushing, whichever is
preferred, is possibly the most-feasible solution for controlling
the fresh-salt water salinity gradients.,so important to some spec-
ies of marine life and to agricultural and ground water uses%near
the coast.

Aerate-In-situ. Potentially in-situ aeration has the capabil-
ity of minimizing oxygen deficiencies and accelerating the stabili-
zation of BOD wastes. Like flushing and all the other disposal
area techniques, it is as'applicable to non-point source pollu-
tants as it is to point source pollutants. Much research-is cur-
rently underway to improve the process. -One major disadvantage it
shares with many other solutions is -its inability to 'combat non-
oxygen demanding wastes.

Remove Bottom Sediments. The poorly flushed urban sub-estuary
where most of the pollution problem is focused is also the locale
where navigation dredging requirements are most likely. Other uses
besides navigation are responsible for the concentration of bottom
wastes in these sensitive places. However, during the process of
dredging an opportunity is presented to move these vastes to more
desirable locations. The added cost of acquiring preferred-dis-
posal sites and transporting the wastes-thereto might properly be
charged against waste disposal. During the processes of picking
up and disposing of these wastes, some oxygen-demanding wastes,
previously covered up, axe reexposed to the water column and can
create local, temporary oxygen deficiencies.. One report conclu-
ded-that in the very highly polluted Arthur Kill -:Kill Van.Kull
area between Staten Island and New Jersey dissolved oxygen was
reduced 16-83% below normal during dredging in the immediate-area.
.The persistance of residual effects was not reported (15). In
some locations resuspension of pollutants may not,be-much more
significant than the periodic churning up of bottom sediments by
storms. The shallower parts of upper Chesapeake Bay are examples
(111). In these instances, it is likely that the local marine
life have adjusted to this recurring event. In other places, how-
ever, the temporary, localized oxygen deficiency can exceed the
normal natural background range. These deleterious effects can be
accepted or they can be minimized by selecting the best time for
dredging and possibly by localized mechanical aeration dur-ing and
after the dredging.

Coat Bottom Sediments. Where the bottom currents are rela-
tively quiet, it has been proposed that the bottom sediments-be
covered with sand or a-membrane to cut off oxygen-demanding sedi-
ments from the water column (166). This alternative would prob-
ably be very expensive and-much research on its feasibility and
environmental. acceptability will be requ-ired-before'it can be given
serious consideration in coastal waters.

U-@9 4,

Minimize Remaining Effects. Where other means fail, deleter-
ious effects in disposal areas can sometimes be minimized, neutra-
lized or reversed. Thus, to a degree some pollutants can be con-
sidered as nutrients. Their controlled application to selected
wetlands might possibly improve desirable biological productivity.
Ocean outfalls are often the sites of the best fishing. Despite
more primary control efforts, some oil spills will occur and im-
proved methods of containing, neutralizing and removing the oil
are badly needed. Contingency plans for the prevention, contain-
ment and cleanup of oil and hazardous materials have been devel-
oped through cooperative Federal-state-local-private committees
on a local basis.

Costs of the Solutions. Since all of the solutions are highly
site-specific, it is not practical to assign specific costs to
each. A few generalizations can be made, however, to provide a.
rough ranking of these costs.

Direct costs of the various solutions vary greatly. The in-
stitutional alternatives are for the most part relatively inexren-
.sive when compared with the technical alternatives, perhaps in the
order of 2-5/'0'. The major institutional cost is time, because it
will require a substantial amount of time to make the regional
systems analyses suggested. The problem of time can be reduced.
somewhat by running the analyses simultaneously with some of the
less costly more obvious technical solutions and accepting the
inevitability of some resulting inefficiencies as a justifiable
price for maintaining pollution abatement momentum.

Of the technical alternatives suggested, undoubtedly the most
costly are treatment plants and sewerage systems. Costs here run
high. As mentioned earlier, the plan of the Interstate Sanita-
tion Commission in the Greater New York area, for example, en-
visions the expenditure 'of over $6.4 billion by the year.2000.
Essentially all of the ISC program is for coastal water quality
improvement. On a larger scale, not distinguishing between COELS-
tal and inland requirements, Appendix L (Water Quality and Pollu-
tion) estimates a total water pollution abatement cost (capital
cost and all allowances for interest operation and maintenance.)
in the $50 billion - $100 billion range by the year 202.0.

The indirect costs of waterborne pollution abatement are even
more elusive. They could rival the direct costs. They include
the increased cost of products and services stemming from the iLM-
position of controls such as those spelled out in regulations or
implied by public opinion.

Benefits of the Solutions. Using the example of the New York
Metropolitan area, it has been suggested earlier under "Parties
Affected" who will benefit principally from water quality improve-
ments. The principal direct benefits will accure to fisherman and

U-95

those seeking recreation. Those who would bathe in 'currently
polluted waters if the pollution were abated will benefit at most
about 90 days a year during the-summer season. Fishermen, both
commercial and sports, will benefit all year round with some
peaking'in'the summer season. The greatest overall benefits may
be more elusive and concentrated primarily in the general desire
of the'populace for a cleaner environment even well b eyond the
sensory perception of all but a very few. The existence and
measure of this very important benefit can be demonstrated by a
very real and long accepted yaxdstick -- the willingness of an
informed society to pay for it.

Organizational Considerations. A variety of institutions are
active in waterborne pollution abatement at all levels.'

The key Federal agency is the new Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) which combines the pollution abatement responsibili-
ties of a number of agencies. The most prominent of them are:
(1) The Federal Water Quality Administration (FWQA) for water
@..pollution, (2) The National Air Pollution Control Administration
(NAPC) for air pollution, and (3) The Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-
ment (BSVRvl) for solid wastes pollution. The Federal-state system
for establishing and approving water quality uses and criteria was
described earlier. FWQA also provides substantial funds to states
and municipalities for implementing approved programs. So far,
however, these funds have been relatively small considering the
great magnitude of the program being developed for treatment
plants. The Army Corps of Engineers also has an important role in
its administration of the River and Harbor Act of 1899 (commonly,
the Refuse Act) (129). However, the Corps' most important coastal
pollution role is in the field of solid waste disposal at sea, a
role which is discussed in another problem analysis (Solid Waste
Disposal). For a compilation of the laws of the United States re-
lating to water pollution control and environmental quality, see
(127).

The systems analyses proposed herein will require a substan-
tial development of the regional level of attention especially for
the larger, interstate river basins and coastal estuaries. The
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, the New
England River Basins Commission and The Delaware River Basin Cora-
mission are all very important in this effort. However, the re-
giohal systems envisioned herein generally focus on the smaller,
more integrated subsystems of the large institutions just cited.
'Examples are the Merrimack, Connecticut and Potomac. On an inter-
mediate scale, the Interstate Sanitation Commission appears to have
a desirable geographic span of control provided considerable lia-
ison is maintained with authorities on tributaxy rivers.

The state and community levels of government are the operators.

U-96

Consistent with national guidelines and regional concepts discussed
earlier, they formulate, implement, and administer programs. The,
Y
and the people they tax and represent also pay most of the direct
and indirect costs and reap most of the benefits. They require
considerable financial and technical support from higher levels.

Individuals and industries are heavily involved in pollution
abatement. Industries must respond--often at great cost--to the
laws, regulations and other expressions of public opinion which to-
gether define the terms within which industry may operate. One of
the major unfinished tasks in the overall program is to find better
ways to fit the incentives of the market place to the abatement of
pollution problems. On the individual level, people are becoming
increasingly aware of how their actions can contribute to the over-
all environmental betterment.

Solution Effectiveness. First consider national efficiency. A
National goal of achieving approved water quality levels has been
established. Repeatedly throughout this analysis, ways have been
suggested to reaching these levels at lower cost. In general, this
can be achieved best through systematic analyses at regional levels.
These analyses begin with a basic objective and a family of insti-
tutional and technical solutions. Considering the $50 billion -
$100 billion expenditure currently envisioned over the next 50 years
in the NAR, expenditure efficiencies produced by the proposed. analy-
ses can be very, very large.

The comments above apply in even greater measure to the attain-
ment of regional development objectives which contemplate an up-
grading of water quality beyond the currently approved standards.
Costs here are about double those for national efficiency, and con-
sequently any savings produced by regional systems analysis would
be even more significant. A second major regional implication
stems from the suggestion that after adequate study, new industries
might be attracted to the region to take advantage of the superior
dilution capacity of coastal waters in some localities. As high
as abatement costs may be in the NAR, they should be substantially
higher in.inland areas without similar dilution capacity.

Certainly, the greatest benefit of water pollution abatement is
environmental quality whether the approved standards are met or
bettered. The most significant environmental benefit appears to be
in the greater satisfaction people derive in knowing that they have
a clean environment, even one well beyond the ability of normal per-
ception.

U-97

THERMAL EFFECTS

Nature of the Problem. The problem of thermal effects deals
with the release of waste heat to the aquatic environment especi-
ally at intensities which may cause environmental changes of one
sort or another. The problem is considered here for the coastal
and estuarine areas because the use of saline or brackish water
for cooling can significantly reduce the fresh water supply re-
quirements for power cooling inland.

The primary concern in the problem of thermal additions is the
effect of changing the temperature regime of a water body on the
living organisms within the body; in other words, the ecological
consequences*

Listed here are a set of generalizations pertaining to the
biological effects which may be useful for the overall analysis
(22).

a Organisms of all types are adapted to some degree of tem-
perature variation which is generally finite but may change with
respect to a particular stage in the organism's life cycle. The
range and rate of change that is tolerated by each species are
left for investigation.

0 The temperature lethal to an organism is dependent upon,
among other factors, the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water
and the tolerance of that organism to low levels of dissolved
oxygen. The dissolved oxygen level of a water body decreases as
the water temperature increases. Increase in water temperature
increases the dissolved oxygen requirement for normal life pro-
cesses.

a Fish have been noted to select waters that are warmed by a
thermal discharge rather than to avoid the warmed water consisten-
tly. The choice of the fish to stay in the warmed area is sea-
sonal. As might be expected, they leave the heated area during
the warmer months.

0 Fish are able to.detect a change in temperattire and will
usually swim away from a location that is undesirable.

a The location that a fish has resided in influences the
lethal temperatures. Fish from higher latitudes have lower le-
thal temperatures than fish from areas nearer the equator. How-
ever, fish living nearer the equator are likely to be living in
water nearer their lethal temperature limit than fish from cooler
areas.

0 The natural foods of non-migratory fish probably will not
be affected if the fish itself is not affected. This may be a
controversial point, but is a matter of deducing that organisms
that live together naturally have a somewhat similar environment

U-98

in their evolutionary history and consequently have similar toler-
ancese

o Temperature has a direct influence on the toxicity of many
substances. Non-lethal concentrations of substances such as
pesticides or industrial wastes can become lethal concentrations
merely by increasing the water temperature a few degrees.

o Diseases of fish become more of a threat as the water tempera-
ture increases. Conditions are more favorable for disease producing
organisms at higher temperatures. Therefore, a balance exists be-
tween the resistance or defensive mechanisms of the fish and the
abundance or potential threat of the disease. An increase in the
temperature of the water typically reduces the disease defense, al-
though this may not invariably be the case.

Beyond the biological effects there is also the possibility of
direct temperature effects which may be important in specific cir-
cumstances. For example, the effect of increased temperature on the
further use of the water for cooling is obvious. On-site uses of the
water may also be affected, but frequently in a beneficial way.

Major Causes. Waste heat is generated in many industrial pro-
cesses. By far the overriding producer of waste heat which is dis-
posed of in water bodies, however, is the generation of electricity
to meet the power demands of our large and affluent society. (Other
sources are so minor in comparison that they will not be considered
here.)

The steam-electric system is the major source of electricity
produced in the NAR. Unfortunately, the maximum efficiency of today's
steam-electric plant is about 42% and the average efficiency is about
33%. This means that, of every three BTU's of fuel input, one is
turned into electricity and two are rejected as waste heat.

To give the reader an indication of the amount of heat rejected,
a typical nuclear plant of 500 megawatt capacity designed for a cool-
ing water temperature increase of 12.50F would use and discharge about
35 million gallons of cooling water per hour.

Maximum plant capacities have'doubled since 1960, up to more than
1100 megawatts. Increases to 2500 megawatts are projected by 1980.
Where these new plants are located, vast quantities of heat will be
released (Appendix P - Power).

A nuclear plant today discharges about 50% more heat to a water
body than a comparable sized fossil fueled plant because the reactors
must be operated at lower temperatures (lower efficiency) and because
no heat is lost through a stack as is the case with a fossil fueled
plant. However, as nuclear technology advances this difference will
diminish or disappear.

Location. Power production in the North Atlantic Region is
presently located in conjunction with population centers where the

U-99

major power demands exist. Up to the present time, power plants have
been located where supplies of fresh cooling water were available.
As inland waters come under more strict regulations and standards,
there is a tendency for new plants to be located in coastal areas,
where there are large supplies of water suitable for cooling.

The major concerns for thermal effects in the coastal zone are in
the more southern areas of the NAR. In these warmer waters marine
organisms may be living nearer the top of their allowable temperature
range and,consequently,may be more affected by temperature rises.

The problem is also of greater concern in partially enclosed bays
and estuaries, where the movement of water and consequent mixing and
flushing are more restricted, and where the ecological communities
associated with wetlands tend to be affected by temperature changes.

Therefore, the extremes of the range would appear to be the upper
Chesapeake Bay area on the high end of possible thermal consequences
to the eastern portion of Maine on the low end. Figure U-9 is a map'
,of the NAR depicting the location of all nuclear plants either in
.operation or under application at this time. Of the eighteen sites
.indicated on Figure U- 91, thirteen are coastal or estuarine. None of
]these thirteen have, at this time, any provisions for artificial cooling.

Time Characteristics. On a seasonal basis,the greatest potential
ecological effects would occur in the summer months when the ambient
water temperatures will be closer to the upper limit for some marine
species. However, from the point of view of physical effects, the
outstanding effects will occur in the winter months when the heat
can be used for a number of beneficial activities.

Therefore, the problem tends to be aggravated by the seasonal
nature of temperature changes. When it has the least value from a
constructive view of beneficial uses,it also has the greatest poten-
tial for adverse ecological effects.

On a trend basis, the problem of thermal effects is directly
linked to the demand for electricity and the technology of power
production.

Power generation has on the average doubled every ten years since
1945, and this phenomenal rate of growth is expected to continue well
into the future. Figure U-10 depicts the projected electric genera-
tion out to 2020 on a national basis. The NAR will have a propor-
tional growth in demand (see Appendix P-Power). ,

Present trends in technology and economics favor an increase in
the size of generating plants. This will tend to.concentrate more
waste heat in specific locations.

U-100

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U-10.1

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U-102

Parties Affected. The assessment of effects caused by thermal
additions is very complex and poorly understood at this time.
There is partially due to the lack of scientific agreement on what
the effects really are, and partially due to the viewpoint of the
assessor.

Basically, thermal effects are physical, chemical or biologi-
cal. There is, however, a complicating factor in that there are
also synergisms, where it is difficult or impossible to isolate
the temperature factors from other factors. For example, tempera.-
ture will affect the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Our
concern here is for how such effects influence human activities.

Where the species composition of a marine ecosystem are chan-
ged because of thermal additions, the activities related to fish-
ing may be affected by the disappearance of resident species and
the appearance of species not usually found in an area. It is
dangerous to generalize, but the frequently cited cases tend to
indicate a disappearance of the cold water species commonly con-
sidered valuable for sport fishing and the appearance of less de--
sirable species. It has also been observed, however, that the
length of the season with good fishing is often extended in the
vicinity of a temperature outfall.

There is also the very real possibility that less obvious eco-
logical changes may not be observable for several generations of
an organism, but that they may significantly affect local popula--
tions and, hence fishing activity. Other activities which may be
affected by thermal additions include on-site uses such as swim-
ming and other water-contact sports and the extension of the ice--
free season in coastal shipping lanes. Generally, the effects will
be looked upon as beneficial.

The effects on other withdrawal uses is not so easily deter-
mined or assessed. Where the use of water in industrial processes
requires heating, a benefit will occur. Where it will be used for
cooling, the thermal additions will be detrimental.

The reader will note that this analysis has skirted the issue
of whether these ecological changes are "good" or "bad." The
basic reason for this is that there is no "one" answer within the
present level of understanding.

Solutions. A number of partial solutions have been suggested
to ameliorate the problem of waste heat disposal. Unfortunately
the elimination of the problem itself is hardly in sight, requir.-
ing as it would the abandonment of the steam cycle.

If there is a constant in the literature, it is the almost com-
plete absence of remarks about electrical generation on a large

U-103

scale without the steam cycle. Thus, what remains is a list of six
partial solutions, each of which will be discussed below.

One partial solution is increased generation efficiency. Nu-
clear stations are expected to increase their efficiency in two
ways. One is by the advent of the high temperature gas cooled re-
actor which, while still using the steam cycle, will reach tempera-
tures now used in fossil plants. The second is the liquid metal
cooled fast breeder reactor. It too will employ a higher temera-
ture. In addition,, since it produces more fuel than it consumes
by nuclear reactions within the core, it will lower the price of
fuel. These improvements are not translated into figures by au-
thors. The central problem will remain one of finding sufficiently
cheap metals that will remain physically stable and chemically in-
ert in the high temperature, high flux atmosphere of nuclear cores,
as well as in boilers and turbines (163).

The process of topping, whereby an auxiliary power generator
is interposed between the heat source and the turbine, has possi-
bilities for a small increase in thermal efficiency.

Gas turbines, pumped storage, and hydroelectric generation are
used to provide peaking power. They produce little or no waste
heat and serve as reserve capacity and in some cases, hydroelec-
tric projects provide base load energy. In conjunction with nu-
clear and fossil stations, they help provide the balance necessary
for system operation.

A second partial solution is to use non-steam cycle genera-
tion. It should be emphasized that this represents the most ad-
vanced thinking and is the furthest from implementation. Theore-
tical and technical advances are required in all cases. We should
note here that in addition to any time requirement should be added
the present 6-1/2 year lead time established by most companies be-
tween the decision to build and the commencement of generation.

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generation with gas turbine topping
is thought to be very efficient (50% or 70%) but at least ten
years away from central station use (97).

The fuel cell is another non-steam cycle alternative. Fuel ex-
penses will limit its use but it may have advantages in remote
locations of limited demand.

Electrogas dynamic engines are also under investigation.
These are similar to MHD generators with the ions impelled through
electric fields. This system demands minimal cooling water.

Direct electrical generation from fusion reaction is another
non-steam alternative. It is likely to be efficient but foreseen
only on the furthest time horizon.

U-104

A third partial solution is improvement in transmission and dis-
tribution technology. At the present time, transmission, distri-
bution, and transformation losses are about 10% of total electric
generation. With the advent of higher voltages and the future ex-
Pansion of the 760 kilovolt line recently installed in the NAR,
some improvement in transmission losses is anticipated, since
energy transmission capabilities go up sharply with increased vol-
tages and line losses per kilowatt diminish.

A fourth partial solution is to use better cooling techniques.
A brief mention may be made of departures from what is economically
the most efficient cooling system, once through cooling of river or
sea water. This type of cooling, found adequate in many cases to-
day, is subject to diminishing returns. It is, of course, vulner-
able to protests over ecological damage. Any one river or estuary
clearly has a limited cooling capacity regardless of the distance
between power stations.

Inland stations can turn to cooling or spray ponds. The former
have to be very large in area, the latter are more expensive. Both
cause consumptive losses and need water for recharging. They also
eject much water vapor into the atmosphere where small-scale clima-
tie changes may occur in the form of fog, ice or even rain. Both
are dependent on ambient temperatures, relative humidity and wind
speed for their effectiveness.

Cooling towers are large and expensive structures lacking in
aesthetic appeal. The wet type discharge water vapor and create
consumptive losses as do spray ponds. The most expensive cooling
technique is the so-called dry cooling tower where heat is dis-
charged directly by conduction and convection (or forced draft)
between pipes containing hot water and the air. The low density
and specific heat of air requires a very large surface area for
efficient heat discharge. However dry cooling towers infringe on
the water environment to the least degree of any other arrange-
ment*

A fifth partial solution is to increase the mixing at dis-
charge. Hot water allowed to flow naturally into a still receiv-
ing bodywill stratify. If the receiving water is flowing, a plume
will form. The dimensions are necessarily vague because its
characteristics towards its edge approach those of the unheated
stream until differences are imperceptible. This perceptible plume
usually defines a rising zone. It is of advantage for the mixing
zone to be as small as possible. This is done by forcing the hot
water out in a jet, wherefrom it entrains colder water and mixing
is rapid. Several small jets or diffusers are better than one.
Aeration, the bubbling of air through stratified water, can aid the
rising rate and reduce zone size. Deep (and cold) water discharge
is effective. Especially good are natural wave, tidal, wind and

U-105

current action of the open or exposed coastal zone. In rivers and
estuaries rapid rising is a mixed blessing on occasion. If the
whole river is well mixed downstream of the discharge, it can pro-
duce a thermal block to the passage of fish, especially anadromous
fish.

A sixth partial solution is the movement of plant site loca-
tions to the coastal zone. There is a tendency for central genera-
ting stations to intensify their thermal discharge; that is, more
heat per plant is expected to be released. A major increase in the
demand for electricity is projected well into the future. There
will be a severe shortage of cooling water due to limits of thermal
pollution imposed upon rivers and streams. Plants located on
rivers face summer shutdowns or operation at reduced power to pre-
vent maximum allowable temperatures from being exceeded. In the
New England region there is an impetus towards nuclear stations due
to the cost of fuel and its transportation. It seems likely that
at least in the NAR there will be a strong tendency for central
generating stations to locate on the coast or in estuarine waters
for many reasons:

0 There is much more water there for cooling and seasonal tem-
perature fluctuations are much less than inland.

Rapid mixing of the thermal effluent will be aided by waves,
tides, wind and current action.

0 Thermal blocking will be less likely due to the larger dimen-
sions of the receiving body. (Conceivably this will not be true on
the ebb tide in a rapidly narrowing estuary, but this condition
would be recognized in site selection and discharge design).

0 Intake and discharge structures can be well separated and
oriented in different directions. Coastal zone siting fits in with
the absence of need on the part of nuclear plants for good trans-
portation facilities. Fossil plants will probably remain tied to
an urban region for the reason that they demand port or rail facili-
ties. The aesthetics of a nuclear power station are not in dishar-
mony with the surroundings and in some minds may be found to en-
hance the region. (The same cannot be said for transmission lines
unless they are placed underground). The coastal zone of the NAR
is never far removed from some of the biggest electrical markets in
the country and the highest population densities. Remote coastal
and estuarine siting satisfies the popular fear of nuclear plants
in urban areas. Higher voltages in transmission lines will offset
the disadvantages of a station not being surrounded by its load.
Water temperatures will be less likely to fluctuate and are colder.

Multiple ownership by several utilities of one large plant, al-
ready a feature of plants in existence, will tend to locate the

U-106

plant midway between load areas. Safety records may ease urban
acceptance, but site shortages may still keep plants in remote re-
gions.

Returning for a moment to ecological considerations, several
considerations are pertinent. It must be clear that it is impos-
sible to avoid ecological changes when locating a power station.
A diverse ecological community will possess some organisms living
near the top of their temperature range, others near the bottom.
Hot water will drive out the former and enhance the growth of thE!
latter. If the former are more valuable than the latter, damage
has been done. If the opposite, value has been added. Clearly
we must know a lot about the situation we want to change. We must
also select which organisms we wish to preserve and understand the
effects of temperature on them.

Flood, hurricane and storm damage are to be taken into con-
sideration in the NAR and their potential for disruption or de-
struction evaluated. Open coast sites are more vulnerable than
estuarine ones.

Estunrine locations are likely to be ecologically more vulner-
able than open coasts. Flushing action, while better than in
rivers, is not likely to be as pronounced in an estuary as it is
on the open coast. Estuaries serve as spawning and nursery grounds
for a number of biological species which may be highly sensitive to
temperature changes.

In the long run there must be a limit to the number of stations
that can be located in the estuaries of the NAR. Those estuaries
of major concern lie in the more southerly portion of the NAR and
include in particular Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, Barnegat Bay.,
the Hudson River Estuary, Long Island Sound and Narragansett Bay.,

Thus we see that estuaries have a limited capacity for absorb-
ing heat within tolerable dem ge limits. In this way they exceed
the capacity of rivers but do not approach that of the open sea.

The potential for storm damage in the open coast can be mitiga-
ted and the aesthetics of the coastal zone improved if a station is
sited a short distance behind the beach itself and pays a small pre-
mium for longer pipes and higher pumping costs. If undersea PlPJLng
is contemplated from the beginning costs would be small.

Note has been made of the mobility of fishes and their ability
to avoid water that is too hot for them although young fish may be
less able to do this than mature ones. This will not apply in an
estuary to the same extent as at the open shore. Many organisms
are tied to the estuary because of its unique combination of condi-
tions. While they are still free to move within it, they are un-
able to leave it except to their detriment, even if it does become
warmer.

U-107

Finally one cannot adequately treat the problem of thermal ef-
fects without considering productive uses. A severe limitation on
the use of waste heat is the fact that it is delivered in large
quantities at temperatures only 20OF to 30OF above ambient. Most
processes require a larger temperature differential. Seasonal
requirements also limit heat application and even aggravate the
problem slightly because, if maximum receiving water temperature is
approached, there is no place to which the heat may be discharged.
However, there are several possibilities related to the coastal
zone:

0 Ice Free Shipping Lanes - The navigation season in northern
rivers could be extended.

The recreation season may be extended and, with suitable en-
closures, might become year around. In New England this would be
of special appeal.

0 Aquaculture or sea farming (117).

It has been noted that fishermen frequent the vicinity of hea-
ted water discharges and that fish, except in the two hot summer
months of July an,' August, tend towards such areas and may even
fail to migrete southwards in the winter. When caught they appear
large and healthy. It appears that within the temperature rises
now experienced fish have a longer and more intense growing season.
This appears to be due to the increased food production of the
lower chain, increased activity on the part of the fish themselves,
increased aeration due to lack of ice cover in winter and increased
rate of sedimentation. It is clear we have an opportunity for eco-
nomic utilization of waste heat. Aquaculture is equivalent to a
southward move for whatever organism is to be harvested. Several
commercial species are living in New England near their northern
limits and spend a portion of the year growing only slowly. Warmed
water can increase the yield significantly. Under controlled con-
ditions it is possible to increase the rates of reproductive
cycles and the rate of successful reproduction. The Long Island
Oyster Company, for example, has been experimenting with Oyster
culture rafts in heated thermal effluent and has been attempting
to culture new faster growing strains for increased productivity.
A further aspect is that aquaculture offers the opportunities for
more than one waste product to be utilized.

A brief mention should be made of the possibilities for waste
heat utilization that lie on a further time horizon. One is the
location of power stations on the continental shelf under the sea
several miles from shore. A research contract has been awarded to
the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics for initial investi-
gation. Some immediate advantages present themselves; safety of
the station from weather, safety of the population in the case of

U-108

an accident, increased and more stable efficiency with the lower
and more constant outlet temperature, and a vast heat sink occupy-
ing almost the whole part of a hemisphere above the station. Dis-
advantages would be the unknown effect of the upwelling of thermal
currents from below,, and the difficulty of service and power trans-
mission.

Lastly, mention must be made of the possibility of the power
station being integrated with the culture. It seems likely that,
by cutting its thermal efficiency somewhat and by raising the final
t@mperature of its exhaust steam, the station might have a more
saleable product, for heating, industrial processes, waste treat-
ment, and other purposes. If an integrated community were formed
with the power station as its energy nucleus, a mix of power consu-
ming customers might be formed, some using steam, others using
electricity. If satellite towns are built, this possibility should
4e investigated. However, it seems likely that there will still be
a shortage of low power, non-seasonal consumers.

U-109

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Nature of the Problem. For the purpose of this discussion,-
solid wastes" include those waste materials which are collected
and transported to disposal sites in solid or containerized form.
Solid wastes dumpted at sea include dredged spoil, sewage sludg&,
demolition debris, industrial chemicals and solids, incinerator
residue, and floating timbers.. Another fona of solid wastes,
garbage, is not now being dumped at sea, but means of processing
it for ocean disposal have been proposed.

Offshore waters provide an alternative location to inland
areas for disFosing of the high volume of solid wastes generated
in major urban areas near the coast. Offshore disposal could
conceivably eliminate the need for reserving interior land for
dumping sites for municipal refuse. Conventional means of solid
waste disposal are no longer adequate for meeting projected needs.
Large tracts necessary for landfill operations are increasingly
difficult to obtain close by urban centers because of land costs
and increasing opposition to the fillintL of wetlands and marshes.
Emissions from conventional incinerators are a significant form
of air pollution. Ocean disposal is not planned for high level
radioactive wastes, the concentrated by-;,roducts from the repro-
cessing of used fuel elements for nuclear reactors. Current tech-
nology developed by A.h.C. indicates disposal at selected sites
such as abandoned salt mines that are impervious to water and
geologically stable. (Appendix P - Power.)

The problems related to solid waste disposal in the coastal
zone primarily concern (i) the indiscriminate use of coastal
waters for waste disposal in light of inadequate knowlege of the
effects on the coastal environment, and (2) the possible expansion
of offshore dumping to include the disposal of processed municipal
wastes. The possible use of coastal waters for disposing of pro-
cessed municipa-I refuse could greatly increase the total volume
and tonnage in the future.

It should be pointed out that very little is known about the
effects of offshore solid waste disposal. The effects of current
offshore disposal activities in the New York Bight have only re-
cently come under investigation by several Federal agencies.
After investigating waste solids dumping in the New York Bight,
Gross noted that no data is available to compare present conditions
with those before disposal began. The Dational Oceanographic Data
Center has begun a pilot study to collect available oceanographic
data that might be useful in selecting sites for ocean disposal of
solid wastes (110).

Major Causes. Among the principal wastu solids dumped at sea
are those bulk wastes that cannot fea;sibly be disposed of elsewhere

U__ i 10.,

under present economic constraints. Mud dredged from harbors and
navigation channels is currently ba-ged to selected disposal sites
at sea in the absence of reasonable alternatives. Sewage sludge
is another bulk waste which-is unsuitable for landfill because of
-.Lts composition and high organic content. Industrial wastes in-
cluding chemicals, acids, caustics, cleaners, sludges, waste
liquors, and oily wastes are barged to designated disposal site.-,
at sea.

A recently completed national inventory of ocean waste dis-
posal activity providing a breakdown of wastes by volume and cost
on the Atlantic coast is summarized in Table U-9. Of the 23.9
;million tons barged to sea in 1968, dredging spoils accounted for
.over bOP of the tonnage, sewage sludge comprised about 191'0, and
bulk industrial wastes made up about 13%. It is likely that most
of these wastes originated in the North Atlantic Region. Accord-
ing to Gross, the I-Jew York metropolitan region dumped 9.6 million
tons of solid wastes at sea in 1968 (45), this would be about 40/col
of the total for the Atlantic coast.

TABLE U-9

WASTES BARGED TO SEA OFF ATLANTIC COAST IN 1968

Wastes Tons Cost
(millions) ($ million)

Dredging spoils 15.81 $ 8.61

Industrial wastes (chemicals, acids,
caustics, cleaners, sludges, waste
liquors, oily wastes, etc.)
Bulk 3.01 5.41
Containerized 0.002 0.017

2/
Sewage sludge (wet) 4.4&= 4.43

Construction and demolition debris 0.57 .43

TOTALS 23.87 $18.90

Does not include outdated munitions.
2/ Includes 0.2 million tons of fly ash.

SOURCE: (17)

U-111

The deterioration and drifting timber of abandoned piers and
wharves along some major ports and harborF pose @,, threat to naviga-
tion and an unsightly nuisance of sufficient magnitude to warrant
attention. A stop gap solution is to cellect @-he debris from the
water and along the shore. A more permanent solution is the re-
moval of the source, the deteriorated waterfront structures. Dis-
posal involves shedding and chipping.

Location. Most Of the sources of solid wastes now disposed of
at sea concentrate in and around major ports and coastal cities.
Qffshore dumping grounds have been designated for specific waste
materials in areas of predefined boundaries near coastal metropoli-
tan areas of the North Atlantic Region.

Time Characteristics. The trend in the near Luture indicates
that tFie amount of waste solids dumped at sea will increase. In
the New York metropolitan area dumpings over the period 1960-1968
increased at an annual rate of 4%. Should municipal refuse be
processed in an acceptable form for ocean disposal, the dumping
could increase significantly.

Parties Affected. People can be affected by the solid waste
disposal problem economically and in other environmental ways.

The parties affected economically are of two principle types --
those who must pay the cost of sold waste disposal and those whose
economic livelihood is affected by the disposal operation without
commensurate compensation. The residents of all municipalities pay
heavily to dispose of their solid wastes. In the New York metro-
politan region, the Tri-state Transporation has estimated (122) the
capital costs at $0.4 billion for collection and $1.5 billion for
disposal for the period 1963-1985. During the same period, annual
operating costs are expected to rise from $180 million to $360
million for collection and from $47 million to $140 million for dis-
posal. Considering the magnitude of these costs, it is easy to see
why costs must be considered carefully in any weighing of alterna-
tive disposal methods.

People can also be affected by the solid waste disposal problem
if their economic livelihood is adversely affected without commen-
surate compensation. Some claim that the commercial fisherman is ad-
versely (or beneficiallv) affected by the ecological consequences
of sea disposal, but until these consequences become known, firm
conclusions can not be reached.

The principal environmental effect inland is aesthetic. To those
within sight or hearing or dust range, the aesthetic impact is direct.
Indirect aesthetic impacts are also important. For example, many
suburban communities react unfavorably to any idea of locating "a
garbage dump" within their borders, no matter how skillfully it may
be hidden and operated.

U-112

Few are affected aesthetically by sea disposal. The environ-
mental concern here is over inadequately known ecological conse-
quences.

Solutions. Among the alternative means proposed for disposing
of solid wastes, several would use the ocean bottom as the ulti-
mate repository and some would use the assimilative capacity of the
ocean to dilute and decompose certain wastes. In some instances
the waste material would be processed to render them less objection-
able.

Incineration of rubbish and garbage reduces the volume and elin-t-
inates biological organisms. The major objections to incineration
are the emission of air pollutants and the cost of air pollution
control devices. Experimental high temperature incineration (2600'
3200-F) would reduce all forms of rubbish and garbage to a molten
state and discharge an inert slag. However current cost estimates
show high-temperature incineration not to be competitive for the
near future (51).

Another possible solution involves compacting, baling, and cart-
ing refuse. Experiments have shown that compacted bales of refuse
could be made negatively buoyant and remain on the ocean bottom.
Sites would have to be selected at sufficient depth where wave ac-
tion and currents would not cause the bales to shift or drift.

Certain materials such as dredging spoils and sewage sludge may
continue to be directly discharged into the ocean, because they are
unsuitable for landfill. Dredging spoils removed from navigational
channels can contain toxic chemicals and heavy metals, and concen-
trations of plant nutrients among the river sediments. Undigested
sewage sludge may also be highly eutrophic and also a health hazard
because o'f its content of microbes and pathogens. A requirement
that all sludge be digested before dumping at sea adds appreciably
to the cost of disposal.

Even though ocean dumping minimizes difficult problems of in-
land disposal, the use of the ocean as a final depository for solid
wastes is apparently becoming less acceptable as the oceans begin
to take on the aspect of a manageable resource.

A recent study of the economic aspects of offshore solid waste
disposal appraised the principal market-costs of several disposal
alternatives for the New York metropolitan area (51). The study
cautioned that the main non-market economic variable, the effect
of solid waste disposal on marine ecology, could not be incorpora-
ted into the evaluation because these effects were largely unknown.

Table U-10 taken from this study indicates the relative 1970
unit costs of disposal for the New York area, assuming close-in

U-113

sites are available. The costs were calculated in terms of present
value with no inflation factor added, andare based on a 20-year
life cycle.

As the table indicates, the study concluded that for inland
cities, the rail haul-sanitary landfall method is decidedly more
economical than anv sea-based method. For the coastal city, dump-
ing of compacted b@les is a little less expensive (56c,/ton or 8%)
than the sanitary landfill alternative.

Environmental factors probably should govern. It is easy to
think of valid environmental objections to every alternative, but
at lease one must be chosen. As has been seen, most inland com-
munities react strongly against disposal in their vicinity, pri-
marily for aesthetic reasons. Offshore the objection is ecological
uncertainty.

TABLE U-10

UNIT COST OF VARIOUS DISPOSAL METHODS

Cost in $/tons for
Methods interest rate I

1-52
Land-based.
Rail haul--sanitary landfill.!/ $ 7.34 $ 7.62
Incineration 2/ 10.50 11.00

Sea-based
Dumping of compacted bales
Coastal city Y 6.78 7.09
City 50 miles inland4l 10.61 11.02
City 100 miles Inland4/ 10.97 11.37
City 150 miles inland4/ 11.42 11.82

Incineration at sea
Inland incinerator - li.46 11.96
sea dump
Water-borne Incinerator 1 10.89 1 12.00 1
I/ Based on 50-mile railhaul. (For derivations, see
Appendix of the Source.)
2/ Includes pollution control equipment sufficient to
meet present federal standards.
3/ Based an Westchester to Hudson Canyon; baling but no
packaging, 80-mile ocean tow.
4/ Baling at inland city, railhaul to coast and 80-mile
ocean tow.

SOURCE: (51)

For sometime the need to review offshore solid waste disposal
'procedures and management has been recognized. Among those who
have been studying the problem are the Smithsonian Institution,
the U.S. Army @orps of Engineers, the U.S. Department of the In-
terior, the Council on Environmental Quality, the National Ocean-
ographic Data Center of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Agency, the Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-,-.ient of the Environmental
Protection Agency, and several academic institutions.

U-114

Some feel that no dumping should occur at all until the environ-
mental effects are known. Others are of the view that concentra-
ting wastes in designated areas preserves other areas intact. A
third view holds that wide dispersion of certain wastes, such as
organic matter, could minimize overall adverse effects and produce
some benefits by increasing biological productivity. Whatever the
conclusion, tentative or final, significant monitoring of the major
ocean disposal sites should be required.

A comprehensive review of ocean dumping and recommendations of
policy and regulatory legislation is presented in a recent report
prepared by the Council of Environmental Quality (32). The report
recommended "a comprehensive national policy on ocean dumping of
wastes to ban unregulated ocean dumping of all materials and
strictly limit ocean disposal of any materials harmful to the en-
vironment".

U-115

RECREATION

Nature of the P roblem. The problem considered here is how to
improve the usefulnes-s of the region's coastal zone in satisfying
current and forseeable recreational needs.

Recreation, as considered here, includes all coastal land and
water resources, human activities, and development that serve to
provide for the portion of leisure time which is spent out-of-doors
along the maritime edge of the North Atlantic Region. The people who
choose to spend a portion of their free non-working hours engaged in
refreshing diversions along the coast are considered here, be they
active pursuits such as sLirfihg or sailboating, or passive amusements
such as beachcombing or photographing shore birds. The land and
water resources, man-made facilitiesvacation homes, marinas, water-
ways and piers that provide the resource base for recreational pur-
suits are included.

Outdoor recreation in coastal areas includes:

0 Water contact activities such as swimming, surfing, water
skiing and skin-diving. The resource base is essentially the sandy
beachfront and surf.

0 Boating with cabin cruisers@ motor boats, sailboats, submers-
ibles and rowboats. The resource base is primarily protected water-
ways and water surfaces.

9 Sportsfishing from boats, piers or the shoreline. The resource
base is primarily the fish, wetlands and shoal water habitats.

Hunting, primarily water fowl. The resource base is essentially
wetl:nds.

e Passive recreational pursuits including pleasure driving,
viewing, sunbathing, beachcombing, photography, walking, birdwatching
and nature study. The resource base is essentially the more scenic
natural areas of the coast.

Major Causes. The major causes of the problem are high demand,
limited supply and use conflicts.

Nationally, the value of'the coastal zone for recreational use
has been estimated as second only to marine transportation. In the
North Atlantic Region beaches like Jones Beach, Coney Island,-Atlan-
tic City and Ocean City, Maryland each regularly accommodate 10-20
million visitors annually. In 1965 there were nearly three million
saltwater fin fishermen in this region. They spend about $200
million as part of their hobby. Private recreational land values
have appreciated rapidly along the coast. For example, on Cape Cod

U-116

many plots currently selling in the $10,000 - $15,000 range sold
..for $150-1500 in 1956. As population, affluence, leisure, coastal
accessibity and outdoor appreciation continue to expand, recrea-
tional demands will grow rapidly.

The ability of tile resource base to meet this demand is limi-
ted in several important ways. Most important of all, climate
limits almost all currently popular forms of outdoor coastal rec-
reation to about 90-100 days a year, in this region. Tile most
popular form of coastal outdoor recreation, tile water contact
activities are based upon sandy beachfront and surf. Of the 4,700
Miles of ocean fronting shorelines in the North Atlantic Region,
about three-eighths (1800 miles) is beach and one-eighth (56o
miles) is available for public recreation. Beaches vary greatly
throughout this region: Maine with more than half tile ocean shore-
:line has almost no beaches, the rest of New England is mixed, and
from Long Island South the 400 miles of ocean shoreline are all
beach. All but 155 (735 miles) of this oceanfront is privately
,-.,owned. Public ownership is most prominent in Massachusetts, New
York and New Jersey. The non-oceanic coastline, (about 3900 miles)
-consists of tile coasts of Narranagansett Bay the East Shore and
Great South Bay on Long Island, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay
:.lesser embayments and tile lagoons or backbays from Long Island
...South. Almost a11 of it (about 80/0) is privately owned and very
little of it (about 15%) is beach. Of course, here, too, there
are numerous local departures from this regionalwide perspective.
(136)

'file base for boating is primarily tile protected areas of es-
tuaries and embayments and the waterways such as the Intracoastal
Waterway. These areas appear ample for current and expected
populations. For example, the approximately 6 million acres of
..-protected coastal recreational boating waters in this region are
,
equivalent to a halfacre for every family now living in the NAR.
The iimitation for boating is not congested water surfaces, but

shoreline facilities affluence.

The base for hunting and sportsfishing is wetlands and shoal
-water habitat. Tile 3 million acres in the NAF: are equivalent to
one-quarter acre per family. The limitation here does not appear
to be wetland area habitat area but waterfowl abundance and hunter
affluence.

'The base for passive recreational pursuits is essentially the
entire coastline. This is hard to quantify because tastes differ
so much. For aesthetic isolation, anyone around is too much.-
For girlwatching at the beach, the more the merrier.

In summary, if allocated on a per-NAR-family basis, the coas-
tal recreational resource base would be distributed something as
follows:

U-117

0 Four inches of public recreational oceanfront beach for all
beach recreation.

0 One-half acre of protected waters for all boating te6rea-
tion.

0 One-quarter acre of wetland and shoal water habitat for all
hunting and sportsfishing.

Several use conflicts complicate the problem of satisfying
recreational demand. High density recreation and low density rec-
reation exert diametrically opposite demands on the resource base.
Mosquito control programs also tug in an opposite direction from
wetland recreation. Inadequately controlled waste disposal causes
pollution and conflicts with several forms of coastal recreation.
Management of wetlands for wildlife purposes often conflicts-with
their management for marine life purposes. Residential., commercial
and industrial uses occupy land which might otherwise be available
for public recreation.

In summary of causes -- demand for all forms of coastal-recrea-
tion is rising fast; the major resource limitations are seasonality
and public beachfront (for the most popular form of recreation -
bathing); and a number of conflicts exist and their resolution will
undoubtedly require many tradeoffs. Aside from seasonality, the
shortage of conveniently accessible, developed public beach facili-
ties near population centers is easily the most significant limita-
tion.

Location. According to projections of accumulated unsatisfied
need for outdoor recreation in Appendix M, the need will be greatest
for the most heavily urbanized areas of the region. Here the need
is primarily for facilities for one-day outings and weekend trips,
and intensive use of the coastal recreational resource base. In the
interest of improving environmental quality the need for diversity
in the form and quality of recreational experiences is most acute
in the urbanized coastal zone.

The more remote and inaccessible areas of the coastal zone pro-
vide a scarce recreational opportunity in the form of less inten-
sive activities in more naturalistic surroundings. Portions of the
Maine coast and some of the isolated barrier islands such as-Fire
Island and Assateaque Island provide such a setting.

Areas in which recreation conflicts with other coastal uses are
located primarily around'major ports and cities where,residential
and commercial use of the shorefront predominate. -Water quality
sufficiently low to preclude swimming and shellfishing is common
near coastal cities and the estuaries of major streams-where the
full assimilative capacity is ued for diluting wastes. Water
pollution is also becoming a problem around some recreational devel-
opments along remote coastal bays and small estuaries-as a result
of waste discharges from boats and private homes.

U"118

.Time,Characterist-i-cs. The temporAl- aspects-of,the recreational
demand are-particularly significant insofar as they influence the
intensity of use, the types of activities and the space that must be
allocated. Outings.or day use generally limit the area served by a
given recreational facility to the time an individual or family is
willing to spend in travel. The range for day use travel has been
estimated at about two hours. Using this.criterion, most of the NXR
shoreline is within two hours travel time of some major urban center.
Another limiting factor in day use recreation at any facility is the
tr'ansportation mode. With the exception of a small portion of coast-
line._served by mass transit, most day us-e.r-ecr,eation is reached only
by private automobile, and is subject to constraints-of highway
capacity and parking facilities. Cape Cod for instance i's now served
by'roads much too inadequate to meet peak capacity, so that the ov---__
er-
crowded highways actually regulate the numbers of day use recreation-
ists. Parking facilities, vast as they are, limit the use of Jones
Beach during peak use in the summer.

-,..Fprsons seeking coastal recrd-dElon for extended periods such as
weekend trips, vacations, or an entire season, place added demands
on-the resource base for overnight accommodations such as vacation
homes, cottages, campsites and motels. Extended use also expands the
potential range of an area served by a given coastal recreational
facility. Thus, the coast of Maine, removed as it is from population
concentrations, serves day use recreation for primarily local resi-
dents, whereas vacation use attracts persons from as far as New Jer-
sey._4.pd Pennsylvania.

As pointed out earlier, an important time-based characteristic,
seasonality, is the single most important limitation on coastal
recreation. It not only denies off-season use but severly limits
the quality of the facilities which can economically be provided.
Seasonality is easily the most significant factor in the economy and
unemp,loyment rates in coastal recreation areas.

Parties Affected. The parties most seriously affected are those
persons without the means to travel to recreational facilities.
Transportation seems to be the key to gaining access to coastal
recreational facilities. People lacking such means are the less
affluent city dwellers without a private car.

Those who are not residents or property owners are more likely
to be restricted in gaining access to the coastal waters for swim-
ming or boating. In areas where the coastline is privately owned,
particularly in communities where vacation homes and seasonal homes
are prevalent, the local municipality often provides public beaches
and launching.ramps for the use of residents only.

U-119

Solutions. TbI do1ve the pr-ohylem. of improvirig-_--the usefulniEs of
the region's coastal zone-in satisfying current and forseeable
recreational needs, one approach is to attack the principal causes
briefly: high demand, limited-supply, use conflicts.

Not too much-can be done about demand. The positive way thel'@-
problem is worded, we can not abnegate responsibility by approaches
such as (1) let them stay home -- outdoor pools, TV's, etc., or (2)
limit the population and that will reduce demand or (3) let the
increasing congestion, travel inconvenience and costs establish their
own limitations on demand. -Ifistead-, the problem is how to increase:7
human enjoyment, n6t turn it elsewhere or supress it.

constructive work on demand needs to be done to understand
it better, to learn of peoples' recreational appetites and the in-
convenience factors and inducements which influence it. Examples:
How many would become boaters if marinas were as cheap as parking
garages and boats as- economically qttainable as rental cars today?
How many would use Jones Beach and @dj-acent-Gilgo Beach if they c'ould
drive there easily in three-quarters of an hour or less and were-@-
assured of plentiful parking, excellent facilities, no traffic jams
and no excessive beach congestion? How many would engage in sports-
fishing if it were inexpensive, and easily accessible and a reason-
able catch could be expected? (24) and (26)

Based upon answers to questions such as these the problem Of,
supply could be attacked. The limiting factors could be more suf6ly,
identified and possibly overcome. Although it appears quite certain
that almost every facet of supply must be considered in meeting
coastal recreation demands near large cities, it needs to be known
what improvements will provide the most return -- $X for pollution
abatement, $Y for beach acquisition, $Z for extending mass transit
to beach areas, $Q for better parking, or $R for better highways
or more launching ramps, etc. Which of these necessary things shoilld
get budget priority is a real-life question that must always be
answered.

Looking to the long range future, it would seem that there is
quite an untapped capability to increase the most critically short
resource -- sandy beaches, provided some diminuation in the quality
of the experience can be accepted. There are several thousand miles
of non-beach shorefront which could be converted to beaches by sa@nd
nourishment along almost all of the backbays and estuaries. True"'
the surf action and seabreezes would not be so attractive as along
the ocean beaches, but the congestion would be much less.

The use conflicts listed earlier were illustrative; it is easy
to think of others. One of the most important conflicts is internal
to recreation -- the conflict between high and low density recreation.
The concept of the greatest good for the greatest number if followed

U-120

to its ultimate conclusion would completely submprge.allJndivid-qality-
It seems fully in accord with American traditions to slightly limit
lithe greatest number." so that all might have a chance to "do their
thing." To preser've'a spectrum 'of'. choice while giving considerable
but not absolute"preference to the majority is one of the key chal-
lenges to coastal zone planning and management. T-he spectrum is
currently being preserved more thro ugh natural selection than through
purposeful action. Thus, Maine provides low-density aesthetic appeal
not so much because it is beautiful or because it was arranged that
way, but because it is remote, has a harsh winter which discourages
settlement there and because the beaches are too few and the water
often too cold for family bathing.

In the fuLure,natural screening factors such as these will be
less significant. Central Park on Manhattan Island was a purposeful
product of planning and action. Increasing in the future, purpose-
ful action such as this will have to surplant the more or less for-
tuitous selection process to date.

U-121

[email protected]`..

Nature of the Problem. All forms of transportation -- air, sur-
face, and marine -- have significant coastal implications.

Air transportation competes in some ways with marine transporta-
tion. -This relationship is discussed latter in this analysis under
"Solutions." As the need for more or larger airports close to urban
centers mounts, coastal areas are frequently considered as likely
locations for many reasons. Almost all major urban areas are close
to the coast. Overwater approaches significantly reduce problems of
safety and noise. Relative to inland areas, coastal landfill areas
are inexpensive. Furthermore, by selecting a coastal site, a com-
munity can avoid a huge loss to their real estate tax bases. To
capitalize on these advantages, large tracts of coastal wetlands
important to marine life are sometimes filled in. It is difficult
to weigh the net gains and losses from these conflicting use require-
ments. The general problem of landfill as it affects coastal wetlands
is considered in another problem analysis. (See Conservation of
Wetlands).

Surface transportation requires rights of way for roads and rail-
roads. Often they are located along the coast because of certain
transportational advantages there. If they are not located with
environmental sensitivity, they can become aesthetic blemishes and
restrict coastal access. When transportation arteries cross navigi-
ble waterways and estuaries the bridges and tunnels can restrict the
expansion of marine transportation and adversely affect tidal flush-
ing upon which marine life and waste disposal may depend. Pipelines
are an alternative to coastal marine transportation in the delivery
of bulk liquid products, especially petroleum.

Marine transportation is particularly a coastal consideration.
From an economic point of view, it has been claimed to be the most
significant use of the coastal zone. Nationally, it had an estimated
value of about $11 billion in 1963 according to Figure U-3. On a
slightly different basis, its value in the NAR is estimated at over
$3 billion annually in Table U-11. Although marine transportation
occupies only a very small part of the region's coastline, say 1-2%,
this part often has special value to many other coastal uses. Altera-
tions in the location or configuration of approach channels, protec-
tive structures and shore facilities can affect these other uses.

Since marine transportation is developed comprehensively in
Appendix K (Navigation), only its major environmental and economic
problems are covered herein.

On a.worldwide basis, dramatic changes have occurred in ocean
shipping over the last 15 years. The two most important changes are
the introduction of the containership and the very deep draft bulk

U-122

carrier. The NAR is, (@J accommodating the container-
rather w
ship despite some growing pains. However, unless this region can
find acceptable ways of accommodating even a modest portion of the
increase in vessel drafts for bulk carriers, it will continue to pay
a transportation cost for its substantial bulk imports and exports,
perhaps approaching twice the cost attainable with some of the newer
and proposed deep draft vessels. Currently bulk products such as
petroleum, ore and coal make up about 80% of the region's overseas
tonnage. This proportion can rise even higher with increasing con-
sumption, the possible opening of an Arctic tanker route, and upward
revision in the quotas which now limit the region's oil imports. if
future requirements are to continue to be met by the current small
tankers, environmental side effects such as congestion and oil spil-
lage could worsen.

The scope of all analyses, including this one, must be limited to
attain focus. This analysis is bounded first of all in a geo-
graphic and functional way. Within this envelope it is further
bounded by the depth of treatment suitable to the broad purposes of
the overall NAR study. To provide an appreciation of these limits
and to establish the context within which this analysis is made,
these limits are described more fully below.

This analysis focuses geographically on the regional, coastal
aspects of the problem to include the approach channels, the harbors,
the off-loading facilities, the adjacent shore facilities and that
part of the distribution system which is carried out by coastwise
shipping. Cited as important exterior influences, but not covered
in detail, are the ocean traverse and the inland distribution system.

As reflected in the problem definition, the analysis focuses
functionally on commercial shipping. Thus-it does not cover such
related aspects as recreational boating which is considered in
another problem analysis (See Recreation), the status of the U.S.
Merchant Marine, and related problems of shipbuilding, labor, and
efficiencies potentially obtainable through improved weather predic-
tion and port administration. Impacts, beneficial or detrimental, to
other users of the coastal zone are identified and possible solutions
or ameliorative measures are suggested.

Data and comments are geared primarily to the regional pe 'rspec-
tive. They are not sufficient to evaluate individual ports. For
example, significant limitations on further deepening in major ports
have been generally rounded herein to the nearest five-foot interval,
and are intended to have an accuracy necessary only to establish the
individual port's general candidacy to accommodate.some of the larger
vessels anticipated in the future.

ty-123

_.MaJor Causes.:@!7he satisfaction,of major needs in marine trans-
portation presents problems, because of the larg6'current and pro-
jected scale of marine transportation, increases in ship size,
physical limitations of the region's coastal zone and environmental
considerations.

The first major cause of the problem, the very large scale of
marine transportation, is indicated by Table U-11.

TABLE U-11
COMPONENT QUANTITIES

Estimated
Volume- in million short tons,1968 Port Revenue
Internal
Commodity Foreign Coast and Total $/Ton Total
Import wise Local ($ billion)

Petroleum:
Crude 61 9 22 92 4.38 .40
Refined
products 60 1 98 86 245 4.38 1.07

Other Bulk:
Coal 35 12 19 66 3.02 .20
Ore 28 1 12 27 68 3.51 .24
Grain 4 1 5 7.06 o4

General Cargo &
miscellaneous 28 1 12 1 27 1 13 1 80 1 18.46 1 1.25

Total 177 53 158 168 556 3.20

l/ Computed at $1.34/ton for internal and local;and $18.46/ton
for all others.

SOURCE: Tonnages are developed from information provided by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers(138). Port revenue cost factors are based
upon a study by the Maritime Administration adjusted for price esca-
lation ( 1 ). They are estimates of direct dollar expenditures to
move the cargo through the port. Their principal components are
labor, port terminal income, rail and motor freight credited to the
area, auxiliary services, and miscellaneous port and terminal
expenditures.

Almost all of the crude oil imports come to the Delaware River
ports, Portland and New York with 27, 22 and 10 million tons respec-
tively.. The refined petroleum products are imported in many loca-
tions; about half, 30 million tons, comes to the Port of New York.
Essentially, all of the coal is exported from Hampton Roads. The ore
imports consist primaril y of iron ore in the Delaware River ports
(11 million tons) and in Baltimore (10 million tons). Grain ship-

U-1-24 -

ments are relatively minor. About half leave Hampton Roads. Tile
major volume of general cargo imports and exports is located at New
York, the Delaware River ports, and Baltimore, in that order.

One study ( 2 ) expects crude oil imports to rise about 70% from
1968 to the year 2000. At this rate the 1968 imports would easily
double by 2020. Any upward change in the current import quota which
limits foreign imports to 12.2% of domestic consumption, or the
creation of a free port exempt from this restriction would have a
major impact upon this projection. Proiected increased in dry bulk
imports vary widely from about 70% to about 3501". by the year
2000 (2).

A second major cause of the problem is increases in ship sizes.
Appendix K (Navigation) contains a detailed description of each of
the four major classes of commercial ocean vessels and their varients,
-together with an analysis of the future growth trends for each. For
reasons cited in Appendix K, little increase is expected in the sizes
of passenger vessels or general cargo carriers, including both con-
tainerships and break-bulk vessels.

For the other two classes -- tankers and dry-bulk carriers --
major size increases are expected before the year 2000. For the
lofiger trade runs serving the region from South America, the Middle
East and Alaska, if the Northwest Passage becomes a feasible route,
200,000 deadweight ton (DWT) tankers are expected with drafts of
65 feet or more. Dry bulk carriers importing iron ore and exporting
coal in the NAR are expected to reach 100,000 DWT with drafts of
45-50'. Combined ore-bulk-oil (OBO) vessels will require drafts of
60 feet or more ( 2

These vessels are small compared to the forecasts of tankers
five times larger and dry-bulk carriers twice as large, in terms of
DWT, expected to be operating in the next 20 years elsewhere in the
world (135).

A third major cause of the problem lies in the limited depths of
the harbors and channels in the region. Figure U--%ll illustrates the
cha@nnel depth problem.

Note that none of these major existing Atlantic ports can come
close to accommodating the depth requirements for the larger tankers
expected to be serving the U.S. in the year 2000 without running into
problems of bedrock, continental shelf or the other serious obstacles
identified. Recent unit costs of about $2 a cubic yard for "conven-
-.tip-Inal" dredging and about $20 a cubic yard for blasting and removing
;..rock make the total cost of significant deepening by amounts in the
-17-35 foot range, prohibitive.

Figure U-11 also shows that none of the major ports in the region
can accommodate the full range of depths required for the expected

U-125

I YL 1 :T 111.1,1t- @%T- -1,-1 %C LES
H. T New Nita.
Ntassac hu,orts Rhode conn'eticut %ew York Md. Vir inia
J@rs-

ncrTHS REQt IRrr)
T I t-R
I k i i nr ussi i-q
c
E1-p
26 E! (7
t draft
o -5 draf dry Wit ship-
r: _o
tank rs
it
it
.1 carriers
It
:s a: Z' Z a Z Z
0. World US W.,Id World LIS
nLainer

Mean

range
r, n n n n n n n F1 11
0

20
41 2.

Ll
IL 40
0

Authorized depths

60 60
r7 r
4'M
Bedro,k or I
mail we trial Other obstacles
shelf
Sir so

L. Mean tidal ranges am approx-ate.
usually mean Im tide.
All depth. arc rrea.@Erred from local datum
'Aulhort7ed depths' shown ar, for outer harl-urs; lesser depthm am often autnor'led for mru,r harbors. 100 -
4(nher obstacl,, -lude the relocation. undermintatz. or h,se of major hridgp.@. 1"Linskels, utilities. bmakaters.
I'ttle%. pi@ rq. t, rminah,. and other 5tr.riums 1,,cateci adjacent to hannels whirli would have to be deepened.
"h,r obstarle.,' st- sli@ -1 'v wh,n Ere'v are enrowapmd at less depth than rock ot ontrinent.1 shelf. The
Chp,appake Bay ports am also re str,cwd Lv t- can;rolling 57-foat d pth nf the Chesapeake Bav Bridge Tunnpf
across the mouth of the hay At that lot@atj on the tide rung, Is insign.pfirant.
bepths required [or lutur, ves%eW are the drafts of the larg- vpqspl@ experts,1 tt@ Eh. vear "",'A I-Id, an
allowanrv of -on ieet for -I.A. tre hwatpr I-ijuvan, 1,S5. m,.ti..n n th, .5Ca. an-i @ad,rv [-tors. I .r e%ample.
@j" p dralt tartiter, --nir ine IS.@q,xp-etra to requ,m chw--i depths of al,wr r- to 7.' f-I. rh@ I -g. shou-n
1.% a p3vi@rn.

140
CHANNEL DEPTHS, REQUIREMENTS, AND SOME MAJOR OBSTACLES TO DEEPENING
So'ur'd4_:'-(135),(2),'-a@nd (90) FIGURE U-11"

dry-bulk carriers. Portland, New York and Hampton Roads can carry
a few at the lower end of the requirement. All three have no obvious
major bedrock or other obstacle limitations, except major costs for,
conventional dredging. Providence and Baltimore with deepening of
5 feet or less might also accommodate a few of these vessels at the
lower end of the requirement without bedrock or other major problems.
Observation of the tidal ranges discloses a possibility of bringing
some larger size vessels into the port to a deepened basin during
high tide, but the feasibility of this alternative would require
local ctudy. Another poss 'ibility is the LASH or SEEBEE with drafts
up to about 33 feet. These vessels could OfflDad lighter, shallow-
draft barges for coastwise and inland distribution. The economic
feasibility of this alternative requires considerably more study
of their performance in the Gulf of Mexico where they are first
to be tried.

There are no significant obstacles of depth for containerships,
break-bulk cargo vessels and passenger vessels expected for the year
2000 at numerous ports in the region.

A fourth major cause of the problem lies in environmental con-
sidgrations. These problems are covered at length later in this
analysis under Parties Affected. They are also cited frequently
throughout the analysis.

Location. By its basic nature, ocean marine transportation is
dependent upon the coast. Many other users of the coastline, even
recreationers, could conceivably go elsewhere. But it is impossible
to conceive of moving heavy tonnages from abroad, within the time
frame of this study and well beyond without marine transportation.
Transoceanic pipelines for the movement of liquid products, even
with some in slurry form, are conceptually possible, but their
economic, environmental and perhaps technical realities are well
beyond mature consideration. For the solid components of oceanic
cargo, it is not even possible to conceive of an alternative except
for air delivery of the low-weight, high value cargo for which time
in transport becomes the dominant factor. For the ocean trade,
therefore, the question is really where on the coast and how, not
whether.

Conceptually, at least, more options are open for the coastwise
and inland distribution systems. Here marine transportation competes
with pipeline, rail and truck. To investigate the performance of the
market place in allocating this trade is well beyond the scope of this
study. It would take a really national transportation study to do sc'.

The strategic positioning of marine transportation presents some
options at the supra-regional, regional and local levels.

Other regions, especially eastern Canada, the Great Lakes, the
South Atlantic and Gulf are possible competitors with the NAR for

U-127

marine traffic. The NAR is closer to Europe and the Arctic oil
fields than any of the others except the Canadian ports. It is about
equidistant with the others from the Middle East oil fields. It is
closer to the South American oil and ore sources than the others
except the South Atlantic and some of the Gulf port. Currently,
there is talk about a "North American land bridge" between Eastern
Asia and Europe. Under this concept, certain segments of the con-
tainer trade, characterized by higher values ascribed to time lost
in transit, might be landed in the Seattle-Vancouver area and moved
across the continent in highly specialized container trains to
Canadian, NAR or even Great Lakes ports for movement to Europe.
Analysis of this possibility is beyond the scope of this study. Such
an analysis would evaluate the type and volume of cargo which would
move economically by such a system; the implications of possible new
alternative routes such as the one through the Arctic or a sea level
canal across Central America; and the comparative positions of the
Canadian, NAR and Great Lakes ports.

The NAR has by far the largest concentration of people and indus-
try in North America. A quarter (26%) of the people in the United
States live there and they command a third (31%) of the Nation's
earnings (Appendix B - Economic Base).

Several developed Canadian ports, notably Halifax, have harbors
significantly deeper than those found in the NAR. However, the NAR
ports are deeper than those in the South Atlantic, Gulf and Great
Lakes systems ( 135).
As Table U-12 indicates, the value of the existing port facilities
in the NAR far surpasses that in any other major port region in North
America.

U-128

TABLE U-12

TOTAL NON-FEDERAL COASTAL PORT DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES TO DATE

(Millions of Dollars)

1946-1965 L966-1970
Region inclusive inclusive Total

North Atlantic 838 168 1,006

South ALlaittic. 1.14 51 165

Gulf 385 65 450

Great L;ikes 251 8 259

(Total U.S. Ports) (2,127) (520) (2,647)

All Canadian Ports 3/ 429 ? ?

NOTES:

I/ These are public expenditures, e.g. New York Port Authority.
An additional 75-100% was prIvate investment. The total
estimated non-Federal cost thus appears to be about $5 billion.

2/ $486 million of this was for the Port of New York.

3/,-, Atlantic, Great Lakes, Pacific and Arctic.

SOURCE: ( 4 and (102 )

On balance the NAR appears to have some outstanding advantages
which will cause its existing trade to remain largely within it.

Within the North Atlantic Region, probably not more than one
percent of the tidal shoreline is allocated to shipping. The major
port systems, in terms of gross tonnage in 1968, are shown in Table
U-13.

U-129

TABLE U-13

MAJOR NORTH ATLANTIC PORT SYSTEM.Sl/

Annual Gross
Tonnage (Million
Short tons) Port System
232 Port of New York and Hudson River 2/

116 Delaware River: Trenton to the Sea

53 Hampton Roads

42 Baltimore

27 Portland

23 Boston

11 New Haven

10 Providence

l/ Between them these eight port systems account for all but
42 million short tons ( 8%) of the NAR total.

2/ 175 million short tons of this were for the Port of
New York.

SOURCE: Compiled from (138).

Economies of scale are producing some shift towards fewer, larger
ports, for the import/export trade. It is relatively easy to figure-
the volume necessary to cause a very large bulk carrier or even
containership to devote the time (expense) required to make devia-
tions from its major route. For example, Boston might have to
develop significantly more volume to cause these large European-
New York vessels to call at its port.

On a local basis, several transportation trends can affect the
use of the coastal zone in very important ways.

One trend is toward reduced shorefront and increased storage
area. Fewer but much larger ships with improved offloading capabili-
ties require less total shorefront. The land areas behind the water-
front must accept the intermittent, sudden, large surges of cargo

U-130

f rom ihb'oir@ing ships arid' hold them long n'
'e ough to permit their eco-----"
nomical inland movement at a relatively even rate. This requires
space, much more than can often be found behind urban finger piers.

A second trend is increasing demand for urban waterfront. This
demand is reflected in increased appreciation of the amenities, high
and rapidly rising land values and congestion.

A combination of both of these trends is producing a migration Df
some of the larger port facilities to outlying areas. The most con-
spicuous example of this trend is Port Elizabeth, a new $750 million..
facility with very large land storage areas about eight miles from
Manhattan. Partially as a result of such relocations, significant
parts of high-value urban waterfront are now becoming available for
other uses. What these other uses should be points up one of the
many problems of urban and coastal-zone planning and management,
cited earlier in this Appendix under "Coastal Uses." New York's
"Lower Manhattan Plan" calls for filling in significant parts of the
coast occupied by the obsolete finger piers and building mostly very
high rise apartments on the new land thus made available (101).

Time Characteristics. Except for possibly the passenger cruise
trade which tends to peak seasonally and which appears to be migrating
to the South Atlantic ports, marine transportation in the NAR is
relatively constant throughout the year. As has been seen, the long-
range trend.is for major increases in volume.

Parties Affected. Consideration of the effects on people should.
include both transportation users and other users of the coastal zone.

Transportation "users" are those employed in providing the ser-
vices and those who ultimately pay for the services primarily through
the transportation-generated cost of their purchases. The economic
and non-market values of mar-ine transportation to these users are
considered below.

According to Table U-11, port revenues in the NAR are about
$3-4 billion annually. Many studies have been made of the economic
significance of ports (142). A 1956 study estimated the total direct
and indirect impact of the Port of New York at $6.3 billion annually
and 430,000 jobs. A study of Baltimore estimated the direct impact
of its port at $0.6 billion annually and 62,000 jobs and its total
impact at $1.6 billion and 155,000 jobs. It attributed 12% of the
1966 Maryland gross state product to this port. A study of
Virginia ports concluded that 1968 port and harbor related activi.-
ties directly generated 94,000 jobs and wages of $0.63 billion. Indi-
rectly, the study Concluded an additional 131,000 jobs were generated.
In total, one out of every eight jobs in Virginia were directly or
indirectly related to Virginia's port and harbor activities. The
lack of a common base of definition and methodology makes direct

U-131

pmparisons misleading. The examples herein are intended solely to
illustrate general orders of economic magnitude. A more rigorous
ned potttayal is bey@ol-ndthe
dis6ipli scope of t. s study.

The 466 million short-tons imported nationwide in 1967 had a
value of about $40.7 billion. This is the value of what is moved,
not the value of the services added.

A Commerce Department study (9 ), formulated on the implication
that coastal marine transportation has an economic value added equiv-
alent to the amount society is paying for the service, concluded that
its national value in the mid-1960's was about $11 billion. This is
t'he cost of the services charged at the sea-land interface for cargo
handling. It,does not include the charge for the overseas movement
itself or its related components such as shipbuilding. Neither does
it include the capital outlays for port improvements implying that
these costs, except probably for subsidies, are imbedded in the
servicing charges. The study does not provide a regional breakdown,
but it would appear that the NAR's proportion of this nationwide
total would be about one third or more.

For the industries and customers who ultimately pay for the trans-
portation through their purchases of goods and services, some signif-
icant economies are implicit in predictions such as the following:

iTheoretical.systems analysis has estimated containeriza-
,tion to have the capability of increasing port labor pro -ductivity
.about 20 times (118). Operational experience at the Dundalk
Marine,T,erminal in Baltimore indicates increased efficiency
over break bulk.handling by.a factor of about 13.

A'110,000-DWT tanker can.move a barrel of petroleum at about
two-thirds,--the, -cost.of a 40,000 DWT tanker (135). Since-about 68%
by..weight of the NAR's imports is petroleum (138), the pertinence of
this estimate is especially-significant. A somewhat similar relation-
ship applies to major dry bulk movements which currently make up
about 16% of the imports and 75% of the exports by weight in the NAR.

'In addition to their economic impacts, ports have other important
impacts not readily visible in the market place. These relate to such
things as national.defense and international relations. Ports also
influence population distribution. The largerthe city the more
likely it is an important port. Within the NAR are 23 of the Nation's
100.1argestostandard metropolitan areas (SMA's). Of-the five NAR
cities which rank in the first 25 nationwide, all but one (Washington)
is@a major ocean port. Five more NAR cities rank in the second-25
nationwide, and 3 of them are major ports and 2 are minor ports.
.gight more NAR cities rank in the third 25 nationwide but only 3 are@
major ports, 1 is a minor port and 4 are not even on the,ocean.-In
the fourth 25 nationwidethere are 5 NAR cities. None of.them arez
even on the ocean (140)..

TT-1

Ports and the activities necessary to provideand operate them,
@ I , - " .:-,. I ,@ I @ L -F
have signi t 6 f c
can' Hican'' e'ts on o't er non-transp6rta'Aion oriented uses
of the coastal zone. Keeping in mind that these effects are for the
.it
most part concentrated in the vicinity of ports, some of the inter-.,,-,
actions with other major coastal uses can be examined.

Commercial fishing can be hurt in several ways. Fishing is often
restricted in port areas and shipping channels for safety and conges-
tion reasons. No shellfishing, for example, is permitted in New York
Channel.
L

Fishing can be affected by ship-caused pollution in harbors and-,
by ship-caused oil spills. Some aspects of oil pollution have already
been considered (see Location under the analysis of Water Pollution,".
It has been estimated that 23% of the oil introduced into the world's
waters by other then natural seeps and pleasure craft comes from ships
(48). Most of this, 21%, comes from normal operations such as bilge
cleanout of tankers and other ships; however, most of the research
and public attention has focused on the 2% caused by accidents
probably because of their spectacular concentration in relatively
small areas close to shore. Of the total number of oil spills over
100 barrels reported in U.S. waters in 1968 and 1969, about half were
from vessels, a third were from shore facilities and the remainder
were unidentified ( 43). During the decade of the 60's, over 550
tanker collisions occurred. Four-fifths of them involved ships
entering or leaving ports (128). Approaches for controlling oil
pollution include determining the ecological effects, minimizing the
chance of accidents and improving the cleanup efficiency for those
accidents which do occur.

Currently, the actual long-term effects on marine biota are not
clearly known. The Plymouth Laboratory's study of the TORREY CANYON
case concluded that "except for serious effects on some species of
sea birds, the oil was not lethal to flora and fauna." ( 31) Most
damage was caused by detergents. A subsequent report concluded that
"it is unlikely that any serious permanent damage will have occurred
even after the colossel spillage experienced when the TORREY CANYON
went aground...however, ...large amounts of oil could have been far
more damaging in other areas ... [especiallyl...in areas liable to
repeated spills ... [causing] chronic pollution of marshes." (104)
During World War II, mass spillage of oil off the east coast of the
United States was almost a daily event, yet wide-spread ecological
disruptions apparently did not occur. Followup ecological studies in
the Santa Barbara area have apparently revealed little significant
persisting imprint on the region's ecology, although definitive
reports have not yet been completed. The Smithsonian Institution is
currently analyzing the ecological effects of an oil spill which oc-
curred adjacent to their facility on the Pacific side of the Panama
Canal.

U-133

In contrast to the above cautiously reasurring research conclusions, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institure reportedly considers oil pollution to be a major current threat to marine biology on a global basis, the polar extremes of these conclusions from widely respected sources on such an important subjedct indicates that here is an area of badly needed, intraprofessional communication.
While research on the effects is underway, alternative ways are being considered to minimize the accident potential. These include: international conventions, international standards for shp construction and operation, safety regulation by the Coast Guard, increased surveillance. Harbor advisory radar systems emergency oil transfer and storage systems, cooperation of private industry and port authorities, radio telephones, licensing of towboat operators ;and finanacing cleanyp operations (128).
A third set of alternatives involves cleanup efficiency for those oil spills which do occur. Measures include containment, removal and restoration. Each has many alternatives of its own, Major research is underway on these methods, but the most successful solutions to date still seem to be stray and nature.
Many believe that the most serious conflict between fishing and marine transportation can occur through the dredging process necessary to provide and maintain shipping channels. Deleterious side effects can occur in the removal operaton, in the deposition of spoil and in changes in hyfrodynamic conditions induced by dredging which changes bottom configuration in key locations.

Benthis life in the actual removal area is for the most part destroyed, Afjacent benthis organisms can be smothered by the local sedimentation temporarily induced, but eventual restoration to the pre-dredign population appears to be largely a matter of time, say a uear or two (33), (111). Where the bottom is covered with oxygen-demanding sediments generated largely by the upstream activities of ma (a common case), the dredging process can cuase a temporatily increased dispersion of this BOD and cuase localized reductions or
even depletion of dissolved oxygen. the significance of all of these effects on fishing is measured in their time-space distribution, the ability of smome fish to move away from the disturbance and the defree to which the area would be otherwise fishable.

Marine life in the disposal areas can be affected to a much greater degree than it can in the removal area. If, for ezample, the spoil is deposited in wetland areas, the significance of the damage will vary with the extent of coverage and the biological productivity of the partivular wetland. That welands play a vital role in the production of marine life is widely recognized, However, essential information for the decision maker is still basically lacking. According to the bureau of Commerical Fisheries, about

u-134

65, percent of ouri..Nat-lons commercial ff-ish. catch-...is !'estuarine-.,-de-
-ficAnt part oflts @Iife cycle 4
i.e.@ 'sperjda@ any signi Jv-
in&- n, r,passing-,,through estuariesl(170)., The percentagevaries
1 o
widely by regi,oni, For example, within the NAR llestuarine.depend@-
en1cy," the averageis about 27%,,in New England and.93% in the
Chesapeake Bay States (Table U-3). Even within@these areas some
wetlands must be more essential than others. The disposal of
spoil ' whether it be in wetlands., out to sea or.elslewhere, should
be based u on more usable knowledge. Instead of a curse, with-im-
P
proved knowledge the disposal of dredging spoil can be turned into
an advantage by (1) creating more wetlands, (2) improving less.
productive wetlands or turning them into more desired land uses,
or (3) avoiding wetlands completely. The following are some exam-
Ples,of imaginative efforts of this type in which ecological and
Social-improvements are.being-at.tempte.d. Dredge spoil from pend-
ing Mobile and Tampa harbor projects,will beused to 'Create spoil
islands.wh .ich will be converted into wildlife refuges. At Tampa
they will be sloped to create ideal conditions for additional fish
nurseries. Some at Mobile will be doughnut-shaped to enhance
grWth of wildlife. In San Diego and in Hampton Roads spoil was
used to build up the.shoreline and provide additional space.for
Ports In St. Joseph's harbor spoil is.to be used to reduce fur.-
ther beach erosion. Near Detroit existing spoil islands will be.-
comelwildlife and parks areas.

Disposal at sea can also present problems and uncertainties.
Benthic life in and adjacent to the immediate disposal area can
lie Smothered. Dependent upon the pullutant loads in the dredged
material and dispursing currents in the.disposal area, other,ef-
fects can be induced such as localized oxygen depletion and chemi-
cal poisoning on the one hand and nutrient enrichment on the other.

The removal and deposition operations can change the-bottom
and shoreline configuration sufficiently to alter the current with
consequent changes in chemical and biological concentrations in
the.water column. Thus dredging techniques might help flush out
Great South Bay on Long Island and thereby provide increased rec--
re,ational advantages and major savings,in waste treatment costs.
But the resultant increase in salinity might affect those sectors
of the shellfish industry whose preservation depends upon main-
taining the current fresh water-saline gradient.

Whatever mix of values is most desired by an informed society,
dredging can often be,used to reinforce them. Unfortunately.
current knowledge of.key biological factors and society's prefer-,
ences is too obscure to permit the decisions that must be made,
whether by action or inaction, to be made in full confidence.

Another significant dredging-type concern binges around the
desirability or undesirability of leaving'deep holes for fish.

U-135

Young fish of'several important species such as striped bass a.nd
@roker occupy -d-eep holes in winber (33) ,Orv tht other hatid-,; some
-.1-IC-11onclude thit such holes tend fb con cent r at-e! @o-tgani c sed-i4fieAt'@whose
d'ecomposition could produce localized areas-oif oxygen defil@iency.
Even in the latter case, it is not-known whether it is'of net over-
all benefit to concentrate BOD in a few places like this o@ to-di-ET-
tribute it more widely to many places.

The extraction of non-living resources can be affected where
sea lanes pass through or near the extraction area. At present,
this conflict is more hypothetical than real in the NAR region'
But off the Louisiana coast where oil wells are common this is a
significant problem. It is being minimized by defining shipping
lanes and providing more sophisticated navigational and warning
devices aboard ships, in the channels and on the well platforms.
These actions are costly and are not a complete safeguard against
unfortunate collisions particularly during weather disturbances
'and periods of low visibility. Should some forecasts for petroleum
extraction on the NAR's continental shelf be borne out, this type
of problem would become real in this area.

Waste'disposal can be affected by marine transportation in the
vicinity of the ship's berth. It should be relatively easy to
minimize this problem through the installation of pump-out facili-
ties or other alternatives at the ports. Deballasting at sea is a
significant problem especially if it occurs close to the coast.
This, too, is a problem which can be overcome, with some design
changes, in ships. A harder job is policing to fix blame on the
violator. Various'systems of "fingerprinting" the oil through
identifiable but harmless concentrations of radioactive isotopes
am currently being considered.

Recreation can be affected in several ways. Marine transporta-
tion can deny or limit swimming, boating and other recreational use
of the port area itself and its associated shipping'lanes. Oil
spills which result from tanker accidents can deny large stretches
of the beach to recreational use for varying periods depending upon
the intensity of the cleanup action and weather conditions. This
conflict occurs during the summer. In the winter recreational
beach demand is relatively small and the frequency and intensity of
storms which provide natural cleansing action is at its highest.
In winter nature may be the most effective remedy.

Aesthetic satisfaction can also be influenced by marine trans-
portation. Ports used to be among the sights of the city much
more than they are today. The arrival of the Queen Mary or "The
Fleet" in New York was a source of local pride and an attraction
for sightseers. Restaurants featuring a nautical theme were im-
portant occupants of the waterfront. Over the past three decades
ports have become considerably more remote to the inhabitants and
visitors in port cities. In the public eye they seem to have
developed an image of deterioration, squalor, noise, dirt, garbage
and congestion. Few schools ever select a port for a field trip.
Even if they tried,

U-136

they might not succeed. A visit to the Port of Elizabeth today, for-.
example, would be met with a large fence, public-keep-out signs, and
a hostile rejection even to those'who are the most motivated and
persistent in seeking out someone with sufficient authority to grant.1,
them permission to enter.

It would seem that problems of security, safety and access could
be solved and at least the more modern containership and tanker faci-l-
ities could be presented to the public [or what they really are,
rather spectacular objects for public observation. Public observa-
tion platforms with attractive facilities and informed attendants
might even pay for themselves especially if the badly-needed effort
to improve the public image is given any weight whatsoever. Until
and unless things like this are done, ports will continue to be con--
sidered an aesthetic blight to most.

No conflicts between marine transportation and national defense
are identified; they tend to compliment each other.

Land use interrelationships are significant. Although ports USE!
only a tiny fraction of the shoreline, this fraction has a weighted
value for many uses probably higher than that of any other part of
the coast. An extreme example is Downtown Manhattan. Several hun-
dred acres of new land there are planned to be created by filling OLIt
to the bulkhead line an area formerly used for finger piers. With
average assessed valuations in the vicinity running over $3 million
an acre, the total assessed value of this surrendered port property
is in the billion dollar range. So it is clear that although ports
occupy very little of our coast, there is great real competition for
alternative uses of this property. Here again, it is possible that
this apparent problem in combination with another problem -- what to
do with dredging fill -- could be turned to an advantage. The demand
for increasingly large tracts of land for storage adjacent to the
waterfront combined with the high cost of expanding inland is pro-
ducing a strong trend to expand some ports seaward by landfill even
up to depths of 30 to 40 feet. It might be possible that a far-
sighted port could meet this future need by providing a close-in
disposal area with minimal environmental side effects. Of course,
the adequacy of the rather low quality fill would complicate the
solution, but the elements of a possible solution are visible con-
sidering that the big space consumer is container or bulk storage.
Both are characterized by uniformly distributed unit loads. It
might be economically feasible to reinforce the carrying capacity of
the remaining, rather limited, high unit load areas by a combination
of piling, heavier slabs, and redesigned wheel systems.

Solutions. Since containerships, break-bulk cargo carriers and
passenger vessels can generally be accommodated in existing ports,
the analysis of solutions will be primarily directed at the two ves-
sel types which do present major problems -- the deep-draft tankers
and dry-bulk carriers. Solutions will be considered as non-structural

U-137

and -structural in,@that order...

A non-structural alternative solution is- to minimize trans-
oceanic transportation needs by.a major shift in National policy
towards internal self-sufficiency. Under this concept, the'Nation
would satisfy most of its needs by consuming its own raw materials
such as petroleum and ore. All our oil, for example, might be pro-
duced at home to include the possibility of oil extraction off the
coast. All movements would thus be by internal transportation. This
possibility is deemed completely unrealistic in the face of governing
non-isolationist considerations such as national defense, national
insufficiency in raw materials, and the politics of international
intercourse including the economies of the source areas. It is
cheaper to ship a barrel of crude oil from as far away as the Persian
Gulf than it is to move it overland from Texas. If the NAR is to
receive a major part of its oil from Alaska in the future, marine
transportation and overland pipelines will have to compete on both
economic and environmental terms.

Transoceanic pipelines were dismissed earlier as impracticable.
Air transportation is a competitor. On a value basis, it has already
made much more significant inroads than is often realized. Except
for the cruise trade, it has taken away virtually all of the trans-
oceanic movement of people. The increasing inroads of air on-cargo
transport are illustrated by U-14.

TABLr, u-14

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS -- VESSELS AND AIR

(Billion Pounds) (Billion Dollars)

1968
1955 1 1965 1955 1 1965 1968

Vessel 508 '854 955 17.3 31.9 40.7

Air NA .65 1.09 NA 3.6 6.3

SOURCE: (140)

In terms of value, note that vessel shipments were up 135% in the
period 1955-1968 (up 27% since 1965) whereas air shipments were,up
75% just since 1965. Vessels carry about 1,000 times the tonnage but
only 6-1/2 times the value of air. As planes become larger the pro-
portionate bite of the airborne competition will increase. Notwith-
standing this perspective, it is very clear that for even the most
distantly perceivable"future, the heavier commodities will be carried
by ocean shipping.

U-138

Before considering structural alternatives-for deep-draft
vessels, it will be recalled for from earlier comments that:

N existing major regional port has the depth necessary
even to come close to accomodating any of tile range of larger
tankers forecast without going through at least 17 feet of con-
ventional dredging, rock, continental shelf and probably prohibi-
tive other obstacles; assuming the optimum economic vessel design
is used.

No existing major regional port has the depth necessaxy to
accommodate the full range of the larger dry-bulk carriers fore--
cast, aithough Portland, New York and tile Virginia ports can ac--
commodate a few at the lower end of the spectrum. Providence and
Baltimore could also get into the bottom of this spectrum by
deepening of 5 feet or less without encooutering major obstacles.
Tile inner harbor of Portland can not be deepened further without-,
encountering major obstacles. Presumably some of tile other ports
mentioned earlier could be deepened, but the cost of going down
another 12 to 17 feet, even with conventional dreding to accom--
modate the full range of vessels forecast, and maintaining that
depth, could be astronomical.

Techniques which might minimize or overcome tile depth limita-
tions include using the LASH and SEBEE concepts, developing off-
shore unloading facilities, and redesign of vessels.

Much more operational experience is needed to evaluate the
LASH and SEEBE concepts in which self-propelled, shEllow draft
barges are carried aboard very large deep draft ocean vessels and
offloaded to serve shallow harbors and river systems. It could be,
for example, that it would be no more costly to forget the poten-
tial economies of scale and continue using the current'"small" dry
bulk carriers. The performance of these ships in tile Gulf needs
to be followed very closely.

Offshore tanker unloading facilities are already used in other
parts of the world. For dry bulk carriers, the problem is much
more formidable, but potentially solvable. A major problem would
be bulk storage. Storage of significant quantities of heavy bulk
materials on an offshore platform would present mammouth problems
because of the weight and the large storage space required.
Slurry pipelines have been reported feasible for coal and their
use is being planned for iron ore in Australia, India, Alaska,
Peru and Japan (55). At some stage tile water or other liquid
vehicle would have to be removed. This process might require
major environmental controls to avoid local pollution. Alterna-
tively, the bulk material could be moved directly to shallower
draft vessels for coastwise distribution to existing ports. How.-
ever, this solution would require a very sophisticated, problem-
prone scheduling system if the number of feeder barges were to be

U-139

kept to a level which would not negate many,pf the economies of
scale which are being sought. Another possible solution.is to
move the material to the adjacent shoreline for surge storage by
barge, conveyor or screw. This approach means double handling.

Vessels can be redesigned to take advantage of some of the
economies of scale despite depth limitations. For example, al-
though tile most economical 175,000 d.w.t. bulk carrier would draw
about 58' of water, a vessel of this capacity drawing less thaii
501 has been designed by lengthening and widening tile optimum de-
sign.

The pro'u-I.em of adequate depths, however, is not the only one.
.Envi-ronmental and safety problems could be even more significant.
To illustrate, strong public opposition has already been voiced
towards proposals to locate tanker unloading facilities in deep
water off such places as Machiasport, Maine; eastern Long Island
(with considerable opposition coming from neighboring Connecticut);
northern i4ew Jersey, and lower Delaware Bay.

A number of Federal agencies listed later in this analysis, the
American Association of Port Authorities and others have each been
studying the deep-draft problem intensively. A major need is a co-
operative port study concentrating on supercarrier accommodations
in this regiori. One possible outcome of such a regional study, all
outv-@r-t- which might also be acceptable to the affected states, is
suggested below to provide a basis for further analysis. It is
emphasized, however, that much further study will be required to
reach the most acceptable solution. Whatever that solution may be,
it may be anticipated that it will reflect many of the poinV-.
brought out below.

For a deep-draft tarl.1@er facility, a solution might include the
following:

A major unloading facility will be located in protected deep
water offshore so as to require little dredging. It will have a
possibility of later improvement to accommodate ttuikers even larger
than the 55-.65 foot draft vessels currently projected for the year
2000.

The facility will be located in reasonable proximity to exis-
ting refineries.to facilitate possible pipeline movements.

The facility will be located some distance from major cities
to limit possible envirorimental.problems.

The facility will incorporate the most elaborate safety pro-
visions known and will Lindergo constant scrutiny.

Enviroiunental considerations, to include ecological,

U-140

recreational and aesthetic aspects, will receive extensive recogni-
tion.

Major public hearings will preface any final decision.

The public will benefit significantly in the form of reduced
cost of petroleum products and the secondary effects induced then@-
by.

* Some tradeoffs will be necessary, because no project such as
this can be completely free of disadvantages.

One area that could come close to meeting all these requirements
is lower Delaware Bay. Another possibility is a naturally deep
facility such as that proposed for Machiasport, Maine. The 90-foot
depths there, a mile wide entrance channel and a four-mile turn
around area for the tankers are compelling assets. A disadvantage
is the @150 million or more required to construct a refinery from
scratch and the distance from major domestic markets. The latter
problem would be less significant if a foreign trade zone were es-
tablished.

In addition to one or more major facilities, there will be some
secondary facilities serving smaller transoceanic tankers for spec-
ial purposes. One such possibility is Casco Bay near Portland,
Maine to serve the Montreal trade.

In addition to the primary and secondary facilities, there will
be a continuing need for the coastwise distribution of petroleum
projects from the major unloading facilities in crude form. This
traffic will continue to be highly competitive not only within the
coastwise shipping industry but also against the possible competi-
tion of pipeline distribution. Currently, coastwise shipping en-
joys a natural advantage because most of the larger consumption
centers are on the coast and the basic facilities, harbors and dis-
tribution systems already exist. However, the pipeline alternative
is a viable one, economically and environmentally. In recent years
a pipeline has largely surplanted the once heavily used barge dis-
tribution system on the New York State Barge Canal.

For a deep draft dry-bulk cargo facility, the situation is
cloudier. A solution might include the following:

0 Probably there will be several facilities preferably adjacent
to shore to facilitate the shoreward movement and stockpiling of
the bulk cargo; however, shoreward movement by a slurry pipeline
may be an acceptable alternative.

0 Ideally, the facilities would be adjacent to the major points
of consumption to reduce rehandling costs. A case in point would be

U-141

Sparrows Point near Baltimore.

Ideally, the facilities would have a sophisticated capabil-
ity of transferring all of that portion of their cargo which is
intended for coastwise and inland barge distribution directly to
the barges. However, because of scheduling problems introduced
by weather, strikes and other uncertainties, significant onshore
storage areas would be required.

0 Since much of the bulk cargo would undoubtedly move to and
from inland points by means other than barge, the facility should
be adjacent to existing high capacity rail nets.

0 A combination of some of the alternatives mentioned earlier
might be employed. Thus, a large dry-bulk carrier might berth in
deep water adjacent to a platform large enough to accommodate neces-
sary transfer and servicing facilities. Cargo would be transferred
preferentially to whatever coastwise barges could be economically
accumulated. Discontinuities in this preferred unloading would be
filled with locally based barges to transfer the cargo to the ad-
jacent shoreline where there would be surge storage and inland
distribution facilities. When the carrier becomes light enough
through these processes, it would move to the adjacent shallower
shorelines to complete its unloading again giving preference to
coastwise distribution barges to cut down double handling.

* Most of the other points made above for the supertanker
facility apply as well to superbulk carrier facilities.

There are several candidate ports.

The Virginia ports around Norfolk are currently geared to hand-
ling essentially all of the region's extensive coal export trade.
Among other things, Norfolk has good depth, storage facilities and
a connecting rail system. The 57-foot depth of the Chesapeake Bay
Tunnel would be a consideration, but as earlier comments showed,
especially Figure U-11, it would still allow passage of the full
range of large dry-bulk carriers projected for the U.S. trade up
until the year 2000.

Sparrows Point, near Baltimore, is a heavy bulk consumer of
iron ore. The existing channel would have to be deepened.
Possibly, incoming iron ore carriers could move when empty to Nor-
folk to take the coal exports there, if suitable trade routes could
be arranged.

The Delaware Bay tanker unloading area, if is comes to fruition,
is also somewhat near the heavy iron ore consumption in the Phila-
delphia area.

U-142

Portland and Providence have some depth advantages, but they
are far from bulk consumption points.

Costs. The cost of providing a "conventional It solution --
deepening existing channels -- is not worth much detailed considera-
tion. To illustrate, taking an admittedly severe case, it has been
estimated that deepening the existing Delaware channel to Philadel-
phia to only 50 feet would cost on the order of $200 million. What
it would cost to deepen it to the range necessary to accommodate
the drafts envisioned for the supertankers has not even been esti-
mated.

Alternatively, the cost of providing a 72-foot channel to an
offshore tanker offloading facility in lower Delaware Bay, the only
protected naturally deep water on the East Coast between Maine and
Mexico, has been estimated in a preliminary way by the Army Corps
of Engineers at about $15 million (25). Such a depth, after allow-
ing for squat, freshwater buoyancy loss, motion in the sea and a
safety factor, would accommodate drafts of 65 feet. Drafts of 70
feet might be accommodated there for about $40 million. These
channel improvement costs would probably be borne by the Federal
government. The cost of the facility itself is unknown, but it
would probably be borne by the non-federal sector. An offshore oil
loading facility at Bantry Bay, Ireland, resportedly cost abo-t $25
million. Such an order-of-magnitude cost would be relatively small
compared to annual benefits, the recent $175 million investment in
Fort Elizabeth d the estimated all-time $5 billion of non-Federal
expenditures. Lr

As might be expected the cost of providing a channel to accom-
modate 50-foot draft dry-bulk carriers at dockside will vary grea-
tly with location. According to Appendix K (Navigation), a 57-foot
channel would cost about $30 million at Newport News and about 10
times this cost at Baltimore. It is noted that Congress has au-
thorized deepening the channel to Baltimore to 50 feet at an estimated
cost of $100 million.

Indirect costs, by definition, are much harder to estimate. It
should be one of the major purposes of the proposed cooperative
study and the public hearings to pinpoint these costs, and insofar
as feasible, make the solution bear them.

A number of possible indirect costs were identified earlier

Some related national figures are: All-time Federal expendi-
ture including maintenance is about $1.5 billion. The value of
U.S. oceanborne commerce, imports plus exports, was about $41
billion in 1968. Customs collections at marine terminals for fis-
cal year 1969 totalled about $3 billion (5).

U-143

under Parties Affected and general approaches were suggested. Be-
cause of site-specific considerations,-it is not feasible in this
study to go much beyond the level already covered. To illustrate
some of the interrelationships that. an analysis of one phase of
indirect costs might take, see Figure U-12. This network, al-
though incoriplete, is a form of schematic checklist. It can be
used by competent people in several ways. For example, where there
exists a general background knowledge of the importance of various
uses in the vicinity of a proposed dredging operation, a planner
could see how the dredging could potentia.11y affect these uses.
The network could steer him in a logical priority-oriented path.
Similarily a review of the network could pinpoint gaps in current
data and knowledge and so illuminate the relative safety or risk
of the undertaking. Especially where undertainty peaks at nodes
of high value, caution is indicated in the form of priority re-
search, data collection, monitoring, redesign, or delay.

.A possible additional indirect cost of a sin6le regional super-
facility is the potential weakening of the strong existing competi-
tion which tends to hold prices down to the level of the more ef-
ficient producers.

U-144

Remove
shellfish 5.1 Commercial
beds Improve shellfish
Remove shellfish
silt and ------- 4p, habitat - Gener
sludge Decrease
nutrient
Removal of pollution Destroy
bottom material fish habitat
nhibit
eelgrass Stops growth General q,,Ili;l
growth and nuisance
Sediment
Increase
Navigation water depth Improve
navigation
Mining 5.8 Dredging Change bottom Build new
topography channels Change salinil
culation General qua.11ty
@@ediioe
Water quality Form Develop offensive .5 Destruction
C, bottom pits ii@ric de,@!.y@ odors
Beach maintenance
Destroy wetlands
Production I.Aknd A I 1 5.13 Rereatlonn
f.=
III"..
of material facilities
Develop shore
Spoll I waste land

5.4 Solid waste
disposal
Cover shellfish
5.1
beds
Water d
Commercial General
and and
avel GD

A NETWORK ANALYSIS OF DREDGING
SOURCE: (21) FIGURE U-12

Benefits. The principal direct benefits are economic. The
potential for major savings is illustrated by the new 326,000-DWT
tankers currently transporting bulk petroleum on the 22,000 mile-
round trip from Kuwait to Bantry Bay, Ireland via the Cape of Good
Hope. These tankers can deliver a barrel of oil at one half the
operating cost incurred in shipping through Suez,with 50,000 DWT
ships even though the distance is some 13,000 miles longer (135).
Some further economies are gained in shipbuilding. For example,
it costs only about two-thirds as much per DWT to construct a
326,000-DWT tanker than it does to construct a 50,000-DWT tanker
(2). Within the NAR the economic gains might be somewhat less
attractive but still be large. The significant factors are ef-
ficiency gains and the volume of traffic to which these efficien-
cies would apply.

Deep draft facilities adequate to accommodate the tankers and
drybulk carriers projected earlier for this region could cut the
cost of supplying the region's petroleum needs by an estimated
$100 million or more annually. (Appendix K - Navigation). The
estimate is based upon the present bulk tonnage which could be
carried by these supervessels and is, therefore, very responsive
to bulk demand growth, import quotas and the possibility of free
ports.

Indirect benefits would fall largely in the areas of (1)
national defense, (2) improved economic well-being, (3) reduction
in the probability per gallon of oil spills by concentrating vol-
ume movements in relatively fewer, more readily monitored vessels
whose value could easily justify the very best in navigational,
shipbuilding, and other safety precautions and (4) international
balance of payments. Three examples of the latter would stem from
improved competition with Canadian ports, a foreign trade zone
which imports inexpensive crude and exports more valuable refined
petroleum products, and an improved ability to compete with foreign
markets in the sale of U.S. coal.

Organizational Considerations. Three Federal agencies are prin-
cipally involved.

The U.S. Army, through its Corps of Engineers, is responsible
for providing and maintaining channels, harbors and protective
structures; for granting coastal construction permits; for pre-
scribing some navigational regulations; for removing wrecks when
they interfere with navigation; for collecting, compiling and pub-
lishing information on the volume and nature of waterborne commerce
and the physical characteristics of U.S. parts; for establishing
harbor lines beyond which no structures may be erected without per-
mit; for supervising the harbors of New York, Baltimore and Hampton
Roads; and for controlling the placing of refuse and dredging in
all harbors.

U-146

,The U.S. Department of Commerce, expresses its principal marine
transportation interests through its Maritime Administration (MARAD)
and its Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA). Under
Section 8 of the Merchant Marine Act.of 1920, MARAD has broad au-
thorization "in cooperation with the Secretary of War" to investi-
gate and.advise with respect to port development with emphasis on
reduction of port congestion,.efficient exchange from ship to land
transportation, terminal facilities and port throughput. ESSA pro-
vides coastal charts and1weatherwarning services. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA), recently established under
Commerce, absorbed ESSA - along with a number of other non-trans-
portation-oriented agencies. NOAA's responsibilities and its im-
pact on the problem discussed herein are not yet fully known.

The U.S. Department.of Transportation is charged with the
development of national transporation policies and programs, with
some specific-exceptions.in the area of water resource projects
under Section 7 of PL 89-670. The Department's main impacts are
on port throughput operations especially in the landward, non-
w@aterborne'distribution system and on the' seaward side through its
of the Coast Guard.

Bi-state port agencies exist in New York-New Jersey and in
Philadelphia-Camden. State port' agencies exist in Maine, Massachu-
setts, Maryland' and Virginia. New York, Philadelphia, Wilmington
and Norfolk also have city agencies.

The principal non-governmental institutions are the American
Association of Port Authorities and the American Petroleum Insti-
tute.

Two possible organizational problems are:

0 The coming together of the major governmental and non-govern.-
mental interests in the proposed cooperative study. This might be
accomplished in a regional port study when the participants have
each made their necessary prior preparation. The study should
recognize and foster the competitive aspects which have kept the
U.S. transportation industry viable. Yet it should also identify
and resolve those aspects which suggest a cooperative regional ap-
proach such as the.provision of deep-draft facilities.

0 The relationship between the various po .rt authorities and the
various coastal zone institutions which are coming into being in
many states.

The effectiveness of the general solutions considered herein
can be summarized in terms of the three objectives of the NAR
study.

From a national efficiency viewpoint, it has been seen that the

U-147

cost Of satisfying current requirements for bulk products can be
reduced about $100 million or more annually. Federal costs to pro-
vide an adequate channel to an offl-hore tanker unloading facility
might be in the vicinity of $15-45 million first cost. Estimated
costs of providing a channel to dockside for the m ajor deep-draft
0
dry-bulk vessels vary greatly with location, say $30 millicn at
dewport News and ten times that much at Baltimore.

From a regional development viewpoint, major savings in the
co-z'U or the region's fuel for its heating, transportation, power and
industrial needs should favorably influence the region's cost of
living and competitive position. larly, major sav,.ngs in the
cost of iron ore imports and coal exports should also improve the
region's competitive position.

z.nvironmental quality effects vary with the viewpoint. Viewed
narrowly in terms of the sites themselves, the deep-draft facili-
ties would probably produce some degradation of environmental qual-
ity. 1.1o matter how stringent the environmental measures, it is
unlikely that the completed operating facilities could represent a
net improvement to the current, r._--lative@y unused waters Lhe sites
now occupy. However, in comparison with the present small-scale
scattered operations, the proposed large scale operation in a few
controlled locations ought to pr.-):I-_ce a much safer and more environ-
mentally acceptable solution.

U-148

COASTAL EROSION AND TIDAL FLOODING

Nature of the Problem. Storms and erosion are geophysical phe-
nomena resulting from energy dissipation. Without technological
breakthroughs in-weather modification, they are uncontrollable by
man. The problem considered here is how to minimize coastal erosion
and tidal flooding damages in an economically and environmentally
acceptable way.

Recurrence of storms of record in this region can cause about
$1 billion in property damages plus significant loss of life and ma-
jor alteration of ecosystems. A single rare but meteorologically
predictable storm in New York-Harbor could cause about $5 billion in
direct and indirect damages. Coastal erosion can limit beach recrea-
tion, waterfront development and wetlands protection.

This analysis focuses on those erosion and flooding problems
which are directly influenced by the sea. Often these seaborne in-
fluences combine with other influences from inland and from the at-
mosphere to magnify erosion and flooding problem and these instances
are considered. Not considered, however, are erosion and flooding
problems which occur primarily inland--even though these inland
disturbances and the means taken to control them can ultimately af-
fect the quantity and quality of riverine inputs to the coastal zone.
(See Appendix E on flood control.) Reflecting the scope of the over-
all NAR study, this appendix remains general and does not recommend
individual projects or inventory past or recent project proposals,
except for illustration.

Causes of the Problem. The principal causes of the problem are
the forces of nature, the'characteristics of the coastal area sub-
jected to these forces and some special major limitations on solu-
tions. Since the later analysis of possible solutions is keyed to
these causes, an initiai understanding of them is necessary.

The first major cause of the problem, the forces of nature, in-
volves storms, littoral drift, and tides. A more complete discussion
of these and other forces of nature may be found in ( 8 ) and (134).

Almost all significant coastal flooding and most coastal erosion
occurs during storins, the most intense of which are the tropically-
spawned hurricanes. Hurricanes affecting this region travel general-
ly from south to north. (Figure U-13) Important properties of
storms are their intensity, duration and frequency, and the high
waves, runoff and winds associated with them.

A hurricane, by definition, has winds exceeding 75 miles per hour.
Storms of less intensity can sometimes produce equal or more severe
effects when combined with other forces to be discussed more fully
below. An example is the "northeaster" of December 29, 1959. The

U-149

'CAR CIL" 23 SEPT i8iS
AuG i
"DONNA*.
954

12-13 SEPT 1960

N E w

B R UN S W t C K
4ie

2
SEPT
1
46- 4ii _14-15 SEPT 1944

m A I PY E

V T
44

0
N H

m A 5
z '(3 A N.c
12. 17 - 20 AUG 1955
PROvIDENCE Q@

C 0 A -N R I
N- me., N
-do
HURRICANES

NEW
ENGLAND

11 ILT:@ 111'

FIGURE U-13

TJ-150

winds were only 25 to 30 miles per hour, but they were steady and
blew directly onshore over a long fetch of ocean. This wind occurred
at a time of very high spring tide and produced record or near record
water levels along the Maine, New Hampshire and northern Massachussets
coastline.

The duration of a storm is an important consideration. If a storm
persists, waves can build up to great heights and be superimposed upon
one or more high tides.

The severe low-frequency storms produce the highest average annual
damage. The less severe low-frequency storms tend to have permanent
influences on the strength and direction of the longshore transport
of sand which affects erosion. The frequency of storms of a given
intensity varies with location. Thus the coast north of Cape Cod is
historically not subject to hurricanes, but south of this cape, hurri-
cane frequency increases greatly. The apparently most susceptible
area stretches roughly from New York City to Buzzards Bay. Not co-
incidently, this is the part of the region's Atlantic Coast which has
a predominately east-west oftentation, perpendicular to the usual
hurricane track.

The friction between water and a fast moving mass of air, working
for days over a fetch of 10 miles or more can produce tremendous waves.
Thus waves are higher in the ocean, not only because of the insignifi-
cant bottom drag there but also becausE of fetch. Of the forces which
create large waves, fetch when combineE with a wind of long duration,
is probably the most important. Fetch can account for some major
broad or locaj. variations in wave intensity. Thus the south shore of
Long Island is more vulnerable to most Atlantic storms than the Con-
necticut coastline because of marked differences in fetch. On a more
local level, the "northeaster" generally has little effect on the
Rhode Island coastline with the exception of the town of Narragansett
against which these winds blow over a fetch of some 25 miles or more.
The energy of waves coming from this direction is about 50 to 75%
greater on this shoreline than the energy of waves from the south.
136)

Hurricanes and other storms which come in from the ocean usually
produce intense rainfall, often of record proportions. This precipi-
tation usually falls on already well saturated ground and produces
extreme runoffs. As will be seen, these often find difficulty venting
to the sea because of other storm related phenomena.

High winds associated with storms not only influence surface water
dynamics, but also impact upon natural and man-made vertical faces,
just at a time when water saturation has weakened their foundations.
Wind velocities are generally higher for storms coming in from the
ocean than for land based storms, probablv because of decreased fric-
tion at the ocean's surface.

U-151

It is rather common on sandy coastlines for the larger winter
storms to move sand from the beach into offshore waters. The normal-
ly gentler sum 'mer waves then return substantial amounts of it. This
natural- annual'cycle is fortuitous,"because it results in a slower
loss of the beach area and a deeper beach, just when it is most need-
ed--during the summer outdoor recreation season.

However another factor, littoral drift, is not so fortuitous.
Because of the Coriolis force produced by the earth's rotation, and
because of the orientation of the coastline to prevailing-wind-induced
wave fronts, there is usually a longshore current which moves sand
along the coast. Generally along the ocean shore front in this region
this littoral drift is southward. Its intensity varies greatly from
place to place-and from season to season and usually results in the
net erosion or accretion of sand. There are many local exceptions to
this generally southward drift. At places such as Cape Cod, Sandy
Hook and Bethany Beach, Delaware a node exists. The local littoral
drift moves both northward and southward from these nodes. The
shorefront opposite them is subject to erosion with little opportuni-
ty for a compensating accretion. In some places erosion can be dra-
matic. Hog Island on the Virginia Peninsula, for example, is.losing
about 50 feet annually (136).

When high tides are coincident with the other forces of nature
cited here, they can greatly magnify total effects.

A second major factor influencing erosion lies in the character-
istics of the coastline upon which the forces of nature impact. The
principal characteristics here include the orientation, configuration,
resiliency and human value of the coastline.

As has been seen, an unfavorable orientation can magnify littoral
drift and increase fetch. An even more important consequence of
orientation is a quadranteffect caused by the circular motion of
storm winds. This effect is exemplified by the hurricane. In the
northern hemisphere because of the rotation of the earth, winds blow
counterclockwise, as seen' from above, about a low pressure center.
Thus, in this region, the winds in one quadrant of a hurricane cross-
ing the coast will be away from the coast producing relatively little
damage and those in the opposite quadrant will pile up water against
the shore. Thus it will-tend to cause extraordinary littoral move-
ment.

Funnel shaped estuaries with wide openings and narrow necks are
at a particular disadvantage. A large mass of water can easily enter
the estuary with great momentum. As the estuary narrows the only
direction this water can move is upward.

When the funnel effect is combined with the quadrant wind effect,
with high tide and with inland runoff in urban areas, conditions
become especially severe as depicted in Figure U-14.

U-152

Inland runoff
seeking escape

Lowlying urban
Hurricane area of high value
path

Water is forced-
Wind i"to funnel-
direct shaped estuary unirnpeded by
ion its wide rnouth. Where estuary
narrows to a point, the water
0004 elevation Must rise,
4 + @ @ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + Incoming tide raises I I
. I I I I I general water levels.

SOME COMBINED CLIMATOLOGICAL EFFECTS

FIGURE U-14

U-153

Beaches are energy dissipaters. Their efficiency in this role
is greatly influenced by their profile. The nearer deep water is
to the shore, the closer large waves can approach before their
energy begins to dissipate because of bottom drag. The flatter the
gradient both offshore and on the beach "run up" area, the longer
and more gradual is this dissipation. A narrow, steep beach will
be subject to much greater wave forces than a flatter beach. An
offshore bar, breakwater or island will dissipate waves affording
protection within the areas they shelter. However, offshore shoals
and islands also tend to focus energy, resulting in sporadic con-
centrated damage areas along the shorefront.

Moving inland, during periods of high water well-established
dunes provide a similar beneficial effect. Dunes also act as
dikes against inundation. Thus a flat beach is an excellent energy
dissipater, but unless it is back up by higher ground inland, large
areas can be inundated. A narrow, low barrier beach without dunes
is particularly vulnerable to storm breaching with potentially im-
Portant resulting effects on the ecosystems of these large back
bays which had adjusted to a significantly different salinity re-
gime. for example, it is possible that the change in salinity
created by this potentially colossal change in bay hydraulics could
greatly effect an oyster industry located there.

The resiliency of the coastline to water dynamics depends upon
the material of which the shorefront is composed. Of progressively
diminishing resiliency in their ability to withstand wave forces
are the rocky coasts of Maine, the sandy beaches of Long Island,
the wetlands throughout the region and the silty-clay bluffs of
Chesapeake Bay.

Human values along the coastline are more concentrated in some
reaches than in others. Thus a great storm in the New York City
area would have a much greater human consequence than one striking
northern Maine. The hurricane of 1938 killed about 250 people in
Providence and caused damages there of about $125 million (31).

Table U-15 summarizes significant shorefront information. For
the purposes of this appendix, these data were based on the National
Shoreline Study (136). This study mainly considers the enter rea-
coast and includes shores of bays and estuaries such as Chesapeake
Bay, Delaware Bay, Delaware River entrance and the large inner bay
landmark of the barrier beaches where erosion is likely to be a
problem. It should be noted that estimates of shoreline length
vary depending upon measurement criteria; detail shore length in
some states may be considerally greater than that given in the table.

By distinguishing between ocean and estuarine shorelines, sev-
eral major perspectives emerge. There is almost no beach front in
Maine and in the estuaries, but along the ocean, except for Maine,

U-154

TABLE U-15

SHORELINE CLASSIFICATION SUMMARY

(Miles of shore, including ocean, estuary and bay frontages)

Va. Md. Del. N. J. N. Y. Conn. R. 1. Mass. N. H. Me. Totals

Physical Characteristics
Beach 294 46 76 215 331 145 185 940 25 60 2,317
No beach 699 1,893 150 254 307 125 155 260 15 2,440 6,298

Historical Shore
Changes
Critical Erosion 258 180 31 122 299 25 25 135 2 20 1,097
Non-Critical
Erosion 300 1,500 28 110 339 240 310 1,030 36 2,475 6,368
Non-Eroding 435 259 167 237 0 5 5 35 2 5 1,150

Shore Ownership
Federal 109 225 12 67 34 5 10 90 2 20 574
Public 115 35 46 130 202 50 50 175 10 60 873
Private 769 1,679 168 272 402 215 280 935 28 2,420 7,168
Uncertain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Shore Use
Public rec. 50 105 33 290 210 30 50 235. 8 13 1,024
Private rec. 56 ill 34 35 70 225 270 800 30 967 2,598
Non rec. 155 1,623 3 12 250 15 20 85 2 260 2,425
Undeveloped 732 100 156 132 108 0 0 80 0 1,260 2,568

Total Length of 993 1,939 226 469 638 270 340 1,200 40 2,500 8,615
Shore

NOTE: This table is based on data from the National Shoreline Study and
incorporates revisions made subsequent to the draft report (136).
Since data are subject to further minor change, see the final
version of the referenced report.

almost the entire shoreline is beach. Critical erosion occurs
principally along the ocean front from Long Island south. Shore
ownership follows a pattern similar to that of beach front loca-
tion. Almost all is private along the Maine and estuarine shore-
lines. Most of the public ownership is along the oceanfront
especially in the western half of Long Island, in New Jersey and
in Delaware. Most of the Federal ownership is represented by
Arcadia National Park in Maine, Cape Cod National Seashore in
Massachusetts, Fire Island National Seashore in New York,
Assateague National Seashore in Maryland and a number of wildlife
refuges, all administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Some limitations on the solution of coastal erosion and tidal
flooding problems are severe. For the most part the forces of
nature axe so great, and the limitations of the region's coastline
axe so significant.that the region has no really complete solution.
There are, however, known techniques to be discussed later for
minimizing these effects. Two major problems in so doing are high
costs and the "indivisible" nature of most corrective measures.
The scale of most of these measures and the difficulty of the sol-
ver reaping the full benefits--or being assessed fully for undesir-
able external effects--makes it necessary that effective sollutions
be implemented by a larger sector of the public as a whole. This
has been accepted as a role of government with cost sharing formu-
las generally varying in relation to how widespread or public the
benefit is. When a section of the coast is intermittently held by
a succession of private and public landowners, difficult problems
arise in developing an equitable cost sharing pattern. Similar
problems of indivisibilities, however, have been resolved inland.
Examples are sewer assessments and education taxes.

Location With the foregoing in mind, it is possible to visua-
lize the type of location which would be most vulnerable to storm
and erosion damage. It would be located--

In a laxge urban center.

In an area with minimal resistance to erosion.

At low elevation at the end of a funnel-shaped estuary.

At the mouth of a river with heavy and rapid runoff.

In an area with a substantial tidal range.

A little to the right of the path of a storm's center as
seen from above.

Opposite a long fetch of reasonably deep water.

This is not a bad description of Providence, Rhode Island.

U-156

Figure U-15 shows the estimated magnitude of damages in 1970
prices of a recurrence of the tidal flood of record for each area.
As mentioned earlier, critical erosion occurs in many places, but
most of it occurs along the ocean front from Long Island south.

Time Characteristics. As has been already stated, essentially
all inundation and much severe erosion occurs during storms. The
worst storms hitting this region are hurricanes. They usually oc-
cur in August and September at a frequency of about 10 years.
Other storms can occur any-time throughout the year, but they are
usually worst from the late Fall through early Spring. There is
no evidence that the magnitude, location or frequency of storms
has, or will, change much over the years. However, there is con-
siderable evidence that the value of man's coastal property sub-
ject to damage is increasing greatly.

To provide the necessarv defined basis for analysis, two types
of storms are frequently used. Since some later analysis is,keyed
to these two types, a brief description of each is given below.
The first, "the storm of record", is simply the worst storm known
to have actually hit the impact axea under consideration. The
other, "the standard project storm", is more useful to the analyst,
but is not so easy to define. Stated simply, it is a consequence
of the most severe combination of meteorological conditions con-
sidered to be reasonably characteristic of the region.

Parties Affected. Storms impact on the various users of the
coastal zone to markedly different degrees. The following are ar-
ranged in generally decreasing intensity of impact.

The greatest impact is upon coastal property especially in ur-
ban areas. Structures can be damaged or destroyed, subway systems
can be flooded and roads and bridges can be destroyed.

Not only can fishing boats, gear and dock facilities be damaged
or destroyed, but great storms can have-important effects on shallow
water coastal ecosystems. As previously mentioned a breached bar-
rier beach or plugged inlet can drastically change the ecology of an
entire lagoon and associated wetlands system. Storm induced sedi-
ment movements can have gross mixed effects.

Storms can greatly damage pleasure craft, alter beaches and
destroy recreational facilities.

During storms combined sewer systems discharge untreated wastes
into nearby water bodies. In extreme cases they might produce sig-
nificant public health problems. Some of this damage is mitigated,
however, by the greatly improved dillution and flushing characteris-
tics associated with storms.

Shipping channels can be filled with sediment and the ships

U-157

Areas with damage of
more than $10 million

9 (Mass.)
Estimated additional
9 (R.I.) damages prevented by
8 and 10 (Conn.) existing control
structures
13 (Nassau, Suffolk,
and Westchester)

13 (N.Y. City)
C-1 14 (N.J.)
11 16 (N.J.)
Ln
00 15 (N.J., Penn., Del.)

17 - 21 (Chesapeake
Bay)

18 and 21 (Delmarva,
ocean side)

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Estimated Damages
($ million, 1970 dollars)

ESTIMATED DAMAGES FROM RECURRENCE OF TIDAL FLOOD OF RECORD

r SOURCE: Based on estimates from
@-j the U.S. Army Corps of
Ln
Engineers

themselves can be.@damaged in port along with extensive port.facili-
.,,-Coastal.airports can be inundated. The extraction of nonr-
living resources is.probably affected less, but if offshore oil and
gas production is started in this region, as many predict, the off-
shore facilities would be vulnerable to storm damage.

Solutions. The identification of solutions is organized below
in a way parallel to the earlier treatment of causes. The general
idea is, knowing the causes, to see what can be done to minimize
their effects by responding to the forces of nature, improving the
characteristics of the impact area and overcoming special limita-
tions on solutions.

Not much can be done to respond to tides, but something can be
done to respond to the other two principal forces of nature, storms
and littoral drift.

Proposals for breaking up or deflecting hurricanes could have
fruition before the year 2020. The effects on minimizing the prob-
lem would be very great. Until there is some major technical break-
through, however, other means will have to be used. The effects of
inland runoff on coastal areas can be minimized through various well-
known devices which retard runoff. (See Appendix E on flood control.)
Timely warning can permit a mobilization and possibly a partial
evacuation. During the mobilization phase, organized preparatory
steps can be taken. These steps include such things as cleaning and
tiedown of potential wind blown missiles, boarding up, and removal
of vessels and pleasure carft. A complete or partial evacuation of
the impact areas could be conducted.

These measures are largely credited with greatly reducing the
extensive damage to the Mississippi Coast during Hurricane Camille
in 1969. Conversely, the lack of these measures greatly magnified
the effects of this same hurricane when it hit very unexpectedly
in Virginia.

Groins are useful in minimizing the erosion effects of littoral
drift. They are a direct and generally permanent solution, but by
causing sand to accrete, they can cause a corresponding undernourish-
ment and erosion of the downdrift area. If downdrift areas are less
important than the reach protected, and if the external effects on
downdrift interest can be accommodated, groins are often an excellent
-solution. A navigation structure, such as a jetty built to protect
an inlet channel, can also cause sand to accrete on one side and
erode on the other. A common solution is to remove the sand on the
accreting side by pumping or dredging and redeposit it on the down-
drift side.

Where an adequate supply of sand is available at an economic dis-
tance, and where ecological side effects are adequately known and

U-159

found to be favorable of minimal,renourishment is usually the best solution. Until recent years, most sand for this purpose was entained very economically from the lagoons which ususally bakc up
the
barrier beaches so common from' Long'-Island southward. After eco-
logical examination and close coordination with the Fish and Wild-
life Servie and designated state agencies, some of the needed sand
will come from the lagoons. However, concern for ecological fac-
tors and the limited quantity of this sand will increasingly shut
off this source.

Sand for renourishment can also be trucked from inland areas,,
but this solution is becoming more and more unappealing for many
reasons. The costs are potentially high economically and environ-
mentally. The sand and gravel industry has given considerable em-
phasis in recent years to -minimizing or reversing enivironmental-
side effects; however, ecological and aesthetic damages are still
potentially significant as are the related environmental problems
of congestion, noise and great wear and tear on usually unsophis-
ticated coastal road systems. For reasons such as these, in the
last few years many of the communities around Boston have barred
.the excavation of sand and gravel, with a few exceptions, from
their area. If the renourished beach is to remain reasonably
stable, the distribution of grain sizes must correspond to that
common to the beach in question. Inland sources, being the pro-
duct of different geological sorting processes, usually are in-
adequate. Even when these possible difficulties can be overcome,
there is the more significant problem of quantity. Because many
inland sources have been exhausted and many more have been closed
on environmental, aesthetic or nuisance grounds, the National
Sand and Gravel Association predicts that a critical shortage of
sand and gravel to meet burgeoning construction requirements will
occur within the next two-decades and probably sooner in metro-
politan areas.

Possibly the best place to obtain the needed sand is offshore.
Extensive sand surveys in recent years have uncovered major deposits
situated at economical distances from many major beaches.

Dredging can be accomplished in such a way as to leave or not
leave holes offshore', depending upon which configuration is found
to be the more desirable. Probably holes will benefit fish by
providing protective habitat,-but additional study is needed (33).
.Increasing the offshore depth decreases its usefulness somewhat as
an energy dissipator. However, this effect can be minimized if
warranted by judicious selection of the offshore borrow area. The
net effect of moving offshore sand onto the beach should be an im-
provement in the capacity of the beach as an energy dissipater.

Technologically in tests at Sea Girt, New Jersey, the Army Corps
of Engineers has demonstrated the general feasibility of pumping
sand from offshore. Recently a contractor was awarded a $614,000

U-160

cc)ij-c,ract to use an underwater crawlercutter to rebuild a 1.3-mile
stretch of a Florida beach with ocean sand. Although costs were
nearly 50% higher than the costs of obtaining the sand from nearby
riverbeds or islands, ecological considerations were overriding
(125). These costs can be expected to drop sharply as tehcnology
and competition improvP.

Whatever method of renourishment is used, it is important to
realize that this method is a form of periodic maintenance which
can be justified against more permanent solutions on the basis of
annualized cost. Because of the vaguaries of nature it must be
expected that some individual renourishment projects will erode
away much faster or slower than predicted.

A second major class of solutions lies in improving the char-
acteristics of the impact area. The principal characteristics
which can contribute to the problem have been identified earlier
as waves, configuration, resiliance and human values. Ways to im-
prove some of these characteristics are developed below.

The energy of waves can be dissipated by the construction of
@offshore bars and breakwaters.

The effects of unfavorable coastal configurations can be re-
duced on the shoreline by improving the beach profile so that it
.,,can better dissipate wave energy and by providing special protec-
tion to valuable locations of known high impact. Groins, for ex-
ample, can arrest lityyal drift and thus cause a renourishment of
the beach with sand. Groins are a local solution, however,

l/ Although not particularly classified as an erosion prubl_L-m, the
capability to move large quantities of sand to selected shoreline
locations introduces a significant opportunity in the field of out-
door recreation. Even where, or perhaps especially where, erosion
is no particular problem it may become very desirable to place sand
on these shorelines to create new beaches or greatly elongate or
deepen those already existing. Likely loca1es would be in the vici-
nity of large urban concentrations where water quality and other
factors would not otherwise limit the locale's usefulness for beach
recreation. For example, the recreational usefulness of much of tjul
shoreline of Long Island Sound is greatly diminished by the pebble,
shingle and gravelly texture of the beach. Similarly as recrea-
tional pressures increase on the ocean front in future years it may
be that the usefulness as bathing beaches of parts of the shore-
line of bays behind the barrier beaches can be greatly increased by
judicious applications of sand after careful environmental back-
ground investigations. The potential is illustrated by the fact
that from the eastern tip of Long Island to the southernmost Vir-
ginia limits of the NAR, the length of the backbay shoreline even
excluding Chesapeake Bay, is more than twice the ocean coastline.
At present this shoreline is almost all wetlands and mud flats. At
least some might be developed as beaches without much ecological
damage.

U-161

since drift arrested at 'at particular place mill be replaced by
sediment-eroded elsewhere if the wave energy responsible for the
transport has not been absorbed or dissipated. Protecting cliffs
or bluffs from destruction with riprap, or sea walls is also a
local solution. Unless a means of providing sediment for transport
is established at the same time, erosion will move to a different
point, not too distant along-the long shore current.

Possibly because the advantages of a flat beach as an energy
dissipater have long been recognized, it is frequently stated
that wetlands provide substantial protection to the shoreline be-
hind them. This-proposition is often advanced in te context of
evaluating proposals to fill wetlands., The proposition badly needs
definition. Consider this sketch.

House B to be bUilt House
on proposed fill A

---Proposed fill -
Existing wetland

U-162

14.0w it is certainly true that - tile wetland provides a desirable
..buffer effect for House A under existing conditions. However, it
Is riot true that the proposed fill would destroy this effect. In
fact from the point of view of its protection from storm effects,
the contrary is true-House A will benefit from the fill.

Consider house B. It is true that it will have less protection
than House A had either before or after the fill. However, this
,disadvantage can often be offset by protective works at the shore-
line. The costs of these works should be included in the project
and they may or may not influence its desirability.

Fu_rthermore wetlands are almost always situated on back bays or
othe.r. protected areas and are thus spared most of the major direct
storm attack. If this were not so, they would not long exist in
storm frequented areas.

This discussion in no way is intended to make a case for
either preserving or filling wetlands. It does suggest, however,
that in such considerations the buffering effects of wetlands is
riot a major argurrient. The case for wetlands lies more substan-
tialiy in their ecological, recreational, aesthetic, and valley
storage values cited earlier under "Conservation and Wetlands."

Moving inland, much can be done to preserle and improve dunes.
Programs can be developed to include preservation, improvement arid
maintenance.

. Under preservation, steps would be taken to see that the pub-
.lie. understands arid respects the importance of dunes. Passages
through the dunes would be delineated and controlled. Public
-,trampling or building on the dunes would be restricted.

Under improvement, the height of the dunes would be built up.
This can be done in a variety of ways. One quick method is to im-
port saiid of a grain size distribution observed to be stable nearby.
Deiaware is pioneering a bulldozer approach. The dozer piles up
sand from the leeward side of the dune leaving a sharp cut there.
.-..Wind effects repor,;edly move additional sand quickly to fill in tile
unnatural temporary depression. Picket sand fences properly spaced
can trap wind blown sand and build up dune heights, often in more
than one layer. There is room for considerable imagination here.
For example, the placement of salvaged Christmas trees are reported
to be excellent for this purpose. This could provide the basis for
.an annual coiimiunity environmental improvement project involving
.@_groups such as the Boy Scouts.

Under maintenance, the built-up dunes should be stabilizE:-,
preferably with vegetation. Currently American beach grass
(Ammophila breviligulata) is the best planting. It can be obtained

U-163

...on site by selectively breaking-up clwr!ps growing in rearward areas.
Much research can be done on-this.and other binding-and stilling
plants by selection and breeding to improve their environmental
hardiness. Dune plantings have been shown to be very responsive
to fertilizers. Once they take hold, their extensive root struc-
tures protect the dune. The aboveground vegetation entraps wind-
blown sand and thus further increases the height and stability of
the dune. The U.S. Department of AgricultLu-el-s Soil Conservation
Service is currently doing much research on dune stabili2.;ation
methods at its Cape May Plant Materials Center (132).

In special cases, the resiliancy of the shoreline can be im-
proved by rock, bulkheads and sea walls. Although very expensive
these devices are often the best solution where high valued land
uses must crowd the coastline. Examples are some coastal highways,
airports, ports and other industrial and urban facilities. .

The greater the human values associated with a coastal stretch
the more extensive is the effort justified to protect that coast.
However it seems clear that many facilities 'do not have to hug the
coast. To minimize the great cost of protection, the principles
of flood plain management can be applied.. The U.S. Water Resources
Council is currently sponsoring research on the possible applica-
tion of these techniques to coastal area.

Under this approach the limits of areas subject to inundation
are delineated, the information is disseminated and appropriate
control measures are instituted. Of course it is simplistic to
think that all problems can be overcome by a "keep out" approach;
many important uses such as those cited above are already located
right on the coast and must remain there or forego b.enefits-;many
times greater than the cost of protection or the acceptance of
periodi(-. damage. However, flood plain management techniques, over
time, can limit-coastal facilities to those whose presence there
is truely essential.

Another technique applicable in specia.1 cases is "flood proofing".
Under this approach damagable facilities can be located above the
ground floor and foundations can be reinforced to withstandpre-
dictable impacts.

Not to be overlooked in any consideration of human values is
the importance of preserving and improving ecological values. Un-
fortunately many of these values are so widely distributed over
extensive wetlands that significant protection is probably im-r
practicable. One clear exception, already cited, is the protection
of barrier beaches from storm-induced breaching because of the
significant, possibly undesirable consequences such breaching can
trigger in the lagoons behind the barrier beaches.

A third major type solution lies in overcoming special

U-164'

limitations. Two special problems mentioned earlier are the high
costs of solutions and the difficulty of distributing these costs
to the beneficiaries becausc of the indivisible nature of many
solutions, the generally widespread nature of the benefits and the
presence of some externalities. The problem of costs can be mini-
mized by additional research on methods and careful analysis to
insure that the costs are incurred in places where the benefits are
commensurate. The problem of cost sharing has characteristics
which classically identify with government involvement. The prob-
iem is by no means waique to coastal protection. It has parallels
in many governmental functions such as road construction and flood
control. The more widespread the public benefit, the higher the
public share of the cost has typically been. The beneficiaries of
coastal protection are the users of the coast whether they reside
there or visit it.

The costs of these solutions varies greatly. An improved warn-
ing, mobilization and evacuation system should not cost too much,
especially if local civil defense systems are exercised. Extensive
relief operations required in the aftermath of real disasters can
be very costly, but governments and volunteer groups have long
demonstral-ed their willingness to contribute.

1'he cost of improvements depends upon the maEpitude of the pro-
ject and the avilability of materials. For the construction of
most beach improvements, experience indicates that costs may range
up to @250 per linear foot of coastline. Groin construction may
cost in excess of @100 per linear foot depending upon the wave and
beach dimensions. The beach renourishment project in Florida
mentioned earlier ran bout @90 per linear foot. Revetment costs
are more expensive than.beach renourishment and can in more exposed
areas cost in excess of @500 per linear foot. A degree of economy
can sometimes be achieved by using excess material from a nearby
construction project thus affording savings on both jobs. For ex-
ample, a community could have excavated rock dumped at the toe of
its seawall thus providing iriexpensf.ve and important maintenance.
The cost range of improvement projects at individual sites in this
region is expected to be contained in the forthcoming National
Shoreline Study (130").

Massive hurricane flood control structures can be very costly.
For example, the Fox Point Barrier, which was completed in 1966 and
which protects a major portion of Providence, cost about $17 million
and the proposed Lower 14arragansett Bay Barrier has an estimated
1970 cost of about 4@133 million. Costs for providing hurricane
tidal flood protection for Long Island the adjacent port of New
Jersey, exclusive of the Aew York Metropolitan area, are estimated
at over Z0200 million in 1970 dollars.

Federal participation is usually allowable when project solutions

U-165

are beyotid ille reasonable capability of' 166'dl authorities- and when
tile benefits are public and exceed tile cost.- The cost of the study
of eligible projects is born completely by the Federal government.
Up to half th e cost of feasible protective works for breach erosion
control along publically-owned shores is Federal, except in the
case of parks and conservation areas which meet certain require-
ments. In these instaxices up to 70% Federal costs are authorized.
Privately-owned shores are generally ineligible for participation
except when their protection is beneficial to a nearby publi-c use
or when tile benefits to tile private shore are incidental to the
project. The non-Federa.1 costs are usually met by the state and/or
the shoreline locality under different state formulae. Table u-16
summarizes state cost sharing policies in this region.

Mmiy of the solutions proposed can provide a net benefit to eco-
systems. However, tile possibility that solutions could produce
damage to down drift users must be carefully evaluated and provided
for either in the design or by acceptable means of mitigation.
ThrouEjiout this analysis ecological side effects have been constan-
tly identified and solutions have been developed with these con-
siderations in mind. Two of thesc effects mentioned are: damage
to ecosystems by climactic events of nature such as complete alter-
ing of back bays, and effects on ecosystems in borrow areas which
ban be minimized or reversed by study of the location, time, desired
cohfigureation of the area and the reestablishment of benthic life.

Especially when very large undertakings are being considered
with important population centers and potential disaster conditions
involved, benefits may be expected to be high--and for justified
projects they are. The existing 4;17 million Fox Point project near
Providence is expected to prevent about 06 million of the estimated
@@180 million damage which would result from a recurrence of the
t:idal flood of record--the 1938'hurricarie. A recurrence of the
tidal flood of record--actually two storms: the 1938 hurricane for
most of Long Island and a "1960 storm for western Long Island--would
inflict an estimated 4;320 million in 1970 dollars in damages on the
Long Island-adjacent Dew Jersey area, exclusive of the Metropolitan
ilew York area. The standard project storm for New York Harbor has
been estimated to cause about $2.5 billion in direct damages in
1958 dollars. Of course, no foreseeable plan could be expected to
eliminate all these dmaages, but the potential for very great bene-
fits is clearly-evident and is tile subject of a number of studies
completed and in progress. Just the provision of emergency plans
for evacuating mid protecting the New York City subway system from
inundation mid a disastrous loss of life could produce tremendous
benefits some day.

Indirect benefits are, by definition, harder to quantify'but
they are probably very large. In a preliminary estimate, the Army
Corps of Engineers predicts indirect damages from the standard

U-166

TABLE U- 16

SUMHARY OF GENERAL POLICY OF
STATE PARTICIPATION IN SHORE PROTECTION PROJECTS
State Participation - Portion States
of Non-Federal Share

Federal Projects
100% Delaware (Each project must
be approved individually by
the State Legislature)
50% Massachusetts, Connecticut

70% New York

75% New Jersey
I/ Maryland
No specific program Virginia, Rhode Island, Maine, New Hampshire
Other Projects
100% Delaware (Each project must
be approved individually by
the State Legislature)
67% 2/ Connecticut

50% Massachusetts, Rhode Island
75% New Jersey

70% New York

&/ Maryland
No specific programs Virginia, Maine, New Hampshire
.L/ Interest-free loans to municipalities made by State of Maryland.
.1/ For publicly owned shores. For privately-owned shores the State pays one-third.
SOURCE: (136)

project storm, in New York Harbor at about $2.4 billion in 1958
dollars, How much of this can be economically prevented is
currently being studied. Indirect benefits include possibilities
for encouraging desirable development, increasing shorefront
values, increasing tourist trade and generally enhancing the shore-
front environment and ecology.

Most organizational consideration have already been addressed
during discussion of other aspects of the problem. It has been
seen that within the U.S. Government, the responsible agency is
the U.S. Army through its Corps of Engineers. Considerable coor-
dination is accomplished with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Agency on fish and wildlife values and with the Department of
Housing and Urban Development on residential and urban values. At
the state and local levels cost sharing formulae have usually been
worked out. Projects have not' been considered by the U.S. Govern-
ment unless they have been requested by an individual or by local
or intermediate levels of government.

A complete listing of authorized Federal projects and authori-
zed Federal survey studieF in progress in this region will be con-
tained in the forthcoming National Shoreline Study (136).

Solution effectiveness is summarized below in terms of the
three basic overall NAR objeczives. Not included in them is the
added wellbeing benefit of saving substantial grief and loss of
human life.

Since all projects must stand the test of benefit cost analy-
sis, however incomplete the evolving knowledge of this tool may be,
it follows that most net benefits derived fall into the national
efficiency account. Recent and ongoing studies imply that these
bLenefits could be substantial, possibly in the billions. The over-
all total annual benefits of feasible solutions are currently un-
known although they have been calculated for numerous individual
Projects. Much information is available at the appropriate Corps
offices, but it is below the scope of detail of this regional
framework study.

Although the principal benefits are economic, substantial en-
vironmental benefits can accrue as well particularly through the
protection of ecosystems against disasters from which they have
demonstrated an inability to recover rapidly. Careful attention
during the formulation of solutions must also be paid to ecological
val'ues because some of the larger projects have a potential for
ecological damage which can be controlled, reversed or mitigated
by careful design and review.

Even when Federal surveys indicate that remedial measures are
not economically feasible and thus ineligible for Federal aid,
they can be undertaken by state or local interests in a regional
development context. These projects can often benefit from the tech-
nical evaluation produced in the Federal survey.

. U-168

REGIONAL SUMMARY

SUBREGION A

Subregion A is the northernmost portion of the North Atlantic
Region and is wholly contained within the State of Maine. The
entire coastal portion of this subregion is included in Area 5 and
extends from Calais on the north to the mouth of the Androscoggin
0
River on the south.

The subregion is disucssed here in terms of its characteristics,
major coastal uses, major coastal problems, and major prospects and
potentials.

General judgements as to the relative importance of the selected
problems in the subregion (Area 5) are outlined in Table U-17.

TABLE U-17

PROBLEM PROFILE IN SUBREGION A

Problem
Highly significant
Significatn
Relatively insignificat

Area 5
Living resources
Conservation of wetlands
Non-living resources
Water pollution
Thermal affects
Solid wastes disposal
Recreation
Marine transportation
Coastal erosion and
tidal flooding

Area Characteristics. This portion of the NAR coastal zone is
characterized by a rugged, rocky shoreline with many deep, narrow
inlets and coastal islands. There is a high tidal range accompanied
by strong coastal currents and high flushing rates for the bays and
estuarine areas.

The waters of the area are cold in comparison to the more south-
ern parts of the region with April-May seawater temperatures usually
between 45'F. and 50'F. in the Boothbay Harbor locale which is in
the southern part of the area.

There are three major rivers flowing into these coastal waters.
At the Northeastern extreme is the St. Croix River which flows into
Passamaquoddv Bay. Midway in the area the Penobscot River enters.
The estuarine area associated with the Penobscot is extensive, very
scenic and, as will be discussed later, relatively heavily modified,
primarily bv water pollution.

The third major river borders the area on the south. This is the
Kennebec River. Here, as with the Penobscot, there is an extensive
estuarine system associated with the river, and here again, water
quality is a major factor.

There are also a large number of smaller rivers and streams flow-
ing into the coastal and estuarine waters of the area. These streams
coupled with the many bays and inlets create a variety of estuarine
and wetland regimes, rocky shores and some sandy beach and make this
the most naturally diverse area of the entire North Atlantic Region
coastal zone.

One of the characteristics which makes this area outstanding is
the distinct lack of major urban areas and concentrations of popula-
tion. It is the least densely populated area within the NAR coastal
zone.

There are five counties in the area. In total the population of
these counties has decreased from 135,104 in 1950 to 132,100 in 1968
( 57 ). While this does not indicate directly what the coastal pop-
ulation changes were, there are no major population centers in the
area that are not on the coast ard, of the nine major towns with
populations over 2,000, five showed a decline in population between
1960 and 1966. Informal reports of th2 rcsults of the 1970 census
indicate that this trend of declinina population is continuing,
especially in the more northern sections, which are distant from
southern markets, have severe winters and rely heavily on a declining
fishery for an economic base.

There is a significant increase in population during the summer
months, particularly in the coastal towns due to an influx of tour-
ists and recreation seekers. However, even in this case, the more

U-170

northern portions of the area do not experience as much of this in-
crease.

Major Coastal Uses. The species of living resources of commer-
cial importai-ce in this area include @@rustaceans, shellfish, fin-
fish and seaweed.

Lobster is by far the highest value fishery product harvested
in these coastal waters. The total value of the catch in Maine in
l9bg was in excess of @16 million. Of this total, $12.4 million
were assoc-Lated with the lobster landings in Area 5.

Second to lobster in value is the catch of Maine shrimp. The
value of all Maine landings of shrimp in 1969 was $3 million with
[email protected] million of this occuring within Area 5.

In the shellfish categories the soft shell clam leads all other
species and is the only really economically important shellfish in
the area.

Of the commercial finfish, ocean perch and herring comprise the
bulk of landings in Area 5 with a 1969 value of $1.5 million and
Zp.9 million respectively.

OtLer living resources harvested in the area are sea moss, the
source of carrageengel, and bloodworms and sandworms for bait. Sea
moss is used in many foods and medicines as a stabilizer.

There is also ar, extensive sport fishery in the area. The same
species listed as commercially important are sought by the sport
fisherman. The "deep sea" fishing party has been an important part
of a Maine vacation for many years. Vnile the "party boat" activ-
ity is of major importance, there has been a growth in the use of
private boats, surf casting and even scuba diving over the past few
years and the trend appears to be continuing.

Lumber and wood for pulp and agriculture are also major activi-
ties in the area but are not directly related to the coast and will
not be discussed here.

Another major use of the coastal zone is recreation. Due to
its natural characteristics and its unspoiled nature this area is
attractive for a large number of recreation activities, primarily
sightseeing, boating, camping, hiking, picnicking, beachcombing and
fishing. A number of relatively small beaches are used for swimming
and sunbathing, but swimming is limited because of the cold waters.

There are twelve state parks amd memo-ials alonE the coast.
These offer a variety of facilities and opportunities for recreation
ranging from small, single-purpose historic and scenic sites to a
full complement of facilities for camping, swimming, fishing and

U-171

picnicking. Use of these facilities is increasing rapidly. For
example, Camden Hills State Park went from 83 thousand users in
1964 to 176 thousand in 1965. (58)

Acadia National Park is located in Area 5. This park of over
30,000 acres is located on Mt. Desert Island and contains two '
large 'well-developed camp grounds, two swimming beaches with bath
houses, miles of hiking trails and roads for sightseeing. This
park experiences heavy use from the last week of June through Labor
Day. Ten private camp grounds on the island have a total capacity
which exceeds that of the national park and are often preferred,
particularly by trailer campers, since they offer utility hookups.
Some camp grounds on the island are having difficulty in providing
adequate sewage and water supply.

While public recreation facilities experience heavy and growing
demand, the bulk of recreation activity in the area is conducted in
private facilities. Summer camps and homes abound in this coastal
area and the numerous harbors are extensively used by private boats
in the sourthern part of Area 5.

While the presently available facilities are well-used, there
is an opportunity for further recreational development in the area.
The major problem with attempting commercial development is the
short season for coastal recreation in this area. Due to its
northern location, the summers are relatively short. In addition,
the area is distant enough from the major population centers to
preclude most short period use, for a day or weekend. Consequen-
tly, very few people seek out this area for recreation except dur-
ing vacations of a week or more. Persons entering the recreation
industry here must realize 'their income in a short season. (This
is changing as snowmobiles increase in popularity. Acadia has an
extensive snowmobile trail system).

Another factor in the northern half of this area which has an
influence on recreation use is the lack of "destination" facili-
ties. The large number of tourists and recreation seekers entering
this area tend to use it as a transporation corridor to reach
other areas in Canada. Bypassing this area are two ferry steamers,
the Blue Nose and the Prince of Fundy which sail to the Maritime
Provinces from Bar Harbor and Portland respectively. Both of
these ships have been operating at or near full capacity. This
diversion of the flow of recreation seekers lessens the demand for
recreation related facilities in Area 5.

Sport fishing, discussed briefly under the extraction of living
resources, is a significant component of the recreational resources
of this coastal area. Surveys of sport fishing along the entire
Maine coast have shown a close relationship of sport fishing to the
proximity to urban population centers. Thus the salt water

U-172

!"W
spoitfii@hex-j is reiatiii@ly un6xploited' in the relatively unpopula-
ted northern part.'of Area 5. Further development must be matched
closely with the'' growth in demand. (7)

The entire coastal portion of Area 5 is heavily mineralized by
a varying combination of heavy metals. Among these are iron, zinc,
chromium, nickel, lead, cobalt, manganese and copper. A history of
sporadic mining explorations and actual operations goes back many
years. In fact, during 1880's, there was a mining boom complete
with a stock exchange in the local area.

At the present time, only one mining operation exists. This ii;
an open pit mine on the edge of Penobscot Bay at Cape Rosier from
which copper and zinc ore are being removed. The ores are concen-
trated on sites and then shipped out of the area for refining. Cur-
rent daily production from this m-ine is approximal,elY 700 tons of
ore containing 6/'0' zinc and 1% copper. The operation employs about
75 people. (10). The mine is expected to cease operation in 1972.

Continuing environmental problems have accompaiiied tile opera-
tion. Problems are associated with the noise of operations, blas-
ting, drilling aild trucking; water pollution is caused by silting
aiid by drainage of toxic metals from the mines; and scenic disrup-
tion is caused by the open pit and tile deposilion of wastos. The
extensive amount of pumping to drain the pit has also tended to
lower ground water tables and allow salt water to intrude into
.loca-1 ground water supplies.

A nwitber of proposed sites have been proposed for additional
ndning operations in the area. however, the ores are relatively
iowgrade and the viability of such operations is entirely depen-
dent upori favorable metal prices. Most of such ore bodies are of
marginal value, at best. If the costs associated with environ-
mental protection are relatively high, the incentive for mining
will be low.

A substantial amount of sand and gravel mining is also corfduc-
ted in Area 5. This is generally from on-shore deposits scattered
along the coast and is used in construction in nearby areas. In-
vestigations have shown that offshore deposits in Area 5 are of
low quality and-run more to silt than good quality sand.

There appears to be high probability of gas and oil resources
offshore in the Gulf of Maine. If this is the case, and they are
developed, this activity will have a strong influence on tile kinds
of development which occur throughout the-area.

Afinal non-living resource use related to the coast is-the use
of coastal water. The mining operation at Cape Rosier uses exten-
sive amounts of salt water to concentrate its ore. This water is
recycled in the process to help control pollution.

U-173

Of much greater significance is the use of coastal waters for
.cooling, particularly in power.generation... -While this use-is
limited at pkesent,-it will likely increase'significantly as power
companies seek out sites for new plants with adequate cooling waters
in the northeastern United States.

The use of the coastal waters in Area 5 for transportation and
shipping is limited primarily to the fishing industry at this time.
(Even the ores from the Cape Rosier mine are shipped out to refiner-
ies by rail). There is a lack of developed docking and freight
handling facilities in the area.

The major reasons for this are the distance to the markets fur-
ther south in the region and the fact that major ports exist in
these heavily populated market areas.

However, as vessels are designed and built in larger and larger
sizes the harbors to the south will become inadequate, primarily
because of the draft requirements of such vessels. The deep-water
inlets and bays available in this area have characteristics which
will make them more desirable for port development.

Of particular importance to this area is the proposed develop-
ment of a major port at Machiasport for use by supertankers.. There
is a great controversey about the desirability of such a develop-
ment, particularly when it is coupled with the development of a re-
finery. The major concern is for its potential effect upon the pre-
sently unspoiled natural beauty of the area, together with the po-
tential for oil spills and their unkown long-term ecological effects.

In the coastal zone of Area 5, urban and industrial development
has been minimalt in keeping with the loss of population and low
level of economic activity in the area. Extensive portions of the
coast remain undeveloped at this time.

One of the main reasons has been that a small number of wealthy
families have had substantial land holdings and summer estates. As
these holdings are handed down through the succeeding generations
ownership is becoming more diffuse, and heirs are finding it im-
possible to maintain large holdings under today's financial pres-
sures. Consequently, the pattern of land ownership is changing to
smaller, more numerous holdings. This will tend to remove the
control on development and significant changes in land use will
likely occur.

.As in all areas.there is the need to use coastal waters for
waste disposal. This use of the coastal zone is largely unorgani-
zed in Area 5. Many of the coastal communities rely upon septic
tanks and cesspools for domestic waste disposal. others provide
collection systems.with minimum of treatment prior to discharge
into thecoastal waters.

U-174

There is-a considerable waste load entering the coastal waters
from inland. -The waters of the Penobscot River and the Kennebec
River are carrying heavy waste loads when they become estuarine!
Most of these wastes originate from inland activities such as pulp
and paper processing, agriculture and food processing, and domes-
tic waste disposal. The majority of these wastes are from identi-
fiable point sources. However, this means not that non-point sour-
ces are unimportant, but that they are not well known.

Major Coastal Problems. Almost all of the 1900 miles of the
exposed shoreline of Area 5 is ledge outcrops or massive boulders.
Only about 10 miles can be considered as beach. Consequently, with
very minor local exceptions there is no coastal erosion or tidal
flooding problem in the area. The State of Maine has no program,
and no Federal projects have been authorized (136).

The two major problems in the coastal zone of this area are un-
employment and water quality in relation to affected uses. Washing-
ton County is experiencing an unemployment rate of nearly 14%. This
is accompanied by low-average incomes and a loss in population as
people seek employment in other areas. The other counties in the
area are also facing relatively high unemployment situations and
generally declining population.

The coastal water quality problem results principally from pulp
and paper processing, mining, agriculture and food processing and
municipal wastes.

The-pollution of coastal waters has a significant impact on the
fishery of the area. In 1969 for example, 71,000 acres of shell-
fish beds were closed to fishing because of bacterial pollution in
Maine (167). However, most of this closure is in Area 6 to the
south.

Also of great concern to the fishery industry is the effect of
pesticides upon the commercially important species. Lobsters,
crabs and shrimp are closely related to many of the pests which the
pesticides are designed to kill. For example, a lindane solution
of one part in five billion will kill lobsters and shrimp; commonly
available household sprays contain up to one part in one million.
There have been numerous cases of total mortality in lobster pounds
where pesticides were used (38).

In addition to the lethal aspects on certain species there is
the danger of the accumulation of residues of pesticides in the
tissues of commercial species rendering them unfit for human con-
sumption. Care must be exercised in the handling of pesticides be-
cause they are extensively used in the forestry and agri-cultural
industries.

Waste from sawmill operations such as sawdust and bark have been

U-175

carried iht`6 the estuar'inli''ai-6as and de`pbsitea in areat@@iherie they
appear to have smothdred shellfish. -It has 'been observed that.'tlie
overburden on a numbe'r of'shellfish "graveyards" was a-layer of
sawdust.

Marifte scientists are also finding that the sawdust does not:'..
decay as would be expected, but rather tends to mineralize. Com-
bustion tests show the material to be non-flanuriable and long-last-
ing. (Perhaps it may have commercial value).

Tile heavy metals and associated wastes due to past and present
mining operations are also of concern tO the fishing industry.
Toxic metals are found in sediments near mining sites that have
been inactive for several decades indicating that they tend to
persist over a long period. Concentrations of metals in shellfish
in the area of Cape Rosier have significantl.-Y increased since the
resumption of mining and separating operations there. This has
occurred even with special care.and precaution to minimize. p9llu-
tion.

There are some locally severe pollution problems associated
with the management of inland waters. (153) In the lower Penob-
scot hiver from Bucksport to Winterport and, at times, in the lower
.Kennebec River tile level of dissolved oxygen drops to zero. This
forms a compiete-oxygen block preventing the passageof fish and
causes frequent fishkills. Flows could be regulated for quality
and quantity to help prevent this condition from occurring. This
should b,@_ taken into consideration and specified as a demand upon
the inland water resources.

Major Prospects and Potentials. With tile broad overview of
Area 5 which has been presented up to now and particularly the pre-
ceding disucssion of major problems, the next step is to examine
the prospects for the area and how.these prospects relate to the
objectives established for tile NAR study (regional.development,
national efficiency, and environmental quality).

It seems evident that activities designed to increase income
aiid tile level of employment in the area will be compatible with the
first two objectives. In this respect there are four areas which
have tile potential for major contributions to these objectives.

First, with tile steadily increasing demand for electricity,
the.relative scarcity of acceptable inland sites for generating
plants, and the availability of vast quantities of cold water make
Area 5 a desirable area for siting new power plants. The tax re-
venues generated by such facilities are substantial and could pro-
vide some stimulus to the economy. This development would not by
itself, substantially reduce unemployment; but with the prospects
of relatively cheap supplies of power other industry may be in-
duced to come into tile area.

U-176

One must exercise c 'aution, howe-Ye.ri, when drawing, c'onclus ions
'ivi g,'the unem oyment situa@-Aop 'it, this area,,,by simply
about s.0- n V@
b.ringing in industry. Many of the ppople.;have seasonal occupa-7.
tions, have selected a generally independent way of life and-are
not ready or willing to change this lifestyle.

Another long-standing propo sal in the power field is the
Passamadquoddy Project. This pr-oposal is to harness the power of
the tidal range in Northeastern Maine and Southern New Brunswick by
building tidal dams across Passamaquoddy Bay. The ecological
changes caused by such a project may be of immense proportions.
(However, preliminary studies related to the scallop fishery in-
dicate an improvement in that industry would likely occur).

A second prospect for development is the potential for the
development of deep water ports such as the Machiasport proposal.
Together'with one or more refineries the potential for economic
gain to the area is large. For example, one oil company has pr'o-
posed to build a 100,000 barrel-a-day refinery in the Machiasport
area. It h 'as been reported that the refinery would cost more than
$150 million and employ about 350 people, not counting the construc-
tion period employment. Some people have questioned whether the
economic benefits to the locality would actually be significant,
and many have expressed concern over the potential impacts of oil
spillage and industrialization on this aesthetically attractive,
low income area. If the proposed development occurs, several oil
companies would probably build in the area, again with mixed
economic-environmental implications. Such development would gener-
ate a substantial increase in fresh water demands.

A third prospect which should be, and is, receiving a con-
siderable amount of attention is fisheries management, particularly
aquaculture. The fisheries industry as it now exists encounters
severe economic difficulty in competing with other conflicting uses
of coastal resources. The pressures for development along the
coast and its use for waste disposal will continue to work in op-
position to the fisheries. This does not rule out the transEorma-
tion of fisheries into a more viable industry, however, major
changes or alterations would be necessary.

Aquaculture could overcome this relative disadvantage. The phy-
sical nature of the coastal area and the nutrient rich waters are
amenable to such an enterprize. It will require coordinated manage-
ment of inland waters. Several experiments are underway now to dem-
onstrate its economic feasibility.

A fourth prospect is the major potential for continuing recrea-
tional development. The demand for facilities grows substantially
as population and levels of income grow. The relatively unspoiled
coastal resources for-recreation such as exist in this area are be-
coming more scarce in the southern portions of the NAR.

U-177

Howeve'r . as'' previoutly mentioned, i f these- resources@- -are: "to be
utilized ther6-'-inust be an ThIc'rease in de,@t: ii-iition facilitids. The
Bureau of Outdoor-Recreatibn recommends a 40-50 thousand acre park
which would-providethis need.-in the-northern part of Area 5, parti-
cularly if it extends from the coast to inland areas. There is a
question, however, as to the potential success of such a park due
to the frequent fogs which occur in the area and also because of the
black flies which are so plentiful and bothersome-to campers.

While recognizing the economic needs of the residents and thus
the need for some development, placing Area 5 in the perspective of
the overall North Atlantic Region raises a very important caution
flag; this is a unique natural coastal-area which is relatively
unspoiled.

Several most likely development opportunities have been identi-
fied. Of these recreation and aquaculture/fishing would tend to
maintain the environment. The development of a petrochemical in-
dustry would tend to significantly alter the area. The generation
of power per se might have a minimal effect, although the vast
quantities of heat generated must have an impact (not well under-
stood) on the marine ecology. But industrial development which'fre-
quently accompanies new power sources may be detrimental to the
environmental quality of the area.

U-178

SUBREGION B

The coast of this region extends from the mouth of the Andros-...
coggin River in Maine to the southern limits of New England.

The subregion is considered herein in terms of its characteris-
tics, major coastal uses, major coastal problems and major prospects
and potentials under four geographical subdivisions related to the
areas delineated for use throughout the NAR study. From a coastal
point of view, it was found desirable to combine some of the NAR
areas and subdivide others.

The areas and general judgments as to the relative importance of
the selected problems in each are outlined in Table u-18.

TABLE U-18

PROBLEM PROFILE IN SUBREGION B

Problem Living resources Conservation of wetlands Non-living resources Water pollution Thermal effects Solid wastes disposal Recreation Marine transportation Coastal erosion and tidal flooding
Highly significant
Significant
Relatively insignificant

Area 6

Areas 7&9 ( Mass)
Area 9 (R.I)
areas 8&10 (C0nn)

U-179

AREA 6

Area Characteristics. The coastal portion of Area 6 extends,from
the mouth of the Androscoggin River in Maine, southwest to the border
of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. This area contains a variety of
physical characteri 'stics which range from rugged rocky shoreline to
sandy beaches and marsh areas.

The section northeast of Portland, principally Casco Bay, has
deep rock embayments and is similar to the rockbound shoreline of
"down east" Maine. While it does have at least 50 percent rocky out-
crops, it is the transition zone from the rocky shore to the sand
beach shore.

South of Portland the sandy beach and marsh regime is predominant.
There are a number of substantial crescent-shaped beaches which have
good quality sand, suitable for beach recreation. Of the 600 miles
of shoreline in this portion of Maine, approximately 50 miles are
beaches (136).

The New Hampshire shoreline is characterized by.extensive barrier
beaches in front of tidal marshes in the south and rock ledges with
pocket beaches in the north.- About-25 miles of shoreline are sand
beach (136). The New Hampshire shoreline includes the shores of
Great and Little Bays and the navigable parts of the rivers which
flow into the bays (none of which are navigable much beyond eight
miles inland).

The New Hampshire wetlands, considered to be very important from
a fish and wildlife standpoint include about 5300 acres of salt
meadows, 37S acres of salt marshes and 3900 acres of bays

The three Maine counties included in this area have experienced "I",
substantial growth over the past two decades. In 1968 they had a
population of about 326,000 people, approximately one-third of the-
total population of Maine ( 57).

There are about seven municipalities with a population of 10-,000--
or more.. The Portland/South Portland metropolitan a.rea is the largest
population center in the state with a 1966 population of about -100-,000
(56

'The coastal area of New Hampshire consists of Rockingham County.
It ranks second in population among the ten counties of the'state
with 99,000 in 1960 and experienced a 41.4% growth in the decade
ending in 1960. The seacoast portion had an estimated resident popu-
lation of 43,000 in 1964 (80 ). Portsmouth is the largest coastal
city in New Hampshire with a population of 28,000.

There is a significant increase in population in Area 6 during
the summer due to an inflow of tourists and recreationists. The New

U-180

Hampshire seacoast in 1964 had a maximum summer population which wa@..
88% higher than the resid4@n't populatio'n('80) and, iii'1966, the three'
Maine counties in Area 6 had a summer population which was approxi-
mately 36% higher than the resident population (56

The projections for Area 6 indicate a doubling of the population
between 1960 and 2020. The coastal portion of New Hampshire will
likely receive a proportionate share of the increase, while the Maine
coastal area may gain a more than proportional share of this increase.
While this last statement is conjecture, the economic situation along
the coast (which will be described in the next section) indicates
that this may well be the case.

Major Coastal Uses. The major economic activities in Area 6
related to the coastal resources are recreation and transportation
(commercial and national defense). However, each of the major use
categories does exist to some degree. The availability of informa-
tion and data related to the coastal resource uses varies by use and
by geographic location.

As a percentage of the total economic activity in Area 6, the
extraction of living resources is small. The total value of the
catch of shellfish, crustaceans) and other saltwater commercial
species in the Maine and New Hampshire counties of Area 6 was about
$7.7 million in 1969 (57 ). Lobster and shrimp lead the field in
value of landings.

Shellfish, primarily hard and soft clams are found extensively
from Boothbay Harbor to Portland. South of Portland,only the Ports-
mouth area including Great Bay and Hampton Harbor appear favorable
to shellfish.

Recreation is one of the most extensive uses of the coastal
resources in Area 6. The use of the fine sand beaches of the south-
ern sections and the many islands, harbors and bays of the northern
sections is influenced by their relative proximity to the large urban
areas of southern New England--primarily the Boston area. The public
beaches in Southern New Hampshire are close enough to that area to
experience a high day use demand as well as overnight use demand.
While specific figures relating to income originated by coastal
recreation were not available for New Hampshire, the 1963 income from
recreation for the entire state was about $56 million (BO ). The
seacoast area accounts for a high portion of the state's total
visitors (as well as resident population) and, consequently, a sizable
portion of the income from recreation.

There are three state parks on the New Hampshire coast which have
a primary emphasis on beach use--none with overnight camping facilities.
There is, however, a large number of privately operated overnight
accommodations in the area. It is estimated that about 8 miles of,

U-181

J 0-,
shoreline ax'e,open to pubff6 recreational'us'e:'and 30 mifi4@ a-r'e, used
for private recreation in New Hampshird'(136)'.

Of the 600 miles of shorefront in the southern portion of Maine
only about one percent is'in public ownership, Most of it isIdevoted
to recreation. Included are several pop'ular public beaches, including
Old Orchard, Wells, Ogunquit and kennebunkport and State parks with
excellent facilities for day use. There are also approximately 522
miles of shorefront which are used for private recreation (136). In-
cluded in this private sector are 34 privately operated camp grounds.
It is clear that throughout Southern Maine, theprincipal use of the
shorefront is for recreation.

The rate of growth in'use of facilities over the past decade and
the projection of future"demand indicate that there will be a con-
tinuing development of recreation related facilities in Area 6.
There will necessarily be'a mixture of private and public develop-
ment. Public facilities will experience increasingly dense use and
this will require continued expansion and improvement of the exist-
ing beaches.

The principal non-living resources of Area 6 are sand, gravel
and water. There are minor deposits of other non-metallic minerals
indicated throughout the area (78 ) but they are not significant and
the development of extractive industry is not expected.

Up to the present time, and most likely for some time to come,
the greatest activity has been in the mining of sand and gravel.
While a significant portion of such material used in construction
has come from on-shore deposits, the pressures for preserving envi-
ronmental quality are forcing the industry to turn its attention to
the possibility of offshore mining. A primary demand for sand is
related to beach improvement and maintenance. Most of the material
used in this manner will be dredged from nearshore deposits and from
the bottom of selected harbors where improvements for recreational
and commercial navigation are warranted. The need for beach main-
tenance is especially prevalent in the southern portions of the area,
where the littoral drift creates a net loss of material from the
extensive beaches to offshore areas (136).

The other principal non-living'r.esource of importance within the
.area is water. The use'of saline water, mainly for power cooling,
is limited at this time, but is expected to increase substantially
through the next 50 years to meet the power demands of the area.
There will be an increasing pressure to locate new generating capa-
city in coastal areag 'to take advantage of the vast quantities of
water'available for cooling.'
The relatively cold coas'tal waters of the area and its proximity
to the New England Road centers make this area desirable for such
development.

U-182

Deep draft port facilities in Area 6 exist in Portsmouth, New
Hampshire and Portland, Maine. Most of the other ports and marinas
are located on rivers near their mouths. The inland limit for river
navigation in this area is about 8 miles.

The major commodity of commercial importance to transportation in
the area is crude petroleum. Portland has the bulk of the petroleum
handling facilities. Itis the starting point of three pipelines to
Canada and one to Bangor. Water borne commerce in the area in-
creased at an average annual rate of 5% from 1949 to 1967.

Portsmouth, with fewer facilities and less depth, has only about
7-8% as much tonnage as Portland. It experienced an average annual
growth rate of 4.8% between 1949 and 1967, but has been growing at a
decreasing rate over the past 10 years.

The naval shipyard at Kittery, Maine, which shares the Piscataqua
River with Portsmouth, has been a major employer in the area for
many years,, but it is now being phased out. There is concern for the
economic consequences of this action.

The remaining facilities in the area are devoted primarily to
recreational boating. This use is increasing in keeping with the
growth of recreational demand.

The use of coastal lands in Area 6 is mostly devoted to facili-
ties related to recreation. There are many fine summer homes all
along the coast. Commercial and industrial development have tended
to cluster in the major population centers of Portsmouth and Portland
or are back from the coast.

Commercial-industrial development is much in evidence in Casco
Bay in the Portland Area, particularly related to the storage and
shipment of petroleum. Plans are now in existence to develop Long
Island in Casco Bay for a major oil handling facility and refinery.
Concerns over the potential for oil spills and pollution of the Bay
waters as well as environmental concerns in general is holding up
the project at the present time.

The possible development of oil facilities in that area is linked
closely to the possible development at Machiasport (Area 5). It is
not likely that both will occur, or should occur.

The southern portion of Area 6, particularly southern New Hamp-
shire is becoming a "bedroom" area for many people who commute and
work in Boston. This is influencing the demand for coastal residen-
tial land in that part of the area and is likely to increase and
expand northward as the Boston urban population grows.

-U-183

The c8a'dt@tl waters 6f@A-rea 6 are intensively used-foi!@waste dis-
posal. --Domestic waste disposal facilities vary from direct discharge
of untreated'sewage to collection'and secondary treatment prior to
discharge.

There is also a substantial use for both intended and inadvertant
disposal of industrial wastes. This is especially true in and around
the Portland and Portsmouth port facilities and includes the disposal
of wastes from ships as-well as land based facilities.

The disposal of waste heat into the coastal waters is a relatively
small use'at this time, but is expected to grow significantly in the
future. (See Appendix P--Power.)

Another use of the coastal zone which was not of importance in
Area 5, but which has been more significant in Area 6 is the disposal
-of dredging spoil and other solid wastes into the wetlands of the
area (114). While the acreage of wetlands lost in this area is not
great, it is significant in terms of the total wetlands in the area.
However, both Maine and New Hampshire have recently enacted and are
enforcing restrictive laws preventing marshland destruction. Conse-
quently, the use of wetlands for waste disposal is now diminishing
and is expected to be a minor use in the future..

Major C astal Problems. Beach erosion is a significant problem
in parts of Area 6.- The littoral drift in the area is from north to
south except where rocky outcrops form pocket beaches. Since natural
nourishment is inadequate, a general'loss occurs and many of the
beaches, while of great length, are narrow. To maintain and improve
these beaches to help meet the demand for beach recreation,a signifi-
cant effort will be required in beach widening, raising and mainten-
ance.

Tn the Maine portion of Area 6, coastal erosion is critical along
about 20 miles of-the coast. This occurs in the few heavily used
recreational beaches. The small amount of material available through
natural littoral transport is not sufficient to maintain these
beaches. A Federal study to determine what can be done is underway,
it indicates favorable projects are possible for several beaches.

Coastal erosion on the New Hampshire shoreline has been minor
since the project which stabilized Hampton Harbor in 1935. However,
there is a continuing net loss of material from the beaches, and
renourishment is advisable to maintain the beaches for meeting the
recreation demand. Several small projects for groins and beach,nour-
ishment have been authorized and some work has been accomplished both
Federal and State means.

Uliile bacterial pollution of coastal waters is generally significant,
it is a major problem in some parts of Area 6. For example, in New Hamp-
shire the Great Bay Estuary has been closed to commercial clam productions
since 1938 (131). There

U-184)

are ove.r.280-0 acres of potent.ial clammflats in that-:estuary system.
The economic implications of this lost-tesource are.@significant, esti-
mated conservatively to be about.$2:million per year at@1944 prices.

In Maine there are also substantial acreages of coastal wetlands
closed to shellfishing because of pollution. It is estimated that
70,000 acres of the Maine coast have been closed for this reason with
an attributable economic loss in 1967 of $1..8 million (167).

There are also cases where certain "desirable" species of finfish
have disappeared from a particular area. However, a direct causal
link to pollution has not been established in most of these cases,
and other conditions, such as dams which block passage of anadromous
fish, may have been the key factors.

While there are some instances of other activities being affected
by coastal pollution, they are very limited in this area. However,
the potential for important pollution effects will grow as the indus-
trial complex expands, particularly around Portland. The develop-
ment of additional petroleum handling facilities may well increase
the chance of significant oil spills which can affect many activities.
Shellfish in areas where oil exists have tended to pick up the oil
flavor and odor making them unfit For human consumption.

A third problem of major potential impact is the preservation
of the coastal wetlands of southern New Hampshire. The Hampton
Marshes are a part of the largest remaining area of high quality
coastal salt marsh in New England. As such, they warrant efforts
to maintain them. Current legislation regulating their use and
alteration is in force, and should be adequate to this task if
enforced.
Major Prospects and Potentials. Area 6 is in the "transition"
zone between the generally undeveloped and low income region of
Eastern Maine and the intensively developed and high employment region
which exists to the south (Area 9 and others). In this position it
enjoys some unique advantages, both from an economic as well as an
environmental quality standpoint. Certainly, there is need for con-
tinued growth economically. But this growth does not require a sub-
stantial amount of "leverage" except in special cases. (Portsmouth
and vicinity may have a serious economic/employment problem as the
Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine is projected to be phased out over
the next few years.)

Based upon the trends and projections for population growth, the
best use of much of this coastal area will continue to be recreation.
Development of other uses should be controlled to minimize the detri-
mental environmental effects and to foster the growth of facilities
which will contribute to recreational use.

U-185

. Major coastal industrial. development should be limited primarily
.,to the Portland' and-Yortsmouth areas which have adequate harbors and
facilities for water transport. Other industry should be kept back
from the shoreline.

Power production is expected to increase. significantly in the
next fifty years. This will require large amounts of water for
cooling. Where possible, the heated effluents should be turned to
beneficial uses to minimize potential ecological effects. Here again,
the physical plants.themselves should be so located (possibly back
from the coast) that they have minimum effect on the recreational
use of the shoreline while making use of the coastal water resource.

The coastal zone of Area 6 has very few characteristics which
make it unique in the overall North Atlantic Region. It is important
to the Boston population and others to the south as a vacation and
recreation area and as a "nice place to live" for many commuters to
Boston (particularly the New Hampshire portion).

From a regional coastal resource standpoint the national effi-
ciency objective of NAR coupled with a significatn influence to main-
tain environmental quality seems most appropriate.

U-186

AREAS 7 and!@._(MASSACHUSETT-S)

Area Characteristics. This sector consists of the coastal zones
of Area 7 and of that part of Area 9 which lies in Massachusetts. The
remainder of Area 9 lies in Rhode Island and will be discussed in the
next section.

The approximately 1200 miles of Massachusetts shoreline is c harac-
terized by great diversity. The "mainland" -- that part of the state
exclusive of Cape Cod -- has a very irregular coastline with many in-
dentations. From the Rhode Island line to Buzzards Bay the coast is
a mixture of barrier beaches, deep indentations, low rocky headlands,
marshes and ponds. North of Cape Cod, cliffs and bluffs become appar-
ent with intermingling sections of dunes. Beyond the 47-square mile
expanse of Boston Harbor with its numerous islands, the shoreline be-
comes rockier until, beyond the Cape Ann peninsula, barrier beaches
fronting vast tidal marshes are again found.

Separated from the "mainland" by the Cape Cod canal, the shoreline
of the Cape Cod peninsula consists almost entirely of sandy beach var-
ying from relatively narrow barrier beaches along the southern portion
to extensive dune formations along the outer sections of the lower
Cape. Several islands are found off the southern coast of Cape Cod,
the most famous of these being Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.

Numerous rivers empty into the Massachusetts coastal waters. In
the northern portion, the principle one is the Merrimack, draining a
large segment of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Several important
rivers drain into Boston harbor including the Mystic, the Charles,
and the Neponset. The rivers draining into Buzzards Bay through the-
southeastern portion of the state include the Agawam and Mattapoisett.

Cape Cod, Nantucket, and Martha's Vineyard are sparsely settled
regions having, according to-the 1960 census, population densities
of 179, 77, and 56 people per square mile, respectively (L39 ). Eco-
nomically, these regions are almost completely dependent on tourism
and its supportive activities, e.g. the construction industry. Some
commercial fishing is also done on Cape Cod, but it is not a major
contributor to the economy. The population of all of these areas in-
creases dramatically during the summer months, and the, year round
population of Cape Cod has steadily climbed in recent years.

The southeastern portion of the state, between the Rhode Island
border and Cape Cod is an area of more dense population and consider-
able industrial activity. The major population center directly on.
the coast is New Bedford. At the present time this area is economi-
cally depressed. A second population concentration is found slightly
inland at Fall River.

North of Cape Cod the population and economics of the region are
dominated by the presence of Boston, the northern end of the Boston-

U-187

Washington megalopolis. Many of the coast -@1 communities"tb the north
and south of this area serve in part as "bedroom towns" for the city.
There is much industrial activity especially along the north-shore.

Ownership of the Massachusetts coastline is divided into 935 miles
private, 175 miles public, and 90 miles Federal. In terms of shore-
line use, some 800 miles are private recreational, 235 miles public
recreational, 85 miles non-recreational, and 80 miles undeveloped.
6)

The islands south of Cape Cod are largely undeveloped. This is
particularly true of the Elizabeth Islands chain which forms the
eastern boundary of Buzzards Bay; only the outermost island is exten-
sively used for permanent and-seasonal residence. The same general
pattern of undeveloped land in private ownership holds true for Nan-
tucket and Martha's Vineyard. Here, however,, there are some heavily
used public areas including a state forest on each of the islands.

The primary land use on the Cape Cod peninsula is recreational,
both public.and private. The two main public facilities are the Ro-
land C. Nickerson State Forest and the 27,000 acre Cape Cod National
Seashore. Associated with this open space land use pattern are com-
mercial developments and, in the southeastern portion of the Cape,
some cranberry farms. A significant portion of land is Federally
owned including Otis Air Force Base and sections adjacent to the
Cape Cod Canal. A recent development along the canal is a 542.5 megawatt
steam electric generating plant.

As one moves north from the canal along the "mainland" of the state,
the areas adjacent to the shoreline exhibit a mixed pattern of recre-
ational open space and residential land use with some commercial and
industrial areas interspersed. Noteworthy is the new industrial area
occasioned by the construction of a 650 megawatt nuclear power plant
on Plymouth Bay. -Commercial and industrial uses gradually increase
until they peak at Boston. North of Boston, the pattern again be-
comes mixed until, beyond Cape Ann, undeveloped open space again pre-
dominates.

.Major Coastal Uses. The physical diversity of the Massachusetts
coastal area goes hand in hand with the wide variety of its uses..
Marine transportation, waste disposal, conservation, recreation, and
resource extraction are considered below.

The center of transportation in this area is Boston with the second
largest tonnage in New England, handling some 22.6 million tons of
cargo and almost-a quarter of a million passengers in 1968 (138).
Approximately one third of-this traffic is imports, primarily resi dual
fuel oil. This activity has remained at a relatively constant level
over the past ten years and is not expected to change much in the
future.. In part the failure to expand is the result of the high-la-
bor costs in the area.

U-188

Minor port facilities are located at Fall River, New Bedford,
and Salem. These harbors also handle primarily petroleum products.
New Bedford is the base for a passenger ferry service connecting
with Cuttyhunk, the end of the Elizabeth Islands chain. Other
connections with the offshore islands of Nantucket and Martha's
Vineyard are made through the Cape Cod ports at Falmouth and Hyan-
nis.

. Pollution is particularly apparent in the Merrimack Estuary
and Boston 11arbor. The Merrimack receives most of its pollutants
from the Lawrence-Haverill industrial area. Boston Harbor receives
the municipal and industrial wastes of the largest urban concentra-
tion in New England. In some coastal areas used for solid wastes
dumps, the leachate has been a problem. Effort is being made to
curtail the dumping of wastes such as sewage sludge, beryllium,
magnesium, aluminum, sulfuric acid and other chemicals off the
harbor. Sewage sludge in particular is considered to be a signi-
ficant source of contamination.

Waste disposal has been one of the activities contributing to
the loss of Massachusetts coastal wetlands. Between 1954 and 1968
the state lost about 1,200 of its 45,895 acres of wetlands, a loss
of 2.6% in a decade and a half. Massachusetts has been a leader
in wetland preservation. Its model legislation passed in 1965 and
toughened recently (e.g., The Conservation Restriction Act of 1970)
provided for the acquisition of wetlands and the restriction of
activities in privately owned areas. Under this legislation some
12,000 acres have thus far been protected. In addition, the estab-
lishment of the Cape Cod National Sea Shore has served to preserve
thousands of acres of valuable dunes and marshes on the lower por-
tion of Cape Cod. The conservation drive of this area is also re-
flected in the current restrictions on exploitive activities in
the Cape Cod Ocean Sanctuary and in the pending legislation to
afford similar protection to Cape Cod Bay and the offshore islands
south of Cape Cod.

Recreation is by far the largest scale use of the state's coas-
tal areas. On Cape Cod and the offshore islands, the local econo-
mies are based almost entirely on it. About 90% of the state's
shorefront is used for either private or public recreation (136).
The "mainland" has several extensive public beaches. Boating is
Popular. Nearly 100,000 motor launches were registered throughout
the state in 1969 (159) and coastal marinas are common. Along with
boating, sports fishing is also popular. There are about 400,000
anglers in the state and about 3.5 million sports fish were caught
in these waters in a recent year (44).

Between 1927 and 1943 Boston led the United States in the value
of its commercial fish landings. In 1969 the state's commercial
catch was 280 million pounds valued at $41.9 million (157). This

U-189

was a sharp drop -- down 31% in volume and 9% in value just since
1966. In part this decrease is attributed to the continuing dec-
line in the haddock and flounder landings which, along with lob-
sters, are the principle species caught. Commercial shellfishing
is also an important activity in certain areas. Preliminary sta-
tistics indicate approximately 275,000 bushels were harvested in
1968, primarily quahogs and bay scallops (65).

Seawater is used for industrial cooling and processsing in many
coastal areas just north of Boston and in the New Bedford area.
This utilization will increase significantly when the power plant
on Plymouth Bay goes into operation. Ground water is depended upon
for a major part of the fresh water supply in the Cape Cod area.
It has been noted that some well fields are pumping water with ab-
normally high salt concentrations during heavy use months.

Major Coastal Problems. As indicated earlier, commercial fish-
ing has declined sharply in recent years. Particulary hard hit
have been the haddock market in Boston and the flounder industry in
New Bedford. Some shellfish areas have been closed to harvesting
because of pollution.

Only Maine, New Hampshire and Rhode Island, of all the North At-
lantic Region states, have lost less wetlands then Massachusetts.
Wetland conservation in this state is considered a problem, however,
because the residents appear to attach an unusually high importance
to the preservation of their wetlands. The state is widely acknow-
ledged as a national leader in wetland conservation.

Sand and gravel are in short supply in the Boston area. Tradi-
tional sources have largely been closed for environmental reasons
by surrounding communities. Great difficulty has been experienced
in obtaining granular fill for the extension of Boston's Logan Air-
port. As demand increases, i-- a-,pears likely that sand and gravel
will be increasingly extracted from ecologically acceptable off-
shore sources.

As already mentioned, coastal poilucion peaks in the Merrimack
Estuary and innermost parts of Boston Harbor. The problem here is
typical -- tremendous costs versus environmental impacts. A review
of pollution abatement activities on the Merrimack was cited in the
earlier analysis of the selected problem of water pollution. The
river has been considered as a possible additional source of water
supply for Boston.

The coastal waters are likely to be used increasingly to dis-
charge waste heat from power plants required to satisfy mushrooming
demand. Possible problems and opportunities were discussed at length
in the earlier analysis of the selected problem of thermal effects.

The supply of recreational facilities is becoming the most

U-190

critical problem in the Massachusetts coastal zone. This recrea-
tional demand is particularly felt along the coast south of Boston
where current facilit]es are already used to capacity. This de-
mand stems from both local residents and out of state visitors.
The establishment of the National Sea Shore has heightened this
pressure and between 1963-1968 the number of visits increased from
1.8 to 3.5 million (100). As the population of this state and the
areas to the south increase, more and more pressure will be exerted
on these coastal areas.

Erosion has been evaluated as significant in this area because
it only seriously affects about 135 miles of the 1200 miles of shore-
line. Almost all occurs in the islands off the southern coast and
the ocean side of the north-south arm of Cape Cod. Local severe ero-
sion occurs along the south shore of the Mer-imack Estuary, Boston's
outer islands, and the Marshfield-Scituate cliffs areas (136).

Tidal flooding occurs particularly in the Buzzards Bay area. A
recurrence of the tidal flood of record there has been estimated to
cause damages of about $00 million. Without the existing hurricane
barrier in this reach, the estimated damages from this same storm
would be about $100 million.

Major Prospects and Potentials. The use of this coastal zone
for recreation is seen as one of its major potentials. The increas-
ing demand referred to above combined with the physical appeal of
such areas as Cape Cod and the offshore islands result in an unusual
opportunity for this area to serve as an outlet for millions of rec-
reation seekers, and the danger that overexploitation of natural re-
sources will destroy the very desirability of the area. Some mea-
sure of access control will need to be developed to protect against
possible overutilization.

Boston Harbor is also seen as having a major potential for sup-
plying a recreational outlet. This large expanse of water with it5
myriad islF.-Lnds presents an i-incaptured opportunity for the enjoyment
of many. This conclusion was reached in the report of the Second
Commission on the Boston Harbor Islands (66). However, the ful-
fillment of the goals reconmended by this commission will require
a renewed emphasis on pollution abatement.

A second potential for this area can be found in a revitaliza-
tion of its formerly extensive fishing industry. The fertile areas
off the northeastern coast are currently being fished primLrily by
non-American fleets. The proximity of this area combined with the
large domestic market, currently satisfied to a large measure by
imports, offers significant opportunity for this area. This is
particularly true of the New Bedford area which is now economically
depressed. However, such a revitalization would require basic
changes in the present industry and the Federal view of this activ-
ity. A more extensive discussion of this topic can be found in the
preview analysis of the selected problem of living resources.

U-191

AREA 9 (RHODE ISLAND)

Area Characteristics. rhoda Island has @.pproximately 340 miles
of shoreline. It is dominated by Narragansett Bay, a drowned river
embayment, covering some 170 square miles and accounting for 150
miles of total shoreline. The bay is relatively deep and contains
several islands. The main rivers draining into it are the Seekonk
and the Taunton. The Pawcatuck flows into Block Island Sound. The
entire coastal area contains many fresh-water ponds and lakes as
well as salt-water ponds behind barrier beaches along the sourthern
coastal area.

The topography of the coastal land is low and flat. A 1965 re-
port (106) estimated that about 88% of the shoreline was more or
less in a "natural" state and that approximately 4,200 acres of
salt marsh and meadow were available along the shoreline.

The coastal area surrounding Narragansett Bay is an area of high
population concentration with a peak density at the head of the bay
in the communities around Providence. Another population cluster
exists around the port of Newport. In contrast, the coastal areas
along Block Island Sound are more sparsely settled with Washington
County having a population of 178 per square mile according to the
1960 census (139). Projections show that the population will in-
crease by some 37% by the year 2000 (106), but that it will be more
evenly dispersed as the highway system improves. The influx of
summer residents to the coastal area is moderately high on the main-
land and very high on Block Island. No data is available to indic-
ate what percentage of these are from out-of-state and what
percentage are relocations from other parts of Rhode Island.

The coastal population receives a per capita income comparable
to the national average and is expected to maintain this ratio
through the year 2020. Although the United States Navy is the
largest single employer in the Rhode Island coastal zone, manufac-
turing is the chief source of basic income to the area. Other
significant economic activities relate to ship-building, recrea-
tional boating, and tourism. Commercial.fishing is still a signi-
ficant source of income to certain areas, although its pattern of
activity is changing.

A view of a current land use map of the coastal zone of Rhode
Island shows a prevalence of residential areas. 'Along the sourthern
coastal portions of the state, a great deal of space is also occu-
pied by usage classified as "recreation and conservation". This in-
cludes the Burlington State Park, the Ninigret Conservation Area,
and some 28 miles of sand beach, both public and private. Little
industrial land use is found in this area, and the extent of com-
mercial land use is moderate and generally interspersed among the
residential areas. Some Federal military use is also found, i.e.,
Charlestown Auxiliary Naval Air Station, but a high percentage of
the land is still classified as "vacant".

U-192

As one moves up into Narragansett Bay the percentage of "vacar-it"
land rapidly dwindles and land use patterns become more mixed. Fed-
eral military land use is high in the sourthern portion of the bay.
The Navy controls 31 miles or nearly 8 percent (106) of the total
shoreline. The havy also controls extensive portions of the south-
ern half of the bay waters. Commercial and industrial uses also
increase as one moves north into the bay until, in the Providence
area, they match residential use. Recreational uses are also signi-
ficiant in this highly urban area. These include several parks
(Goddard Memorial, Colt, and Haines Memorial), as well as several
fishing areas and beaches, both public and private.

Block Island has a large portion of vacant land. The rest of
its land use can be classified as residential with some commercial
land use devoted to the seasona-1 tourist industry.

Major Coastal Uses. Th_@ above pattern of physical, population,
and land use characteristics is reflected in the major coastal uses
of this area -- marine transi-ortation, waste disposal, commercia-1
fishing, and water-oriented recreation.

The waters of the Rhode Island coastal area are used for trans-
portation by five major groups: conariercia-I cargo carriers, naval
vessels, commuter carriers. coi,mercial fishing vessels, and recres-
tional boats. The extent. of this activity can be perceived from the
following facts.

0 The port of Providence -'s Lhe fourth largest in New England
and as such serves as a major distribution center for commodities
coming into the area. It handles some 9 million tons of cargo
annually (138).

* The i4avy uses its Narragansett Bay facilities as home port
for approximately 70 ocean going vessels as well as many smaller
craft.

0 In addition to the Naval ports and the major port of Provi-
dence, there are five state piers and several smaller ports in the
area, including Point Judith and Galilee.

0 There were 14,800 pleasure motor boats registered in the
state in 1969 (159). Although all of these boats may not have been
used in the coastal zone, the statistic serves to give some idea of
the volume of this activity. In addition, consideration must be
given to the number of boats not required to register and the num-
ber using these waters from out-of-state.

The full impact of this large amount of water traffic must be
seen in li&ht of the many secondary activities associated with it.
These activities include port cargo handling, marina development,
and channel dredging, to name but three. When viewed thus, it can

U-193

be seen that the volume and economic impact of transportation in
this area is indeed considerable.

As with most coastal waters, those of this region are used ex-
tensively.for waste disposal. Fortunately, in Narragansett Bay, the
tidal action enables the water body to assimilate a substantial por-
tion of this waste thus somewhat mitigating its polluting effects.
In the earlier analysis of the selected problem of water pollution,
Narragansett Bay was selected to illustrate the classic distribution
of wastes (Figure U-6) in a major estuar-,, -- poor water quality in
the poorly-flushed finger-like subestuaries especially below urban
centers and excellent quality in the open waters of the estuary pro-
per.

Aarragansett Bay receives the sewage wastes of about 90% of the
population of Rhode Island, some 150 million gallons per day (107).
Twenty percent of these wastes receive primary treatment, 70'/'01 re-
ceive secondary treatment, and 1% receive tertiary treatment. The
remainder of the wastes are not treated at all. A-long the southern
coast, some areas do not have central treatment facilities. In
this case the burden on the coastal waters is also increased by
leakage from septic tanks of many of the shore residences. In addi-
tion, no regulations now exist concerning waste disposal from boats.
Consequently, the large volume of water traffic discussed above also
dumps its untreated wastes into the coastal waters.

Commercial fishing is pursued throughout the coastal waters of
this region. The once large shellfishing industry has been sharply
curtailed in recent years. In part this is due to the mysterious
disappearance of the oyster. Another factor has been the restric-
tion placed upon the industry due to the polluted waters at the
head of the bay. however, as this segment of the industry has dec-
lined, the finfish catch has increased both in volume and value.
Thus the total catch in 1965, landed primarily at Point Judith,
amounted to 48.7 million pounds, valued at $4.6 million.

The forms of water-oriented recreation pursued in this region
include swimming, surfing, scuba-diving, boating, and fishing.
The beaches are found predominantly on the sourthern coast, on the
coast just north of Point Judith, and on Block Island. Only a
relatively small portion of the shoreline classed as beach (185
miles, Table U-15) is now being used for water-oriented recreation.
Where beaches are available for public use, attendance is high.
For example, the beaches in Narragansett Bay recorded over 1.7
million user-days in 1967 (107).

The statistics cited under water transportation give some idea
of the magnitude of the recreational boating activity in this area.
The coastal area, as of 196'9, contained some 26 yacht clubs, 25
yacht basins and harbors, 35 boatyards, and eight charter boat
enterprises (107). In addition to the resident boaters, yachtsTnen

U-194

from other states are attracted to this area. It has been estima-
ted that nearly 40@ of the boating time in these waters is devoted
to sport fishing.

Major Coastal Problems. Water pollution and coastal erosion
and tidal flooding are major problems in the Rhode Island coastal
zone. The pollution of the coastal waters is perceived locally to
be the single most important problem. The largest source of these
pollutants are municipal and industrial wastes, with sewage from
boats also being a contributor. The subterranean waters of the
area are also suffering from pollution by industrial wastes.

Economically, the pollution in this area has had a severe im-
pact on the shellfishing industry in Narragansett Bay. Even where
the resource is still available, the costs of harvesting it are in-
creased by the need to depurate it by treatment or transplant. In
addition, the existence of polluted waters has impacted on the
extent and desirability of recreational pursuits in the area. Al-
though much effort and money has been expended in the establish-
ment of waste treatment facilities, the problem is expected to be-
come more severe as growth outpaces facilities and other demands
upon the use of the waters increase. Pollution of underground
acquifers may become a significant problem as the need for addi-
tional water supplies is reached.

The "Report of the Governor's Committee on the Coastal Zone",
March 1970 (107), suggested a four pronged attack orl this problem
including encouragement of voluntary pre-treatment by firms and
sharing of treatment facilities with these firms by the municipali-
ties, increased attention to the siting of industrial establish-
ments with a view toward surrounding water quality, examination
and setting of water quality standards in areas with consideration
for activities occurring in the area, and the procurement of addi-
tional funds for the upgrading of sewage treatment facilities and
staffs. Pursuit of these four activities combined with stringent
enforcement of adopted standards will be necessary to deal signi-
ficantly with this problem.

The most critical erosion areas are located west of Narragan-
sett Bay, along Cliff Walk in Newport and on Block Island (1306).
Tidal flooding is a serious problem in Narragansett Bay. The
hurricane of 1938 killed about 250 people in Providence an 'd caused
property damage estimated at about $125 million. A recurrence of
this storm would cause an estimated $150 million in damages under
current conditions and about $200 million without the existing
hurricane barrier at Fox Point. This barrier which was completed
in 1966 cost $17 million and the proposed Lower Narragansett BaV
Barrier has an estimated 1970 cost of about $133 million (31).

A significant difficulty in this area, in terms of recreation,
is public access to the shoreline. Access is limited by the

U-195

extensive amount of land in private ownership as well as restric-
tions on parking in areas surrounding municipal beaches. Limited
state ownership of shoreline areas further restricts public a6c.ess;
the state owns only about 7 miles of the 340 mile shoreline. In
addition there is a lack of facilities for such activities as boat
launching.

In March, 1970, a major study by the state entitled Public-
Right-of-Way to the Shore (108) was published. The recommendations
resulting from this study included the further acquiring and devel-
oping of rights-of-way by the state, the obvious marking of those
areas to make them known, and the legal delineation of shoreline
property rights.

The conservation of the state's wetlands is a significant con-
cern of the people in Rhode Island. The state has less coastal wet-
lands than any state in the NAR, only a third as much as New
Hampshire and a seventh as much as Connecticut, the other two states
with little wetlands. Over the last decade and a half wetland
losses have been kept to an average of 10 acres a year. How this
loss compares with the normal expansion and contraction of wetlands
through natural cycles of climate, erosion and deposition has not
been determined.

Several conservation an-as are scattered throughout the coastal
zone. They include management areas, bird sanctuaries, and wild-
life preserves, both publicly and privately owned. The State of
Rhode Island is actively engaged in a plan of acquiring coastal
areas by purchase for the purpose of preservation, although some
of these areas may be used for passive-recreation. In addition,
regulations concerning the spoiling and destruction of wetlands
are being rigorously enforced.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Narragansett Bay provides an
almost ideal, close in, scenic, protected water body for recrea-
tional boating. There are about seven acres of Bay for every one
of the state's 15,000 registered boats. Although all boats would
never be on the Bay at once, the allocation of some parts of the
Bay for Navy use, the tendancy of boaters to cluster in preferred
locations, and rapidly increasing participation by the public all
point up the possibility of traffic congestion during peak periods
in the future.

A proposed solution to this "problem" is "water area zoning".
This is done now in areas of the Bay restricted for the sole use
of the Navy. Unless and until congestion became a real problem,
however, it is unlikely that there would be much support from
recreational boaters to restrictions on their traditional freedom
of the seas. Much more likely, for safety purposes, would be a
system of licensing and enforcement to provide some control on boat
operators and to emphasize basic knowledge concerning boat operations.

U-196

.Many different groups conservation, recreation, residential,
industrial and commercial see potentials for the state's coas-
tal areas in different lights. To provide a means for the judicious
allocation'of space to these various interests, the state considered
legislation in 1970 to establish a Coastal Zone Council. The Coun-
cil would develop and implement a coastal zone plan for the "preser-
vation, protection and development" of the state's coastal zone.
The legislation was defeated, but is is expected to be submitted in
a form which will increase its recognition of the viewpoint of coas-
tal communities in addition to the state as a whole.

U-197

AREAS 8 and 10

Area Characteristics. Areas 8 and 10 contain the Connecticut
coastline. It is very irregular with many bays, coves, and pro-
montories. Several small offshore islands dot its central and
western portions. Of the approximately 270 miles of shoreline,
some 145 miles are beaches, located primarily east of Norwalk harbor.
Many of these are narrow, normal tides approaching the backshore mak-
ing them inadequate as protective features or as recreational areas
without some modification. West of Norwalk Harbor, the coastline is
rockier.

Three main rivers drain this area. Proceeding from east to
west, these are the Thames, the Connecticut, and the Housatonic.
In addition, many smaller rivers also drain into Long Island Sound.
The principal of these is the Quinnipiac which, at its mouth, forms
part of New Haven Harbor.

In comparison with other areas of the state, the western portions
of the coastline are densely populated. Here are found the major
population centers of Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport, and New Haven.
This area is quite industrialized and the smaller communities serve
as "bedroom towns" for the metropolitan New York City area. The
area has a high per capita income with almost 30% of the population
earning over $10,000 per year according to the 1960 census (140).

Despite this population concentration, a large proportion of the
land is still considered "open space". There areas, however, are
predominantly in private ownership as part of large residential
tracts. Only two state parks are located in this area, Sherwood
Island State Park and Silver Sands State Park, and little of the
available beach area is open to the public. Commercial and indus-
trial land use predominates in Norwalk, Bridgeport, and New Haven.

At New Haven, the megalopolis concentration turns north, and
the coastal area becomes less heavily populated. Although it
possesses some industry, the area between the Quinnipiac and Thames
Rivers is primarily oriented toward the recreation and tourist in-
dustries. This emphasis is reflected in the increased population
concentration during the summer months, a large proportion of
which migrates from other areas of the state. In contrast, the area
surrounding the Thames estuary has 75% of its employment in the de-
fense industry. This coastal region also maintains an income higher
than the national average, as does the state as a whole.

From New Haven east, almost all the land is classified as
residential and open space. An exception is the New London area
where a significant portion of the land is federal owned or zoned
for industrial use. Three state parks are located in this portion
of the coast - Hammonasset, Rocky Neck, and Harkness Memorial.

U-198

However, as in the western portions, a large proportion of the land
is in private ownership. Indeed, statistics for the state as a
whole show that of the 270 miles of shoreline, 215 are in private
ownership, 50 in public ownership, and 5 miles in Federal hands
(136).

Major Coastal Uses. The same source cited above (136) gives a
breakdown of shoreline use which shows that 78% of the shoreline
is pre-empted by residential and private recreational use. This
leaves only 30 miles of shoreline for public recreational use and
the same amount for commercial and industrial use. This distribution
is reflected in the relative magnitude of the various activities
carried on in this area. Some of these, including recreation, trans-
portation and waste disposal, are briefly discussed below.

As noted above, marine oriented recreation is extensive in this
area. Two primary types of recreational activity are finfishing and
boating. Exact statistics on the extent of these activities are
difficult to obtain; however, it has been estimated that more than
1.5 million man-days of saltwater fishing were enjoyed in this
area in 1965 (152). The magnitude of the recreational boating
activity can be perceived from the 1970 Connecticut Marina and
Yacht Club Directory (29 ) which lists more than 130 marinas along
the coast having over 12,000 slips and moorings, and some 70 yacht-clubs.
In addition, the Coast Guard Boating Statistics for 1969 (159) reports
almost 50,000 power boats registered in the state.

Outside of recreational boating, other transportation activities
are found in this area. New Haven harbor, at the mouth of the
Quinnipiac River, ranks as the third largest port in New England in
terms of short tons handled. This volume was 11,297,138 tons in
1968 (138), a slight reduction from 1967 but a significant increase
over the preceding year. The principal commodities received were
petroleum products, as well as large amounts of scrap metal and coal.

Other substantial cargo handling facilities on the Connecticut
coast, in order of magnitude, are located at Bridgeport, New London,
Norwalk, and Stamford. The bulk of the material handled in Norwalk
is coal, but the other ports handle primarily petroleum products.
In all cases the major cargo handled consists of coastwise receipts.
In addition, ferry passenger services at Bridgeport and New London
connect with Long Island and off-shore islands primarily during the
summer.

As in most other coastal areas, the wetlands and waters of this
region have been the sites of many waste disposal activities. The
use of wetlands as dumps was cited as the most important of the
specific causes listed for the destruction of these areas in the
years 1954-1964 (154). In this period some 294 acres were thus de-
stroyea, primarily in the New Haven area.

U-199

The uses of the waters for liquid waste disposal is especially
apparent in the heavily populated sections of the coast west of New
Haven. This burden stems not only from coastal sources, but also
from the waters draining upland areas. This is particularly apparent
in the Bridgeport area where several streams draining into the area
are of "D" quality. West of New Haven most areas do not have central
sewerage facilities, and leachates from septic tanks cause some pro-
blems in coastal waters.

Although at one time a sizeable industry, the current commercial
extraction of the living resources of the Connecticut coastal zone
is a minor activity. In 1968 the entire industry employed only
about 400 people, and the total dollar value of the catch in 1969
was only $1.8 million (117). More than half of this catch is
accounted for by lobsters. The other landings include hard clams,
oysters, and a variety of finfish landed primarily at Stonington.
Included in the latter category are large amounts of flounder,
scup, and whiting. Not reflected in this itemization of landings
is the extent of the seed oyster market, located in the western
portion of the coast around Fairfield and Bridgeport. This segment
of the industry has also declined in recent years and its current
value is not available.

Major Coastal Problems. As was seen in Table U-18, the
major coastal problem confronting this region is recreation -- how
to satisfythe demand. Currently, most of the Connecticut coastline
is either in private ownership or restricted'public use as town
beaches. The need is for more state park facilities for recrea-
tional pursuits and more shorefront access points to help satisfy
the increasing demand for fishing and boating areas. A solution to
this problem must be found in increased purchase by the state to
open these areas up to wider utilization. Improved water quality
and beach replenishment activities would also upgrade the quality
of the recreational experience in this area.

A second problem of the coastal region is the preservation of a
rapidly dwindling supply of coastal wetlands. It has been estimated
that 21% of these areas were lost in the fifteen year period bet-
ween 1954 and 1968 (114). Although efforts are currently underway
to protect these areas, higher prioirty needs to be assigned these
activities to combat the rapidly increasing pressure for housing
developments in these areas.

Scattered along the Connecticut coast are approximately 25 miles
of shoreline which are subject to critical erosion. Although this
area is protected from the full effect of Atlantic storms by the
prescence of Long Island, the shore lacks natural resiliency. The
beaches are very narrow and offer little protection to the backshore
which consists of erodible unconsolidated materials. The sand moves
offshore to form bags and spits, and little is returned naturally to
the beach between storms because of the lack of beach building swells
(136).

U-200

Tidal flooding is a significant problem along the Connecticut
coast although probably not as bad as in adjacent Rhode Island and
New York. A recurrence of the tidal flood of record would produce
damages of about $66 million. Hurricane protective structures have
been provided at Pawcatuck, Stamford, Mystic and Westport. They
would prevent an additional $12 million in damages and a funded
project at New London would prevent an additional $4 million in
damages. A variety of structural and non-structural devices to
mitigate these damages have been studied by the U. S. Army Corps
of Engineers.

Although not currently a difficulty, thermal effects are likely
to become a major concern for this area in the near future. Several
power plants now exist in this coastal area, primarily west of the
Connecticut River, and indications are that others will be similarly
situated to take advantage of a bountiful supply of cooling water
as the demands for electrical power increase.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Besides being the major problem
in the Connecticut coastal zone, recreation also offers the biggest
potential for this area.

The key point with regard to Long Island Sound is that although
it does not offer the spectacular recreational pursuits of areas
like lower Cape Cod, it is in close proximity to a large population
and can thus provide a satisfactory recreational experience to many.
It is this perhaps lower quality'but much more available recreation
potential which must be emphasized.

The protected waters of the Sound-after the potential for a
wider range of boating activities than'are found in other more
exposed coastal areas. The extensive marinas already existent
along this area bear witness to this fact. However, an increase
in publicly owned launching sites would allow for greater utili-
zation by smaller craft. This would particularly impact upon the
"day fishing trip" uses of these waters.

Another potential for both recreational and commercial interests
lies in the revitalization of the shellfish stocks all along the
coast, but particularly in the western areas. These species
have in the past been severely reduced by pollution and the destruc-
tion of nutrient areas. Even where stocks now exist, health re-
quirements prevent their harvesting. Some study should be directed
toward the feasibility of constructing a depuration plant to increase
immediate yields.

Two other potential developments in this area need to be men-
tioned. The first deals with the proposed bridge from Long Island
to Connecticut, a bypass to the New York City area. Although
likely to be of great benefit to Long Island, no positive values are
likely to accrue to this coastal area from such a structure. In

U-201

fact, removal of shoreline areas, the increased traffic, and the
impact upon the ecology of near shore waters will only serve to
further deteriorate an already stressed area.

The second potential development concerns proposals for the
placement of an off-shore airport facility in Long Island Sound.
The shoal area that has often been mentioned for this undertaking
lies off the mouth of the Connect-icut River. Careful review will
be necessary to determine whether the deletorious affects which are
likely to accrue to other activities in the area, such as recreation,
are worth such an undertaking.

U-202

SUBREGION C

This subregion consists of the coastal zone of New York State.
For treatment it has been divided into two sectors. The first is
Westchester,'Nassau and Suffolk Counties, the last two comprising
most of the land area of Long Island. The second sector consists of
New York City with its boroughs of Queens and Kings on Long Island,
Richmond on Staten Island, Manhattan on Manhattan Island and the
Bronx on the mainland.

Each of these two coastal sectors is considered herein in terms
of its area characteristics, major coastal uses, major coastal pro-
blems,- and major prospects and potentials.

Table U-19 summarizes some broad judgments as to the relative
importance of the selected problems in this subregion.

TABLE U-19

PROBLEM PROFILE IN SUBREGION C

Highly significant Living resources Conservation of wetlands Non-living resources Water pollution Thermal effects Solid wastes disposal recreation marine transportation coastal erosion and tidal flooding
Significant
Relatively insignificant

Area 13 (Nassau Suffolk & Westchester Counties)

Area 12 & 13 (New York city and Hudson River)

U-203

AREA 13 (NASSAU, SUFFOLK AND WESTCHESTER COUNTIES)

Area Characteristics. This section focuses principally on the
coastal areas of Nassau-Suffolk counties on Long Island. The coast
of Westchester County along Long Island Sound is also included from
a coastal perspective; it has much in common with the Nassau County
coast from which it is separated by a narrow 3-6 mile reach of Long
Island Sound. Because of Long Island's much larger size and unified
data base, most of the following comments will cite Long Island with-
out constant adjustment for the Westchester coastal appendage. Com-
ments on the North Shore in Nassau County can generally be assumed to
apply substantially to this Westchester coastline except for local
adaptations below the scope of this broad overview.

The Nassau-Suffolk area can be thought of as a 1,200-square mile,
20-mile wide peninsula extending 100 miles into the sea with an
exposed Atlantic-oriented flank on the south and a semi-protected
Sound-oriented flank on the North. The bi-county coastline is over
500 miles long. The island marks the southernmost limits of the Ice
Age. Its 2000-foot thick deposit of granular soils, its vertical
drainage, its 300-foot North Shore morains and its gentle slope south-
ward all are products of the retreating glaciers.

Physically, the North Shore is closely related to nearby Conn-
ecticut by Long Island Sound, a common resource. The Westchester
coast and the western half of the Long Island coast are very irreg-
ular, with numerous deep bays and promentories. Eastward the coast
becomes very regular with very few indentations. Along the entire
North Shore, beaches are generally narrow and rocky or pebbly. They
usually front high bluffs or small marshes. Except at the heads of
embayments, large wetlands are uncommon. Along the Sound, beaches
make up 8 of the 42 miles of coast in Westchester County, 5 of 18
in Nassau County and 75 of 87 in Suffolk County.

The East Shore, with 168 miles of shoreline between Orient and
Montauk Points,.is almost all beaches. Many of them are gravelly
and very narrow. They front low bluffs on the north fork and glacial
headlands up to 240 feet high on the south fork. Wetlands are com-
mon, particularly along the westernmost part of this shoreline.

The 108-mile South Shore consists of long 1/4-1/2 mile wide,
sandy barrier beaches facing a strong Atlantic surf. Behind these
barrier beaches, for almost the entire South Shore, are long, shallow,
guiet backbays. The most prominent of these are Great South Bay,
Moriches Bay, Skinnecock Bay and Mecox Bay. Unlike the salinity in
the backbays of Virginia and the South Atlantic coast, salinity here
is somewhat lower than in the nearby ocean.

Although physically the North Shore of Long Island may be
closely related to nearby New England, from a socio-economic view-
point all of Long Island is oriented toward New York City to the

U-204

west. Population densities decrease in almost direct proportion to
distance from the City. The essentially residential character of the
Island's development reflects its surburban relationship to the City.
Except for a few summer-operated ferries and a low volume of air
traffic, the Island is socially and economically isolated from New
England. Almost all transporation points toward New York City. As
implied earlier, the screening effect of time-distance from New York
City is very evident. The farther out on'the island one goes, the
more open is the terrain and natural aesthetic features become more
prominent. This pressure of population spreading outward from the
City, combined with major recent improvements in transporation, have
made Westchester, Nassau and Suffolk Counties among the fastest grow-
ing counties in the nation. For example, in 1940 the Nassau-Suffolk
population was less than 5% of the 12 1/2 million living in the New
York region. By 1985 these two counties are expected to have about
15% of a 22-million population (72). How to accommodate this rapidly
expanding population, and still preserve or enhance the environmental
Amenities for residents and the increasing number of day visitors
from the metropolis is perhaps the central problem for long range
planning in the Nassau-Suffolk-Westchester Counties. Put more sim-
ply: Given that the area will primarily be a place to live, how can
it be made and kept a very nice place to live? As will be seen, the
areals coastal zone can play an important role in answering this
question.

Major Coastal Uses. The commercial fish catch here has fluctua-
ted widely over recent years, as it has in most coastal areas. The
fluctuations are especially prominent on a species by species basis.
In 1968 the dockside value of the commercial catch was $14.3 million
(156). More than three-quarters of this total was represented by
shellfish. Hard clams, almost all of which came from Great South
Bay, accounted for about two-thirds of this value with the next most
commercially significant species, sea scallops and Northern lobsters,
trailing far behind. Among the finfish the most valuable species
were the scup, yellowtail flounder, and fluke, but none of these
species had a value even close to any of the three shellfish species
mentioned.

The most important non-living resources, by far, are fresh water
and sand. Like most islands with granular soils, Long Island has a
very large lens of underground freshwater, with a defined freshwater-
saltwater interface which advances and retreats with variations in
precipitation and extraction. The aquifer is one of Long Island's
most important natural resources. Currently, it supplies all of the
fresh water in the bi-county area but in view of increased require-
ments estimated in the future some major problems, considered later
can be foreseen.

To meet requirements in the market area, Long Island's production
of sand and gravel has recently averaged about 14 million short tons
annually (88). Most of this is sand, which is plentiful on Long

U-205

Island. Most of the gravel needs are met by imports. The problem
on Long Island is to extract the sand in an environmentally accept-
able way. Many towns no longer permit sand mining. The difficulty
should be resolvable if the excavator is required to restore the
site in a defined way, compatible with approved long-range land use
plans, and post bond as assurance that he will do so. Important as
the environmental impacts might be, however, this problem is not
basically a coastal one. In this sand-surplus region, little sand
and gravel is currently extracted offshore and the practice will
probably not become competitive with land-based extraction in the
future, except possibly for beach nourishment.

The disposal of the sector's water-borne and thermal wastes is
greatly simplified by the assimilative capacity of the ocean and
Sound. However, this assimilative capacity is far from infinite and
some problems related to this fact are discussed later. Solid waste
disposal is a problem as it is in all densely populated areas, but
unlike the situation in the New York City area, its disposal in the
bi-county area is not now, or expected to become, primarily a signi-
ficant marine or coastal problem.

Probably the most significant use of the sector's coast is for
human enjoyment in the form of outdoor recreation and aesthetic sat-
isfaction. The long oceanfront beaches, especially, are ideal for
most forms of beach and water-contact recreation. Where the ocean-
front is made reasonably accessible and adequate facilities are pro-
vided, the public response has been great. For example, Jones
Beach accommodated about 13 million visitors in 1969 (136).

The sector's coastal waters can satisfy a complete spectrum of
boating needs. For the shallow-draft craft such as rowboats, motor-
boats, and small sailboats, the South Shore bays have a special
appeal. The deeper-draft, hardier, marina-based craft such as cabin
cruisers and most sailboats prefer the deeper, broader, but semi-
protected waters of the Sound and East Coast. On calm days, the
larger recreational craft from the North Shore and Connecticut visit
each other's shorelines to fish and put ashore. Some problems re-
quiring interstate coordination arise because of differences in the
two states' regulations on fisheries and vessel-pollution control.

Sports fishing is closely related to boating and is most prom-
inent along the East Coast. In addition to its recreational as-
pects, it has a commercial value probably greater than its commer-
cial fishing counterpart.

All of the coasts provide seasonal aesthetic relief from the
metropolitan areas where the people work and the residential areas
where they live. On the South Shore, fresh salt air, cooling bree-
zes, and glimpses of the ocean and nearby undisturbed expanses of
wetlands provide a multi-dimensional appeal. The North Shore with
its many high promentories emphasizes visual appeal, enhanced by

u-206

its many coves and the flotilla of sails which speckle the waters dur-
ing the summer. The East Coast, more than any of the others, has
managed to tailor its development to conform aesthetically to its
marine environment. Much of its quaint charm sterrLs from its archi-
tecture and numerous boat landings which transmit the tang of the
sea to the beholder.

In contrast to nearby 1-Jew York and Connecticut, the liassau-Suffolk-
@Iestciiester area has really no major ports. Of about 12 million short
tons handled in this area in 1968, most was accommodated at hempstet-jd
harbor (5 million), Port Jefferson (2 million), and Port Chester-
@-Iestcliester Creek (2 million)(138). The receipt of petroleum products
and the shipment of sand accounteu, for almost all of the total. Es-
sentialiy, all the tonnage is accommodated on the North Shore. Long
Island Sound provides a protected waterway primarily for the movement
of refined petroleum products from northern hew Jersey to the southern
klew England ports. Car ferries at Port Jefferson and Orient Point
move a low volume of traffic to Connecticut, and this is only during
the summer months. Several ferries link Fire Island, Plum Island,
and Shelter Island to Long Island. A few of them rwi all year around.

Defense estalilishments are of very minor importance to the sec-
tor's coistal zone.

Land use in the coastal zone is intimately related to all other
uses. Especially in the southwestern corner of the bi-county area,
the demand for residential land's has put increasing pressure on the
easy-to-fill wetlands, but in recent years, this use has been in-
creasingly arrested. For the iiassau-Suffolk area, as a whole, about
62/'0' of the land and water surface may be conz-idered broadly as open
space and 38@o, broadly, as developed. Within the open-space category@
are vacant (3110, water (14/00), agricultural (80/01), and recre-tional
(D@)- Within the developed category are residential (21% overall,
45@j in flassau County), roadways Mo), institutions (4/'0), transporta-
tion, utilities, and communication (3%), commercial (1%) (72). Cur-
rent shoreline ownership patterns are reflected in Table U-20.

Major Coastal Problems. As indicated in Table U-19, of the nine
major coastal problems selected for special analysis in this appen-
dix, six can be considered as highly significant in this seAor.
These problems, listed in the same order as they were analyzed, are
conservation of wetlands, water pollution, thermal effects, recrea-
tion, and coastal erosion and tidal flooding.

Conservation of wetlands was analyzed as a selected problem
earlier. The advantages of preserving and preferably enhancing wet-
lands for their nutrient, habitat and aesthetic-values was covered.
During the period 1954-1964 Aassau and Suffolk Countiez@ lost 8,200
acres of marshiand, 24,0' of their 1953 total-, to landfill. Most of
the fill was for residential development and dredging spoil disposal
(112). The pressure for increased filling is reflected in the market

U-207

TABLE U-20

SHORELINE OWNERSHIP PATTERN

Ownership Pattern -- in miles l/

Non-Federal
Reach Federal Public Private Total

Sound Shore of Westchester County 9 32 41

iSouth Shore Oceanfront 14 36 58 108
L

i
ISouth Shore embayments 2/ 15 67 90 172

ast S ore 4 40 124 168

North Shore of Suffolk County 16 71 87

North Shore of Nassau County 4 12 16

OTAL - miles 33 172 387 592

I/ Shoreline length varies with the detail with which coastal con-
figurations are measured. The lengths used here are taken from
(136).

2/ Does not include embayments in the Town of Hempstead or east of
Shineecock Bay.

value for filled coastal land, about $5,000 to $15,000 an acre. To
counter these pressures increased governmental awareness at all
levels from the community to the Federal government is required and
is apparently emerging. As pointed out earlier in the special
analysis of marine transporation, there are numerous alternative
ways of disposing to dredging spoil without destroying wetlands.
These alternatives include the improvement and creation of wetlands,
if that is desired,, or disposal at sea.

The water pollution problem here is intimately related to water
supply and coastal water quality standards. Considerable relevant
information is presented in Appendix D - Geology and Ground Water,
in Appendix L - Water Quality and Pollution, and in references cited
therein. A number of options or combination of options must be con-
sidered in developing the bi-county strategy for water supply and

U-208

liquid waste disposal for the future. With respect to water supply,
options include impqX;@ng water through New York City, reuse of water,
replenishing the aquifer-, and possibly,desalinization of sea water,
With respect to waste water disposal, options include minimal treat-
ment and disposal by ocean outfall; greatly improved treatment and
disposal to surface stream ; various degrees of treatment and in-
jections into one of the aquifers; and land disposai methods which
conceive of the waste materials as nutrients and the soil as a liv-
ing filter that improves water quality by natural processes before
the water leaches into the aquifer or is consumed by evapo-transpi-
ration. Whatever strategy is adopted, it is clear that the inter-
relationship between water supply and waste water disposal must be
thoroughly considered.

From a uniquely coastal point of view, the strategy must take
into account the coastal water quality standards and salinity con-
centrations in the South Shore bays. These concentrations are in-
fluenced by underground seepage of fresh water. Unusual changes
might affect marine life which is sensitive to salinity concentra-
tions. However, the hard clam which is currently the most valuable
species in the Great South Bay requires a rather high salinity
(27.5 ppt for spawning) not far below that of seawater.

It is apparent that the disposal of wastewater on Long Island
requires careful consideration of numerous factors, included in
which are the maintenance of coastal water quality standards and
marine life.

Thermal effects in coastal waters were analyzed earlier as a
selected problem. An 820 megewatt neclear power plant, Long
Island's first, is being considered at Shoreham, halfway out on the
island on the North Shore. Although the assimilative capacity of
Long Island Sound appears ample, considerable concern has been ex-
pressed especially regarding the local effects on marine life.
Currently, an experiment is underway at Northport to evaluate the
possibility of thermal discharges from the fossil fuel plant there,
benefiting marine life in the vicinity. In light of the predicted
many-fold increase of the use of the North Shore for this purpose,
it is important that the possible environmental effects, harmful
or beneficial, be examined carefully. Depending upon the results
of these evaluations, a wide variety of alternatives exist as
suggested in earlier special analyses. Whatever ameliorating al-
ternatives are employed, however, it-seems likely that thermal
energy can better be dissipated along the North Shore than-almost
any place else in the general vicinity.

The recreation problem here is how best to accommodate the out-
door water-based recreational and aesthetic needs of a rapidly grow-
ing population. Problems in meeting this demand include the sea-
sonal disuse of the resources (about three-quarters of the year),

u-209

r beach qui e t -'Shore', E@L� Shbre
ih6 inf eri6 ality'of@&66t of tfi ' N6r@'fi@ t
afid'backbay-'cio'dstline, the'deiiiie' to provi&@b6fh high ai4'16'w'-'
density beach recre'ation,:'and some limitations of access.

Almost all of Long Island's Atlantic and Sound shorefront is
classified as beach, but the quality of the South Shore beaches is
much higher, at least as indicated by-patronage. For the western-
two-thirds of the Island, the ocean beaches are publically' owned.
Access there is unlimited except for about 20 miles 'of Fire Island
where access is difficult (only by no-car ferries), helping to pre-
serve its low density appeal. As one moves farther eastward,
oceanfront ownership becomes increasingly private. Along the North
Shore most of the coast is privately owned. Sunken Meadow and Wild-
wood State Parks offer excellent facilities for bathing-and general
recreation. In-addition, there are several smaller public beaches-
along this coast owned by towns or villages. Some long-range :
thoughts on how these problems might be met are presented later.in
this section under Prospects and Potentials.

Coastal erosion and tidal flooding were analyzed earlier as a
selected problem. In this sector, erosion is considered critical
on most of the South, East and North Shores (136). It is minor on
the Westchester and backbay shorelines. Along the Atlantic, the
shoreline has moved significantly over,the past century and a half.
The tip of Fire Island has swung alternatively seaward and shore-
ward a half mile. Because of hurricanes, storms and a southwest--@
ward littoral drift, which moves 600,000 cubic yards annually by
Fire Island inlet (136) the ocean shoreline has been eroding in
recent years at an average rate of about 3-10 feet a year. On the
North Shore the rate has been slower, about 1-2 feet a year for the
last century. Current corrective measures include'p6riodic beach
renourishment on the South Shore and protection of the bases of
eroding bluffs on the East and North shores by building up a small
protective beach or, if that is not feasible, by armoring methods
using riprap or bulkheads.

In terms of 1970 dollars, the recurrence of the tidal flood of
record, the 1938 hurricane, would inflict an estimated $170 million
damage on the South Shore and about $2 million damage on the other
shores in this sector.

A significant living resource problem here is general to almost
every-coastal area in-the NAR: to identify the causes of the star-:-
tling annual and longer range fluctuations in fish populations.
Contributing factors have been suggested in an unknown order of sig-
nificance, as overfishing, water temperature changes, pollution, wet-
.lands destruction, and predatory relationshipst including disease.
It is easy, in the laboratory or in the field, to demonstrate the
impact of these casual factors in extreme cases. Thus far, however,
their incremental effects, individually or collectively, are unknown,

U-210

at least,to the degree that a systemati.c.fishery improvement program
can be confidently based upon them. For example, as late as.1950,
-,the Long Island oyster harvest had an annual value of about $10
million. Today this value is only about 2-3% of that. Despite con-
siderable research, major restorative measures have not been discov-
ered.

One fact is clear, however, about 7-10% of the island's shell-
fish areas are currently closed to shellfishing for public health
reasons due to bacterial contamination from domestic and duck wastes
(112). Shellfish continue to grow and even thrive in these areas.
By transplanting or depuration in accordance with established pro-
cedures, clams and oysters could, in many cases, be harvested for
human consumption. Under current technology, the additional costs
usually make these operations uneconomical. Nevertheless, it might
often be far less costly to the community to subsidize the trans-
planting or depuration even 100% than it would be to pay the addi-
tional cost of maintaining salt water quality at.its highest use
classification (required for shellfish harvesting) instead of
accepting the next lower level (required for bathing).

Another living-resources problem is caused by eelgrass. To the
boater and shorefront user it is a nuisance which should be era-
dicated by any economically-feasible means because it closes small
craft channels, fouls propellers and creates a stench when it dies,
piles up and decays on the shore. To the commercial and sports
fisherman and to the hunter, however, it is a valuable source of
nutrient to fish and wildlife. A solution may lie in its balanced
control--preserving or enhancing it in some selected areas and eli-
minating or minimizing it in others.

.-Transportation presents several significant problems. The
availability of 80-foot deep, semi-protected water within a few
Eu,ndred yards of shore at places along the North Shore in the vici-
nity of Riverhead prompted a proposal that a major offshore tanker
offloading facility be developed there. The facility would meet
broad regional needs discussed earlier under the selected problem
on marine transportation. The proposal elicited vigorous public
objection, as much from nearby Connecticut as from Long Island.
The physical advantages of the site have been generally acknowled-
ged, but the possible aesthetic and environmental disadvantages
currently appear incompatible, to most, with the objective of
improving the environmental quality of Long Island as a good place
to live.

,There are several other possible transporation problems of in-
direct but important marine interest.

U-211

0 ve@i
One- tdI4tes to proposaU for connecting the cential 'o e
easte rn part of Long Island"t o New England Iby a trans-S .ouh& br idk@.
Such a bridge would break the isolation now a .pparently prekerred`t@y
most of the residents of the easternmost part of the island and
sharply split its socio-economic orientation between New York City
and New England.

.0 Another proposal aimed at resolving New York City's cri-
tical airport problem is to locate an airport on an island to be'.
created in the western part of the Sound along the route of one`bf
the bridges proposed here. Many environmental and economic objec-
Lions have been raised.

0 Lastly, with the.-opening of the Long Island Expressway to
Riverhead,, Peconic Bay is about three hours unbroken drive from.':
New York City'. Like most step improvements in 'accessibility, the,'
Expressway is viewed as a mixed blessing. It does offer increased'
opportunity to enjoy Long Island. To those already able to enjoy
the Island, it can be seen as an encroachment on the quality of
their experience. To all, it reinforces the need for careful
short-term and long-range planning.
The multiplicity and magnitude of these coastal problems, the'.
public nature of the values involved, significant cost of solutions,
the large population which will be influenced by these solution's'' ,and
the many interrelationships between coastal and non-coastal cdncer@is-
point up the special need for comprehensive coordinated planning.
To meet this need., the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning)Bdard has
formed a Marine Resources Council. The Council is partway through
a six-step program of identifying and describing the problems,,'
determining the knowledge required to resolve these problems, eval-
uating the adequacy of what knowledge exists, developing and imple-
menting a data collection and research program to fill the gaps.'amd
developing a management information system to facilitate plannin''.1nd
decision making (42).

. W Major PrftRects and Potentials. A number of prospects and
potentials are implicit in the previous comments-improve the.
fishery, improve water quality, capitalize on the capacity to
assimilate thermal discharges, etc. However, only one will be
selected here for emphasis. It is the prospect for planning and`@''
using the area's long and diversified coastline to make the Island
an increasingly appealing place to live, notwithstanding the in-
creased population and urban day visitors it will have to support.

This prospect was singled out because it most closly correla-
Les with what seems increasingly to be the Island's major long-r"ge
strategic contribution to the region as a whole--not primarily as a
source of fish, crops, minerals, power, or transporation or indus-
try--but as residential space for wage earners who work in the

U-212

metropolitan area of New York. To improve-the area's p@rformance
in fulfilling this "missionP it priority attention might be given to
the area's-quality of life..

The coastal resource is usually-described as limited. However
much might be done to improve each of Long Island's five coasts--
the ocean-coast, the two coasts of the backbays, the Sound coast
and the eastern coast. Along the ocean there is ample space to
repeat the Jones Beach type project many times to satisfy mass
recreational needs. Of course, vehicular access would have to
match the development. For those willing to sacrifice some of the
unique experiences in ocean bathing, portions of the backbay
coasts could be developed. A good example is Zack's Bay behind
Jones Beach. The backbays themselves might be more fully developed
as a good safe place to sail shallow-draft boats. For example,
public launching areas with attendant facilities could cater to
car-towed motor boats and small sail boats.

The quality of the North Shore beaches might be-improved by
dredged sand. More and better marinas and boat basins could cater
to the larger craft which would sail on the Sound. More of the
numerous bluffs overlooking the Sound could be made more acces-
sible to the public.

All of these things require time and money. They must under-
standably compete against other worthy public needs. But if the
priority is given it does seem that, for increasing human enjoy-
ment, the coastal zone of this area has indeed numerous prospects
and potential.

U-213

AREAS 12 AND 13 (NEW -YORK CITY)

Area Characteristics. In Area 12, this sector consists of the
Hudson Estuary. In Area 13 this sector consists of New York City
and that part'of Westchester County'which borders the Hudson River.
The part of Westchester County bordering Long Island Sound was'
considered in the preceding area summary along with Nassau and
Suffolk Counties on Long Island.

The long Hudson Estuary exhibits significant salinity to the
vicinity of Poughkeepsie and tidal influences extend as far north
as Troy. The estuary is known for its aesthetic appeal. Behind
a few narrow strips of sand, marsh and railroad track hugging the
shoreline, the land rises sharply and falls away inland into
rolling forested highlands. Scenic overlooks, large estates and
historic and cultural landmarks abound.

The steep cliffs of the Palisades across from upper Manhattan
mark a transition into the busy urban atmosphere. Much of the
290-mile shorefront is lined with piers, wharfs, and docks along
the Harbor's bays and rivers. Behind the waterfront, urban struc-
tures dominate the view and symbolize the vigor of the commercial
and industrial activity there. Numerous bridges, tunnels and air-
ports give evidence to the intensity of flow of people and materi-
als.

Oceanward of the Veirrazarto Bridge which marks the harbor en-
trance, the 28 miles of oceanfront is all beach. Ownership is 19
miles public, 8 miles private and 1 mile Federal (136.). ;A-net
westward movement of sand along the barrier beaches of southern
Long Island necessitates repeated dredging to maintain channels to
New York Harbor.

There are a-few undeveloped areas on the shore of New York City
that approximate a natural condition. The extensive tidal marsh of
Jamaica Bay shelters migrating waterfowl and small marine life,
ringed as it is by major airports, and city beaches, parks and open
space, and urban development. The waters of the East River, Harlem
River and the Lower Hudson are essentially unproductive of marine
life because of the commercial development along the shores and be-
cause of the waste load of contaminants they carry. Migratory fish
do pass through the Lower Hudson to reach spawning grounds'and
nursery grounds in Haverstraw Bay, above the New Jersey line.

The population and economic data for the New York area read as
a familiar litany of superlatives. In 1960, 8.6 million persons
residing in New York City represented roughly one-fifth of the
population of the NAR study area, with a density of 24,783 persons
per square mile. This does not allow for the numbers that daily
commute into the city. Population density in Westchester County
was at 1,86G per square mile in 1960. (Appendix B - Economic Base).

U-214

Population-growth to the year 2020 is expected to lag the
national growth rate at 80%. Per capita income was a substantial
25% above tne national average, but this figure masks the extreme
.cases of poverty that have historically constituted part of the
New York demographic makeup.

New York City is a regional, national and international center
of trade. One-fourth of the nation's import-export volume passes
through docks of the Port of'New York including its New Jersey
part. One-fourth of the nation's wholesale trade is conducted in
New York, much of which is associated with the port. The city is
a leading center of banKing and financing of industrial and com-
mercial enterprises. Manufacturing in the city is concentrated
in apparel, printing and publishing.

also concentrated in the city are cultural, communications,
governmental and educational institutions and facilities.

Employment in 196O for the five boroughs and Westchester Coun-
ty was proportioned 28% in manufacturing 67% in services and 4% in
contract construction. By 2020, the largest increase in employment
expansion is expected to occur in service industries at the expense
of the manufacturing sector.

Major Coastal Uses. The Port of New York, which includes New
York City and the adjacent parts of New Jersey, is the largest port
complex in the United States. It handles three times the tonnage
of all West Coast ports combined. Within the North Atlantic Region
it handles twice the tonnage of the next largest port system, the
ports along the Delaware Estuary. Within the Port of New York,
however, the annual growth rate of the hew York City share has
dropped over the period 1955 to 1968 to only 0.4% annually. Be-
cause of the relative advantages of the New Jersey ports for ac-
commodating containerized freights and bulk products, future growth
will most liKely occur on that side. Waterborne commerce between
Albany and New York City is declining at an accelerating rate.
It consists of fuel and construction materials. Passenger pleasure
cruises traffic in New York ports nad dwindled; pleasure cruises
.,now commonly originate at southern ports for Carribean cruises.
_(See the earlier analysis of the selected problem of marine trans-
portation and Appendix Navigation).

Coastal waters of the area are heavily used to dispose of
liquid sanitary wastes, solid wastes and waste heat from industrial
cooling water discharges. Many state and Federal agencies and the
Interstate Sanitation Commission are involved in controlling and
reducing wastewater discharges. The water, offshore of the area
are used as repositories for certain solid wastes generated in Dew
.York harbor such as incinerator residue, sewage sludge, dredged
spoils, flyash and construction rubble totalling 9.6 million tons
in 1968 (45). Several large thermoelectric generating stations
located in New York City use the coastal waters for condenser cooling.

u-215

Land use in Aew York. harbor and along the lower.-Hudson River is
predomi.iately commercial and industrial whereas along the ocean
front of i4ew York City the predondnant shoreline uses are residen-
tial ana recreational. Arinuai attendance at beaches in iiew York
City in recent years exceeds 30 million, even though water quality
for swimming has been marginal at times. Staten Island beaches
draw about one rjdllion annually, Coney Island about 10 million and
the Eockaway beaches about 20 million.

14ajor Coastal Problems. bolid waste disposal is becoming a
critical problem in this area. iiew York Gity and Westchester Coun-
ty nave for some years now relied on landfill for disposing of
muiiicipal trash and garbage. The capacity at present landfill
sites is expected to be depleted within the next four to seven
years (51). Additional landfill sites on the coastline are not
politically feasible. Additional conventional incineration facili-
ties are ruled out because of air pollution and prohibitive costs
of controlling the emission of pollutants. 'Lwo solutions that
hold promise for New York City are compaction-railhaul-landfill for
disposal in outlying counties, and compaction-baling-coating for
dumping offshore onto the continental shelf, posi;ibly in conjunc-
tion with some degree of material separation and recycling..

it remains to be determined wliat effects ocean dumping may have
on marine ecology. Other forms of solid wastes mostly chemicals
-and sludges are-already being dumped at desiL;nated areas offshore
wider permits from the Supervisor of i4ew York harbor, U.S. Army
Corps of hiigineers. Concern raised over the impact of offshore
dumping has prompted several studies.

ROttilig tiLibers from abandoned piers have created a nuisance
to navigation and have littered the shoreline. The Corps has pro-
posed a program for eliminating this nuisance by removing the
debris from the shores and waters of the Port of Jew York.

,.knotLLer major coastal resource problem in this area is the de-
teriorati ng recreational value of the shoreline and waterfront.
Recreational fishing and swimming on otherwise suitable shores are
discouraged uecause of microuial pollutants, and discoloration.-and
odors from chemical pollutants. The southern shoreline of Staten
island and brooklyn south of the Aarrows are the principal areas
of concern. iuiother fona of pollution impairing recreational value
is the littering and cluttering of the shore by junk oil,, aban-
doned cars and rotting timbers from disintegrating waterfront
structures. The recreational plan for i4ew York cites the need for
new beach front devel,-.pment to relieve congestion at existing faci-
lities on Long Island. 'Zhe Tri-State Regional Planning Commission
recommends priority action.in the older central areas and thatipor-
tion of the unmet needs in these areas be transferred to sites in
mid-distance counties with special transporation (rail, bus) to
make tnese sites more accessible.

U-216

The problem of coastal erosion and flooding is especially signi-
ficant in this area. This heavily used ocean front has been reli-
ably surveyed for nearly 150 years. The historical pattern has been
one of great change with alternating periods of erosion and accre-
tion of up to 7 feet per year in places. Extensive groins have pro-
duced a relative period of stabilization in recent years. The lit-
toral drift transports sand generally southwestward at a rate of
300,000 to 600,000 cubic yards passing a given point in a year
(136).

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has estimated that if the de-
sign hurricane should strike New York Harbor, it would cause, in
1958 dollars, about $2.5 billion in direct damages and a similar
amount in indirect damages. About 60% of this damage would occur
in the New York City parts (Area 13) of the Harbor and about 40%
in the New Jersey part of the Harbor (Area 14). No plan could pre-
vent all these damages, but the potential for very great benefits is
evident and is now being studied. Just the provision of emergency
plans for excavating and protecting the New York City subway system
from inundation and a disastrous loss of life could produce truly
tremendous benefits someday.

As indicated at length in the earlier analysis of the selected
problem of marine transportation, the rapid evolution towards eco-
nomical,- very deep-draft tankers and dry-bulk carriers presents
special problems to the Port of New York, part of which is located
in Area 13. The inadequate depths of existing channels, the prob-
ably prohibitive costs of deepening the channels substantially,
possible environmental effects, social problems related to possible
dislocations of industrial bases closer to a future deep-water
facility, and other intraregional implications -- all point to the
need of a cooperative study involving Federal agencies and the af-
fected port authorities to work out a long-range solution.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Solutions to the upgrading of
the quality of coastal waters involve large capital outlays for
sewage collection and treatment facilities for industrial as well
as domestic sources. The capital costs for sewage collection and
treatment facilities as projected to the year 2000 by the Tri-State
Transportation Commission amount to 6.4 billion dollars for the
whole Tri-State region (122). Information on the improved water
quality expected was considered earlier under the analysis of the
selected problem of water pollution. In New York City, the highest
priorities for upgrading water quality have been assigned to
Jamaica Bay, Coney Island-Brighton Beach, the Upper East River, and
the adjacent portion of Long Island Sound, and Raritan Bay off
Staten Island. As piers and wharves are abandoned awaiting re-
development, the problem of floating and beached debris can be ex-
pected to become more severe. However, with the growing need for
commercial and residential floor space, redevelopment of phased-
out waterfront should accelerate. Already plans for redeveloping

U-217

the waterfront of Lower Manhattan have been proposed whereby land-
fill behind ihe bulkhead line wi .11 provide office and resident.ial
land with an assessed valuation approaching $2 billion, or'about
$3-5 million an acre (101).

The Gateway National Recreational Area is an innovative pro-
posal to expand the recreation potential of Lower Rew York Bay.
The Area would develop a number of existin g state and Federal coas-
tal holdings for various forms of recreational activities -- swim-
ming, boating, viewing, environmental education and connect
these parks with some form of water-based transporation (144).

The use of coastal waters of New York City for dissipating
waste heat from power plants will not likely increase in the future
for several reasons. Air pollution, adverse thermal effects, and
competing uses of land may prompt future power plants to be built
in less urbanized areas. This was discussed earlier in more detail
in the analysis of the selected problem of thermal effects.

In summary, the New York City area will accommodate increased
economic development primarily in service industries, concentrating
commercial and industrial uses in Manhattan and Brooklyn. It will
disperse residential, open space and outdoor recreational shoreline
uses to peripheral areas.

U-218

SUBREGION D

This subregion consists of the coastal zones of New Jersey and
Pennsylvania and the Delaware Bay coastal zone of Delaware. The
coastal zone of each of the three areas -- 14, 16, 15 from north to
south -- is considered herein terms of its area characteristics, ma-
jor coastal uses, major coastal problems and major prospects and po-
tentials.

Table U-21 summarizes some broad judgements as to the relative
importance of the selected problems in this subregion.

TABLE U- 21

PROBLEM PROFILE IN SUBREGION D

Problem

highly significant living resources conservaton of wetlands non-living resourses water pollution thermal effects solid waste disposal recreation marine transportation coastal erosion and tidal flooding

Significant

Relatively insignificant

Area 14

area 16

Area 15

AREA 14

Area Characteristics. This.area 'includes the basins of north-
eastern New Jersey beginning with.the shore of.the Hudson River and
including the Hackensack, Passaic, and Raritan ba sins, Newark Bay and
the New Jersey portions of the channels around Staten Island.--- Ar-
thur Kill and Kill Van Kull. The area is characterized by low flat
topography, and extensive tidal marshes, many of which have been re-
claimed with landfill. The cliffs of the Palisades aiong the Hud-
son comprise the major natural topographic feature in the coastal
zone. Intensive urban development -- piers, skyscrapers, bridges
is the predominant characteristic of the area.

Over two-thirds of the population in New Jersey reside in the area,
4.1 million in 1960. Population density is high, reaching 13,752 per
square mile. By 2020 the population of the area is expected to
double to 8.4 million inhabitants. (Appendix B - Economic Base)

Employment in the area was 1.6 million in 1960 an 'd is expected to
double by the year 2020. In 1960 manufacturing accounted for 40% of
employment and services accounted for 58%. The major urban centers
in the area are Newark-, Jersey City and Paterson -Clifton-Pass .aic.
Manufacturing industries were prificipally machinery, electrical pro-
ducts, primary and fabricated metals, chemicals, and food products.
Employment in natural resource extraPtion industries - mining, fish-
ing and agriculture - was only 0.9% in 1960 and is expected to de-
by 50% by 2020. Manufacturing by 2020 is expected to in-
crease by 15%. and the largest increase 163% sh 'ould occur in the ser-
vice industries to constitute 77% of all employment by 2020.

Personal income in 1960 was well above the national average in.
the area (by 23%) and projections indicate that it will remain so,
decreasing slightly to 15% above the national averagp in 2020'.

Malor Coastal Uses. Waterborne and solid waste disposal,.mar.ine..
transportati 'on and'urban land use are of special importance in this
areals coastal zone.

The tidal waters are heavily used for the disposal of large quan-
tities of liquid wastes from municipal and industkial sources.

A very substantial portion of the area's coastal zone is given
over primarily to solid waste disposal. The Hackensack Meadowlands
comprising 21'000 acrest roughly' three-fourths the area of Manhattan,
k Bay and
is located north of Newar, contains 12 active sanitary land-
kill sites used by' pver'100 communities f .or dumping garbage and .rub-
bish. Comprehensive planning by the Meadowlands Development Com-
mission will maintain at least the present capacity for solid waste
disposal and may allow for other uses compatible with solid waste
4isp9sal. (81

U-220

Extensive port facilities line most of the area's waterfront. The
containership terminal at Elizabeth, maintained by the Port of New
York Authority, is the largest of its kind. It is a key to the con-
tinued attraction of a large international general cargo trade in the
future. Expansion of container facilities is more likely in New Jer-
sey than in New York City because of the avaLlability of space for
.storage and marshalling.

Major Coastal Problems. Water pollution within the area has been
severe; it is seen as a consequence of the vigorous industrial acti-
vity in the area. Nearly all of the major coastal water bodies in
the area are currently classified as suitable for navigation and in-
dustrial use, and not suitable for fishing, boating or swimming. Ac-
cording to goals for upgrading water quality in the region as indi-
cated by the Tri-State Transportation Commission most of the coastal
waters in Area 14 will retain the present designation through 2000
(122). The Hackensack River, the Hudson River and the Raritan River
are given priorities for upgrading to use for fishing-and boating.

In the Arthur Kill, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) in industri-
al waste discharges exceeds the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Other wastes in the form of phenols, oils trace metals and heat re-
flect the diversity of industrial effluents in contrast to the ef-
fluent from municipal treatment facilities. In terms of BOD, the in-
dustrial wastes feeding into Raritan Bay have been estimated to be
equivalent to the municipal wastes of more than one million people.
(122)

The industrial pollution load from Area 14 as a whole has not yet
been determined. Therefore an appraisal of the extent to which the
waterways are being used for this purpose is not possible at this
time. Efforts by the Federal Water Quality Administration to prepare
such an inventory nationwide may eventually provide the needed infor-
mation.

Research on BOD levels in upstream portions of the Raritan, Passa-
ic and Millstone Rivers indicates that less than 40% of the observed
organic loadings can be attributed to known point sources. It is not
known whether this relationship holds for the lower reaches of these
rivers where industrial plants are concentrated. (162)

As indicated atlength in the earlier analysis of the selected
problem of marine transportation, the rapid evolution towards econom-
ical very deep draft tankers and dry bulk carriers present special
problems to the Port of New York. The problems are particularly sig-
nificant in that part of the port which is located in Area 14.
The Port's existing channels are far shallower than these new ves-
sels require. The cost of deepening is probably prohibitive and en-
vironmental considerations can pose problems. If deep draft facili-
ties are located elsewhere, major economic dislocations in Area 14

U-221

could occur. A cooperative study involving Federal agencies and the
affected port authorities is needed to work out a solution possibly
involving overland movement of crude oil from a new offloading facil-
ity, say in Lower Delaware Bay, to the sites of the existing refiner-
ies.

There is little critical erosion in Area 14, but tidal flooding can
be a significant problem. Although flooding does not occur frequent-
ly, a rare, meteorological predictable storm in this intensively de-
veloped area could produce major damage. The U.S. Army Corps of En-
gineers estimates that if the design storm were to hit this area, dam-
ages would reach $2 billion, about half direct and half indirect.

Another problem is the difficulty in providing opportunities for
outdoor recreation, primarily swimming and picnicking. The coastal
zone of the area is not expected to be able to accommodate much, if
any, of the demand for swimming. The outdoor recreation plan for the
state of New Jersey anticipates that the swimming needs of nearly
100,000 persons in 1980 and 229,500 persons in 2000, will not be ac-
commodated by facilities in the area. The solution proposed in the
action Plan recommends pool facilities and improved access to expanded
beaches outside of the area, both inland and along the oceanfront.
83)

Other coastal recreational activities such as boating and sport
fishing may be possible if the quality of coastal waters on the peri-
phery of the area is upgraded and other obstacles of safety, conges-
tion, shoreline access and aesthetic blight can be overcome.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Population and economic projec-
tions indicate that the already heavy urbanization of this coastal
zone will intensify. The greatest growth is forecast in the service
industries such as transportation, financial, business and profession-
al. Coastal activities dependent upon high water quality and the
natural environment will have to be accommodated outside the area,
most likely along the coast of adjacent Area 16.

U-222

AREA 16

Area Characteristics. The coas 'tal zone of this area includes the
shore of Raritan Bay between the Raritan River and Sandy Hook, and
the ocean shore from Sandy Hook to Cape May.

The 20 miles of shorefront on Raritan Bay is characterized by high
bluffs and marshlands fronted by narrow beaches intersected by numer-
ous tidal creeks. Ownership is divided -- 13 miles private, 7 miles
public.

The 125 miles of ocean shorefront in this area consist entirely
of beach. Most of the beaches are on long sandy barrier islands.
Behind the beaches are backbays, salt marshes and meadows that ex-
tend several miles inland in some places. The pattern of oceanfront
ownership is 80 miles public, 30 miles private and 15 miles Federal (136).
The shores of the backbays are largely wetlands, but there are more
beaches there than along other backbays in the North Atlantic Region.
Shoreline ownership along the backbays is largely private.

The 1960 population of the six counties in the region was 650,000
with about half of this concentrated in Monmouth county in that por-
tion nearest to the New York metropolitan area. The resident popula-
tion density is 900 per square mile in Monmouth county and 272 for
the remaining counties in Area 16. Employment in the six counties
is expected to increase from 230,000 in 1960 to 870,000 by 2020. 0-
ver the same period manufacturing employment for the counties is ex-
pected to increase by 114%; other employment is expected to increase
by 328% by 2020. (Appendix B-Economic Base)

However, demographic and economic characteristics of the coastal
communities of the Jersey shore differ significantly from the coun-
ties as a whole. The Jersey shore is almost exclusively a recreation-
based economy. Historically the ocean beaches have been vacation
grounds for residents of the Greater New York and Philadelphia areas.
The economy of the shore is thus heavily dependent upon the millions
of summer visitors attracted by natural and man-made recreational and
resort facilities. Income from the areas' resorts in 1963 amounting
to $1.8 billion (84 ) was one of the largest sources of business in-
come in the state. Because of the dependence on tourism during the
summer season from June throug@ September the coastal communities are
subject to high unemployment during the winter season. For example,
in January 1965 over 13% of the work force of Atlantic City was unem-
ployed. Population statistics belie the extremely high influx of
people in the summer. For instance, Stone Harbor's resident popula-
tion of 830 exceeds 18,000 during the summer. On a peak summer week-
end Asbury Park accommodates 200,000 visitors, and Atlantic City ac-
commodates 500,000 visitors to their beaches and board-walks (84 ).
Most of the resident population in the shore area is located in re-
sort towns on the barrier beaches; however, since there is virtually
no vacant land remaining on the barrier beaches from Sandy Hook down

U-223

to Cape May, most of the population growth and development between
1950-60 has occurred on the mainland behind the barrier beaches.
The proportion of residents over sixty-five is higher for the coastal
resort counties than for the rest of the state indicating the at-
tractiveness for persons in retirement.

Major Coastal Uses. Recreation is the predominant use on the Jer-
sey shore. Of its natural resources, 125 miles of wide ocean beach
provide surf bathing and fishing. Deep-sea sport fishing expeditions
depart from many of its ports. Fishing and shellfishing are popular
throughout the bays and sounds behind the barrier beaches. Pleasure
boating enthusiasts benefit from the Intracoastal Waterway whose en-
trance at Manasquan Inlet at the Northern end of Barnegat Bay passes
behind the barrier beach through bays and sounds to Cape May and con-
tinues on to Florida. Over 200,000 boats used all or part of the In-
tracoastal Waterway in 1963.

Man-made recreational resources in the form of boardwalks, promen-
ades, amusement parks and night clubs add to the attraction of the
larger resorts such as Atlantic City and Asbury Park.

Most of the out-of-state visitors to the Jersey shore come from
metropolitan New York and Philadelphia, but increasingly more of the
out-of-state visitors come from other parts of the North Atlantic
Region.

Land use in the coastal zone is for the most part residential and
recreational. The barrier beach is so heavily developed that virtu-
ally no vacant beachfront exists, exceptions being state- and feder-
ally-owned beaches and scattered vacant parcels around inlets. Com-
mercial land use is concentrated in the central business districts of
the larger resort towns, and adjacent to the boardwalks and promenades.
Industrial land use is minimal throughout the shore area, most of it
occurring along Raritan Bay. Some federally controlled lands no
longer of military value such as Fort Hancock on-Sandy-,,Hook are-.beingz
phased out. New Jersey leases part of Sandy Hook beachfront to ac-
commodate intensive day-use recreational demand, but even these ex-
panded facilities are filled early on summer weekends. The marshlands
and portions of mainland facing the barrier beaches have only recently
begun to be developed as lagoons providing marinas, homes and boating
facilities. Large portions of the coastal marshlands have already
been reserved as state and federal wildlife refuges.

Major Coastal Problems. Coastal erosion and flooding are major
problems in this area. Critical erosion occurs along parts of the
Raritan Bay - Sandy Hook Bay shores and along most of the oceanfront.
The ocean shoreline in this area has a history of.alternating movements
seaward and shoreward. In the past two decades some reaches have been
moving at a rate of up to 12 feet a year oceanward, and others by 16
feet a year landward. One area in particular, the southeast tip of
Pullen Island has been accreting at an.average rate of 300 feet a year

U-224

over the last decade. The more severe storms move considerable
quantities of sand too far offshore to be returned between storms by
ocean swells. In such an unstable environment groins and jetties
must be sited with unusual care. Even the backbay shorelines exper-
ience some erosion damage, although its prevalence and intensity are
much less than along the ocean.

Damages from a recurrence of the tidal flood of record in this
area have been estimated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at about
$260 million. Nearly half of this damage would be along the heavily
populated coastline along Raritan and Sandy Hook Bays.

In tests off Sea Girt, New Jersey, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
has demonstrated the technical feasibility of renourishing beaches
periodically by pumping some of the vast quantities of sand which
have been surveyed offshore onto the beaches. Contract experience in
Florida employing an underwater crawlcutter is expected to further
advance the technology and economic feasibility of offshore pumping.
Although additional studies are required, it also appears that from
an environmental viewpoint offshore sources are preferable to alter-
native sources -- backbays and inland. (125)

A related problem of dune erosion along the Jersey coast has been
attributed in part to the imprudent siting of houses and structures
on unstable frontal dunes. McHarg has shown that by prohibiting any
form of development on-the frontal dunes, vegetation is more likely
to take hold to stabilize and trap dune sand and prevent undue ero-
sion. (69 ) Unfortunately more prudent development of the barrier
beaches to reduce dune erosion is.hampered by existing development.
Considerable additional information on dune stabilization, of parti-
cular applicability to New Jersey's oceanfront, was presented earlier
as part of the analysis of the selected problems of coastal erosion
and tidal flooding.

Another major problem on the New Jersey shore is the conservation
of wetlands.

Concern has been expressed for the ability to maintain the quality
of these seemingly abundant natural recreational resources in the face
of inevitable development. The marshes along the mainland are under-
going development. The lagoon-type development is expropriating
large areas of marshland important to fish and wildlife. The state
already has legal measures to control development on marshlands,
claiming riparian rights to lands beneath navigable waters. Through
the Bureau of Navigation in the Department of Environmental Conser-
vation the state may sell or lease its interests in tidal lands.

Major Prospects and Potentials. The abundant recreation resources
of the New Jersey shore have the capacity to absorb much of the de-
mand for coastal recreation not only within the state but for the
metropolitan areas of New York and Philadelphia, for the region and

u-225

even the nation. With careful planning the available resources of
the Jersey shore could continue to accommodate a diversity of recre-
ational pursuits along the surf, broad beaches, the backbays and ad-
joining marshlands. A trend of an increasing nuTrber of permanent res-
idents, retirees and commuters will help to stabilize seasonal uneir.-
ployment.

In the near future the coastal waters of the New Jersey shore may
be utilized for dissipating waste heat from thermal electric power
plants. The proximity to load centers and the abundance of cooling
water along the coast are important considerations in power plant sit-
ing. A planned nuclear installation at Barnegat will have a capacity
of 1.8 megawatts. Other plants are likely to be proposed.

U-226

AREA 15

Area Characteristics. The coastline of Area 15 consists of
Delaware Bay and the Delaware River to the head of tidewater at
Trenton. Above Penns Grove the waterfront is laxgely industrial
and commercial on both banks.

The 85 miles of shoreline from Penns Grove to Cape May on the
New Jersey side consist of about 50 miles of wetlands and 35 miles
of narrow sandy beach frequently marshes. Ownership is apportioned
about 45 miles private, 20 Federal and 20 public. A sparse 12
miles of the shoreline is residential (136).

The 82 miles of the Delaware shoreline from Willmington to Cape
Henlopen consist almost entirely of marshes in the north and of a
narrow strip of sand beach fronting more marshes in the south.
Ownership is divided about 57 miles private, 14 public and 11
Federal. Except for 9 miles for public recreation and 2 miles for
commercial purposes, the entire shoreline is undeveloped.

Shoreline use is primarily wetland conservation. Little bath-
ing occurs in the Bay and shoreline fishing is generally poor. Bay
fishing by boat has improved in recent years and is now considered
to be good.

The climate of the basin is generally mild, with sustained
periods of extreme temperatures seldom lasting more than three or
four days. Annual mean air temperature ranges from 50OF in the
upper mountainous reaches to 540F on the Coastal Plain at Wilming-
ton. The average annual precipitation on the entire Delaware River
Basins amounts to about 44.6 inches, ranging from about 40 inches
near Delaware Bay to about 60 inches in the Catskill Mountains.
The prevailing winds are from the southwest in summer and from the
northwest in winter.

The annual fresh water flow into the Delaware Estuary from above
Trenton averaged over the 57 year period ending in 1969 is 11,371
cubic feet per second. Most of the flow originates in the upper
basin where rainfall is heavier. The Schuylkill River, largest tri-
butary of the Delaware, enters the Estuary at Philadelphia contri-
buting an average annual discharge of about 2,900 cfs. Approxima-
tely 100 smaller tributaries flow into the Delaware Estuary or Dela-
ware Bay with a combined annual freshwater discharge of about 5,000
cfs.

The population of Area 15 in 1960 was 6.4 million, heavily con-
centrated along the Trenton-Philadelphia-Wilmington portion of the
New York to Washing-ton urban corridor. By 2020, the areats popula-
tion is expected to increase to about 12 million. (Appendix B
Economic Base).

U-227

Per capita income for the basin's population is high, 12% above
the national average, but by 2020 this is expected to decline rela-
tive to the national average per capita income. Employment at a
level of 2.5 million will probably nearly double by 2020, with
largest increases in service industries and lesser increases in
manufacturing (36,00). The lower portion of the basin containing
metropolitan Philadelphia and Wilinington has over two-thirds of the
employment in the basin (1.8 of 2.5 million), with 44,ool in the serv-
ice industries, 36%0 in manufacturing and less than 2/70,' in agriculture,
forestry, fisheries and mining.

The Delaware River Basin Commission operates under an inter-
state-Federal compact giving it broad responsibilities for planning
and managing the water and related land resources in Area 15. The
Commission is composed of the governors of the States of Delaware,
New Jersey, New York and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the
U.S. Secretary of the Interior.

Major Coastal Uses. Marine transportation is important in Area
15. All of the fourteen major ports on the Delaware River are loca-
ted above the head of Delaware Bay, between Wilmington, Delavare and
Trenton, New Jersey. The industries along the Delaware River depend
upon navigation for the importation of iron ore and petroleum-,, other
bulk commodities and general cargo. Iron ore, crude petroleum and
residual oil accounted for over half of the tonnage moved overwater
in the Delaware Basin. Collectively the Delaware River ports handle
a total volume, 116 million short tons in 1968, second only to the
Port of New York in this region. Volume has grown steadily although
the rate of growth has declined in recent years. The ports are
served by a channel of over 100 miles from the Atlantic, through
Delaware Bay to Trenton, New Jersey. The Chesepeake-Delaware Canal
connects these ports with those along Chesapeake Bay. Ports on
Delaware Bay itself are minor and their volume has declined sharply
over the last quarter of a century.

A major factor affecting the Delaware Estuary is its use for
waterborne waste disposal. Most of the waste load originates along
the reach between Trenton and the head of Delaware Bay. In a 1964
survey 1.8 million pounds of oxygen-demanding material were found to
be generated daily by numerous industries and municipalities in this
reach. These wastes receive varying degrees of treatment prior to
discharge. The river water is also used extensively for industrial
cooling.

A third major use of the estuary is municipal water supply. Over
200 million gallons a day are withdrawn directly from the river to
supply over 50% of Philadelphia's freshwater supply. A potential
threat to this water supply is the salt water front, the position of
which fluctuates with the freshwater inflow from upstream. Low flow
augmentation to stabilize this front is particularly desirable here.

U-228

A fourth major coastal use is wetlands conservation. As stated
earlier, most of-the peripheral land around Delaware Bay is wet-
lands - tidal flats, salt marsh and salt meadow - often extending
inland for several miles. A large portion of these wetlands has
already been acquired by state and federal conservation agencies
and by private conservation groups. (114) The Bombay Hook National
Wildlife Rrefuge contains 12,000 acres of prime wetland hab-itat for
migrating waterfowl, and Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge will
contain 5,000 acres when acquisition is completed. (114) One
reason for the large amount of dedicated land is that these
wetlands in their present state are unsuitable for most other
forms of development. Superior shoreline recreational facilities
are found close by on the Atlantic coast, and most through trans-
portation bypasses the area along the urban corridor to the west,
the closest bridge crossing being at Wilmington. Coastal wet-
lands along the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal and along the indus-
trialized shore of the Delaware estuary are relatively small in
size and deteriorating in quality for wildlife habitats as a
result of development and the deposition of dredging spoil along
the banks.

Commercial and sport fishing, hunting and water contact
recreation are not considered major uses of the Delaware Basin
at the present time although these resources could be developed
and promoted for future use and enjoyment.

Major Coastal Problems. The single most important coastal
problem in the Delaware Basin is water pollution below Trenton
from municipal and industrial sources. Water quality above
Trenton is generally and relatively excellent. (147) Waste
loads from primarily municipal and industrial sources are ex-
pected to double in the period 1964-1975 and to increase by
5 1/2 times by 2010. (These milestone years used for the
Delaware Estuary Study by FWPCA approximate NAR milestone years
1980 and 2020). The Delaware Estuary Study reported that in
1964, as a result of waste discharges, dissolved oxygen is
almost completely depleted in some locations, and gases from
anaerobic decomposition of organic deposits are produced regu-
larly during the summer. Coliform bacteria concentrations are
very high in the same stretch of river. Acid conditions in
the river caused by industrial waste discharges have been ob-
served for several miles above and below the Pennsylvania-
Delaware State line. Surface discoloration due to the release
of oil from vessels and surrounding refineries is a common
occurrence from Philadelphia to below the State line. Over-
flows of combined sewerage systems result in a discharge of
fecal matter and other offensive solids, floating material,
and miscellaneous flotsam which would normally be trapped by
the treatment plants. This material in the Estuary represents
one of the few-remaining types of discharges that can affect

U-229

the aesthetics --of the Estuary by.viisble evidence of raw _ Sewage.: The net result is a polluted waterway which depresses
aesthetic-values, reduces recreation sport and commercia
fishing, -and inhibits municipal and. industrial water uses
The effects of waste loading in the future can be signif
icantly influenced by the large Tocks Island project upstream.
To the extent that freshwater is diverted out of the Delaware
Basin, dilution capacity in the river is reduced. On theother
hand, to the extent that the higher flows are impounded upstream
and released during periods of low flow, dilution capacity can
be greatly improved. In addition to stabilizing waste -dilution
capacity and the Philadelphia water intake conditions the con-
trol of freshwater inflow can also benefit the small and badly
depleted oyster fishery in the Bay. The effects of salinity
concentrations on oysters and the net flow of freshwater from
Chesapeake to Delaware Bay through the enlarged Chesapeake and
Delaware Canal are discussed in the next area analysis-on,
Chesapeake Bay.

.The activities directly affected by water pollution are the
-potential water contact recreation users who are now barred or
discouraged from swimming in the waters of Delaware estuary;
The effects of pollution on the waters of Delaware Bay are not
known from the information available, but it is suspected that
water pollution has been one of the factors responsible for the
pronounced decline in the fish and shellfish industry.of the
bay. Other possible factors include the oyster drill,MSX
disease, over-harvesting, and increased salinity concentrations.

Costs for achieving approved water quality standards.and
maintaining the improved level to 2020 are estimated at about
$12 billion (see Appendix L-Water Quality and Pollution)......

A second major problem in Area 15 is in the field of marine
transportation. As indicated at-length in the earlier analysis
of the selected.problem of marine transportation, the evolution
towards.economical, very deep draft tankers and dry bulk carriers,
presents special problems'to the Delaware port system. It has
been generally-.accepted that the problems of deepening the _
estuaxy channel to accommodatethe supervessels are overriding
because of rock, the.near-surface aquifer and tremendous.costs.
There-may be substantial socio-economic implications locally
and-regionally,-if the area's industrial base cannot somehow
find a way of incorporating.-the major economics impliciti
the use.of the,new'supervessels. A regional offshore offloading
facility in Lower Delaware Bay has been . proposed; however
national regional.: d the-economic,
and local values.- involved an
social,safety. environmental and.jurisdictional interrel-.
tionships a11 point up the need for a careful cooperative study

U-230

by the Federal agencies, the affected port author@@i.esand
probably others.

Shoreline erosion is a relatively insignificant problem in
this area. It is confined to a few localties such as Broadkill
Beach and Lewes on the Delaware Shore and Wildwood Villas on the
New Jersey shore.

According to estimates of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
a recurrence of the'tidal flood of record would cause damages,
in 1970 dollars, of about $60 million, mostly in the Phila-
delphia area.

Major Prospects 2nd Potentials. The.possible development of
a deepwater offloading facility in Lower Delaware Bay, and the
considerations involved in reaching a decision, have been men-
J.,tioned above and in the earlier analysis of the selected problem
of marine transportation. Whatever decision is reached, in-
cluding no decision, the long-term effects on the Philadelphia
area are likdly to be substantial.

As the knowledge of the relationship between wetlands and
marine life improves, the possibility of managing the Bay's
extensive wetlands to make them truly valuable in raising the
currently low level of fish populations in the Bay might also
be expected to improve without sacrificing other values. An-
ticipated long-range improvements in the quality of Delaware
River inflows should also work in the direction of improving
the abundance of marine life for sport and commercial purposes.

Nearer to Philadelphia, shoreline recreation should become
more attractive as water quality improves if better public
access is provided and shoreline conditions are improved by
sandfill.

U-231

SUBREGION:E@'-t- F

The coastal portions of the other subregions have been considered
earlier generally on an area-by-area basis. For the coastal zone of
subregions E and F, however, such an approach would undesirably frag-
ment the subregions' dominant coastal feature, Chesapeake Bay. Since
the Bay is best treated as a coherent system, a fragmented area
approach to.its description and analysis would produce tedious repeti-
tion and possible loss of ability to see the Bay as a whole.

Accordingly subregions E and F have been subdivided for subsequent
description and analysis into two compartments, or sectors, differing
sharply from each other in their physical, biological and socio-
economic dimensions and hence in the type and intensity of their
coastal problems.

The first sector consists of Chesapeake Bay and the estuarine
protions of its major tributaries. This sector thus includes that
part'of the coastal and estuarine portions of Areas 18 and 211.vhich
abut Chesapeake Bay and all of the coastal and estuarine portions
of Areas 17 (Susquehanna), 19 (Potomac) and 20 (Rappahannock-York).

The second sector consists of the coastal zones of Delaware,
Maryland, and Virginia which face the ocean. It thus includes a part
of Area 18 and a very small part of Area 21.

Each of these two coastal sectors is considered herein Iii terms
of its area characteristics and major coastal problems, uses, pros-
pects and potentials.

Table U-22 summarizes some general judgement as to the relative
importance of the selected problems.

U-232

TABLE U- 22

PROBLEM PROFILE IN SUBREGIONS E AND F

En
M
r.
Cd -4
r I a] W 0
41 4) En 4-1
W u 0 41
D1 w 0. Co Ca
En :J rA -W
w 44 0 Z En ri P 0
Problem u 0 w 0 4J "o 0 0 bo
@4 w .11 u -H
:J $4 4J w En
0 0 z 44 QJ 0
U) H w r-4 44 41 P 0
Major w 4-A 9: 11 w En 0 k Cu 0
1 Cd -,4 0 Cd -A 4J r-i
;> > 1-4 3 -W H 44
bo k A Ca Cd w Cd
SignifLcant V W r-q P 10 (D r. " r-4
.H U) I a) rq $4 -rq U) Ca
> z C: 41 -4 u P 0 a
Relatively insignificant 'H 0 0 0 0 0 Cd 0 -H
u z :3: F-4 W C4

Area 18 - 21
Chesapeake Bay (Overall)

Area 17 (Susquehanna)

Area 18 (Upper bay)

Area 19 (Potomac)
Area 20 (Rappahannock 0 0 0 0 0
York)

Area 2 1 (James)

Area .s 18 & 21 (Ocean)

U-233

AREAS 18-21 (CHESAPEAKE BAY PORTIN )

Area Characteristics. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest
estuary on the Atlantic coast and one.of the most important in
the world. The Bay receives water from a drainage basin of
65,476 square miles. Its shoreline, based on the criteria of.
the National Shoreline Study (136) is about 21,800 miles, two-
thirds located in Maryland. The Bay itself is about 200 miles
long and its width varies from about 4 to 35 miles. The water
surface of the Bay and its tributaries is about 4,400 square
miles,- the surface of the Bay itself is about 2,200 square
miles. Its average depth to head of the tide is about 21 feet
and its deepest hole is 174 feet off Kent Island.

The Bay's largest tributary is the Susquehanna, the largest
river on the Atlantic coast of the United States. The Susque-
hanna drains 42% of the basin and provides about 50% of the
Bays total influx of freshwater and about 80% of the flows
into the upper portion of the Bay. The Potomac, which drains
22% of' the basin, provides the largest of the Bay's many large
sub-estuaries; it is 115 miles from. Washington to the Bay proper.
Like the rivers to the south, the Potomac has always been heavily
laden with silt and its net water movement is sluggish. The
Rappahannock, York and James River basin; together drain'24%
of the basin and also form large sub-estuaries. The James is
.navigable by commercial shipping as far upstream as Richmond.;"-

Salinity increases from zero at tidewater to'about 32-35
parts per thousand (ppt), the range of seawater, at-the Bay's
.mouth. Salinity also varies significantly with the seasonal
inflow of fresh water. For example at the end of the-normal
low flow period from August to October, the 3-5.Ppt(slightly
brackish") isohaline (a line of equal salinity) extends As far
-north as Susquehanna Flats near that river's mouth. At the.
end of the annual high flow period this isohaline is about 30
miles south, almost to the William Preston Lane Junior Memorial
Bridge which connects the eastern and western shores.

Circulation is very complex. It is influenced by the 0-3
foot tidal range, freshwater inflow, the Chesapeake and Delaware
Canal and density flows induced principally by sharp salinity
gradients. Primarily in the summer, but also in the winter
the freshwater on top and the salt water on the bottom are
layered and flow in opposite directiOnS. Vertical mixing occurs
principally in the spring and fall.

Geologically the Bay is underlain by unconsolidated sedi-
mentary formations 7,500 feet thick in places. The shore may
be characterized as a coastline of submergence with its
typical submerged river channels and thick mantle of fairly

U-234

recent-loose sedimentary deposits, wetlands and very erodable
bluf f s.

Of approximately 1,900 miles of Maxyland shoreline about
280 are on the Bay proper and the rest are on the tributaries.
The Maryland shoreline consists almost entirely of extensive
wetlands on the eastern shore and banks, and banks, bluffs
and wetlands on the western shore. Less than 1% (15 miles)
of the shore can be considered beach. Ownership is divided
about 1670 miles private, 200 Federal and 30 public. Most
of the Federal ownership is concentrated in wildlife areas on
the eastern shore and in several military installations on the
western shore such as those at Aberdeen Proving Grounds,
Edgewood Arsenal, and a number of Navy installations.

The Virginia shoreline of approximately 900 miles includes
only a very few, small scattered beaches except for some near
Hampton Roads and on the southernmost 25 miles-of the Delmarva
Peninsula. Most of the remaining shoreline is marshy. Many
of the marshes, especially on the peninsula, are very brackish.
Ownership is divided about 735 miles private, 100 public and
65 Federal. Most of the Federal property is concentrated in
:military installations in the vicinity of Hampton Roads. Of
-the 900 miles, only 40 are for public recreational use. Ex-
cept for the commercial and militaxy facilities in the ports,
essentially all the remainder is undeveloped marshes, banks
and bluffs.

On the western side of Chesapeake Bay, population density
increases markedly as the coast is approached. For example,
_.,__@1970 population densities in the upper, middle and tidal por-
tions of the Potomac Basin (Area 19) were 42, 62 and 297 people
per square mile respectively. In the coastal zone itself,
population densities are very uneven. Thus the western shore
accommodates two of the largest urban centers in the nation:
the Baltimore-Washington area and the area around Hampton
,,Roads. During the time span of the NAR study these two con-
centrations are expected to merge into the Boston-Norfolk
megalopolis. In marked contrast, the eastern shore is naw and
is expected to remain relatively unpopulated.

Similaxly, economic activity, on both a total and a per
capita basis, is now and is expected to remain heavily weighted
toward the western shore. In both subregions E and F employ-
ment is expected to follow long term trends witfi increases
,,:expected in services and in the chemical, paper and metals
-.industries. Declines are expected in the textiles, petroleum
refining, agriculture, forestry, fishing and minerals indus-
tries.

U-235

The Bay@-I@as'had a majbj@ imprint - on',. 6ur-, nation I s -pabt' .,. :Uot
coincidentally, many of our most important historical landmarks
are located immediately adjacent to the Bay's subestuaries.
These include'

Williamsburg and Jamestown, where our colonial-existence
began
Mt. Vernon, the-home of the Father of our Country
Yorktown, where our national independence was won
Washington, our national capitol, and
Ft. McHenry where our National Anthem was written.

Major Coastal Uses. All of the major coastal uses are found
in varying,degrees iTChesapeake Bay. This section will high-
light some of the ways these uses apply to the Bay. Considerable
additional general information on each use has already been pro-
vided in the earlier analysis of selected problems. -Further
information about each use can be found later in this simriary
of Chesapeake Bay under the headings of "Major Coastal Problems"
and "Prospectsand Potentials".

In the value of their commercial fish catch, Virginia and
Niaryland rank ninth and tenth among the nation's 24 oceanfront
states with an annual catch of $18 and $17 million respectivOly.i/
Essentially all of the-catch for the two states comes from-Ches-
apeake Bay, not the Atlantic Ocean off their coasts. Within the
North Atlantic Region, the Bay provides a quarter of the catch.
On.ly Massachusetts, fourth, and Maine, eighth, rank above Vir-
inia and Maryland.

Th6 total'value of the Bay's catch has risen from $25 million
j:n-1950'to $35 million in 1967 although individual species have,
of course, shown the shaxply different fluctuations so character-
istic of marine fisheries. In 1967, the most important species
e(@ohomicaily were the oyster, hard crab, menhaden, soft clarn-,
soft crab, and hard crab in that order. The oyster accounted
fo.r about half of the total value. Many of about 200 record6d
species are permanent residents. Other more predominantly:
ocean;--oriented species spend @Iignificant parts of their lifel
cycles in'the Bay in spawningi nursing or feeding or in pasting
through on the way to or from freshwater.

With the exception of some sand and gravel little in thiL@:way

1/ For consistency, all commercial fishing statistics cited-@in
this s6etion are for calendar year 1967 (155). The catch vaxies
C(3nsiderably from .year to year and place to place. In general,
1967 was a good year nationally with a total deckside value-o@
$438 million, the third highest dollar value in history. About
8% of this national total came out of Chesapeake Bay.

V"2 j6

of non-livihg.resources is extracted from the Bay.' About 12
million short tons of siand, gravel and crushed rock were reported
_t6.have moved through-Bay ports in 1968. (138) How much of this
was extracted from the Bay is not known, but even if most of it
came from this source, the volume is not large enough to classify
non-living resource extraction as one of the major uses of the
Bay.

Waste disposal is one of the most prominent uses of the Bay
and much concern has been voiced in recent years lest the Bay's
as similitative capacity be overtaxed. The great and rapidly
growing population concentrations on its western shore, associa-
ted industrial activity and the relatively sluggish movement of
its silt laden tributary rivers all combine .to point up the im-
portance of controlling this use knowledgeably. Control is
especially important in the finger-like, slow-flowing, urban-
fringed sub-estuaries like the Potomac and the Patapsco where
pollution problems axe the worst.

The 1,800 megawatt Calvert Cliffs nuclear power plant about
30 miles south of Annapolis is the second largest in the NAR.
This plant uses the waters of the Bay to dissipate very large
quantities of waste heat.

To satisfy outdoor recreation needs, a large body of water
with several thousand miles of coastline immediately adjacent
to the southern part of what is expected to become the largest
megapolis in the world might be expected to play an important
role. The Bay is generally filling this need for pleasure
boating, sports fishing and hunting. According to Appendix K
(Navigation) about 200,000 pleasure craft are located in the
Bay area and about 600,000 axe expected by 2020. Nearly half
these totals can be considered "registered" as defined by the
current registration requirements of Maryland and Virginia.
Private facilities should be able to satisfy the marina demand,
but some increase in public launching facilities, may become
necessary. Sports fishing is a major recreational use of the
Bay and also a major industry. The Bay is also one of the
principal wintering areas for water fowl on the Atlantic Flyway.
Each year it winters nearly a million ducks and geese. About
half of the Bay's 300,000 acres of salt marshes are managed
for this purpose. (153)

The Bay has not been satisfying other forms of outdoor
water based recreation and aesthetic needs such as beach
lounging, bathing, water skiing, and visual aesthetic satis-
faction. Its performance in satisfying these needs will
continue to be disappointing unless the causes for the
deficiency are remedied, possibly as suggested later under
"Major Coastal Problems".

U-237

Marine transporation is focused- on Hampton Roads-and, Baltimore
which-ranked third,and fourth-- among the NAR,ports in total -tonnage
in 1968 Several studies have been made on economic impact of
these ports. One study- (1942) concluded that the total,."direct"
and "indirect" economic impact of the port of Baltimor e was about
$1 1/2 billion in 1966 and represented about 12% of Maryland's
gross state product. Another study (34) of the Virginia ports con-
cluded that in 1966 port and harbor related activities geherated
94,000 jobs and wages of $0.63 billion. Indirectlyan additional
131,000 jobs were generated. In total, one out of every eight jobs
in Virginia were directly or indirectly related to the State's
port and harbor activities. Although such conclusions have to be
accepted with some caution because of difficult problems of defini-
tion methodology, it is undoubtedly true that these two port
complexes have a very substantial impact on the economic well be-
ing of the people who live in these two states. Significant dredg-
ing is required to maintain and improve the channels to these two
port complexes and other important but lesser ports such as
Richmond. Associated problems and prospects are discussed later in
this section.

Several Navy facilities, especially those in the Norfolk and
Annapolis areas, are dependent upon their coastal locations and con-
tribute significantly to the bay economy. Several Army installa-
tions, most only partially dependent upon their coastal location,
also contribute importantly to the bay economy. The concentration
.of military installations around Washington, D.C. is related pri-
marily to the nearby Pentagon.

Major Coastal Problems. As indicated in Table U-22, of the nine
major coastal problems selected for special analysis in t he appendix,
five can be considered as highly significant in the Bay area. These
problems, listed in the same order as they were analyzed are living
resources, water pollution, thermal effects, recreation,and marine
transportation.

The first major problem is how to increase the commerical fish
catch in a sustained way. Among the many things which influence the
commercial fish catch are

Institutional problems of the industry such as the economical
utilization of a common resource and antiquated laws and methods pre-
serving the industry's labor-intensive tradition.

population fl uctuat ions by species. Me fluctuations are
inadequately understood at least in the sense that significant cor-
reactive action.can be taken.Some progress is being, made in con-
trol ling the effects of the microscopic paraste MSX by developing
disease-resistant seed oysters..

Difficulties in capitalizing economically on the theoretically

U-238

outsiiandin' teniia'! 6f maricultLu@e, -especially i@ith shellfisfi.
9 po

'Water quality to include not only control of toxic and oxy-
gen depleting wastes but also preserving or beneficially altering
the Bay's salinity regime. Water quality is also impaired by
sedimentation. Sedimentation may well have caused loss of the
oyster beds upstream from Poole's Island. Susquehanna Flats is
becoming a problem area and probably has lost much of its fishery
value by becoming progressively more shallow -- there is still
about I million cubic yards of new sediment entering from the
Susquehanna River aiinually.

because the measures necessary to maintain or change salinity
concentrations can have a very great influence on other uses and
on the long range preservation of tile Bay and its entire tributary
area, amplifying comments are needed. (63) and (64)

The size of the relatively fresh pool of water maintained in
the upper Bav varies greatly as indicated earlier. Its most im-
portant determinant is the size and diiration of the last high flow
in tile Susquehanna. Also important is the effect of the Chesapeake
and Delaware Canal. 1'he cross section of this canal is being in-
creased from 27' x 250' to 35' x 450'. This enlargement has been
estimated to cause an increase in the net quantity of fresh water
flowing from the Chesapeake to the Delaware of about 1,600 cubic
feet per second (CFS). This is about 5/0' of the Susquehanna's
average flow of 35,000 efs, but it can become much more significant
during the more critical low flow periods.

Insofar as marine life is concerned salinity changes in either
:'direction have both good and harmful effects, even for a sinc-le
species. The oyster is a good example. A reduction of freshwater
input, especially during tile highest flows would result in moving
the limits of oyster growth far upstream. This is because the
higher upstreami salinities would be preferred by the oysters and
tfie occasional severe flood, if its peak flows were reduced, would
not kill or smother in sediment the oysters living along the up-
stream limit. On the other hand, an increase of freshwater input,
..especially during the highest flows, provides a down Bay barrier
'against oyster predators. For example, the MSX parasite requires
a minimum salinity of 15 ppt. Thus oysters-, more obviously than
most life, occupy a niche. Ideally, to optimize oyster growth
some changes in natural conditions oil either extreme might be
helpful. MUS the lowest flows could be increased and a depend-
able minimum be maintained, and the highest of the high flows
could be diminished enough to avoid destroying oysters growing
along the upstream limits and yet not enough to significantly
affect the downstream predator limits.

The example of the oyster can be generalize,'. Whenever a
natural set of conditions has existed for a long period of time

U-239

Apme life w.ilL have become dependent upon, @@is regime.--,yith the
probable exception of the relatively rare occurrences which intrude
upon the tolerance limits of the species under consideration.
Whether.it is desirable to modify these limits depends upon many
things such as adequate understanding of the effects, the feasi-
bility of modifying the natural conditions, and the consequences to
others in benefits, losses and potential benefits foregone.

the Susquehanna River Basin Comprehensive Study foresees in
creased consumption losses in that basin in the future -- equiva-
lent to a little more than 10% of annual flow by the year 2000,
These losses would be caused, in order of importance, by cooling
for thermal power plants and municipal water supply especially for
the Baltimore area during periods of low flow. Possible transfers
....Out..of the basin to supply nearby metropolitan areas would cause
additional losses.

With these and other considerations in mind the Susquehanna
..Study has evolved as an interim, safe-sided balancing act, em-
.phasizing (1) the need for a sophisticated model to monitor.and
evaluate changes which may be found to be desirable, (2) regula-
tory authority to effect those changes, (3) a small cautious
diminuation ("flood skimming") of the average annual high flows of
about 1/2%, and a slight increase of about 2% of the average -
annual low flow _!/ and (4) endorsement of local practices such as
the policy at Conowingo Dam, near the river's mouth of releasing
additional water when dissolved oxygen downstream drops below 5
ppm at a time when there is a large concentration of fish there.
I
This general strategy seems fitting and logical, but the es-
sential need for much more knowledge of the effects on marine life
is clear. It needs to be known with much greater accuracy and.con-
fidence, what the effects are, both good and bad, on marine life
when environmental extremes are dampened out to various degrees.

Among the most important factors that influence the Bay's
margine life are the extensive wetlands along much of the Bay's
2,800-mile shoreline. According to one estimate of 603,000 acres of
wetlands and shoal areas evaluated as important to fish and wildlife,"
5,000 have been lost since 1950. This is an annual loss rate of about
0.04%, one of the lowest rates for similarly large areas in the
continental United States. (153) Maryland has estimated that it
has been losing its coastal wetlands in the past three decades at
the rate of nearly 400 acres a year -- an annual loss of about ,
0.1% of the statefs 307,400 acres of wetlands. A quarter of this
loss is ascribed to natural erosion and natural succession and

1/ These are changes in the average monthly flow during the low-
est and highest months. The effects on the most severe floods and
droughts would be appreciably greater..

U-240

the'remainder td-nianj primarily--for landfill, dredging, spoil :dis-
pos',U-@ind agricult:iY�-al drainage.

The second problem considered herein is how to reconcile the
need to dispose of waterborne waste products with the uses of the
Bay. A very valuable use of the Bay lies in its capacity to as-
similate waterborne wastes better than most currently known alter-
natives. However, this capacity is obviously limited by the quan-
tity and toxicity of the waste. Currently it is not adequately
known what this threshold is and what the incremental effects of
departing from it are. Of the many uses of the Bay, those most in-
fluenced by waste disposal are fishing and swimming. Currently
about 42,000 acres of shellfish grounds are closed because of
pollution. Pollution also fosters plankton blooms, especially
prominent in the Potomac below Washington. (153) Pollution is
..generally concentrated where flushing and dilution action is the
-"'poorest. However, unless and until other problems cited later
under recreation are resolved, improvement in water quality will
probably have relatively little effect upon swimming in the Bay.

A third major problem considered herein is thermal effects.
The heavy population and industry on the Bay's western shore, the
escilating requirement for electric power, and the Bay's superior
ability to absorb waste heat when compared with other local al-
ternatives, all are combining to produce a concentration of heat
dissipating power plants along the Bay's western shore. A recent
study (14) of the thermal effects of locating a 1,800 megawatt
nuclear plant at Calvert Cliffs concluded that the rate of surplus
heat produced by a modern plant of this size is equivalent to
about 1/3,000 of the noon rate of natural radiation received by
the Bay in summer. Comparisons such as this lend useful perspec-
-'@tive, bUt, as the study pointed out, it is important to recognize
that a nuclear plant's heat output is concentrated on the surface
of a relatively small part of the Bay. About two-thirds of the
'heat added by the plant is dissipated in evaporation. The re-
ifiainder heats the water or is lost in other processes such as
advection to the Atlantic Ocean. The implications of each addi-
tional plant are currently and properly being carefully evaluated.
'-"However, unless power demand tapers off unexpectedly or unless
significant technolgoicai breakthroughs materialize, it remains
@clear that the Bay performs far better than inland waters as a
receptable for waste heat. As pointed out earlier in the special
analysis of thermal effects, cooling towers offer an alternative,
CD
but their overall environmental side effects can be significant.

A fourth major problem considered herein is how to satisfy
outdoor recreation needs. Its proximity to population centers
.-makes the Bay a candidate for greatly increased recreational de--
mand. Currently most of the recreational use is in the form of
boating and sports fishing which are strongly interrelated. The

U-241

heavy demand for-'skin contact..-recreation such As swimming,.. clam-
ming, and waterskiing is almost.completely unsatisfied because of
several obstacles.

Seasonal considerations make the resource attractive for.
these purposes only about a quarter of the-year. Probably very
little can be done about seasonality although some thoughts are
offered later in the discussion at Areas 18-21 along the ocean.

0 During the one season of the year when outdoor bathing is
attractive the sea nettle or jellyfish migrates up the Bay. The
migration appaxently follows increased salinity concentrations
caused by seasonal reductions in fresh water inflow. The sea
nettle inflicts severe stings on anyone who enters the water.

As pointed out eaxlier, only about 1% of the Bay's nearly
3000 miles of shorelines is suitable for beaches. In the Virginia
part of the Bay this percentage rises somewhat, maybe up to 4-5%.
If the other obstacles could be solved, this one could also be
overcome. It ought to be feasible for example, to create sandy
beaches axtifically. Only a small part of the total extensive
shoreline should be able to satisfy a major part of high-density
beach demands.

0 Also as pointed out earlier, only about 3% of the Bay's
shoreline is publically owned. Here too, if the other obstacles
to the use of the Bay for high-density water contact sports could
be overcome, this access problem could also be resolved through
planning and publically-financed acquisition at carefully selecfed
sites.

In the finger-like subestuaries adjacent to laxge population
and industrial concentrations, pollution also limits bathing op-
portunities. Even if and when municipal and industrial pollution
are brought under adequate control, the heavy silt loads of many
of the rivers would still provide and aesthetic detriment to bath-
ing. (See Appendix Q - Sediment and Erosion)

For those who prefer surf action, the Bay can never be as
attractive as the oceanfront. However, to many this diminution of
recreational experience would be small when weighed against the
added cost and nuisance value of fighting crowds to gain ocean
access.

As formitable as these obstacles are, there seem to be curren-
tly available ways of offsetting or minimizing all of them except
the sea nettle. Its control or elimination in an ecologically and
economically acceptable way could open up a substantial clo 'se-in
summer recreational resource to pent-up demand adjacent to one of
the largest existing and future concentrations of people in the
nation.

U-242

A related use which could be better satisfied in the Bay area
is aesthetic visual satisfaction. Except when one crosses a tri-
butary subestuary or one of the Bay bridges, or when one makes a
special effort to visit the coast, a resident could go for weeks or
months without even knowing the Bay is there. With the exception
of the above few obvious bridge-crossing necessities, most of the
daily travelled ways of the populace seem to be oriented to keep
the Bay out of sight. It would not be easy, but increased effort
to identify the relatively few visual promentories in the Bay area
and route some of the more heavily travelled roads through some
.of these promentories could provide a most welcome daily aesthetic
uplift to many people. Obviously care would have to be exercised
in preserving the ammenities and avoiding unattractively long
diversions in heavily travelled routes. Nevertheless an objective
to bring the Bay into the visual awareness of many people daily
should be partially attainable over time.

A fifth major problem considered herein is how to accommodate
the Bay area to the expected trends in marine transporation. The
special earlier analysis of marine transporation dwelt in some
length on the potentially large economic advantages of accommoda-
ting more of the world's fleet of deep draft vessels in the NAR.
The accommodation of very large tankers does not appear particu-
larly applicable to Chesapeake Bay. However, insofar as dry bulk
cargo is concerned, two of the three largest port complexes in the
NAR are located on the Bay. These are Hampton Roads which domina-
tes the region's substantial coal export trade and Baltimore which
ranks with the Philadelphia area as the region's largest importer
of iron ore. The significance of the fixed investments in the
current inland coal feeder systems linking the Virginia ports with
.the inland coal fields, and the large steel plants currently in
the Baltimore area probably overwhelm possible economies attain-
able by moving to deeper water even if available. The problems
,of making the Hampton Roads and Baltimore facilities accessible
to the deep draft vessels are substantial, but solutions are at
Jeast conceptually possible. (See Marine Transporation under - '
Special Problems) The 57-foot depth clearance of the Chesapeake
Bay Bridge-Tunnel limits the size of Bay vessels, but.as brought
out in Figure U-11 this limitation will still allow large dry bulk
carriers to enter the Bay. If these very deep draft dry bulk
carriers can be accommodated in an environmentally and economic
acceptable way, the overall impacts on the economic well-being
of the Bay.area and the nation could be very substantial.

A second type of marine transporation problem in the Bay area
stems from coastwise shipping. The Chesapeake-Delaware Canal
across the narrow, 16-mile neck of the Delmarva Peninsula shortens
the water distance between Baltimore and Philadelphia from about
400 to 100 miles and avoids exposure to the ocean. As pointed out
earlier, the enlargement of the cross section of this canal

U-243

currently underway might, markedly increpse -the,@-sal-inity@ 9f,.-the upper
Bay by diverting part of -the- Bay' s.. -f re@;@Ihwktex- inpu@t, @in.t p,Aelaware
Bay. Such-.salinity change, [email protected] harmf-ul tP,some.-Aalrine.
species. The-biological consequences. nee!d to be carefully evaluated.
The evaluation will be difficult because of.the-very,complex-three-
dimensional nature of the water interchange and.existing biolo gical
uncertainties.

At a public hearing held by the Public Works Committee.of the:
House of Representatives in April 1970, testimony was presented by
the Director of the Chesapeake Bay Institute, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity to the effect that.all indications pointed to a minimal
change in salinity of the upper Bay and by the Director of the
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Natural Resources Institute,
University of Maryland, that the indicated salinity changes would
appear to have little ecological effect. The Corps of Engineers
has initiated studies of this situation with a view to taking steps,
coincident with-the completion of the work on the Canal,'to elimin-
ate any detrimental loss of fresh water if such should appear ,-:
probable. These studies involve research to be performed under -an
$800,000 contract with the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Nat-
ural Resources Institute, University of Maryland, plus investiga-
tions by Corps of Engineers-personnel costing approximately.
$250,000.

A third type of coastal problem related to marine transporta-.
tion is the disposal of dredging spoil. It is becoming increas--
ingly difficult to obtain clearance to dispose of this spoil any-
place -- on land, on any part of the Bay's 2,800-mile shoreline,
on any part of the Bay's 300,000 acres of salt marshes or in any
part Of the Bay's 4,400 square miles of water. Environmental side
effects of dredging were considered under the earlier analysis.of
marine transportation and a number of type solutions were sugged,
ted..-.Considering the very small part of the Bay which is dredged,
the@volume of material moved in comparison with the natural back-
ground rate of erosion-produced silt, the relative ease with which
potentially desirable side effects might be produced (wetland-en-
largement, improved flushing, desired shoreline fill, etc.) and,..
ihe importance of the navigation-channels, it would seem that
solutions should be able to be reached. Perhaps a few carefully.@
located diked deposition areas could be established. When the -
areas are eventually filled, new wetlands, or islands, or-,shore-.-
front is-created., whichever is most desired.- Solutions such-as:.
this, with joint Federal-local funding are currently being prac-
ticed in the Great Lakes. Also-, it is noted that the State of
Maryland has authorized-expenditure of $13 million for the con-.-
.struction of a-100 million cubic yard contained disposal area in;
proximity to Baltimore Harbor. The disposal area is in the pre--:j
.1iminary design stage.

U-4-244

Tidal flooding is generally not a significant problem in the
Bay area. However, several hundred acres of low elevation land
in shoreline areas is inundated occasionally by storm or unusu-
ally high lunar tides in Somerset and Dorchester Counties. This
problem is somewhat exacerbated by the trend of gradually rising
sea levels. The forces of nature in the Bay are much less violent
than those nearby on the Atlantic coast. Because of this fact,
however, the Bay shoreline has not developed the same compensa-
ting resiliancy. Long range geological factors associated with a
coastline of submergence have also contributed to the increasing
exposure of an easily erodable shoreline. Consequences are a loss
of shorefront property and an increased turbidity and filling of
the Bay.

About half of the 1,900 miles of Maryland's Bay shoreline is
subject to erosion. During the century, 1845-1942, the net loss
of land was about 25,000 acres on nearly 40 square miles. (136)
The western shore experienced about 25% of this loss and the east-
ern shore about 75%, a distribution roughly equivalent to their
respective coastlines. Dorchester, Somerset and Talbot Counties,
in that order, have had the greatest net loss. The 15 most criti-
cal miles, with historical erosion rates greater than eight feet
annually, are located on Kent Island, Poplar Island and Tilghman
Island on the east shore and Point Lookout and St. Clements Is-
land in St. Mary's County and Cove Point in Calvert County on the
west shore. With a few exceptions, studies have revealed that
there currently is no economical solution. Only 5% of the Mary-
land shoreline is now protected to varying degrees mostly with the
help of state financial support. Solutions vary with intended use.
Thus sand replenishment is probably best in beach areas and riprap
-and bulkheads are probably best in other areas. Ecological con-
siderations present some problems. On the one hand, many of the
wetlands which axe biologically important are prominent erosion
casualties. On the other hand, the protective methods where
justified must be designed with ecological considerations in mind.

The problems in the Virginia part of the Bay are similar with
the most critical erosion occuring along the lower south shore of
the Potomac Estuary and the Bay front of Areas 19 and 20. In
-Virginia, as in Maryland, almost all of the shoreline is priva-
tely owned and thus currently ineligible for Federal assistance.

Almost all of the planning and management considerations pre-
sented earlier under "Planning and Management" apply with particu-
lar weight to Chesapeake Bay because of the Bay's special impor-
tance, size and interstate nature. A major long-range, multiple-
use, interagency Federal-state, comprehensive Chesapeake Bay study
has been authorized under the leadership of the Army Corps of
Engineers. An important associated feature of this study is a
large 6-acre hydraulic model proposed to be located at Matapeake,

U-245

Maryland on land donated for this purpose by the State. Mathema-
tical models will be.used to complement the hydraulic model for
such.purposes as evaluation of..socio-economic information and,
dissolved oxygen deficits. Consideration was given to utilizing
a completely mathematical model, but the study concluded that
these types of models, although of increasing sophistication and
value, can not handle the complex three-dimensional fly,1 analysis
necessary in solving many of the Bay's real problems. z!J. For
example, a mathematical model can not predict changes in salinity
and velocity distributions resulting from deeping of the Bay's
navigation channels. Such changes could have important ecological
ramifications. Ll Significant further action on the study and its
related model must await Federal appropriations.

One of the stated purposes of the Chesapeake Bay study is to
consider, on the basis of the information acquired, the appropriate
institutional device to carry on continued comprehensive planning
and to manage the Bay. The key decision makers should be the two
affected states which have jurisdiction over the Bay's bottom,
shores and waters. Since any resulting formal inter-state insti-
tutional device will require Congressional ratification, its pro-
visions and the extent of Federal paxticipation will undoubtedly be
carefully reviewed to reflect the Federal interest. Whatever the
future institutional pattern may be, it is clear that it will have
to consider the Bay's relationship with the important tributaries,
many of which have major portions in nearby states. k possible way
of integrating both the Bay and inland perspectives and still re-
cognizing the currently proposed Susquehanna and Potomac Compacts
has been suggested earlier under "Planning and Management".

Since 1969, Maryland has been undertaking a State interagency
planning effort regarding Chesapeake Bay and its related resources.
This study is pursuant to an Executive Order from Governor Mandel
to the Maryland Department of State Planning. The study is focus-
ing its efforts on identifying and developing the key elements
essential for coordinated comprehensive planning and management of
Chesapeake Bay.

l/ Currently there is noknown three-dimensional mathematical es-
tuarine model anywhere in the world. However, an effort is being
made to develop one on the Connecticut River estuary.

2/ Currently there is some professional dispute over the relative
merits of hydraulic and mathematical models. It seems conservative
.to conclude that each currently has distinct advantages over the
other for analyzing certain parameters when site-specific.considera-
tions are'introduced. If the values are high enough, both.ar.e prob-
ably necessary working in a complementary nature. Where values are
less and conditions simpler, either or neither may be justified.

U-246

-A detailed land use survey leading to the delineation of lands
suitable for future growth and development, particularly those
areas with multiple use capability, has been suggested as one of
the essential steps in planning for the Bay area.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Proceeding from the broad
.overview of the Bay area just presented, the next step is to re-
late the Bay's prospects to the objectives established for the NAR
study--national efficiency, regional development and environmental
quality..

Activities designed to increase income and employment, in a way
that does not merely represent the transfer of an activity from
another region, are compatible with both of the first two objec-
tives. Four major potentials for contributing to these two objec-
tives can be cited.

The Bay's productivity as one of the major fisheries on the
Atlantic Coast might be enhanced through improved knowledge and
development of mariculture, wetland management, water quality and
other largely unknown factors influencing fish populations and
through resolution of some of the institutional problems of the
industry.

With careful environmental controls including monitoring,,
the Bay's assimilative capacity to absorb waste heat from nuclear
power plants can result in low power rates and thereby beneficially
influence the cost of living. More importantly, this capability
can serve as a magnet to retain and attract employment- -providing
industries for the region--and simultaneously contribute to the
production of nationally needed products at lower costs and less
environmental degradation than they can be produced at alternative
sites with lower assimilative capacity.

0 The Bay has a considerable undeveloped potential for satis-
fying part of the close-in outdoor water based recreational needs
of a rapidly growing nearby population. Although heavily used for
boating now, the Bay still has ample capacity to absorb the great
number of pleasure craft which are too small for the ocean and too
large and numerous for the limited nearby inland water bodies.
Potential improvements in the commercial fishery cited earlier
will further contribute to the attractiveness of sports fishing,
already a very profitable enterprise. If the major problems cited
earlier which currently limit beach and water contact sports, can
be resolved, a new seasonal industry could be developed. From an
economic viewpoint, as distinguished from environmental quality
considerations discussed below, increased boating and sports fish-
ing might be expected to be more significant than beach and water
contact sports because the dollars spent per participant in the
former two greatly exceed the latter.

U-247

If the p@r@oblems of ace-oMmcidating large; dr@Iybulk carriers at
Hampton Roads and Baltimore can be-overcome,, the Bay has the poten-
tial for satisfying major regional and national needs for theim-
port and export of bulk commodities,'especially ore and coal, in
greater quantities at significantly reduced costs.

The Bay has a potential for contributing substantially to the
environmental quality objective in several-wa@,s.. The improvement
of the fishery, in addition to its possible e conomic impacts on
commercial and sports fishing cited earlier, can also improve the
environmental quality of the Bay area. If realized, the possible
large increase in the use of the Bay for beach and skin-contact re-
action will greatly improve the environmental attractiveness of the
Bay to a'large number of people, much more than economic effects
would indicate. The Bay's aesthetic appeal can become more mean-
ingful if it can be brought into the frequent visual awareness of
much of the people who live in and travel through the area. Shore-
line attractiveness might be preserved and improved through adop-
tion of planning and management measures which provide some form of
coordinated public cognizance and control.

U-248

AREAS 18 AND 21 (OCEAN)

Area Characteristics. This sector includes the Atlantic coas-
tal areas of the states of Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. About
120 miles of the ocean front is on the Delmarva Peninsula and 25
miles extend from Cape Henry south to the North Carolina line.
All of the ocean front is beachi, In Delaware and Maryland it takes
the form of long, low, narrow barrier beaches fronting a series of
embayments with infrequent narrow inlets connecting them to the
ocean. The Virginia shoreline is less uniform. It varies north
to south from barrier island, mainland, small buffer islands, main-
land and barrier beach. The major embayments are Rehoboth Bay in
Delaware, Assawoman Bay in Delaware and Maryland, Sinepuxent Bay in
Maryland, Chincoteague Bay in Maryland and Virginia, Hog Island Bay
in Virginia and Back Bay in Virginia and North Carolina.

Ocean front ownership is divided about as follows: 45 miles
mostly in the southern part of the Delmarva Peninsula is private;
65 miles mostly on Assateague National Seashore and Wallops Island
is Federal; and 35 miles mostly in Delaware and southern Virginia
is public. About half the beach is used for public recreation.
Most of the remaining half is undeveloped (136).

The back bays t1hroughout this sector exhibit the characteristic
pattern found almost everywhere throughout the NAR; their shore-
lines are almost all wetlands and have very little beach area,
ownership is almost all private and the principal use is recrea-
tional, featuring small boating, sports fishing and wetlands ap-
preciation. Many of the back bays in this sector are brackish.

Possibly because of its relatively isolated location even
after the opening of the two major trans-Bay bridges, the signi-
ficant year-around population and economic growth experience by
nearby areas has generally bypassed this part of the coastal zone.
Future projections contemplate far less growth for this area than
for adjacent areas (Appendix B-Economic Base). The year-around
inhabitants seem to prefer their area that way although there is
some-concern at the out migration of youth, especially those with
college education.

Major Coastal Uses. The principal coastal use in this
sector is recreation, including aesthetic satisfaction. The other
coa.4tal uses, although present, are much less important here.
Little commercial fishing is done in these waters. About the only
non-living'resource extracted is sand and gravel in minor quanti-
ties although it is present in abundance. The large assimilitive
capacity of the Atlantic relative to the limited wastes from a
small, non-industrial population minimizes pollution-problems ex-
cept when outfalls are unwisely run into the small poorly flushed
back bays. However, there is increasing concern about the ocean
dumping of solid wastes off Area 18 by large cities such as

U-249

Philadelphia. There are no ports in the area nor any demand for
coastal airports on land fill. National defense establishments
are minor. Land use is important principally because of the
land's value for enjoyment..

Major Coastal Problems. Of the nine problems selected for
special analysis earlier, two--recreation'. and coastal erosion
and.tidal flooding--are highly significant to this sector.

@Recreation and aesthetics are,dominant along this coast..
Rehoboth Beach, Delaware; Ocean City, Maryland; and Virginia
Beach, Virginia are each their state's major summertime mass out-
d6or recreational outlets. In 1969 Ocean City is reported to
have accommodated nearly 13 million visitors (136). " Spreading
most of that crowd over 10 summer weekends conveys a picture of,
how intensely the beach is used.

Much of the ocean front in Delaware and Maryland and on
Assateague Island in Virginia is open to the public. The remain-
ing coast of Virginia is mostly privately owned except arou 'nd .
Virginia Beach. Every fair summer weekend cars pile up.sometime
almost as far back as Washington, D.C. to cross the two-lane Bay
bridge near Annapolis heading to Ocean City and Rehoboth Beach.
Medium-density beach-oriented summer residences fill much of the
available coastline near these resorts. The part-of the Delmarva
Peninsula south of Ocean City caters to low density recreation
with emphasis on aesthetic satisfaction. The beautiful Assateague
Island National Seashore is owned and operated by the U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior. Farther south on the peninsula, several
barrier islands were recently purchased by a private conservation
group from a developer to forestall a reported planned recrea-
tional-residential facility for up to 45,000 people.

Some ways the area can improve its ability to satisfy the.in-
land recreational demand are:

Improving accessibility. A new bridge is being constructed
paralleling the previously mentioned two-lane Bay bridge near
Annapolis.

Preserving.and enhancing aesthetic appeal.by zoning control
and other alternative means. Determining residential standards
can be a difficult problem. It is hard to impose expensive stan-
dards on a cottage which will be occupied only 10 weeks of the..year.
Nonetheless, localities such as Rehoboth Beach have.demonstrated,
the feasibility of constructin 1, simple, yet ve.r
g economica y at-
tractive cottages.. Zoning can.cater t,o.al.1 values, not just..the
aesthetic one just cited. For.example, there is adefinite honky-
tonk atmosphere about large parts of'Ocean Ci,ty which,most. of the
younger set find "delicious." This has asLmuch.need toexist.'as:
its polar opposite, Assateague. The general -rule which seems to

u-250

apply is to recognize "that all major points on the value spectrum
need to be satisfied and.portions of the coast should be developed
so that many can "do their own thing." Indiscriminate, unplanned
intermingling of these different recreational and aesthetic uses
can dilute the satisfaction of all. Since there is less financial
return to those who provide the lower density land uses, these in
general might better be governmentally owned.

0 Minimizing seasonality factors. Off season, the coast is a
virtually deserted resource. Some effort is being made to minimize
this gross inefficiency through appeals to the retired and through
the construction of year-round convention centers at Ocean City and
Virginia Beach. However, the problem is largely unsolved. Until it
is, the provision of many really substantial facilities will remain
economically impracticable. Demand can probably never be completely
evened out throughout the year even if it were desirable to do so,
but it is possible that the desolate beauty of the coast in the fall,
winter and spring can be given more play which could relate to the
current environmental thirst to escape. For example, recent
emphasis on skiing, snowmobiling, naked outdoor beauty, spring
and fall festivals and the like have given some enterprising inland
areas a year-round clientele which was unimaginable several decades
ago. One result has been the replacement of dilapidated summer shacks
and inadequate sanitary facilities with comfortable, appealing accom-
modations. Perhaps ocean front areas such as this one will find
imaginative coastal counterparts to these inland examples,,and thus
reduce the sharp seasonal imbalances between need and accommodation.

The problems of coastal erosion and tidal flooding were considered
at some length in the earlier analysis of selected problems. Flooding
is not a major problem in this area, but coastal erosion is. The long
exposed coastline, frequent violent storms especially in the fall and
winter, and a generally southward littoral drift combine to present
severe coastal erosion problems.

Some of the barrier islands between Assateague Island and Cape
Charles have been averaging a loss of 15-16 feet a year for at least
a century. Hog Island lost 50 feet in a year. This is a foot a
week! These islands are currently undeveloped, but their wild aes-
thetic appeal, wildlife habitat and usefulness as a protective barrier
to the mainland might justify efforts to preserve them by sand fences,
'dune grasses or other inexpensive and environmentally compatible means.

The northern five miles of Assateague Island has been eroding at
a rate of about 35 feet a year for the past 25 years. The erosion
has probably been caused by the interruption of littoral drift by
jetties protecting the inlet. These jetties have, for the same reason,
prod,uced a significant accretion in the Ocean City area immediately to
the north greatly widening the public beach there.

U-251

Along most of the Maryland and Delaware Atlantic coasts annual
losses ran&@from about 3'td:as' much as 21,feef a-yeak.: The higher
rate occurred in very limited stretches-fok'only a few decades. In
this vicinity shoreline values are miich higher'-thari those'to the
south. A particularly criticil area is Bethany Beach' Delaware,
Apparently a node exists'there.

The littoral drift moves northward on one side and southward on
the other. The result is erosion with little accretion at Bethany
Beach and a growth of Cape Henlopen northward 3,850 feet since 1843.

Ameliorative devices in all these areas emphasize-periodic sand
replenishment and dune stabilization supplemented with local bulk-
heading. The estimated annual cost is about $3-1/2 million for the
Delaware and Maryland reaches (136)- This is equivalent to about 20
cents per summer visitor. Most of @he beach erosion measures, es-
pecially the dune stabilization would also provide some added pro-
tection against tidal flooding.

Major Prospects and Potentials. Proceeding from the foregoing
review of major coastal uses and problems, consideration can be given
to the potentials of this part of the Atlantic coast in terms of the
.NAR Study's three basic objectives--national efficiency, regional
development and environmental'quality.

In terms of national,efficiency and regional development, the
sector's chief po'tential from a coastal point of view is recreation.
The other uses of the coastal zone here do not appear to have a growth
potential sufficient to impact appreciably upon regional and national
need.

Considering recreation, little is gained here in trying to dis-
tinguish-national efficiency from regional development. The overall
coastal recreational outlook for the future is one of high demand'.
greatly exceeding supply almost everywhere. The'further development
of this particular sector's capacity to satisfy the demand will prob-
ably not reduce the number of coastal recreationers elsewhere. More
likely, it will increase the opportunity for more people to enjoy the
ocean. Similarly, if the increased use of Ches.apeake Bay for beach
and skin-contact sports should materialize as envisioned in thel*e-
area summary, it will probably not affect the ocean front4reas
-appreciably. Most of the people who would use the Bay would be those
looking for close-in daily bathing. If the Bay were not available
-for this purpose, they would probably not expend the time, cost and
energy necessary to reach the ocean front. The relatively few who
would be diverted from the ocean front to the Bay would probably be
insignificant in light of anticipated future demand.

Some thoughts on how this part of the coast might better saft@fy
future recreational needs were considered earlier. From the-lo6a@l

U-252 -

development viewpoint, the problem is basically how to capture a more
significant return from visiting recreationers. Basic strategies
include:

0 Increasing the number of visitors, with adequate controls to
avoid deterioration of the recreational experience. Important here
is the need to preserve or enhance the physical suitability of the
beaches by adequate control and restorative measures.

0 Increasing the stay-time of visitors. A two-day visitor will
contribute much more than twice what a one-day visitor will contribute
to the area's economic well-being.

Improving the quality of the recreational experience in a
way that visitors will pay for. Examples include attractive
hotels, cottages, restaurants, excursions, and after-dark attrac-
tions.

0 Extending the recreation season by means such as those sug-
gested earlier. Examples include convention centers, year-round
condominiums catering to the weekend and retirment trade, and the
imaginative development of off-season attractions. Another possi-
bility might be the development of ecologically oriented educa-
tional centers to be used as live-in facilities by schools in
nearby metropolitan centers during the fall, winter and spring
seasons, while providing regular visitor services in the summer
months.

This sector of the Atlantic ocean front can contribute more to
the NAR's environmental quality objective than it can to the other
two objectives just considered. By any standard, this entire
coastline is considered very beautiful. Much of it, especially in
the lower part of the Delmarva Peninsula, is relatively undeveloped;
so options still exist. As pointed out earlier, when Assateague
National Seashore and the adjoining state parks were created, a
big part of these options were picked up and allocated formally to
low density recreation and aesthetic satisfaction. With careful
planning and public controls the Atlantic ocean front of Delaware,
Maryland and Virginia should be able to satisfy the full spectrum
of recreational demand--from mass density beach bathing to medium
density cottages to low density environmental satisfaction. Of
course, all sectors will have to give up a little. Thus, the
beach bather will be somewhat more crowded than he might otherwise
have to be and the nature lover will have less area in which to
roam than he would prefer--but these inconveniences are small in
return for preservation of the spectrum of choice in a locale where
such preservation is still possible.

U-253

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

This bibliography is based upon

� An announced focus.
� A screening of a wide variety of documents.
� Judgement in making selections from the documents screened.
� Organization to facilitate identification of entries of
interest to the user.
e A means of extending a line of inquiry beyond the scope of the
bibliography itself..

The focus of this bibliography is pertinence to long range com-
prehensive planning in the coastal zone of the North Atlantic Region
consistent with the scope of Appendix U- Coastal and Estuarine Areas
of the North Atlantic Regional Water Resources Study (henceforth
"NAR Study"). .A brief reminder of the scope of the NAR Study and
Appendix U is thus useful in establishing the context within which
this particular bibliography is formulated.

The NAR Study is one of 21 similar studies under the aegis of
the U. S. Water Resources Council. Together they comprise the entire
United States including its coastal areas. The NAR Study is a
comprehensive, interagency, joint Federal-state, long range framework
plan for the water and related land resources to the year 20.20 of the
North Atlantic Region -- the area which drains into the Atlantic Ocean
from Maine to Virginia inclusive.

Appendix U is based upon professional knowledge of the authors,
numerous interviews and a review of a wide variety of documents on
important coastal uses, problems and localities. Based upon the
judgement of the authors, information from many of the documents
screened was used in Appendix U. These documents were cited
throughout the Appendix and became the basis of the annotated
portion of this bibliography.

The bibliography is organized in three sections:

An annotated bibliography. This section is the heart of the
bibliography. As indicated above, it contains every document cited
anywhere in the Appendix.
e A bibliography of bibliographies. It is provided for
general reference purposes.
* An unannotated bibliography. It includes documents felt to
be potentially useful during the early information acquisition
stage but not finally used in the Appendix for various reasons
such as scope, detail, duplication or currency.

U-254

The bibliography may be used in several ways:

e To build a general library, the documents in the annotated
bibliography would provide a good initial base.
9 To locate information on any particular use, problem or
coastal area, a user should refer to the appropriate part of the
Appendix and list the references cited therein. He can then turn to
the annotated bibliography and, based upon the additional information
contained therein, decide whether the document is of the type he is
seeking.
9 To pursue a given line of inquiry in further depth, several
approaches are available:

- Refer to other parts of the NAR Study. For example, although
pollution is considered in some depth in Appendix U, a more compre-
hensive treatment will be found in Appendix L (Water Quality and
Pollution) of the NAR Study.
- Refer to the numerous references contained in almost all of
the documents cited herein.
- Refer to the bibliography of bibliographies to identify
additional documents in almost any depth desired.
- Scan the unannotated bibliography. The basic document
identification therein is frequently enough to suggest the entry's
central theme.

U-255

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The document numbers correspond to the references included in
parentheses throughout Appendix U.

1. American Association of Port Authorities. Methods of Deter-
mining A Ports Economic Impact and Dollar Value of E@arnings.
February 1970.
A brief description of how to estimate the value of one ton
of cargo to a port's economy. It is based upon a study by the
U. S. Maritime Administration.

2. American Association of Port Authorities. Committee on S 'hip
Channels and Harbors. Merchant Vessel Size in United States
Offshore Trades by the Year 2000. Washington, D. C.: The
American Association of Port Authorities, June 1969.
A report examining factors which influence merchant vessel
sizes. The report ectimates these sizes in the future insofar
as they affect U. S. seaports.
The report concludes that present harbor and port systems
can generally accommodate major changes in the containershin
trade. However, much larger tankers and dry bulk cargo vessels
than existing U. S. Atlantic ports can accommodate are already
producing major economies elsewhere in the world. The report
also concludes that the United States will inevitably find
ways to capture these economic opportunities by accommodating
much larger "super carriers" in the future. How this might
be done was not considered in this report.

3. American Association of Port Authorities. Committee on Ship
Channels and Harbors. National Channel Capability Study
Through the Year 2000. Washington, D. C.: American Association
of Port Authorities, SeDtember 1970.
A report summarizing the three-phase study of the Association
in terms of merchant vessel size in the United States offshore
trades, and ship channel capabilities for merchant vessels in
United States deepwater seaports through the year 2000.
The report concludes that a nationwide supership harbor de-
velopment problem does not exist and is not forseeable at this
time. Within the North Atlantic Region, however, the report
indicates that conditions for a cooperative regional approach
might well be developing.

4. Amundsen, Paul A. Remarks at a Seminar on "Modernization and
Development of Port Facilities and Intermodal Shipping Re-
quirements." Washington, D. C.: American Association of Port
Authorities.
A general discussion of the public port industry of the U. S.
-- its history, where it is going, and some of its problems.

U-256

5. Amundsen, Paul A. Statement to the Senate Committee on Finance
on H. R. 13270. Washington, D. C.: American AssociatLon of
Port Authorities.
The Executive Director of the Association raises the Issue
of Federal taxation of interest on State and Municipal bonds.
He discusses the destructive effects of such taxation on the
Nation's port system due to the ports' dependency upon local
tax exempt issues to insure their progress.

6. Atomic Energy Commission Thermal Effects - a Potential Problem
in Perspective. (mimeographed reprint): 1969.
This reprint discusses some studies of thermal effects on
aquatic environments. This text was presented before congres-
sional hearings on the environmental effects of producing
electrical power.

7. Baird, Federick T., Jr. and Dow, Robert L. The Marine Sport
Fishery and Resource in Maine. Augusta, Maine: Department
of Sea and Shore Fisheries, December 1966.
A quick glance at sport fishing in Maine, including des-
criptions of gamefish resources, data on seasonal and geo-
graphical availability of marine life, and listings of
launching facilities.

8. Bascom, Willard. Waves and Beaches, the Dynamics of the Ocean
Surface. (Science Study Series S 34). Garden City, New York:
Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964.
A general description of coastal features -- beaches, waves,
tides, etc. -- and their relationships.

9. Battelle Memorial Institute. Development of U. S. Continental
Shelves. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office,
April 1966.
Estimates of the economic value of major uses of the
coastal zone.

10. Beck, Frederick M. Marine Challenges Encountered by a Small
Mine on the Maine Coast. A reprint of a paper for the Off-
shore Technology Conference, 1970.
A paper describing some of the environmental and pollution
problems encountered by Callahan Mining Corporation in
operating their Penobscot Mine on the Maine Coast.

11. Betson, Roger P. and Buckingham, Robert A. (Tennessee Valley
Authority). Fecal Coliform Concentrations in Stormwaters.
(mimeographed).
A study to determine the extent of bacteriological quality
problems in storm runoff as a result of urbanization.

U-257

12. Bogue, Donald J., and Beale, Calvin L. Economic Areas of the
United States. New York, New York: The Free Press of
Glencoe, Inc., 1961.
A comprehensive description of the economic areas of the
U. S. This volume outlines the economic area system of
delineation and covers statistics for population, manufacturing
and transportation, physical characteristics and climate, and
natural resources and agriculture, for economic regions,
subregions, and state economic areas.

13. Bower, Blair, T., et al. Waste Management.,_ Generation and
Disposal of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Wastes in the New York
Region. A Report of the Second Regional Plan. New York,
New York: Regional Plan Association, 1968.
An analysis of waste management in the Greater New York
area between 1965 and 2000.
The analysis indicates that waste disposal problems need
not require limiting population growth in order to protect
the environment and that the costs of managing wastes vary
greatly with the quality achieved and the methods selected.

14. Brady, Derek I., et al. Future Use of the Chesapeake Bay for
Cooling Thermal Discharges. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns
Hopkins Press, July 1969.
A study conducted by seminar students who utilized their
collective knowledge in the fields of engineering, geography,
oceanography, fluid mechanics and biology to examine the
future use of the Chesapeake Bay for cooling thermal dis-
charges.

15. Brown, Charles L. 'and Clark, Robert. "Observations on Dredging
and Dissolved Oxygen in a Tidal Waterway". Water Resources
Research. Vol. 4, No. 6, December 1968.
The results of a survey of Arthur Kill waters to determine
the effects of dredging on dissolved oxygen concentrations.

16. Brown, Harrison; Bonner, James; and Weir, John. The Next
Hundred Years. New York: The Viking Press, March 1969.
A discussion of long-range considerations of the earth's
resources between faculty of the California Institute of
Technology and the chief executives'of several of America's
major corporations.

17. Brown, Robert P., and Smith, David D. Marine Disposal of Solid
Wastes, An Interim Summary. La Jolla, California: Dilling-
ham Corporation, 1970.
An interim report on work being conducted to evaluate the
magnitude and significance of marine disposal operations as
well as to predict the future effects of increasing tonnages
of wastes disposed of at sea.

u-258

18. Buckmaster, Robert. Iowa's Dilimma - Or - The Iowa Dilemma.
American Societv of Civil Engineers, Sanitary Engineering
Division National Symposium. Washington, D. C. March 12,
1970.
In addressing a meeting of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, the Chairman of the Iowa Water Pollution Control
Commission comments on the Commission's role in developing
and implementing water quality standards for the State and how
the Commission's thinking differs from that of the FWPCA in
formulating water standards for individual states, particu-
larly Iowa.

19. Chapman, Wilbert McLeod. "Outer Boundaries of the Continental
Shelf". MTS Journal. Vol. 4, No. 3, May-June 1970. pp. 7-18.
A personal viewpoint of the present Law of the Sea. The
author expresses his opposition to changing the Law at this
time, and argues in favor of retaining the current definition
of the outer boundary to the continental shelf. The paper
also includes a good discussion of the status and potential
of the American fishing industry and recommendations for its
improvement.

20. Cheney, Philip B. The Development of a Procedure and Knowledge
Requirements for Marine Resource Planning,. Functional_�Lep
Two, Knowledge Requirements. Hartford, Connecticut: The
Travelers Research Corporation, February 1970.
A detailed description of the information and knowledge
requirements needed for use in overall coastal zone manage-
ment.

21. Cheney, Philip B., et al. An Approach and Plan for the Analysis
of Broad Scale Coastal Problems in the North Atlantic Region.
Hartford, Connecticut: The Travelers Research Corporation,
January 1970.
A summary of a preliminary analysis of present and antici-
pated coastal resource problems of the North Atlantic Coastal
Region. It contains (1) a brief description of the major
problems, (2) a conceptual framework developed for further
problem analysis, (3) a plan for the evaluation of problems
and their solutions, and (4) a plan for further information
collection and analysis.

22. Cheney, Philip B., et al. A Systems Analysis of Aquatic
Thermal Pollution and Its Implications. Vol. II, Technical
Report. Hartford, Connecticut: The Travelers Research
Corporation, January 1969.
A detailed report on aquatic thermal pollution and its
effects covering (1) production and disposal of waste heat,
(2) physical temperature and ecological effects of aquatic
waste heat disposal, (3) social effects Of aquatic temperature
increase, (4) public policy in managing waste heat production
and disposal, and (5) implications of thermal pollution control
for the coal industry.
U-259

23. Cheney, Philip B. and Smith, Frank A. A Systems_Anal@sis of
Aquatic Thermal Pollution and Its Implications. Vol. 1,
Summary Report. Hartford, Connecticut: The Travelers Research
Corporation, January 1969.
A summary of the results of a detailed technica 1 report on
aquatic thermal pollution and its effects.

24. Cicchetti, Charles J.; Seneca, Joseph J.; and Davidson', Paul.
The Demand and Supply of Outdoor Recreation, An Econometric
Analysi@. Rutgers State University, Bureau of Economic Re-
search, 1969
An econometric analysis considering (1) the nature of the
demand for outdoor recreation, (2) the identification problem,-
(3) a theoretical model for the outdoor recreation market, (4)
econometric and empirical relationships, (5.) policy implications
and conclusions, and (6) the estimation of recreation demand.

25. Clark, Allen F., Jr. The Impact of Increasing Vessel Sizes on
the Ports of the United States. Prepared for Presentation to
the American Petroleum Institute. March 1970.
A personal address to the American Petroleum Institute on
the effects of increasing ship sizes on the ports of the
United States. The author advocates a deep-draft offshore
regional port facility in Lower Delaware Bay.

26. Clawson, Marion and Knetsch, Jack L. Economics of Outdoor
Recreation. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press,
1966.
An analysis of outdoor recreation describing its charac-
teristics, demand, resource utilization, economic considera-
tions and future planning.
This initial application of economic analysis to outdoor
recreation presents a general analytical framework and methods
of analysis for decisionmaking on recreation policy issues.
Among its more enduring contributions are the extensive dis-
cussion of the nature and elements of recreation demand, and
the economic considerations of natural resource evaluation,
cost and investment, and.pricing of outdoor recreation
facilities...

27. Connecticut Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Connecticut Comprehensive Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plan,
1965-1970. 1965.
- A proposal for a 5-year action program to provide outdoor
recreational'facilities for the State. It considers present
and future demand, supply, and requirements, and offers a
program to meet those needs.

U-260

28.. Connecticut Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources.'
Connecticut Comvrehensive Statewide outdoor Recreation Plan,
1968 Supplement. 1968.
A report measuring the adequacy of Connecticut's recreation
.facilities by activity, geogranhic area and sector of re-
sponsibility. It suggests general priorities for action.

29. Connecticut Development Commission. Connecticut Marine and
Yacht Club Directory. 1970.
A listing of marinas and yacht clubs on Connecticut's lakes
and rivers and on Long Island Sound.

30.- Cooke, Robert F. "Modern Concepts of Ocean Transportation of
Petroleum". ASME New York City, New York: American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, June 1, 1967. 67-TRAN-24.
.A review of the broad problem of transporting petroleum
across ocean waters. Recent technical developments In ships,
ports and terminals are surveyed, the trans-shipment terminal
concept is introduced, and details of Gulf Oil's plan to uti-
lize this concept at Bantry Bay, Ireland are given.

31. Coordinating Governmental Coastal Activities. A Report by the
Task Group on Interagency Coordination, Federal-State Rela-
tionships and-Legal Problems (COSREL) of the Committee on
Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone, National Council on Marine
Resources and Engineering Development. September 1968. 2 vols.
A comprehensive report in two parts, this study identifies
and analyzes (1) basic problems of federal agencies in
coordinating their activities in the coastal zone, (2) areas
of improvement between federal and state activities, and (3)
major legal conflicts. An analysis and about 50 recommenda-
tions are presented.

32. Council on Environmental Quality. Ocean Dumping, A National
Policy. A report to the President prepared by the Council
of Environmental nuality. Washington, D. C.: Government
Printing Office, October 1970.
A report inventorying the sites, quantities and composition
of wastes dumped, and analyzing trends. It outlines effects
of these waste materials on the marine environment, discusse
alternatives to ocean dumping, and considers legislative
control and international aspects of ocean disposal.
The report finds that the volume of wastes dumped in the
ocean is rapidly increasing and will continue to increase in
the near future, that knowledge of ocean pollution is rudi-
mentary giving reason for significant concern, and that a
program of phasing out all harmful forms of ocean dumping
and prohibiting new sources is feasible without greatly
increased costs.

U-261

33. Cronin, L. Eugene; Gunter, Gorden;and Hopkins, Sewell H. Effects
of Engineering Activities on Coastal Ecology, Interim Repo rt.
September 1969.
An interim report reviewing ecological effects of the
various types of engineering activities related to the Corps.
The review is based on visits to selected areas in Florida
and South Carolina, pertinent literature, and a visit to the
Waterways Experiment Station. A tentative listing of Corps-
related activities is presented, with preliminary analysis
and evaluation of the ecological effects.

34. Darnton, Bonald C. and Meiburg, Charles 0. The Contributions
of the Ports of Virginia to the Economy of the Commonwealth.
Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia, Bureau
of Population and Economic Research, Graduate School of
Business Administration. October 1968.
A study of the contributions that Virginia's ports make to
the economy of the State. Changes in method and scope that
set this study apart from previous reports include: expan-
sion of activities covered, updated employment estimates for
port and non-port-related industries, and a more definitive
estimate of the employment multiplier.

35. Davis, Robert K. The Range of Choice in Water Management, A
Study of Dissolved Oxygen in the Potomac Estuary. Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.
A book, using the Potomac estuary as its study case,
illustrating the application of economic analysis in deter-
mining alternative processes for water quality management.
The author systematically critiques the water quality part
of a multipurpose Federal interagency study directed by the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and completed in 1963 for the
Potomac Basin.
Emphasis is placed on inadequacies in the definition of
quality standards and the systemizing of alternatives for
meeting these standards. The author does not evaluate the
many other aspects of water quality control (sedimentation,
toxic and exotic materials, super nutrification, thermal
energy, etc.) nor does the basic Corps report. The author
also does not evaluate the other multiple uses, besides
water quality, which were included in the basic report such
as recreation, water supply, flood control and others.

36. Delaware River Basin Report. Vol. 5, Appendix J (Fish and Wil&--
life Resources) and Appendix K (Use and Management of Land
and Cover Resources). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: U. S.
Army Engineer District, December 1960.
A report covering the Basin's fish and wildliferesources.
It discusses an integrated plan for the control and utili-
zation of the Basin's water resources.

u-262

37. Delaware River Basin Report. Vol. 9, Appendix P (Gross and
Net Water Needs), Appendix Q (Formation of the Plan of De-
velopment), Appendix R (Water Control at intermediate Up-
stream Levels), and Appendix S (Salt Water Barrier) .
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: U. S. Army Engineer District,
December 1960.
The four appendices contained in this volume cover the
following: gross withdrawal needs for all demands on the
water resources of the Delaware River Basin; the formation
of an optimum plan for the comprehensive long-range develop-
ment of the water resources of the Basin; p3tential water
control measures at intermediate upstream levels; and, an
analysis of the economic feasibility of a barrier in the
Delaware estuary.

38. Dow, Robert L. Sources of Pollution Affecting the Maine Shell-
fish Industry Tnd Coastal Recreation. Statement before the
Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution, June 1965.
A statement of pollution effects along the Maine Coast.
It contains information on the effects of various pesticides.

39. Economic Associates, Inc. The Economic PoteLltial of the Mineral
and Botanical Resources of the U. S. Continental Shelf and
Slope. Springfield, Virginia: Clearinghouse, September 1968.
PB 180 118.
An initial survey of the mineral and botanical resources of
the U. S. continental margins, including their occurrence,
the technology available for finding and exploiting them,
the need for such exploitation, and relevant federal program

40. Eisenbud, Merril. "Errjironmental Protection in the City of New
York". Science. Vol. 170, November 13, 1970. pp. 706-712.
An article on pollution in New York and how various programs
of the Environmental Protection Administration have fared
during its first two years in operation.

41. Eisenbud, Merril. (Remarks) Proceedings of the Third Session
Conference in the Matter of Pollution of the Interstate Waters
of the Hudson River and its Tributaries. New York, New York.
June 18-19, 1969.
Views on existing water pollution control projects and con-
trol efforts of the future. The author discusses the need to
deal with estuarine water pollution problems as a system of
several interrelated parameters. He makes particular reference
to New York City's current program of water pollution control
and its effect on the lower Hudson.

U-263

42. Ellis, Robert H., et al. The Dev@lopment of a Procedure and
Knowledge Requirements Cor Marine Resource Planning. Func-
tional-Step One, The Classification of Marine Resource Pro-
blems of Nassau and Suffolk Counties. Hartford, Connecticut:
The Travelers Research Corporation, May 1969.
A report presenting a brief summary of marine ' resource
problems which were identi'fied as Important by Long Island
citizens and which were described within the framework pro-
vided by the problem classification method.

43. Environmental Quality. First Annual Report of the Council on
Environmental Quality. Washington, D.. C.: Government
Printing Office, August 1970.
First report by the Council to the Congress on the state of
the Nation's environment describing the conditions and iden-
tifying major trends, problems,courses of action, and present
and future requirements.
The report concentrates almost entirely on various forms of
pollution -- water, air, solid wastes, noise, pesticides,
radiation. Brief attention is also given to natural resources
and land use. Little attention is given to some environmental
aspects such as outdoor recreation and aesthetic appreciation
except as they relate peripherally to some aspect of pollution.
Within its context the report offers a sobering overview and
carefully points out alternative viewpoints. Present and
future environmental needs are summarized as (1) a conceotual
framework, (2) stronger institutions, (3) financial reform,
(4) pollution control curbs, (5) monitoring and research,
(6) a system of priorities, and (7) comprehensive policies.

44. George Washington University. Shoreline Recreation Resources
of the United States. (ORRRC Study Report 4). Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1962.
A report studying three aspects: shoreline recreation
needs - now and for the years 1976 and 2000; current and
future status of recreation resources; and, programs and
policies to meet present and future demands.

45. cross, M. Grant. "New York Metropolitan Region - A Major
Sediment Source". Water Resources Research. Vol. 6, No. 3,
June 1970. pp. 927-931.
An article giving an account of offshore solid waste dis-
posal operations in the New York area from 1960 to 1968 and
evaluating the city as a sediment source in comparison with
natural sediment sources in the region.
Approximately 9.6 million tons per year of waste solids,
including dredged sediment and construction debris from the
New York Metropolitan region, were dumped in New York Bight and
in western Long Island Sound be'tween 1960 and 1968. This was
apparently the largest sediment source discharging directly
into the North Atlantic Ocean (excluding the Gulf of Mexico)
from the North American continent.

U-264

46. Harold F. Wise and Associates, Inc. SOULe Economic Factors Af-
f.(@cLjag_the Estuarine Zone, IncludiiZpMarket Outlooks for
Selected Products. WashiLIgton, D.C.: Harold F. Wise and
Associates, Inc., December 1969.
A discussion focusing on some identifiable patterns of
present and near-future economic actLvities related to the
estuarine resources of the country as a whole. It uses
specific estuarine areas as examples of commercial fisheries,
outdoor recreation and waterborne COMnLerce.

47. Hoult, David P. (ed.). Oil on the Sea. Proceedings of a
symposium on the scientific and engineering aspects of oil
pollution of the sea, sponsored by Massachusetts Institute
of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and
held at CambrLdge, Massachusetts, May 1969. New York-London:
Plenum Press, 1969.
A summary of current understanding of the problem of oil on
the sea. The topics include biologic,it effects, engineering
problems, development of supertankers for transport, and the
federal government's role in controlling oil pollution at sea.

48. Institute of Technology Studv Groups. "Study Group Estimates
Amounts of Oil Pollution by Sources." Water Spectrum. Vol.
2, No. 3,(Fall) 1970.
An article summarizing the work of one of the study groups
at a symposium sponsored by Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. The group estimated the amount of oil being
introduced into the world's waters by man in terms of tons
per year and percent of the totals.

49. Interstate Sanitation Commission [New York, New Jersey,
Connecticut]. Water Pollution Control Activities and the
Interstate Air Pollution Program, 1969. New York, New York:
Interstate Sanitation Commission, 1969.
A record of the water and air pollution activities of the
Commission.

50. Johnson, Peter L. Wetlands Preservation. New York City: Open
Space Institute, 1969.
A look into the problem of preserving coastal and other
wetlands. Attention is given to economic considerations,
methods of protection, legal regulations and proposed legis-
lative controls. Although the report concentrates primarily
on the situation in Long Island, the thoughts developed are
applicable to any area. An extensive appendix contains many
examples of current legislation regarding wetland protection
in the New England area.

51. Keil, A. 11., et al. Economic Aspects of Solid,Waste Disposal
at Sea. (Economic Aspects of Ocean Activities, Vol. III.)
A report on the problem of disposing of solid wastes, a

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problem confronting large coastal cities. The report shows
under what conditions solid waste disposal at sea becomes
economic.

52. Krenkel, Peter A..and Parker, Frank L. (eds.). Biological As-
pects of Thermal Pollution. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt
University Press, 1969.
The formal papers and discussions presented at the first of
two symposia on thermal pollution which were co-sponsored by
Vanderbilt University and the FWPCA. The symposium was de-
signed to bring together all those concerned with thermal
pollution problems, to encourage an exchange of knowledge and
experience, and to stimulate research.

53. Lauff, George H. (ed.). Estuaries. (AAAS Publication No. 83).
Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 1967.
A compilation of research papers on estuarine research.
Subject matter includes physical factors and geomorphology,
sedimentation, microbiota, nutrients and biological production,
ecology and populations, fisheries, and human influences.

54. League of Women Voters of the United States. "Where Rivers Meet
the Sea." Facts and Issues. February 1970.
A discussion on estuaries outlining their nature and pro-
ductivity, their problems from physical change and pollution,
the requirements needed to halt their destruction, and the
measures being taken by state and local agencies to protect
them.

55. Lutjen, George P. "Marconaflo-the System and the Concept."
Engineering and Mining Journal. May 1970.
An article reporting the successful use of the slurry
process for moving iron ore to and from offshore platforms.
The process is'also reported feasible for coal and other
bulk products.

56. Maine Coastal Plan. Phase 1, Interim Planning Report. Augusta,
Maine: State Planning Office, February 6, 1970.
A progress report on the first part of a work program de-
signed to study Maine's coastal area. Major attention,is
given to the formation of a Coastal Planning Advisory Task
Force.

57'. Maine Register 1969-70. Portland,Maine: Tower Publishing
Company, 1969.
A compilation of statistical and organizational data on the
state of Maine.

58. Maine State Park and Recreation Commission. Comprehensive Out-
door Plan for Maine. Portland, Maine: University of Maine
Press, November 1966.

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The stu-1y e\,altiaLes-existing outdoor recroation facilities,
assesses CUrrent and future recreation resource requirements,
estimate. rhe ftiLcire demand to 1975, and provides immediate
and long-range actLon programs for planning and development.

59. Marine Science Aff.iirs - A Year of Broadened Participation. The
Third Report of the President to the Congress on Marine Re-
sources and Engineering Development. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, Januacy 1969.
The Naticnal Council on Marine Resources and Engineering
Development reports on its third year of activities, sum-
marizing progress made during the past years, noting current
accomplishments of various governmmital agencies engaged in
marine sciences, and describing Federal programs and budgets
proposed for FY '71.
The coastal zone portion of the report suggests ways of en-
hancing benefits by improved conservation and recreation,
water quality, coastal engineering activities, planned use,
multiagency programs, and a strenLtheited institutional frame-
work. A program for the Great Lakes and MUltiple use of
Chesapeake Bay are also discussed briefly.

60. Marine Science Affairs - A Year of Plans and Progress. The
Second Report of the President to the Congress on Marine Re-
sources and Engineering Development. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, March 1968.
A review of the programs and accomplishments of the Federal
Government for utilizing the oceans more effectively. Focus
is on those programs in marine sciences that expand inter-
national cooperation and understanding, facilitate transport
and trade, accelerate use of food from the sea, encourage
development of non-living resources,and utilize the resources
of the coastal zone.

61. Marine Technology Society. Marine Tec@n
@12Zy 1970. (Trans-
actions of the 6th Annual Conference & Exposition). Washington,
D.C. June 29-July 1, 1970. 2 vols.
Papers presented at the Society's 6th Annual Conference and
Exposition. The Society is an international interdisciplinary
organization founded to provide a ineans of communication among
those concerned with the investigation, use and management of
oceans. Its members are scientists, engineers, lawyers and
others who work with the marine environment.

62. Marsden, Howard J. "The Regional Approach to Port Development
Planning." Panel discussion on proposed Regional Port Studies
by the Federal Government. Washington, D.C.: American Society
of Civil Engineers, July 22, 1969.
A discussion of federal activities, specifically related to
port and harbor development. It briefly describes the functions
and actions of the Water Resources Council, the U.S. Army Corps

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of Engineers, the National Council on Marine Resources and
Engineering Development, and the Commission on Marine Science,
Engineering and Resources.

63. Maryland Department of State Planning and Maryland Department of
Natural Resources. Maryland's Water Resources, Management Re-
quirements in the Susquehanna Chesapeake Bay Basin. (Appendix
B to the Susquehanna River Basin Coordinating Committee Study).
A study of Maryland's resource management objectives and
water requirements relating to planning and development of the
Susquehanna River and its estuary, the Chesapeake Bay.
This is an examination of the effects on water quality in
Chesapeake Bay of possible changes in the quantity and quality
of inflow from the Susquehanna to include dampening out high
and low flow extremes, diverting flow to Baltimore for water
supply,and consumptive upstream losses especially through
thermal power uses. Changes in Bay water quality are rela-
tively predictable, but the significance of these changes on
marine life and on the uses of the Bay are still largely un-
known. The report concludes that probably the best strategy
is a cautious skimming of flood crests and an augmentation of
the lower flowg.

64. 14aryland's Water Resources Management R@@quirements in the Sus-
quehanna-Chesapeake Bay Basivi Baltimore, Maryland; Depart-
ment of State Planning, December 1969.
A discussion similar to item 63.

65. Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources. Division of
Marine Fisheries. Annual Report. Boston, Massachusetts.
1969.
A year-end report of financial and research activities with
appendices on shellfish and lobster catches, and statistics
on 1968 weir-trap and pound net landings by species.

66. Massachusetts House. Second Interim Report of the Special
Commission on the Boston Harbor Islands. (No. 4884.)
February 1970.
A summary of the findings of a study undertaken by MIT
faculty for the Massachusetts Legislature's Special Commission
on,Boston Harbor Islands. It highlights the potential uses
of the Islands and outlines various alternatives for their
development.

67. Massachusetts Public Access Board. Annual Renort, julv 1,
1968 to June 30, 1969. 1969.
A progress report and financial statement of the Board
a functioning body within the Dept. of Natural Resources
whose main responsibility is to consider and then designate
points of access to Massachusetts waters.

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68. Maton, Gilbert L. et al. A Perspective of Regional and State
Marine Environmental Activities. A Ouestionnaire Survey,
Statistics and Observations. Springfield, Virginia: Clear-
inghouse, February 29, 1958. PB 177 765
A report presenting data and information resulting from a
marine environment activities survey of the coastal states
and the states bordering on the Great Lakes. The survev
sought to identify organization, functions and Perspectives
of various governmental agencies involved in marine environ-
mental activities.

69. McHarg, Ian L. Design with Nature. Garden City, New York: The
Natural History Press, 1969.
A landscape architect and city planner explores the rela-
tionship between man and his environment. The author re-
counts how our natural environment has been polluted and de-
stroyed by misuse of modern technology and demonstrates how
and why ecological research and design should be used in
determining future environmental planning and management.

70. Moore, J. Jamison (Executive Director, Modern Management,
Beverly Hills). The Ocean: An Economic Perspective III.
A presentation contained in item 61. It discusses three
general surveys carried on by this company concerning the
progressive development of ocean oriented industries and
marine activities. It concludes that the 70's will see an
accelerated period of growth in the field of oceanography.

71. Murawski, Walter S. A Study of Submeraed Dredge Holes in New
Jersey Estuaries with Respect to Their Fitness as Finfish
Habitat. New Jersey: Department of Conservation and
Economic Development, October 1969.
An examination of the results of dredging operations in
New Jersey estuaries with specific attention to abandoned
borrow areas to determine the value of these holes as fin-
fish habitat. Several water quality parameters were measured,
and an analysis of the bottom muds for vhysico-chemical pro-
perties was made.

72. Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board. Existing Land Use.
(Comprehensive Plan Series). February 1968.
A survey of all existing uses of land, both public and
private, in the counties of Nassau and Suffolk, New York,
with the information tabulated according to municipalitv,
and school district.

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73. National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering.
Committee on Oceanography and Committee on'Ocean Engineering.
Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, Requirements
for Research and Investigation. Washington, D. C'.: National
Academy of Sciences-National Academy of-Engineering, 1970.
An evaluation of scientific and engineering requirements for
research on effective coastal wastes management. It includes
physical processes, chemical and biological factors, general
recommendations and suggested priorities.
The report summarizes the state of knowledge of waste
management with particular emphasis on monitoring systems.
It presents a specific priority-oriented program of research
and investigation with estimates of the minimum level of
effort required.

74. National Water Commission 'Annual Report for-1969. Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1970.
A description of the Commission's activities from its
organization in 1968 through the end of 1969. Major emphasis
is on the formulation of their program of special studies.

75. New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission.
Annual Report on Interstate Water Pollution Control. Boston,
Massachusetts: New England Interstate Water Pollution Control
Commission, 1968 & 1969.
A summary of -the year's activities in water pollution abate-
ment in interstate waters. It emphasizes the Commission's
reevaluation of its authorltv, capability and future role in
meeting the needs of the member states.

76. New England Marine Resources, Information 1. Narragansett,
Rhode Island: Pell Marine Science Library, May 1.969.
The first of a series of monthly bulletins on marine-related
activities and issues that affect the six New England sLates.
It is published by the New England Marine Resources Information
Program.

77. New England Marine Resources, Information 2. Narragansett,
Rhode Island: Pell Marine Science Library, June-July 1969.
A bulletin discussing one method of solid waste disposal
at sea, favored by Harvard and University of Rhode Island
researchers, that does not pollute the environment.

78. New England-New York Inter-Agency Committee. The Resources of
the New England-New York Region. Part Two, Chapter X (Maine
Coastal Area). 1954/1955.
A study representing part of the Technical Report of a larger
work on New England-New York Region Resources. It deals
exclusively with the Maine coastal area. Included in its
survey are the topics of economic development, water supply
and resources, plans for pollution control, power development,
and land, recreation, fishery and wildlife resources.

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79. New Hampshire State Planning Office. Economic Impact of Re-
creation,- Vacation and Travel on New Hampshire. (New Hamp-
shire State Planning Project, Report No. 9). July 1965.
An estimate and appraisal of the recreation-tourist activity
in the state as related to the recreation market, recreation-
tourist serving businesses, vacation home ownership, and the
contributions of these activities to the state's economy.

80. New Hampshire State Planning Office. The New Hampshire Out-
door Recreation Plan. (New Hampshire State Planning Project,
Report No. 13). October 1965.
An evaluation and analysis of present outdoor recreational
resources and facilities in the state with recommended acti-
vities for future utilization.

81. New Jersey. Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission.
Hackensack Meadowlands Reclamation and Development Act. 1969.
A digest, map and print of an act which provides for the
reclamation, planning, development and redevelopment of the
Hackensack Meadowlands.

82. New Jersey Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, Summary Report.
New Jersey: Department of Conservation and Economic Development.
A report synopsizing a series of interrelated studies com-
prising the New Jersey Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan.
The plan analyzes the major aspects of outdoor recreation and
provides background data for comprehensive planning for future
development of the State's recreational facilities.

83. New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development.
New Jersey Comprehensive Outdoor Receation Plan, Report 10,
The Action Plan. New Jersey: Department of Conservation and
Economic Development.
An in-depth studv of the urgent need for more recreation
land and developed facilities for the State and an outline of
a 6-year State program to meet that demand.

84. New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development.
New Jersey's Shore - An Inventory and Analysis of Land Use.
February 1966.
A study of the Jersey shore to evaluate its capacity in
meeting present and future recreational requirements.
One of the few available studies focusing on coastal re-
creation, this study presents a broad range of recreational
problems and conflicts in a recreation-oriented economy and
outlines possibilities for future development and planning.

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85. New York Department of Conservation. New York Statewide Com-
prehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan,_Municipa: bility.
October 1966.
The second of a three-Dart report by the State on outdoor
recreation planning. This volume discusses local adminis-
tration and responsibility, and reports on the resources,
supply, demand, needs and action programs for municival out-
door recreation.

86. New York Department of Conservation. New York Statewide Com-
prehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, State Responsibility.
May 1966.
The first of a three-part report. This volume emphasizes
planning at the State level, includes a brief description of
local needs and programs, and makes reference to private out-
door recreation developments.

87. New York Department of Conservation. New York Statewide Com-
prehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, The Role of Private
Enterprise.
October 1966.
The third of a three-part report. This volume considers the
present and potential contributions of private enterprise and
organizations to outdoor recreation.

88. New York State Office of Planning Coordination. Metropolitan
New York District Office. Long Island Sand and Gravel Mining.
July 1970.
A study of the Long Island sand and gravel industry. It
summarizes current mining practices and land rea 'uirements
and outlines recommendations for the industry's proper
utilization of resources and land use.

89. O'Brien, James J. (Excerpts of remarks). Texts and Excerpts
of Remarks by Speakers at the Recreational Boating Pollution
Symposium. Washington, D. C. March 23-23, 1970. p. 7.
Comments on the significance of pollution from boat sources
as compared to other sources.
Two discussions are noteworthy: one outlines the antici-
pated role of the Coast Guard in enforcement and adminis-
tration of the Water Oualitv Improvement Act; the second
considers the mechanics of enforcing the Boat Pollution
Control Act in New York State.

90. Oceanographic Atlas of the North Atlantic Ocean. Section 1,
Tides and Currents. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Naval Oceano-
graphic Office, 1965.
Part of the U. S. Naval OceanograDhic Office's series of
atlases on all ocean areas. This section is devoted to tide
and current information for the North Atlantic.

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91. Odum, H. T.: Copeland, B. T.; and McHanan, Elizabeth, A. (eds.).
Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States, A Source
Book for Estuarine Planning. Moorhead CitV, North Carolina:
University of North Carolina, Institute of Marine Sciences,
1969. 3 vols.
A comprehensive summary of the status of knowledge of
coastal ecosvstems in the United States. The book identifies,
characterizes and documents examples of each important tVpe
of system and makes general recommendations for further study
and management.

92. Offshore Mineral Resources, A Challenge and an OpportunitV.
Second Report of the President's Panel on Oil Spills.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.
A summary of findings and recommendations bv the President's
Panel on Oil Spills concerning offshore mineral resources de-
velopment.

93. Ortolano, Leonard. Ouality St ndards for the Coastal Waters of
Long Island, New York. A Presentation to the Marine Re-
sources Council, Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board under
Sea Grant Project GH-63, National Science Foundation. Hart-
ford, Connecticut: The Center for Environment and Man, Inc.,
April 1970.
A report on the nature and use of water quality standards
in relationship to the coastal zone management of Nassau and
Suffolk Counties. It discusses the process and manner in
which water classifications are used, features of New York
State's water quality standards, how the Counties' coastal
waters are classified, and whether the waters meet their
use classification.

94. Ortolano, Leonard and Brown, Philip S., Jr. The Movement and
Quality of Coastal Waters: A Review of Models Relevant to
Long Island, New York. Hartford, Connecticut: The Center
for the Environment and Man, Inc., July 1970.
A report, prepared for the Marine Resources Council of the
Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, focusing on models
that are potentiallv applicable to the Long Island coastal
environment and its problems.

95. Our Nation and The Sea, A Plan for National Action. Report of
the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, January 1969.
4 vols.
A broad studv of the Nation's marine environment. Current
and proposed marine activities are reviewed and evaluated.
The report is offered as a recommended national marine pro-
gram and a governmental reorganization plan.
Some 122 recommendations are presented on the national
capability in the sea, management of the coastal zone (22

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recommendations), marine resources, the global environment,
teclincial and operating services and the organization of a
national ocean effort. The most significant recommendations
call for a restructuring of federal non-defense agencies with
major marine missions under a proposed National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Agency reporting directly to the President.
The most significant coastal zone recommendations call for
federal grant assistance to the coastal states to stimulate
the creation of comprehensive coastal planning and management
focused at the state level with higher and lower levels of
government playing supporting roles. Panel reports in three
volumes supplement the basic report.

96. Outdoor Recreation Uses of Coastal Areas. (New England Marine
Resources Information Program Publication No. 1). Narragansett,
Rhode Island: Pell Marine Science Library, June 1969.
A broad review of the nature and dimensions of the problem
of marine recreation and the general direction of solutions.
Specific attention is given to the coastal zone where the
recreational resource base is centered.

97. Parker, Frank L. and Krenkel, Peter A. Thermal Pollution:
Status of the Art. Nashville, Tennesses: Vanderbilt
University, National Center for Research and Training in
the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Aspects of Water Pollution
Control, December 149.
A revort discussing the effects of temperature on aquatic
organisms and on water auality in general. Consideration is
given to the beneficial effects of heat additions as well as
to a comparison of the various methods of cooling water, i.e.,
towers, and their associated advantages and disadvantages.

98. Peter, Walter G. III. "New York Bight, A Case Study, Part V.
Bioscience. Vol. 20, No. 10, May 15, 1970. pp. 617-619.
An article, first of a two-part report, examining the
conflict-between the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and U. S.
Congressman Richard Ottinger regarding the problem of pollution
in the New York Bight caused by prolonged dumping operations.
A brief summary is given of the reDort on pollution conditions
existing in the Bight prepared by the Sandy Hook Marine Labo-
ratory of the U. S. Bureau of Sports Fish and Wildlife for
the Corps.

99. Peter, Walter G. III. "New York Bight: A Case Study, Part IV.
Bioscience. Vol. 20, No. 11, June 1, 1970. pp. 669-671.
The second part'of a report on waste disposal effects in
the New York Bight. This section focuses attention on the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers' policy in the light of-the
Sandy Hook study into the problem. It also discusses regu-
lation and criteria for granting dumping and dredging permits,
and questions the effectiveness of federal agencies in dealing
with environmental protection.

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100. Philip B. Herr and Associates. Final Report, Cape Cod National
Seashore Impact Study. Boston, Massachusetts: Philip B.
Herr and Associates, 1969. '
An analysis of the Lower Cape region since the establish-
ment of the Cape Cod National Seashore in 1961. The economic
impact upon the area is examined and potential effects are
projected.
This comparative economic assessment of the impact of the
national seashore on six towns of the Lower Cape revealed
marginal, rather than fundamental, changes in the local
economy. Effects were chiefly on land values, and showed
little effect on jobs, population and taxation.

101. Planning for Lower Manhattan. New York, New 7ork: Downtown-
Lower Manhattan Association, Inc., 1969.
A report on the growth and continuing expansion of the
Lower Manhattan area outlining both long-term and shore-term
proposals for future development. Recommendations cover
improvements in mass transit, pedestrain and vehicular
traffic, parking, and land use.

102. Port Development Expenditure Survey, United States, Puerto
Rico, Canada, with a supplement on Latin America. (January
1, 1946 to December 31, 1965, including projections January
1, 1966 to December 31, 1970.) Washington, D. C.: The
American Association of Port Authorities.
A survey of North American port development covering a
25-year period (including projections for January 1966
to December 1970). The survey compiles and analyzes data
on capital expenditures for marine facilities in principal
ports of the U. S., Puerto Rico, Canada and Latin America.

103. Port of New York Authority. The Port of New York Authority
Facilities.
Aerial photographs' and brief statistical data describing
the terminals and transportation facilities of the Port of
New York Authority.

104. Proceedings, Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of
Oil Spills. (Publication 4040). New York, New York:
American Petroleum Institute, 1970.
Technical papers and major addresses presented at a
conference on oil spill prevention and control co-sponsored
by the FWPCA and the American Petroleum Institute. Objec-
tives of the conference were to define the overall dimensions
of the oil spill problem, explore the present state-of-the-
art, and review relevant research and development efforts
of government and private industry, both here and abroad.

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105. Reid, George K. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries. New
York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1961.
An introduction to the elemental factors and processes
that operate in lakes, streams, and estuaries as dynamic
systems. Organized into five parts, the book covers (1)
origins and features of basins and channels, (2) the nature
of water, (3) natural waters as environment, (4) organisms
in the environment, and (5) relationships of organisms and
environment.

106. Rhode Island Development Council. Rhode Island Recreation Guide
Plan. June 1965.
A program for the use, management, development and pre-
servation of the natural and cultural resources of the
state. It is intended to serve as a guide for action for
all levels of government as well as for private property owners.

107. Rhode Island Report of the Governor's Committee on the Coastal
Zone. Calvin B. Dunwoody, Chairman. March 1970
A study of the state's coastal zone. It outlines the zone's
characteristi1cs, relationship with governmental agencies,
and activities and related problems of land and water use.
It also analyzes the need for a resources management system
and provides attendant recommendations.

108. Rhode Island Statewide Comprehensive Transportation and Land Use
Planning Program. Public Right-of-Way to the Shore. March
1970.
A study'expanding on the data containe'd in an earlier report
(1958) on discovering the public rights-of-way to water areas
of the state. The study is divided into three sections and
an appendix. Part I summarizes the case law and legislation
relating to the public rights-of way. Part II is an inventory
and analysis of the rights-of-way for each municipality.
Part III recommends further legislative and administrative
actions. Aerial photographs and descriptions of each right-
of-way constitute the appendix.

109. Rorholm, Niels, et al. Economic Impact of Marine-Oriented
Activities-A Study of the Southern New England Marine
Region. (Economics of Marine Resources, No. 7) Kingston,
Rhode Island: University of Rhode Island, 1967.
A report analyzing the economic impact of commercial
enterprises that depend upon the near-ocean environment for
their existence in a given locale. The report uses the
Southern New England Marine Region as its case study area.

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110.- Schuyler, Sonja and Heimerdinger, George. Continental Margin
Data Collection, Pilot Project. (Unpublished manuscript).
Washington, D. C.: Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, 1970.
A study to determine the extent and availability of a data
bank on U. S. continental margins that could be used bv HEW's
Bureau of Solid Waste Management for reference purposes. The
National Oceanographic Data Center conducted the study using
two pilot areas, one on the East Coast and one on the West
Coast.

111. Sherk, J. Albert, Jr. and Cronin, Eugene L. The Effects of
Suspended and Deposited Sediments on Estuarine Organisms. An
Annotated Bibliography of Selected References. Washington,
D. C.: U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, April 1970.
A set of abstracts and summaries of references on field
and laboratory studies of the biological effects of suspended
loads and deposited sediments in estuaries. Material which
deals specifically with coastal engineering projects and
offshore dumping of sewage sludge is included. A biblio-
graphy of bibliographies follows the annotated section.

112. Smith, F. A., et al. Fourteen Selected Marine Resource Problems
of Long Island, New York: Descriptive Evaluations. Hartford,
Connecticut: The Travelers Research Corporation, Januarv
1970.
This report identifies and evaluates fourteen previously
defined problems of the coastal marine environment that are
cause for concern on Long Island. The problems include
wetland destruction, domestic/industrial wastewater disposal,
thermal and oil spill pollution, pesticides, and solid waste
and dredging-spoil disposal.

113. Southeastern Regional Planning and Economic Development District
Overall Economic Develo2ment Program. Taunton, Mass.:
Southeastern Regional Planning and Economic Development
District, August 1969.
An evaluation of the Economic Development District Agency
in the southeastern part of Massachusetts. The agency's
responsibilities include law enforcement planning, highway
review, housing, pollution control study and direct services
to municipalities and community groups. The report analyses
the work of the Agency and recommends areas that need further
support.

114. Spinner, George P. A Plan for the Marine Resources of the
Atlantic Coastal Zone. American Geographical Society. 1969.
An examination of coastal marine resources with an emphasis
on the need to formulate new coastal wetland preservation
programs.
The text discussed the legal and economic aspects of coastal

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marine resources, some speci'fic examples of competing uses
of the coastal zone and their consequences, and goals for
preservation of the marine resource habitat. This is a
comprehensive review of the status of.,the marinexesources
of the Atlantic coastal zone.

115. Spinner, George P. "The Wildlife Wetlands and Shellfish Areas
of the Atlantic Coastal Zone. -Serial-AtlqLs of the Marine
Environment. (Folio 18). New York City, New York: The
American Geographical Societv, 1969.
A series of maps showing national and state wildlife refuges,
locally and privately owned conservation areas, and shellfish
waters of the Atlantic Coastal Zone.

116. Stover, Lloyd V. "Opportunities in the Sea,.Forecast of World
Ocean Objectives -- and When They Wi'11 be Reached". Ocean
Industry. August 1970. pp. 22-26.
A broad overview of oceanic trends.

117. Study of Means t o Revitalize the Connecticut Fisheries Industry.
General Dynamics Corp. Electric Boat Division. January 1968.
A review of the present status of the commercial fishing
industry in the.State. An estimate of the value of sport -
fishing to Connecticut is given; the present scope of the in-
dustry is described; the finfish market is evaluated; maricul-
ture and agriculture opportunities are outlined; and, govern-
ment legislation affecting fisheries is considered.

118.. Systems Ana'lysis and Research Corporation. Regional Transporta-
tion Needs. A report for the. New England Regional Commission.
Cambridge, Mass.: Systems Analysis and Research Corp., No-
vember 1968.
A study broadly surveying New England's transportation facil-
ities and requirements. It analyzes the transportation in-
dustry's response to these requirements and makes recommenda-
tions on public policy in the transportation field.

119. The Maine Coast, Prospects and Perspectives. Brunswick, Maine:
Center for Resource Studies, Bowdoin College, 1967.
A book containing speeches presented at a symposium on the
Maine coast. It includes discussions on economics; protection
of shore and wildlife; local, regional and state planning
measures; and, various action programs.

120. The Oil Spill Problem. First Report of the President's Panel
on Oil Spills. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
A report presenting panel recommendations and findings for
controlling oil spills beginning with a research and deploy-
ment program. It stresses ecological rese,arch and methods for
containment and disposal; describes'some of the 6nvironmental
effects of spilled oil; and outlines the need for federal, re-
gional, international and industrial regulation.

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121. Trident Engineering Associates, Inc. Chesnpeake Bay Case Study.
Springfield, Virginia: Clearinghouse, September 1968.
PB 179 844.
A study of the major uses of the Bay. The study focuses on
present problems of the Bay, its current uses and conflicts,
and previous efforts to control and improve its resources.
The study evaluates these efforts and provides specific rec-
ommendation for the future.

122. Tri-State Transportation Commission [Connecticut, New Jersey,
New York]. Managing the Natural Environment, a regional plan
for water, sewage, air and refuse. March 1970.
A report considering the problems of air and water pollution,
solid-waste disposal and water supply for the Tri-State Region.
It evaluates the need for a regional monitoring system.

123. Tri-State Transportation Commission [Connecticut, New Jersey,
New York]. Outdoor Recreation in a Crowded Region. Septem-
ber 1969.
A report summarizing extensive studies of recreational needs
for the Tri-State Region and providing a park and recreation
plan to meet future requirements.

124. Tri-State Transportation Commission [Connecticut, New Jersey,
New York]. Regional Development Guide, Goals and Plans for
the Tri-State Region. October 1968.
An outline of proposed long-range goals for regional plan-
ning and development for the Tri-State Region.

125. "Undersea dredge beats out floating competition". Engineering
News Record. July 9, 1970. p. 24.
An article describing the use of an undersea crawlcutter
dredge for excavating sand offshore for a beach nourishment
project in Florida.

126. U.S. Comptroller General. Examination into the Effectiveness
of the Construction Grant Program for Abating, Controlling,
and Preventing Water Pollution. Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1969.
An examination into the effectiveness of the construction
grant program of the Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration for abating, controlling and preventing water pollu-
tion.
The report concludes that the system of awarding construction
grants on a readiness-to-proceed hasis is much less efficient
than a system of awards based upon a project's contribution
to the attainment of approved water quality use standards.
The report advocates regional systems analysis and provides
several examples, the most notable being on the Merrimack
River in New Hampshire and Massachusetts.

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127. U.S. Congress. House. Laws of the United States Relating@ - to
Water Pollution Control and Environmental Quality. Committee
Print (91-93), 91st Cong., 2d sess. July 1970.
An up-to-date compilation'of legislation developed by the
U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Public'Works in
the field of water pollution control and environmental quality.
The compilation includes the Federal-Water Pollution Control
Act and its numerous amendments, the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969, and the Environmental Quality Improvement
Act of 1970.

128. U.S. Congress. House. Offshore Oil Pollution. @H. Doc. No.
91-340, 91st Cong., 2d sess. May 20, 1970.
A message from President Nixon transmitting recommendations
for Congressional action to reduce the risks of oil pollution.

129. U.S. Congress. House. Our Waters and Wetlands: How the Corps
of Engineers Can Help-Prevent Their Destruction and Pollution.
H.R. No. 91-917, 91st Cong., 2d sess. 1970.
A study by the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on
Government Operations. The study examines several a@pects of
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' role in carrying out its
responsibilities for protecting the nation's water areas and
recommends how the Corps can lessen.pollution.

130. U.S. Congress. House. Phosphates in Detergents and the Eutro-
phication of America's Waters. H.R. No. 91-1004, 91st Cong.,
2d sess. 1970.
A critical examination of eutrophication caused by phos-
phorus. Phosphate in detergents is considered the major con--
tributor to eutrophication. Focus is on the detergent indus-
try's arguments favoring use of detergents with phosphate, re-
buttals to those arguments, and final recommendations by the
Committee for finding and developing substitutes for phos-
phates in detergents.

131. U.S. Congress. Senate. The National Estuarine Pollution Study.
Doc. No. 91-58, 91st Cong.,, 2d sess. March 1970.
A technical evaluation of the estuarine zone, examining the
relationship of the bio-physical, socio-economic, and insti-
tutional environments within it. The report identifies sci-
entific knowledge gaps, inventories available knowledge,
and recommends a management program for the nation's estuar-
ine resources.

132. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Soil Conservation Service.
Cape May Plant Materials Center. 'Long Ringe Program for the
Cape May Plant Materials Center. Hyatt-sv ille,,'Maryland: U.S.
Department of Agriculture Soil Conserva tion Service, 1966.
An outline of the long-range program for the Cape May Plant

U-HO

MatEriaLs facility. The program will carrv out the plant
mat2.-Lals activities of the Soil Conservation Service's water
and @;oiL conservation program.

133. U.S. Department of the Army. Culdelines for Evaluating Lstuary
Studies, Models and Comprehensive Planning Alternativef:. Au-
gUSL L969.
GuLdelinus and methodology for deterrikiing the best methods
(if study and organization for estuarine water resources plan-
LIL11g. rhe pros and cons of "conventional" methods, mathemati-
ciL models, electric analogues and hydraulic models are con-
sidered. Factors in determining the appropriatc role of var-
ious federal and state agencies in estuary investigations are
also considered along with cost-sharing, of estuary investLga-
LLjn-. amonR federal and non-federal eittities.
The general conclusion is that at the outset of a studv a
careful articulation of the type of results required Should
b! made. Once this is done, a method or combination of
methods can be tailored to the requirements in a cost effective
and possibly cost-benefit way.

L34. U.S. Departmeat of the Army. Coastal Engineering Research Cen-
ter. Shore Protection, Planning and Design. (Technical Re-
port No. 4). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
JLI!te L966.
A report on the techniques currently used in shore protec-
tion planning and design. One part covers functional planning
considerations including physical factors and littoral pro-
cesses, and another outlines structural design features and
analysis.

135. U.S. Department of the Army. Corps of Engineers. Harbor and
Port Development, A Problem and an Opportunity. July 1968.
A Look it various factors that can influence harbor and port
deveLopment including cargo handling, vessel size and phvsi-
cal restraints, and a consideration of the impacts of these
changes Upon future planning.
The-report suggests that cooperative interagency and indus-
try studies be initiated to evaluate what should be done
nationally and regionally to capture opportunities implicit
in the rapidly changing marine transportation industry.

136. U.S. Department of the Army. Corps of Engineers. North Atlan-
tic Division. National Shoreline Study, North Atlantic Re-
gioll (DLLAFT). August 1970. 2 vols.
A broad picture of bay and coastal shoreline conditions in
the North Atlantic Region. The report emphasizes coastal area
descriptions and shore histories, discusses state and local
programs for shore protection, and consideres current methods
and ecological factors.

u-281

Very useful information is provided on beach locations and
length, erosion intensities, and ownership and use patterns.
When combined with similar regional inventories of the entire
U.S. shoreline, this report will form the first of four parts
of the overall National Shoreline Study. Other parts are shore
protection guidelines, shore management guidelines, and the
Chief of Engineers report.

137. U.S. Department of the Amy. Corps of Engineers. Pollution
Studies for Interstate Sanitation Commission. New York Har-
bor Model, Hydraulic Model Investigation. (Miscellaneous Pa-
per No. 2-558). Vicksburg, Mississippi: U.S. Amy Engineer
Waterways Station, February 1963.
A description of dye tests undertaken to establish disper-
sion characteristics of effluents discharged ffom major sewage
treatment plants that contribute to pollution in New York Har-
bor.

138. U.S. Department of the Army. Corps of Engineers. Waterborne
Commerce of the United StLates, Calendar Year 1968. Part 1,
Waterways and Harbors, Atlantic Coast. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1970.
Statistical data on the movements of commodities and vessels
at ports and harbors and on the waterways of the Atlantic
Coast. Military cargo moved in Department of Defense ves-
sels is excluded.

139. U.S. Department of Commerce. County and City Data Book 1967.
A StaLisLical Abstract Supplement. Washington, D.C.: Gov-
ernment Printing Office, 1967.
A variety of statistical information, most of which was de-
rived from censuses, on population, housing, governments, bus-
inesst mineral industries and agriculture.

140. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Statistical
Abstract of the United States, 1970. Washington, D. C.: U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1970.
A compilation of official statistical data of national
scope condensed primarily from reports of federal agencies.

141. U.S. Department of Commerce. Maritime Administration. The
Economic 1mpact of United States Ocean Ports. Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1966.
An examination of the economic value of U.S. ocean ports
on a state-wide and nation-wide basis. The examination in-
cludes contributions to domestic employment, commerce ., in-
dustry and international trade attributable to the ports
and their related activities.

U-282

142. U. S. Department of Commerce. Maritime Administration. Office
of Ports and Intermodal Systems. Summarization of "Economic
Impact" Studies and Reviews.Performed by or for Various Ports.
May 1970.
A brief outline of economic impact studies conducted by
various ports. The studies include the NAR ports of New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore and Virginia as well as many ports
elsewhere such as Milwaukee, Houston, San Diego and Seattle.

143. U. S. Department of the Interior. The Federal I-later Pollution
Control Program. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing
Office, December 1968.
A brief description of our national water and waste manage-
ment problem and the resources needed to implement an adequate
pollution control program.

144. U. S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
and the National Park Service. Gatewav National Recreation
Area, A Proposal.
A study of the possibilities of establishing a National
Recreation Area at the gatewaV to New York Harbor.

145. U. S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife. Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration.
(Regulatory Announcement 82). Washington, D. C.: Government
Printing Office, 1968.
A bulletin discussing the purposes, conditions, and funding
of various fish and wildlife restoration acts.

146. U. S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife. Sport Fishing - Today and Tomorrow. (ORRRC
Study Report 7). Washington, D. C.: Government Printing
Office, 1962.
A part of asurvey of the nation's outdoor recreation re-
sources. This study examines fishing as a form of recreation
in the U. S. Topics include current status of fishing waters,
problems of supply, management policies, and the future of
sport fishing in 1976 and 2000.

147. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Administration. Delaware Estuayy Comprehensive Study,
Preliminary Report and Findings. July 1966.
Findings of a preliminary study of the water qualitv of the
Delaware River Estuary, based on an investigation of the
natural environment, the economic environment of wastewater
inputs, present water qualitv and present water uses. The
study proposes six alternative sets of goals for improving
water quality with estimates of costs and benefits, and
presents guidelines for implementation and for further study
requirements.

U-283

148. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. Proceedings of the Conference on
the Pollution of Raritan Bay and Adjacent Interstate Waters.
Third Session, New York. June 13-14, 1967. Vol. 1.
The proceedings of a conference about Raritan Bay and its
adjacent waters. The purpose of the conference was to
determine the existing pollution situation, to review the
progress being made in controlling it, and to lay a basis for
future action by all parties concerned.

149. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. The Economics of Clean Water.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, March 1970.
3 Vols.
The third report to Congress on the national requirements
and cost of water pollution control, in four parts. The
first is a summary of major findings and conclusions of the
analysis; the second, Vol. I, contains the details of the
analysis; Vol. II is a profile of animal wastes; and the
fourth and last section, Vol. III, is an industrial profile
of the inorganic chemicals industry.

150. U. S. Department of the interior. Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. Water Ouality Criteria. Report of
the National Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary
of the Interior. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing
Office, April 1968.
A report to help state and federal.agencies determine water
quality standards. The report discusses water use require-
ments for recreation and aesthetics; public water supplies;
fish, wildlife and other aquatic life; and, agricultural
and industrial uses.
This ia a basic text prepared by a large, prestigious,
national task force. Basic information and specific criteria
recommendations are provided for a wide variety of pollutants.

151. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Qualitv
Administration. Clean Water for the 1970's, A Status Report.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, June 1970.
A description of the Federal Water Quality Administration's
past activities and future plans for control of water pollution
with an outline of its various programs for the next decade.
Included are regulatory and assistance programs, planning and
basic studies, and areas of research, development and demon-
stration.

U-284-

152. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Interim'Report on Needs, Problems, and Possible Solutions Re-
lated to Fish and Wildlife Resources in the North Atlantic
Region. July 1970.
A report on the present and future needs of people in the
North-Atlantic Region as they relate to fish and wildlife re-
sources, the problems in meeting these needs, and possible
solutions to these nroblems, especially as they relate to
potential water develoDment projects.

153. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Nati.onal Estuary Study. 1970. 7 vols.
A major report on estuaries describing and evaluating (1)
selected management studies in specific estuaries, including
Great South Bav and Chesapeake Bay, (2) estuarine landscape,
(3) economic factors, (4) technical impacts, (5) conflicts
and problems, (6) existing methods of federal-state coordina-
tion, (7) laws and tax policies, (8) state plans and policies,
and (9) existing public management schemes.
The principal thrust of the report is the urgent need to
preserve and restore estuarine fish and wildlife resources,
associated commercial fishing and outdoor recreation activities,
and aesthetics and natural areas, rather than the broader
spectrum of uses contemplated in an overall manegement system.
The report examines the desirability and feasibility of
establishing a nationwide system of estuarine areas. It
concludes that it is not possible to select a limited number
of estuaries or estuarine areas to constitute a nationwide
system such as the National Park System. Implying that the
delineation might trigger increased abuse of estuarl-es not
selected, the report concluded that all estuarine areas of
the nation should be included in any nationwide system.

154. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Supplementary Report on the Coastal Wetlands Inventory of
Connecticut. Boston, Massachusetts: Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife, Region V. June 1965.
A brief summary of various surveys of Connecticut's
coastal wetlands conducted during the past decade.

155. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Fisheries of the United
States ... 1967. (C.F.S. No. 4700). Washington, D. C.:
Covernment Printing Office, April 1968.
A review of the domestic fisheries industrv for 1967. The
report analyzes the most recent data on dome@tic catch,
consumption, prices, processed products, vessels, foreign
trade, supplies and other related information.

U-285

156. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Fisheries of'the United-
States...1968. (C.F.S.-No. 5000).1 Washington, D.. C.:
Government Printing Office, March 1969.
Similar to item 155, but for 1968.

157. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Bureau of Commerical Fisheries. Fisheries of the United
States ... 1969. (C.F.S. No. 5300)., Washington, D. C.-
Government Printing Office, March 1970..
Similar to item 155, but for 1969.

158. U. S. Department of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Maine Landings. (C.F.S.
No. 5252). 1970.
A statistical summary of fish and shellfish landings at
Maine ports during 1969.

159. U. S. Department of Transportation. Coast Guard. Boating
Statistics 1969. (CG-357). Washington, D. C.: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1969.
Statistics on boat numbering, registration, boating
accidents, and certain related activities for calendar
year 1969.

160. U. S. Water Resources Council. The Nation's Water Resources.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1968.
A comprehensive report evaluating the nation's water and
related land resources, describing the problems in their
management and ues, and outlining future water supply re-
quirements and problems by region. One of the region's is
the North Atlantic Region.
The report provides a broad, authoratative overview. Little
explicit attention is given to the coastal zone as such.

161. Wass, Marvin L. and Wright, Thomas D. Coastal Wetlands of
Virginia, Interim Report. Gloucester Point, Virginia:
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, December 1969.
A study of Virginia's coastal wetlafid. The study
evaluates their economic importance, analyzes management
objectives and methods for protection, and makes recommen-
dations for their further study and conservation.

162. Whipple, William, Jr. Preliminary Mass Balance of BOD on
Three New Jersey Rivers. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers,
Water Resources Research'Institute.
A report on the water quality aspects of a larger inter-
disciplinary research project on the effects of urbanization
on water resources. The report indicates that known point
source pollutants account for something less than 40% of the

U-286

biochemical oxygen demand measured in the Millstone, Upper
Raritan and Upper Passaic river basins in northern New
Jersey.

16.3.. Woodsen, Herbert H. "Short Tenn Prospects for Improving
Efficiency of Power Plants". A paper presented at the
Atomic Industrial Forum Symposium, Washington, D. C.
June 1970.
A paper discussing the current efficiency levels of various
types and sizes of plants, and making projections as to future
trends.

ADDENDUM

164. Alexander, Lewis M. Narragansett Bay, a Marine Use Profile.
1966.
A report containing estimates of the value added by
marine-related activities in Narragansett Bay in 1965.

165. Battelle Memorial Institute. Effects of Site Location on the
Capital Costs of Nuclear Electric Plants. Richland@,'Washing-
ton: Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
March 1969.
A comparison of the variation of costs estimated to be in-
curred in the construction of power plants of essentially
identical design at a hypothetical site and at nine typical
sites at various locations in the United States. At each
site cost comparisons were made for plants with different
types of heat rejection systems.

166. Battelle Memorial Institute. Great Lakes Restoration, Review
of Potentials and Recommendations for Implementation.
Springfield, Virginia: Clearinghouse, June 1968. PB 180
904.
A brief review of the possibilities of restoring the water
quality of the Great Lakes. Considers causes, alternative
solution techniques and institutional arrangements.

167. Dow, Robert L. The Impact of Pollution on Coastdl and Estuarine
Waters. A statement to FWPCA Public Hearing. University of
Maine (Portland), September 10, 1968.
A summary of the effects of water quality changes, including
the closure of shellfish beds, in the Maine coastal areas.

168. Hennigan, Robert D. "Water Pollution". Bio Scierrce. November
1969.
An overview article on water pollution.

U-287 -

169- Lof and Kneese: The Economics of Water Utilization in the
Beet Sugar Industry. Resources for the Future.
A report emphasizing the high BOD of wastes from sugar beet.
processing plants.

170. McHugh, J. L. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries) "Management of
Estuarine Fisheries". A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries.
Washington, D. C.: knerican Fisheries Societyi-(Special
Publication No. 3), 1966.
A paper deriving a quantifiable relationship between
estuaries and the commercial fish catch, listing some pro-
blems of estuarine fisheries and suggesting way of improving
its management.

U-288

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Alkire, G. C., et al. Oil Spillage Study, Literature S earch and Crit-
ical Evaluation for Selection of Promising Techniques to Control
and Preven@ Dama&e. Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific North-
west Labs., 1967.
761 listings on the state of technology of prevention and
control of major oil spillage on water and the restoration of the
shoreline and fowl.

Gunn, Clare A. Annotated Bibliography of Resource Use, Texas Gulf
Coast. Sea Grant Publication No. 204, 1969.
About 2700 listings on all aspects important to the Texas
Coast. Includes many national leveL listings of general applica-
tions coded by river basin, planning region, subject matter and
author.

Gysi, Marshall and Loucks, Daniel P. Selected Annotated Bibliography
on the Analysis of Water Resource Systems, New York, Water Re-
sources and Maine Sciences Center. Publication No. 25, 1969.
500 listings on the application of systems analysis tech-
niques, such as optimization and simulation techniques, to water
resources problems.

derbicn, Joh[i B. and Snider, R. H. Bibliography on Dredging. Texas
A & M University, Texas Engineering Experiment Station, Center
.for Dredging Studies. Report No. IL2-CDS, 1969.
238 Listings in 5 parts: dredge pumps, dredging vessels,
ocean mining, pipeline transport, and miscellaneous. No annota-
tions.

John 1. Thompson & Company. State and Local Government Activities
and Roles in Marine ScienceP Engin ering and Development.
Springfield, Virginia: Clearinghouse, 1968. PB #177765.
About 1200 listings with brief annotation of published
studies and reports on organizational arrangements and activities
in the coastal and Great Lakes states. Indexed by state or
xegion, marine activity area or function, and topic code.

Johnson, Donald W. "Pesticides and Fishes, A Review of Selected
Literature." American Fisheries Society Transactions, Vol. 97,
No. 9. Oct., 1968. pp. 398-424.
. 156 listings discussing 34 pesticides in terms of mean lethal
concentrations and the need for research to establish realistic
tolerance limits of toxic pollutants.

Kinne, 0. "Physiological Aspects of Animal Life in Estuaries with
Special Reference to Salinity." Netherlands Journal of Sea
Research, Vol. 3,, 1966. pp. 222-244.

U-289

88 listings on the physiology of estuarine animals and the
ecological factors governing physiological response with partic-
ular emphasis on salinity.

Livingstone, Robert, Jr. Preliminary Bibliography with KWIC Index
on the Ecology of Estuaries and Coastal Areas of the Eastern
United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, May 1965.
5,470 listings for the period 1900-1960.

Narragansett Marine Bibliography (Narragansett Bay and Adjacent
Waters). Kingston, R. I.: University of Rhode Island, Graduate
School of Oceanography, 1968.
About 550 listings of scientific literature based on studies
of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island Sound and nearby waters under
four general categories; biological with over half the entries,
chemical, geological and physical oceanography. The biblio-
graphy is designed ultimately to complement Narragansett Marine
Atlas under preparation.

National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development.
Marine Research, Fiscal Year 1968. Washington, D.C.: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1969.
2,589 listings of unclassified research and development
projects supported by both Federal and non-Federal funds.
Indexed by subject, investigator, contractor, and supporting
agency.

New England Economic Research Foundation. Review of Regional Eco-
nomic Research and Planning on New England, A Survey of Existing
Literature with Particular Reference to Research and Action
Planning Recommendations. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1967.
A series of task force reports each providing an overview
evaluation and an 'annotated bibliography. The Task Force H -
Report, A Survey of Economic Research on Ocean Resources in New
England emphasizes fishing with brief coverage of geological
resources, and marine recreation. 58 annotated references.'

Sherk, J. A. and Cronin, L. E. The Effects of Suspended and-Dep
pos-
ited Sediments on Estuarine Organisms, An Annotated Bibliography
of Selected References. N.R.I. Ref. No. 70-19. Solomons,,Mary-
land: University of Maryland, Natural Resources Institute,`
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, 1970.
179 listings indexed by 9 subject categories. Semi-detailed
annotations summarizing important conclusions. Can be read as a
source book as well as reference.

U-290

Sinha9.Evelyn. Oceanography from Space and A[rcraft, State of the
Art--Technology/Applications, An Annotated Bibliograp@y_. Ocean
Engineering Information Series, Vol. 2. LaJolla, California:
Ocean Engineering Information Service, 1970.
428 listings from the world's literature gelected on the
basis of technical information content. Indexed by subject, key
terms, acronyms and authors.

Sinha,, Evelyn. Coastal/Estuarine Pollution, An Annotated Bibliogra-
phy. Ocean"Engineering Information Series, Vol. 3. LaJolla,
California: Ocean Engineering Information Service, 1970.
631 listings of literature providing-substantial scientific
and technological information on: the detection, identification,
measurement and analysis of pollution and pollutants; sources of
pollution; coastal and estuarine processes; effects of pollution;
water quality management and waste heat utilization. Includes a
bibliography cf bibliographies. Indexed by subject. Annotations
include scope and major findings.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Coastal Engineering Research Center.
Annotated Bibliography of BEB and CERC Publications. Miscel-
laneous Paper No. 1-68, 1968.
About 250 listings of Beach Erosion Board publications from
1940 to 1963 and of Coastal Engineering Research Center publica-
tions from 1963 through 1967. Indexed by authors, titles and
subjects.

U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Regional Economic Develop-
ment. New England, Development Bibliography. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1966.
About 4,000 unannotated listings grouped by subject and
state. Listings of coastal importance are imbeded in larger
categories such as fishing, natural resources, public health,
recreation, and transportation.

U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.
Index of Selected Outdoor Recreation Literature. Vol. IV,
November 1967.
A semi-annual listing initiated in calendar year 1966 of
literature on outdoor recreation from U.S., Canadian, and United
Kingdom sources arranged in six broad categories--outdoor recrea-
tion resources; administration of resources and programs; recrea-
tion users, activities, demands and values; research; education;
and history and philosophy. Indexed by subject, geographic area
and author. Entries on coastal recreation are grouped around
key words such as bays and sounds, continental shelf lands,
estuarine areas, oceanography, oceans and seas. Limited entries
in these categories indicate a dearth of attention to coastal
recreation except for its biological aspects.

U-291

U.S. Department of the Interior. Geological Survey. Bibliography of
Water Resources (Preliminary Issue). Appendix--of- the North
Atlantic Regional Water Resources Study. 1967-
About 1,200 listings selected from existing bibliographies on
water resources, lists of publications by Federal and State
agencies and periodicals. Indexed by broad subject categories
and by hydrographic areas.

U.S. Department of the Interior. Office of Water Resources Research.
Water Resources Scientific Information Center. Selected Water
Resources Abstracts. Vol. 5, December 1969.
Some material as contained in Water Resources Research
Catalog but reported semi-monthly.

U.S. Department of the Interior. Office of Water Resources Research.
Water Resources Scientific Information Center. Water Resources
Research Catalog. Vols. 1-5, 1965-1967.
Annual summary descriptions of current research on water
resources problems. Volume 5 lists 5,089 research projects
active in 1969 by 6,088 investigators, 813 performing organiza-
tions and 371 supporting organizations of which 48 are Federal
and 323 non-Federai. Indexed by subject, key words, investigator,
contractor, supporting agency and water resources research cate-
gories. In addition to use of generic terms, accession to coastal
literature can be made through the following particularly coastal
key words: aquaculture, aquatic ecology, coastal engineering,
coastlines-shorelines, continental shelf, currents-ocean, engi-
neering studies-ocean, estuaries, fish (by species), commercial
fishing, fishery development, habitat studies, harbors, inter-
tidal areas, islands, land use, marine biology, marine environ-
ments--general, marine geology, ocean, oceanography, salinity,
sea water chemistry, shellfish depuration, ships and cruises,
shoals, shoreline structures, tidal streams, tides and tidewater
areas. Access can also be made through specific location names,
e.g., Lake Erie, Long Island Sound.

Wilson., Thomas W. Jr. Bibliographic Materials on Environmental
Affairs. New York: The Anderson Foundation, 1970.
About 400 listings emphasizing governmental materials at all
levels dealing with policy issues primarily, rather than with'@
the scientific scope of the problem or technical means for its
solution. Also includes sections on bibliographies and other
.secondary sources and periodicals dealing-with the environmenti
Annotations briefly describe scope. No indexing system but short
enough to scan.

U-292.

UNANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

"A New Approach to Evaluation of Tanker Economics". ocean Industry.
August 1970. p. 12.

American Fisheries Society. A SymposiuLn on Estuarine Fisheries. (Spe-
cial Publication No. 3.) Presented at the 94th Annual Meeting, At-
lantic City, New Jersey. 1966.

Aquaculture: The New Shrimp Cro (Sea Grant Information Leaflet No.1).
UniversLty of Miami Sea Grant @nstitutional Program February 1970.

Arthur D. Little, Inc. Combatting Pollution Created by Oil Spills.
Report to The Department of Transportation, United States Coast
Guard. June 1969.

Bascom, Willard. "Underwater Dredge". Ocean Industry. August 1970.
pp. 16-18.

Beller, William S. "Gearing up for Coastal Zone Management". Envir-
onmental Science and Technology. Vol. 4, No. 6, June 1970.
pp. 482-486.

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